title: Nick Mancuso

text: In the early 1980s, Mancuso had his breakthrough role in "Ticket to Heaven" in which he played the part of a David Kappel, a non-observant Jewish teacher in Toronto. His girlfriend leaves him and he visits San Francisco to find his footing and see an old friend. He is lured into spending a weekend at a camp that is actually the recruiting and indoctrination center for a religious cult. The film was voted one of the top 10 films of 1981 by the National Board of Review, and earned Mancuso the Genie Award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role. The success of the film and Mancuso's performance put him in the running to play Indiana Jones in "Raiders of the Lost Ark".


title: Nick Mancuso

text: Mancuso played the titular role on the NBC series "Stingray," which ran two seasons between 1985 and 1987. He played the antichrist Franco Macalousso in "Apocalypse", a series of direct-to-video films produced by Cloud Ten Pictures. Among the other roles Mancuso has taken on there was the role of Holden Downes in "Captured". In this sometime violent film, he plays a real estate tycoon on the edge. He comes across some thieves who are out to rob him and takes his anger out on them. Instead, he turns the tables on them and making them the victims. He has also appeared in numerous independent and short films.


title: Nick Mancuso

text: In 1981, Mancuso married Lady Patricia Pelham-Clinton-Hope (born 1949), a daughter of Henry Pelham-Clinton-Hope, 9th Duke of Newcastle; they divorced in 1983. He later married his second wife, Canadian actress Barbara Williams before divorcing. In 1998, he married his third wife Toronto-born actress Nadia Capone. The two have one child together.


title: Nick Mancuso

text: , Mancuso resides in Toronto, and was running a six-week acting workshop there. He has also published a book of poetry titled "Mediterranean Man" and created a number of abstract paintings. He is fluent in English and Italian, and speaks conversational French.


title: Nick Mancuso

text: He underwent quadruple bypass surgery in 2011. A longtime vegetarian and proponent of homeopathy, Mancuso joined a class-action lawsuit against the government of Canada in 2012 over its ban of previously available herbs and vitamins that were offered by naturopaths and health food suppliers.


title: Speed tape

text: Speed tape is an aluminium pressure-sensitive tape used to perform minor repairs on aircraft and racing cars. It is used as a temporary repair material until a more permanent repair can be carried out. It has an appearance similar to duct tape, for which it is sometimes mistaken, but its adhesive is capable of sticking on an airplane fuselage or wing at high speeds, hence the name.


title: Speed tape

text: Depending on the adhesive layer used, it can be resistant to water and solvents, flames for brief periods, and will reflect heat and UV light. It is also able to expand and contract through a wide range of temperatures.


title: Speed tape

text: Speed tape may be formed of soft aluminium with an adhesive layer, or a laminate of aluminium and cloth.


title: Speed tape

text: Speed tape is sometimes used to protect sealant while curing, or to patch non-critical components of an aircraft. It can also be used for patching bullet damage to combat aircraft.


title: Speed tape

text: Use of speed tape should be authorized by engineering teams and comply with certain requirements. Fines can be levied against airlines that use it to make improper repairs.


title: Delhi High Court

text: The High Court of Delhi (IAST: "dillī uchcha nyāyālaya") was established on 31 October 1966, through the "Delhi High Court Act, 1966", with four judges, Chief Justice K. S. Hegde, Justice I. D. Dua, Justice H. R. Khanna and Justice S. K. Kapur. The High Court currently has a sanctioned strength of 45 permanent judges and 15 additional judges.


title: Delhi High Court

text: In 1882, the High Court of Judicature at Lahore was established with jurisdiction over the provinces of Punjab and Delhi. This jurisdiction lasted until 1947 and the Partition of India.


title: Delhi High Court

text: The High Courts (Punjab) Order, 1947 established a new High Court for the province of East Punjab with effect from 15 August 1947. The 'India (Adaptation of Existing Indian Laws) Order, 1947' provided that any reference in existing Indian law to the High Court of Judicature at Lahore be replaced by a reference to the High Court of East Punjab.


title: Delhi High Court

text: The High Court of East Punjab functioned from the Peterhoff in Shimla until it was moved to Chandigarh, along with the secretariat of the Punjab government in 1954-55. The High Court of Punjab, as it later came to be called, exercised jurisdiction over Delhi through a Circuit Bench which dealt with the cases pertaining to the Union Territory of Delhi and the Delhi Administration.


title: Delhi High Court

text: In view of the importance of Delhi, its population and other considerations, the Indian Parliament, by enacting the "Delhi High Court Act, 1966", and established the High Court of Delhi effective from 31 October 1966. By virtue of Section 3(1) of the Delhi High Court Act, the Central Government was empowered to appoint a date by notification in the official gazette, establishing a High Court for the Union Territory of Delhi. The appointed date was 31 October 1966.


title: Delhi High Court

text: The High Court of Delhi initially exercised jurisdiction not only over the Union Territory of Delhi but also Himachal Pradesh. The High Court of Delhi had a Himachal Pradesh Bench at Shimla in a building called Ravenswood. The High Court of Delhi continued to exercise jurisdiction over Himachal Pradesh until the "State of Himachal Pradesh Act, 1970" came into force on 25 January 1971.


title: Delhi High Court

text: The High Court of Delhi is territory. This means that civil cases can be filed directly in the High Court, whereas the High Court generally only has appellate civil jurisdiction otherwise. The other High Courts which have original side jurisdiction are Bombay, Calcutta, Madras, and Himachal Pradesh.


title: Delhi High Court

text: As per the report released on 2006–08, Delhi High court has a long list of pending cases. The backlog is such that it would take 466 years to resolve them. In a bid to restore public trust and confidence, Delhi court spent 5 minutes per case and disposed of 94,000 cases in 2008–10.


title: Delhi High Court

text: The National Capital Territory of Delhi has 7 District Courts Complex that function under the High Court of Delhi. These 7 are physical locations of the district courts, whereas actually there are 11 district courts headed by individual District Judges. The Tis Hazari complex, Rohini complex and Saket complex hosts 2 Districts each, while the Karkardooma complex hosts 3 Districts and the remaining 3 complexes (Patiala, Dwarka and Rouse Avenue) host 1 District each.


title: Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast

text: The town was founded on the shores of Lake Irtyash in 1947. Until 1994, it was known as Chelyabinsk-65, and even earlier, as Chelyabinsk-40 (the digits are the last digits of the postal code, and the name is that of the nearest big city, which was a common practice of giving names to closed towns).


title: Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast

text: Codenamed City 40, Ozersk was the birthplace of the Soviet nuclear weapons program after the Second World War.


title: Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast

text: Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is, together with six rural localities, incorporated as the Town of Ozyorsk—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the Town of Ozyorsk is incorporated as Ozyorsky Urban Okrug.


title: Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast

text: Ozyorsk was and remains a closed town because of its proximity to the "Mayak" plant, one of the sources of Soviet plutonium during the Cold War, and now a Russian facility for processing nuclear waste and recycling nuclear material from decommissioned nuclear weapons.


title: Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast

text: The "Mayak" is primarily engaged in reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel from the nuclear submarines and icebreakers and from nuclear power plants. Commercially, it produces cobalt-60, iridium-192, and carbon-14.


title: Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast

text: Southern-Urals Construction Department () is another major enterprise. Its activities include construction for atomic industry needs, production of concrete constructions and construction materials.


title: Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast

text: Main products of Plant of Wiring Products #2 () are low-voltage devices for military-industrial establishments.


title: Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast

text: Ozyorsk along with Richland, Washington, were the first two cities in the world to produce plutonium for use in cold war atomic bombs.


title: Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast

text: The Chelyabinsk region has been reported as being one of the most polluted places on Earth, having previously been a center of production of weapons-grade plutonium.


title: Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast

text: Ozyorsk and the surrounding countryside have been heavily contaminated by industrial pollution from the Mayak plutonium plant since the late 1940s. The Mayak plant was one of the largest producers of weapons-grade plutonium for the Soviet Union during much of the Cold War, particularly during the Soviet atomic bomb program. Built and operated with great haste and disregard for safety, largely out of gaps in information, between 1945 and 1957 the plant dumped and released large amounts of solid, liquid and gaseous radioactive material into the area immediately around the plant. Over time, the sum of radionuclide contamination is estimated to be 2-3 times the release from the explosions from the Chernobyl accident.


title: Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast

text: In 1957, the Mayak plant was the site of a major disaster, releasing more radioactive contamination than the meltdown at Chernobyl. An improperly stored underground tank of high-level liquid nuclear waste exploded, contaminating thousands of square kilometres of territory, now known as the Eastern Ural Radioactive Trace (EURT). The matter was quietly and secretly covered up, and few either inside or outside Russia were aware of the full scope of the disaster until 1980.


title: Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast

text: Before the 1957 accident, much of the waste was dumped into the Techa River, which it severely contaminated as well as residents of dozens of riverside villages such as Muslyumovo, who relied on the river as their sole source of drinking, washing and bathing water. After the 1957 accident, dumping in the Techa River officially ceased, but the waste material was dumped in convenient shallow lakes near the plant instead, of which 7 have been officially identified. Of particular concern is Lake Karachay, the closest lake to the plant (now notorious as the most contaminated place on Earth) where roughly 4.4 exabecquerels of high-level liquid waste (75-90% of the total radioactivity released by Chernobyl) was dumped and concentrated in the shallow lake over several decades.


title: Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast

text: In addition to the radioactive risks, the airborne lead and particulate soot levels in Ozyorsk (along with much of the Ural industrial region) are also very high—roughly equal to the levels encountered along busy roadsides in the era predating unleaded gasoline and catalytic converters—due to the presence of numerous lead smelters.


title: Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast

text: On Sunday September 29, 1957 at 4:22 pm, in the production association "Beacon" in Ozersk one of the containers exploded, in which high-level waste was kept. The explosion completely destroyed a stainless steel container located in a concrete canyon 8.2 meters deep. In total, there were 14 containers ("cans") in the canyon. One tenth of the radioactive substances were lifted into the air. After the explosion, a column of smoke and dust rose up to a kilometer high, the dust flickered with an orange-red light and settled on buildings and people. The rest of the waste discarded from the tank remained at the industrial site. Reactor plants got into the contamination zone.


title: Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast

text: Immediately after the explosion at the facilities of the chemical plant, dosimetrists noted a sharp increase in the background radiation. Many industrial buildings, vehicles, concrete and railways were contaminated. The main spot of radioactive contamination fell on the territory of industrial sites, and 256 cubic meters of radioactive solutions were poured into the tank. The radioactive cloud passed the city of atomic scientists and passed by due to the successful location of the city - when it was laid, the wind rose was taken into account.


title: Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast

text: As a result of the explosion of the container, a concrete slab weighing 160 tons was torn off. A brick wall was destroyed in a building located 200 meters from the explosion site. They did not immediately notice the polluted streets, canteens, shops, schools, and kindergartens. In the first hours after the explosion, radioactive substances were brought into the city on the wheels of cars and buses, on the clothes and shoes of industrial workers. The most polluted was the central Lenin street, especially when entering the city from the industrial site, and Shkolnaya street, where the management of the plant lived. Subsequently, the flow of radioactive substances was suspended. It was forbidden to enter the city from industrial sites for cars and buses. Site workers at the checkpoint got off the buses and passed the checkpoint. This requirement extended to everyone, regardless of rank and official position. Shoes were washed on flowing trays.


title: Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast

text: The territory, which was exposed to radioactive contamination as a result of the explosion at the chemical plant, was named "East Ural Radioactive Trace" (EURT). Its total length was about 300 km, with a width of 5–10 km. This area was inhabited by about 270 thousand people. Fields, pastures, reservoirs, forests were polluted on the territory, which turned out to be unsuitable for further use.


title: Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast

text: In a memo addressed to the Central Committee of the CPSU, Industry Minister E.P. Slavsky wrote: "Investigating the causes of the accident on the spot, the commission believes that the main culprits of this incident are the head of the radiochemical plant and the chief engineer of this plant, who committed a gross violation of the technological regulations for the operation of storage of radioactive solutions". In the order for the Ministry of Medium Machine Building, signed by E.P. Slavsky, it was noted that the reason for the explosion was insufficient cooling of the container, which led to an increase in the temperature in it and to the creation of conditions for the explosion of salts. This was later confirmed in experiments carried out by the Central Factory Laboratory (CPL). The director of the plant M. A. Demyanovich took all the blame for the accident, for which he was relieved of his duties as director.


title: Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast

text: The radiation accident in the Urals posed a whole series of completely new tasks for science and practice. It was necessary to develop measures for the radiation protection of the population. An Experimental Station was created in the Urals, which played a leading role in studying the consequences of the accident and developing the necessary recommendations.


title: Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast

text: While the environmental impact of the disaster was immense, the contamination of the local populace was equally devastating. The average person living in Ozyorsk, 8 km from the Mayak Nuclear Facility, had a long term radioactive burden on their body at 17 Bq. Because of the large amounts of radioactive materials that were discharged into the atmosphere, over 22 small towns throughout the region were evacuated. Some cities took two years for a full evacuation to take place.


title: Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast

text: Reports indicated that humans living in the affected area during the time that the disaster took place and their offspring have developed problems with reproductive functions, mortality, age structure, and sex deformities. These populations were recorded at experiencing a radioactive exposure of 40-500 mSv.


title: Ozyorsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast

text: There are sixteen secondary schools, two schools specializing in the English language, one gymnasium, physics-mathematics lyceum, three professional colleges, Southern-Ural Polytechnical College, Music College, Ozyorsk Engineering Institute (an affiliate of National Research Nuclear University MEPhI), and affiliates of Yekaterinburg's and Chelyabinsk's universities.


title: Suchitra Pillai

text: Suchitra Pillai (born 27 August 1970) is an Indian actress, model, anchor and VJ. A graduate in electronic engineering, she chose a career in arts over engineering. Apart from roles in movies including "Dil Chahta Hai" (2001), "Page 3" (2005), "Laaga Chunari Mein Daag" (2007), and "Fashion" (2008), Suchitra is a singer in the Indi pop and rock genre with an album "Such is Life" released in 2011 She is also an accomplished theater artiste.


title: Suchitra Pillai

text: In 2005, Suchitra married Lars Kjeldsen, an engineer from Denmark, whom she met at a mutual friend's house. They have one daughter


title: Suchitra Pillai

text: While in school in Mumbai, Pillai was very much interested in theatre but she graduated in electronic engineering. She left for London soon after, where she became involved in a children's theatre. She started acting in movies in 1993 when she was offered her first role in a French film "Le prix d'une femme" as well as a role in the English film "Guru in Seven".


title: Suchitra Pillai

text: Pillai then returned to Mumbai and was offered the job as a veejay. She first appeared in a music video by Apache Indian and then in Bally Sagoo's "Dil cheez hai kya" video. She has also forayed into television with shows like "Simply South", "Red Alert", "Hip Hip Hurray", "Beintehaa", "Rishta.com" and "Cabaret Cabaret". Pillai appears in the 2016 Hollywood film "The Other Side of the Door", and in the 2017 indie film "The Valley", for which she won the Best Actress award at both The Long Island International Film Festival and The Milan International Filmmakers Festival in 2017.


title: Suchitra Pillai

text: Pillai made her debut as a singer with her first song in the album "Mere Liye" in 2001. Later, she sang few other songs.


title: Suchitra Pillai

text: In 2007, she performed her first dub-over role in the Hindi version of the American movie, "Live Free or Die Hard-" Maggie Q's role of Mah Linh. Since then she has dubbed several other roles in Hindi; the parts of Angelina Jolie ("Beowulf"), Maggie Gyllenhaal ("The Dark Knight"), as Hela for Cate Blanchett in the Hindi version of "Thor: Ragnarok", and most recently in the 2020 Netflix original "October Faction" as Deloris Allen.


title: Cordelia (King Lear)

text: Cordelia is a fictional character in William Shakespeare's tragic play "King Lear". Cordelia is the youngest of King Lear's three daughters, and his favourite. After her elderly father offers her the opportunity to profess her love to him in return for one third of the land in his kingdom, she refuses and is banished for the majority of the play.


title: Cordelia (King Lear)

text: Shakespeare had numerous resources to consult while writing "King Lear". The oldest source in print was Geoffrey of Monmouth's "The History of the Kings of Britain", c.1136. This is the earliest written record of Cordelia. Here she is depicted as Queen Cordelia.


title: Cordelia (King Lear)

text: In Shakespeare's "King Lear", Cordelia is briefly on stage during Act 1, scene 1. Her father Lear exiles her as a response to her honesty when he asks for professions of love from his three daughters to determine how to divide the lands of his kingdom between them. Cordelia's sisters, Goneril and Regan, give deceitfully lavish speeches professing their love, flattering his vanity. Cordelia, seeing right through her sisters' feigned professions of love, refuses to do the same. Lear deems her answer ("Love, and be silent" 1.1.62) as too simple. Lear asks her, "What can you say to draw / A third more opulent than your sisters? Speak." (1.1.84-5). Cordelia replies, "Nothing, my lord." (1.1.86). She continues, "Unhappy that I am, I cannot heave / My heart into my mouth. I love your majesty / According to my bond; no more nor less." (1.1 90-2). Unlike her father and sisters, Cordelia is able to differentiate love from property. Feeling outraged and humiliated that Cordelia will not publicly lavish love on him, Lear banishes Cordelia from the kingdom and disinherits her. The Earl of Kent objects to her treatment, and is subsequently banished as well. Her two suitors, the Duke of Burgundy and King of France, are then summoned. The Duke of Burgundy withdraws his suit upon learning that she's been disinherited, but the King of France is impressed by her honesty and agrees to marry her. She leaves with him and does not return until Act 4, scene 4.


title: Cordelia (King Lear)

text: Cordelia was always Lear’s favourite daughter. After Lear is rejected by Cordelia's sisters, Goneril and Regan, he goes mad. Cordelia returns at the end of the play with the intentions of helping Lear, ultimately reversing her role as daughter to that of mother. But when she arrives, Lear is not able to recognize her because of his state of madness. Nevertheless, she forgives him for banishing her. By the time Lear finally regains his reason and realizes who Cordelia is, they have little time to talk and reconcile. Edmund arrives and sends them both to prison, where Cordelia is ultimately hanged. In Nahum Tate's revision "The History of King Lear" (1681), which replaced Shakespeare's original version on stage for decades, Cordelia marries Edgar and becomes ruler of the kingdom.


title: Cordelia (King Lear)

text: When Lear offers his kingdom to his three daughters, a role reversal occurs in which the daughters become mother figures for Lear. By dividing his kingdom among his daughters, Lear gives them the power to dictate his own future, just as a father has control over the future of his children. Because Cordelia is the daughter he loves most, Lear expects her to care for him as he hands over his power to his children and advances into old age, much like how a mother cares for her baby.


title: Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich

text: Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich (July 1496 – 12 June 1567), was Lord Chancellor during King Edward VI of England's reign, from 1547 until January 1552. He was the founder of Felsted School with its associated almshouses in Essex in 1564. He was a beneficiary of the Dissolution of the Monasteries, and persecuted perceived opponents of the king and their policies. He played a role in the trials of Catholic martyrs Thomas More and John Fisher as well as that of Protestant martyr Anne Askew.


title: Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich

text: According to some sources, Rich was born in the London parish of St Lawrence Jewry, the second son of Richard Rich by Joan Dingley, but this is disputed. Also, according to Carter, he was born at Basingstoke, Hampshire, the son of John Rich (d. 1509?), of Penton Mewsey, Hampshire, and a wife named Agnes whose surname is unknown. In 1509, Richard inherited his father's house in Islington, Middlesex. Early in 1551 he was described in an official document as "fifty-four years of age and more", and was therefore born about 1496 or earlier.


title: Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich

text: He had a brother, Robert, whom Henry VIII granted a messuage in Bucklersbury on 24 February 1539, and who died in 1557.


title: Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich

text: Little is known of Rich's early life. He may have studied at Cambridge before 1516. That year, he entered the Middle Temple as a lawyer and at some point between 1520 and 1525 he was a reader at the New Inn. By 1528 Rich was in search of a patron and wrote to Cardinal Wolsey; in 1529, Thomas Audley succeeded in helping him get elected as an MP for Colchester. As Audley's career advanced in the early 1530s, so did Rich's, through a variety of legal posts, before he became truly prominent in the mid-1530s.


title: Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich

text: Other preferments followed, and in 1533 Rich was knighted and became the Solicitor General for England and Wales in which capacity he was to act under Thomas Cromwell as a "lesser hammer" for the demolition of the monasteries, and to secure the operation of Henry VIII's Act of Supremacy. Rich had a share in the trials of Thomas More and Bishop John Fisher. In both cases his evidence against the prisoner included admissions made in friendly conversation, and in More's case the words were given a misconstruction that could hardly be other than wilful. While on trial, More said that Rich was "always reputed light of his tongue, a great dicer and gamester, and not of any commendable fame." Rich also played a major part in Cromwell's fall.


title: Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich

text: As King's Solicitor, Rich travelled to Kimbolton Castle in January 1536 to take the inventory of the goods of Catherine of Aragon, and wrote to Henry advising how he might properly obtain her possessions.


title: Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich

text: On 19 April 1536 Rich became the chancellor of the Court of Augmentations, established for the disposal of the monastic revenues. His own share of the spoil, acquired either by grant or purchase, included Leez (Leighs) Priory and about 100 manors in Essex. Rich also acquired—and destroyed—the real estate and holdings of the Priory of St Bartholomew-the-Great in Smithfield. He built the Tudor-style gatehouse still surviving in London as the upper portion of the Smithfield Gate. He was Speaker of the House of Commons in the same year, and advocated the king's policy. Despite the share he had taken in the suppression of the monasteries, the prosecution of Thomas More and Bishop Fisher and the part he played under Edward VI and Elizabeth, his religious beliefs remained nominally Catholic.


title: Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich

text: Rich was also a participant in the torture of Anne Askew, the only woman tortured at the Tower of London. Both he and Chancellor Wriothesley turned the wheels of the rack to torture her.


title: Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich

text: Rich was an assistant executor of the will of King Henry VIII, and received a grant of lands. He became Baron Rich of Leez on 26 February 1547. In the next month he succeeded Wriothesley as chancellor. He supported Lord Protector Edward Seymour in his policies, including reforms in Church matters and the prosecution of his brother Thomas Seymour, until the crisis of October 1549, when he joined with the John Dudley. He resigned his office in January 1552.


title: Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich

text: Rich took part in the prosecution of bishops Stephen Gardiner and Edmund Bonner, and had a role in the harsh treatment accorded to the future Mary I of England. But upon her accession, Mary showed Rich no ill will. He took an active part in the restoration of the old religion in Essex under the new reign, and was one of the most active persecutors. His reappearances in the privy council were rare during Mary's reign; but under Elizabeth he served on a commission to inquire into the grants of land made under Mary, and in 1566 was sent for to advise on the question of the queen's marriage. He died at Rochford in Essex, on 12 June 1567, and was buried in Felsted church.


title: Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich

text: In Mary's reign he founded a chaplaincy with provision for the singing of masses and dirges, and the ringing of bells in Felsted church. To this was added a Lenten allowance of herrings to the inhabitants of three parishes. These donations were transferred in 1564 to the foundation of Felsted School for instruction, primarily for children born on the founder's manors, in Latin, Greek and divinity. The patronage of the school remained in the founder's family until 1851.


title: Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich

text: Rich's descendants formed the powerful Rich family, lasting for three centuries, acquiring several titles in the Peerage of England and intermarrying with numerous other noble families.


title: Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich

text: By his wife Elizabeth Jenks (Gynkes) (d.1558) he had 15 children. The eldest son, Robert (1537?–1581), second Baron Rich, supported the Reformation. One grandson, Richard Rich, was the first husband of Catherine Knyvet: another, Robert Rich, third Baron Rich (1559–1619) was created First Earl of Warwick (of the third creation) in 1618. This line failed with the death of the 8th Earl on 7 September 1759.


title: Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich

text: Rich had an illegitimate son named Richard (d. 1598) whom he acknowledged fully in his will with legacies and guardians for his minority, his education in the common law, and suitable marital arrangements. In this line of descent was his grandson the merchant adventurer Sir Nathaniel Rich, and his great-grandson Nathaniel Rich (nephew of the elder Nathaniel), a colonel in the New Model Army during the English Civil War.


title: Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich

text: Since the mid-16th century Rich has had a reputation for immorality, financial dishonesty, double-dealing, perjury and treachery rarely matched in English history. The historian Hugh Trevor-Roper called Rich a man "of whom nobody has ever spoken a good word".


title: Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich

text: Rich is the supporting villain in the play "A Man for All Seasons" by Robert Bolt, which shows his slide into corruption. In the subsequent, Oscar-winning film adaptation, John Hurt portrays him. Bolt depicts Rich as perjuring himself against More in order to become Attorney-General for Wales. More responds, "Why Richard, it profits a man nothing to give his soul for the whole world... but for Wales?". The final line of the film notes that Rich "died in his bed" in juxtaposition with More's martyrdom and the other major characters' untimely deaths. In the 1988 remake of the film, Jonathan Hackett portrayed Rich.


title: Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich

text: Rich is a supporting character in C. J. Sansom's Shardlake series of historical mystery novels, which are set in Henry VIII's reign. Rich is portrayed as a cruel villain who is prepared to subvert justice to enhance his property and position. He has a significant role in the plot of "Sovereign", the third of the series, and in "Heartstone", the fifth.


title: Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich

text: Rich (spelled Riche in the novels) appears in Hilary Mantel's three volumes about Thomas Cromwell, "Wolf Hall", "Bring Up the Bodies" and "The Mirror and the Light". Bryan Dick portrays him in the BBC television adaptation of the first two novels, "Wolf Hall".


title: Ernst-Happel-Stadion

text: Ernst-Happel-Stadion (), known as Praterstadion until 1992, sometimes also called Wiener-Stadion, is a football stadium in Leopoldstadt, the 2nd district of Austria's capital Vienna. With 50,865 seats, it is the largest stadium in Austria. It was built between 1929 and 1931 for the second Workers' Olympiad to the design of German architect Otto Ernst Schweizer. The stadium was renamed in honour of Austrian footballer Ernst Happel following his death in 1992. The stadium hosted seven games in UEFA Euro 2008, including the final which saw Spain triumph over Germany.


title: Ernst-Happel-Stadion

text: The stadium is owned by the City of Vienna (Municipal Department 51 – Sports of the City of Vienna). It is managed by the "Wiener Stadthalle Betriebs und Veranstaltungsgesellschaft m.b.H.", a subsidiary of "Wien Holding". It is a UEFA Category 4 stadium, and as such, it is the home of the Austria national football team. It also hosts the Viennese clubs' matches in UEFA competitions.


title: Ernst-Happel-Stadion

text: The foundation stone was laid in November 1928 in honor of the 10-year celebration of the Republic of Austria. The stadium was constructed in 23 months, from 1929 to 1931. It was built according to a design by the Tübingen architect Otto Ernst Schweizer and the second Workers' Olympiad. Schweizer also designed the adjacent Stadionbad (with 400,000 sq m, Europe's largest swimming pool). According to its location in Vienna's Prater, it was initially named Prater Stadium. It was a modern stadium at the time, particularly in Europe, because of its short discharge time of only 7 to 8 minutes. Initially the stadium had a capacity of approximately 60,000 people.


title: Ernst-Happel-Stadion

text: During the National Socialist Era following Anschluss (1938–1945), the stadium was used as a military barracks and staging area and as a temporary prison for the deportation of Jewish citizens. Between 11 and 13 September 1939, after the attack on Poland, over a thousand Polish-born Viennese Jews were detained on the orders of Reinhard Heydrich. They were imprisoned beneath the grandstands in the corridors of Section B. On 30 September, 1,038 prisoners were deported to the Buchenwald concentration camp. The next day, the stadium was back to being used as a football pitch. 44 men were released in early 1940, 26 were freed in 1945, the rest were murdered in the camps. In 1988, one of the surviving victims, Fritz Klein, was awarded compensation by the Austrian government equivalent to 62,50 euros for being detained in the stadium. In 2003 a memorial plaque, commemorating these events, was unveiled in the VIP area by a private initiative. In 1944, the stadium was severely damaged during a bomb attack on the Wehrmarcht Staff offices.


title: Ernst-Happel-Stadion

text: After the war and the reconstruction of the stadium, it was again sporting its original use. In 1956, the stadium's capacity was expanded to 92,708 people by Theodor Schull, but in 1965 the capacity was reduced. The attendance record was 90,726 spectators set on 30 October 1960 at the football match between Spain and Austria (0–3).


title: Ernst-Happel-Stadion

text: In the mid-1980s, the stands were covered and fully equipped with seats. At its reopening a friendly match against archrival Germany was organised. Austria won the match 4–1. After the death of former Austrian top player and coach Ernst Happel (1925–1992), the Prater Stadium was renamed after him in 1992.


title: Ernst-Happel-Stadion

text: In 1964, 1987, 1990, and 1995, the Ernst Happel Stadium was the venue of the European Cup/UEFA Champions League final.


title: Ernst-Happel-Stadion

text: In 1970, the stadium was the venue of the 1970 European Cup Winners' Cup Final which saw Manchester City F.C. beat Górnik Zabrze 2–1. Neil Young and a Francis Lee penalty sealed the win for City. This final was played under torrential rain in what was then an uncovered stadium. This along with the fact no Polish supporters were allowed to travel to the match restricted the attendance, which is variously reported at between 7,900 and 15,000 spectators. Even so, City's travelling support numbered over 4,000 which was a then record for an English club playing on the continent.


title: Ernst-Happel-Stadion

text: During the UEFA Euro 2008 tournament, the Ernst Happel-Stadion hosted seven games (three group matches of the Austria, two quarter finals, a semifinal match, and the Final match). In preparation for the tournament, the first and second place additional rows of seats increased the stadium's capacity to 53,000 seats.


title: Ernst-Happel-Stadion

text: Leading up to the tournament, it was fitted with a heated pitch in the summer of 2005. In May 2008, a connection to the Vienna U-Bahn was established, easing access from all over the city. The cost of the rebuilding was €39,600,000.


title: Ernst-Happel-Stadion

text: The Ernst Happel Stadium is the largest football stadium in Austria. It is the home of the Austria national football team. Club football matches are generally limited to the domestic cup final and international competitions featuring one of Vienna's top clubs, FK Austria Wien and SK Rapid Wien, as their regular stadiums are too small to host UEFA Champions League and UEFA Cup matches. Vienna derby matches between FK Austria and SK Rapid have also been played in the stadium.


title: Ernst-Happel-Stadion

text: The stadium is rated one of UEFA's Five Star Stadiums permitting it to host the UEFA Champions League final. The seating capacity was temporarily expanded to 53,008 for the UEFA Euro 2008 championship, with the final played in the stadium. The stadium also hosted 3 group games, 2 quarter-final matches, a semi-final and final. The attendance record of 92,706 for the match against the Soviet Union was in 1960. The capacity has since been reduced.


title: Ernst-Happel-Stadion

text: Other sporting events are held in the stadium, including athletics, cycling and tennis. In 1950, 35,000 watched Austrian Josef Weidinger win the European Heavyweight crown against Stefan Olek (of France), and a temporary pool in the stadium was the venue for the 1995 European LC Championships.


title: Ernst-Happel-Stadion

text: On 16 July 2011, the American Football World Championship final took place where USA defeated rivals Canada with a score of 50–7 in front of 20,000 spectators.


title: Ernst-Happel-Stadion

text: On 6 and 7 June 2014, the three games of the final stage of the 13th European Championship of American Football took place in this stadium. In the final 27,000 spectators saw Austria lose to Germany 30–27 in double overtime.


title: Kifli

text: Kifli, kiflice, kifle or kipferl is a traditional yeast bread roll that is rolled and formed into a crescent before baking.


title: Kifli

text: It is a common type of bread roll throughout much of central Europe and nearby countries, where it is called by different names. It is thought to be the inspiration for the French croissant, which has a very similar shape but is made with a different type of dough.


title: Kifli

text: In Old High German, "Kipfa" meant "carriage stanchion" and referred to the stanchions or "horns" of a cart. In the 13th century, that usage referred to a bread shape of pagan origin.


title: Kifli

text: The Czech, Slovak, Polish, Slovenian, Ukrainian and Russian names origin from the Slavic word "rogal" or "rohel" ("horned") as diminutives. That originates from "rog/roh" ("horn/protrusion"). Some other languages use a simple translation ("horn", "cornulet").


title: Kifli

text: The similarity of the words "rohalyk" or "rohlík" with the English word „roll“ is coincidental, the words are not related by origin. The Slavic root "rog" can be hypothetically related with the German verb "ragen" ("to protrude").


title: Kifli

text: Kifli are a traditional yeasted bread rolled into a crescent shape. The Austrian is a small wheat roll with pointed ends. The 17th-century Austrian monk Abraham a Sancta Clara described the roll as crescent shaped, writing "the moon in the first quarter shines like a kipfl", and noted there were kifli in various forms: "vil lange, kurze, krumpe und gerade kipfel" ("many long, short, crooked and straight kipfel").


title: Kifli

text: Breads or pastries in the shape of a crescent moon are believed to have been served in ancient times as offerings to the goddess of the moon, Selene. The shape is also reminiscent of horns; both are associated with ancient symbolism and considered the oldest surviving pastry shape. A moon shaped pastry creates itself naturally by hand-rolling a ball of dough into a cylinder form.


title: Kifli

text: A list of foods eaten in a 10th-century convent include "panis lunatis", described as a small crescent-shaped roll often eaten during fasts.


title: Kifli

text: The kifli has been documented in Austria to at least 1227 when they were recorded in Babenberg-ruled Vienna as chipfen:


title: Kifli

text: In Austria the kifli (nowadays called Kipferl) is formally recognized by the government as a traditional food. According to the Austrian Ministry of Sustainability and Tourism, kifli were probably a traditional monastery pastry baked for Easter. They are described as crescent-shaped rolls made of yeast wheat dough in a variety of shapes and as being popular for coffee breaks and breakfasts, particularly in Vienna.


title: Kifli

text: The kifli likely inspired the similarly shaped French croissant, which is made from a laminated pastry dough.


title: Kifli

text: A common culinary myth claims that when Christian forces freed Buda from Ottoman occupation in 1686 the bakers of the town celebrated the victory the next day by selling freshly baked bread rolls made into a crescent shape. Another story claims the Kipferl was invented in Vienna after or during the siege of the city by Ottoman Turks.


title: Kifli

text: Traditionally, kifli are made by cutting sheets of soft yeast dough into triangular wedges, rolling them into crescent shapes and baking them. Unlike the French croissant (crescent), Kifli is made from a plain, bread-like dough and is more akin to a roll than to pastry. Kifli is also thinner and longer than the croissant. Kifli are made in various sizes; some of them weigh as much as small bread loaf.


title: Kifli

text: In commercial preparation, the dough is mixed, cut into small pieces, and fed into a machine that flattens and rolls it. The following manual process is similar to the traditional process.


title: Kifli

text: When they come out of the oven, the rolls can be left plain or brushed with water to make them shiny. They can be given an egg wash and sprinkled with either poppy seeds or caraway seeds mixed with coarse salt. The latter variety is often made into a straight shape rather than a crescent. Kifli is eaten like bread or rolls; it is usually made into a sandwich, sometimes plain or with butter like a fresh baguette. Often, especially for breakfast, the topping is jam or honey. They may also be used for dunking.


title: Kifli

text: This is the same as the regular style but the dough may contain butter or other shortening and milk. It is sweeter than the regular variety and is well-suited to be eaten with jam or honey, and is commonly eaten for breakfast with coffee, hot chocolate or milk. It might also be an accompaniment for drinks like Doogh and Kumis.


title: Kifli

text: There are a couple of sweet rolls named "kifli" to describe their shape; they are eaten at the end of a meal or with an afternoon drink; these are not kifli, which when used on its own, always means the regular or fine varieties. In German, these are differentiated with a different spelling: "Kipferl" compared to "Kipfel" for the yeast bread.


title: Averrhoa bilimbi

text: Averrhoa bilimbi (commonly known as bilimbi, cucumber tree, or tree sorrel) is a fruit-bearing tree of the genus "Averrhoa", family Oxalidaceae.


title: Averrhoa bilimbi

text: "Averrhoa bilimbi" is a small tropical tree native to Malaysia and Indonesia, reaching up to 15m in height. It is often multitrunked, quickly dividing into ramifications. Bilimbi leaves are alternate, pinnate, measuring approximately 30–60 cm in length. Each leaf contains 11-37 leaflets; ovate to oblong, 2–10 cm long and 1–2 cm wide and cluster at branch extremities. The leaves are quite similar to those of the Otaheite gooseberry. The tree is cauliflorous with 18–68 flowers in panicles that form on the trunk and other branches. The flowers are heterotristylous, borne in a pendulous panicle inflorescence. There flower is fragrant, corolla of 5 petals 10–30 mm long, yellowish green to reddish purple.


title: Averrhoa bilimbi

text: The fruit is ellipsoidal, elongated, measuring about 4 – 10 cm and sometimes faintly 5-angled. The skin, smooth to slightly bumpy, thin and waxy turning from light green to yellowish-green when ripe. The flesh is crisp and the juice is sour and extremely acidic and therefore not typically consumed as fresh fruit by itself. Fruit is often preserved and used as a popular flavouring/seasoning and is a key ingredient in many Indonesian dishes such as "sambal belimbing wuluh" and "asam sunti ("see "Culinary interest)".


title: Averrhoa bilimbi

text: Possibly originated in Moluccas, Indonesia, the species is now cultivated and found throughout Indonesia, Timor-Leste, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Maldives, Myanmar (Burma) and Malaysia. It is also common in other Southeast Asian countries. In India, where it is usually found in gardens, the bilimbi has gone wild in the warmest regions of the country. It is also seen in coastal regions of South India.


title: Averrhoa bilimbi

text: Outside of Asia, the tree is cultivated in Zanzibar. In 1793, the bilimbi was introduced to Jamaica from Timor and after several years, was cultivated throughout Central and South America where it is known as mimbro. In Suriname this fruit is known as "lange birambi". Introduced to Queensland at the end of the 19th century, it has been grown commercially in the region since that time.


title: Averrhoa bilimbi

text: This is essentially a tropical tree, less resistant to cold than the carambola, growing best in rich and well-drained soil (but also stands limestone and sand). It prefers evenly distributed rainfall throughout the year, but with a 2- to 3-month dry season. Therefore, the species is not found, for example, in the wettest part of Malaysia. In Florida, where it is an occasional curiosity, the tree needs protection from wind and cold.


title: Averrhoa bilimbi

text: In Indonesia, "A. bilimbi," locally known as "belimbing wuluh," is often used to give sour or an acidic flavor to food, substituting tamarind or tomato. In the north western province of Aceh, it is preserved by salting and sun-drying to make "asam sunti," a kitchen seasoning to make a variety of Acehnese dishes.


title: Averrhoa bilimbi

text: In the Philippines, where it is commonly called "kamias" and "ibâ", are commonly found in backyards. The fruits are eaten either raw or dipped in rock salt. It can be either curried or added as a souring agent for common Filipino dishes such as "sinigang", "pinangat" and "paksiw". It is being sun-dried for preservation. It is also used to make salad mixed with tomatoes, chopped onions with soy sauce as dressing.


title: Averrhoa bilimbi

text: In Kerala and Bhatkal, India, it is used for making pickles and to make fish curry, especially with sardines, while around Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa the fruit is commonly eaten raw with salt and spice. In Guyana and Mauritius, it is made into achars/pickles.


title: Averrhoa bilimbi

text: In Maldives where it is known as "bilimagu", it is pickled with aromatic spices and eaten with rice and local Garudhiya (fish soup). It is also used in various Maldivian local dishes such as Boakibaa and Mashuni as a souring agent.


title: Averrhoa bilimbi

text: In Seychelles, it is often used as an ingredient to give a tangy flavor to many Seychellois creole dishes, especially fish dishes. It is often used in grilled fish and also (almost always) in a shark meat dish, called "satini reken". It is also cooked down with onion, tomato, and chili peppers to make a sauce. Sometimes they are cured with salt to be used when they are out of season.


title: Averrhoa bilimbi

text: Bilimbi juice (with a pH of about 4.47) is made into a cooling beverage. It can replace mango in making chutney. Additionally, the fruit can be preserved by pickling, which reduces its acidity.


title: Averrhoa bilimbi

text: The fruit contains high levels of oxalate. Acute kidney failure due to tubular necrosis caused by oxalate has been recorded in several people who drank the concentrated juice on continuous days as treatment for high cholesterol.


title: Averrhoa bilimbi

text: In the region of Addu in Maldives, the flowers of the bilimbi plant were commonly used in the 20th century as a cloth dye.


title: Tkinter

text: Tkinter is a Python binding to the Tk GUI toolkit. It is the standard Python interface to the Tk GUI toolkit, and is Python's "de facto" standard GUI. Tkinter is included with standard Linux, Microsoft Windows and macOS installs of Python.


title: Tkinter

text: The name "Tkinter" comes from "Tk interface". Tkinter was written by Steen Lumholt and Guido van Rossum, then later revised by Fredrik Lundh.


title: Tkinter

text: As with most other modern Tk bindings, Tkinter is implemented as a Python wrapper around a complete Tcl interpreter embedded in the Python interpreter. Tkinter calls are translated into Tcl commands, which are fed to this embedded interpreter, thus making it possible to mix Python and Tcl in a single application.


title: Tkinter

text: There are several popular GUI library alternatives available, such as wxPython, PyQt, PySide, Pygame, Pyglet, and PyGTK.


title: Tkinter

text: This term has different meanings in different contexts, but in general it refers to a rectangular area somewhere on the user's display screen.


title: Tkinter

text: A window which acts as a child of the primary window. It will be decorated with the standard frame and controls for the desktop manager. It can be moved around the desktop and can usually be resized.


title: Tkinter

text: The generic term for any of the building blocks that make up an application in a graphical user interface.


title: Tkinter

text: In Tkinter, the Frame widget is the basic unit of organization for complex layouts. A frame is a rectangular area that can contain other widgets.


title: Tkinter

text: When any widget is created, a parent–child relationship is created. For example, if you place a text label inside a frame, the frame is the parent of the label.


title: Tkinter

text: For Python 2, the only difference is the word "tkinter" in the import command will be capitalized to "Tkinter".


title: Tkinter

text: Using the object-oriented paradigm in Python, a simple program would be (requires Tcl version 8.6, which is not used by Python on MacOS by default):


title: Human power

text: Human power is work or energy that is produced from the human body. It can also refer to the power (rate of work per time) of a human. Power comes primarily from muscles, but body heat is also used to do work like warming shelters, food, or other humans.


title: Human power

text: World records of power performance by humans are of interest to work planners and work-process engineers. The average level of human power that can be maintained over a certain duration of time is interesting to engineers designing work operations in industry.


title: Human power

text: Human-powered equipment is occasionally used to generate, and sometimes to store, electrical energy for use where no other source of power is available. These include the Gibson girl survival radio, wind-up or (clockwork) radio and pedal radio.


title: Human power

text: During a bicycle race, an elite cyclist can produce close to 400 watts of mechanical power over an hour and in short bursts over double that—1000 to 1100 watts; modern racing bicycles have greater than 95% mechanical efficiency. An adult of good fitness is more likely to average between 50 and 150 watts for an hour of vigorous exercise. Over an 8-hour work shift, an average, healthy, well-fed and motivated manual laborer may sustain an output of around 75 watts of power. However, the potential yield of human electric power is decreased by the inefficiency of any generator device, since all real generators incur considerable losses during the energy conversion process.


title: Human power

text: While attempts have been made to fit electric generators to exercise equipment, the energy collected is of low value compared to the cost of the conversion equipment.


title: Human power

text: Several forms of transport utilize human power. They include the bicycle, wheelchair, walking, skateboard, wheelbarrow, rowing, skis, and rickshaw. Some forms may utilize more than one person. The historical galley was propelled by freemen or citizens in ancient times, and by slaves captured by pirates in more recent times. The MacCready Gossamer Condor was the first human-powered aircraft capable of controlled and sustained flight, making its first flight in 1977. In 2007, Jason Lewis of Expedition 360 became the first person to circumnavigate the globe at non-polar latitudes using only human power—walking, biking, and rollerblading across the landmasses; and swimming, kayaking, rowing, and using a 26-foot-long pedal-powered boat to cross the oceans.


title: Human power

text: Treadwheels, also called treadmills, are engines or machines powered by humans. These may resemble a water wheel in appearance, and can be worked either by a human treading paddles set into its circumference (treadmill), or by a human standing inside it (treadwheel).


title: Human power

text: Some devices use human power. They may directly use mechanical power from muscles, or a generator may convert energy generated by the body into electrical power.


title: Human power

text: Human-powered equipment primarily consists of electrical appliances which can be powered by electricity generated by human muscle power as an alternative to conventional sources of electricity such as disposable primary batteries and the electrical grid. Such devices contain electric generators or an induction system to recharge their batteries. Separate crank-operated generators are now available to recharge battery-powered portable electronic devices such as mobile phones. Others, such as mechanically powered flashlights, have the generator integrated within the device. Wrist watches can use muscle power to keep their mainsprings wound up.


title: Human power

text: An alternative to rechargeable batteries for electricity storage is supercapacitors, now being used in some devices such as the mechanically powered flashlight shown here. Devices that store the energy mechanically, rather than electrically, include clockwork radios with a mainspring, which is wound up by a crank and turns a generator to power the radio.


title: Human power

text: An early example of regular use of human-powered electrical equipment is in early telephone systems; current to ring the remote bell was provided by a subscriber cranking a handle on the telephone, which turned a small magneto generator. Human-powered devices are useful as emergency equipment, when natural disaster, war, or civil disturbance make regular power supplies unavailable. They have also been seen as economical for use in poor countries, where batteries may be expensive and mains electricity unreliable or unavailable. They are also an environmentally preferable alternative to the use of disposable batteries, which are a wasteful source of energy and may introduce heavy metals into the environment. Communication is a common application for the relatively small amount of electric power that can be generated by a human turning a generator.


title: Human power

text: The World War II-era Gibson girl survival radio used a hand-cranked generator to provide power; this avoided the unreliable performance of dry-cell batteries that might be stored for months before they were needed, although it had the drawback that the survivor had to be fit enough to turn the crank. Survival radios were invented and deployed by both sides during the war. The SCR-578 (and the similar post-war AN/CRT-3) survival radio transmitters carried by aircraft on over-water operations were given the nickname "Gibson Girl" because of their "hourglass" shape, which allowed them to be held stationary between the legs while the generator handle was turned.


title: Human power

text: During World War II, U.S. troops sometimes employed hand crank generators, GN-35 and GN-45, to power Signal Corps Radio transmitter/receivers. The hand cranking was laborious, but generated sufficient current for smaller radio sets, such as the SCR-131, SCR-161, SCR-171, SCR-284, and SCR-694.


title: Human power

text: A windup radio or clockwork radio is a radio that is powered by human muscle power rather than batteries or the electrical grid. In the most common arrangement, an internal electric generator is run by a mainspring, which is wound by a hand crank on the case. Turning the crank winds the spring and a full winding will allow several hours of operation. Alternatively, the generator can charge an internal battery.


title: Human power

text: Radios powered by handcranked generators are not new, but their market was previously seen as limited to emergency or military organizations. The modern clockwork radio was designed and patented in 1991 by British inventor Trevor Baylis as a response to the HIV/AIDS crisis. He envisioned it as a radio for use by poor people in developing countries, especially in Africa, without access to batteries. In 1994, British accountant Chris Staines and his South African partner, Rory Stear, secured the worldwide license to the invention and cofounded Baygen Power Industries (now Freeplay Energy Ltd), which produced the first commercial model. The key to its design, which is no longer in use, was the use of a constant-velocity spring to store the potential energy. After Baylis lost control of his invention when Baygen became Freeplay, the Freeplay Energy units switched to disposable batteries charged by cheaper hand-crank generators.


title: Human power

text: Like other self-powered equipment, windup radios were intended for camping, emergencies and for areas where there is no electrical grid and replacement batteries are hard to obtain, such as in developing countries or remote settlements. They are also useful where a radio is not used on a regular basis and batteries would deteriorate, such as at a vacation house or cabin.


title: Human power

text: Windup radios designed for emergency use often include flashlights, blinking emergency lights, and emergency sirens. They also may include multiple alternate power sources, such as disposable or rechargeable batteries, cigarette lighter receptacles, and solar cells.


title: Human power

text: The pedal radio (or pedal wireless) was a radio transmitter-receiver powered by a pedal-driven generator. It was developed by South Australian engineer and inventor Alfred Traeger in 1929 as a way of providing radio communications to remote homesteads and cattle stations in the Australian outback. There were no mains or generator power available at the time and batteries to provide the power required would have been too expensive. It was a highly important invention, as it was this technology that enabled the Royal Flying Doctor Service, and later the School of the Air, linking people living remotely to emergency services and education.


title: Hunter Carson

text: Hunter Carson (born December 26, 1975) is an American actor, screenwriter, producer and director. He is the son of actress Karen Black and film director L. M. Kit Carson. In 1986, he was nominated for a Young Artist Award for Best Starring Performance by a Young Actor - Motion Picture for his performance in "Paris, Texas" (1984).


title: Hunter Carson

text: Carson was born in Los Angeles, California, the son of actress Karen Black and actor, producer, screenwriter and director L. M. Kit Carson. He is the stepson of Stephen Eckelberry and halfbrother of Celine Eckelberry, Stephen's and Karen's adopted daughter. He made his first national appearance in October 1976, at the age of nine months, when his mother hosted "Saturday Night Live"; she held him in her arms for the entirety of her opening monologue. Carson is a graduate of Wesleyan University.


title: Hunter Carson

text: His first acting role was in the 1984 film "Paris, Texas", portraying the character of Hunter Henderson. The film was co-written for the screen by his father. Carson received strong reviews for his performance in the film. He then starred in the 1986 remake of "Invaders from Mars", where he co-starred with his mother Karen Black, and appeared in the 1988 comedy drama "Mr. North", which also featured his "Paris, Texas" co-star Harry Dean Stanton. He played Bud Bundy in an unaired pilot of "Married... with Children" and appeared as Peter McMichaels in the 2001 film, "Perfume". He played a "crazy killer boyfriend" in the 2010 horror film "She's Crushed". He co-directed with Alejandro Itkin the 2013 feature film "Single in South Beach", a romantic drama starring Kevin Sorbo. He also directed the short "With It" (2004), about a failed hitman, which Andrew Dansby says echoes the style of his "Paris, Texas" director Wim Wenders.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: The Winnenden school shooting occurred on the morning of 11 March 2009 at the Albertville-Realschule, a secondary school in Winnenden, southwestern Germany, followed by a shootout at a car dealership in nearby Wendlingen. The shooting spree resulted in 16 deaths, including the suicide of the perpetrator, 17-year-old Tim Kretschmer, who had graduated from the school a year earlier. Nine people were injured during the incident.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: In the Albertville-Realschule at approximately 09:30 (CET), Kretschmer first began shooting with a 9mm Beretta 92FS pistol, which he had stolen from his parents. Eyewitness reports state that Kretschmer started on the first upstairs floor, where he made a beeline for two top-floor classrooms and a chemistry laboratory. In the first classroom (Class 9C which was receiving a Spanish lesson), Kretschmer fatally shot five students in the head at close range without warning. He then entered the next classroom (Class 10D which was receiving a German speaking lesson), killed two more students, and wounded nine more, two of whom would die of their wounds en route to the hospital. As Kretschmer left the room to reload his weapon, the teacher reportedly closed the door and locked it. After unsuccessfully trying to shoot off the lock, Kretschmer then moved on to the chemistry laboratory, where he shot and killed the teacher. Students escaped Kretschmer by jumping out of windows. In the three targeted classrooms, he killed nine students (eight female and one male, 15–16 years old) and a female teacher. He shot most of his victims in the head. Kretschmer fired more than 60 rounds at the school.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: The school headmaster broadcast a coded announcement ("Mrs "Koma" is coming", which is amok spelled backwards) alerting the teachers of the situation; they locked classroom doors. This coded alert had been used by German educators after the Erfurt school massacre in April 2002.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: After receiving an emergency call from a student at 09:33 local time, three police officers reached the scene two minutes later and entered the school, interrupting the shooting spree. Kretschmer shot at them and fled the building, killing two female teachers in the hall as he departed. He killed a total of 12 people at the school. A quantity of unused ammunition was recovered from the school. "It appears the perpetrator may have intended to do far more harm at the school than he managed," said chief criminal investigator Ralf Michelfelder.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: Kretschmer fled the scene and killed a 56-year-old gardener of a nearby psychiatric institution in the park. Large numbers of police officers secured the school building and searched for Kretschmer throughout Winnenden for hours without success. News reports confirmed that Kretschmer was on the run and warned motorists not to pick up any hitchhikers.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: At approximately 10:00, Kretschmer carjacked a first-generation Volkswagen Sharan minivan at a car park in Winnenden. From his position on the rear seat, Kretschmer ordered the car's driver, a man named Igor Wolf, to drive towards Wendlingen, from Winnenden. Kretschmer and the driver went westwards into the suburbs of Stuttgart, the Baden-Württemberg state capital, travelling through the towns and districts of Waiblingen, Fellbach and Bad Cannstatt, before driving on the B14 dual carriageway through the Heslach Tunnel onto the A81 motorway towards Böblingen and Tübingen. The two drove onto the B27 dual carriageway before leaving on the B313 to Nürtingen.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: Wolf later reported that, when asked why he was doing this, Kretschmer replied, "For fun, because it is fun." According to Wolf, Kretschmer revealed his intentions as he was loading his pistol magazines during the ride: "Do you think we will find another school?" Wolf says he quickly changed the conversation then. Shortly after 12:00, just before the Wendlinger junction to the A8 Autobahn, Wolf steered the car onto the grass verge and jumped from the vehicle toward a police patrol car.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: Kretschmer immediately left the car and ran towards the nearby industrial area, entering a Volkswagen car showroom through the main entrance. He threatened a salesperson and demanded a key for one of the vehicles. The salesperson escaped while Kretschmer was distracted. Kretschmer shot and killed another salesperson and a customer, firing 13 bullets into both people. As he reloaded, another salesperson and visitor fled through the rear exit. Kretschmer emerged at about 12:30 and shot at a passing car. The driver escaped without injury. The police started to arrive and a shootout began. An officer fired eight shots at Kretschmer, hitting him once in each leg.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: Kretschmer returned to the car showroom, firing 12 shots from within the building at police from nearby Nürtingen, who were gradually surrounding the building. He left the rear of the building and ran across a yard to a neighbouring business complex, where he shot and injured two police officers in an unmarked police vehicle.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: According to police reports, at this point Kretschmer continued to shoot at random, shooting at nearby buildings and people, including an employee of a firm who was trying to lock the door. Witnesses described observing Kretschmer as he reloaded his pistol before shooting himself in the head. The final seconds of the shootout were captured with a cell phone video camera.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: Kretschmer killed 15 people, including nine students and three teachers at the school, before killing himself. They are:


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: Tim Kretschmer (26 July 1991 – 11 March 2009) lived with his parents in the neighbouring municipality of Leutenbach. He had graduated from Albertville Realschule in 2008 with relatively poor grades.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: Kretschmer's failing grades had prevented him from entering an apprenticeship. He was attending a commercial high school (Donner + Kern) in Waiblingen to prepare for an apprenticeship for a commercial career. Several accounts described him as having depression. Kretschmer was described by a friend as "a lonely and frustrated person who felt rejected by society". An anonymous friend described Kretschmer as a quiet student who began to withdraw from his peers.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: He was an avid table tennis player and had hoped to become a professional player. Marko Habijanec, a Croatian table tennis player who coached Kretschmer at the Erdmannhausen sports club between 2000 and 2003, remembers him as being "a bit spoiled", with his mother fulfilling many of his demands. According to Habijanec, Kretschmer had great difficulties accepting defeat: he would have a temper tantrum, yelling and throwing his racket. The coach said that, having a high opinion of his own abilities, Kretschmer openly denigrated his teammates. When Habijanec discussed Kretschmer's attitude with his mother, he discovered she sided fully with her son.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: Media reports say he enjoyed playing the video game "Counter-Strike" and playing with airsoft guns. Commentators also noted that "game addiction is a symptom of something wrong and not a cause". He also shot his guns in the forest behind his home and also in the basement of his house. On his last day alive, Kretschmer played the video game "Far Cry 2" online as "JawsPredator1".


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: He had profiles at "MyVideo.de", Kwick.de and other websites. He often played poker with his classmates in the "Cafe Tunix" after school hours in Waiblingen.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: After inspection of his computer, officers found that Kretschmer was interested in sadomasochistic scenes where a man is bound and humiliated by women. He viewed such a movie the evening before his attacks. Kretschmer also researched previous mass shootings such as the Erfurt school massacre, the Emsdetten school shooting and the Columbine High School massacre.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: Kretschmer did not have a criminal record. The press reported that in 2008, Kretschmer had received treatment as an in-patient at the Weissenhoff Psychiatric Clinic near the town of Heilbronn. After being discharged, Kretschmer was supposed to continue his treatment as an out-patient in Winnenden, but ended his treatment.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: According to police and clinic staff, he had been treated repeatedly for clinical depression on an out-patient basis in 2008. His family rejected these claims and maintained that he never received psychiatric treatment. According to a psychiatric report prepared for the prosecutor's office, Kretschmer met five times with a therapist and talked about his growing anger and violent urges; the therapist informed Kretschmer's parents.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: In a press conference on 12 March, police erroneously reported that Kretschmer had announced his killing spree several hours ahead of time on Krautchan. The next day, police determined that this message had not been written on Kretschmer's computer and was a forgery.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: Three weeks before the shooting, Kretschmer had written a letter to his parents, saying that he was suffering and could not go on. In an interview in 2014, Kretschmer's parents stated that they had always loved their son and that they did not have an explanation for his actions. They have since changed their name and moved to a different city.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: Police raided the Kretschmer family house at about 11:00 a.m. on the day of the shooting. Tim Kretschmer's father legally owned 15 guns as a member of a local marksmen club ("Schützenverein" in German). The Beretta handgun was found missing, along with several hundred rounds of ammunition. Fourteen of the guns were kept in a gun safe, while the Beretta had been kept unsecured in the bedroom.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: Five days after the event, prosecutors initiated preliminary proceedings against the father for negligent homicide, since the gun had not been properly locked away as required by German law. The police confiscated the 14 remaining guns. The father announced that he would voluntarily relinquish his gun ownership authorization.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: In November 2009, the Public Prosecutor's Department in Stuttgart announced that the father had been indicted on charges of negligent homicide, bodily injury caused by negligence, and violation of the weapons law. On 10 February 2011, the state court in Stuttgart found the father guilty of involuntary manslaughter in 15 cases, bodily harm caused by negligence and the negligent abandonment of a weapon. The father received a suspended sentence of one year and nine months, and appealed the verdict. The appeals court handed out a suspended sentence of one year and six months in 2013.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: German President Horst Köhler said he was "appalled and saddened" by the killings. Köhler and his wife expressed their condolences to the victims, their families and friends. Chancellor Angela Merkel described the shootings as "incomprehensible". "It is unimaginable that in just seconds, pupils and teachers were killed – it is an appalling crime", she told reporters. "This is a day of mourning for the whole of Germany", she continued. Baden-Württemberg Minister-President Günther Oettinger travelled to the scene of the crime by helicopter shortly after the news broke. Oettinger spoke of a "horrible and in no way explainable crime". He also expressed his condolences to the victims, students and families. "This has touched all of Baden-Württemberg. The school, the town, the future, education and raising children – to destroy these things like that is especially cruel." The European Parliament held a minute of silence to honour the victims.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: An ecumenical church service was held in Winnenden the evening of the shooting, with Protestant, Catholic and even Muslim clerics officiating. All German flags were flown on half-staff until 13 March in memory of the victims.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: In the days following the event, some politicians called for legal consequences, including a total prohibition of all shooting video games, better monitoring of gun club members, a directive to have all ammunition deposited with police and a provision to have gun club members store their weapons at the club house. Others dismissed such demands as "placebos".


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: The families of five victims wrote an open letter to Chancellor Angela Merkel, President Horst Köhler and Baden-Württemberg Minister President Günther Oettinger with demands for consequences. They called for a prohibition on youths' access to guns in gun clubs, less violence on TV and a prohibition of violent video games. They also called for reporting of these incidents without highlighting the perpetrator, so as to minimise the chance of copycats.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: The German parliament passed legislation in June 2009 to improve handgun security with an electronic nationwide weapons registry, increased age limitations for large-calibre weapons and unannounced, random inspections in gun-owner homes to ensure requirements for locked gun storage were met. Obligatory biometric security systems should be introduced once technically feasible.


title: Winnenden school shooting

text: In May 2009, Germany announced plans to ban games such as paintball on the grounds that they "trivialise and encourage violence". However, the legislature did not ban these kind of games, did not limit the number of guns owned and did not pass a requirement to store guns with shooting clubs or restrictions regarding ammunition storage in private households.


title: Acclimatization

text: Acclimatization or acclimatisation (also called acclimation or acclimatation) is the process in which an individual organism adjusts to a change in its environment (such as a change in altitude, temperature, humidity, photoperiod, or pH), allowing it to maintain fitness across a range of environmental conditions. Acclimatization occurs in a short period of time (hours to weeks), and within the organism's lifetime (compared to adaptation, which is evolution, taking place over many generations). This may be a discrete occurrence (for example, when mountaineers acclimate to high altitude over hours or days) or may instead represent part of a periodic cycle, such as a mammal shedding heavy winter fur in favor of a lighter summer coat. Organisms can adjust their morphological, behavioral, physical, and/or biochemical traits in response to changes in their environment. While the capacity to acclimate to novel environments has been well documented in thousands of species, researchers still know very little about how and why organisms acclimate the way that they do.


title: Acclimatization

text: The nouns "acclimatization" and "acclimation" (and the corresponding verbs "acclimatize" and "acclimate") are widely regarded as synonymous, both in general vocabulary and in medical vocabulary. The synonym "acclimatation" is less commonly encountered, and fewer dictionaries enter it.


title: Acclimatization

text: In order to maintain performance across a range of environmental conditions, there are several strategies organisms use to acclimate. In response to changes in temperature, organisms can change the biochemistry of cell membranes making them more fluid in cold temperatures and less fluid in warm temperatures by increasing the number of membrane proteins. In response to certain stressors, some organisms express so-called heat shock proteins that act as molecular chaperones and reduce denaturation by guiding the folding and refolding of proteins. It has been shown that organisms which are acclimated to high or low temperatures display relatively high resting levels of heat shock proteins so that when they are exposed to even more extreme temperatures the proteins are readily available. Expression of heat shock proteins and regulation of membrane fluidity are just two of many biochemical methods organisms use to acclimate to novel environments.


title: Acclimatization

text: Organisms are able to change several characteristics relating to their morphology in order to maintain performance in novel environments. For example, birds often increase their organ size to increase their metabolism. This can take the form of an increase in the mass of nutritional organs or heat-producing organs, like the pectorals (with the latter being more consistent across species).


title: Acclimatization

text: While the capacity for acclimatization has been documented in thousands of species, researchers still know very little about how and why organisms acclimate in the way that they do. Since researchers first began to study acclimation, the overwhelming hypothesis has been that all acclimation serves to enhance the performance of the organism. This idea has come to be known as the beneficial acclimation hypothesis. Despite such widespread support for the beneficial acclimation hypothesis, not all studies show that acclimation always serves to enhance performance ("See beneficial acclimation hypothesis"). One of the major objections to the beneficial acclimation hypothesis is that it assumes that there are no costs associated with acclimation. However, there are likely to be costs associated with acclimation. These include the cost of sensing the environmental conditions and regulating responses, producing structures required for plasticity (such as the energetic costs in expressing heat shock proteins), and genetic costs (such as linkage of plasticity-related genes with harmful genes).


title: Acclimatization

text: Given the shortcomings of the beneficial acclimation hypothesis, researchers are continuing to search for a theory that will be supported by empirical data.


title: Acclimatization

text: The degree to which organisms are able to acclimate is dictated by their phenotypic plasticity or the ability of an organism to change certain traits. Recent research in the study of acclimation capacity has focused more heavily on the evolution of phenotypic plasticity rather than acclimation responses. Scientists believe that when they understand more about how organisms evolved the capacity to acclimate, they will better understand acclimation.


title: Acclimatization

text: Many plants, such as maple trees, irises, and tomatoes, can survive freezing temperatures if the temperature gradually drops lower and lower each night over a period of days or weeks. The same drop might kill them if it occurred suddenly. Studies have shown that tomato plants that were acclimated to higher temperature over several days were more efficient at photosynthesis at relatively high temperatures than were plants that were not allowed to acclimate.


title: Acclimatization

text: In the orchid "Phalaenopsis", phenylpropanoid enzymes are enhanced in the process of plant acclimatisation at different levels of photosynthetic photon flux.


title: Acclimatization

text: Animals acclimatize in many ways. Sheep grow very thick wool in cold, damp climates. Fish are able to adjust only gradually to changes in water temperature and quality. Tropical fish sold at pet stores are often kept in acclimatization bags until this process is complete. Lowe & Vance (1995) were able to show that lizards acclimated to warm temperatures could maintain a higher running speed at warmer temperatures than lizards that were not acclimated to warm conditions. Fruit flies that develop at relatively cooler or warmer temperatures have increased cold or heat tolerance as adults, respectively ("See" Developmental plasticity).


title: Acclimatization

text: The salt content of sweat and urine decreases as people acclimatize to hot conditions. Plasma volume, heart rate, and capillary activation are also affected.


title: Acclimatization

text: Acclimatization to high altitude continues for months or even years after initial ascent, and ultimately enables humans to survive in an environment that, without acclimatization, would kill them. Humans who migrate permanently to a higher altitude naturally acclimatize to their new environment by developing an increase in the number of red blood cells to increase the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood, in order to compensate for lower levels of oxygen intake.


title: Polaris Dawn

text: Polaris Dawn is a planned private human spaceflight mission, operated by SpaceX on behalf of Shift4 Payments CEO Jared Isaacman, scheduled to launch no earlier than March 2023. The flight will be using the Crew Dragon capsule, and is the first of three planned missions in a program named the Polaris program. It is planned to be the ninth crewed flight overall of the Crew Dragon.


title: Polaris Dawn

text: Polaris Dawn will be a human spaceflight to orbit Earth with only private citizens on board. The crew will consist of Jared Isaacman, Scott Poteet, Sarah Gillis, and Anna Menon, who will spend up to five days in orbit. Mission plans include reaching an orbit higher than any previous Dragon mission and ultimately the highest Earth orbit ever flown by a crewed spacecraft with an initial apogee of 1400 km, breaking the record set by Gemini 11. The crew will conduct 38 science and research experiments to study the effects of spaceflight and space radiation on human health. The crew will also attempt the first commercial extravehicular activity (EVA) with SpaceX-designed EVA spacesuits. The mission will also be the first test of Starlink's communications laser for communication with another spacecraft, potentially improving connection with the spacecraft.


title: British Chinese

text: British Chinese (also known as Chinese British or Chinese Britons) are people of Chineseparticularly Han Chineseancestry who reside in the United Kingdom, constituting the second-largest group of Overseas Chinese in Western Europe after France. The British Chinese community is thought to be the oldest Chinese community in Western Europe. The first waves of immigrants came between 1842 (the end of the First Opium War) and the 1940s (the end of World War II), largely through treaty ports opened as concessions to the British for the Opium Wars, such as Canton, Tianjin and Shanghai.


title: British Chinese

text: Some of the early British Chinese were also Eurasians. An estimated 900 Chinese-Eurasian born as result of marriages from Chinese fathers and white mothers of various ethnic backgrounds; the most common being British and Irish. Most British-Chinese of Eurasian origin were concentrated in around the Liverpool area of Chinatown, where there was a growing Chinese-Eurasian community. Many of them had assimilated with other ethnic Chinese, while others assimilated with mainstream British population.


title: British Chinese

text: Today, most British Chinese are descended from people of former British colonies, such as: Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Mauritius. Others come from new waves of Chinese migrants, since the 1980s, especially from mainland China. Chinese communities are found in many major cities including: London, Birmingham, Glasgow, Manchester, Liverpool, Newcastle, Edinburgh, Cardiff, Sheffield, Nottingham, Belfast, and Aberdeen.


title: British Chinese

text: Compared with most other ethnic minorities in the UK, the Chinese are geographically more dispersed. They have a record of high academic achievement, and have the second highest household income among demographic groups in the UK, after British Indians.


title: British Chinese

text: The term "Asian" in the United Kingdom usually refers to those of South Asian heritage, such as Indians, Pakistanis, Bangladeshis, Sri Lankans and Kashmiris. Furthermore, although Chinese have a long history of settling in the United Kingdom, the 1991 census was the first to introduce a question on ethnicity. Earlier censuses only recorded country of birth, counting some of non-Chinese origin as born in China and failing to separate ethnic Chinese born in the United Kingdom to immigrant parents. In the 2011 census, the question for ethnic group allowed for the option of "Chinese" for England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, and "Chinese, Chinese Scottish or Chinese British" for Scotland.


title: British Chinese

text: The terms "British-born Chinese" (BBC) and "Scottish-born Chinese" (SBC) have become common ways of describing ethnic Chinese who were born in the United Kingdom. However, the newer term of "British Chinese" began to emerge in the 1990s as a way to articulate a bicultural identity. Diana Yeh argues that the term is also a means to negotiate and offer agency to individuals often rejected as not being "British" or "Chinese" enough, yet also not being as visible as "Black" or "Asian" ethnic minorities. Along with the term "British Chinese," there has been an increasing use of more inclusive umbrella terms such as "British East Asian" (BEA) and "British East and Southeast Asian" (BESEA), especially in the arts sector and in the face of racism during the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: British Chinese

text: Britain has been receiving ethnic Chinese migrants more or less uninterruptedly on varying scales since the 19th century. While new immigrant arrivals numerically have replenished the Chinese community, they have also added to its complexity and the already existing differences within the community. Meanwhile, new generations of British-born Chinese have emerged.


title: British Chinese

text: The first recorded Chinese person in Britain was Shen Fu Tsong (1691), a Jesuit scholar who was present in the court of King James II in the 17th century. Shen was the first person to catalogue the Chinese books in the Bodleian Library. The King was so taken with him he had his portrait painted by Sir Godfrey Kneller and hung it in his bed chamber. The portrait of Shen is in the Royal Collection; it currently hangs in Windsor Castle.


title: British Chinese

text: William Macao (1831) was the earliest recorded Chinese person to settle in Britain. He lived in Edinburgh, Scotland from 1779. Macao married a British woman and had children, and was the first Chinese person to be baptised into the Church of Scotland. He worked for The Board of Excise at Dundas House, St Andrew Square, Edinburgh for 40 years, beginning as a servant to the clerks and retiring as Senior Accountant. He was involved in a significant naturalisation law case and for two years, until the first decision was overturned on appeal, was legally deemed a naturalised Scotsman.


title: British Chinese

text: A Chinese man known as John Anthony (1805) was brought to London in 1799 by the East India Company to provide accommodation for the Lascar and Chinese sailors in Angel Gardens, Shadwell in London's East End. Antony had left China around 11 years of age in the 1770s making several journeys between London and China. He was baptised into the Church of England, about six years before his death, and anglicised his name, settled in London, and married Ester Gole in 1799. Wishing to buy property, but unable to do so while an alien, in 1805 he used part of the fortune he had amassed from his London work to pay for an Act of Parliament to naturalise him as a British subject; thus being the first Chinese person to gain British citizenship. However, he died a few months after the Act was passed.


title: British Chinese

text: Chinese migration to Britain has a history of at least a century and a half. From the 1800s until 1945, it is estimated 20,000 had emigrated to Britain. The British East India Company, which controlled the importation of popular Chinese commodities such as tea, ceramics and silks, began employing Chinese seamen in the middle of the 19th century. Those who crewed ships to Britain had to spend time in the docks of British ports while waiting for a ship to return to China, establishing the earliest Chinatowns in Liverpool and London.


title: British Chinese

text: In 1901 there were 387 Chinese people living in Britain, and which grew to 1,219 in 1911. These communities consisted of a transnational and highly mobile population of Cantonese seamen and small numbers of more permanent residents who ran shops, restaurants, and boarding houses that catered for them.


title: British Chinese

text: During this time period, mixed marriages between Chinese men and white women were increasingly commonplace in Britain. Such relationships often attracted racist attention. In nineteenth century portside communities, for example, the wives of Chinese men were often given nicknames such as "Canton Kitty" and "Chinese Emma" to ridicule their interracial relationships. Racist attitudes continued into the twentieth century as Chinese men were increasingly vilified and associated with the "Yellow Peril," a racist stereotype that depicts people from East and Southeast Asia as an existential threat to the West. Yellow Peril imagery was used to shame mixed marriages, portraying Chinese men as a danger to white women and "the purity of the Anglo-Saxon blood".


title: British Chinese

text: In World War II as more men were required to crew British merchant ships, the Chinese Merchant Seamen's Pool of approximately 20,000 was established with its headquarters in Liverpool. However, at the end of the war few Chinese who had worked as merchant seamen were allowed to remain in Britain. The British Government and the shipping companies colluded to forcibly repatriate thousands of Chinese seamen, leaving behind British wives and mixed-race children. More than 50 years later in 2006, a memorial plaque in remembrance for those Chinese seamen was erected on Liverpool's Pier Head.


title: British Chinese

text: In the 1950s, they were replaced by a rapidly growing population of Chinese from the rural areas in Hong Kong's New Territories. Opening restaurants across Britain, they established firm migration chains and soon dominated the Chinese presence in Britain. In the 1960s and 1970s, they were joined by increasing numbers of Chinese students and economic migrants from Malaysia and Singapore.


title: British Chinese

text: Chinese migration to Britain continued to be dominated by these groups until the 1980s, when rising living standards and urbanization in Hong Kong, Singapore and Malaysia gradually reduced the volume of migration from the former British Colonies. At the same time in the 1980s, the number of students and skilled emigrants from the People's Republic of China began to rise. Since the early 1990s, the UK has also witnessed a rising inflow of economic migrants from areas in China without any previous migratory link to the UK, or even elsewhere in Europe. A relatively small number of Chinese enter Britain legally as skilled migrants. However, most migrants arrive to work in unskilled jobs, originally exclusively in the Chinese ethnic sector (catering, Chinese stores, and wholesale firms), but increasingly also in employment outside this sector (for instance, in agriculture and construction). Migrants who enter Britain for unskilled employment are from both rural and urban backgrounds. Originally, Fujianese migrants were the dominant flow, but more recently increasing numbers of migrants from the Northeast of China have arrived in the UK as well. Migrants now tend to come from an increasing number of regions of origin in China. Some Chinese unskilled migrants enter illegally to work in the black economy, in dangerous jobs with no employment rights, as the Morecambe Bay tragedy of February 2004 showed. Some claim asylum in-country, avoiding deportation after exhausting their appeals.


title: British Chinese

text: According to the United Kingdom Census 2011, the British Chinese population totals to 393,141 in England and Wales (0.7% of total population), 33,706 in Scotland (0.64% of total population), and 6,303 in Northern Ireland (0.35% of total population).


title: British Chinese

text: Compared with most ethnic minorities in the UK, the British Chinese tend to be more geographically dispersed. However, significant numbers of British Chinese can be found in Greater London (124,250), spread across a number of its boroughs, with the next four cities with the largest British Chinese populations being Manchester (13,539), Birmingham (12,712), Glasgow (10,689), and Edinburgh (8,076). In Wales, the city with the most British Chinese was Cardiff (4,168) and, in Northern Ireland, it was Belfast (2,378). In England and Wales, 23.7% British Chinese were born in the UK, whereas over half (55.3%) were born in East Asia and 13.4% were born in Southeast Asia.


title: British Chinese

text: Yue Chinese, which includes Cantonese and the Siyi languages, is spoken by 300,000 Britons as a primary language, whilst 12,000 Britons speak Mandarin Chinese and 10,000 speak Hakka Chinese. The proportion of British Chinese people who speak English as a first or second language is unknown.


title: British Chinese

text: According to the 2011 census data, most British Chinese do not record any religious affiliation. However, studies of Chinese in other contexts indicate that the lack of religious affiliation may point towards a different understanding of religion, as many still often engage in religious practices associated with Chinese folk religion.


title: British Chinese

text: The largest religious affiliation is to various forms of Christianity. While the 2011 census in England and Wales has a single category of "Christian," this is broken down more for Scotland (25% Roman Catholic, 26% Church of Scotland, and 49% other Protestant) and Northern Ireland (32% Catholic, 18% Presbyterian Church in Ireland, 10% Church of Ireland, 3% Methodist, and 35% other Protestant). The number of Protestants includes the rise of independent British Chinese churches.


title: British Chinese

text: The next largest religious affiliations are Buddhism and Islam, though data on Buddhism and Islam does not exist for Northern Ireland.


title: British Chinese

text: Historically, British Chinatowns originated as enclaves of Chinese communities and can be found in many major cities, such as London, Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool, Newcastle, Sheffield and Aberdeen. Today, Chinatowns have relatively few Chinese people living there, and they have become tourist attractions where Chinese restaurants and businesses predominate.


title: British Chinese

text: There exist several organisations in the UK that support the Chinese community. The Chinese community is a non-profit organisation that runs social events for the Chinese community. Dimsum is a media organisation which also aims to raise awareness of the cultural issues that the Chinese community face. The Chinese Information and Advice Centre supports disadvantaged people of Chinese ethnic origin in the UK.


title: British Chinese

text: Since 2000, the emergence of Internet discussion sites produced by British Chinese young people has provided an important forum for many of them to grapple with questions concerning their identities, experiences, and status in Britain. Within these online fora and in larger community efforts, the groups may self identify as 'British-born Chinese' or 'BBCs'.


title: British Chinese

text: The Chinese population is extremely dispersed, according to Rob Lewis, a senior demographer at the Greater London Authority: "The reason for their thin spread all over London, is because of the idea that you want to set up a Chinese restaurant that's a little way away from the next one." According to the 2011 census, Greater London included 124,250 British Chinese, making up 1.5% of the overall population.


title: British Chinese

text: There are Chinese community centres in Chinatown, Kensington and Chelsea, Southwark, Westminster, Camden, Greenwich, Lewisham and Tower Hamlets. Major organisations include the London Chinese Community Centre, London Chinatown Chinese Association, and the London Chinese Cultural Centre.


title: British Chinese

text: The Westminster Chinese Library, based at the Charing Cross Library (), holds one of the largest collections of Chinese materials in UK public libraries. It has a collection of over 50,000 Chinese books available for loan and reference to local readers of Chinese; music cassettes, CDs, and video films for loan; community information and general enquiries; a national subscription service of Chinese books; and Chinese events organised from time to time. The library also hosted a photography exhibition in 2013 as part of the British Chinese Heritage project, with photographs and stories of Chinese workers.


title: British Chinese

text: Based in Denver House, Bounds Green the Ming-Ai (London) Institute has undertaken a number of heritage and community projects to record and archive the contributions made by British Chinese people to the local communities in the United Kingdom.


title: British Chinese

text: Chinese New Year celebrations in London have been celebrated since the 1960s and are famous for colourful parades, fireworks, and street dancing. Other activities include a family show in Trafalgar Square with dragon and lion dances and traditional and contemporary Chinese arts by performers from both London and China. There are fireworks displays in Leicester Square, as well as cultural stalls, food, decorations, and lion dance displays throughout the day in London Chinatown. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, London's Chinese New Year celebrations in 2021 were shifted online.


title: British Chinese

text: The London Dragon Boat Festival is held annually in June at the London Regatta Centre, Royal Albert Docks. It is organised by the London Chinatown Lions Club.


title: British Chinese

text: Also held annually in London is the widely acclaimed, British Chinese Food Awards that promotes entrepreneurship, talent and Chinese food across the UK.