title: Sex differences in psychology

text: A sociobiological approach applies evolutionary biology to human sexuality, emphasizing reproductive success in shaping patterns of sexual behavior. According to sociobiologists, since women's parental investment in reproduction is greater than men's, owing to human sperm being much more plentiful than eggs, and the fact that women must devote considerable energy to gestating their offspring, women will tend to be much more selective in their choice of mates than men. It may not be possible to accurately test sociobiological theories in relation to promiscuity and casual sex in contemporary (U.S.) society, which is quite different from the ancestral human societies in which most natural selection for sexual traits has occurred.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: Neoanalytic theories are based on the observation that mothers, as opposed to fathers, bear the major responsibility for childcare in most families and cultures; both male and female infants, therefore, form an intense emotional attachment to their mother, a woman. According to feminist psychoanalytic theorist Nancy Chodorow, girls tend to preserve this attachment throughout life and define their identities in relational terms, whereas boys must reject this maternal attachment in order to develop a masculine identity. In addition, this theory predicts that women's economic dependence on men in a male-dominated society will tend to cause women to approve of sex more in committed relationships providing economic security, and less so in casual relationships.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: The sexual strategies theory by David Buss and David P. Schmitt is an evolutionary psychology theory regarding female and male short-term and long-term mating strategies which they argued are dependent on several different goals and vary depending on the environment.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: According to social learning theory, sexuality is influenced by people's social environment. This theory suggests that sexual attitudes and behaviors are learned through observation of role models such as parents and media figures, as well as through positive or negative reinforcements for behaviors that match or defy established gender roles. It predicts that gender differences in sexuality can change over time as a function of changing social norms, and also that a societal double standard in punishing women more severely than men (who may in fact be rewarded) for engaging in promiscuous or casual sex will lead to significant gender differences in attitudes and behaviors regarding sexuality.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: Such a societal double standard also figures in social role theory, which suggests that sexual attitudes and behaviors are shaped by the roles that men and women are expected to fill in society, and script theory, which focuses on the symbolic meaning of behaviors; this theory suggests that social conventions influence the meaning of specific acts, such as male sexuality being tied more to individual pleasure and macho stereotypes (therefore predicting a high number of casual sexual encounters) and female sexuality being tied more to the quality of a committed relationship.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: The ovulatory shift hypothesis is the contested theory that female behaviour and preferences relating to mate selection changes throughout the ovulation cycle. A meta-analysis of 58 studies concluded that there was no evidence to support this theory. Another meta-analysis found that the hypothesis was only support in regards to short-term attraction. Additionally, a 2016 paper suggested that any possible changes in preferences during ovulation would be moderated by the relationship quality itself, even to the point of inversion in favor of the female's current partner.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: A recent study sought to test the connection between current fertility status and sociosexual attitudes and desires; the researchers concluded that their hypothesis was not met, meaning they found no connection between women's fertility status and sociosexual desires or attitudes.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: Childhood conduct disorder and adult antisocial personality disorder as well as substance use disorders are more common in men. Many mood disorders, anxiety disorders, and eating disorders are more common in women. One explanation is that men tend to externalize stress while women tend to internalize it. Gender differences vary to some degree for different cultures.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: Men and women do not differ on their overall rates of psychopathology; however, certain disorders are more prevalent in women, and vice versa. Women have higher rates of anxiety and depression (internalizing disorders) and men have higher rates of substance abuse and antisocial disorders (externalizing disorders). It is believed that divisions of power and the responsibilities set upon each sex are critical to this predisposition. Namely, women earn less money than men do, they tend to have jobs with less power and autonomy, and women are more responsive to problems of people in their social networks. These three differences can contribute to women's predisposition to anxiety and depression. It is suggested that socializing practices that encourage high self-regard and mastery would benefit the mental health of both women and men.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: One study interviewed 18,572 respondents, aged 18 and over, about 15 phobic symptoms. These symptoms would yield diagnoses based on criteria for agoraphobia, social phobia, and simple phobia. Women had significantly higher prevalence rates of agoraphobia and simple phobia; however, there were no differences found between men and women in social phobia. The most common phobias for both women and men involved spiders, bugs, mice, snakes, and heights. The biggest differences between men and women in these disorders were found on the agoraphobic symptoms of "going out of the house alone" and "being alone", and on two simple phobic symptoms, involving the fear of "any harmless or dangerous animal" and "storms", with relatively more women having both phobias. There were no differences in the age of onset, reporting a fear on the phobic level, telling a doctor about symptoms, or the recall of past symptoms.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: Women are more likely than men to have depression. One 1987 study found little empirical support for several proposed explanations, including biological ones, and argued that when depressed women tend to ruminate which may lower the mood further while men tend to distract themselves with activities. This may develop from women and men being raised differently.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: There are also differences regarding gender and suicide. Although females have more suicidal thoughts and attempts, and are diagnosed with depression more than men, males are much more likely to die from suicide. Suicide from males happens 4 times more often than among females. Also, though females try to commit suicide more often, men choose more violent methods, like guns. Women are more likely to use different methods like drug overdose or poison. Gender is so important in suicide because of social issues. Men who commit suicide do so also because of gender roles. Men are meant to be strong and independent and aren't supposed to express their emotions. Because of these roles, men are less likely to tell someone they need help, or may not know what they are feeling and commit suicide. Women tend to be more open in their feelings, and turn to others for help. Suicide is higher in western countries as well for men because of political instability, women becoming more valued, men not being able to provide fully for their families and a high rate of alcoholism. We can help prevent suicide rates in men by having more conversations with them, watch out for signs of suicidal ideation and lead them to get help.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: Women and men are both equally likely at developing symptoms of schizophrenia, but the onset occurs earlier for men. It has been suggested that sexually dimorphic brain anatomy, the differential effects of estrogens and androgens, and the heavy exposure of male adolescents to alcohol and other toxic substances can lead to this earlier onset in men. It is believed that estrogens have a protective effect against the symptoms of schizophrenia. Although, it has been shown that other factors can contribute to the delayed onset and symptoms in women, estrogens have a large effect, as can be seen during a pregnancy. In pregnancy, estrogen levels are rising in women, so women who have had recurrent acute episodes of schizophrenia did not usually break down. However, after pregnancy, when estrogen levels have dropped, women tend to suffer from postpartum psychoses. Also, psychotic symptoms are exacerbated when, during the menstrual cycle, estrogen levels are at their lowest. In addition, estrogen treatment has yielded beneficial effects in patients with schizophrenia.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: The of autism spectrum disorder varies amongst males and females. Globally, data isn't available for every individual country, but a worldwide review of epidemiological surveys, found a median of 62 out of 10,000 people have ASD. Amongst 8-year-olds in the United States 1 in 44 children have been identified with autism spectrum disorder, but it is "4 times more common among males than females." According to a research looking at the disparity between the actual prevalence of ASD and what actually gets diagnosed, there is a 2:1 ratio of males to females who are undiagnosed. This same statistic suggests that females have a disadvantage when it comes to being diagnosed and are underrepresented.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: The "extreme male brain" or empathizing–systemizing theory views the autism spectrum as an extreme version of male-female differences regarding systemizing and empathizing abilities. It's used to explain the possible reason why males with ASD score higher on systemizing tests than females with ASD.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: Symptom presentation in girls with ASD aren't as noticeable the way they are in boys. Females are better able to cope with the symptoms and often camouflage to be able to fit in, and have relationships. Females with ASD are better able to fit in socially, and form relationships with others than boys are. Camouflaging has been suggested to be the cause of females with ASD having more emotional distress when male counterparts usually had more external social problems.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: According to the Female Protective Effect Hypothesis, for females to develop autism they need to have acquired a wider range of genetic mutations than their male counterpart.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: The imprinted brain hypothesis argues that autism and psychosis are contrasting disorders on a number of different variables and that this is caused by an unbalanced genomic imprinting favoring paternal genes (autism) or maternal genes (psychosis).


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: Both biological and social/environmental factors have been studied for their impact on sex differences. Separating biological from environmental effects is difficult, and advocates for biological influences generally accept that social factors are also important.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: Biological differentiation is a fundamental part of human reproduction. Generally, males have two different sex chromosomes, an X and a Y; females have two X chromosomes. The Y chromosome, more precisely the SRY gene located on it, is what generally determines sexual differentiation. If a Y chromosome with a SRY gene is present, growth is along male lines; it results in the production of testes, which in turn produce testosterone. In addition to physical effects, this prenatal testosterone increases the likeliness of certain "male" patterns of behavior after birth, though the exact impact and mechanism are not well understood. Parts of the SRY and specific parts of the Y chromosome may also possibly influence different gender behaviors, but if so, these impacts have not yet been identified.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: Biological perspectives on psychological differentiation often place parallels to the physical nature of sexual differentiation. These parallels include genetic and hormonal factors that create different individuals, with the main difference being the reproductive function. The brain controls behavior by individuals, but it is influenced by genes, hormones and evolution. Evidence has shown that the ways that male and female children become adults is different, and that there are variations between the individuals of each sex.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: Psychological traits can vary between the sexes through sex-linkage. That is to say, what causes a trait may be related to the chromosomal sex of the individual. In contrast, there are also "sex-influenced" (or sex-conditioned) traits, in which the phenotypic manifestation of a gene depends on the sex of the individual. Even in a homozygous dominant or recessive female the condition may not be expressed fully. "Sex-limited" traits are characteristics only expressed in one sex. They may be caused by genes on either autosomal or sex chromosomes.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: Epigenetic changes have also been found to cause sex-based differentiation in the brain. The extent and nature of these differences are not fully characterised. Differences in socialization of males and females may decrease or increase the size of sex differences.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: A 2021 meta-synthesis of existing literature found that sex accounted for 1% of the brain's structure or laterality, finding large group-level differences only in total brain volume. This partially contradicts a review from 2006 and a meta-analysis from 2014 which found that some evidence from brain morphology and function studies indicates that male and female brains cannot always be assumed to be identical from either a structural or functional perspective, and some brain structures are sexually dimorphic.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: Differences in socialization of males and females are known to cause, decrease, or increase the magnitude of various sex differences.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: In most cultures, humans are subject from infancy to gender socialization. For example, infant girls typically wear pink and infant boys typically wear blue. Gender schemas, or gendered cultural ideals which determine a person's preferences, are also installed into our behaviors beginning at infancy.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: As people get older, gender stereotypes become more applied. The social role theory primarily deals with such stereotypes, more specifically the division of labor and a gender hierarchy. When this theory is applied in social settings, such as the workplace, it can often lead to sexism. This theory also applies to certain personality trails, such as men are more typically more assertive and women more passive. According to this theory, ideally, in most cultures, the woman is to stay and tend to the house and home while the man works to both better the house itself and increase finances.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: In the midst of so many idealistic concepts on the roles of a specific gender in society, there are also individuals who choose to not to conform to the ideas of their culture. Throughout history, gender roles have been altered and are much more flexible than they were in recent centuries. Such alterations include equal political rights as well as employment and education opportunities solely available to females. Homosexual people are also subject to go against gender conformities. The term "congenital gender invert" is used to define homosexuals who possess a trait of the opposite sex. Such individuals tend to have the most social difficulty in regards to cultural norms.


title: Sex differences in psychology

text: Donald Symons has argued that fundamental sex differences in genetics, hormones and brain structure and function may manifest as distal cultural phenomena (e.g., males as primary combatants in warfare, the primarily female readership of romance novels, etc.). There has been significant feminist critique of these and other evolutionary psychology arguments, from both within and outside of the scientific community.


title: Holly Hobbie (TV series)

text: Holly Hobbie is a children's TV series developed by Sarah Glinski. It is the second TV adaptation of the Holly Hobbie franchise after "Holly Hobbie & Friends". The series is produced by Aircraft Pictures, in association with Cloudco Entertainment and Wexworks Media, and marks the first time Cloudco has produced a live-action series based on one of its properties. The show was released in the United States on Hulu in November 2018, and in Canada on Family Channel in January 2019. The second season was released on Hulu in November 2019. In early 2021, the series was renewed for a third season, which premiered on Hulu on November 23, 2021. It was further renewed by BYUtv for a fourth season, which premiered in May 2022, and a fifth season, which premiered in August 2022.


title: Holly Hobbie (TV series)

text: The show was released in the United States on Hulu on November 16, 2018, aired on Family Channel in Canada which co-commissioned the series for production. In July 2019, the series was renewed for a second season, which was released on Hulu in November 2019. In June 2020, BYUtv acquired television broadcasting rights in the United States to the series, replacing Universal Kids, who had been broadcasting the series since December 2019. In early 2021, "Holly Hobbie" was renewed for a third season, which was released on Hulu on November 23, 2021, as well as for planned fourth and fifth seasons which will be broadcast by BYUtv. In addition, Disney Channel in the United States acquired the rights to broadcast the first three seasons of the series, which began airing in December 2021.


title: Holly Hobbie (TV series)

text: On June 25, 2019, it was confirmed that the BBC had purchased the British broadcasting rights to the series for it to air on the CBBC Channel. Later, on September 25, 2019, Cloudco pre-sold the series to France Télévisions in France, Minimax in Central and Eastern Europe, and the TVA Group in Quebec. On November 6, 2020, the show's Latin American sales partner Spiral International pre-sold the series to Disney Channel in Latin America and Brazil.


title: Holly Hobbie (TV series)

text: On June 25, 2019, it was confirmed that Cloudco had signed a deal with Warner Music Group subsidiary ARTS Music to release music from the series and that the show's theme tune would be released on that day. A digital album featuring songs from the first season was released on August 30, 2019. A second digital album titled "What Comes Next", containing songs from the second season, was released on November 22, 2019. The show's theme song "Be The Change" and all songs on the soundtrack "Music From Holly Hobbie [Songs From Season 1]" were written by Cristi Vaughan and Matthew Naylor


title: Holly Hobbie (TV series)

text: The series received eight Canadian Screen Award nominations at the 8th Canadian Screen Awards in 2020, for Best Children's or Youth Fiction Program or Series, Best Performance in a Children's or Youth Program or Series (3: Chaudry, Dillon, Moyer), Best Direction in a Children's or Youth Program or Series (2: Stefan Brogren for "The Birthday Basher" and Megan Follows for "The Freckled Fugitive") and Best Writing in a Children's or Youth Program or Series (2: Sarah Glinski for "The Mad Muralist" and Cole Bastedo for "The Rabble Rouser".)


title: Chalice

text: A chalice (from Latin 'mug', borrowed from Ancient Greek () 'cup') or goblet is a footed cup intended to hold a drink. In religious practice, a chalice is often used for drinking during a ceremony or may carry a certain symbolic meaning.


title: Chalice

text: The ancient Roman "calix" was a drinking vessel consisting of a bowl fixed atop a stand, and was in common use at banquets. In Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodox Church, Oriental Orthodoxy, Anglicanism, Lutheranism and some other Christian denominations, a chalice is a standing cup used to hold sacramental wine during the Eucharist (also called the Lord's Supper or Holy Communion). Chalices are often made of precious metal, and they are sometimes richly enamelled and jewelled. The gold goblet was symbolic for family and tradition.


title: Chalice

text: Chalices have been used since the early church. Because of Jesus' command to his disciples to "Do this in remembrance of me." (), and Paul's account of the Eucharistic rite in , the celebration of the Eucharist became central to Christian liturgy. Naturally, the vessels used in this important act of worship were highly decorated and treated with great respect. A number of early examples of chalices have a large bowl and two handles. Over time, the size of the bowl diminished and the base became larger for better stability. Over time, official church regulations dictated the construction, blessing, and treatment of chalices. Some religious traditions still require that the chalice, at least on the inside of the cup, be gold-plated.


title: Chalice

text: In Western Christianity, chalices will often have a pommel or node where the stem meets the cup to make the elevation easier. In Roman Catholicism, chalices tend to be tulip-shaped, and the cups are quite narrow. Roman Catholic priests will often receive chalices from members of their families when first ordained.


title: Chalice

text: In Eastern Christianity (Oriental Orthodox, Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic churches), chalices will often have icons enameled or engraved on them, as well as a cross. In Orthodoxy and Eastern Catholicism, all communicants receive both the Body of Christ and the Blood of Christ. To accomplish this, a portion of the Lamb (Host) is placed in the chalice, and then the faithful receive Communion on a spoon. For this reason, eastern chalices tend to have larger, rounded cups. In the Russian Orthodox Church, the faithful will often kiss the "foot" (base) of the chalice after receiving Holy Communion. In other traditions, they will kiss the cup. Although Orthodox monks are not permitted to hold personal possessions, the canons permit a hieromonk (i.e., a monk who has been ordained to the priesthood) to keep a chalice and other vessels necessary to celebrate the Divine Liturgy.


title: Chalice

text: In the early and medieval church, when a deacon was ordained, he would be handed a chalice during the service as a sign of his ministry. In the West the deacon carries the chalice to the altar at the offertory; in the East, the priest carries the chalice and the deacon carries the paten (diskos). Only wine, water and a portion of the Host are permitted to be placed in the chalice, and it may not be used for any profane purpose.


title: Chalice

text: The chalice is considered to be one of the most sacred vessels in Christian liturgical worship, and it is often blessed before use. In the Roman Catholic Church, and some Anglo-Catholic churches, it was the custom for a chalice to be consecrated by being anointed with chrism, and this consecration could only be performed by a bishop or abbot (only for use within his own monastery). Among the Eastern Churches there are varying practices regarding blessing. In some traditions the very act of celebrating the Sacred Mysteries (Eucharist) is the only blessing necessary; in others, there is a special rite of blessing. In some Eastern traditions this blessing may be done only by a bishop, in some it may be done by a priest. In any case, in both the East and the West, once a chalice has been blessed, it may only be touched by an ordained member of the higher clergy (bishop, priest or deacon). In the Russian Orthodox Church a subdeacon is permitted to touch the holy vessels, but only if they are wrapped in cloth.


title: Chalice

text: In Christian tradition the Holy Chalice is the vessel which Jesus used at the Last Supper to serve the wine. New Testament texts make no mention of the cup except within the context of the Last Supper and give no significance whatsoever to the object itself. Herbert Thurston in the "Catholic Encyclopedia" 1908 concluded that "No reliable tradition has been preserved to us regarding the vessel used by Christ at the Last Supper. In the sixth and seventh centuries pilgrims to Jerusalem were led to believe that the actual chalice was still venerated in the church of the Holy Sepulchre, having within it the sponge which was presented to Our Saviour on Calvary." Several surviving standing cups of precious materials are identified in local traditions as the Chalice.


title: Chalice

text: An entirely different and pervasive tradition concerns the cup of the "Last Supper". In this highly muddled though better-known version, the vessel is known as the Holy Grail. In this legend, Jesus used the cup at the "Last Supper" to institute the Mass.


title: Chalice

text: Other stories claim that Joseph of Arimathea used the cup to collect and store the blood of Christ at the Crucifixion.


title: Chalice

text: At the opening of Unitarian Universalist worship services, many congregations light a flame inside a chalice. A flaming chalice is the most widely used symbol of Unitarianism and Unitarian Universalism (UU), and the official logo of the Unitarian Universalist Association (UUA) and other Unitarian and UU churches and societies. The design was originated by the artist Hans Deutsch, who took his inspiration from the chalices of oil burned on ancient Greek and Roman altars. It became an underground symbol in occupied Europe during World War II for assistance to help Unitarians, Jews, and other people escape Nazi persecution. The chalice is often shown surrounded by two linked rings. The two linked rings were used as an early symbol for the Unitarian Universalist Association, signifying the joining of Unitarianism and Universalism.


title: Chalice

text: There is no standardized interpretation of the flaming chalice symbol. In one interpretation, the chalice is a symbol of religious freedom from the impositions of doctrine by a hierarchy and openness to participation by all; the flame is interpreted as a memorial to those throughout history who sacrificed their lives for the cause of religious liberty. In another interpretation, the flaming chalice resembles a cross, symbolic of the Christian roots of Unitarian Universalism.


title: Chalice

text: In Wicca, a chalice, as a feminine principle, is often used in combination with the Athame (ceremonial black-handled knife), as male principle. Combining the two evokes the act of procreation, as a symbol of universal creativity. This is a symbol of the Great Rite in Wiccan rituals. A chalice is also used in the Small Rite.


title: Chalice

text: Some other forms of Neo-Paganism make use of chalices in their rituals as well. A chalice may be placed on an altar or on the ground. The chalice may contain wine, whiskey, water, or other liquids. It is used to represent the genitalia of the goddess or female deity.


title: Chalice

text: Rastafaris sometimes smoke ganja in a "chalice" (waterpipe or bong) during an activity called reasoning intended to put participants in touch with peaceful feelings, unity, and "consciousness."


title: Chalice

text: The term "poisoned chalice" is applied to a thing or situation which appears to be good when it is received or experienced by someone, but then becomes or is found to be bad. The idea was referred to by Benedict of Nursia in one of his exorcisms, found on the Saint Benedict Medal: "Vade retro Satana! Nunquam suade mihi vana! Sunt mala quae libas. Ipse venena bibas!" (Begone Satan! Never tempt me with your vanities! What you offer me is evil. Drink the poison yourself!).


title: Chalice

text: William Shakespeare uses the expression in Act I Scene VII of "Macbeth". It occurs in the opening soliloquy of the scene when Macbeth is considering the ramifications of the murder he is plotting.


title: Chalice

text: It is also used as a term to describe a job offer for a sports coach that would leave the incoming coach with high expectations of success but many potentially hidden challenges or pitfalls. A championship winning team that is in need of a rebuild or a team that overachieved under the previous incumbent could be described as a poisoned chalice.


title: Chalice

text: The use of chalices as heraldic devices is not unusual, especially in ecclesiastical heraldry. A number of cities and regions also make use of the chalice. For instance, the coat of arms of the municipality of Fanas in the district of Prättigau/Davos in the Swiss canton of Graubünden bears a gold chalice on a solid blue background. The coat of arms of Staufen im Breisgau contains the three golden chalices (i.e. "drei staufen" in ancient German) of the Lords of Staufen (), advocates of the monastery of St. Trudpert. A golden chalice (or in some instances three or five) on blue background has been used as coat of arms for the Kingdom of Galicia since at least the late Middle Ages, and is still central in its renewed heraldry.


title: Chalice

text: In French-Canadian culture, particularly in and around Quebec, the use of the names of holy objects such as "câlice" (a variation of calice, which is the French word for chalice) can be an alternate form of cursing. Somewhat equivalent to the American word "goddam" or the phrase "God damn it", the use of "câlice" or "tabarnak" (a variation of tabernacle) as an interjection is not uncommon in Quebec. For example: "Câlice! I forgot to lock the front door" or muttering "tabarnak" under your breath after you get a flat tire. Presumably a derivation of "taking the Lord's name in vain".


title: Chalice

text: With reference to the Hussite movement in the Kingdom of Bohemia, besides religious use, the chalice also became one of the unofficial national symbols of the Czechs. It is frequently used in Czech national symbolism and it is part of many historical banners.


title: Klebsiella aerogenes

text: Klebsiella aerogenes, previously known as "Enterobacter aerogenes," is a Gram-negative, oxidase negative, catalase positive, citrate positive, indole negative, rod-shaped bacterium. The bacterium is approximately 1-3 microns in length, and is capable of motility via peritrichous flagella.


title: Klebsiella aerogenes

text: "Klebsiella aerogenes" is a nosocomial and pathogenic bacterium that causes opportunistic infections including most types of infections. The majority are sensitive to most antibiotics designed for this bacteria class, but this is complicated by their inducible resistance mechanisms, particularly lactamase, which means that they quickly become resistant to standard antibiotics during treatment, requiring a change in antibiotic to avoid worsening of the sepsis.


title: Klebsiella aerogenes

text: Some of the infections caused by "K. aerogenes" result from specific antibiotic treatments, venous catheter insertions, and/or surgical procedures. "K. aerogenes" is generally found in the human gastrointestinal tract and does not generally cause disease in healthy individuals. It has been found to live in various wastes, hygienic chemicals, and soil. The bacterium also has some commercial significance – the hydrogen gas produced during fermentation has been experimented with using molasses as the substrate.


title: Klebsiella aerogenes

text: "K. aerogenes" is an outstanding hydrogen producer. It is an anaerobic facultative and mesophilic bacterium that is able to consume different sugars and in contrast to cultivation of strict anaerobes, no special operation is required to remove all oxygen from the fermenter. "K. aerogenes" has a short doubling time and high hydrogen productivity and evolution rate. Furthermore, hydrogen production by this bacterium is not inhibited at high hydrogen partial pressures; however, its yield is lower compared to strict anaerobes like "Clostridia". A theoretical maximum of 4 mol H2/mol glucose can be produced by strict anaerobic bacteria. Facultative anaerobic bacteria such as "K. aerogenes" have a theoretical maximum yield of 2 mol H2/mol glucose.


title: Klebsiella aerogenes

text: Owing to diverse metabolites, namely acids and alcohols, produced by such a strain in conjunction with its capability of utilizing different sugars, the metabolic behavior and growth of "K. aerogenes" can significantly vary under different conditions.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: The Great Western Main Line (GWML) is a main line railway in England that runs westwards from London Paddington to . It connects to other main lines such as those from Reading to Penzance and Swindon to Swansea. Opened in 1841, it was the original route of the first Great Western Railway which was merged into the Western Region of British Railways in 1948. It is now a part of the national rail system managed by Network Rail with the majority of passenger services provided by the current Great Western Railway franchise.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: The line has recently been electrified along most of its length. The eastern section from Paddington to was electrified in 1998. Work to electrify the remainder of the route started in 2011 with an initial aim to complete the work all the way to Bristol by 2016, but in that year the section through Bath to Bristol Temple Meads was deferred with no date set for completion because costs had tripled.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: The line was built by the Great Western Railway and engineered by Isambard Kingdom Brunel as a dual track line using a wider broad gauge and was opened in stages between 1838 and 1841. The final section, between Chippenham and Bath, was opened on completion of the Box Tunnel in June 1841.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: The alignment was so level and straight it was nicknamed "Brunel's billiard table". It was supplemented with a third rail for dual gauge operation, allowing standard gauge trains to also operate on the route, in stages between 1854 and 1875. Dual gauge was introduced as follows: London to Reading (October 1861), Reading to (December 1856), Didcot to (February 1872), Swindon to Thingley Junction, (June 1874), Thingley Junction to (March 1875), Bathampton to Bristol (June 1874), Bristol station area (May 1854). The broad gauge remained in use until 1892. Evidence of the original broad gauge can still be seen at many places where bridges are a bit wider than usual, or where tracks are ten feet apart instead of the usual six.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: The original dual tracks were widened to four in places, mainly in the east half, between 1877 and 1899: Paddington to (October 1877), Southall to (November 1878), West Drayton to (June 1879), Slough to east side of Maidenhead Bridge (September 1884), Maidenhead Bridge to (June 1893), Reading station (1899), Reading to (July 1893), Pangbourne to Cholsey and Moulsford (June 1894), Cholsey and Moulsford to Didcot (December 1892); also short sections between Didcot and Swindon, and at Bristol.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: Following the Slough rail accident of 1900 in which five passengers were killed, improved vacuum braking systems were used on locomotives and passenger rolling stock and Automatic Train Control (ATC) was introduced in 1908.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: Further widenings of the line took place between 1903 and 1910 and more widening work took place between 1931 and 1932.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: At the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the Great Western Railway was taken into government control, as were most major railways in Britain. The companies were reorganised after the war into the "big four" companies, of which the Great Western Railway was one. The railways returned to direct government control during World War II before being nationalised to form British Railways (BR) in 1948.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: In 1977 the Parliamentary Select Committee on Nationalised Industries recommended considering electrification of more of Britain's rail network, and by 1979 BR presented a range of options that included electrifying the line from Paddington to Swansea by 2000. Under the 1979–90 Conservative governments that succeeded the 1976–79 Labour government, the proposal was not implemented.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: In the mid 1990s, the line between London Paddington and Hayes & Harlington was electrified as part of the Heathrow Express project.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: In August 2008 it was announced that a number of speed limits on the relief lines between Reading and London had been raised, so that 86% of the line could be used at .


title: Great Western Main Line

text: Partial electrification by 2019 allowed replacement of InterCity 125 and sets by new Hitachi Super Express high speed trains – the s and s. It also allowed the introduction of EMUs by GWR on shorter-distance services.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: The route of the GWML includes dozens of listed buildings and structures, including tunnel portals, bridges and viaducts, stations, and associated hotels. Part of the route passes through and contributes to the Georgian Architecture of the City of Bath World Heritage Site; the path through Sydney Gardens has been described as a ""piece of deliberate railway theatre by Brunel without parallel"". Grade I listed structures on the line include London Paddington, Wharncliffe Viaduct, the 1839 Tudor gothic River Avon Bridge in Bristol, and Bristol Temple Meads station.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: Communities served by the Great Western Main Line include West London (including Acton, Ealing, Hanwell, Southall, Hayes, Harlington and West Drayton); Iver; Langley; Slough; Burnham; Taplow; Maidenhead; Twyford; Reading; Tilehurst; Pangbourne; Goring-on-Thames; Streatley; Cholsey; Didcot; Swindon; Chippenham; Bath; Keynsham; and Bristol.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: From London to Didcot, the line follows the Thames Valley, crossing the River Thames three times, including on the Maidenhead Railway Bridge. Between Chippenham and Bath the line passes through Box Tunnel, and then follows the valley of the River Avon.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: A junction west of Swindon allows trains to reach Bristol by an alternative route along the South Wales Main Line. Other diversionary routes exist between Chippenham and Bath via the Wessex Main Line, although this involves a reversal at Bradford Junction; and from Reading to Bath via the Berks and Hants Line.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: Most services are provided by Great Western Railway (GWR). The stations served by trains between London Paddington and Bristol Temple Meads are , , , , and . Some trains between London and Bristol do not call at Didcot Parkway.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: Fast trains from Paddington to London Heathrow Airport are operated by Heathrow Airport Holdings as the Heathrow Express.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: CrossCountry operate trains between Reading and Oxford, using the Great Western Main Line as far as Didcot and South Western Railway operate a limited number of trains between Bath and Bristol.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: Great Western Railway also operate a train between London Paddington – Cardiff Central every 30 minutes, with hourly extensions to Swansea. At Swansea/Cardiff there is a connecting Transport for Wales boat train to/from Fishguard Harbour for the Stena Line ferry to Rosslare Europort in Ireland. An integrated timetable is offered between London Paddington and Rosslare Europort with through ticketing available. Daytime and nocturnal journeys are offered in both directions daily (including Sundays). Additionally, 2–3 Great Western Railway trains continue to Pembroke Dock on weekends during the Summer season to connect with ferry services to Ireland.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: Between London and Didcot there are four tracks, two for each direction. The main lines are mostly used by the faster trains and are on the south side of the route. The relief lines on the north side are used for slower services and those that call at all stations, as only London Paddington, Slough, Maidenhead, Twyford, Reading and Didcot Parkway stations have platforms on the main lines (although a few others have main line platforms that can be used in an emergency). Between Didcot and Royal Wootton Bassett, a series of passing loops allow fast trains to overtake slower ones. This section is signalled for bi-directional running on each line but this facility is usually only used during engineering working or when there is significant disruption to traffic in one direction.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: The summit of the line is at Swindon, and falls away in each direction: Swindon is above Paddington, and above Bristol Temple Meads. The maximum gradient between Paddington and Didcot is 1 in 1320 (0.75 ‰ or 0.075 %); between Didcot and Swindon it is 1 in 660 (1.5 ‰ or 0.15%) but west of Swindon, gradients as steep as 1 in 100 (10 ‰ or 1%) are found in places, such as Box Tunnel and to the east of .


title: Great Western Main Line

text: The line is electrified between Paddington and Langley Burrell (just east of Chippenham) using 25 kV AC overhead supply lines; the Reading to Taunton line (as far as Newbury) and the South Wales Main Line (as far as Cardiff Central) are also electrified.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: The line speed is . The relief lines from Paddington to Didcot are limited to as far as Reading, and then to Didcot. Lower restrictions apply at various locations. The line is one of two Network Rail-owned lines equipped with the Automatic Train Protection (ATP) system, the other being the Chiltern Main Line.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: Line-side train monitoring equipment includes hot axle box detectors (HABD) and 'Wheelchex' wheel impact load detectors (WILD), sited as follows.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: Reading railway station saw a major redevelopment with new platforms, a new entrance, footbridge and lifts; the work was completed a year ahead of schedule in July 2014.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: The Crossrail project covered electrification of the line from Airport Junction to Maidenhead and, following a number of announcements and delays, the government announced in March 2011 that it would electrify the line as far as Bristol Temple Meads.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: Following delays to the original plan, and a major escalation of costs, the Conservative government announced in July 2017 that, for the time being, electrification would only be completed as far as Thingley Junction, west of Chippenham. Electrification of other lines, including Bristol Parkway to Temple Meads and Didcot to Oxford was also postponed. The government argued that bi-mode trains would fill in the gaps pending completion of electrification, although the Class 800 trains are slower in diesel mode than under electric power. Electrification as far as Didcot Parkway was completed in December 2017, and to Thingley Junction in December 2019.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: Network Rail plans to install European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS) in-cab signalling on the Great Western line; this is a pre-requisite for the Super Express trains to run at 140 mph (225 km/h). Some or all of the resignalling work will be undertaken during the electrification work.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: Further capacity improvements are also scheduled at Swindon, adding to recent changes and the new Platform 4.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: Crossrail services are planned to terminate at Reading. Some of the current suburban services into London Paddington are planned to be transferred to the new Crossrail service, which will free up some surface-level capacity at Paddington.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: Other more distant aspirations include resignalling and capacity improvements at Reading; the provision of four continuous tracks between Didcot and Swindon (including a grade-separated junction at Milton, where the westbound relief line switches from the north side of the line to the south); and resignalling between Bath and Bristol to enable trains to run closer together.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: Access to Heathrow Airport from the west remains an aspiration and the 2009 Heathrow Airtrack scheme, abandoned in 2011, proposed a route south of the Great Western Main Line to link the airport with Reading. Plans for electrification of the line will make it easier to access Heathrow from Reading, since lack of electrification between Reading station and Airport Junction (near West Drayton station) was a limiting factor. Plans under consideration in 2014 included new tunnels between Heathrow and Langley.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: Network Rail intends to replace the ATP system with ETCS – Level 2 from 2017 to 2035 along with the introduction of the new IEP trains.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: Signalling Solutions is to resignal the from Paddington to , including the Airport branch, as part of the Crossrail project.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: There are calls for the reintroduction of Corsham station due to recent growth of the town. The original station was closed to passengers in 1965.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: A local group is campaigning for the reopening of Saltford station between Bath and Bristol, to coincide with electrification.


title: Great Western Main Line

text: There have also been calls to reopen the former Wantage Road station. Oxfordshire County Council included a proposal for a new station to serve Wantage and Grove in their 2015–2031 local transport plan.


title: Will Jimeno

text: William J. "Will" Jimeno (born November 26, 1967) is a Colombian-American author and retired Port Authority of New York and New Jersey Police Department officer who survived the September 11 attacks in 2001. He was buried under the rubble for a total of 18 hours, but survived, along with fellow Port Authority officer John McLoughlin. He has written two books regarding the experience.


title: Will Jimeno

text: At the time of the attacks, he was a rookie cop assigned to the Port Authority Bus Terminal. He saw the shadow of American Airlines Flight 11, the airplane that seconds later hit the North Tower of the World Trade Center. He rode to the WTC site with 20 other Port Authority police officers in a commandeered bus.


title: Will Jimeno

text: The collapse of the South Tower trapped Jimeno and two other Port Authority officers, led by Sgt. McLoughlin, under the Concourse between the twin towers. Only Jimeno and McLoughlin survived. Dominick Pezzulo survived the initial collapse but was killed by the collapse of the North Tower while he was trying to free Jimeno.


title: Will Jimeno

text: The two men were located and extricated after former U.S. Marines Sergeant Jason Thomas and Staff Sergeant Dave Karnes heard their cries for help. Both survivors, especially McLoughlin, were severely injured. They required several surgeries and months of hospitalization for recovery and rehabilitation. On June 11, 2002, McLoughlin (with a walker) and Jimeno (with a limp) walked across a stage at Madison Square Garden to receive the Port Authority's Medal of Honor.


title: Will Jimeno

text: The entrapment and rescue were portrayed in the 2006 Oliver Stone film "World Trade Center", with Jimeno portrayed by Michael Peña.


title: Lexi Wilson

text: Lexi Wilson (born 1993) is a Bahamian model and beauty pageant titleholder who won Miss Universe Bahamas 2013 and represented her country at the Miss Universe 2013 pageant.


title: Lexi Wilson

text: Wilson states she graduated with bachelor's degrees of science in biology and physics. This has yet to be proven.


title: Lexi Wilson

text: Under the theme "The Golden Era: Celebrating 5 decades of Bahamian Beauty," a new Miss Universe Bahamas was crowned, 22-year-old Lexi Wilson. On Sunday night at the Atlantis Resort in Nassau, eight contestants vied for a chance to represent the country at the 2013 Miss Universe Pageant in Russia on 9 November 2013.


title: Lexi Wilson

text: Lexi appeared on "Below Deck Mediterranean" season 6 in 2021. She was fired mid-season. Lexi's behaviour was described by Captain Sandy as "Disturbing, and I wish that the crew would have really painted the picture for me. Just hearing it's bad isn't a description of behavior. So you know, in a position that I'm in, I need to know details and I never really got details until the end, and that's when I let Lexi go.".


title: West of Scotland Football League

text: The West of Scotland Football League (WoSFL) is a senior football league based in the west of Scotland. The league sits at levels 6–10 on the Scottish football league system, acting as a feeder to the Lowland Football League.


title: West of Scotland Football League

text: Founded in 2020, it is currently composed of 79 member clubs competing in five divisions. Geographically, the league covers Argyll & Bute, Ayrshire, East Dunbartonshire, West Dunbartonshire, Glasgow, Inverclyde, Lanarkshire, and Renfrewshire. Two clubs are also based in Dumfries and Galloway.


title: West of Scotland Football League

text: Since its formation it has featured in the senior pyramid system. The winners take part in an end of season promotion play-off with the East of Scotland Football League and South of Scotland Football League champions, subject to clubs meeting the required licensing criteria.


title: West of Scotland Football League

text: On 14 April 2020, the Lowland League announced it had approved 67 applications to join the new league, which included all 63 clubs from the Scottish Junior Football Association's West Region, and four others: Glasgow amateurs Drumchapel United and Glasgow University, Kilmarnock side Bonnyton Thistle moving sideways from the South of Scotland League and Newton Mearns-based youth club St Cadoc's Youth Club from the Paisley, Johnstone & District League.


title: West of Scotland Football League

text: Initial plans for the inaugural season would have seen the league operate a conference format in order to facilitate all 67 clubs at the same level. However, following a video conference with the Scottish Football Association, the league was split into a top tier and lower divisions, similar to that utilised by the East of Scotland Football League.


title: West of Scotland Football League

text: On 1 May 2020, the League confirmed that a top division of 20 teams would contest the first season in 2020–21, comprising the 16 teams who had played in the 2019–20 West Region Premiership, the top three placed from the West Championship and one moving 'sideways' from the South of Scotland Football League. This ran contrary to some clubs' expectations that the inaugural campaign would not use a hierarchical system, but the league stated "that option was not on the table" due to legal issues. Teams below the top division would be distributed into three balanced conferences; the list for which was published three days later.


title: West of Scotland Football League

text: On 17 September 2020, the League announced that the Premier Division would be split into two groups based on the Points Per Game formula that was used to declare the league winners of the SJFA West Region. There would be two phases to the season. In Phase 1, teams would play other teams within their group twice, home and away. Phase 2 consisted of a further ten games, five home and five away, with teams being drawn against teams from the other group. However, the league reverted to a normal home and away format following a number of withdrawals from the initial season.


title: West of Scotland Football League

text: On 11 January 2021 the league was suspended by the Scottish Football Association due to the escalating COVID-19 pandemic situation.


title: West of Scotland Football League

text: On 12 May 2021, the league announced the formation of the Development League, with nine teams becoming initial members. The Development League will become Division 4 when the WOSFL changes to a linear structure for the 2022–23 season. Teams in the Development League will only be promoted if they meet specified ground criteria.


title: West of Scotland Football League

text: After running with a Premier Division of 20 clubs and three Tier 7 Conferences of 15 or 16 clubs during its transitional 2021–22 season, the WoSFL has since switched to a linear structure with the Premier, First, and Second Divisions each containing 16 teams. The Third Division features 19 clubs and the Fourth Division, made up of new members and development league teams, has 12 clubs.


title: New York's 22nd congressional district

text: The 22nd congressional district of New York is a congressional district for the United States House of Representatives. Significant cities in the district include Utica, Rome, Cortland, and Binghamton. It is home to several colleges and universities, including Binghamton University, Hamilton College, Colgate University, SUNY Polytechnic Institute, Utica College, and SUNY Cortland.


title: New York's 22nd congressional district

text: The district includes all of Chenango, Cortland, Madison, and Oneida Counties; and parts of Broome, Herkimer, Oswego, and Tioga Counties.


title: New York's 22nd congressional district

text: Since February 11, 2021, the district has been represented by Claudia Tenney, following months of recounts and legal battles from the close 2020 election. The closeness of the House race and Trump's 11-point lead over Biden in the presidential election in this district suggested the presence of a significant number of split-ticket voters who voted Republican for president but Democratic for the House.


title: New York's 22nd congressional district

text: According to the APM Research Lab's Voter Profile Tools (featuring the U.S. Census Bureau's 2019 American Community Survey), the district contained about 534,000 potential voters (citizens, age 18+). Of these, 90% are White and 10% are people of color. Immigrants make up 4% of the district's potential voters. Median income among households (with one or more potential voter) in the district is about $57,200, while 13% of households live below the poverty line. As for the educational attainment of potential voters in the district, 9% of those 25 and older have not earned a high school degree, while 24% hold a bachelor's or higher degree.


title: New York's 22nd congressional district

text: Various New York districts have been numbered "22" over the years, including areas in New York City and various parts of upstate New York. From 2003 to 2013, the district included all or parts of Broome, Delaware, Dutchess, Orange, Sullivan, Tioga, Tompkins, and Ulster counties. It included the cities of Binghamton, Ithaca, Kingston, Middletown, Newburgh and Poughkeepsie. The district stretched to include parts of the Finger Lakes region, the Catskill Mountains and the Hudson Valley.


title: New York's 22nd congressional district

text: In New York State electoral politics there are numerous minor parties at various points on the political spectrum. Certain parties will invariably endorse either the Republican or Democratic candidate for every office, hence the state electoral results contain both the party votes, and the final candidate votes (Listed as "Recap").


title: Darren Lynn Bousman

text: Darren Lynn Bousman (; born January 11, 1979) is an American film director and screenwriter, best known for his work in horror films. He has directed four of the "Saw" films: "Saw II", "Saw III", "Saw IV", and "Spiral". He also directed the horror musicals "Repo! The Genetic Opera" and "The Devil's Carnival" movies. Bousman is co-creator and writer of alternate reality games (ARG) and immersive experiences, "The Tension Experience" (2016), "The Lust Experience" (2017), "Theatre Macabre" (2018), "iConfidant" (2020), and "One Day Die" (2020).


title: Darren Lynn Bousman

text: Bousman was born in Overland Park, Kansas, the son of Nancy and Lynn Bousman. He attended high school at Shawnee Mission North High School in Overland Park, and studied film at Full Sail University in Winter Park, Florida, graduating in 2000. He was inducted into the Full Sail University Hall of Fame in 2011. Bousman lives in Los Angeles with his wife and two children.


title: Darren Lynn Bousman

text: During 2004, he was pitching an idea for a movie called "The Desperate" to various American studios, who complained that the screenplay was too violent, and the plot was too close to "Saw". David A. Armstrong who worked on "Saw" asked Bousman if he could show the script to "Saw" producer Gregg Hoffman. Hoffman read the script and called Bousman interested in producing "The Desperate", but after showing the script to his partners Mark Burg and Oren Koules, the two decided it would be the perfect opportunity to turn "The Desperate" into "Saw II". Two months later, Bousman was flown to Toronto to direct.


title: Darren Lynn Bousman

text: During the production of "Saw II", Bousman directed the music video for Mudvayne's single "Forget to Remember," which appeared as the lead song on the soundtrack album. "Saw II" was profitable and Bousman was signed on to direct "Saw III", which was released on October 27, 2006.


title: Darren Lynn Bousman

text: After "Saw III", Bousman announced that he would not direct another "Saw" film so that he would be free to prepare for his project "Repo! the Genetic Opera", the stage version of which he had directed in 2002. Despite this, on February 19, 2007, Leigh Whannell announced that Bousman had signed on to direct "Saw IV". Bousman explained that before shooting could begin on "Repo! The Genetic Opera", there was a gap of time during which the songs were being pre-recorded, and he would be able to direct "Saw IV" during that period.


title: Darren Lynn Bousman

text: In 2019, it was announced Bousman would return to the "Saw" franchise directing "Spiral: From the Book of Saw", the ninth installment in the series. The film was set to be released on May 15, 2020, but was delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The release of the film was moved to May 21, 2021.


title: Darren Lynn Bousman

text: In 2008, Bousman directed an episode of the horror anthology show "Fear Itself", entitled "New Year's Day". He has also been attached to direct the remake of David Cronenberg's "Scanners". Bousman taught Film director newcomers in the Horror Film Boot Camp, which ran from May 7–9, 2010, in Albuquerque, New Mexico. He will direct the psychological thriller "Ninety""," written by Scott Milam.


title: Darren Lynn Bousman

text: Bousman directed the 2010 remake of "Mother's Day" starring Shawn Ashmore, Deborah Ann Woll, and Briana Evigan. In 2011, Bousman directed the film "11-11-11". In 2012, Bousman directed and produced "The Devil's Carnival", a short film planned to be the first installment of a longer series. Bousman also wrote and directed "The Barrens", starring Stephen Moyer and Mia Kirshner, in 2012.


title: Darren Lynn Bousman

text: On May 13, 2013, it was announced that Bousman would be directing a film titled "Sacrilege", another religious-themed work. In 2015, he participated in the anthology movie "Tales of Halloween" produced by Epic Pictures. He directed the segment "The Night Billy Raised Hell" written by Clint Sears.


title: Darren Lynn Bousman

text: In 2016, he directed "Abattoir", which was described as "the best 2016 horror movie you didn't see" and Bousman as "an underrated force of bold originality" by Bloody Disgusting but otherwise was not well reviewed. "Abattoir" premiered at the Los Angeles Film Festival on June 7, 2016.


title: Darren Lynn Bousman

text: Bousman again collaborated with writer, Clint Sears, in 2018 on "St. Agatha", a religious horror film set in a convent in the 1950s in small-town Georgia. He next directed "Death of Me", another horror film, starring Maggie Q and Luke Hemsworth. It was filmed in Thailand and released on October 2, 2020 by Saban Films.


title: Darren Lynn Bousman

text: "The Tension Experience," created with Gordon Bijelonic and Clint Sears and directed by Bousman, launched on September 8, 2016. The ARG immersive theater production took place over nine months, with participants unlocking secrets through various interactions in an alternate reality game which culminating in a series of two-hour live immersive experiences at a secret location in Los Angeles. "The Tension Experience" was set in a 45,000 square foot warehouse and employed over 40 actors who followed different scripts depending on how participants reacted.


title: Darren Lynn Bousman

text: The Verge described "The Tension Experience" as "A dramatically engaging, layered story experience that breathed new life into the ideas of transmedia storytelling" saying it raised the bar for the kind of emotional experiences that people can expect from immersive theater. In 2018, independent film and television production company, AGBO, announced it would partner with "The Tension Experience" to develop new immersive experiences and support expansion of the production to more cities. The first planned project was to be a permanent casino destination in Las Vegas.


title: Darren Lynn Bousman

text: "The Lust Experience" debuted in 2017, immediately following the success of "The Tension Experience". A Bloody Disgusting review said The Lust Experience was a story surrounding an ancient cult that was actively recruiting new members and that "Bousman and Sears pulled every string they could to push us to our mental limits" Haunting described "The Tension Experience" and "The Lust Experience" as "two interconnected multi-year alternate reality experiences that preyed on the emotions and thrived on the dedication of a loyal and widespread group of followers."


title: Darren Lynn Bousman

text: "Theatre Macabre" was launched in Los Angeles in 2018. The eagerly anticipated immersive experience had a thousand-page script and was inspired by the Paris Théâtre du Grand Guignol, which, in 1897, "specialized in grotesque shows that explored society's darkest taboos". Bousman told Daily Dead, "it is the most intricately designed and choreographed show that we've done, where there are endless possibilities when you walk through the door. Anything can happen based on your choices as a participant."


title: Darren Lynn Bousman

text: A socially distant immersive ARG, "iConfidant" ran for six weeks in 2020, culminating in a "multimedia, multi-platform experience centered around the theme of connection" on June 6, 2020. Participants joined a month-long journey, exploring friendship, deceit, and mental health, entering what Bousman described as a "rabbit hole [allowing participants to enter] a bizarre and distorted world". No Proscenium said, "the amount of work behind iConfidant is stunning" and noted that the show raised over $4,000 for Movement for Black Lives.


title: Darren Lynn Bousman

text: "One Day Die" was a 90-minute guided online séance experience that took place throughout October 2020. /Film described it as an "intense, R-rated experience". The immersive show saw participants each receive a mysterious handmade box, sent by the show's creators, that must remain sealed until the experience commenced. Participants then enjoyed "a spooky evening from the comfort of their own homes". A run of sold out shows in October saw Bousman announce two additional encore shows in early November. Daily Dead said, "Darren Lynn Bousman is one of the most inventive creators in the immersive entertainment space today and the fact that many of his events run for a limited time, means you have to catch them before they're gone forever."


title: Bae Soo-bin

text: Bae Soo-bin (born Yoon Tae-wook on December 9, 1976), is a South Korean actor. He is best known for his roles in the television dramas "Brilliant Legacy", "Temptation of an Angel", "49 Days", and "Dong Yi". He also starred in the films "Girlfriends", "The Way - Man of the White Porcelain", "26 Years", and "Mai Ratima".


title: Bae Soo-bin

text: Bae married his girlfriend, a graduate student, on September 14, 2013. His wife gave birth to their first child, a boy, on June 14, 2014. In December 2020, Bae revealed that he divorced his non-celebrity wife last year after 6 years of marriage.


title: Cryptomnesia

text: Cryptomnesia occurs when a forgotten memory returns without its being recognized as such by the subject, who believes it is something new and original. It is a memory bias whereby a person may falsely recall generating a thought, an idea, a tune, a name, or a joke, not deliberately engaging in plagiarism but rather experiencing a memory as if it were a new inspiration.


title: Cryptomnesia

text: The word was first used by the psychiatrist Théodore Flournoy, in reference to the case of medium Hélène Smith (Catherine-Élise Müller) to suggest the high incidence in psychism of "latent memories on the part of the medium that come out, sometimes greatly disfigured by a subliminal work of imagination or reasoning, as so often happens in our ordinary dreams."


title: Cryptomnesia

text: Carl Gustav Jung treated the subject in his thesis "On the Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena" (1902) and in an article, "Cryptomnesia" (1905), suggested the phenomenon in Friedrich Nietzsche's "Thus Spoke Zarathustra". The idea was studied or mentioned by Géza Dukes, Sándor Ferenczi and Wilhelm Stekel as well as by Sigmund Freud in speaking of the originality of his inventions. Jacques Lacan illustrated the adaptability of the concept in his formulation of the ego ideal (the "ego" as Other) in refashioning the "case" of Margarite Pantaine (Case of Aimée). Her experiences of self-"misrecognition" provided a structure for Lacan's key subsequent theories of The Symbolic and the mirror stage.


title: Cryptomnesia

text: The word "cryptomnesia" is a compound of Greek "cryptos" (hidden, concealed, secret) and "mnesia" (memory).


title: Cryptomnesia

text: In the first empirical study of cryptomnesia, people in a group took turns generating category examples (e.g., kinds of birds: parrot, canary, etc.). They were later asked to create new exemplars in the same categories that were not previously produced, and also to recall which words they had personally generated. People inadvertently plagiarized about 3–9% of the time either by regenerating another person's thought or falsely recalling someone's thought as their own. Similar effects have been replicated using other tasks such as word search puzzles and in brainstorming sessions.


title: Cryptomnesia

text: Various terms have been coined to describe two forms of plagiarism — occurrence forgetting vs. source forgetting and generation errors vs. recognition errors. The two types of cryptomnesia appear to be independent: no relationship has been found between error rates and the two types are precipitated by different causes.


title: Cryptomnesia

text: Cryptomnesia is more likely to occur when the ability to properly monitor sources is impaired. For example, people are more likely to falsely claim ideas as their own when they were under high cognitive load at the time they first considered the idea. Plagiarism increases when people are away from the original source of the idea, and decreases when participants are specifically instructed to pay attention to the origin of their ideas. False claims are also more prevalent for ideas originally suggested by persons of the same sex, presumably because the perceptual similarity of the self to a same-sex person exacerbates source confusion. In other studies it has been found that the timing of the idea is also important: if another person produces an idea immediately before the self produces an idea, the other's idea is more likely to be claimed as one's own, ostensibly because the person is too busy preparing for their own turn to properly monitor source information.


title: Cryptomnesia

text: in "Man and His Symbols," "An author may be writing steadily to a preconceived plan, working out an argument or developing the line of a story, when he suddenly runs off at a tangent. Perhaps a fresh idea has occurred to him, or a different image, or a whole new sub-plot. If you ask him what prompted the digression, he will not be able to tell you. He may not even have noticed the change, though he has now produced material that is entirely fresh and apparently unknown to him before. Yet it can sometimes be shown convincingly that what he has written bears a striking similarity to the work of another author — a work that he believes he has never seen."


title: Cryptomnesia

text: Jorge Luis Borges's story, "Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote," is a meta-fictive enactment of cryptomnesia. This work is written in the form of a review or literary critical piece about (the nonexistent) Pierre Menard. It begins with a brief introduction and a listing of all of Menard's work.


title: Cryptomnesia

text: Borges's "review" describes this 20th-century French writer who has made an effort to go further than mere "translation" of Don Quixote, but to immerse himself so thoroughly as to be able to actually "re-create" it, line for line, in the original 17th century Spanish. Thus, "Pierre Menard" is often used to raise questions and discussion about the nature of accurate translation or, in this case, the hermeneutics of cryptomnesia.


title: Cryptomnesia

text: Jung gives the following example in "Man and His Symbols". Friedrich Nietzsche's book "Thus Spoke Zarathustra" includes an almost word for word account of an incident also included in a book published about 1835, half a century before Nietzsche wrote. This is considered to be neither purposeful plagiarism nor pure coincidence: Nietzsche's sister confirmed that he had indeed read the original account when he was younger, likely sometime between ages 12 and 15; Nietzsche's youthful intellectual capabilities, his later cognitive degeneration, and his accompanying psychological deterioration (specifically, his increasing grandiosity as manifested in his later behavior and writings) together strengthen the likelihood that he happened to commit the passage to memory upon initially reading it and later, after having lost his memory of encountering it, assumed that his own mind had created it.


title: Cryptomnesia

text: In some cases, the line between cryptomnesia and zeitgeist (compare the concept of multiple discovery in science) may be somewhat hazy. Readers of Lord Byron's closet drama "Manfred" noted a strong resemblance to Goethe's "Faust". In a review published in 1820, Goethe wrote, "Byron's tragedy "Manfred" was to me a wonderful phenomenon, and one that closely touched me. This singular intellectual poet has taken my Faustus to himself, and extracted from it the strangest nourishment for his hypochondriac humour. He has made use of the impelling principles in his own way, for his own purposes, so that no one of them remains the same; and it is particularly on this account that I cannot enough admire his genius." Byron was apparently thankful for the compliment; however, he claimed that he had


title: Cryptomnesia

text: J. M. Barrie, the creator of Peter Pan, was aware of the occurrence of cryptomnesia. In "Peter and Wendy" Wendy sews Peter's shadow back on and this makes him very happy but he immediately thinks he has attached the shadow himself:


title: Cryptomnesia

text: Peter exhibits a number of other clinically accurate peculiarities of memory suggesting that Barrie regarded Peter's behavior as a memory disorder rather than self-centredness.


title: Cryptomnesia

text: Helen Keller compromised her own and her teacher's credibility with an incident of cryptomnesia which was misinterpreted as plagiarism. "The Frost King", which Keller wrote out of buried memories of the fairy tale "The Frost Fairies" by Margaret Canby, read to her four years previously, left Keller a nervous wreck, and unable to write fiction for the rest of her life.


title: Cryptomnesia

text: Robert Louis Stevenson refers to an incident of cryptomnesia that took place during the writing of "Treasure Island", and that he discovered to his embarrassment several years afterward:


title: Cryptomnesia

text: Some of the song's melody is based on a Basque lullaby, "Pello Joxepe", composed by Juan Francisco Petriarena 'Xenpelar' (1835–1869). Shemer heard a rendition by Spanish singer/songwriter Paco Ibáñez, who visited Israel in 1962 and performed the song to a group that included her and Nehama Hendel. She later acknowledged hearing Hendel perform Pello Joxepe in the mid-1960s, and that she had unconsciously based some of the melody on the lullaby. Shemer felt very bad when she found that it was similar to "Pello Joxepe", but when Ibáñez was asked how he felt about the issue, he replied he was "glad it helped in some way", and that he was not angry, nor did he perceive it as plagiarism.


title: Cryptomnesia

text: In 1984, when Aerosmith were recording "Done With Mirrors", lead singer Steven Tyler heard the group's "You See Me Crying" on the radio and, not remembering that it was their own song, suggested that the group record a cover version, to which guitarist Joe Perry replied, "That's us, fuckhead!".


title: Cryptomnesia

text: The precedent in United States copyright law, since 1976, has been to treat alleged cryptomnesia no differently from deliberate plagiarism. The seminal case is "Bright Tunes Music v. Harrisongs Music," where the publisher of "He's So Fine," written and composed by Ronald Mack, demonstrated to the court that George Harrison borrowed substantial portions of his song "My Sweet Lord" from "He's So Fine." The Court imposed damages despite a claim that the copying was subconscious. The ruling was upheld by the Second Circuit in "ABKCO Music v. Harrisongs Music," and the case "Three Boys Music v. Michael Bolton," upheld by the Ninth Circuit, affirmed the principle.


title: Cryptomnesia

text: In 1987, Australian author Colleen McCullough published a novella, "The Ladies of Missalonghi". Critics alleged that she had plagiarised "The Blue Castle", a 1926 novel by L. M. Montgomery. McCullough acknowledged having read Montgomery's works in her youth, but attributed the similarities to subconscious recollection.


title: Cryptomnesia

text: In "Interpretation and Overinterpretation", Umberto Eco describes the rediscovery of an antique book among his large collection, which was eerily similar to the pivotal object in his novel "The Name of the Rose".


title: Arielle Dombasle

text: Arielle Dombasle (born April 27, 1953) is an American-born French singer, actress, director and model. Her breakthrough roles were in Éric Rohmer's "Pauline at the Beach" (1983) and Alain Robbe-Grillet's "The Blue Villa" (1995). Appearing in various works by renowned documentary filmmaker Chris Marker, including "Sans Soleil" (1983), "Tokyo Days" (1988), and "The Owl's Legacy" (1989). She also starred in the 1984 miniseries "Lace" and its 1985 sequel "Lace II" and appeared as a guest in "Miami Vice". Since 1978 she has released twenty-one singles and ten albums and has directed four movies.


title: Arielle Dombasle

text: She was born Arielle Laure Maxime Sonnery in Hartford, Connecticut, the daughter of Jean-Louis Melchior Sonnery de Fromental, a silk manufacturer, and Françoise Garreau-Dombasle. She descends from French-American immigrants in Mexico under her grandfather's diplomatic tenure. The family's surname was created in 1912, when Dombasle's grandfather René Sonnery (1887–1925), an industrialist from Lyon, married Anne-Marie Berthon du Fromental. Arielle took the pseudonym "Arielle Dombasle" in memory of her mother who died at the age of 36. She was raised as a Roman Catholic.


title: Arielle Dombasle

text: Dombasle and her brother Gilbert were raised in Mexico by their maternal grandparents after their mother's death in 1964. She attended the Lycée Franco-Mexicain. She was also raised at Château de Chaintré, the Sonnery family estate near Mâcon, Saône-et-Loire. Her maternal grandfather, Maurice Garreau-Dombasle, was a close friend of and advisor to Charles de Gaulle, long time commercial attaché for the French Enbassy, who resigned from his post on Sep 3, 1940 that he would "never work 'under German control'," and on June that year was one of the founders of France Forever, had later served as the French ambassador to Mexico. Her maternal grandmother was Man'ha Garreau-Dombasle (née Germaine Massenet, 1898–1999), a writer and poet who translated Rabindranath Tagore's works into French and was a longtime friend of the science fiction writer Ray Bradbury, who dedicated his 1972 novel "The Halloween Tree" to her.


title: Arielle Dombasle

text: Dombasle embarked on a career as an actress and singer after attending the Conservatoire International de Musique de Paris and further studies in Mexico. Dombasle has appeared in several Hollywood productions, but most of her acting work has been in French, unlike her albums which are mostly in Spanish and English. She directed four films, "Les Pyramides Bleues", "Chassé-croisé", "Opium" and "Alien Crystal Palace". She once described her own looks as "a Crazy Horse dancing girl".


title: Arielle Dombasle

text: In 2006, she released both albums "Amor Amor" and "C'est si Bon" in the USA. In September 2006, she also performed three nights in a row at the Supper Club in New York City in front of Michael Douglas, John Malkovich, Lauren Bacall, Salman Rushdie, Andrée Putman and Charlie Rose. The latter invited Arielle Dombasle to promote her albums on "The Charlie Rose Show".


title: Arielle Dombasle

text: Arielle Dombasle then released several albums in France; "Glamour à Mort!", "Diva Latina", "Arielle Dombasle" by ERA and "La Rivière Atlantique" with French rocker Nicolas Ker.


title: Arielle Dombasle

text: That same year, Arielle Dombasle released her fragrance, Le Secret d'Arielle, within Mauboussin. The promotional campaign was created by the French artist Leonardo Marcos.


title: Arielle Dombasle

text: Dombasle is the first contestant who was confirmed for the eighth season of "Danse avec les Stars" (the French version of "Dancing with the Stars").


title: Arielle Dombasle

text: In 2018, along with Mareva Galanter, Inna Modja and Helena Noguerra, Arielle Dombasle recreated the French band Les Parisiennes.


title: Arielle Dombasle

text: Two years later, in 2020, Arielle Dombasle announced she would be releasing a second joint album with Nicolas Ker, named "Empire". The album was supposed to be released on April 24, 2020, but was postponed to June 16, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Arielle Dombasle

text: Dombasle is the third wife of writer Bernard-Henri Lévy. They married on June 19, 1993, at Saint-Paul-de-Vence on the Côte d'Azur where they have a villa. She has two stepchildren, Antonin-Balthazar Lévy and Justine Lévy, a novelist. She was previously married to Dr. Paul Albou, described by "Vanity Fair" as a "playboy society dentist, 32 years her senior."


title: Arielle Dombasle

text: In 2009, she signed a petition in support of Roman Polanski, calling for his release after Polanski was arrested in Switzerland in relation to his 1977 charge for drugging and raping a 13-year-old girl.


title: Peter Bryan

text: Peter Bryan (born October 4, 1969) is a British serial killer with schizophrenia who committed three murders between 1993 and 2004.


title: Peter Bryan

text: Bryan was born in London on 4 October 1969, the youngest of seven children of immigrant parents from Barbados. He attended Shaftesbury Junior School in Forest Gate, before attending Trinity Secondary School in Canning Town. He left school aged 14 or 15 and obtained employment at a clothes stall, later moving on to teach cooking lessons at his local soup kitchen.


title: Peter Bryan

text: In 1987, Peter Bryan lived in the Flying Angel Custom House, East London. Police were called when he attempted to throw another resident from his sixth-floor window. The victim reported that the initial attack by Bryan was unprovoked. Police took no action against Bryan in the attack.


title: Peter Bryan

text: In 1994, Bryan was sent to Rampton Secure Hospital after admitting to the murder of 21-year-old shop assistant Nisha Sheth, who was beaten to death with a hammer in 1993. By February 2001, the nursing staff thought he had made considerable progress in regard to his "behaviour, attitude, maturity, relationships, anger and insight." Bryan was transferred from Rampton in June 2001 to the John Howard Centre after a six-month trial leave project agreed by the Home Office. He was released into the care of a psychiatrist and social worker.


title: Peter Bryan

text: After applying to a Mental Health Review Tribunal in 2002, Bryan was moved to the Riverside Hostel in north London where he was allowed to come and go as he pleased. In October 2003, psychiatrists noted there had been "a continued improvement in his mental state" and talked of plans for a move to more independent accommodation.


title: Peter Bryan

text: In January 2004, social workers applied for the transfer of Bryan to "low–support accommodation"; instead, Bryan was transferred to an open psychiatric ward at Newham General Hospital for his safety after allegations that he had indecently assaulted a 16-year-old girl.


title: Peter Bryan

text: A month later, Bryan killed friend Brian Cherry on 17 February 2004, just hours after being discharged from the mental health unit. Reportedly, the victim had been dismembered and officers found a frying pan on the stove with tissue from the dead man's brain.


title: Peter Bryan

text: On 25 April, Bryan killed fellow patient Richard Loudwell, aged 59, while still in Broadmoor. Bryan said that if he had not been interrupted he would have eaten Loudwell's flesh.


title: Peter Bryan

text: In 2011, an inquest ruled that Bryan had not been watched properly and had not been adequately assessed by Broadmoor staff.


title: Peter Bryan

text: On 15 March 2005, Bryan pleaded guilty at the Old Bailey to two manslaughters on the grounds of diminished responsibility.


title: Peter Bryan

text: Judge Giles Forrester said: "You killed on these last two occasions because it gave you a thrill and a feeling of power when you ate flesh." Forrester sentenced Bryan to a whole-life tariff.


title: Peter Bryan

text: In 2006, Lord Chief Justice Lord Phillips overturned the "whole life" tariff but said it was unlikely that Bryan, who is mentally ill, would ever be released. The sentences was changed to a minimum of 15 years.


The Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Ukraine () is the professional head of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. The position was created by President Volodymyr Zelenskyy on 28 March 2020. Before 27 March 2020, this position was held by the Chief of the General Staff.


Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Ukraine - a person who directly directs the Armed Forces of Ukraine, monitors the state of the army with military equipment, weapons and other resources, reports to the President and the Minister of Defense on achieving military-strategic goals in defense.


title: Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Ukraine

text: At the same time, the Law of Ukraine "On the Armed Forces of Ukraine" stipulates that direct military leadership is an activity aimed at implementing measures for the development of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, their technical equipment, training and comprehensive support, determining the basis of their application and management.


text: Until 27 March 2020 in accordance with Art. 8 of the Law of Ukraine "On the Armed Forces of Ukraine", the Chief of the General Staff was the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Ukraine.


text: On 5 March 2022, the current Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, Lieutenant General Valerii Zaluzhnyi, was promoted to the rank of General by the President of Ukraine, Volodymyr Zelenskyy.


title: Mate choice

text: Mate choice is one of the primary mechanisms under which evolution can occur. It is characterized by a "selective response by animals to particular stimuli" which can be observed as behavior. In other words, before an animal engages with a potential mate, they first evaluate various aspects of that mate which are indicative of quality—such as the resources or phenotypes they have—and evaluate whether or not those particular trait(s) are somehow beneficial to them. The evaluation will then incur a response of some sort.


title: Mate choice

text: These mechanisms are a part of evolutionary change because they operate in a way that causes the qualities that are desired in a mate to be more frequently passed on to each generation over time. For example, if female peacocks desire mates who have a colourful plumage, then this trait will increase in frequency over time as male peacocks with a colourful plumage will have more reproductive success. Further investigation of this concept, has found that it is in fact the specific trait of blue and green colour near the eyespot that seems to increase the females likelihood of mating with a specific peacock.


title: Mate choice

text: Mate choice is a major component of sexual selection, another being intrasexual selection. Ideas on sexual selection were first introduced in 1871, by Charles Darwin, then expanded on by Ronald Fisher in 1915. At present, there are five sub mechanisms that explain how mate choice has evolved over time. These are direct phenotypic benefits, sensory bias, the Fisherian runaway hypothesis, indicator traits and genetic compatibility.


title: Mate choice

text: In the majority of systems where mate choice exists, one sex tends to be competitive with their same-sex members and the other sex is choosy (meaning they are selective when it comes to picking individuals to mate with). There are direct and indirect benefits of being the selective individual. In most species, females are the choosy sex which discriminates among competitive males, but there are several examples of reversed roles (see below). It is preferable for an individual to choose a compatible mate of the same species, in order to maintain reproductive success. Other factors that can influence mate choice include pathogen stress and the major histocompatibility complex (MHC).


title: Mate choice

text: Charles Darwin first expressed his ideas on sexual selection and mate choice in his book "The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex" in 1871. He was perplexed by the elaborate ornamentation that males of some species have, because such features appeared to be detrimental to survival and to have negative consequences for reproductive success. Darwin proposed two explanations for the existence of such traits: these traits are useful in male-male combat or they are preferred by females. This article focuses on the latter. Darwin treated natural selection and sexual selection as two different topics, although in the 1930s biologists defined sexual selection as being a part of natural selection.


title: Mate choice

text: In 1915, Ronald Fisher wrote a paper on the evolution of female preference and secondary sexual characteristics. Fifteen years later, he expanded this theory in a book called "The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection". There he described a scenario, Fisherian runaway, where feedback between mate preference and a trait results in elaborate characters such as the long tail of the male peacock.


title: Mate choice

text: In 1948, using "Drosophila" as a model, Angus John Bateman presented experimental evidence that male reproductive success is limited by the number of mates obtained, while female reproductive success is limited by the number of pregnancies that she can have in her lifetime. Thus a female must be selective when choosing a mate because the quality of her offspring depends on it. Males must fight, in the form of intra-sexual competition, for the opportunity to mate because not all males will be chosen by females. This became known as Bateman's principle, and although this was a major finding that added to the work of Darwin and Fisher, it was overlooked until George C. Williams emphasised its importance in the 1960s and 1970s.


title: Mate choice

text: In 1972, soon after Williams' revival of the subject, Robert L. Trivers presented his parental investment theory. Trivers defined parental investment as any investment made by the parent that benefits his or her current offspring at the cost of investment in future offspring. These investments include the costs of producing gametes as well as any other care or efforts that parents provide after birth or hatching. Reformulating Bateman's ideas, Trivers argued that the sex which exhibits less parental investment (not necessarily the male) will have to compete for mating opportunities with the sex that invests more. The differences in levels of parental investment create the condition that favours mating biases.


title: Mate choice

text: The act of being choosy was likely selected for as a way to assess whether or not a potential partner’s contribution(s) would be capable of producing and/or maintaining the viability of an offspring. Utilizing these behaviors usually results in two types of benefits to the individual who is being choosy:


title: Mate choice

text: Direct and/or indirect benefits drive the mating biases described in each mechanism. It is possible that these mechanisms co-occur, although the relative roles of each have not been evaluated adequately.


title: Mate choice

text: A choosy mate tends to have preferences for certain types of traits—also known as phenotypes—which would benefit them to have in a potential partner. These traits must be reliable, and commutative of something that "directly" benefits the choosy partner in some way. Having a mating preference is advantageous in this situation because it directly affects reproductive fitness. Direct benefits are widespread and empirical studies provide evidence for this mechanism of evolution.


title: Mate choice

text: One example of a sexually selected trait with direct benefits is the bright plumage of the northern cardinal, a common backyard bird in the eastern United States. Male northern cardinals have conspicuous red feathers, while the females have a more cryptic coloration. In this example, the females are the choosy sex and will use male plumage brightness as a signal when picking a mate — research suggests that males with brighter plumage feed their young more frequently than males with duller plumage. This increased help in caring for the young lifts some of the burden from the mother so that she can raise more offspring than she could without help.


title: Mate choice

text: Though this particular mechanism operates on the premise that all phenotypes must communicate something that benefits the choosy mate directly, such selected phenotypes can also have additional indirect benefits for the mother by benefiting the offspring. For example, with the increased help in feeding their young seen in Northern Cardinals with more plumage-brightness, comes an increase in the overall amount of food that is likely to be given to the offspring - even if the mother has more children. Though females may choose this trait with the presumed directly advantageous aim of allowing them more time and energy to allocate to producing more offspring, it also benefits the offspring in that two parents provide food instead of one, thereby increasing the likelihood of the overall amount of food available to the offspring despite a possible increase in the amount of offspring siblings.


title: Mate choice

text: The sensory-bias hypothesis states that the preference for a trait evolves in a non-mating context and is then exploited by the less choosy sex in order to obtain more mating opportunities. The competitive sex evolves traits that exploit a pre-existing bias that the choosy sex already possesses. Following this hypothesis, increased selectivity for one of these specific traits can explain remarkable trait differences in closely related species because it produces a divergence in signaling systems which leads to reproductive isolation.


title: Mate choice

text: Sensory bias has been demonstrated in guppies, freshwater fish from Trinidad and Tobago. In this mating system, female guppies prefer to mate with males with more orange body-coloration. However, outside of a mating context, both sexes prefer animate orange objects, which suggests that preference originally evolved in another context, like foraging. Orange fruits are a rare treat that fall into streams where the guppies live. The ability to find these fruits quickly is an adaptive quality that has evolved outside of a mating context. Sometime after the affinity for orange objects arose, male guppies exploited this preference by incorporating large orange spots to attract females.


title: Mate choice

text: Another example of sensory exploitation is the case of the water mite "Neumania papillator", an ambush predator which hunts copepods (small crustaceans) passing by in the water column. When hunting, "N. papillator" adopts a characteristic stance termed the "net stance": its holds its first four legs out into the water column, with its four hind legs resting on aquatic vegetation; this allows it to detect vibrational stimuli produced by swimming prey and to use this to orient towards and clutch at prey. During courtship, males actively search for females; if a male finds a female, he slowly circles around the female whilst trembling his first and second leg near her. Male leg-trembling causes females (who were in the "net stance") to orient towards and often to clutch the male. This does not damage the male or deter further courtship; the male then deposits spermatophores and begins to vigorously fan and jerk his fourth pair of legs over the spermatophore, generating a current of water that passes over the spermatophores and towards the female. Sperm-packet uptake by the female would sometimes follow. Heather Proctor hypothesised that the vibrations made by trembling male legs mimic the vibrations that females detect from swimming prey. This would trigger the female prey-detection responses, causing females to orient and then clutch at males, mediating courtship. If this was true and males were exploiting female predation responses, then hungry females should be more receptive to male trembling. Proctor found that unfed captive females did orient and clutch at males significantly more than fed captive females did, consistent with the sensory exploitation hypothesis.


title: Mate choice

text: Other examples of the sensory-bias mechanism include traits in auklets, wolf spiders, and manakins. Further experimental work is required to reach a fuller understanding of the prevalence and mechanisms of sensory bias.


title: Mate choice

text: This creates a positive feedback loop in which a particular trait is desired by a female and present in a male, and that desire for and presence of that particular trait are then reflected in their offspring. If this mechanism is strong enough, it can lead to a type of self-reinforcing coevolution. If runaway selection is strong enough, it may incur significant costs, such as increased visibility to predators and energetic costs to maintain the trait's full expression. Hence peacocks' extravagant feathers, or any number of lek mating displays. This model does not predict a genetic benefit; rather, the reward is more mates.


title: Mate choice

text: In a study done on great reed warblers, models based on the polygyny threshold and sexy-son hypotheses predict that females should gain evolutionary advantage in either short-term or long-term in this mating system. Although the importance of female choice was demonstrated, the study did not support the hypotheses. Other studies, such as those conducted on long-tailed widowbirds, have demonstrated the existence of female choice. Here, females chose males with long tails, and even preferred those males with experimentally lengthened tails over shortened tails and those of naturally occurring length. Such a process shows how female choice could give rise to exaggerated sexual traits through Fisherian runaway selection.


title: Mate choice

text: Indicator traits signal good overall quality of the individual. Traits perceived as attractive must reliably indicate broad genetic quality in order for selection to favor them and for preference to evolve. This is an example of indirect genetic benefits received by the choosy sex, because mating with such individuals will result in high-quality offspring. The indicator traits hypothesis is split into three highly related subtopics: the handicap theory of sexual selection, the good genes hypothesis, and the Hamilton–Zuk hypothesis.


title: Mate choice

text: People rate the importance of certain traits differently when referring to their own or to others' ideal long-term partners. Research suggests that women consider traits indicating genetic fitness as more important for their own partner, while prioritising traits that provide benefits to others for their sister's ideal partner.


title: Mate choice

text: Indicator traits are condition-dependent and have associated costs. Therefore, individuals which can handle these costs well ("cf." "I can do X [here, survive] with one hand tied behind my back") should be desired by the choosy sex for their superior genetic quality. This is known as the handicap theory of sexual selection.


title: Mate choice

text: The good genes hypothesis states that the choosy sex will mate with individuals who possess traits that signify overall genetic quality. In doing so, they gain an evolutionary advantage for their offspring through indirect benefit.