text: Hutterite German is an Upper German dialect of the Austro-Bavarian variety of the German language, which is spoken by Hutterite communities in Canada and the United States. Hutterite is spoken in the U.S. states of Washington, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Minnesota; and in the Canadian provinces of Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba. Its speakers belong to some Schmiedleit, Lehrerleit, and Dariusleit Hutterite groups, but there are also speakers among the older generations of Prairieleit (the descendants of those Hutterites who chose not to settle in colonies). Hutterite children who grow up in the colonies learn to speak Hutterite German before learning English, the standard language of the surrounding areas, in school. Many of these children, though, continue with German Grammar School, in addition to public school, throughout a student's elementary education.


title: Geographical distribution of German speakers

text: Australia has an estimated population of around 75,600 German speakers. Australians of German ancestry constitute the fourth largest ethnic group in Australia, numbering around 1,026,138. German immigrants played a significant role in settling the states of South Australia and Queensland. Barossa German, a dialect of German, was once common in and around the German-settled Barossa Valley in South Australia. However, the German language was actively suppressed by Australian governments during World War I and World War II, resulting in a sharp decline in the use of German in Australia. German Australians are today overwhelmingly English speaking, with the German language as a home language in heavy decline.


text: Minorities exist in the countries of the former Soviet Union, Poland, Romania, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Belgium, Italy, Canada, Chile, the United States, Latin America, Namibia, South Africa, Israel, and Australia. These German minorities, through their ethno-cultural vitality, exhibit an exceptional level of heterogeneity: variations concerning their demographics, their status within the majority community, the support they receive from institutions helping them to support their identity as a minority.


text: Among them are small groups (such as those in Namibia) and many very large groups (such as the almost 1 million non-evacuated Germans in Russia and Kazakhstan or the near 500,000 Germans in Brazil (see Riograndenser Hunsrückisch German)), groups that have been greatly "folklorised" and almost completely linguistically assimilated (such as most people of German descent in the US, Canada, Australia, Argentina and Brazil), and others, such as the true linguistic minorities (like the still German-speaking minorities in the US, Argentina and Brazil, in western Siberia or in Romania and Hungary); other groups, which are classified as religio-cultural groups rather than ethnic minorities, (such as the Eastern-Low German-speaking Mennonites in Paraguay, Mexico, Belize or in the Altay region of Siberia) and the groups who maintain their status thanks to strong identification with their ethnicity and their religious sentiment (such as the groups in Upper Silesia, Poland or in South Jutland in Denmark).


title: Tom Chambers (actor)

text: Thomas Stuart Chambers (born 22 May 1977) is an English actor, known for his role as Sam Strachan in the BBC medical dramas "Holby City" and "Casualty" and as Max Tyler in BBC drama series "Waterloo Road". He also won the sixth series of "Strictly Come Dancing" with his partner Camilla Dallerup.


title: Tom Chambers (actor)

text: Chambers was born and raised in a small village called Darley Dale in Derbyshire and was educated at Repton School.


title: Tom Chambers (actor)

text: Chambers attended the National Youth Music Theatre and Guildford School of Acting. He has starred opposite Matthew Rhys and Kate Ashfield in the British film "Fakers".


title: Tom Chambers (actor)

text: Chambers' interest in dance led him to recreate the sequence from the 1937 RKO film" A Damsel in Distress" in which Fred Astaire tap dances with a drum kit. The video was sent to casting directors and led to Chambers gaining a part in "Holby City" as cardiothoracic registrar Sam Strachan. A video of the performance was posted on YouTube prior to his appearance on BBC's "Strictly Come Dancing". He later uploaded a video diary of his rehearsals for the recording. When he left "Holby City", the programme honoured him with a montage of his three years' work.


title: Tom Chambers (actor)

text: In May 2009, it was announced by Denise Welch on "Loose Women" that Chambers would be joining the fifth series of BBC drama, "Waterloo Road" as new Executive Head Teacher, Max Tyler, where he appeared in ten episodes.


title: Tom Chambers (actor)

text: Chambers narrates the series "The Real A&E" broadcast daily on Sky One. In November 2011, Chambers starred in the stage version tour of "Top Hat". Tom was interviewed in June 2012 with questions about his career and in particular his role in Top Hat


title: Tom Chambers (actor)

text: In 2014–2015, Chambers portrayed Inspector Sullivan in the BBC TV's "Father Brown" in two series (25 episodes).


title: Tom Chambers (actor)

text: In 2017–2018, Chambers returned to singing and dancing, starring as Bobby Child alongside Clare Sweeney and Charlotte Wakefield, touring the UK in the Watermill production of the George and Ira Gershwin musical,"Crazy For You".


title: Tom Chambers (actor)

text: Chambers competed in and won the sixth series of "Strictly Come Dancing", paired with professional dancer Camilla Dallerup. The pair opened the series by performing the cha-cha-cha and scored 28 points. After being on top of the leaderboard twice in the series (joint first place with Lisa Snowdon in Week 5 and joint first with Snowdon and Cherie Lunghi in week 8), Chambers made it to the semi-finals of the competition, seeing off his apparently biggest challenger Austin Healey, with whom he shared a friendly rivalry. It was here, however, that Chambers' participation looked most in doubt, as he finished bottom of the leaderboard. However, he was reprieved when it became clear that a tie between the other two couples at the top of the leaderboard meant that there was no way for him to be saved from the dance-off, leading the BBC to put all three couples through to the final. In the final, Chambers beat Lisa Snowdon into third place, before competing head to head with Rachel Stevens in the final round, where his show dance with Dallerup was greatly praised by the judges. It was announced that Chambers and Dallerup had gained the most public votes and won the show, making Chambers the third male winner of "Strictly Come Dancing". It was Dallerup's first win on the show. On Christmas Day 2008, Chambers returned to partner Dallerup in the Christmas special; however, they came second from bottom of the leaderboard and were not voted into the final two by the studio audience. The pair have since appeared on the "Strictly Come Dancing" tour in early 2009 dancing the quickstep and the samba. In 2015, Chambers participated in the Christmas special, with professional dancer, Oti Mabuse.


title: Tom Chambers (actor)

text: In May 2009, Chambers joined the cast of the BBC Drama "Waterloo Road". His first episode was episode 1 of the fifth series which first aired the week of 25 October 2009 portraying Executive headmaster Max Tyler, who is brought in to oversee the merger of Waterloo Road with local private school John Fosters. His distorted personality is progressively revealed, which climaxes in episode 5.10 where his true colours are finally revealed (when he hits a student) to the relief of the large majority of the school community, which results in his suspension.


title: Tom Chambers (actor)

text: Chambers originated the role of Jerry Travers in the UK production of "Top Hat". The show opened on 16 August 2011 at the Milton Keynes Theatre, touring the United Kingdom before transferring to the Aldwych Theatre in London's West End. Chambers left the production on 4 February 2013.


title: Tom Chambers (actor)

text: In October 2019, it was announced that Chambers would star in the new touring production of "Dial M for Murder" as Tony Wendice.


title: Tom Chambers (actor)

text: In December 2000, Chambers came close to death when the British Airways flight on which he was travelling from London to Nairobi was disrupted in a hijack attempt. Paul Mukonyi, a 27-year-old mental patient from Kenya, burst into the cockpit of the Boeing 747. As the cockpit crew fought to restrain Mukonyi, the auto-pilot became disengaged in the struggle, the jumbo was knocked off course and it plunged about with 398 passengers on board. The pilots recovered control of the aircraft and all passengers landed safely. Chambers described this as "the most terrifying experience of my life". It was this flight that caused him to seek out his teenage sweetheart, Clare Harding, and propose. The couple married in October 2008 in Derbyshire, having to change the date due to his commitments in "Strictly Come Dancing".


title: Tom Chambers (actor)

text: In 2008, Chambers took part in the Great Walk to Beijing organised by singer Olivia Newton-John in aid of breast cancer awareness and research.


title: Matt Schnell

text: Matthew Christopher Schnell (born January 15, 1990) is an American professional mixed martial artist. He currently competes in the Flyweight division in the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC). Schnell formerly competed for Legacy Fighting Alliance, where he is a former Legacy Fighting Alliance Flyweight Champion. As of December 19, 2022, he is #8 in the UFC flyweight rankings.


title: Matt Schnell

text: In 2012, Schnell was one of the young MMA fighters featured in "Caged" - an MTV reality television series. The show focused on four prospective MMA fighters in small-town Louisiana. Schnell was one of the two fighters on the show, alongside Tony Kelley, to later fight professionally.


title: Matt Schnell

text: Schnell joined Legacy Fighting Championship in 2012 and went 9–2 in various promotions before joining the cast of "The Ultimate Fighter", season 24.


title: Matt Schnell

text: On May 11, 2016, the UFC announced that the 16 contestants for "" would be flyweight champion fighters from various organizations around the world, with the winner being expected to have a chance to fight for the flyweight title against Demetrious Johnson. Schnell was announced as part of the cast in July and selected for Team Cejudo.


title: Matt Schnell

text: In the first round on the show, Schnell seeded at #6 faced #11 Matt Rizzo and defeated him in the second round via a triangle choke submission. Schnell advanced to the quarterfinals and faced #3 seed Tim Elliott. He lost the fight via first-round submission due to a bulldog choke.


title: Matt Schnell

text: After his stint on "The Ultimate Fighter", Schnell was chosen as one of the cast mates to get a contract. Schnell fought Rob Font in the bantamweight division at . He lost the fight via TKO in the first round.


title: Matt Schnell

text: Schnell returned to the flyweight division and faced Hector Sandoval on April 22, 2017, at . He lost the fight via knockout in the first round.


title: Matt Schnell

text: Schnell next fought on October 7, 2017 at UFC 216 against Marco Beltrán. He won the fight by unanimous decision.


title: Matt Schnell

text: Schnell faced Naoki Inoue on June 23, 2018 at UFC Fight Night 132. He won the fight via split decision.


title: Matt Schnell

text: Schnell faced Louis Smolka in a bantamweight bout on March 9, 2019 at UFC Fight Night 146. He won the fight via a triangle choke submission in the first round.


title: Matt Schnell

text: As the first fight of his new, four-fight contract, Schnell faced Jordan Espinosa on August 3, 2019 at UFC on ESPN 5. He won the fight via a triangle choke submission in the first round. The win also earned Schnell his first Performance of the Night bonus award.


title: Matt Schnell

text: Schnell faced Alexandre Pantoja on December 21, 2019 at UFC Fight Night 165. He lost the fight via first-round knockout.


title: Matt Schnell

text: Schnell was expected to face Tyson Nam on September 12, 2020 at UFC Fight Night 183. However, Schnell was removed from the fight on the day of the event's weigh-in for health issues related to his weight cut. As a result, the fight was cancelled. The bout with Nam was first rescheduled to , on December 19, 2020, and then to , on January 20, 2021. He won the bout by split decision.


title: Matt Schnell

text: As the first fight of his new multi-fight contract, Schnell was scheduled to meet Alex Perez May 15, 2021 at UFC 262. However, Perez pulled out of the fight for undisclosed reasons and was replaced by Rogério Bontorin. At the weigh ins, Bontorin weighed in at 137 pounds, 1 pound over the bantamweight non-title fight limit. The bout proceeded at catchweight and Bontorin was fined 20% of his individual purse, which went to Schnell. Schnell lost the bout via unanimous decision.


title: Matt Schnell

text: The bout with Perez was rescheduled and was expected to take place on August 28, 2021 at . However, for undisclosed reason the bout was moved to . However, the bout was yet again postponed for unknown reasons to UFC 269. At the weigh-ins Alex Perez weighed in at 126.25 pounds, a quarter-pound over the flyweight non-title fight limit. Shortly after the weigh-ins, officials had announced that the bout had been cancelled due Schnell was forced to withdraw from the event due to a medical issue. The pair was rescheduled to UFC 271 on February 12, 2022. At weigh-ins, Perez came in at 128 pounds and did not attempt to try again, resulting in Matt Schnell refusing to take the catchweight bout and the bout being scrapped.


title: Matt Schnell

text: Schnell faced Brandon Royval on May 7, 2022 at UFC 274. He lost the back-and-forth fight via a guillotine choke submission in the first round. The fight also won both men the "Fight of the Night" bonus award.


title: Matt Schnell

text: Schnell faced Su Mudaerji on July 16, 2022 at UFC on ABC 3. After getting hit and wobbled by multiple flush punches and elbow strikes, Schnell gained top position and came back to win the bout via technical submission with a triangle choke in the second round. This win earned both fighters the "Fight of the Night" bonus award.


title: Matt Schnell

text: Schnell faced Matheus Nicolau on December 3, 2022 at UFC on ESPN 42. He lost the bout via knockout in the second round.


title: Two of a Kind (1983 film)

text: Two of a Kind is a 1983 American romantic fantasy crime comedy-drama film directed by John Herzfeld and starring John Travolta and Olivia Newton-John. The film reunited Travolta and Newton-John who had appeared together in 1978's "Grease". The original musical score was composed by Patrick Williams. Travolta plays a cash-strapped inventor while Newton-John plays the bank teller whom he attempts to rob. They must come to show compassion for one another in order to delay God's judgment upon the Earth. Despite being a critical failure, the film's soundtrack was a commercial success, yielding three hit singles for Newton-John and being certified Platinum.


title: Two of a Kind (1983 film)

text: Four angels — Charlie (Charles Durning), Earl (Scatman Crothers), Gonzales (Castulo Guerra), and Ruth (Beatrice Straight) — have been in charge of Heaven for the last twenty-five years. They are playing a golf match in Heaven when their game is interrupted by God (voiced by Gene Hackman), who has returned to the office and does not like what he sees down on Earth. God wants to order up another flood and start all over again (despite his promise in the rainbow that he never would again), but the four angels persuade him to reconsider, reasoning that, if a typical Earth man can reform, it would prove that all mankind is capable of it.


title: Two of a Kind (1983 film)

text: God agrees to the scheme, and the typical Earth man selected by the angels is Zack Melon (John Travolta), a failed inventor who, threatened by loan sharks, decides to hold up a bank. Zack points his gun at bank teller Debbie Wylder (Olivia Newton-John), who ostensibly gives him all the money. However, when Zack peers into the sack after the robbery, he sees that Debbie has substituted bank deposit slips for the cash and has kept the money for herself. Zack tracks her down to reclaim his stolen money. While dodging the loan sharks and the evil interventions of the Devil (Oliver Reed), the two come to develop a romantic relationship which is put to the test when they are threatened by a masked thug.


title: Two of a Kind (1983 film)

text: Principal photography of "Two of a Kind" took place from May 9 to July 21, 1983, beginning in New York City with two weeks of location shooting and then continuing in California at 20th Century Fox Studios in Century City, MGM Studios in Culver City and The Burbank Studios in Burbank. The heaven scene was shot on MGM's Stage 27.


title: Two of a Kind (1983 film)

text: Newton-John recorded a song "Twist of Fate" which was played over the end credits. It proved so popular on radio that release of the film was delayed to redo the film's soundtrack.


title: Two of a Kind (1983 film)

text: Roger Ebert gave the film one-and-a-half stars out of four and wrote, "The romance, alas, never really gets airborne, if only because Travolta, Newton-John and the plot are followed everywhere by countless unnecessary supporting characters." Janet Maslin of "The New York Times" asked, "Can it really have been "that" difficult to find a passable screen vehicle for John Travolta and Olivia Newton-John? Any old romantic fluff should have sufficed, and yet something as horrible as 'Two of a Kind' has been tailor-made for its stars. The results are so disastrous that absolutely no one is shown off to good advantage, with the possible exception of the hairdressers involved." Todd McCarthy of "Variety" slammed the film as "an embarrassment of the first order ... Aside from the presence of the two stars, confection has all the earmarks of a bargain-basement job."


title: Two of a Kind (1983 film)

text: Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" gave the film two-and-a-half stars out of four and wrote that director John Herzfeld "has placed one of America's favorite fantasy couples in a gimmick-filled story that requires the almost-constant presence of seven of the dullest supporting characters you'll ever meet. That's too bad, because whenever Newton-John and Travolta are on screen together, 'Two of a Kind' flashes with a spark of entertainment, and you want to tell them to get up and go to another film where they can have a long talk or makeout scene together."


title: Two of a Kind (1983 film)

text: Sheila Benson of the "Los Angeles Times" said that with "flaccid direction, ugly photography and performances that rely on charm generated a few movies ago (and sealed in plastic), you have reason enough to give 'Two of a Kind' a wide berth." Rita Kempley of "The Washington Post" wrote, "The acting's not all that bad, but the script is."


title: Two of a Kind (1983 film)

text: "Filmink" magazine later wrote the two stars "really shouldn’t have been so snobby about "Grease 2" if this is what they did instead."


title: Two of a Kind (1983 film)

text: "Two of a Kind" was nominated for five Razzie Awards: Worst Actor (Travolta, also for "Staying Alive"), Worst Actress (Newton-John), Worst Director (Herzfeld), Worst Screenplay, and Worst Picture. The movie was nominated for a Stinkers Bad Movie Award for Worst Picture.


title: Two of a Kind (1983 film)

text: The album was further bolstered by featuring "Ask the Lonely", a song which the rock group Journey had initially intended for their 1983 album "Frontiers" but which was only available on the soundtrack album (No. 3 Mainstream Rock); it was also added to the playlist of a few Pop stations but did not chart there. Additionally included was Patti Austin's "It's Gonna Be Special", which was not a major Pop hit, but peaked at #15 on the R&B charts and #5 on the Dance charts in 1984.


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: The culture of Nigeria is shaped by Nigeria's multiple ethnic groups. The country has 527 languages, seven of which are extinct. Nigeria also has over 1150 dialects and ethnic groups. The three largest ethnic groups are the Hausas that are predominantly in the north, the Yorubas who predominate in the southwest, and the Igbos in the southeast. There are many other ethnic groups with sizeable populations across the different parts of the country. The Kanuri people are located in the northeast part of Nigeria, the Tiv people of north central and the Efik-Ibibio are in the south south.


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: Nigeria's other ethnic groups, sometimes called 'minorities', are found throughout the country but especially in the north and the middle belt. The traditionally nomadic Fulani can be found all over West and Central Africa. The Fulani and the Hausa are mostly Muslim, while the Igbo are mostly Christian and so are the Bini and the Efik. The Yoruba are predominantly Muslim with a notable minority of Christians.The Yoruba make up about 21% of the country’s population – estimated to be over 216 million – and about half of the Yoruba are Muslim. Indigenous religious practices remain important to all of Nigeria's ethnic groups however, and frequently these beliefs are blended with Christian or Muslim beliefs, a practice known as syncretism.


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: The Binis are located in the South South region of modern Nigeria. They are ruled by monarchs, and are famous for their Benin Bronzes. In the pre-colonial period, they controlled a powerful empire.


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: The Hausa and Fulani live in the northern part of Nigeria. They are the most populous ethnic grouping in the country, even though the Hausa and Fulani are in fact different tribes. Like the Efik and Ibibio, they are counted as one here due to the historic ties that have united them politically.


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: They have monarchs, are known for celebrating the Hawan Sallah festival, and are followers of the religious teachings of Sheikh Usman dan Fodio.


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: The eastern part of Nigeria is the home of the Igbos, who are mostly Christians. Their traditional religion is known as Omenani/Omenala. Socially, they are led by monarchs who had limited power historically. These figures are expected to confer subordinate titles upon men and women that are highly accomplished. This is known as the Nze na Ozo title system.


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: The Ijaw culture of the South South has been influenced greatly by its location on the coast and the interaction with foreigners that it necessitated. Its members amassed great wealth while serving as middlemen, and the preponderance of English names among them today is a testament to the trade names adopted by their ancestors at this time.


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: The Yorubas are located in the western region of Nigeria and their leadership is monarchial in nature. Their chiefs are monarchs and titled individuals, with most of the latter group making up the membership of the Ogboni secret society. Their traditional religion, Ifa, has been recognized by UNESCO as a masterpiece of the oral tradition of Humanity.


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: Ever since the country's earliest centralization - under the Nokites at a time contemporaneous to the birth of Jesus Christ - Nigeria has been ruled by a class of titled potentates that are known as "chiefs". Led by the Nigerian traditional rulers (i.e. monarchs who have received definite authority from the official government and are recognized by the laws of Nigeria), the chiefs come in various ranks and are of varied kinds - some monarchs are so powerful that they influence political and religious life outside their immediate domains (the Sultan of Sokoto and the Ooni of Ife, for example), while in contrast many local families around the country install their eldest members as titled chiefs in order for them to provide them with what is an essentially titular leadership.


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: Although chiefs have few official powers today, they are widely respected, and prominent monarchs are often courted to endorse politicians during elections in the hopes of them conferring legitimacy to their campaigns by way of doing so. Successful Nigerians, such as businessmen and the said politicians, typically themselves aspire to the holding of chieftaincies, and the monarchs' control of the honours system that provides them to them serves as an important royal asset.


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: Nigeria is famous for its English language literature. "Things Fall Apart", by Chinua Achebe, is an important book in African literature. With over eight million copies sold worldwide, it has been translated into 50 languages, making Achebe the most translated African writer of all time.


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: Nigerian Nobel laureate Wole Soyinka described the work as "the first novel in English which spoke from the interior of the African character, rather than portraying the African as an exotic, as the white man would see him." Nigeria has other notable writers of English language literature. These include Femi Osofisan, whose first published novel, "Kolera Kolej", was produced in 1975; Ben Okri, whose first work, "The Famished Road", was published in 1991, and Buchi Emecheta, who wrote stories drawn from her personal experiences of gender inequity that promote viewing women through a single prism of the ability to marry and have children. Helon Habila, Sefi Atta , Flora Nwapa, Iquo DianaAbasi Eke, Zaynab Alkali and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, among others, are notable Nigerian authors whose works are read widely within and outside the country.


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: Apart from the speakers of standard English, a large portion of the population, roughly a third, speaks Nigerian pidgin, which has a primarily English lexicon. It has become a common "lingua franca" as a result. Pidgin English is a creolized form of the language. For instance, "How you dey" means "How are you". "The Palm Wine Drinkard", a popular novel by Amos Tutuola, was written in it.


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: Since the 1990s the Nigerian movie industry, sometimes called "Nollywood", has emerged as a fast-growing cultural force all over Africa. Vast wealth has been generated by it, and it is currently the second-largest film industry in the world by output.


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: Because of the movies, western influences such as music, casual dressing and methods of speaking are to be found all across Nigeria, even in the highly conservative north of the country.


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: The Nigerian national football team, nicknamed the "Super Eagles", is the national team of Nigeria, run by the Nigeria Football Federation (NFF). According to the FIFA World Rankings, Nigeria ranks 31st and holds the second-highest place among the African nations behind Senegal (20th). The highest position Nigeria ever reached on the ranking was 5th, in April 1994.


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: Supporters of English football clubs like Manchester United, Arsenal, Manchester City, Liverpool and Chelsea often segregate beyond the traditional tribal and even religious divide to share their common cause in Premier League teams.


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: Nigerian food offers a rich blend of traditionally African carbohydrates such as yam and cassava as well as the vegetable soups with which they are often served. Maize is another crop that is commonly grown in Nigeria. Praised by Nigerians for the strength it gives, garri is "the number one staple carbohydrate food item in Nigeria",


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: a powdered cassava grain that can be readily eaten as a meal and is quite inexpensive. Yams are frequently eaten either fried in oil or pounded to make a mashed potato-like yam pottage. Nigerian beans, quite different from green peas, are widely popular. Meat is also popular and Nigerian suya—a barbecue-like roasted meat—is a well-known delicacy. Bush meat, meat from wild game like antelope and duikers, is also popular. Fermented palm products make a traditional liquor, palm wine, and also fermented cassava. Nigerian foods are spicy, mostly in the western and southern part of the country, even more so than in Indian cuisine. Some more examples of their traditional dishes are eba, pounded yam, iyan, fufu and soups like okra, ogbono and egusi. Fufu is so emblematic of Nigeria that it figures in Chinua Achebe's "Things Fall Apart", for example.


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: Nigeria is known for its many traditional dishes. Each tribe has different dishes that are unique to their culture. Yoruba people, for example, have different dishes like Amala, Ogbono, Moin Moin, Ofada Rice, and Efo Riro.


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: The music of Nigeria includes many kinds of folk and popular music, some of which are known worldwide. The singer and social activist Fela Kuti was instrumental in Nigeria's musical development. His personalized sound, dubbed "Afrobeat", is now one of the continent's most widely recognised genres.


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: Traditional musicians use a number of diverse instruments, such as Gongon drums. The kora and the kakaki are also important.


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: Other traditional cultural expressions are found in the various masquerades of Nigeria, such as the Eyo masquerades of Lagos, the Ekpe and Ekpo masquerades of the Efik/Ibibio/Annang/Igbo peoples of coastal southeastern Nigeria, and the Northern masquerades of the Bini. The most popular Yoruba manifestations of this custom are the Gelede masquerades.


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: Women wear long flowing robes and headscarves made by local makers who dye and weave the fabric locally. Southern Nigerian women choose to wear western-style clothing. People in urban regions of Nigeria dress in western style, the youth mainly wearing jeans and T-shirts. Other Nigerian men and women typically wear a traditional style called "Buba". For men the loose-fitting shirt goes down to halfway down the thigh. For women, the loose-fitting blouse goes down a little below the waist. Other clothing gear includes a "gele", which is the woman's headgear. For men their traditional cap is called "fila".


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: Historically, Nigerian fashion incorporated many different types of fabrics. Cotton has been used for over 500 years for fabric-making in Nigeria. Silk (called "tsamiya" in Hausa, "sanyan" in Yoruba, and "akpa-obubu" in Igbo) is also used. Perhaps the most popular fabric used in Nigerian fashion is Dutch wax print, produced in the Netherlands. The import market for this fabric is dominated by the Dutch company Vlisco, which has been selling its Dutch wax print fabric to Nigerians since the late 1800s, when the fabric was sold along the company's oceanic trading route to Indonesia. Since then, Nigerian and African patterns, colour schemes, and motifs have been incorporated into Vlisco's designs to become a staple of the brand.


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: Nigeria has over 250 ethnic groups and as a result, a wide variety of traditional clothing styles. In the Yoruba tradition, women wear an "iro" (wrapper), "buba" (loose shirt) and "gele" (head-wrap). The men wear "buba" (long shirt), "sokoto" (baggy trousers), "agbada" (flowing robe with wide sleeves) and "fila" (a hat). In the Igbo tradition, the men's cultural attire is "Isiagu" (a patterned shirt), which is worn with trousers and the traditional Igbo men's hat called "Okpu Agwu". The women wear a puffed sleeved blouse, two wrappers and a headwrap. Hausa men wear "barbarigas" or "kaftans" (long flowing gowns) with tall decorated hats. The women wear wrappers and shirts and cover their heads with "hijabs" (veils).


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: A very important source of information on modern Nigerian art is the Virtual Museum of Modern Nigerian Art operated by the Pan-Atlantic University in Lagos.


title: Culture of Nigeria

text: In addition, the Nigerian Investment Promotion Commission, and Naija Invest Gateway, provide real-time information on the Nigerian business culture.


title: Palingenetic ultranationalism

text: Palingenetic ultranationalism is a concept concerning generic fascism formulated by British political theorist Roger Griffin. The key element of the idea is the belief that fascism can be defined by its core myth, namely that of revolution to achieve a "national rebirth", palingenesis. Griffin argues that the unique synthesis of palingenesis and ultranationalism differentiates fascism from para-fascism and other authoritarian nationalist ideologies. He calls that the "fascist minimum" without which there is no fascism.


title: Palingenetic ultranationalism

text: The idea was first put forth in the 1991 book "The Nature of Fascism" and was expanded in the paper "Staging the Nation's Rebirth: The Politics and Aesthetics of Performance in the Context of Fascist Studies" in the 1994 volume "Fascism and Theatre: The Politics and Aesthetics in the Era of Fascism".


title: Palingenetic ultranationalism

text: Roger Griffin argues that fascism uses the "palingenetic myth" to attract large masses of voters who have lost their faith in traditional politics and religion by promising them a brighter future under fascist rule. That promise is not made exclusively by fascists: other political ideologies also incorporate some palingenetic aspects in their party programs since politicians almost always promise to improve the situation. More radical movements often want to overthrow the old order, which has become decadent and alien to the common man. That powerful and energetic demolition of the old ways may require some form of revolution or battle, which is, however, represented as glorious and necessary. Such movements thus compare the (recent) past with the future, which is presented as a rebirth of society after a period of decay and misery. The palingenetic myth can also possibly stand for a return to a golden age in the country's history so that the past can be a guidebook to a better tomorrow, with an associated regime that superficially resembles a reactionary one. Fascism distinguishes itself by being the only ideology that focuses strongly on the revolution in its myth or, as Griffin puts it:


title: Palingenetic ultranationalism

text: Through all of that, there will be one great leader who battles the representatives of the old system with grassroots support. It appears as one mass of people with only one goal: to create their new future. They have infinite faith in their mythical hero as he stands for everything they believe in. With him, the country will rise like a phoenix from the ashes of corruption and decadence.


title: Palingenetic ultranationalism

text: National-anarchism has been argued to be a syncretic political ideology that was developed in the 1990s by former Third Positionists to promote a "stateless palingenetic ultranationalism".


title: Jaclyn Linetsky

text: Jaclyn Michelle Linetsky (January 8, 1986 – September 8, 2003) was a Canadian actress who played Megan O'Connor on "15/Love" and the title character on "Caillou".


title: Jaclyn Linetsky

text: Jaclyn Michelle Linetsky was born on January 8, 1986, at the Jewish General Hospital to religious Jewish parents, Terry (née Weiner) and Larry Linetsky. She was the youngest of three children and had two older siblings, Kelly and Derek. She was of Russian-Jewish descent. Linetsky was raised in Dollard-des-Ormeaux, then moved to Hampstead, a suburb in Montreal, Quebec. She graduated from St. George's School of Montreal in 2003 where she made a speech at the graduation ceremony.


title: Jaclyn Linetsky

text: Linetsky began acting at age eight, performing in theatre productions. Her first major gig was in a milk radio advertisement at age 10.


title: Jaclyn Linetsky

text: Linetsky provided the voice of the title character in the animated series "Caillou" from 2000 until her death in 2003. She also provided the voices for Bitzi in the animated series "Daft Planet" (2002); Lori Mackney in the second season of "What's with Andy?" (2003–2004) replacing US voice actress Colleen O'Shaughnessey; Kit on "Kit & Kaboodle", Shei-Hu, his cousin Shei-He, and a large group of other mice on "Sagwa, the Chinese Siamese Cat"; Yukari on "Tommy & Oscar"; Brenda on "Rotten Ralph" and Meg in "Mega Babies".


title: Jaclyn Linetsky

text: Other roles in voice acting included, "The Kids from Room 402", "Wunschpunsch", "The Country Mouse and the City Mouse Adventures", "Simon in the Land of Chalk Drawings", "Jim Button" and video games "Alex Builds His Farm" and "Evolution Worlds".


title: Jaclyn Linetsky

text: In 2003, Linetsky was cast in the tennis-circuit-themed dramatic series "15/Love" on YTV. Her character, Megan O'Connor, was mutually falling in love with co-star Vadim Schneider's character, Sebastien Dubé.


title: Jaclyn Linetsky

text: On September 8, 2003, Linetsky and Vadim Schneider were on their way to the set of "15/Love" in St. Cesaire, Quebec, in a Dodge Caravan. For unknown reasons, the Dodge Caravan went off its original trajectory around 12:15 P.M. to go through the middle band of the highway and found itself in the wrong direction on Highway 10 West. The van then swerved into oncoming traffic, crossed the median, and struck a 20-foot semi-truck head on, causing the vehicle to burst into flames.


title: Jaclyn Linetsky

text: Schneider was killed instantly upon the impact of the collision, and less than two hours after, along with the combined factors of trauma, severe injuries and burns, Linetsky, who had been unconscious on impact, went into cardiac arrest and was pronounced dead at the Pierre Boucher Hospital in Longueuil, Quebec. They were both 17 years old.


title: Jaclyn Linetsky

text: On the day of Schneider and Linetsky's deaths, filming for "15/Love" was cancelled and filming went on a two week hiatus citing a desire to speak with their families.


title: Jaclyn Linetsky

text: The writers of "15/Love" eventually decided that Linetsky's and Schneider's characters Megan O'Connor and Sebastien Dubé would be killed off in a plane crash off the coast of the Isle of Wight, England, after a tennis tournament.


title: Jaclyn Linetsky

text: Following her death, Linetsky was replaced by Eleanor Noble as the voice of Lori Mackney in "What's with Andy?", and by Annie Bovaird as the voice of Caillou.


title: Jaclyn Linetsky

text: In a statement, Stuart Snyder, President and CEO of Cinar Corporation, wrote: "Jaclyn's voice enchanted thousands of children and viewers and she brought her own special personality and character to Caillou. She was a very talented performer and will be deeply missed by us all."


title: Jaclyn Linetsky

text: "On behalf of everyone at CINAR, I want to express our most sincere and heartfelt sympathies to Jaclyn's family."


title: Jaclyn Linetsky

text: The episode of "What's with Andy?" entitled "Nurse Jen" was dedicated to her memory, as was the "15/Love" episode entitled "Curveballs P.1" and the "Caillou" film "Caillou's Holiday Movie". The very last episode of "15/Love" was also dedicated to her memory. In 2009, St. George's School of Montreal, Linetsky's alma mater, renamed their performing arts program "The Jaclyn Linetsky Performing Arts Program" in honour of her.


title: Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)

text: The Iraqi Republic ( '), colloquially known as the First Iraqi Republic was a state forged in 1958 under the rule of President Muhammad Najib ar-Ruba'i and Prime Minister Abd al-Karim Qasim. ar-Ruba'i and Qasim first came to power through the 14 July Revolution in which the Kingdom of Iraq's Hashemite monarchy was overthrown. As a result, the Kingdom and the Arab Federation were dissolved and the Iraqi republic established. The era ended with the Ba'athist rise to power in 1968.


title: Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)

text: Iraq reverted to control over the territory of the former Kingdom of Iraq and Jordan again became an independent entity.


title: Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)

text: Qasim specifically sited the north–south territorial limits from its highest point in the North and lowest point in the South identified in the regime's popular slogan as being "From Zakho in the North to Kuwait in the South", Zakho referring to the border then-and-now between Iraq and Turkey. The Qasim government in Iraq and its supporters supported Kurdish irredentism towards what they called "Kurdistan that is annexed to Iran", implying that Iraq supported the unification of Iranian Kurdistan into Iraqi Kurdistan. The Qasim government held an irredentist claim to Khuzestan. It held irredentist claims to Kuwait, at the time controlled by Britain until its independence in 1961.


title: Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)

text: Abd al-Karim Qasim promoted a civic Iraqi nationalism that recognized all ethnic groups such as Arabs, Assyrians, Kurds, and Yazidis as equal partners in the state of Iraq, Kurdish language was not only formally legally permitted in Iraq under the Qassim government, but the Kurdish version of the Arabic alphabet was adopted for use by the Iraqi state and the Kurdish language became the medium of instruction in all educational institutions, both in the Kurdish territories and in the rest of Iraq. Under Qassim, Iraqi cultural identity based on Arabo-Kurdish fraternity was stressed over ethnic identity, Qasim's government sought to merge Kurdish nationalism into Iraqi nationalism and Iraqi culture, stating: "Iraq is not only an Arab state, but an Arabo-Kurdish state...[T]he recognition of Kurdish nationalism by Arabs proves clearly that we are associated in the country, that we are Iraqis first, Arabs and Kurds later". The Qassim government and its supporters supported Kurdish irredentism towards what they called "Kurdistan that is annexed to Iran", implying that Iraq held irredentist claims on Iran's Kurdish populated territories that it supported being united with Iraq. The Qassim government's pro-Kurdish policies including a statement promising "Kurdish national rights within Iraqi unity" and open attempts by Iraq to coopt Iranian Kurds to support unifying with Iraq resulted in Iran responding by declaring Iran's support for the unification of all Kurds who were residing in Iraq and Syria, into Iran. Qassim's initial policies towards Kurds were very popular amongst Kurds across the Middle East whom in support of his policies called Qassim "the leader of the Arabs and the Kurds".


title: Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)

text: Kurdish leader Mustafa Barzani during his alliance with Qassim and upon Qassim granting him the right to return to Iraq from exile imposed by the former monarchy, declared support of the Kurdish people for being citizens of Iraq, saying in 1958 "On behalf of all my Kurdish brothers who have long struggled, once again I congratulate you [Qassim] and the Iraqi people, Kurds and Arabs, for the glorious Revolution putting an end to imperialism and the reactionary and corrupt monarchist gang". Barzani also commended Qassim for allowing Kurdish refugee diaspora to return to Iraq and declared his loyalty to Iraq, saying "Your Excellency, leader of the people: I take this opportunity to tender my sincere appreciation and that of my fellow Kurdish refugees in the Socialist countries for allowing us to return to our beloved homeland, and to join in the honor of defending the great cause of our people, the cause of defending the republic and its homeland."


title: Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)

text: Under the Qasim regime, the Iraqi government in its actions and documents on the economy promoted nine economic principles: (1) economic planning over the whole economy; (2) dismantling monopolies and strengthening the middle class; (3) liberating the economy from imperialism; (4) abolition of the land tenure system; (5) establishing trade with all countries; (6) closer economic ties with Arab countries; (7) expanding the public sector; (8) encouragement of the private sector; and (9) creating a higher rate of economic growth.


title: Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)

text: During and after World War II, the UK reoccupied Iraq due to the 1941 Iraqi coup d'état in which four nationalist Iraqi generals, with German intelligence and military assistance, overthrew Regent 'Abd al-Ilah and Prime Minister Nuri al-Said and installed Rashid Ali as Prime Minister of Iraq. Ali was eventually ousted by the British and 'Abd al-Ilah and al-Said retook power. In 1947, the Iraqis started to negotiate a British withdrawal, and finally negotiated the treaty at Portsmouth on January 15, 1948, which stipulated the creation of a British and Iraqi joint defense board that oversaw Iraqi military planning and British control of Iraqi foreign affairs.


title: Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)

text: Regional rivalries played a huge role in the 14 July Revolution. Pan-Arab and Arab Nationalist sentiment circulated in the Middle East and was proliferated by an anti-imperialist revolutionary, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt. During and after World War II, The Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq was home to a number of Arab nationalist sympathizers. Arab nationalists viewed the Hashemite Monarchy as too beholden to British and Western interests. This anti-Hashemite sentiment grew from a politicized educational system in Iraq and an increasingly assertive and educated bourgeoisie. Iraqi Prime Minister Nuri al-Said expressed his interest in pursuing the idea of a federation of Arab States of the Fertile Crescent, and helped to create the Arab Federation of Iraq and Jordan, but reserved his enthusiasm about a Nasser espoused pan-Arab state. Al-Said joined the Arab league in 1944 on Iraq's behalf seeing it as a providing a forum for bringing together the Arab states, leaving the door open for a possible future federation. The charter of the League enshrined the principle of the autonomy for each Arab state and referenced pan-Arabism only rhetorically.


title: Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)

text: Iraq was left in ruins upon the conclusion of World War II, suffering from tremendous inflation and a subsequent plummet in living conditions. Prime Minister Nuri Al-Said and the Arab Nationalist regent, Abd al-Ilah, continually clashed on economic policy. Instead of cooperating to improve the quality of life for the Iraqi people and cut inflation, the Prime Minister and the regent could not agree on a cohesive economic policy.


title: Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)

text: Educated elites in Iraq began dabbling in the ideals espoused by Nasser's pan-Arabism movement. Within the officer corps of the Iraqi military, pan-Arab nationalism began to take root. The policies of Al-Said were disliked by certain individuals within the Iraqi military, and opposition groups began to form, modeled upon the Egyptian Free Officers Movement which had overthrown the Egyptian monarchy in 1952.


title: Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)

text: On 14 July 1958, a group that identified as the "Free Officers", a secret military group led by General Abd al-Karim Qasim, overthrew the monarchy. This group was markedly Pan-Arab in character, with the exception of Abd al-Karim Qasim, who was an Iraqi Nationalist, which would later hurt his relations with his colleagues. King Faisal II, the Regent and Crown Prince Abd al-Ilah, and Nuri al-Said were all killed.


title: Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)

text: The Revolution brought Muhammad Najib ar-Ruba'i and Abd al-Karim Qasim to power. Qasim's regime implemented a number of domestic changes to Iraqi society.


title: Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)

text: Opposition to Qasim from Arab Nationalist forces within the army culminated in the 1959 Mosul Uprising, which was an attempted coup launched with support from the United Arab Republic. Despite attracting support from local Arab tribes, the Mosul-based leadership of the coup was defeated in a number of days by loyal forces from within the Iraqi Army supported by the Iraqi Communist Party and local Kurdish tribes. Following the defeat of the coup Mosul was the scene of several days of unprecedented violence as all groups engaged in score-settling, using the post-coup chaos as a smokescreen, resulting in thousands of deaths.


title: Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)

text: Qasim's use of the Iraqi Communist Party to help put down the rebellion, and their growing strength within Iraq, convinced the Ba'ath Party in Iraq that the only way to stop the spread of the communists was to overthrow Qasim.


title: Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)

text: On 8 February 1963, Qasim was overthrown by a coup led by the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party of Iraq and sympathetic Arab Nationalist groups in the Iraqi Armed Forces. Qasim was unpopular in the Ba'ath Party and among Arab Nationalists largely for his focus on Iraqi Nationalism, as opposed to Arab Nationalism, and also because he was seen as being too close to the Iraqi Communist Party, which both groups viewed with a deep suspicion. Conflict between Qasim and certain officers of the Iraqi Armed Forces made them sympathetic to the idea of a coup.


title: Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)

text: Following Qasim's overthrow and execution members of the Ba'ath Party engaged in a house to house hunt for communists. Total deaths from the communist purge and the coup were around 5,000.


title: Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)

text: Although the Iraqi Communist Party had been greatly weakened by the anti-Leftists purges following the Ramadan Revolution, there still existed pockets of support for the party, particularly in Baghdad, which hosted some of the most militant party cells. A plan was eventually hatched and was put into action on 3 July 1963. The plan called for a mixture of 2,000 party members and rebel soldiers to take control over ar-Rashid army base in Baghdad, where 1,000 Qasim supporters and communists were being held, in the belief that the freed former officers could provide leadership and encourage other army units across Iraq to join the rebellion. The coup faced an unexpected level of opposition from the prison guards at the base, preventing them from releasing the officers and spreading the rebellion. The base was surrounded by forces from the Ba'ath Party National Guard Militia and the coup was put down.


title: Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)

text: Divisions between pro and anti-Nasser Ba'ath leaders, as well between right and left pan-Arab nationalists soon created new political instability. In November 1963 Nasserist elements in the government and the Iraqi Armed Forces overthrew the ba'athis government in a coup. The Ba'ath Party was banned, along with all other political parties in Iraq, and the nasserist Arab Socialist Union of Iraq was declared the only legal party in the Iraqi Republic.


title: Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)

text: Following the coup, President Abdul Salam Arif formed a new cabinet, mostly made of technocrats and Nasserist army officers. All banks and over thirty major Iraqi businesses were nationalized. Arif undertook these measures in an effort to bring Iraq closer with Egypt to help foster unity and on 20 December plans for union were announced; despite this, in July 1965, the Nasserist ministers resigned from the Iraqi cabinet.


title: Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)

text: Salam Arif died in a plane crash on 13 April 1966 and was replaced by his younger brother Abdul Rahman Arif. A moderate, Rahman Arif formed a new cabinet led by Abd ar-Rahman al-Bazzaz, which turned the Iraqi regime to the centre, halting nationalizations and improving relationships with the United States of America. These positions irritated the Army and the radical Arab nationalists, who viewed it as a betrayal of the Revolution's principles.


title: Iraqi Republic (1958–1968)

text: On 17 July 1968, the Ba'ath Party, with the support of the Armed Forces, overthrew Rahman Arif in a coup and exiled him to Turkey. Ba'athist leader Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr was declared new President of Iraq; al-Bakr banned the Arab Socialist Union and declared the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party the only legal party of the country, starting the rule of Ba'ath in Iraq.


title: Frédéric Bastiat

text: Claude-Frédéric Bastiat (; ; 30 June 1801 – 24 December 1850) was a French economist, writer and a prominent member of the French Liberal School.


title: Frédéric Bastiat

text: A member of the French National Assembly, Bastiat developed the economic concept of opportunity cost and introduced the parable of the broken window. He was described as "the most brilliant economic journalist who ever lived" by economic theorist Joseph Schumpeter.


title: Frédéric Bastiat

text: As an advocate of classical economics and the economics of Adam Smith, his views favored a free market and influenced the Austrian School. He is best known for his book "The Law" where he argued that law must protect rights such as private property, not "plunder" others' property.


title: Frédéric Bastiat

text: Bastiat was born on 29 June 1801 in Bayonne, Aquitaine, a port town in the south of France on the Bay of Biscay. His father, Pierre Bastiat, was a prominent businessman in the town. His mother died in 1808 when Frédéric was seven years old. His father moved inland to the town of Mugron, with Frédéric following soon afterward. The Bastiat estate in Mugron had been acquired during the French Revolution and had previously belonged to the Marquis of Poyanne. Pierre Bastiat died in 1810, leaving Frédéric an orphan. He was fostered by his paternal grandfather and his unmarried aunt Justine Bastiat. He attended a school in Bayonne, but his aunt thought poorly of it and so enrolled him in the school Saint-Sever. At age 17, he left school at Sorèze to work for his uncle in his family's export business. It was the same firm where his father had been a partner.


title: Frédéric Bastiat

text: Bastiat began to develop an intellectual interest as he no longer wished to work with his uncle and desired to go to Paris for formal studies. This hope was not realized as his grandfather was in poor health and wished to go to the Mugron estate. Bastiat accompanied him and cared for him. The next year when Bastiat was 24, his grandfather died, leaving him the family estate, thereby providing him with the means to further his theoretical inquiries. Bastiat developed intellectual interests in several areas including philosophy, history, politics, religion, travel, poetry, political economy and biography. After the middle-class Revolution of 1830, Bastiat became politically active and was elected justice of the peace of Mugron in 1831 and to the Council General (county-level assembly) of Landes in 1832. Bastiat was elected to the national legislative assembly after the French Revolution of 1848.


title: Frédéric Bastiat

text: His public career as an economist began only in 1844, when his first article was published in the "Journal des économistes" during October of that year and it was ended by his untimely death in 1850. Bastiat contracted tuberculosis, probably during his tours throughout France to promote his ideas and that illness eventually prevented him from making further speeches (particularly at the legislative assembly to which he was elected in 1848 and 1849) and ended his life. In "The Law", he wrote: "Until the day of my death, I shall proclaim this principle with all the force of my lungs (which alas! is all too inadequate)".


title: Frédéric Bastiat

text: This last line is understood by translators to be a reference to the effects of his tuberculosis. During the autumn of 1850, he was sent to Italy by his doctors and he first traveled to Pisa, then to Rome. On 24 December 1850, Bastiat called those with him to approach his bed and murmured twice the words "the truth" before he died at the age of 49.


title: Frédéric Bastiat

text: Bastiat was the author of many works on economics and political economy, generally characterized by their clear organization, forceful argumentation and acerbic wit. Economist Murray Rothbard wrote that "Bastiat was indeed a lucid and superb writer, whose brilliant and witty essays and fables to this day are remarkable and devastating demolitions of protectionism and of all forms of government subsidy and control. He was a truly scintillating advocate of an unrestricted free market". However, Bastiat himself declared that subsidy should be available, albeit limited under extraordinary circumstances, saying the following: "Under extraordinary circumstances, for urgent cases, the State should set aside some resources to assist certain unfortunate people, to help them adjust to changing conditions".


title: Frédéric Bastiat

text: Among his better known works is "Economic Sophisms", a series of essays (originally published in the "Journal des économistes") which contain a defence of free trade. Bastiat wrote the work while living in England to advise the shapers of the French Republic on perils to avoid. "Economic Sophisms" was translated and adapted for an American readership in 1867 by the economist and historian of money Alexander del Mar, writing under the pseudonym Emile Walter.


title: Frédéric Bastiat

text: Contained within "Economic Sophisms" is the satirical parable known as the candlemakers' petition in which candlemakers and tallow producers lobby the Chamber of Deputies of the French July Monarchy (1830–1848) to block out the Sun to prevent its unfair competition with their products. Also included in the "Sophisms" is a facetious petition to the king asking for a law forbidding the usage of everyone's right hand, based on a presumption by some of his contemporaries that more difficulty means more work and more work means more wealth.


title: Frédéric Bastiat

text: Bastiat's most famous work is "The Law", originally published as a pamphlet in 1850. It defines a just system of laws and then demonstrates how such law facilitates a free society. In "The Law", Bastiat wrote that everyone has a right to protect "his person, his liberty, and his property". The state should be only a "substitution of a common force for individual forces" to defend this right. According to Bastiat, justice (meaning defense of one's life, liberty and property) has precise limits, but if government power extends further into philanthropic endeavors, then government becomes so limitless that it can grow endlessly. The resulting statism is "based on this triple hypothesis: the total inertness of mankind, the omnipotence of the law, and the infallibility of the legislator". The public then becomes socially engineered by the legislator and must bend to the legislators' will "like the clay to the potter", saying: Socialism, like the ancient ideas from which it springs, confuses the distinction between government and society. As a result of this, every time we object to a thing being done by government, the socialists conclude that we object to its being done at all. We disapprove of state education. Then the socialists say that we are opposed to any education. We object to a state religion. Then the socialists say that we want no religion at all. We object to a state-enforced equality. Then they say that we are against equality. And so on, and so on. It is as if the socialists were to accuse us of not wanting persons to eat because we do not want the state to raise grain.


title: Frédéric Bastiat

text: I do not dispute their right to invent social combinations, to advertise them, to advocate them, and to try them upon themselves, at their own expense and risk. But I do dispute their right to impose these plans upon us by law – by force – and to compel us to pay for them with our taxes.


title: Frédéric Bastiat

text: Bastiat posits that the law becomes perverted when it punishes one's right to self-defense (of his life, liberty and property) in favor of another's right to legalized plunder which he defines as "if the law takes from some persons what belongs to them, and gives it to other persons to whom it does not belong. See if the law benefits one citizen at the expense of another by doing what the citizen himself cannot do without committing a crime" in which he includes the tax support of "protective tariffs, subsidies, guaranteed profits, guaranteed jobs, relief and welfare schemes, public education, progressive taxation, free credit, and public works". According to Bastiat, legal plunder can be committed in "an infinite number of ways. Thus we have an infinite number of plans for organizing it: tariffs, protection, benefits, subsidies, encouragements, progressive taxation, public schools, guaranteed jobs, guaranteed profits, minimum wages, a right to relief, a right to the tools of labor, free credit, and so on, and so on. All these plans as a whole — with their common aim of legal plunder — constitute socialism". Bastiat also made the following humorous point: "If the natural tendencies of mankind are so bad that it is not safe to permit people to be free, how is it that the tendencies of these organizers are always good? Do not the legislators and their appointed agents also belong to the human race? Or do they believe that they themselves are made of a finer clay than the rest of mankind?"


title: Frédéric Bastiat

text: In his 1850 essay "Ce qu'on voit et ce qu'on ne voit pas" ("What is seen and what is not seen"), Bastiat introduced through the parable of the broken window the concept of opportunity cost in all but name. This term was not coined until over sixty years after his death by Friedrich von Wieser in 1914.


title: Frédéric Bastiat

text: Bastiat also famously engaged in a debate between 1849 and 1850 with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon about the legitimacy of interest. As Robert Leroux argued, Bastiat had the conviction that Proudhon's anti-interest doctrine "was the complete antithesis of any serious approach". Proudhon famously lost his temper and resorted to ad hominem attacks: "Your intelligence is asleep, or rather it has never been awake. You are a man for whom logic does not exist. You do not hear anything, you do not understand anything. You are without philosophy, without science, without humanity. Your ability to reason, like your ability to pay attention and make comparisons is zero. Scientifically, Mr. Bastiat, you are a dead man".


title: Frédéric Bastiat

text: Bastiat asserted that the sole purpose of government is to protect the right of an individual to life, liberty and property and why it is dangerous and morally wrong for government to interfere with an individual's other personal matters. From this, Bastiat concluded that the law cannot defend life, liberty and property if it promotes legal or legalized plunder which he defined as using government force and laws to take something from one individual and give it to others (as opposed to a transfer of property via mutually-agreed contracts without using fraud nor violent threats against the other party which Bastiat considered a legitimate transfer of property).


title: Frédéric Bastiat

text: In "The Law", Bastiat explains that if the privileged classes or socialists use the government for legalized plunder, this will encourage the other socioeconomic class to also use legal plunder and that the correct response to the socialists is to cease all legal plunder. Bastiat also explains in "The Law" why his opinion is that the law cannot defend life, liberty and property if it promotes socialist policies. When used to obtain legalized plunder for any group, he says that the law is perverted against the only things (life, liberty and property) it is supposed to defend.


title: Frédéric Bastiat

text: Bastiat was a strong supporter of free trade who was inspired by and routinely corresponded with Richard Cobden and the English Anti-Corn Law League and worked with free-trade associations in France.


title: Frédéric Bastiat

text: Because of his stress on the role of consumer demand in initiating economic progress (a form of demand-side economics), Bastiat has been described by Mark Thornton, Thomas DiLorenzo and other economists as a forerunner of the Austrian School, with Thornton positing that through taking this position on the motivations of human action he demonstrates a pronounced "Austrian flavor". In his "Economic Harmonies", Bastiat states:


title: Frédéric Bastiat

text: One of Bastiat's most important contributions to economics was his admonition to the effect that good economic decisions can be made only by taking into account the "full picture". That is, economic truths should be arrived at by observing not only the immediate consequences—that is, benefits or liabilities—of an economic decision, but also by examining the long-term second and third consequences. Additionally, one must examine the decision's effect not only on a single group of people (say candlemakers) or a single industry (say candlemaking), but on all people and all industries in the society as a whole. As Bastiat famously put it, an economist must take into account both "What is Seen and What is Not Seen". Bastiat's "rule" was later expounded and developed by Henry Hazlitt in his work "Economics in One Lesson" in which Hazlitt borrowed Bastiat's trenchant broken window fallacy and went on to demonstrate how it applies to a wide variety of economic falsehoods.


title: Frédéric Bastiat

text: A famous section of "Economic Sophisms" concerns the way that tariffs and customs are inherently counterproductive. Bastiat posits a theoretical railway between Spain and France that is built to reduce the costs of trade between the two countries. This is achieved by making goods move to and from the two nations faster and more easily. Bastiat demonstrates that this situation benefits both countries' consumers because it reduces the cost of shipping goods and therefore reduces the price at market for those goods. However, each country's producers begin to criticize their governments because the other country's producers can now provide certain goods to the domestic market at reduced price. Domestic producers of these goods are afraid of being outcompeted by the newly viable industry from the other country, therefore these domestic producers demand that tariffs be enacted to artificially raise the cost of the foreign goods back to their pre-railroad levels so that they can continue to compete. Thus, Bastiat makes two significant statements here:


title: Frédéric Bastiat

text: To further demonstrate his statements, Bastiat suggests—in a classic "reductio ad absurdum"—that rather than enacting tariffs, the government should simply destroy the railroad anywhere that foreign goods can outcompete local goods. Since this would be just about everywhere, he goes on to suggest that this government should simply build a broken or "negative" railroad right from the start and not waste time with tariffs and rail building.


title: Frédéric Bastiat

text: Bastiat died in Rome and is buried at San Luigi dei Francesi in the center of that city. He declared on his deathbed that his friend Gustave de Molinari (publisher of Bastiat's 1850 book "The Law") was his spiritual heir.


title: The Wedding Year

text: The Wedding Year is a 2019 American romantic comedy film directed by Robert Luketic and starring Sarah Hyland, Tyler James Williams, Jenna Dewan, Matt Shively and Anna Camp.


title: The Wedding Year

text: Los Angeles photographer, Mara Baylor, "isn’t sure she is the marrying type and her new ready-to-settle-down boyfriend and commitment issues are put to the test when she is invited to 7 weddings in the same year", putting "pressure on Mara to make some big decisions."


title: The Wedding Year

text: On August 4, 2016, it was reported that Lakeshore Entertainment has acquired a romantic comedy spec script written by Donald Diego. On May 1, 2018, it was announced that Lakeshore would be presenting the movie for sales at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival.


title: The Wedding Year

text: The film will be directed by Robert Luketic, produced by Gary Lucchesi, Marc Reid, and Mark Korshak, and executive produced by Sarah Hyland.


title: The Wedding Year

text: On May 1, 2018, it was announced that Sarah Hyland would play the lead in the romantic comedy as Los Angeles photographer, Mara Baylor. On May 29, 2018, Tyler James Williams joined the production as Jake Riddick, the boyfriend of Mara Baylor. On May 30, 2018, it was announced that Anna Camp, Wanda Sykes, Jenna Dewan, Keith David, Patrick Warburton, Tom Connolly, Grace Helbig and Fred Grandy would also be joining the production. However, Warburton and Grandy were not in the final production.


title: The Wedding Year

text: Principal photography for the film begin on May 21, 2018, in Los Angeles, United States. Filming concluded on July 10, 2018.


title: Lisa Gerritsen

text: Lisa Gerritsen (born Lisa Orszag, December 21, 1957) is an American former child actress. She is most famous for her role as Bess, the independent-minded daughter of Phyllis Lindstrom on the 1970s television series "The Mary Tyler Moore Show" and its spin-off "Phyllis."


title: Lisa Gerritsen

text: Lisa Gerritsen was born Lisa Orszag in Los Angeles and is the granddaughter of child actor and screenwriter True Eames Boardman, and the great-granddaughter of silent film actors True Boardman and Virginia True Boardman. Her acting career began when she was eight years old. Encouraged by her mother and grandfather, she landed her first professional role in an episode of "The Doris Day Show" in 1968.


title: Lisa Gerritsen

text: After "The Doris Day Show", Gerritsen had guest-star or cameo appearances in several television shows including "The Odd Couple," "Bonanza", "The Courtship of Eddie's Father", "The Virginian" and "Family Affair".


title: Lisa Gerritsen

text: She was also cast in several episodes of "Gunsmoke", one of which helped her to land a regular role in the 1969 NBC comedy series "My World and Welcome to It", which starred William Windom and Joan Hotchkis. The show was based on the cartoons and comedy of author James Thurber.


title: Lisa Gerritsen

text: Gerritsen's role in the main cast of "My World and Welcome to It", is one of the high points in her career. The show won several awards including Emmys, although it was cancelled after only one season. Combining animation with live-action sitcom storylines involving cartoonist John Monroe, his wife, daughter and pets, the show's format was unusual for TV. The blend of family strife and social satire included an unconventional relationship between Monroe as father and Gerritsen as genius daughter.


title: Lisa Gerritsen

text: In 1970 Gerritsen (using credit Lisa True Gerritsen) appeared as Hannah Carson on the TV western "The Men From Shiloh" (rebranded name for "The Virginian") in the episode titled "Hannah".


title: Lisa Gerritsen

text: On the December 28, 1970, "Gunsmoke" episode entitled "Jenny," Gerritsen played a 10-year-old who leaves St. Louis after the death of her mother to find her outlaw father, Lucas Pritchard, portrayed by Steve Ihnat.


title: Lisa Gerritsen

text: In 1970, she was cast as Bess Lindstrom, daughter of landlord Phyllis Lindstrom (Cloris Leachman) in "The Mary Tyler Moore Show", for which she received critical acclaim. Bess was a precocious child whose mother believed in progressive parenting—Bess always called Phyllis by her first name, read Phyllis's books on child rearing, and was educated on sexuality.


title: Lisa Gerritsen

text: As Phyllis's daughter, Gerritsen established her importance to "The Mary Tyler Moore Show" in its very first episode. In the premiere episode, test audiences didn't like Rhoda, played by Valerie Harper. Harper eventually became one of the most popular stars on TV, but her initial change from antagonist of Mary (which the audience disliked, since Mary Tyler Moore was universally loved by viewers) occurred because of Gerritsen's Bess. Because Bessto the eternal consternation of Phyllislikes Rhoda and thinks she's funny, the audience changed their opinion of her too, and by the second episode she was Mary's best friend. Gerritsen returned in the role in the spin-off series "Phyllis" (1975–1977).


title: Lisa Gerritsen

text: In addition to her television roles, she also was cast in several movies. She made her first big-screen appearance in "Airport", playing the role of Libby Bakersfeld. She also appeared as Linda in "The War Between Men and Women", which starred Jack Lemmon and Barbara Harris.


title: Granby, Colorado

text: The Town of Granby is the Statutory Town that is the most populous municipality in Grand County, Colorado, United States. The town population was 2,079 at the 2020 United States Census. Granby is situated along U.S. Highway 40 in the Middle Park basin, and it is about northwest of Denver and southwest of Rocky Mountain National Park.


title: Granby, Colorado

text: The town was founded in 1904 along the route of the Denver, Northwestern & Pacific Railway and was incorporated one year later. It was named after Granby Hillyer, a Denver lawyer who later served as the United States Attorney for that city's district.


title: Granby, Colorado

text: Many Granby and Grand County residents are descended from pioneer settlers who arrived before the country was fully surveyed. Early families established themselves under the Homestead Act of 1862, which allowed easy access to land to those who would inhabit and improve upon the territory.


title: Granby, Colorado

text: Since the turn of the century, families have contended for prime ranch land. The Hudlers and Cooks are descended from original homesteaders. Their waning ranch once covered approximately and was rich in cattle and hay.


title: Granby, Colorado

text: Marvin Heemeyer, a local auto muffler shop owner, and entrepreneur was denied access to his own business property when a factory was approved by the city and built, cutting off his road access. The city later prevented him from building a new driveway that would again allow his business to operate. Later his connection to the local sewage line was destroyed by construction of the neighboring factory, but the city fined him for the damage caused by the new factory construction.


title: Granby, Colorado

text: On June 4, 2004, Heemeyer went on a rampage through town, driving a modified bulldozer. Several buildings were damaged, including a bank, a hardware store, the concrete company, a utility service center, the town hall, the police department, and a former mayor's home, all involved in Heemeyer's business having been destroyed. The rampage lasted 2 hours and 7 minutes, ending when the bulldozer got stuck attempting to go through the alleyway of Gambles Hardware Store. Heemeyer then killed himself with a handgun. No other deaths occurred, but an estimated $7 million in damage was done.


title: Granby, Colorado

text: Granby sits at above sea level in the valley of the Fraser River, east of its mouth at the Colorado River. It is located in eastern Grand County at (40.086396, -105.936487), in an area subject to average annual rainfall of inches and annual snowfall of more than .


title: Granby, Colorado

text: U.S. Route 40 passes through the center of town as Agate Avenue, leading south and east over Berthoud Pass to the Denver area, west to Hot Sulphur Springs, the Grand County seat. Kremmling is to the west on US 40. U.S. Route 34 intersects US 40 on the west side of Granby and leads northeast into Rocky Mountain National Park, crossing the mountains as Trail Ridge Road and reaching Estes Park northeast of Granby.


title: Granby, Colorado

text: This climate type is dominated by the winter season, a long, bitterly cold period with short, clear days, relatively little precipitation mostly in the form of snow, and low humidity. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Granby has a subarctic climate, abbreviated "Dfc" on climate maps.


title: Granby, Colorado

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 1,525 people, 579 households, and 390 families residing in the town. The population density was . There were 628 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the town was 96.26% White, 0.46% African American, 0.26% Native American, 0.98% Asian, 0.07% Pacific Islander, 1.44% from other races, and 0.52% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 3.61% of the population.


title: Granby, Colorado

text: There were 579 households, out of which 37.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 55.3% were married couples living together, 7.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.5% were non-families. 21.9% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.59 and the average family size was 3.05.


title: Granby, Colorado

text: In the town, the population was spread out, with 28.1% under the age of 18, 9.1% from 18 to 24, 33.5% from 25 to 44, 22.7% from 45 to 64, and 6.6% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 104.3 males.


title: Granby, Colorado

text: The median income for a household in the town was $46,667, and the median income for a family was $55,250. Males had a median income of $35,455 versus $24,417 for females. The per capita income for the town was $21,224. About 4.0% of families and 5.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.9% of those under the age of 18 and 9.0% of those ages 65 and older.


title: Granby, Colorado

text: Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides daily service to Granby, operating its "California Zephyr" daily in both directions between Chicago and Emeryville, California, across the bay from San Francisco.


title: Granby, Colorado

text: Granby-Grand County Airport , a small airport one mile east of town, serves as a stopover for transient general aviation flights, as well as hosts some local aviation activity. There are currently no scheduled passenger carrier flights into or out of the airport, which features a by asphalt runway. Services at the airport are limited to aviation fuel for both piston and jet/turboprop aircraft. According to the Official Airline Guide (OAG), the airport was previously served by Rocky Mountain Airways which operated scheduled passenger flights to Denver during the mid 1970s with small de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter turboprop aircraft.


title: Arch Motorcycle

text: Arch Motorcycle Company, LLC is a high-end custom American motorcycle manufacturer founded by Keanu Reeves and Gard Hollinger in 2011.


title: Arch Motorcycle

text: In 2007 Keanu Reeves, well known for his passion for motorcycles, met custom bike builder Gard Hollinger. Their mutual understanding would eventually lead to the two forming the Arch Motorcycle Company. Reeves employed Hollinger to customize a Harley-Davidson motorcycle, over five years of design and testing Reeves' motorcycle only retained the Harley Davidson engine. Reeves liked the finished product's handling and character so much, he suggested he and Hollinger start a motorcycle company making the motorcycle. Initially, Hollinger refused— at the time he owned his own motorcycle customization business and was not looking to take the significant step of producing an entire motorcycle and its constituent parts from scratch. According to the pair, Hollinger was eventually convinced by Reeves' persistence and argument that they could produce something great to leave behind as a legacy.


title: Arch Motorcycle

text: The modified Harley-Davidson motorcycle was the inspiration for the prototype Arch motorcycle which eventually led to the company's first production bike, the KRGT-1. The KRGT-1 launched in September 2014 was designed and built using the lessons learned from the initial customization of Reeves' Harley Davidson and Hollinger's extensive experience in commercial motorcycle customization.


title: Arch Motorcycle

text: As of November 2017 Arch have produced three models, which are later customized to customers individual specifications: KRGT-1, 1s, and Method 143. Each model is described as an "American performance cruiser"—according to Reeves and Hollinger, a motorcycle created in the typical American motorcycle style with the comfort and range of a cruiser but closer in performance to a sports bike.


title: Arch Motorcycle

text: The 1s and Method 143 take a sportier, more aggressive, riding position and design. The Method 143 is described as a "concept", as such it has an unusual and striking appearance, much like concept automobiles.


title: Intentionally blank page

text: An intentionally blank page or vacat page (from Latin: "vacare" for "being empty") is a page that has no content and may be unexpected. Such pages may serve purposes ranging from place-holding to space-filling and content separation. Sometimes, these pages carry a notice such as "This page intentionally left blank." Such notices typically appear in printed works, such as legal documents, manuals, and exam papers, in which the reader might otherwise suspect that the blank pages are due to a printing error and where missing pages might have serious consequences.


title: Intentionally blank page

text: Intentionally blank pages are usually the result of printing conventions and techniques. Chapters conventionally start on an odd-numbered page (recto page); therefore, if the preceding chapter happens to have an odd number of pages, a blank page is inserted at the end. Book pages are often printed on large sheets because of technical and financial considerations. Thus, a group of 8, 16, or 32 consecutive pages will be printed on a single sheet in such a way that when the sheet is mechanically folded and cut, the pages will be in the correct order for binding. This is called an even working, and the group of pages is called a section or signature. Books printed in this manner will always have a number of pages that is a multiple of the number in such a signature, such as a multiple of 8, 16, or 32. As a result, these books will usually have pages left blank, unless by chance or editorial ingenuity the exact number of pages is printed.


title: Intentionally blank page

text: For example, if a book with 318 pages of content is printed using 32-page signatures, it will require 10 signatures, 320 pages in total. At the very end of the bookthat is, at the end of the last signaturethere will be two unused (blank) pages.


title: Intentionally blank page

text: If a printer's document processor has been designed to skip completely blank pages, notices may also be required on intentionally blank pages to prevent incorrect page numbering.


title: Intentionally blank page

text: Intentionally blank pages are ubiquitous in technical and instructional manuals, directories, and other large, mass-produced volumes of text. The contents of manuals produced by a given product's vendor are often compiled from generic instructions suitable for a variety of products, with additional instructions or chapters included for the specific product or model in question. This automation of manual generation leads to intentionally blank pages to fit the requirements for mass printing.


title: Intentionally blank page

text: In digital documents, pages are intentionally left blank so that the document can be printed correctly in double-sided format, rather than have new chapters start on the backs of pages. Intentionally blank pages have also been used in documents distributed in ring binders. The intention is to leave room for expansion without breaking the document's page numbering. This allows updates to be made to a document while requiring minimal new pages, reducing printing costs. The only drawback is the increased time required by the reader to manually insert various newly updated pages into their correct locations in the document.


title: Intentionally blank page

text: Intentionally blank pages can be useful in standardized tests such as the GCSE, Higher School Certificate, SAT, CAT, ACT, MCAT, and GRE. In these exams, there are often individual, timed sections in which test-takers are prohibited from proceeding to the next section until that section's time interval has passed and the examiner allows them to continue. Because all of these separate sections are printed consecutively in the examination booklet, it may be possible for a test-taker who has finished the section early to see through the page and read the problems in the next section. By placing intentionally blank pages between these sections, the test-taker is prevented from cheating in this way. By printing a notice on the page, such as ""this page has been intentionally left blank"," test-takers will not be concerned that their test has been misprinted, especially as test instructions often instruct students to check for missing or blank pages and to report any defective test booklets to a proctor. These pages may also be useful as scratch paper.


title: Intentionally blank page

text: In books of sheet music, relatively short pieces of music that span two to four pages often need to be arranged so the number of page turns for the performer is minimized. For example, a three-page work (starting on the left-hand sheet) followed immediately by a two-page work involves one page turn during each work. If a blank page immediately followed the three-page work (on the right-hand sheet), the two-page work will span the left and right pages, alleviating the need for a page turn during the second work. Intentionally blank pages may also prevent a page turn during a difficult passage.


title: Intentionally blank page

text: In the United States armed forces, classified documents require page checks whenever custody is transferred or an inventory is conducted. Blank pages are all marked "This page intentionally left blank", so page checks are unambiguous, and every page of the document is accounted for.


title: Intentionally blank page

text: Intentionally blank pages placed at the end of books are often used to balance the folios that make up the book (see bookbinding). Often these pages are completely blank with no such statement or are used as "Notes" pages, serving a practical purpose. In the case of telephone-number directories, these pages are often used to list important numbers and addresses. These pages may list other books available from the same publisher.


title: Intentionally blank page

text: Book publishers have also used stylized designs (dingbats) underneath the last paragraph of a chapter to indicate that no other content is to be expected until the next chapter, allowing for the possibility of blank pages without misunderstandings by the readers.


title: Powder metallurgy

text: Powder metallurgy (PM) is a term covering a wide range of ways in which materials or components are made from metal powders. PM processes can reduce or eliminate the need for subtractive processes in manufacturing, lowering material losses and reducing the cost of the final product.


title: Powder metallurgy

text: Powder metallurgy is also used to make unique materials impossible to get from melting or forming in other ways. A very important product of this type is tungsten carbide (WC). WC is used to cut and form other metals and is made from WC particles bonded with cobalt. It is very widely used in industry for tools of many types and globally ~50,000 tonnes/year (t/y) is made by PM. Other products include sintered filters, porous oil-impregnated bearings, electrical contacts and diamond tools.


title: Powder metallurgy

text: Since the advent of industrial production–scale metal powder–based additive manufacturing (AM) in the 2010s, selective laser sintering and other metal AM processes are a new category of commercially important powder metallurgy applications.


title: Powder metallurgy

text: The powder metallurgy press and sinter process generally consists of three basic steps: powder blending (pulverisation), die compaction, and sintering. Compaction is generally performed at room temperature, and the elevated-temperature process of sintering is usually conducted at atmospheric pressure and under carefully controlled atmosphere composition. Optional secondary processing such as coining or heat treatment often follows to obtain special properties or enhanced precision.


title: Powder metallurgy

text: One of the older such methods, and still one used to make around 1 Mt/y of structural components of iron-based alloys, is the process of blending fine (<180 microns) metal (normally iron) powders with additives such as a lubricant wax, carbon, copper, and/or nickel, pressing them into a die of the desired shape, and then heating the compressed material ("green part") in a controlled atmosphere to bond the material by sintering. This produces precise parts, normally very close to the die dimensions, but with 5–15% porosity, and thus sub-wrought steel properties. There are several other PM processes which have been developed over the last fifty years. These include:


title: Powder metallurgy

text: The history of powder metallurgy and the art of metal and ceramic sintering are intimately related to each other. Sintering involves the production of a hard solid metal or ceramic piece from a starting powder. The ancient Incas made jewelry and other artifacts from precious metal powders, though mass manufacturing of PM products did not begin until the mid or late 19th century. In these early manufacturing operations, iron was extracted by hand from metal sponge following reduction and was then reintroduced as a powder for final melting or sintering.


title: Powder metallurgy

text: A much wider range of products can be obtained from powder processes than from direct alloying of fused materials. In melting operations the "phase rule" applies to all pure and combined elements and strictly dictates the distribution of liquid and solid phases which can exist for specific compositions. In addition, whole body melting of starting materials is required for alloying, thus imposing unwelcome chemical, thermal, and containment constraints on manufacturing. Unfortunately, the handling of aluminium/iron powders poses major problems. Other substances that are especially reactive with atmospheric oxygen, such as titanium, are sinterable in special atmospheres or with temporary coatings.


title: Powder metallurgy

text: In powder metallurgy or ceramics it is possible to fabricate components which otherwise would decompose or disintegrate. All considerations of solid-liquid phase changes can be ignored, so powder processes are more flexible than casting, extrusion, or forging techniques. Controllable characteristics of products prepared using various powder technologies include mechanical, magnetic, and other unconventional properties of such materials as porous solids, aggregates, and intermetallic compounds. Competitive characteristics of manufacturing processing (e.g. tool wear, complexity, or vendor options) also may be closely controlled.


title: Powder metallurgy

text: Any fusible material can be atomized. Several techniques have been developed which permit large production rates of powdered particles, often with considerable control over the size ranges of the final grain population. Powders may be prepared by crushing, grinding, chemical reactions, or electrolytic deposition. The most commonly used powders are copper-base and iron-base materials.


title: Powder metallurgy

text: Powders of the elements titanium, vanadium, thorium, niobium, tantalum, calcium, and uranium have been produced by high-temperature reduction of the corresponding nitrides and carbides. Iron, nickel, uranium, and beryllium submicrometre powders are obtained by reducing metallic oxalates and formates. Exceedingly fine particles also have been prepared by directing a stream of molten metal through a high-temperature plasma jet or flame, atomizing the material. Various chemical and flame associated powdering processes are adopted in part to prevent serious degradation of particle surfaces by atmospheric oxygen.


title: Powder metallurgy

text: In tonnage terms, the production of iron powders for PM structural part production dwarfs the production of all of the non-ferrous metal powders combined. Virtually all iron powders are produced by one of two processes: the sponge iron process or water atomization.


title: Powder metallurgy

text: The longest established of these processes is the sponge iron process, the leading example of a family of processes involving solid state reduction of an oxide. In the process, selected magnetite (FeO) ore is mixed with coke and lime and placed in a silicon carbide retort. The filled retort is then heated in a kiln, where the reduction process leaves an iron “cake” and a slag. In subsequent steps, the retort is emptied, the reduced iron sponge is separated from the slag and is crushed and annealed.


title: Powder metallurgy

text: The resultant powder is highly irregular in particle shape, therefore ensuring good “green strength” so that die-pressed compacts can be readily handled prior to sintering, and each particle contains internal pores (hence the term “sponge”) so that the good green strength is available at low compacted density levels.


title: Powder metallurgy

text: feedstock for all iron-based self-lubricating bearings, and still accounts for around 30% of iron powder usage in PM structural parts.


title: Powder metallurgy

text: Atomization is accomplished by forcing a molten metal stream through an orifice at moderate pressures. A gas is introduced into the metal stream just before it leaves the nozzle, serving to create turbulence as the entrained gas expands (due to heating) and exits into a large collection volume exterior to the orifice. The collection volume is filled with gas to promote further turbulence of the molten metal jet. Air and powder streams are segregated using gravity or cyclonic separation. Most atomized powders are annealed, which helps reduce the oxide and carbon content. The water atomized particles are smaller, cleaner, and nonporous and have a greater breadth of size, which allows better compacting. The particles produced through this method are normally of spherical or pear shape. Usually, they also carry a layer of oxide over them.


title: Powder metallurgy

text: Simple atomization techniques are available in which liquid metal is forced through an orifice at a sufficiently high velocity to ensure turbulent flow. The usual performance index used is the Reynolds number R = fvd/n, where f = fluid density, v = velocity of the exit stream, d = diameter of the opening, and n = absolute viscosity. At low R the liquid jet oscillates, but at higher velocities the stream becomes turbulent and breaks into droplets. Pumping energy is applied to droplet formation with very low efficiency (on the order of 1%) and control over the size distribution of the metal particles produced is rather poor. Other techniques such as nozzle vibration, nozzle asymmetry, multiple impinging streams, or molten-metal injection into ambient gas are all available to increase atomization efficiency, produce finer grains, and to narrow the particle size distribution. Unfortunately, it is difficult to eject metals through orifices smaller than a few millimeters in diameter, which in practice limits the minimum size of powder grains to approximately 10 μm. Atomization also produces a wide spectrum of particle sizes, necessitating downstream classification by screening and remelting a significant fraction of the grain boundary.


title: Powder metallurgy

text: Centrifugal disintegration of molten particles offers one way around these problems. Extensive experience is available with iron, steel, and aluminium. Metal to be powdered is formed into a rod which is introduced into a chamber through a rapidly rotating spindle. Opposite the spindle tip is an electrode from which an arc is established which heats the metal rod. As the tip material fuses, the rapid rod rotation throws off tiny melt droplets which solidify before hitting the chamber walls. A circulating gas sweeps particles from the chamber. Similar techniques could be employed in space or on the Moon. The chamber wall could be rotated to force new powders into remote collection vessels, and the electrode could be replaced by a solar mirror focused at the end of the rod.


title: Powder metallurgy

text: An alternative approach capable of producing a very narrow distribution of grain sizes but with low throughput consists of a rapidly spinning bowl heated to well above the melting point of the material to be powdered. Liquid metal, introduced onto the surface of the basin near the center at flow rates adjusted to permit a thin metal film to skim evenly up the walls and over the edge, breaks into droplets, each approximately the thickness of the film.


title: Powder metallurgy

text: Another powder-production technique involves a thin jet of liquid metal intersected by high-speed streams of atomized water which break the jet into drops and cool the powder before it reaches the bottom of the bin. In subsequent operations the powder is dried. This is called water atomization. The advantage of water atomization is that metal solidifies faster than by gas atomization since the heat capacity of water is some magnitudes higher than gases. Since the solidification rate is inversely proportional to the particle size, smaller particles can be made using water atomization. The smaller the particles, the more homogeneous the micro structure will be. Notice that particles will have a more irregular shape and the particle size distribution will be wider. In addition, some surface contamination can occur by oxidation skin formation. Powder can be reduced by some kind of pre-consolidation treatment, such as annealing used for the manufacture of ceramic tools.


title: Powder metallurgy

text: Powder compaction is the process of compacting metal powder in a die through the application of high pressures. Typically the tools are held in the vertical orientation with the punch tool forming the bottom of the cavity. The powder is then compacted into a shape and then ejected from the die cavity. In a number of these applications the parts may require very little additional work for their intended use; making for very cost efficient manufacturing.


title: Powder metallurgy

text: The density of the compacted powder increases with the amount of pressure applied. Typical pressures range from 80 psi to 1000 psi (0.5 MPa to 7 MPa), pressures from 1000 psi to 1,000,000 psi have been obtained. Pressure of 10 t/in² to 50 t/in² (150 MPa to 700 MPa) are commonly used for metal powder compaction. To attain the same compression ratio across a component with more than one level or height, it is necessary to work with multiple lower punches. A cylindrical workpiece is made by single-level tooling. A more complex shape can be made by the common multiple-level tooling.