title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: Under the Mail Isolation Control and Tracking program, the U.S. Postal Service photographs the exterior of every piece of paper mail that is processed in the United States — about 160 billion pieces in 2012. The U.S. Postmaster General stated that the system is primarily used for mail sorting, but the images are available for possible use by law enforcement agencies. Created in 2001 following the anthrax attacks that killed five people, it is a sweeping expansion of a 100-year-old program called "mail cover" which targets people suspected of crimes. Together, the two programs show that postal mail is subject to the same kind of scrutiny that the National Security Agency gives to telephone calls, e-mail, and other forms of electronic communication.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: Mail cover surveillance requests are granted for about 30 days, and can be extended for up to 120 days. Images captured under the Mail Isolation Control and Tracking program are retained for a week to 30 days and then destroyed. There are two kinds of mail covers: those related to criminal activity and those requested to protect national security. Criminal activity requests average 15,000 to 20,000 per year, while the number of requests for national security mail covers has not been made public. Neither the Mail Isolation Control and Tracking program nor the mail cover program require prior approval by a judge. For both programs the information gathered is metadata from the outside of the envelope or package for which courts have said there is no expectation of privacy. Opening the mail to view its contents would require a warrant approved by a judge.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: Billions of dollars per year are spent, by agencies such as the Information Awareness Office, National Security Agency, and the Federal Bureau of Investigation, to develop, purchase, implement, and operate systems such as Carnivore, ECHELON, and NarusInsight to intercept and analyze the immense amount of data that traverses the Internet and telephone system every day.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: The Total Information Awareness program, of the Information Awareness Office, was formed in 2002 by the Pentagon and led by former rear admiral John Poindexter. The program designed numerous technologies to be used to perform mass surveillance. Examples include advanced speech-to-text programs (so that phone conversations can be monitored en-masse by a computer, instead of requiring human operators to listen to them), social network analysis software to monitor groups of people and their interactions with each other, and "Human identification at a distance" software which allows computers to identify people on surveillance cameras by their facial features and gait (the way they walk). The program was later renamed "Terrorism Information Awareness", after a negative public reaction.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: The Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA), passed in 1994, requires that all U.S. telecommunications companies modify their equipment to allow easy wiretapping of telephone, VoIP, and broadband Internet traffic.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: In 1999 two models of mandatory data retention were suggested for the US. The first model would record the IP address assigned to a customer at a specific time. In the second model, "which is closer to what Europe adopted", telephone numbers dialed, contents of Web pages visited, and recipients of e-mail messages must be retained by the ISP for an unspecified amount of time. In 2006 the International Association of Chiefs of Police adopted a resolution calling for a "uniform data retention mandate" for "customer subscriber information and source and destination information." The U.S. Department of Justice announced in 2011 that criminal investigations "are being frustrated" because no law currently exists to force Internet providers to keep track of what their customers are doing.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: The Electronic Frontier Foundation has an ongoing lawsuit (Hepting v. AT&T) against the telecom giant AT&T Inc. for its assistance to the U.S. government in monitoring the communications of millions of American citizens. It has managed thus far to keep the proceedings open. Recently the documents, which were exposed by a whistleblower who had previously worked for AT&T, and showed schematics of the massive data mining system, were made public.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: The FBI developed the computer programs "Magic Lantern" and CIPAV, which it can remotely install on a computer system, in order to monitor a person's computer activity.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: The NSA has been gathering information on financial records, Internet surfing habits, and monitoring e-mails. It has also performed extensive surveillance on social networks such as Facebook. Recently, Facebook has revealed that, in the last six months of 2012, they handed over the private data of between 18,000 and 19,000 users to law enforcement of all types—including local police and federal agencies, such as the FBI, Federal Marshals and the NSA. One form of wiretapping utilized by the NSA is RADON, a bi-directional host tap that can inject Ethernet packets onto the same target. It allows bi-directional exploitation of Denied networks using standard on-net tools. The one limitation of RADON is that it is a USB device that requires a physical connection to a laptop or PC to work. RADON was created by a Massachusetts firm called Netragard. Their founder, Adriel Desautels, said about RADON, "it is our 'safe' malware. RADON is designed to enable us to infect customer systems in a safe and controllable manner. Safe means that every strand is built with an expiration date that, when reached, results in RADON performing an automatic and clean self-removal."


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: The NSA is also known to have splitter sites in the United States. Splitter sites are places where a copy of every packet is directed to a secret room where it is analyzed by the Narus STA 6400, a deep packet inspection device. Although the only known location is at 611 Folsom Street, San Francisco, California, expert analysis of Internet traffic suggests that there are likely several locations throughout the United States.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: In September 2022 the EFF and AP revealed their investigation into the use of advertising IDs to develop the Fog Reveal database. Fog Reveal aggregates location data from mobile applications, which is then supplied as a service to United States law enforcement agencies.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: Since the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, a vast domestic intelligence apparatus has been built to collect information using FBI, local police, state homeland security offices and military criminal investigators. The intelligence apparatus collects, analyzes and stores information about millions of (if not all) American citizens, most of whom have not been accused of any wrongdoing. Every state and local law enforcement agency is to feed information to federal authorities to support the work of the FBI.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: The PRISM special source operation system was enabled by the Protect America Act of 2007 under President Bush and the FISA Amendments Act of 2008, which legally immunized private companies that cooperated voluntarily with US intelligence collection and was renewed by Congress under President Obama in 2012 for five years until December 2017. According to "The Register", the FISA Amendments Act of 2008 "specifically authorizes intelligence agencies to monitor the phone, email, and other communications of U.S. citizens for up to a week without obtaining a warrant" when one of the parties is outside the U.S.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: PRISM was first publicly revealed on 6 June 2013, after classified documents about the program were leaked to "The Washington Post" and "The Guardian" by Edward Snowden.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: In early 2006, "USA Today" reported that several major telephone companies were cooperating illegally with the National Security Agency to monitor the phone records of U.S. citizens, and storing them in a large database known as the NSA call database. This report came on the heels of allegations that the U.S. government had been conducting electronic surveillance of domestic telephone calls without warrants.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: Law enforcement and intelligence services in the United States possess technology to remotely activate the microphones in cell phones in order to listen to conversations that take place nearby the person who holds the phone.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: U.S. federal agents regularly use mobile phones to collect location data. The geographical location of a mobile phone (and thus the person carrying it) can be determined easily (whether it is being used or not), using a technique known multilateration to calculate the differences in time for a signal to travel from the cell phone to each of several cell towers near the owner of the phone.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: In 2013, the existence of the Hemisphere Project, through which AT&T provides call detail records to government agencies, became publicly known.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: As worldwide sales of smartphones began exceeding those of feature phones, the NSA decided to take advantage of the smartphone boom. This is particularly advantageous because the smartphone combines a myriad of data that would interest an intelligence agency, such as social contacts, user behavior, interests, location, photos and credit card numbers and passwords.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: An internal NSA report from 2010 stated that the spread of the smartphone has been occurring "extremely rapidly"—developments that "certainly complicate traditional target analysis." According to the document, the NSA has set up task forces assigned to several smartphone manufacturers and operating systems, including Apple Inc.'s iPhone and iOS operating system, as well as Google's Android mobile operating system. Similarly, Britain's GCHQ assigned a team to study and crack the BlackBerry.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: Under the heading "iPhone capability", the document notes that there are smaller NSA programs, known as "scripts", that can perform surveillance on 38 different features of the iPhone 3 and iPhone 4 operating systems. These include the mapping feature, voicemail and photos, as well as Google Earth, Facebook and Yahoo! Messenger.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: The FBI collected nearly all hotel, airline, rental car, gift shop, and casino records in Las Vegas during the last two weeks of 2003. The FBI requested all electronic data of hundreds of thousands of people based on a very general lead for the Las Vegas New Year's celebration. The Senior VP of The Mirage went on record with PBS' Frontline describing the first time they were requested to help in the mass collection of personal information.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: Wide Area Persistent Surveillance (also Wide Area Motion Imaging) is a form of airborne surveillance system that collects pattern-of-life data by recording motion images of an area larger than a city – in sub-meter resolution. This video allows for anyone within the field of regard to be tracked – both live and retroactively, for forensic analysis. The use of sophisticated tracking algorithms applied to the WAMI dataset also enables mass automated geo-location tracking of every vehicle and pedestrian. WAMI sensors are typically mounted on manned airplanes, drones, blimps and aerostats. WAMI is currently in use on the southern border of the US and has been deployed in Baltimore, Dayton Ohio as well as in Los Angeles, specifically targeting Compton. Wide Area Persistent Surveillance systems such as ARGUS WAMI are capable of live viewing and recording a 68 square mile area with enough detail to view pedestrians and vehicles and generate chronographs. These WAMI cameras, such as Gorgon Stare, Angelfire, Hiper Stare, Hawkeye and ARGUS, create airborne video so detailed that pedestrians can be followed across the city through forensic analysis. This allows investigators to rewind and playback the movements of anyone within this 68 square mile area for hours, days or even months at a time depending on the airframe the WAMI sensors are mounted on. JLENS, a surveillance aerostat scheduled for deployment over the east coast of the US, is a form of WAMI that uses sophisticated radar imaging along with electro-optical WAMI sensors to enable mass geo-location tracking of ground vehicles.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: While a resistance to the domestic deployment of WAMI has emerged in areas where the public has learned of the technologies use, the deployments have been intentionally hidden from the public, as in Compton California, where the mayor learned about the surveillance from groups like the American Civil Liberties Union, Teame Zazzu and the Center for Investigative Reporting.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: PeSEAS and PerMIATE software automate and record the movement observed in the WAMI video. This technology uses software to track and record the movements of pedestrians and vehicles using automatic object recognition software across the entire frame, generating "tracklets" or chronographs of every car and pedestrian movements. 24/7 deployment of this technology has been suggested by the DHS on spy blimps such as the recently killed Blue Devil Airship.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: Traffic cameras, which were meant to help enforce traffic laws at intersections, have also sparked some controversy, due to their use by law enforcement agencies for purposes unrelated to traffic violations. These cameras also work as transit choke-points that allow individuals inside the vehicle to be positively identified and license plate data to be collected and time stamped for cross reference with airborne WAMI such as ARGUS and HAWKEYE used by police and Law Enforcement.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: The Department of Homeland Security is funding networks of surveillance cameras in cities and towns as part of its efforts to combat terrorism. In February 2009, Cambridge, MA rejected the cameras due to privacy concerns.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: In July 2020, the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) reported that the San Francisco Police Department (SFPD) used a camera network in the city's Business Improvement District amid protests against police violence. The report claims that the SFPD's usage of the camera network went beyond investigating footage, likening the department's access to real-time video feeds as "indiscriminate surveillance of protestors."


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: On 19 June 2013, FBI Director Robert Mueller told the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary that the federal government had been employing surveillance drones on U.S. soil in "particular incidents". According to Mueller, the FBI is currently in the initial stage of developing drone policies.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: Earlier in 2012, Congress passed a US$63 billion bill that will grant four years of additional funding to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). Under the bill, the FAA is required to provide military and commercial drones with expanded access to U.S. airspace by October 2015.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: In February 2013, a spokesman for the Los Angeles Police Department explained that these drones would initially be deployed in large public gatherings, including major protests. Over time, tiny drones would be used to fly inside buildings to track down suspects and assist in investigations. According to "The Los Angeles Times", the main advantage of using drones is that they offer "unblinking eye-in-the-sky coverage". They can be modified to carry high-resolution video cameras, infrared sensors, license plate readers, listening devices, and be disguised as sea gulls or other birds to mask themselves.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: The FBI and Customs and Border Protection have used drones for surveillance of protests by the Black Lives Matter movement.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: In 2003, consent decrees against surveillance around the country were lifted, with the assistance of the Justice Department.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: The New York City Police Department infiltrated and compiled dossiers on protest groups before the 2004 Republican National Convention, leading to over 1,800 arrests and subsequent fingerprinting.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: During World War II, the BRUSA Agreement was signed by the governments of the United States and the United Kingdom for the purpose of intelligence sharing. This was later formalized in the UKUSA Agreement of 1946 as a secret treaty. The full text of the agreement was released to the public on 25 June 2010.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: Although the treaty was later revised to include other countries such as Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Norway, Turkey, and the Philippines, most of the information sharing is performed by the so-called "Five Eyes", a term referring to the following English-speaking western democracies and their respective intelligence agencies:


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: In 2013, media disclosures revealed how other government agencies have cooperated extensively with the ""Five Eyes"":


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: Aside from the "Five Eyes", most other Western countries are also participating in the NSA surveillance system and sharing information with each other. However, being a partner of the NSA does not automatically exempt a country from being targeted by the NSA. According to an internal NSA document leaked by Snowden, "We (the NSA) can, and often do, target the signals of most 3rd party foreign partners."


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: Most of the NSA's collected data which was seen by human eyes (i.e., used by NSA operatives) was used in accordance with the stated objective of combating terrorism.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: Other than to combat terrorism, these surveillance programs have been employed to assess the foreign policy and economic stability of other countries.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: According to reports by Brazil's O Globo newspaper, the collected data was also used to target "commercial secrets". In a statement addressed to the National Congress of Brazil, journalist Glenn Greenwald testified that the U.S. government uses counter-terrorism as a "pretext" for clandestine surveillance in order to compete with other countries in the "business, industrial and economic fields".


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: In an interview with "Der Spiegel" published on 12 August 2013, former NSA Director Michael Hayden admitted that "We [the NSA] steal secrets. We're number one in it". Hayden also added that "We steal stuff to make you safe, not to make you rich".


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: According to documents seen by the news agency Reuters, information obtained in this way is subsequently funnelled to authorities across the nation to help them launch criminal investigations of Americans. Federal agents are then instructed to "recreate" the investigative trail in order to "cover up" where the information originated, known as parallel construction. (Were the true origins known, the evidence and resulting case might be invalidated as "fruit of the poisonous tree", a legal doctrine designed to deter abuse of power that prevents evidence or subsequent events being used in a case if they resulted from a search or other process that does not conform to legal requirements.)


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: According to NSA Chief Compliance Officer John DeLong, most violations of the NSA's rules were self-reported, and most often involved spying on personal love interests using surveillance technology of the agency.


title: Mass surveillance in the United States

text: Most agricultural surveillance is not covert and is carried out by government agencies such as APHIS (USDA's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service). DHS has lamented the limited surveillance coverage provided by these inspections and works to augment this protection with their own resources.


title: Zeinab Badawi

text: Zeinab Badawi (; born October 1959) is a Sudanese-British television and radio journalist. She was the first presenter of the "ITV Morning News" (later known as ""), and co-presented "Channel 4 News" with Jon Snow from 1989 to 1998), before joining BBC News. Badawi was the presenter of "World News Today" broadcast on both BBC Four and BBC World News, and "Reporters", a weekly showcase of reports from the BBC.


title: Zeinab Badawi

text: Badawi was born in October 1959 in Sudan and has lived in Britain since the age of two. Her great-grandfather, Sheikh Babiker Badri, fought against Kitchener's British forces at the Battle of Omdurman in 1898 and pioneered women's education in Sudan. Badawi's father was a newspaper editor in Sudan committed to social reform who, when the family moved to the UK, joined the BBC's Arabic Service. Badawi is bilingual and speaks both Arabic and English fluently.


title: Zeinab Badawi

text: Badawi was educated at Hornsey High School for Girls in North London, before studying Philosophy, Politics, and Economics (PPE) at St Hilda's College, Oxford. At Oxford, Badawi was a member of the Oxford University Broadcasting Society. In 1988 she moved back to London to pursue a full-time one-year MA degree at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), University of London, in Politics and Anthropology of the Middle East, graduating with distinction in 1989.


title: Zeinab Badawi

text: After graduating from Oxford University, Badawi was a researcher and broadcast journalist for Yorkshire TV from 1982 to 1986. After a period at BBC Manchester she joined "Channel 4 News" in 1988. Badawi co-presented "Channel 4 News" from 1989 until 1998 when she joined the BBC.


title: Zeinab Badawi

text: At the BBC Badawi worked as presenter and reporter for Westminster live political programmes for five years. She also worked on BBC radio as a regular presenter of "The World Tonight" on Radio 4 and BBC World Service's "Newshour".


title: Zeinab Badawi

text: In 2005, Badawi became the new presenter of "The World" on BBC Four, the UK's first daily news bulletin devoted principally to international news. In May 2007 the programme was rebranded as "World News Today" and is also shown on the BBC World News channel.


title: Zeinab Badawi

text: She is a regular presenter of the BBC interview programme "HARDtalk". In an exclusive interview in May 2009, Badawi interviewed Sudan's President Omar Al-Bashir, the first serving head of state to be charged with war crimes.


title: Zeinab Badawi

text: In November 2009, Badawi was named International TV Personality of the Year in the Annual Media Awards, the international media excellence awards organised by the Association for International Broadcasting.


title: Zeinab Badawi

text: Since 2010, in addition to her presenting role on BBC World News, Badawi has presented on the BBC News Channel and the BBC News at Five.


title: Zeinab Badawi

text: Badawi was awarded an honorary doctorate by the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) in July 2011.


title: Zeinab Badawi

text: In May 2014 she was based in Johannesburg, presenting coverage of the South African elections on BBC World News and BBC News Channel.


title: Zeinab Badawi

text: For many years, Badawi has led an annual Nobel laureate discussion in connection with the Nobel festivities in Stockholm, Sweden. The programme is shown on Swedish television.


title: Zeinab Badawi

text: In 2017, Badawi hosted a nine-part series, "The History of Africa", based on UNESCO's General History of Africa. The documentary series was broadcast in July and August 2017 on BBC World News.


title: Zeinab Badawi

text: In August 2018, she was awarded the President's Medal of the British Academy "for her contributions to international political journalism".


title: Zeinab Badawi

text: Badawi has been an adviser to the Foreign Policy Centre and a Council Member of the Overseas Development Institute.


title: Zeinab Badawi

text: In June 2011 her appointment to the advisory board of the New College of the Humanities was announced.


title: Zeinab Badawi

text: Badawi is founder and chair of the Africa Medical Partnership Fund (AfriMed), a charity which aims to help local medical professionals in Africa.


title: Villanova, Pennsylvania

text: Villanova is a suburb of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It straddles Lower Merion Township in Montgomery County and Radnor Township in Delaware County. It is located at the center of the Philadelphia Main Line, a series of Philadelphia suburbs located along the original east–west railroad tracks of the Pennsylvania Railroad. It is served by the SEPTA Paoli/Thorndale Line regional rail train and the Norristown High Speed Line.


title: Villanova, Pennsylvania

text: The center of the village straddles U.S. Route 30 (Lancaster Avenue) where it intersects Pennsylvania Route 320 (Spring Mill Road). This village center contains the area's post office for ZIP Code 19085, an office building, the Wilmington Trust Company's Pennsylvania headquarters, and several smaller shops.


title: Villanova, Pennsylvania

text: The Bridge in Radnor Township No. 2 and Camp-Woods are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.


title: Villanova, Pennsylvania

text: Villanova has a hot-summer humid continental climate ("Dfa") and average monthly temperatures range from 30.9 °F in January to 75.6 °F in July. The local hardiness zone is 7a.


title: Villanova, Pennsylvania

text: Villanova is neither an incorporated area nor a census-designated place; all the data is for the ZIP code 19085. As of the census of 2000, there were 9,189 people and 1,932 households residing in the community. The population density was 1,565 people per square mile. The racial makeup of the community was 92.5% White, 3.4% Asian, 3.9% African American, 1.40% from other races, and 0.80% from two or more races. 2.5% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: Villanova, Pennsylvania

text: The median income for a household in the community was $159,538, and the median income for a family was $174,511. The per capita income for the community was $50,204. About 1.5% of families and 3.0% of the population were below the poverty line. The estimated median house/condo value in 2009 is $1,435,844.


title: Villanova, Pennsylvania

text: The most notable feature of Villanova is Villanova University, from which the community gains its name. The university campus extends from County Line Road along Spring Mill Road south to Lancaster Pike, US Route 30, and then east to just beyond Villanova Stadium, home of the Villanova University football, men's and women's lacrosse, women's field hockey and men's and women's track teams. The university's indoor arena, Finneran Pavilion, is home to the school's NCAA Division I 1985, 2016, and 2018 national champion men's basketball teams. In addition to the undergraduate college, Villanova University includes a well-recognized graduate school, a nursing school, a school of continuing studies, numerous certificate programs, and Villanova University Law School.


title: Villanova, Pennsylvania

text: Public school children in Villanova who live in Radnor Township attend Radnor Elementary School in Radnor, Radnor Middle School in Wayne, and Radnor High School in St. Davids, all part of the Radnor Township School District. Children who live in the Lower Merion Township portion of Villanova attend Gladwyne Elementary School in Gladwyne, Welsh Valley Middle School in Narberth, and Harriton High School in Rosemont.


title: Villanova, Pennsylvania

text: Other private schools in the area include the all-boys Haverford School, located in nearby Haverford and the Episcopal Academy called among locals as "EA" in Newtown Square. There are several all-girls schools in Bryn Mawr, including the Baldwin School, the Agnes Irwin School, the Country Day School of the Sacred Heart, and the Academy of Notre Dame de Namur, as well as the coeducational Shipley School. Rosemont School of the Holy Child on Montgomery Avenue is a nearby Catholic grade school.


title: Villanova, Pennsylvania

text: Bryn Mawr Hospital, at South Bryn Mawr Avenue and Haverford Road, is one of the three nationally ranked community teaching hospitals that serve the Main Line; it is located less than one mile (1.6 km) from the Villanova district line. The hospital has historically been associated with Philadelphia's Jefferson Medical College for many years. Bryn Mawr Hospital is the chief beneficiary of the area's preeminent social and sporting event, the Devon Horse Show and Country Fair, which is held annually during the last week of May at the fairgrounds in Devon.


title: Gabrielle Bernstein

text: Bernstein grew up in Larchmont, New York where she attended a Jewish summer camp and led a youth group. In 2001, she graduated from Syracuse University where she studied theatre.


title: Gabrielle Bernstein

text: Bernstein is the author of nine books, including The Universe Has Your Back, Super Attractor and Happy Days. Bernstein teaches primarily from the text "A Course In Miracles".


title: October surprise

text: In U.S. political jargon, an October surprise is a news event that may influence the outcome of an upcoming November election (particularly one for the U.S. presidency), whether deliberately planned or spontaneously occurring. Because the date for national elections (as well as many state and local elections) is in early November, events that take place in October have greater potential to influence the decisions of prospective voters and allow less time to take remedial action; thus, relatively last-minute news stories could either change the course of an election or reinforce the inevitable. The term "October surprise" was coined by William Casey when he served as campaign manager of Ronald Reagan's 1980 presidential campaign. However, there were October election-upending events that predated the coining of the term.


title: October surprise

text: In mid-October 1840, shortly before the 1840 presidential election, federal prosecutors announced plans to charge top Whig Party officials with "most stupendous and atrocious fraud" for paying Pennsylvanians to cross state lines and vote for Whig candidates in New York during the 1838 elections. In 1844, an abolitionist newspaper published an article, purportedly based on a book titled "Roorback's Tour Through the Southern and Western States in the Year 1836", implying that James K. Polk had his slaves branded. (For some decades afterward, the practice now known as "October surprise" was called "roorbacking" or "roorbaching.") On October 20, 1880, shortly before the 1880 presidential election, a forged letter was published purportedly written by James A. Garfield voicing support for Chinese immigration to the United States. At the time, most white Americans opposed Chinese immigration and both presidential candidates were in favor of immigration restrictions. In the week leading up to the 1884 presidential election, Republican nominee James G. Blaine attended a meeting in which Presbyterian preacher Samuel D. Burchard claimed that the Democrats were the party of "Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion". Blaine's failure to object to Burchard's message cost him support from anti-prohibitionists, Roman Catholic immigrants, and southerners, playing a role in his narrow loss to Democratic candidate Grover Cleveland. Two weeks before the 1888 US presidential election, the Republicans published a letter by Lionel Sackville-West, the British ambassador to the United States. In the letter, Sackville-West suggested that Democratic presidential candidate Grover Cleveland was preferred as president from the British point of view. The letter had a galvanizing effect on Irish-American voters exactly comparable to the "Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion" blunder of the previous presidential election by trumpeting Great Britain's support for the Democrats. That drove Irish-American voters into the Republican fold, and Cleveland lost the presidency to Republican candidate Benjamin Harrison.


title: October surprise

text: In the weeks leading up to the 1920 presidential election, rumors circulated that Warren G. Harding was of African-American descent. Harding's campaign feared that the rumor would affect his popularity amongst white southerners and so his campaign made it a point to prove Harding's whiteness. Less than a month before the 1940 presidential election, President Roosevelt's press secretary Stephen Early kneed a black police officer in the groin outside Madison Square Garden. Roosevelt had already been facing skepticism from black voters because of his failure to desegregate the military. Roosevelt responded days before the election by appointing the nation's first black general, Benjamin O. Davis Sr., and announcing the creation of the Tuskegee Airmen. The Suez Crisis and Hungarian Revolution have both been described as October surprises during the 1956 presidential election.


title: October surprise

text: On October 7, 1964, just under a month before the 1964 presidential election, one of President Johnson's top aides, Walter Jenkins, was arrested for disorderly conduct with another man at the Washington D.C. YMCA, a place described by the "Toledo Blaze" as "so notorious a gathering place of homosexuals that the District police had long since staked it out with peepholes for surveillance." However, a week later, Nikita Khrushchev was ousted from power by hardliners in the Soviet Union, the Labour Party won the United Kingdom election and China conducted its first nuclear weapons test. During the 1968 presidential election, Hubert Humphrey—who was rising sharply in the polls due to the collapse of the Wallace vote—began to distance himself publicly from the Johnson administration on the Vietnam War, calling for a bombing halt. The key turning point for Humphrey's campaign came when President Johnson officially announced a bombing halt, and even a possible peace deal, the weekend before the election. The "Halloween Peace" gave Humphrey's campaign a badly needed boost. In addition, Senator Eugene McCarthy finally endorsed Humphrey in late October after previously refusing to do so, and by election day the polls were reporting a dead heat.


title: October surprise

text: During the 1972 presidential election between Republican incumbent Richard Nixon and Democrat George McGovern, the United States was in the fourth year of negotiations to end the lengthy and domestically divisive Vietnam War. On October 26, 1972, twelve days before the election on November 7, the United States' chief negotiator and presidential National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger appeared at a press conference held at the White House and announced "We believe that peace is at hand." Nixon, despite having vowed to end the war during his presidential election campaign four years earlier, had failed to cease hostilities but had withdrawn all American ground combat units and most other American military personnel. While Nixon was nevertheless already widely considered to be assured of re-election, Kissinger's "peace is at hand" declaration increased Nixon's already high standing with the electorate: in the event, Nixon defeated McGovern in every state except Massachusetts and won by 23.2 points in the nationwide popular vote, which was the largest margin since 1936. Remaining U.S. military personnel were withdrawn in 1973, but U.S. involvement in Vietnam continued until 1975.


title: October surprise

text: In the 1980 presidential election, Republican challenger Ronald Reagan feared that a last-minute deal to release American hostages held in Iran might earn incumbent Jimmy Carter enough votes to win re-election. As it happened, in the days prior to the election, press coverage was consumed with the Iranian government's decision—and Carter's simultaneous announcement—that the hostages would not be released until after the election.


title: October surprise

text: William Casey, the manager of the Reagan campaign, was the first person to mention the idea of an "October surprise" to the press. On the morning of July 17, he told the press at the Republican convention that he was concerned that Carter would use the advantage of incumbency to spring an event that would benefit him politically. Casey mentioned that Carter had done this during the Wisconsin primary—in reference to Carter's announcement on election morning that he had "good news" concerning the hostages. Casey mentioned to the press that he was setting up an "intelligence operation" to monitor Carter's political activities to keep abreast of such a possibility.


title: October surprise

text: The intelligence operation the Reagan campaign set up was extensive. It used military contacts at key air force bases to keep track of military flight movement which could be used to gauge government action concerning the hostages. The operation had also compiled a list of the embargoed military equipment that the US government had of the Iranians that Carter could use to barter in exchange for the release of the hostages. To keep abreast of international information concerning the hostages, the Reagan campaign tapped former Secretary of State Henry Kissinger and his extensive network of international contacts.


title: October surprise

text: The Reagan campaign's ominous warnings of a possible October surprise to the press was done for strategic reasons. It was intended to prepare the voters, so that if some good October news happened, the voters would look at the event as a political ploy by the Carter campaign to win the election. Personal papers left by Joseph V. Reed Jr. indicate that the "team" around David Rockefeller, the chairman of Chase Bank, "collaborated closely with the Reagan campaign in its efforts to pre-empt and discourage what it derisively labeled an 'October surprise'—a pre-election release of the American hostages, the papers show. The Chase team helped the Reagan campaign gather and spread rumors about possible payoffs to win the release, a propaganda effort that Carter administration officials have said impeded talks to free the captives." Rockefeller, a lifelong Republican, assisted the Reagan campaign because he had a negative view on Carter's dovish foreign policy, and also because Chase Bank's balance sheet held $360 million in loans to Iran and more than $500 million in frozen Iranian deposits.


title: October surprise

text: Jack Anderson wrote an article in "The Washington Post" in the fall of 1980 about a possible October surprise, in which he alleged that the Carter administration was preparing a major military operation in Iran for rescuing U.S. hostages in order to help him get re-elected. Subsequent allegations surfaced against Reagan alleging that his team had actively impeded the hostage release.


title: October surprise

text: A declassified CIA memo from 1980 concluded that Ayatollah Khomeini and other Iranian hardliners, were "determined to exploit the hostage issue to bring about President Carter’s defeat in the November elections."


title: October surprise

text: After the release of the hostages on January 20, 1981, minutes after Reagan's inauguration, some charged that the Reagan campaign had made a secret deal with the Iranian government whereby the Iranians would hold the hostages until after Reagan was elected and inaugurated. Gary Sick, member of the National Security council under Presidents Ford and Carter (before being relieved of his duties weeks into Reagan's term) made the accusation in a "New York Times" editorial in the run-up to the 1992 election. The initial bipartisan response from Congress was skeptical: House Democrats refused to authorize an inquiry, and Senate Republicans denied a $600,000 appropriation for a probe.


title: October surprise

text: Eight former hostages also sent an open letter demanding an inquiry in 1991. In subsequent Congressional testimony, Sick said that the popular media had distorted and misrepresented the accusers, reducing them to "gross generalizations" and "generic conspiracy theorists". Sick penned a book on the subject and sold the movie rights to it for a reported $300,000. His sources and thesis were contested by a number of commentators on both sides of the aisle.


title: October surprise

text: Abolhassan Banisadr, the former President of Iran, has also stated "that the Reagan campaign struck a deal with Tehran to delay the release of the hostages in 1980", asserting that "by the month before the American Presidential election in November 1980, many in Iran's ruling circles were openly discussing the fact that a deal had been made between the Reagan campaign team and some Iranian religious leaders in which the hostages' release would be delayed until after the election so as to prevent President Carter's re-election." He repeated the charge in "My Turn to Speak: Iran, the Revolution & Secret Deals with the U.S."


title: October surprise

text: Barbara Honegger, a 1980 Reagan-Bush campaign staffer and later a Reagan White House policy analyst, claims to have discovered information that made her believe that George H. W. Bush and William Casey had conspired to assure that Iran would not free the U.S. hostages until Jimmy Carter had been defeated in the 1980 presidential election, and she alleges that arms sales to Iran were a part of that bargain.


title: October surprise

text: Two separate congressional investigations looked into the charges, both concluding that there was no plan to seek to delay the hostages' release.


title: October surprise

text: In June 1992, Ronald Reagan's Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger was indicted in the Iran–Contra affair. Though he claims to have been opposed to the sale on principle, Weinberger participated in the transfer of United States TOW missiles to Iran that were used to stop Saddam Hussein's massive tank army, and was later indicted on several felony charges of lying to the Iran-Contra independent counsel during its investigation. Republicans angrily accused Independent Counsel Lawrence E. Walsh of timing Weinberger's indictment to hurt George H. W. Bush's re-election chances. Throughout the campaign as Weinberger's trial approached, more concrete information on Bush's direct role emerged, including statements by Reagan Middle East specialist Howard Teicher that Bush knew of the arms deal in spring 1986 and an Israeli memo that made it clear that Bush was well versed in the deal by July 1986.


title: October surprise

text: Days before the November 7 election, Thomas J. Connolly of Scarborough, Maine, a prominent defense attorney and 1998 Democratic candidate for governor, confirmed to a reporter that Republican presidential candidate George W. Bush had been arrested for drunk driving in that state in 1976. Bush confirmed the report in a press conference moments after it was revealed.


title: October surprise

text: On October 2, 2003, the "Los Angeles Times" released a story about Arnold Schwarzenegger and subsequent allegations that he was a womanizer guilty of multiple acts of sexual misconduct in past decades. The story was released just before the 2003 California recall (which was scheduled for October 7), prompting many pundits to charge that the timing of the story was aimed specifically at derailing the recall campaign. It was not the only embarrassing story about Schwarzenegger to surface just days before the campaign: the next day, ABC News and "The New York Times" reported that in 1975 Schwarzenegger had praised Adolf Hitler during interviews for the film "Pumping Iron", which was responsible for the bodybuilder-turned-actor's fame. The twin controversies later led "Los Angeles Times" columnist Steve Lopez to coin the term "gropenfuhrer" to describe California's governor-elect (a compounded pun on the Nazi paramilitary rank Gruppenführer and the words to grope and Führer); a series of "Doonesbury" strips made the term famous.


title: October surprise

text: On October 27, "The New York Times" reported the disappearance of a huge cache of explosives from a warehouse in al Qa'qaa (see Missing explosives in Iraq). The John Kerry campaign blamed the Bush administration for this supposed mismanagement; administration officials charged that the "Times" had gotten the story wrong, and that the explosives had been cleared from the storage facility before the looting was supposed to have taken place.


title: October surprise

text: On October 29, the Arabic news agency Al Jazeera aired a video of Osama bin Laden. In a speech that justified and took responsibility for the actions of September 11, bin Laden called out the Bush administration and the American position in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. "Your security does not lie in the hands of Kerry, Bush, or al-Qaeda," bin Laden claimed; "Your security is in your own hands." This is believed to have helped President Bush's campaign as it thrust the War on Terror back into the public eye. There is debate as to whether bin Laden was aware of the effect the video would have on the elections; the "Bush bounce" from the video did not surprise most outside observers of the 2004 election.


title: October surprise

text: It has been claimed that Saudi Prince Bandar bin Sultan Al Saud cut the price of oil (thus reducing gas prices) to help ensure a Bush victory. According to a "60 Minutes" broadcast, "Prince Bandar enjoys easy access to the Oval Office. His family and the Bush family are close. And Woodward told us that Bandar has promised the president that Saudi Arabia will lower oil prices in the months before the election to ensure the U.S. economy is strong on Election Day."


title: October surprise

text: Two studies by "The Lancet" on mortality in Iraq before and after the 2003 invasion of Iraq have been described as October surprises for the 2004 and 2006 elections. Les Roberts acknowledged that the 2004 study was timed to appear just before the presidential election, though he denied that it was meant to favor one candidate over another. Although the studies used standard epidemiological methods, was peer reviewed and supported by a majority of statisticians and epidemiologists, political critics have dismissed the studies based on a variety of alleged shortcomings.


title: October surprise

text: The Mark Foley scandal, in which the congressman resigned over sexual computer messages that he exchanged with underage congressional pages, broke on September 28, 2006, and dominated the news in early October. Bloomberg.com wrote, "The October surprise came early this election year..." Allegations that both Republicans and Democrats had knowledge of Foley's actions months before the breaking of the story only fueled the speculation regarding the possibly politically motivated timing of the story's release.


title: October surprise

text: News that the Saddam Hussein trial verdict would be rendered on November 5, 2006, just two days ahead of the U.S. midterm elections, led Tom Engelhardt of magazine "The Nation" to dub it, on October 17, the "November Surprise". In a White House Press gaggle on November 4, 2006, a reporter suggested that the timing of the verdict might be an attempt to influence the outcome of the November election, to which White House Press Secretary Tony Snow replied "Are you smoking rope?" Snow later told CNN's "Late Edition", "The idea is preposterous, that somehow we've been scheming and plotting with the Iraqis".


title: October surprise

text: On October 31, 2008, four days before the 2008 presidential election, the Associated Press reported that Zeituni Onyango, half-aunt of Democratic candidate Barack Obama, was living as an illegal immigrant in Boston. She had been denied asylum and ordered to leave the United States in 2004. Some have also described the October 2008 record rise in unemployment as an "October Surprise".


title: October surprise

text: Hurricane Sandy was labeled the October surprise by some in the media. Republican New Jersey Governor Chris Christie, who had been a staunch critic of President Barack Obama, was seen praising the response of the Obama administration.


title: October surprise

text: On October 7, a recording from 2005 was released in which Republican Party nominee Donald Trump, using explicit language, claimed "when you're a star, they let you do it. You can do anything... Grab them by the pussy. You can do anything". Several politicians from both major parties expressed their disapproval of these remarks. Trump, who had been accused of sexism on several occasions before, later apologized for these remarks, saying they "don't reflect who I am". But the remarks led to many Republicans withdrawing their endorsement from Trump including Arizona Senator John McCain, New Hampshire Senator Kelly Ayotte, and Carly Fiorina. Many others who had not previously endorsed him asked him to step aside as the Republican nominee, including former Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice.


title: October surprise

text: The same day, WikiLeaks began a two-month campaign of releasing emails and excerpts from the account of John Podesta. They would later become known as the Podesta Leaks. They shed a negative light on Democratic Party nominee Hillary Clinton and included recordings of excerpts of speeches given by Clinton to a variety of banks, a debate question being leaked to Clinton prior to the debate, a stance on trade-deals different from those purported by Clinton during her campaign, along with her belief that it is beneficial to hold both public and private beliefs.


title: October surprise

text: Also on the same day, U.S. intelligence agencies publicly accused the Russian government of using computer hacking to interfere with the election process.


title: October surprise

text: Three weeks later, on October 28, then-FBI Director James Comey announced in a letter to Congress that he would take "appropriate investigative steps" to review additional emails related to Hillary Clinton's use of a private email server. This was announced after newly discovered emails were found on a computer that was seized by the FBI during an investigation of former congressman Anthony Weiner who had been accused of sending explicit pictures to a minor. According to law enforcement officials, the emails were found on a computer used by both Weiner and his then-wife, top Clinton aide Huma Abedin. Several hours later, Hillary Clinton responded to the decision of the Director by calling on the FBI to be fully transparent and to release "full and complete facts" on what the emails contained. On October 30, it was reported that 650,000 emails on Weiner's computer were to be investigated, potentially being relevant to this particular and other cases.


title: October surprise

text: A caravan of migrants from Central America became the "October surprise" of 2018. President Trump tweeted information about the caravan, and later released a Republican television advertisement that many criticized as racist (Fox News, NBC, and Facebook removed the advertisement after they considered it racist and CNN refused to air it). The story dominated discussion on many news networks, with many pundits criticizing Trump. News host Shepard Smith said on his Fox News show that the migrant caravan "hysteria" was actually intended to stoke fear before the midterm election and ridiculed Trump's claims.


title: October surprise

text: The 2020 October Surprises started off with the "New York Times" publishing an investigation into then-President Trump's taxes which reported that the president only paid $750 in taxes in 2016 and 2017. The article went on to state that the president was currently over 400 million dollars in debt. On October 16, "Forbes" published an article stating that the indebted amount is actually a sum of over $1 billion.


title: October surprise

text: On October 2, Donald Trump announced that he and Melania Trump had tested positive for COVID-19. This was considered by many to be an October surprise, and this positive diagnosis was a part of a larger outbreak that occurred in the White House in October 2020, and had been traced back to the fast-tracked ceremony to announce Amy Coney Barrett as the successor to Ruth Bader Ginsburg's Supreme Court seat. The event has been described by top infectious disease expert Anthony Fauci as a "super spreader" event which reportedly infected over 30 people, including senior White House officials.


title: October surprise

text: On October 13, a probe by US Attorney General William Barr into an Obama-era unmasking request of US civilian names found within National Security Agency foreign intelligence reports relating to members of Trump's 2016 presidential campaign quietly concluded with no findings of wrongdoing. Donald Trump claimed that this unmasking request was an act of espionage since the beginning of his presidency and was emphatically hyping the probe as an "October Surprise" for the 2020 election. It was also revealed that unmasking requests have significantly increased under the Trump presidency according to statistical transparency reports by the Office of the Director of National Intelligence.


title: October surprise

text: An October 14 article by the "New York Post" related to emails found on an external hard drive of a laptop computer allegedly belonging to Hunter Biden was considered to be an October surprise, although almost all media outlets at the time questioned the article's veracity.


title: October surprise

text: On October 3, 2022, "The Daily Beast" reported that former football player Herschel Walker, the Republican nominee in the 2022 United States Senate election in Georgia, paid for his wife's 2009 abortion despite claiming to be "100% pro-life". Walker's son Christian additionally stated that the woman whose abortion Walker paid for was Christian's mother. Christian Walker additionally slammed his father's comments on being a "family man", claiming Herschel Walker "left us to bang a bunch of women, threatened to kill us, and had us move over 6 times in 6 months running from your violence", additionally revealing that Herschel Walker's family had never wanted him to run for office.


title: Pork ribs

text: Pork ribs are a cut of pork popular in Western and Asian cuisines. The ribcage of a domestic pig, meat and bones together, is cut into usable pieces, prepared by smoking, grilling, or baking – usually with a sauce, often barbecue – and then served.


title: Pork ribs

text: Several different types of ribs are available, depending on the section of rib cage from which they are cut. Variation in the thickness of the meat and bone, as well as levels of fat in each cut, can alter the flavor and texture of the prepared dish. The inner surface of the rib cage is covered by a layer of connective tissue (pleura) that is difficult to cook tender; it is usually removed before marinating or cooking.


title: Pork ribs

text: Back ribs (also back ribs or loin ribs) are taken from the top of the rib cage between the spine and the spare ribs, below the loin muscle. They have meat between the bones and on top of the bones, and are shorter, curved, and sometimes meatier than spare ribs. The rack is shorter at one end, due to the natural tapering of a pig's rib cage. The shortest bones are typically only about and the longest is usually about , depending on the size of the hog. A pig side has 15 to 16 ribs (depending on the breed), but usually two or three are left on the shoulder when it is separated from the loin. A rack of back ribs contains a minimum of eight ribs (some may be trimmed if damaged), but can include up to 13 ribs, depending on how it has been prepared by the butcher. A typical commercial rack has 10–13 bones. If fewer than ten bones are present, butchers call them "cheater racks".


title: Pork ribs

text: Rib tips are short, meaty sections of rib attached to the lower end of the spare ribs, between the ribs and the sternum. Unlike back ribs or spare ribs, the structure of the rib is provided by dense costal cartilage, not bone. Rib tips are cut away from the spare ribs when preparing St. Louis style spare ribs.


title: Pork ribs

text: Riblets are sometimes prepared by butchers by cutting a full set of spare ribs approximately in half. This produces a set of short, flat ribs where the curved part of the rib is removed and gives them a more uniform look. Loin back ribs do not always have this removed. When not removed they have a rounded look to them and are often referred to as baby back ribs. Riblets, as defined by the North American Meat Processors Association as pork cut number 424, the pork loin riblet, is actually the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae and any accompanying lean meat that is left after the loin and tenderloin is removed. These riblets, number 424, must include at least four transverse processes from the lumbar spine but no more than two rib bones. Riblets used to be thrown out by butchers, but have become popular due to their excellent flavor and lower cost.


title: Pork ribs

text: Button ribs (or "feather bones") are often confused with riblets mostly because Applebee's sells these as riblets. What Applebee's sells is found just past the ribs near the back bone, just underneath the tenderloin. This cut of meat actually has no bones, but instead has "buttons" of cartilaginous material with meat attached.


title: Pork ribs

text: Rib tips (or brisket) are found at the bottom of the spare ribs by the sternum. The rib tips have a high proportion of cartilage. The rib tips give the spare ribs a rounded appearance. In an attempt to give the meat a more uniform appearance and make it easier to eat, this piece is sometimes removed, and the remaining spare ribs are referred to as "Saint Louis style ribs".


title: Public service commissions in India

text: Articles 315 to 323 in Part XIV of the Constitution of India provides for the establishment of Public Service Commission for the Union of India and a Public Service Commission for each State. The same set of Articles (i.e., 315 to 323 in Part XIV) of the Constitution also deal with the composition, appointment and removal of members, power and functions and independence of a Public Service Commission. Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) to conduct examinations for recruitment to the ""All India Services"" (AIS) and the ""Higher Central Services"" (HCS) and to advise the President on disciplinary matters. State Public Service Commission in every state to conduct examinations for recruitment to state services and to advise the governor on disciplinary matters.


title: Lisa Wilkinson

text: Wilkinson currently narrates "Ambulance Australia" and has previously co-hosted the Nine Network's breakfast television program, "Today," with Karl Stefanovic (2007–2017), "Weekend Sunrise" on the Seven Network (2005–2007), and "The Project" on Network Ten (2018–2022).


title: Lisa Wilkinson

text: Wilkinson was born in Wollongong, but grew up in Campbelltown, in Sydney's Western Suburbs and attended Campbelltown High School (now Campbelltown Performing Arts High School). She began her career working for the magazine "Dolly". At age 21, she was offered the job as its editor. During her time there she became known for discovering young female talent, including a then-unknown Nicole Kidman.


title: Lisa Wilkinson

text: After tripling the magazine's circulation, she was personally approached by Kerry Packer to become editor of Australian Consolidated Press women's lifestyle magazine, "Cleo". One of her first acts was to remove the magazine's infamous male centrefold. During her time as editor, she mentored up and coming journalists such as Mia Freedman and Deborah Thomas.


title: Lisa Wilkinson

text: Over ten years Wilkinson became the title's longest-serving editor, and during her tenure there was unprecedented circulation growth for the magazine. Wilkinson went on to become Cleo's International Editor-in-Chief as it opened title in New Zealand and Asia.


title: Lisa Wilkinson

text: In August 2015 Wilkinson was asked by Arianna Huffington to become the Australian Editor-at-large of "The Huffington Post". A role she held until 2018.


title: Lisa Wilkinson

text: Her television career began in the late 1990s when she became a regular panelist on Network Ten and Foxtel's "Beauty and the Beast". During the 2000 Summer Olympics, she (along with Duncan Armstrong) co-hosted "The Morning Shift" on the Seven Network.


title: Lisa Wilkinson

text: In April 2005, Wilkinson began hosting "Weekend Sunrise" on the Seven Network with Chris Reason, later with Andrew O'Keefe.


title: Lisa Wilkinson

text: On 10 May 2007, it was confirmed that Wilkinson was to co-host "Today" on the Nine Network after Jessica Rowe left the network and she began appearing on "Today" on 28 May 2007. This was Stefanovic's fifth female co-host in just over two years. In 2016, the duo took the show to number one in the breakfast TV wars for the first time in 12 years.


title: Lisa Wilkinson

text: On 16 October 2017, Wilkinson resigned from the Nine Network and "Today" due to a contract dispute with nine management over the significant gender pay gap that existed between her and long-time cohost Karl Stefanovic. after ten years with the network, effective immediately.


title: Lisa Wilkinson

text: Wilkinson herself announced she was leaving on Twitter and then just over an hour later announced on Twitter that she was joining Channel Ten.


title: Lisa Wilkinson

text: In her 2021 memoir, "It Wasn't Meant to Be Like This", Wilkinson revealed that she had been sacked over her request for a fairer pay structure at the Network.


title: Lisa Wilkinson

text: In 2018, she joined "The Project", a nightly TV current affairs programme on Network 10. On November 20, 2022 Wilkinson "stepped down from her role on The Project after a controversial year on the program."


title: Lisa Wilkinson

text: From 2008 to 2016, Wilkinson was the co-host of the Nine Network's "Carols by Candlelight," replacing long time host Ray Martin when Martin semi-retired. Wilkinson's co-host from 2008 until 2012 was Karl Stefanovic, and in 2013 she was joined by David Campbell. She was replaced by Sonia Kruger in 2017 after she left the Nine Network.


title: Lisa Wilkinson

text: In 2013, Wilkinson gave the Andrew Olle Memorial Lecture on the treatment of women in and by the media. She was the first female journalist to give the speech since Jana Wendt in 1997.


title: Lisa Wilkinson

text: In 2017, Wilkinson was remarked on by "The Daily Mail" for wearing on air a blouse she had worn four months before. Her cohost, Karl Stefanovic, had previously worn the same suit every day for a year without attracting notice. Wilkinson posted a tweet criticizing the sexism and wore the blouse on air the next day, sardonically writing "my greatest legacy to the annals of female news broadcasting history will likely be that I dared to wear the same outfit two days in a row on national TV". Other male and female Today Show hosts also wore the blouse on air in following days.


title: Lisa Wilkinson

text: In October 2021, Wilkinson was named a two-time finalist in the Walkley Awards for her ground-breaking interview with political staffer Brittany Higgins in which she alleged being raped on Federal Government Minister Linda Reynold's office couch in 2019. That story led to a full cultural review by Federal Sex Discrimination Commissioner, Kate Jenkins, into the workplace treatment of women in Parliament House.


title: Lisa Wilkinson

text: Wilkinson married author, journalist and former rugby international Peter FitzSimons on 26 September 1992; they have two sons and one daughter.


title: Lisa Wilkinson

text: She published her autobiography in 2021: "It Wasn't Meant to Be Like This", HarperCollins, , 496 pages.


title: Lisa Wilkinson

text: Wilkinson was appointed a Member of the Order of Australia in the 2016 Australia Day Honours list for significant service to the print and broadcast media as a journalist and presenter, and to a range of youth and women's health groups.


title: Lisa Wilkinson

text: In 2017, Wilkinson's portrait by artist Peter Smeeth was a finalist in the Archibald Prize, and winner of the Packing Room Prize.


title: Lisa Wilkinson

text: In 2022, Wilkinson was part of The Project team that won 2 Logie Awards - one for Most Popular Panel or Current Affairs Program and one for Most Outstanding News Coverage or Public Affairs Report.


title: Lisa Wilkinson

text: On receiving an award at the nationally televised 62nd Annual Logie Awards, Wilkinson "gave a speech in which she openly referred to and praised" the complainant in a sexual assault matter, despite "clear and appropriate" warning of the associated risks of doing so while criminal court proceedings were afoot.


title: Lisa Wilkinson

text: The subsequent publicity generated from Wilkinson's speech caused lawyers for the man awaiting trial in this matter to lodge an application to temporarily stay proceedings. On 21 June 2022, lawyers for the accused argued that Wilkinson's "speech did not need to be made" and The Honourable Chief Justice Lucy McCallum granted the man’s application.


title: Lisa Wilkinson

text: Commenting on Wilkinson's speech, Chief Justice McCallum said, “What concerns me most about this recent round is that the distinction between an allegation and a finding of guilt has been completely obliterated”. Her Honour further stated that, “The implicit premise of [Wilkinson’s speech was] to celebrate the truthfulness of the story she exposed” before any finding of guilt, and in the context of the accused denying that “any sexual activity took place”. The Australian Broadcasting Corporation reported that "the prosecution is considering making an application for a restraint on commentary by Ms Wilkinson".


title: Tachanka

text: A tachanka (, , ) was a horse-drawn machine gun, usually a cart (such as charabanc) or an open wagon with a heavy machine gun installed in the back. A tachanka could be pulled by two to four horses and required a crew of two or two (one driver and a machine gun crew). A number of sources attribute its invention to Nestor Makhno.


title: Tachanka

text: At least two plausible hypotheses account for the origin of the word "tachanka". Vasmer's etymological dictionary suggests that the word derives from Ukrainian "netychanka" ("нетичанка"), Polish "najtyczanka", a type of a marriage named after the town of Neutitschein, present-day Nový Jičín in the Czech Republic. Another account references a Ukrainian diminutive or endearing form of the word "tachka" (, meaning "wheelbarrow'"). Still another etymology postulates a contracted form of the word "tavrichanka" - used for rugged carriages known in Southern Ukraine and Crimea, and derived from the name "Taurida" for this area. However the latter derivation remains dubious: the "tavrichanka", a large, rugged agricultural carriage, has a completely different design.


title: Tachanka

text: A regular civilian horse cart could be easily converted to military use and back. This made the tachanka very popular during the Great War on the Eastern Front, where it was used by the Russian cavalry. The use of tachankas reached its peak during the Russian Civil War (1917–1920s), particularly in the peasant regions of Southern Russia and Ukraine, on fronts where fluid mobile warfare gained much significance. With up to 4 horses abreast pulling a tachanka, it could easily keep up with cavalry units and support them with mobile firepower.


title: Tachanka

text: Tachanka tactics were centered around taking advantage of its speed to surprise the enemy. Tachankas, before the introduction of the tank or automobile to the battlefield, were the only way to provide high-speed mobility for the heavy, bulky machine guns of World War I. The speed of the horse-drawn cart would be used to move the machine gun platform to a favorable firing position, and then the enemy would be fired upon before they had a chance to react. Since the machine gun pointed towards the rear of the cart, the tachankas also provided effective suppressive fire onto pursuing enemy cavalry after raids and during retreats. Ukrainian anarchist leader Nestor Makhno pioneered the use of the tachanka en masse during the Russian Civil War. Makhno's forces relied so heavily upon the use of the tachanka that one Makhnovite referred to himself and his fellow troops as "a republic on tachanki". The Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine used tachankas mainly against enemy cavalry. Makhnovists also used tachankas to transport infantry, thus improving mobility of the army (about 100 km each day). Tachankas soon became used by the Red Army, with the famous example of Vasily Chapayev.


title: Tachanka

text: Later, it was adopted by a number of armies, notably the Polish Army which used it during the Polish-Soviet War. Initially mostly improvised, with time the Polish Army also adopted two models of factory-made "taczanka"s, as they were called in Poland. They were used during the Invasion of Poland of 1939 to provide cavalry squadron support. They were attached to every cavalry HMG squadron and HMG company of infantry.


title: Tachanka

text: Despite a certain degree of standardisation, the tachanka's armament was, in most cases, improvised. In Russia, the PM M1910 heavy machine gun was often used. The Polish cavalry of the Polish-Soviet War often used all kinds of machine guns available, including the Maxim, Schwarzlose MG M.07/12, Hotchkiss machine gun and Browning machine gun. The late models of standardised tachankas of the Polish Army were all equipped with Ckm wz.30, a Polish modification of the M1917 Browning machine gun which was also suitable for anti-air fire.


title: Tachanka

text: One of the songs glorifying the Red Army during the Russian Civil War was called "Tachanka". The concluding lyrics, roughly translated, run:


title: Tachanka

text: Tachankas can be seen in the classic Soviet films such as "Chapayev" and "The Burning Miles". A modern variant of tachanka can be seen in a cult Russian film "Brother 2".


title: Tachanka

text: In the video game "Tom Clancy's Rainbow Six Siege", there is a playable Russian operator by the name of Alexsandr "Tachanka" Senaviev, who operates a DP-27 light machinegun (which was originally on a tripod and had a bulletproof glass shield), and an incendiary grenade launcher.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: Anarchy, State, and Utopia is a 1974 book by the American political philosopher Robert Nozick. It won the 1975 US National Book Award in category Philosophy and Religion, has been translated into 11 languages, and was named one of the "100 most influential books since the war" (1945–1995) by the UK "Times Literary Supplement".


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: In opposition to "A Theory of Justice" (1971) by John Rawls, and in debate with Michael Walzer, Nozick argues in favor of a minimal state, "limited to the narrow functions of protection against force, theft, fraud, enforcement of contracts, and so on." When a state takes on more responsibilities than these, Nozick argues, rights will be violated. To support the idea of the minimal state, Nozick presents an argument that illustrates how the minimalist state arises naturally from a Lockean state of nature and how any expansion of state power past this minimalist threshold is unjustified.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: Nozick's entitlement theory, which sees humans as ends in themselves and justifies redistribution of goods only on condition of consent, is a key aspect of "Anarchy, State, and Utopia". It is influenced by John Locke, Immanuel Kant, and Friedrich Hayek.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: The book also contains a vigorous defense of minarchist libertarianism against more extreme views, such as anarcho-capitalism (in which there is "no" state and individuals must contract with private companies for "all" social services). Nozick argues that anarcho-capitalism would inevitably transform into a minarchist state, even without violating any of its own non-aggression principles, through the eventual emergence of a single locally dominant private defense and judicial agency that it is in everyone's interests to align with, because other agencies are unable to effectively compete against the advantages of the agency with majority coverage. Therefore, even to the extent that the anarcho-capitalist theory is correct, it results in a single, private, protective agency which is itself a de facto "state". Thus anarcho-capitalism may only exist for a limited period before a minimalist state emerges.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: The preface of "Anarchy, State, and Utopia" contains a passage about "the usual manner of presenting philosophical work"—i.e., its presentation as though it were the absolutely final word on its subject. Nozick believes that philosophers are really more modest than that and aware of their works' weaknesses. Yet a form of philosophical activity persists which "feels like pushing and shoving things to fit into some fixed perimeter of specified shape." The bulges are masked or the cause of the bulge is thrown "far" away so that no one will notice. Then ""Quickly", you find an angle from which everything appears to fit perfectly and take a snapshot, at a fast shutter speed before something else bulges out too noticeably." After a trip to the darkroom for touching up, "[a]ll that remains is to publish the photograph as a representation of exactly how things are, and to note how nothing fits properly into any other shape." So how does Nozick's work differ from this form of activity? He believed that what he said was correct, but he does not mask the bulges: "the doubts and worries and uncertainties as well as the beliefs, convictions, and arguments."


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: In this chapter Nozick tries to explain why investigating a Lockean state of nature is useful in order to understand whether there should be a state in the first place. If one can show that an anarchic society is worse than one that has a state we should choose the second as the less bad alternative. To convincingly compare the two, he argues, one should focus not on an extremely pessimistic nor on an extremely optimistic view of that society. Instead, one should:


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: Nozick's plan is to first describe the morally permissible and impermissible actions in such a non-political society and how violations of those constraints by some individuals would lead to the emergence of a state. If that would happen, it would explain the appearance even if no state actually developed in that particular way.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: He gestures towards perhaps the biggest bulge when he notes (in Chapter 1, "Why State-of-Nature Theory?") the shallowness of his "invisible hand" explanation of the minimal state, deriving it from a Lockean state of nature, in which there are individual rights but no state to enforce and adjudicate them. Although this counts for him as a "fundamental explanation" of the political realm because the political is explained in terms of the nonpolitical, it is shallow relative to his later "genealogical" ambition (in "The Nature of Rationality" and especially in "Invariances") to explain both the political and the moral by reference to beneficial cooperative practices that can be traced back to our hunter-gatherer ancestors and beyond. The genealogy will give Nozick an explanation of what is only assumed in "Anarchy, State, and Utopia": the fundamental status of individual rights. Creativity was not a factor in his interpretation.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: Nozick starts this chapter by summarizing some of the features of the Lockean state of nature. An important one is that every individual has a right to exact compensation by himself whenever another individual violates his rights. Punishing the offender is also acceptable, but only inasmuch as he (or others) will be prevented from doing that again. As Locke himself acknowledges, this raises several problems, and Nozick is going to try to see to what extent can they be solved by voluntary arrangements. A rational response to the "troubles" of a Lockean state of nature is the establishment of mutual-protection associations, in which all will answer the call of any member. It is inconvenient that everyone is always on call, and that the associates can be called out by members who may be "cantankerous or paranoid". Another important inconvenience takes place when two members of the same association have a dispute. Although there are simple rules that could solve this problem (for instance, a policy of non-intervention) most people will prefer associations that try to build systems to decide whose claims are correct.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: In any case, the problem of everybody being on call dictates that some entrepreneurs will go into the business of selling protective services (division of labor). This will lead ("through market pressures, economies of scale, and rational self interest") to either people joining the strongest association in a given area or that some associations will have similar power and hence will avoid the costs of fighting by agreeing to a third party that would act as a judge or court to solve the disputes. But for all practical purposes, this second case is equivalent to having just one protective association. And this is something "very much resembling a minimal state". Nozick judges that Locke was wrong to imagine a social contract as necessary to establish civil society and money. He prefers invisible-hand explanations, that is to say, that voluntary agreements between individuals create far reaching patterns that "look like they were designed" when in fact nobody did. These explanations are useful in the sense that they "minimize the use of notions constituting the phenomena to be explained".


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: So far he has shown that such "invisible hand" would lead to a dominant association, but individuals may still justly enforce their own rights. But this protective agency is not yet a state. At the end of the chapter Nozick points out some of the problems of defining what a state is, but he says:


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: The protective agencies so far do not make any such announcement. Furthermore, it does not offer the same degree of protection to all its clients (who may purchase different degrees of coverage) and the individuals who do not purchase the service (the "independents") do not get any protection at all (spillover effects aside). This goes against our experience with states, where even tourists typically receive protection. Therefore, the dominant protective agency lacks the monopoly on the use of force and fails to protect all people inside its territory.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: Nozick arrives at the night-watchman state of classical liberalism theory by showing that there are non-redistributive reasons for the apparently redistributive procedure of making its clients pay for the protection of others. He defines what he calls an ultraminimal state, which would not have this seemingly redistributive feature but would be the only one allowed to enforce rights. Proponents of this ultraminimal state do not defend it on the grounds of trying to minimize the total of (weighted) violations of rights (what he calls utilitarianism of rights.) That idea would mean, for example, that someone could punish another person they know to be innocent in order to calm down a mob that would otherwise violate even more rights. This is not the philosophy behind the ultraminimal state. Instead, its proponents hold its members' rights are a side-constraint on what can be done to them. This side-constraint view reflects the underlying Kantian principle that individuals are ends and not merely means, so the rights of "one" individual cannot be violated to avoid violations of the rights of "other" people. Which principle should we choose, then? Nozick will not try to prove which one is better. Instead, he gives some reasons to prefer the Kantian view and later points to problems with classic utilitarianism.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: The first reason he gives in favor of the Kantian principle is that the analogy between the individual case (in which we choose to sacrifice now for a greater benefit later) and the social case (in which we sacrifice the interests of one individual for the greater social good) is incorrect:


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: A second reason focuses on the non-aggression principle. Are we prepared to dismiss this principle? That is, can we accept that some individuals may harm some innocent in certain cases? (This non-aggression principle does not include, of course, self-defense and perhaps some other special cases he points out.)


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: He then goes on to expose some problems with utilitarianism by discussing whether animals should be taken into account in the utilitarian calculation of happiness, if that depends on the kind of animal, if killing them painlessly would be acceptable, and so on. He believes that utilitarianism is not appropriate even with animals.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: But Nozick's most famous argument for the side-constraint view against classical utilitarianism and the idea that only felt experience matters is his Experience Machine thought experiment. It induces whatever illusory experience one might wish, but it prevents the subject from doing anything or making contact with anything. There is only pre-programmed neural stimulation sufficient for the illusion. Nozick pumps the intuition that each of us has a reason to avoid plugging into the Experience Machine forever. This is not to say that "plugging in" might not be the best all-things-considered choice for some who are terminally ill and in great pain. The point of the thought experiment is to articulate a weighty reason not to plug in, a reason that should not be there if all that matters is felt experience.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: The procedure that leads to a night-watchman state involves compensation to non-members who are prevented from enforcing their rights, an enforcement mechanism that it deems risky by comparison with its own. Compensation addresses any disadvantages non-members suffer as a result of being unable to enforce their rights. Assuming that non-members take reasonable precautions and adjusting activities to the association's prohibition of their enforcing their own rights, the association is required to raise the non-member above his actual position by an amount equal to the difference between his position on an indifference curve he would occupy were it not for the prohibition, and his original position.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: The purpose of this comparatively dense chapter is to deduce what Nozick calls the Compensation Principle. That idea is going to be key for the next chapter, where he shows how (without any violation of rights) an ultraminimal state (one that has a monopoly of enforcement of rights) can become a "minimal" state (which also provides protection to all individuals). Since this would involve some people paying for the protection of others, or some people being forced to pay for protection, the main element of the discussion is whether these kinds of actions can be justified from a natural rights perspective. Hence the development of a theory of compensation in this chapter.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: He starts by asking broadly what if someone "crosses a boundary" (for instance, physical harm.) If this is done with the consent of the individual concerned, no problem arises. Unlike Locke, Nozick does not have a "paternalistic" view of the matter. He believes anyone can do "anything" to himself, or allow others to do the same things to him.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: What Nozick understands by compensation is anything that makes A indifferent (that is, A has to be just as good in his own judgement "before" the transgression and "after" the compensation) provided that A has taken reasonable precautions to avoid the situation. He argues that compensation is not enough, because "some" people will violate these boundaries, for example, without revealing their identity. Therefore, some extra cost has to be imposed on those who violate someone else's rights. (For the sake of simplicity this discussion on deterrence is summarized in another section of this article).


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: After discussing the issue of punishment and concluding that not all violations of rights will be deterred under a retributive theory of justice, (which he favors) Nozick returns to compensation. Again, why don't we allow anyone to do anything provided they give full compensation afterwards? There are several problems with that view.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: Firstly, if some person gets a big gain by violating another's rights and they then compensates the victim up to the point where they are indifferent, the infractor is getting all the benefits that this provides. But one could argue that it would be fair for the felon to give some compensation beyond that, just like in the marketplace, where the buyer does not necessarily just pay up to the point where the seller is indifferent from selling or not selling. There is usually room for negotiation, which raises the question of fairness. Every attempt to make a theory of a fair price in the marketplace has failed, and Nozick prefers not to try to solve the issue. Instead, he says that, whenever possible, those negotiations should take place, so that the compensation is decided by the people involved. But when one cannot negotiate, it is unclear whether "all" acts should be accepted if compensation is paid.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: Secondly, allowing anything if compensation is paid makes "all" people fearful. Imagine that someone could break your arm at any point and then pay you a compensation. The other people would fear the same happening to them. This raises important problems:


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: The conclusion of these difficulties, particularly the last one, is that anything that produces "general" fear may be prohibited. Another reason to prohibit is that it would imply using people as a means, which violates the Kantian principle that he defended earlier.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: But if so, what about prohibiting all boundary crossing "that isn't consented in advance"? That would solve the fear problem, but it would be way too restrictive, since people may cross some boundaries by accident, unintentional acts, etc.) and the costs of getting that consent may be too high (for instance if the known victim is on a trip in the jungle). What then? "The most efficient policy forgoes the fewest net beneficial acts; it allows anyone to perform an unfeared action without prior agreement, provided the transaction costs of reaching a prior agreement are greater, even by a bit, than the costs of the posterior compensation process."


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: Note that a particular action may not cause fear if it has a low probability of causing harm. But when all the risky activities are added up, the probability of being harmed may be high. This poses the problem that prohibiting all such activities (which may be very varied) is too restrictive. The obvious response, that is, establishing a threshold value V such that there is a violation of rights if formula_1 (where p is the probability of harming and H is the amount of harm that could be done) will not fit a natural-rights position. In his own words:


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: Granted, some insurance solutions will work in these cases and he discusses some. But what do you do with people who do not have the means to buy insurance or compensate other people for the risks of his actions? Do you forbid them to do it?


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: So Nozick's conclusion is to prohibit specially dangerous actions that are generally done "and" compensating the specially disadvantaged individual from the prohibition. This is what he calls the Principle of Compensation. For example, it is allowed to forbid epileptics from driving, but only if they are compensated exactly for the costs that the disadvantaged has to assume (chauffeurs, taxis). This would only take place if the benefit from the increased security outweighs these costs. But this is not a negotiation. The analogy he gives is blackmail: it is not right to pay a person or group to prevent him from doing something that otherwise would give him no benefit whatsoever. Nozick considers such transactions as "unproductive activities". Similarly, (it should be deduced) it is not right for the epileptic to negotiate a payment for not doing something risky to other people.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: However, Nozick does point to some problems with this principle. Firstly, he says that the action has to be "generally done". The intention behind that qualification is that eccentric and dangerous activities should not be compensated. His extreme example is someone who has fun playing Russian roulette with the head of others without asking them. Such action must be prohibited, with no qualifications. But one can define anything as a "generally done" action. The Russian roulette could be considered "having fun" and hence be compensated. Secondly, if the special and dangerous action is the only way a person can do something important to him (for instance, if it is the "only" way one can have fun or support himself) then perhaps it should be compensated. Thirdly, more generally, he recognizes he does not have a theory of disadvantage, so it is unclear what counts as a "special disadvantage".


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: This has to be further developed, because in the state of nature there is no authority to decide how to define these terms (see the discussion of a similar issue in p. 89).


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: Nevertheless, an independent may be using a method that does not impose a high risk on others but, if similar procedures are used by many others the total risk may go beyond an acceptable threshold. In that case it is impossible to decide who should stop doing it, since nobody is personally responsible and therefore nobody has a right to stop him. Independents may get together to decide these questions, but even if they agree to a mechanism to keep the total risk below the threshold, each individual will have an incentive to get out of the deal. This procedure fails because of the rationality of being a free rider on such grouping, taking advantage of everyone else's restraint and going ahead with one's own risky activities. In a famous discussion he rejects H. L. A. Hart's "principle of fairness" for dealing with free riders, which would morally bind them to cooperative practices from which they benefit. One may not charge and collect for benefits one bestows without prior agreement. But Nozick refutes this.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: If the principle of fairness does not work, how should we decide this? Natural law tradition does not help much in clarifying what procedural rights we have. Nozick assumes that we all have a right to know that we are being applied a fair and reliable method for deciding if we are guilty. If this information is not available publicly, we have a right to resist. We may also do it if we find this procedure unreliable or unfair after considering the information given. We may not even participate in the process, even if it would be advisable to do so.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: The application of these rights may be delegated to the protective agency, which will prevent others from applying methods of which it finds unacceptable in terms of reliability or fairness. Presumably, it would publish a list of accepted methods. Anyone who violates this prohibition will be punished. Every individual has a right to do this, and other companies could try to enter the business, but the dominant protective agency is the only one that has the power to actually carry out this prohibition. It is the only one that can guarantee its clients that no unaccepted procedure will be applied to them.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: But there is another important difference: the protective agency, in doing this, can put some independents in a situation of disadvantage. Specifically, those independents who use a prohibited method and cannot afford its services without great effort (or are even too poor to pay no matter what). These people will be at the expense of paying clients of the agency.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: In the previous chapter we saw that it was necessary to compensate others for the disadvantages imposed on them. We also saw that this compensation would amount only to the extra cost imposed to the disadvantaged beyond the costs that he would otherwise incur (in this case, the costs of the risky/unknown procedure he would want to apply). Nevertheless, it would amount to even the full price of a simple protection policy if the independent is unable to pay for it after the compensation for the disadvantages.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: Also, the protective services that count here are strictly against "paying clients", because these are the ones against whom the independent was defenceless in the first place.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: But wouldn’t this compensation mechanism generate another free riding problem? Nozick says that not much, because the compensation is only “the amount that would equal the cost of an unfancy policy when added to the sum of the monetary costs of self-help protection plus whatever amount the person comfortably could pay”. Also, as we just said, it is an unfancy policy that protects only against paying clients, not against compensated clients and other independents. Therefore, the more free riders there are, the more important it becomes to buy a full protection policy.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: We can see that what we now have resembles a state. In chapter 3 Nozick argued that two necessary conditions to be fulfilled by an organization to be a state were:


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: The protective agency resembles a state in these two conditions. Firstly, it is a "de facto" monopoly due to the competitive advantage mentioned earlier. It does not have any special right to be it, it just is.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: Secondly, most of the people are its clients. There may be independents, however, who apply procedures it approves of. Also, there might still be independents who apply methods that it disapproves of to other independents with unreliable procedures.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: These conditions are important because they are the basis for the “individualist anarchist” to claim that every state is necessarily illegitimate. This part of the book is a refutation of that claim, showing that some states could be formed by a series of legitimate steps. The "de facto" monopoly has arisen by morally permissible steps and the universal protection, is not really redistributive because the people who are given money or protective services at a discount had a right to this as a compensation for the disadvantages forced upon them. Therefore, the state is not violating anybody’s rights.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: Note that this is not a state as we usually understand it. It is presumably organized more like a company and, more importantly, there still exist independents. But, as Nozick says:


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: He does recognize, however, that this entity does not fit perfectly in the Weberian tradition of the definition of the state. It is not “the sole authorizer of violence”, since some independents may conduct violence to one another without intervention. But it is the sole "effective" judge over the permissibility of violence. Therefore, he concludes, this may be also called a “statelike entity.”


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: Finally, Nozick warns us that the step from being just a "de facto" monopoly (the "ultraminimal state") to becoming this “statelike entity” that compensates some independents (the "minimal" state) is not a necessary one. Compensating is a moral obligation. But this does not invalidate Nozick’s response to the individualist anarchist and it remains an invisible hand explanation: after all, to give universal protection the agency does not need to have any plan to become a state. It just happens if it decides to give the protection it owes.


title: Anarchy, State, and Utopia

text: A discussion of pre-emptive attack leads Nozick to a principle that excludes prohibiting actions not wrong in themselves, even if those actions make more likely the commission of wrongs later on. This provides him with a significant difference between a protection agency's prohibitions against procedures it deems unreliable or unfair, and other prohibitions that might seem to go too far, such as forbidding others to join another protective agency. Nozick's principle does not disallow others from doing so.