title: Andros, Bahamas

text: The Bahamas achieved Independence 10 July 1973. One of the final acts of the British Crown in the Bahamas was to grant AUTEC a long-term lease for land on Andros. (It is similar to the U.S. lease for its Guantanamo Bay Navy Base in Cuba.)


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Sir Lynden became the first Prime Minister of the Bahamas. He served until 1992, when his party lost control of Parliament. He retained his seat representing South Andros.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Noteworthy for a unique combination of marine features and ecosystems, Andros is bordered on the east by the Tongue of the Ocean. The Andros Barrier Reef is the world's sixth longest. It runs for , averaging a distance of from the Andros shore. The extensive flats of the Great Bahama Bank lie to the west, northwest and south of Andros. The island has the world's largest collection of blue holes.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Geographically, North Andros is the sixth largest island in the West Indies, at roughly in area and long and wide at its widest point, and the 153rd largest island on Earth. If all three main islands are included, Andros is the fifth-largest island in the West Indies, after Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica and Puerto Rico. Although comparable in total area to the state of Rhode Island (3140 km, population 1.05 million) together with Long Island, New York (3600 km, population 7.5 million), Andros only has a population of approximately 8000, almost all of whom are settled in a thin strip near the Queen Elizabeth Highway running along the island's eastern coast.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Andros is west across the Tongue of the Ocean from the Bahamas' national capital of Nassau on New Providence Island. Its northern tip lies from Fort Lauderdale, Florida. Geologically and geographically the Bahamas, including Andros, are not located in the Caribbean, whose northern boundary is the Windward Passage, but rather in the Atlantic Ocean. Historically, the nation was part of the British West Indies and is considered culturally to be part of the Caribbean. The Bahamian dialect of the English language is distinctively Caribbean in character, similar to those of Jamaica and the Cayman Islands, also formerly part of the British West Indies.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: The township of Fresh Creek is home to the Atlantic Undersea Test and Evaluation Center (AUTEC), operated by the U.S. Navy. The United Kingdom and United States conduct special operations training, and sonar and submarine research in the Tongue of the Ocean. The U.S. Coast Guard also runs rescue and drug interdiction operations from AUTEC.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Andros lies just north of the Tropic of Cancer, with moderate temperature range affected by its relative proximity to the Gulf Stream to the west. The island has a tropical climate with only two seasons, summer (May–November) and winter (December–April). Midsummer temperatures range from 27 °C-29 °C/80°F-85°F with a relative humidity of 60 to 100 percent. Winter temperatures range from 21 °C-24 °C/70-75°F and can drop 5 °CC/41°F after dark. Andros Island is hit by a hurricane an average of every 2.5 years. The Great Florida Hurricane of 1929 is known in the Bahamas as The Great Andros Hurricane. Notable strikes in the modern era have included Hurricanes Betsy (1965), David (1979), Arlene (1987), Andrew (1992), Lili (1996), Floyd (1999), Michelle (2001), Wilma (2005) and Matthew (2016).


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Matthew caused widespread flooding and devastation on the north end of the island around Morgan's Bluff, Lowe Sound, and Nicholl's Town. Many locals claim Matthew was the worst hurricane seen on Andros in nearly 90 years.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: The largest employers on Andros Island are the Bahamian government and the AUTEC base at Fresh Creek.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Despite its small population, Andros Island has several ongoing commercial ventures. Western Air maintains its headquarters in a modern facility at the San Andros airport. A Mennonite mission-run commercial farm was founded near Blanket Sound in 1983, which grows everything from habanero peppers to sorghum and potatoes, and has numerous fruit orchards and honey bee hives. The Mennonites also run the largest car repair and carpentry shops on the island. Androsia, a hand-crafted batik factory founded at Fresh Creek in 1972, produces a vibrant, colourful fabric that has become part of the national dress and identity of the Bahamas. GreenLife Growers, a Bahamian native tree nursery at Young Sound, provides landscaping material to real estate developers and government projects throughout the Bahamas.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Commercial fishing remains a mainstay of the island's economy: conch, lobster, snapper and grouper are all commercially harvested for sale locally and in Nassau's fish markets. Seasonal crabbing—catching crabs and fattening them in pens for sale in Nassau—provides a cash crop for locals to supplement their income.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Local handicrafts in the Black Seminole style—particularly wood carvings and woven baskets—are a cottage industry in the settlement of Red Bays. A sample of Red Bays baskets is held by the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: A fledgling conservation industry on Andros is dedicated to preserving the island's unique ecosystems, working in partnership with the Bahamian government (Bahamas National Trust) and such varied non-governmental organizations as The Nature Conservancy and Project AWARE of the Professional Association of Dive Instructors (PADI). They supported legislation to found the Central Andros National Park in 2002. Most of the island's conservation efforts funnel through the non-profit nongovernmental organization, Andros Conservancy & Trust Bahamas. ANCAT's efforts are closely tied to encouraging eco-tourism, to generate economic incentives to preserve the existing varied habitats of the island. GreenForce Global Volunteering/Bahamas, an international NGO based in the UK, conducts environmental research from its operation at Stafford Creek on North Andros. It also offers 3- to 12-week dive training, and marine and environmental science programs for conservationists and others.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Tourism is Andros Island's largest industry, and the largest private employer. The Bahamian tourism industry markets Andros as the least-explored island in the chain. From Nicholls Town in the north to Little Creek in the south are 35–40 hotels, motels, resorts, guest houses and lodges (the number varies), with a total of approximately 400 rooms. Tourists are composed primarily of scuba divers, attracted to the barrier reef, Tongue of the Ocean, and the Blue Holes; bonefishing anglers, and others looking for relaxation.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Andros Island was the site of two of the first dive-dedicated resorts in the world, and the first in the Bahamas, both founded by Canadians. Small Hope Bay Lodge near Fresh Creek was founded by Dick Birch in 1960. It continues to operate as a dive resort under the ownership and management of Dick Birch's children.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: The second resort was the Andros Reef Inn located in Blanket Sound founded by Archie Forfar in the 1960s. After his death in a diving accident in 1971, his property was purchased by International Field Studies, Inc (IFS) of Columbus, OH in 1977. Renamed Forfar Field Station, the site is used for science education and research of the surrounding reef, marine, and island ecology for Bahamian and American middle and high school students, as well, as college students, non-profit organizations, and researchers.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Andros Island is surrounded by thousands of square kilometres of fishable flats, home to permit, tarpon, and especially bonefish. The island is known as the bonefish capital of the world. Bonefish are considered among the world's premier gamefish for anglers. Other varieties of fishing are available on Andros. Deep sea fishing beyond the reef in the Tongue of the Ocean offers dorado, tuna, sailfish, wahoo, and jacks. Locals fish regularly on the reef for abundant snapper and grouper.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Andros sponsors a number of festivals: Crabfest at Fresh Creek each June, the annual regatta at Morgan's Bluff, Conch Festival, a local Junkanoo and Goombay festival between Christmas and New Year's, the Pirates' Festival, and the Annual Seafood Splash & Chickcharnie Festival. In addition, ANCAT sponsors numerous ecologically oriented events for tourists and locals.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Andros exhibits greater botanical diversity than any other island in the Bahamas. The presence of its barrier reef and the Tongue of the Ocean give the island a great zoological diversity. Among the various land ecosystems are hardwood coppice, pineyard, scrub, saltwater marsh, rocky and sandy beaches, palm savannas and mangroves. Non-coastal areas on Andros are referred to generically as 'the bush'. Coastal mangrove flats and estuaries are referred to as 'the swash', or salt water marsh.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: In the 1960s and 1970s the Owens Lumber company, a US-owned company that bought out a number of Bahamian lumber interests, clear cut and deforested much of the indigenous pineyards that grew on North Andros. Timber was not harvested on western Andros because these forests are surrounded by wetlands and couldn't be economically harvested. It is currently home to some of the largest pines remaining in the Bahamas. What is found on the North Andros landmass today are over-crowded forests of mainly young trees.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Andros has the Bahamas' only freshwater river, contributing to its biodiversity. Thousands of kilometres of underground water from rainwater collect in aquifers below the island's surface. Nineteen million litres of freshwater are shipped daily to Nassau by barge through the pumping station located in Morgan's Bluff.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Andros Island is home to several species of lizards, including the Andros Island iguana ("Cyclura cychlura cychlura"), a large endangered subspecies of Northern Bahamian rock iguana. The Andros Island iguana is listed as an Endangered species and can be found on the IUCN Red List, with a wild population of 3,500 individuals remaining on the island.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: The barrier reef and the Tongue of the Ocean, together with mangrove swamps, rocky tidal pools, and estuaries, provide breeding and growing habitats for a wide variety of young marine life.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Andros has a variety of close-to-shore and on-shore ecosystems that may be unique on Earth: tidal inland and ocean blue holes, shallow sand and mud flats, tidal estuaries, mangrove swamps, the pelagic ecozone of the drop-off only from shore, the world's third-largest barrier reef, and huge freshwater aquifers. The marine biosphere is fed by both the teeming life of the mangrove marshes and estuaries on the mainland, and the upwelling of cool water from the Tongue of the Ocean, resulting in an unparallelled variety of sea life.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Humpback whales, which are found in all the world's oceans, follow a regular migration route, summering in temperate and polar waters for feeding, and wintering in tropical waters for mating and calving. Humpbacks used to be common in the Tongue of the Ocean off Andros, and are still seen infrequently. Pilot whales are also seen off the coast of Andros.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Inside the Andros Barrier Reef, staghorn, elkhorn and other corals are found in shallows deep. Beyond the shallow reefs are tiny cays and islets, from which the sea bottom gradually deepens until at a depth of between comes "The Wall", with its plunge into the abyss of the Tongue of the Ocean.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Four species of turtles are found in Andros' waters: loggerhead, green, hawksbill and, rarely, the leatherback.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Most resident bird species of the Bahamas are believed to have come northward from the West Indies, as winds and sea currents favour migration from the south and southeast. Some 225 species are known in the islands. Andros, with its vast undeveloped land, is home to many of them.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: The Bahama oriole is unique to Andros Island. Critically endangered, it has an estimated remaining population of as few as several hundred. The great lizard cuckoo is found only on Andros, New Providence, and Eleuthera. The rare Kirtland's warbler—an estimated 600 remain—was first seen on the island in 1879 and some individuals winter on Andros. The endangered migratory Atlantic subspecies of the piping plover favours the rocky shores and sandy beaches of Andros. Other rare and uncommon birds found in the Andros environ include the Bahama yellowthroat, Bahama woodstar, Bahama swallow, West Indian whistling duck and Key West quail dove.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Other birds found on Andros include the loggerhead kingbird, La Sagra's flycatcher, Cuban pewee, Bahama mockingbird, red-legged thrush, thick-billed vireo, black-whiskered vireo, olive-capped warbler, Greater Antillean bullfinch, black-faced grassquit, melodious grassquit, least grebe, olivaceous cormorant, American flamingo, Bahama pintail, osprey, American kestrel, sooty tern, roseate tern, noddy tern, white-crowned pigeon, zenaida dove, Caribbean dove, smooth-billed ani and Cuban emerald hummingbird.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: More than 50 species of wild orchids thrive in the more than of subtropical forests and the swamps of Andros. Many are endemic, including three native species of the climbing orchid "Vanilla". Commercial flower collectors have been known to set fire to the pineland coppices to collect the sharp-petalled bletias ("Bletia purpurea") that flourish in ashy soil. The orchid genus "Epidendrum" has nine species endemic to the Bahamas, all of which can be found on Andros.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: According to local lore, two mythical creatures are endemic to Andros: the Lusca and the Chickcharney (also spelled "Chickcharnie".) The Lusca, half-octopus, half-shark and gigantic, supposedly swallows whole boats. The Chickcharney, furry and feathered and tall, has one red eye and three-toed claws.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: A man from Oregon believes that the legend of the chickcharney is based on the prehistoric barn owl "Tyto pollens", although remains have never been found on Andros and the youngest fossil bones are from a layer before the arrival of the first humans, the Lucayans.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: All the main islands of the Bahamas have blue holes, but those of Andros are the best known. Andros has 178 on land with at least 50 in the sea. Blue holes can best be described as entrances to the intricate cave systems that run underneath the island and sea floor.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Their openings can be found among the shallow creeks, inland lakes, and the shallow banks of the Bahamas. The caves, which have developed within the Bahamian carbonate platforms, can be laterally and vertically very extensive. Lateral cave passages can extend to several kilometres and vertically may range in depth from ten to several hundred metres.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Noted oceanographer and environmentalist Jacques Cousteau visited Andros Island in 1970 to explore and film the Andros Blue Holes. The video of this expedition, called "The Secret of the Sunken Caves," is included in the 2005 Cousteau video collection, "The Jacques Cousteau Odyssey: The Complete Collection." Cousteau explored several ocean blue holes, and the inland blue holes known as Uncle Charlie's, Church's, and the Guardian.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: "National Geographic" magazine has featured the Andros Blue Holes several times over the past thirty years, most recently in August 2010.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Andros Island has four airports with paved runways: San Andros Airport at Nicholls Town, Andros Town International Airport located at Fresh Creek, the Clarence A. Bain Airport at Mangrove Cay and Congo Town Airport in South Andros. Andros Town International is an international port of entry for private pilots. The island is served by multiple daily flights from Nassau by [(Jet 1)], BahamasAir, Watermakers Air Western Air, and LeAir—the flight to any of the four airports is 15–25 minutes. Daily scheduled flights to Nassau from London, Paris, New York City, Boston, Atlanta, Philadelphia, Houston, Dallas, Jacksonville, Miami, Fort Lauderdale, Palm Beach, Orlando and other major cities provide easy connection from Andros to the rest of the world.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Regularly scheduled charters provide direct service to Andros Town from Miami and Fort Lauderdale, Florida.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Andros is connected to Nassau by Sea-Link ferry, which runs daily to Morgan's Bluff on the north end of the island and Fresh Creek in central Andros. It is also reachable by mailboat from Nassau and for inter-island travel with stops at numerous Andros settlements.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Andros is politically divided into four Districts (North Andros, Central Andros, South Andros and Mangrove Cay) and ten townships. (Mastic Point, Lowe Sound, Nicholls Town, Staniard Creek, Fresh Creek, Cargill Creek, The Bluff, Long Bay Cays, Kemps Bay, Deep Creek). It is represented in the national parliament by two seats—North Andros and South Andros. Dozens of tiny settlements have developed along the island's east coast, (i.e. Blanket Sound, Love Hill, Davis Creek, Small Hope Bay, Calabash Bay, Bowen Sound, Behring Point, Little Creek). There is one settlement on the west coast, Red Bays, historically settled by American fugitive slaves and Black Seminoles, located at the island's northwestern tip.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: There are a number of church denominations represented within Andros. In North Andros, the Anglican Church has a presence through St Margaret's Parish. This parish consists of two churches, St Margaret's located in the settlement of Nicholls Town and St Mary Magdalene located in the settlement of Mastic Point. There are also Methodist churches in Stafford Creek, Nicholl's Town and Mastic Point.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Nassau provides clergy for parishes throughout Andros. On South Andros Sacred Heart parish is in Little Creek and St. Robert Bellarmine parish is in High Rock. Mangrove Cay is served by St. Benedict's parish and Central Andros is served by St. John Chrysostom parish in Fresh Creek and Christ the King parish in Cargill Creek. Catholic services are also provided on Saturday evening at the AUTEC Navy Base chapel.


title: Andros, Bahamas

text: Blanket Sound Mennonite Church is located in Blanket Sound on Andros. The congregation is affiliated with the Eastern Pennsylvania Mennonite Church.


title: Assiniboine

text: The Assiniboine or Assiniboin people ( when singular, Assiniboines / Assiniboins when plural; Ojibwe: "Asiniibwaan", "stone Sioux"; also in plural Assiniboine or Assiniboin), also known as the Hohe and known by the endonym Nakota (or Nakoda or Nakona), are a First Nations/Native American people originally from the Northern Great Plains of North America.


title: Assiniboine

text: Today, they are centred in present-day Saskatchewan. They have also populated parts of Alberta and southwestern Manitoba in Canada, and northern Montana and western North Dakota in the United States. They were well known throughout much of the late 18th and early 19th century, and were members of the Iron Confederacy with the Cree. Images of Assiniboine people were painted by 19th-century artists such as Karl Bodmer and George Catlin.


title: Assiniboine

text: The Europeans and Americans adopted names that other tribes used for the Assiniboine; they did not until later learn the tribe's autonym, their name for themselves. In Siouan, they traditionally called themselves the . With the widespread adoption of English, however, many now use the name that became common in English. The English adopted "Assiniboine," used by the Canadian French colonists. It was a transliteration into French phonetics of what they heard the Ojibwe use as a term for these western people. The Ojibwe name is (stone Sioux). In Cree they are called ( "noun animate singular", "noun animate plural").


title: Assiniboine

text: In the same way, "Assnipwan" comes from the word in the western Cree dialects, from "noun animate" 'rock, stone' and "noun animate" 'enemy, Sioux'. Early French-speaking traders in the west were often familiar with Algonquian languages. They transliterated many Cree or Ojibwe exonyms for other western Canadian indigenous peoples during the early colonial era. English speakers referred to the Assiniboine by adopting terms from French spelled using English phonetics.


title: Assiniboine

text: The word "Assiniboine" has its origin as follows: They are an offspring of the Sioux. In the war of 1812 a number of these Sioux fought against a number of Chippewas, and took a good many of the latter prisoners. They tied these prisoners to a stake upon a large rock and burned them to death. Since that time they have been called Assini Boines, which, in the Chippewa language, means burnt rock.


title: Assiniboine

text: Other tribes associated "stone" with the Assiniboine because they primarily cooked with heated stones. They dropped hot stones into water to heat it to boiling for cooking meat. Some writers believed that the name was derived from the Ojibway term , stone, and the French , to boil, but such an etymology is very unlikely.


title: Assiniboine

text: Assiniboine is a Mississippi Valley Siouan language, in the Western Siouan language family. In the early 21st century, about 150 people speak the language and most are more than 40 years old. The majority of the Assiniboine today speak only American English. The 2000 census showed 3,946 tribal members who lived in the United States.


title: Assiniboine

text: Assiniboine are closely linked by language to the Stoney First Nations people of Alberta. The latter two tribes speak varieties of Nakota, a distant, but not mutually intelligible, variant of the Sioux language.


title: Assiniboine

text: The Assiniboine, along with the Stoney of Alberta, share a common ancestry with the Sioux nation. While it was formerly believed that the Assiniboine originated among the Yanktonai division of the Dakota Sioux, linguistic analysis indicates that the Assiniboine and Stoney together form a group coordinate with that of the Santee, Lakota, and Yankon-Yanktonai, and that they are no more related to one of these subdivisions than another. The separation of the Assiniboine from the Sioux must have occurred at some time prior to 1640, as Paul Le Jeune names them along with the "Naduessi" (Sioux) in his Jesuit Relations of that year.


title: Assiniboine

text: The Assiniboine and Sioux were both gradually pushed westward onto the plains from the woodlands of Minnesota by the Ojibwe, who had acquired firearms from their French allies. Later, the Assiniboine acquired horses via raiding and trading with neighboring tribes of Plains Indians such as the Crow and the Sioux on their south.


title: Assiniboine

text: The Assiniboine eventually developed into a large and powerful people with a horse and warrior culture; they used the horse to hunt the vast numbers of bison that lived within and outside their territory. At the height of their power, the Assiniboine dominated territory ranging from the North Saskatchewan River in the north to the Missouri River in the south, and including portions of modern-day Saskatchewan, Alberta, and Manitoba, Canada; and North Dakota and Montana, United States of America.


title: Assiniboine

text: The first person of European descent to describe the Assiniboine was an employee of the Hudson's Bay Company named Henry Kelsey in the 1690s. Later explorers and traders Jean Baptiste de La Vérendrye and his sons (1730s), Anthony Henday (1754–55), and Alexander Henry the younger (1800s) confirmed that the Assiniboine held a vast territory across the northern plains, including into the United States (which achieved independence in 1776 but did not acquire the plains until 1803 in the Louisiana Purchase from France.)


title: Assiniboine

text: The Assiniboine became reliable and important trading partners and middlemen for fur traders and other Indians, particularly the British Hudson's Bay Company and North West Company, operating in western Canada in a vast area known then as Rupert's Land. During the later 18th century and early 19th century, south of the border in what became Montana and the Dakota territories, the Assiniboine traded with the American Fur Company and the competing Rocky Mountain Fur Company. The Assiniboine obtained guns, ammunition, metal tomahawks, metal pots, wool blankets, wool coats, wool leggings, and glass beads, as well as other goods from the fur traders in exchange for furs. Beaver furs and bison hides were the most commonly traded furs.


title: Assiniboine

text: Increased contact with Europeans resulted in Native Americans contracting Eurasian infectious diseases that were endemic among the Europeans. They suffered epidemics with high mortality, most notably smallpox among the Assiniboine. The Assiniboine population crashed from around 10,000 people in the late 18th century to around 2600 by 1890.


title: Assiniboine

text: The Lewis and Clark Expedition was mounted by the United States in 1804–1806 to explore the Louisiana Territory, newly acquired from France. The expedition's journals mention the Assiniboine, whom the party heard about while returning from Fort Clatsop down the Missouri River. These explorers did not encounter or come in direct contact with the tribe.


title: Assiniboine

text: Noted European and American painters traveled with traders, explorers, and expeditions for the opportunity to paint the West and its Native American peoples. Among those who encountered and painted the Assiniboine from life were painters Karl Bodmer, Paul Kane, and George Catlin.


title: Assiniboine

text: In 1885, some Assiniboine scouts aided the Canadian North West Field Force track down Cree renegades who were participating in the Second Riel Rebellion of Métis.


title: Assiniboine

text: In 1857, a group of Sioux warriors, including Sitting Bull, attacked an Assiniboine camp, they had killed all except an 11-year-old boy who was still fighting against the raiders with his child-sized bow. Some Sioux warriors threatened to kill him, but before they could, he turned to Sitting Bull and wrapped his arms around his waist and said "please brother don't kill me!" Sitting Bull stopped his warriors and said, "This boy is too brave to die! I take him as my brother." While living with the Lakota they gave him the name Little Assiniboine and later changed it to Stays Back, because of his unwillingness to return to the Assiniboine. Sitting Bull later changed it to Jumping Bull after his father, who had been dealing with a toothache throughout the day when a war party of Crows attacked them, jumped on his horse chasing after the raiders and was killed by a Crow Chief. Sitting Bull was not in camp and upon his return learned of his fathers fate. In his anger he went after the Crows and killed their Chief, when he returned he pointed at Stays Back and said "from now on your name is Jumping Bull!" Jumping Bull stayed loyal to Sitting Bull and later died alongside him at Standing Rock in 1890 while attempting to defend him.


title: Assiniboine

text: The Assiniboine were a major part of an alliance of northern Plains Indian nations known as the Iron Confederacy, or , as it is known in Plains Cree, beginning prior to 1692 until the late nineteenth century. The Iron Confederacy were allies in the fur trade, particularly with the Hudson's Bay Company. The Assiniboine and the Cree () being important intermediaries in the Great Plains trading networks. Members included the Assiniboine, Stoney ( or ), the Plains and Woodland Cree, Saulteaux (called ), as well as Métis (), and individual Iroquois people who traveled west as employees for the fur traders. Loosely associated for military shelter against the Blackfoot and to ensure safe access to the prairies for the bison hunt were Plateau tribes such as Bitterroot Salish (Flathead) (), Kutenai, Sekani, Secwepemc, and Nez Perce (). Other Indian peoples on the northern plains, such as the Gros Ventre (), were occasionally part of the confederacy.


title: Assiniboine

text: The confederacy became the dominant force on the northern plains. It posed a major threat to Indian nations not associated with it, such as the Shoshone () and Crow ( or = "enemies") further south. Their most mighty and most dangerous enemy, however, were their former trading partner the Blackfoot Confederacy ( = Blackfeet or = "enemies"). The kindred Sioux peoples () and their allies, the Arapaho () and Cheyenne (), were also enemies. The Iron Confederacy also attacked European-American settlements on the Plains. The eventual decline of the fur trade and overhunting of the bison herds by Canadian and American hunters, which destroyed the Confederacy nations' most important food source, led to the defeat and breaking up of the confederacy. It engaged in military action with Canada during the North-West Rebellion.


title: Assiniboine

text: Traditionally the Assiniboine were semi-nomadic people. During the warmer months, they followed and hunted the herds of plains bison.


title: Assiniboine

text: Women, as life-givers, have had primary responsibility for the survival and welfare of the families (and future of the tribe). Women usually gathered and cultivated plants, used plants and herbs to treat illnesses, cared for the young and the elderly, made all the clothing and instruments, and processed and cured meat and skins from the game. The women processed and preserved the meat for winter, and used hides, tendons, and horns for clothing, bedding, tools, cord and other items. Every part of the animal was used by the people.


title: Assiniboine

text: The men hunted, traded and made war on horseback using bow and arrows. The tribe is known for its excellent horsemanship. They first obtained horses by trading with the Blackfeet and the Gros Ventre tribes. Assiniboine, Stoney (as well as Lakota and Dakota) girls were encouraged to learn to ride, hunt and fight. Though fighting in war has mostly been left to the boys and men, occasionally women have fought as well – both in battles and in defense of the home – especially if the tribe was severely threatened.


title: Assiniboine

text: The Sun god and Thunder god were considered the most important manifestations of the Great Spirit. The Assiniboine people participated in the sun dance like other Plains Native peoples. They also took guidance from personal visions in vision quests.


title: Assiniboine

text: The ("Assiniboine Nation"), was historically divided into up to 40 separate (bands), each of which was led by its own (tribal chief) and an advisory band council - the so-called ("little chiefs"). Other important personalities were the (war chief), who led the warriors in war, and the (medicine man), who acted both as a religious leader and traditional healer. War deeds, important news, and decisions by the band council were announced by the (camp crier), the (soldier; camp watcher) acted as "police" and were responsible for maintaining order in the camp, on the hunt and at wartime.


title: Assiniboine

text: The individual bands were again divided into several (local groups), which consisted of one or more extended families. The smallest social unit was the (nuclear family), which usually lived in one (tipi) or two neighboring tipis.


title: Assiniboine

text: As a patrilineal tribe hereditary leadership passes through the male line, and children are considered to belong to the father and his clan.


title: Assiniboine

text: The figure of Iktome from the Assiniboine creation myth is one of the most famous creator-trickster characters of Native American mythology. In the myth Ikotme sends some animals searching to find land beneath the depths of the primeval sea. This is an "earth-diver" style of creation myth resembling similar stories of the Anishinabe and Ojibwe peoples. The only animal who succeeds is the muskrat who floats to the surface dead. Ikotme uses the earth the muskrat was clutching in his dead hands to create land. Unlike other creators, Ikotme is amoral. Ikotme kills a frog who challenges his plans to create an endless winter but eventually yields and shortens the length to seven months. He creates horses and humans out of dirt and teaches the Assinibone how to steal horses. Some of the elements in modern versions of the myth include elements that are later additions such as the presence of horses which were introduced to North America by the Spanish.


title: Assiniboine

text: The bands of chief Manitupotis (also known as "Wankanto" – Little Soldier) and Hunkajuka ("Hum-ja-jin-sin, Inihan Kinyen" – Little Chief), together about 300 people with about 50 warriors, on June 1, 1873, were victims of the Cypress Hills massacre. An estimated 25 to 30 Assiniboine were killed by American Wolfers to take revenge for horse-stealing Cree in Montana. This massacre led to the development of the North-West Mounted Police (NWMP), later known as the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP).


title: Assiniboine

text: Today, a substantial number of Assiniboine people live jointly with other tribes, such as the Plains Cree, Saulteaux, Sioux and Gros Ventre, in several reservations in Canada and the United States. In Manitoba, the Assiniboine survive as individuals, holding no separate communal reserves.


title: Assiniboine

text: In March 2012, these two reservations has received 63 American bison from Yellowstone National Park, to be released to a 2,100-acre game preserve 25 miles north of Poplar. There are many other bison herds outside Yellowstone; this is one of the few genetically pure ones in which the animals were not cross-bred with cattle. Native Americans celebrated this action for restoration of the bison. It came more than a century after the bison were nearly destroyed by overhunting by European Americans and government action to destroy the food source of the powerful Plains Indians. The Assiniboine and Gros Ventre tribes at the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation will also receive a portion of this herd.


title: Assiniboine

text: "Fort Assiniboine" was a name given to trading posts opened in 1793 in Manitoba and in 1824 in Alberta.


title: Assiniboine

text: The Assiniboine River drains much of Saskatchewan and Manitoba into the Red River of the North, which, in turn, flows into the Hudson Bay via Lake Winnipeg and the Nelson River.


title: Assiniboine

text: Assiniboia refers to two historical districts of Canada's North-West Territories. The name is taken from the Assiniboine First Nation.


title: Peruvian Air Force

text: The Peruvian Air Force (, FAP) is the branch of the Peruvian Armed Forces tasked with defending the nation and its interests through the use of air power. Additional missions include assistance in safeguarding internal security, conducting disaster relief operations and participating in international peacekeeping operations.


title: Peruvian Air Force

text: On May 20, 1929, the aviation divisions of the Peruvian Army and Navy were merged into the (Peruvian Aviation Corps, abbreviated CAP). During the Colombia-Peru War of 1933, its Vought O2U Corsair and Curtiss F11C Hawk planes fought in the Amazon region. The CAP lost three aircraft to the Colombian Air Force. The corps was renamed (Peruvian Aeronautical Corps, also abbreviated CAP) on March 12, 1936.


title: Peruvian Air Force

text: In 1941, the CAP participated in the Ecuadorian–Peruvian War. At that time, the CAP were equipped with Caproni Ca.114 and North American NA.50 fighters, Douglas DB-8A-3P attack aircraft, and Caproni Ca.135 and Caproni Ca.310 bombers, among others.


title: Peruvian Air Force

text: The Peruvian Air Force had also established a paratroop unit during the war and used it to great effect by seizing the strategic Ecuadorian port city of Puerto Bolívar, on July 27, 1941, marking the first time in the Americas that airborne troops were used in combat.


title: Peruvian Air Force

text: On July 23, 1941, his plane, a North American NA-50 fighter, was hit while performing a low-level attack on an Ecuadorian border post on the banks of the Zarumilla river. According to traditional Peruvian accounts, Quiñones, upon being hit by ground fire, crashed his damaged aircraft deliberately into the Ecuadorian anti-aircraft position, destroying it. He was promoted posthumously to Captain, and is today considered a National Hero of Peru.


title: Peruvian Air Force

text: During the 1950s presidency of General Manuel A. Odría, the Peruvian Air Force was reorganized and on July 18, 1950, had its name changed to the (Air Force of Peru, or FAP). Peru was an ally of the United States during this period, and was predominantly equipped with aircraft built in the US and Great Britain. By the end of General Odria's presidency, the FAP ushered in the Jet Age with the introduction of English Electric Canberra bombers and Hawker Hunter, Lockheed F-80 Shooting Star and North American F-86 Sabre fighters.


title: Peruvian Air Force

text: However, on October 3, 1968, a military junta led by pro-Soviet Peruvian Army General Juan Velasco Alvarado organized a swift and bloodless coup d'état against president Fernando Belaúnde Terry. Velasco aligned Peru more closely with the Soviet Bloc and relations with the United States deteriorated. The US declared an arms embargo in 1969, making it difficult to obtain spare parts for Peru's American weaponry. In the 1970s and 1980s, Peru turned to the Soviet Union for its military hardware. During this time, the FAP acquired several Soviet-made aircraft, including Sukhoi Su-22 fighters, Antonov An-26 and An-32 transport aircraft, as well as Mil Mi-8, Mi-17, Mi-25 and Mi-26 helicopters. Soviet advisors were also dispatched to Peru.


title: Peruvian Air Force

text: Velasco was overthrown by other military officers in 1975 and Belaúnde returned to power as a civilian president in 1980. The FAP purchased the French-made Mirage 5P and 5DP and the Mirage 2000 in 1984. Relations improved with the United States and the FAP obtained American aircraft like the Cessna A-37B Dragonfly attack aircraft, as well as Lockheed Corporation C-130 and L-100-20 Hercules transport aircraft.


title: Peruvian Air Force

text: The stagnation of the Peruvian economy during the late 1980s and early 1990s forced cost reductions and the downsizing of the fleet size.


title: Peruvian Air Force

text: Budget cuts in training meant Peruvian pilots had a low number of annual flying hours (AFH) per pilot if compared to the 1970s. The number of annual flying hours is of course very important in estimating the individual skill and experience of the pilots of an air force: more annual flying hours suggests better trained pilots and general readiness.


title: Peruvian Air Force

text: There are also a number of possible explanations for FAP's low AFH: concern over the aging of equipment, scarcity of spare parts – especially for the older aircraft – difficulties with worn airframes and the scarcity of fuel are all contributing factors. It is very likely however that some 'elite' pilots and regiments such as those based in Talara AFB and La Joya AFB received considerably more flying hours. Especially since those regiments until today are equipped with modern aircraft and tasked with homeland defence.


title: Peruvian Air Force

text: The Peruvian Air Force participated in the 1995 Cenepa War against Ecuador's Air Force in the Amazon Basin. It provided aerial support to the Peruvian army, carrying out bombings with Mi-25 helicopters, Canberra bombers, A-37 and Su-22. Due to a lack of reliable roads, troops were transported by Mi-17 helicopters, L-100 Hercules, An-28 and An-32. During the course of the war, at least two helicopters were shot down.


title: Peruvian Air Force

text: In 1997 and 1998 the FAP's outlook started to change for better. In order to achieve Fujimori's militarily bold plans, it meant that FAP required a much needed general overhaul and new purchases.


title: Peruvian Air Force

text: In 1997 the FAP acquired from Belarus 21 MiG-29 fighters and 18 Su-25 attack fighters. In 1998 an additional 3 MiG-29 fighters were bought from Russia which along with the 12 Mirage 2000 fighters purchased from France's Dassault Aviation in 1984, made a total of 54 fighters in Peru's inventory.


title: Peruvian Air Force

text: These purchases were expensive and a number of observers questioned their usefulness against more pressing security concerns at the time such as the fanatical Marxist guerillas, the Sendero Luminoso group (translated as Shining Path). On the other hand, the FAP still remembered the 1995 Cenepa War with Ecuador, and stationed its MiG-29 close to the border at Chiclayo AFB and Talara AFB.


title: Peruvian Air Force

text: Peru's Mirage 2000C/B and MiG-29S fighters form the backbone of its current multirole fighter fleet, alongside specialized Su-25 close air support jets. Its Mirage 2000Ps sit at La Joya AFB near the border with Bolivia and Chile; the 3 Andean countries have a minor 3-way maritime borders dispute, and residual tensions with historical foe Chile have been a long-running issue in Peru.


title: Peruvian Air Force

text: RAC MiG began the upgrade of FAP's MiG fleet to the MiG-29SMT external link standard in 2008. In 2009, Dassault began working with Peru on a comprehensive inspection of the Mirage fleet, coupled with some electronics modernization.


title: Peruvian Air Force

text: Since 2013 Peru is in talks with European suppliers as part of a long-term plan of replacing FAP's aging air force aircraft with second-hand Su-35s, Rafales or Eurofighters. Hitherto, FAP was exploring the possibility of buying as many as sixty Eurofighter Typhoon EF-2000 from Spain and sixty Sukhoi Su-35 from Russia. Cost was a major issue for Peruvian President Ollanta Humala, who was looking at competitively priced fighter jets that would fit the national budget. Peru is in hoping to buy 16 Eurofighters from Spain each for $61million. In 2014, Peru began to update the operations and mechanical equipment of its Cessna A-37 aircraft, replacing analog controls with new digital hardware.


title: Peruvian Air Force

text: Following the unveiling of the KAI KF-21 Boramae in April 2021, "The National Interest" reported that Peru may be a potential customer for the 4.5 generation fighter.


title: Dilip Kumar filmography

text: Dilip Kumar (11 December 1922 – 7 July 2021) was an Indian actor. He made his acting debut in 1944 with "Jwar Bhata". The 1947 drama "Jugnu" opposite Noor Jehan was his first major success. "Nadiya Ke Par" was similarly that year's highest grossing Indian film. In 1949, he featured alongside Raj Kapoor in Mehboob Khan's "Andaz" opposite Nargis. This love triangle at the time of its release was the highest-grossing Indian film ever.


title: Dilip Kumar filmography

text: The 1950s saw Kumar in a number of popular films playing a variety of roles. Kumar won the first-ever Filmfare Award in the Best Actor category for his performance in 1954 release "Daag". Two years later, Kumar played the titular character in the drama "Azaad", which earned him his second Filmfare Best Actor Award. His titular role in "Devdas" (1955) earned him his third Filmfare Best Actor Award. Some of these films established his screen image as the "Tragedy King" because of his ill-fated characters in films. He also appeared alongside Dev Anand in "Insaniyat" (1955). Nine of Kumar's films were among the Top 30 highest-grossing films of the decade.


title: Dilip Kumar filmography

text: In 1960, Kumar appeared in K. Asif's big-budget epic historical film "Mughal-e-Azam". He played Mughal Prince Salim, who falls in love with Anarkali (a court dancer, played by Madhubala), and later revolts against his father Akbar (Prithviraj Kapoor). The film was successful at the box office earning a net revenue of 55  million (US$11,530,000).The film became the highest-grossing Indian film of all time. He played dual roles in the drama film "Ram Aur Shyam" (1967) which earned him his sixth Filmfare Award for Best Actor.


title: Dilip Kumar filmography

text: In 1981, Dilip Kumar appeared in historical drama "Kranti", in the role of a revolutionary fighting for India's independence from British rule. He collaborated with director Subhash Ghai in films "Vidhaata" (1982), action film "Karma", and "Saudagar". He made his last film appearance in "Qila". His two films "Aag Ka Dariya" and "Kalinga" are completed but remain unreleased.


title: Dilip Kumar filmography

text: In total, Kumar worked as a lead in 57 films, Also he was doing many cameo/guest appearances and many unreleased films in his 54 years film career.He was most choosy and selective actor at that time.He earned 19 nominations for best actor at the Filmfare Awards in his career, winning 8, three of them back to back (which is a record in itself). He received the Filmfare Lifetime Achievement Award in 1994.


title: Anthracene

text: Anthracene is a solid polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) of formula CH, consisting of three fused benzene rings. It is a component of coal tar. Anthracene is used in the production of the red dye alizarin and other dyes. Anthracene is colorless but exhibits a blue (400–500 nm peak) fluorescence under ultraviolet radiation.


title: Anthracene

text: Coal tar, which contains around 1.5% anthracene, remains a major source of this material. Common impurities are phenanthrene and carbazole. The mineral form of anthracene is called freitalite and is related to a coal deposit. A classic laboratory method for the preparation of anthracene is by cyclodehydration of o-methyl- or o-methylene-substituted diarylketones in the so-called Elbs reaction, for example from "o"-tolyl phenyl ketone.


title: Anthracene

text: Reduction of anthracene with alkali metals yields the deeply colored radical anion salts M[anthracene] (M = Li, Na, K). Hydrogenation gives 9,10-dihydroanthracene, preserving the aromaticity of the two flanking rings.


title: Anthracene

text: The dimer, called dianthracene (or sometimes paranthracene), is connected by a pair of new carbon-carbon bonds, the result of the [4+4] cycloaddition. It reverts to anthracene thermally or with UV irradiation below 300 nm. Substituted anthracene derivatives behave similarly. The reaction is affected by the presence of oxygen.


title: Anthracene

text: Anthracene also reacts with dienophile singlet oxygen in a [4+2]-cycloaddition (Diels–Alder reaction):


title: Anthracene

text: Chemical oxidation occurs readily, giving anthraquinone, CHO (below), for example using hydrogen peroxide and vanadyl acetylacetonate.


title: Anthracene

text: Electrophilic substitution of anthracene occurs at the 9 position. For example, formylation affords 9-anthracenecarboxaldehyde. Substitution at other positions is effected indirectly, for example starting with anthroquinone. Bromination of anthracene gives 9,10-dibromoanthracene.


title: Anthracene

text: Anthracene, a wide band-gap organic semiconductor is used as a scintillator for detectors of high energy photons, electrons and alpha particles. Plastics, such as polyvinyltoluene, can be doped with anthracene to produce a plastic scintillator that is approximately water-equivalent for use in radiation therapy dosimetry. Anthracene's emission spectrum peaks at between 400 nm and 440 nm.


title: Anthracene

text: Anthracene is commonly used as a UV tracer in conformal coatings applied to printed wiring boards. The anthracene tracer allows the conformal coating to be inspected under UV light.


title: Anthracene

text: A variety of anthracene derivatives find specialized uses. Derivatives having a hydroxyl group are 1-hydroxyanthracene and 2-hydroxyanthracene, homologous to phenol and naphthols, and hydroxyanthracene (also called anthrol, and anthracenol) are pharmacologically active.


title: Anthracene

text: Anthracene, as many other polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, is generated during combustion processes. Exposure to humans happens mainly through tobacco smoke and ingestion of food contaminated with combustion products.


title: Anthracene

text: Many investigations indicate that anthracene is noncarcinogenic: "consistently negative findings in numerous in vitro and in vivo genotoxicity tests". Early experiments suggested otherwise because crude samples were contaminated with other polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Furthermore, it is readily biodegraded in soil. It is especially susceptible to degradation in the presence of light.


title: Rio Grande Mud

text: Rio Grande Mud is the second studio album by the American rock band ZZ Top. It was released in 1972 by London label. The album title was inspired by the Rio Grande, the river that forms the border between Mexico and Texas.


title: Rio Grande Mud

text: ZZ Top frontman Billy Gibbons said of the album: It was the first record that brought us into step with the writing experience. We started documenting events as they happened to us on the road; all of these elements went into the songwriting notebook. As we went along, we were keeping track of skeleton ideas as they popped up. The craft was certainly developing.


title: Rio Grande Mud

text: The only single released from the album was "Francine", which peaked at number 69 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. The A-side was the album version, while the B-side featured the song with the vocals re-recorded in Spanish. Another 45 version was released in the UK and Germany backed with "Down Brownie". Various official ZZ Top releases throughout the years, beginning in 1972, have used the alternative spelling "Francene", especially on the various 45 releases both within and outside the United States as well as the first edition of the LP.


title: Rio Grande Mud

text: In 1987, the album was remixed for CD release. On January 11, 2011, Rhino released a remastered version from the original 1972 mix on vinyl only. This album was put up for download on Amazon's MP3 store and iTunes as a digital download in 2012, and features the original mixes of the tracks that are on "Chrome, Smoke & BBQ", and the 1987 remixes of the tracks that are not from that box set. The original mix of the album was released on CD in June 2013 as part of the box set "The Complete Studio Albums (1970-1990)".


title: Rio Grande Mud

text: AllMusic retrospectively gave the album 3.5 stars, stating: "With their second album, "Rio Grande Mud", ZZ Top uses the sound they sketched out on their debut as a blueprint, yet they tweak it in slight but important ways."


title: Crooked Kingdom

text: Crooked Kingdom is a fantasy novel by American author Leigh Bardugo, published by Henry Holt and Co. in 2016. Set in a world loosely inspired by 19th-century Europe, it takes place days after the events of the duology's first book, "Six of Crows". The plot is told from the third-person viewpoints of eight characters.


title: Crooked Kingdom

text: "Six of Crows" and "Crooked Kingdom" are set in the "Grishaverse". The Crows reappear in "Rule of Wolves" (2021), part of the "King of Scars" duology where Nina Zenik is a major point-of-view character. Leigh Bardugo has discussed the possibility of writing a third book in this series, but has not confirmed it.


title: Crooked Kingdom

text: The book begins in a gambling parlor named Club Cumulus, where Jesper and Nina keep Jan Van Eck's lawyer, Cornelis Smeet, busy while Kaz and Wylan search his office for Van Eck's property documents. Kaz then plans to kidnap Van Eck’s pregnant young wife, Alys, and trade her for Inej, who is being held captive. Meanwhile, Jesper’s father, Colm, arrives at the city, as a bank Jesper owes demands he pays his debts. When Jesper and Wylan go to meet Colm, they are attacked but manage to escape. Kaz tells Jesper's father to give them three days to get the money and asks him to wait in a hotel in the city.


title: Crooked Kingdom

text: Afterward, the crew's kidnapping is successful, and they trade Van Eck's wife for Inej. However, during the trade, three Shu soldiers with superhuman abilities attack Nina, Jesper, and other Grisha in the surrounding area. They manage to get away after Nina shoots one of them in the eye, and Wylan sets another on fire. The crew meets at their hideout, and Kaz reveals he had bought shares in sugar companies and plans to sabotage Van Eck’s sugar silos using a chemical weevil, thereby raising the price of sugar. Nina and Inej persuade Kaz to smuggle out the remaining Grisha in the city using one of Van Eck’s ships.


title: Crooked Kingdom

text: While Kaz and Wylan attempt to steal the seal they need from the Van Eck house, Nina and Inej infiltrate the sugar silos. However, all of them are attacked, and it is revealed that Pekka Rollins had allied with Van Eck. Pekka also attacks the hideout Kaz was using to hide Kuwei, where Jesper and Matthias were guarding him. They all escape and meet at the hotel where Colm is staying. Nina shows the group her strange and eerie new abilities to control dead bodies; she, Wylan, and Kuwei guess that it might be a result of her surviving withdrawal of "jurda parem". They also learn Van Eck had deputized all the gangs in the Barrel, leaving them with few allies; Anika and Keeg but no means of escape. Kaz puts together another plan and declares an auction for the indenture of Kuwei.


title: Crooked Kingdom

text: In the auction the Fjerdans, Ravkans, The Shu, and The Zemeni bid for Kuwei. Kaz disguises the Grisha from the embassy as the Council of Tides. They claim that the auction is biased because Van Eck funded the Shu delegation. The Merchant Council believes that Van Eck had swindled them. The money was, in fact, channeled to the Crows by scamming the Merchant Council. Van Eck is arrested and his reputation destroyed. They manage to fake Kuwei's death and smuggle him out of the city with the Ravkans where he will try to find an antidote to "jurda parem". During the job, Matthias is shot by a young "drüskelle" and later dies. Kaz bluffs Pekka into believing that he has his son buried alive. Pekka then leaves the city in search of his son. With Van Eck gone, Wylan inherits the properties of his family. Jesper lives with Wylan and helps him handle the business but agrees that he will train with a Fabrikator to develop his power as Grisha.


title: Crooked Kingdom

text: In the final chapters, Kaz finds Inej's parents with the help of Sturmhond and brings them to Ketterdam. He is threatened by the real Council of Tides. Inej threatens Pekka out of his business in her first move against the people active in Ketterdam's slave trade.


title: Crooked Kingdom

text: "Kirkus Reviews" calls the novel "dark and violent...but gut-wrenchingly genuine". It was nominated for the 2016 Goodreads Choice Awards for "Best Young Adult Fantasy & Science Fiction". This second book in the Six of Crows duology is regarded by many to be sadder and darker than its predecessor.


title: Triode

text: A triode is an electronic amplifying vacuum tube (or "valve" in British English) consisting of three electrodes inside an evacuated glass envelope: a heated filament or cathode, a grid, and a plate (anode). Developed from Lee De Forest's 1906 Audion, a partial vacuum tube that added a grid electrode to the thermionic diode (Fleming valve), the triode was the first practical electronic amplifier and the ancestor of other types of vacuum tubes such as the tetrode and pentode. Its invention founded the electronics age, making possible amplified radio technology and long-distance telephony. Triodes were widely used in consumer electronics devices such as radios and televisions until the 1970s, when transistors replaced them. Today, their main remaining use is in high-power RF amplifiers in radio transmitters and industrial RF heating devices. In recent years there has been a resurgence in demand for low power triodes due to renewed interest in tube-type audio systems by audiophiles who prefer the pleasantly (warm) distorted sound of tube-based electronics.


title: Triode

text: The name "triode" was coined by British physicist William Eccles some time around 1920, derived from the Greek τρίοδος, "tríodos", from "tri-" (three) and "hodós" (road, way), originally meaning the place where three roads meet.


title: Triode

text: Before thermionic valves were invented, Philipp Lenard used the principle of grid control while conducting photoelectric experiments in 1902.


title: Triode

text: The first vacuum tube used in radio was the thermionic diode or Fleming valve, invented by John Ambrose Fleming in 1904 as a detector for radio receivers. It was an evacuated glass bulb containing two electrodes, a heated filament (cathode) and a plate (anode).


title: Triode

text: Triodes came about in 1906 when American engineer Lee De Forest and Austrian physicist Robert von Lieben independently patented tubes that added a third electrode, a control grid, between the filament and plate to control current. Von Lieben's partially-evacuated three-element tube, patented in March 1906, contained a trace of mercury vapor and was intended to amplify weak telephone signals. Starting in October 1906 De Forest patented a number of three-element tube designs by adding an electrode to the diode, which he called Audions, intended to be used as radio detectors. The one which became the design of the triode, in which the grid was located between the filament and plate, was patented January 29, 1907. Like the von Lieben vacuum tube, De Forest's Audions were incompletely evacuated and contained some gas at low pressure. von Lieben's vacuum tube did not see much development due to his death seven years after its invention, shortly before the outbreak of the First World War.


title: Triode

text: De Forest's Audion did not see much use until its ability to amplify was recognized around 1912 by several researchers, who used it to build the first successful amplifying radio receivers and electronic oscillators. The many uses for amplification motivated its rapid development. By 1913 improved versions with higher vacuum were developed by Harold Arnold at American Telephone and Telegraph Company, which had purchased the rights to the Audion from De Forest, and Irving Langmuir at General Electric, who named his tube the "Pliotron", These were the first vacuum tube triodes. The name "triode" appeared later, when it became necessary to distinguish it from other kinds of vacuum tubes with more or fewer elements (e.g. diodes, tetrodes, pentodes, etc.). There were lengthy lawsuits between De Forest and von Lieben, and De Forest and the Marconi Company, who represented John Ambrose Fleming, the inventor of the diode.


title: Triode

text: The discovery of the triode's amplifying ability in 1912 revolutionized electrical technology, creating the new field of "electronics", the technology of active (amplifying) electrical devices. The triode was immediately applied to many areas of communication. Triode "continuous wave" radio transmitters replaced the cumbersome inefficient "damped wave" spark gap transmitters, allowing the transmission of sound by amplitude modulation (AM). Amplifying triode radio receivers, which had the power to drive loudspeakers, replaced weak crystal radios, which had to be listened to with earphones, allowing families to listen together. This resulted in the evolution of radio from a commercial message service to the first mass communication medium, with the beginning of radio broadcasting around 1920. Triodes made transcontinental telephone service possible. Vacuum tube triode repeaters, invented at Bell Telephone after its purchase of the Audion rights, allowed telephone calls to travel beyond the unamplified limit of about 800 miles. The opening by Bell of the first transcontinental telephone line was celebrated 3 years later, on January 25, 1915. Other inventions made possible by the triode were television, public address systems, electric phonographs, and talking motion pictures.


title: Triode

text: The triode served as the technological base from which later vacuum tubes developed, such as the tetrode (Walter Schottky, 1916) and pentode (Gilles Holst and Bernardus Dominicus Hubertus Tellegen, 1926), which remedied some of the shortcomings of the triode detailed below.


title: Triode

text: The triode was very widely used in consumer electronics such as radios, televisions, and audio systems until it was replaced in the 1960s by the transistor, invented in 1947, which brought the "vacuum tube era" introduced by the triode to a close. Today triodes are mostly used in high-power applications for which solid state semiconductor devices are unsuitable, such as radio transmitters and industrial heating equipment. However, more recently the triode and other vacuum tube devices have been experiencing a resurgence and comeback in high fidelity audio and musical equipment. They also remain in use as vacuum fluorescent displays (VFDs), which come in a variety of implementations but all are essentially triode devices.


title: Triode

text: All triodes have a hot cathode electrode heated by a filament, which releases electrons, and a flat metal plate electrode (anode) to which the electrons are attracted, with a grid consisting of a screen of wires between them to control the current. These are sealed inside a glass container from which the air has been removed to a high vacuum, about 10 atm. Since the filament eventually burns out, the tube has a limited lifetime and is made as a replaceable unit; the electrodes are attached to terminal pins which plug into a socket. The operating lifetime of a triode is about 2000 hours for small tubes and 10,000 hours for power tubes.


title: Triode

text: Low power triodes have a concentric construction "(see drawing right)", with the grid and anode as circular or oval cylinders surrounding the cathode. The cathode is a narrow metal tube down the center. Inside the cathode is a filament called the "heater" consisting of a narrow strip of high resistance tungsten wire, which heats the cathode red-hot (800 - 1000 °C). This type is called an "indirectly heated cathode". The cathode is coated with a mixture of alkaline earth oxides such as calcium and thorium oxide which reduces its work function so it produces more electrons. The grid is constructed of a helix or screen of thin wires surrounding the cathode. The anode is a cylinder or rectangular box of sheet metal surrounding the grid. It is blackened to radiate heat and is often equipped with heat-radiating fins. The electrons travel in a radial direction, from cathode through the grid to the anode. The elements are held in position by mica or ceramic insulators and are supported by stiff wires attached to the base, where the electrodes are brought out to connecting pins. A "getter", a small amount of shiny barium metal evaporated onto the inside of the glass, helps maintain the vacuum by absorbing gas released in the tube over time.


title: Triode

text: High-power triodes generally use a filament which serves as the cathode (a directly heated cathode) because the emission coating on indirectly heated cathodes is destroyed by the higher ion bombardment in power tubes. A thoriated tungsten filament is most often used, in which thorium in the tungsten forms a monolayer on the surface which increases electron emission. These generally run at higher temperatures than indirectly heated cathodes. The envelope of the tube is often made of more durable ceramic rather than glass, and all the materials have higher melting points to withstand higher heat levels produced. Tubes with anode power dissipation over several hundred watts are usually actively cooled; the anode, made of heavy copper, projects through the wall of the tube and is attached to a large external finned metal heat sink which is cooled by forced air or water.


title: Triode

text: A type of low power triode for use at ultrahigh frequencies (UHF), the "lighthouse" tube, has a planar construction to reduce interelectrode capacitance and lead inductance, which gives it the appearance of a "lighthouse". The disk-shaped cathode, grid and plate form planes up the center of the tube - a little like a sandwich with spaces between the layers. The cathode at the bottom is attached to the tube's pins, but the grid and plate are brought out to low inductance terminals on the upper level of the tube: the grid to a metal ring halfway up, and the plate to a metal button at the top. These are one example of "disk seal" design. Smaller examples dispense with the octal pin base shown in the illustration and rely on contact rings for all connections, including heater and D.C. cathode.


title: Triode

text: As well, high-frequency performance is limited by transit time: the time required for electrons to travel from cathode to anode. Transit time effects are complicated, but one simple effect is input conductance, also known as grid loading. At extreme high frequencies, electrons arriving at the grid may become out of phase with those departing towards the anode. This imbalance of charge causes the grid to exhibit a reactance that is much less than its low-frequency "open circuit" characteristic.


title: Triode

text: Transit time effects are reduced by reduced spacings in the tube. Tubes such as the 416B (a Lighthouse design) and the 7768 (an all-ceramic miniaturised design) are specified for operation to 4 GHz. They feature greatly reduced grid-cathode spacings in the order of 0.1 mm.


title: Triode

text: These greatly reduced grid spacings also give a much higher amplification factor than conventional axial designs. The 7768 has an amplification factor of 225, compared with 100 for the 6AV6 used in domestic radios and about the maximum possible for an axial design.


title: Triode

text: Anode-grid capacitance is not especially low in these designs. The 6AV6 anode-grid capacitance is 2 picofarads (pF), the 7768 has a value of 1.7 pF. The close electrode spacing used in microwave tubes "increases" capacitances, but this increase is offset by their overall reduced dimensions compared to lower-frequency tubes.


title: Triode

text: In the triode, electrons are released into the tube from the metal cathode by heating it, a process called thermionic emission. The cathode is heated red hot by a separate current flowing through a thin metal filament. In some tubes the filament itself is the cathode, while in most tubes there is a separate filament which heats the cathode but is electrically isolated from it. The interior of the tube is well evacuated so that electrons can travel between the cathode and the anode without losing energy in collisions with gas molecules. A positive DC voltage, which can be as low as 20V or up to thousands of volts in some transmitting tubes, is present on the anode. The negative electrons are attracted to the positively charged anode (or "plate"), and flow through the spaces between the grid wires to it, creating a flow of electrons through the tube from cathode to anode.


title: Triode

text: The magnitude of this current can be controlled by a voltage applied on the grid (relative to the cathode). The grid acts like a gate for the electrons. A more negative voltage on the grid will repel more of the electrons, so fewer get through to the anode, reducing the anode current. A less negative voltage on the grid will allow more electrons from the cathode to reach the anode, increasing the anode current. Therefore, an input AC signal on the grid of a few volts (or less), even at a very high impedance (since essentially no current flows through the grid) can control a much more powerful anode current, resulting in amplification. When used in its linear region, variation in the grid voltage will cause an approximately proportional variation in the anode current; this ratio is called the transconductance. If a suitable load resistance is inserted in the anode circuit, although the transconductance is somewhat lowered, the varying anode current will cause a varying voltage across that resistance which can be much larger than the input voltage variations, resulting in voltage gain.


title: Triode

text: The triode is a normally "on" device; and current flows to the anode with zero voltage on the grid. The anode current is progressively reduced as the grid is made more negative relative to the cathode. Usually a constant DC voltage ("bias") is applied to the grid along with the varying signal voltage superimposed on it. That bias is required so that the positive peaks of the signal never drive the grid positive with respect to the cathode which would result in grid current and non-linear behaviour. A sufficiently negative voltage on the grid (usually around 3-5 volts in small tubes such as the 6AV6, but as much as –130 volts in early audio power devices such as the '45), will prevent any electrons from getting through to the anode, turning off the anode current. This is called the "cutoff voltage". Since beyond cutoff the anode current ceases to respond to the grid voltage, the voltage on the grid must remain above the cutoff voltage for faithful (linear) amplification as well as not exceeding the cathode voltage.


title: Triode

text: The triode is somewhat similar in operation to the n-channel JFET; it is normally on, and exhibits progressively lower and lower plate/drain current as the grid/gate is pulled increasingly negative relative to the source/cathode. Cutoff voltage corresponds to the JFET's pinch-off voltage (V) or VGS(off); i.e., the voltage point at which output current essentially reaches zero. This similarity is limited, however. The triode's anode current is highly dependent on anode voltage as well as grid voltage, thus limiting the voltage gain. On the other hand the JFET's drain current is virtually unaffected by drain voltage, thus it appears as a constant-current device, similar in action to a tetrode or pentode tube (high dynamic output impedance). Both the JFET and tetrode/pentode valves are thereby capable of much higher voltage gains than the triode which seldom exceeds 100. However the power gain, or the output power obtained from a certain AC input voltage is often of greater interest. When these devices are used as cathode followers (or source followers), they all have a voltage "gain" of just under 1, but with a large current gain.


title: Triode

text: Although S.G. Brown's Type G Telephone Relay (using a magnetic "earphone" mechanism driving a carbon microphone element) was able to give power amplification and had been in use as early as 1914, it was a purely mechanical device with limited frequency range and fidelity. It was suited only to a limited range of audio frequencies - essentially voice frequencies.


title: Triode

text: The triode was the first non-mechanical device to provide power gain at audio and radio frequencies, and made radio practical. Triodes are used for amplifiers and oscillators. Many types are used only at low to moderate frequency and power levels. Large water-cooled triodes may be used as the final amplifier in radio transmitters, with ratings of thousands of watts. Specialized types of triode ("lighthouse" tubes, with low capacitance between elements) provide useful gain at microwave frequencies.


title: Triode

text: Vacuum tubes are obsolete in mass-marketed consumer electronics, having been overtaken by less expensive transistor-based solid-state devices. However, more recently, vacuum tubes have been making somewhat of a comeback. Triodes continue to be used in certain high-power RF amplifiers and transmitters. While proponents of vacuum tubes claim their superiority in areas such as high-end and professional audio applications, the solid-state MOSFET has similar performance characteristics.


title: Triode

text: In triode datasheets, characteristics linking the anode current (I) to anode voltage (V) and grid voltage (V) are usually given. From here, a circuit designer can choose the operating point of the particular triode. Then the output voltage and amplification of the triode can be evaluated graphically by drawing a load line on the graph.


title: Triode

text: In the example characteristic shown on the image, suppose we wish to operate it at a quiescent anode voltage V of 200V and a grid voltage bias of −1 volt. This implies a quiescent plate (anode) current of 2.2mA (using the yellow curve on the graph). In a class-A triode amplifier, one might place an anode resistor (connected between the anode and the positive power supply). If we choose R = 10000 ohms, the voltage drop on it would be V - V = I × R = 22.V for the chosen anode current of I = 2.2mA. Thus we require a power supply voltage V = 222V in order to obtain V = 200V on the anode.


title: Triode

text: Now suppose we impress on the -1V bias voltage a signal of 1V peak-peak, so that the grid voltage varies between -.5V and -1.5V. When V=-.5V, the anode current will increase to 3.1mA, lowering the anode voltage to V = V - 10000Ω × 3.1mA = 191V (orange curve). When V=-1.5V, the anode current will decrease to 1.4mA, raising the anode voltage to V = V - 10000Ω × 1.4mA = 208V (green curve). Therefore a 1V peak-peak signal on the input (grid) causes an output voltage change of about 17V.


title: Triode

text: Thus voltage amplification of the signal is obtained. The ratio of these two changes, the voltage amplification factor (or "mu") is 17 in this case. It is also possible to use triodes as cathode followers in which there is no voltage amplification but a huge reduction in dynamic impedance; in other words, the "current" is greatly amplified (as it also is in the common-cathode configuration described above). Amplifying either the voltage or current results in power amplification, the general purpose of an amplifying tube (after all, either the current or voltage alone could be increased just using a transformer, a passive device).


title: Old Occitan

text: Old Occitan (, ), also called Old Provençal, was the earliest form of the Occitano-Romance languages, as attested in writings dating from the eighth through the fourteenth centuries. Old Occitan generally includes Early and Old Occitan. Middle Occitan is sometimes included in Old Occitan, sometimes in Modern Occitan. As the term ' appeared around the year 1300, Old Occitan is referred to as "Romance" (Occitan: ') or "Provençal" (Occitan: "") in medieval texts.


title: Old Occitan

text: Among the earliest records of Occitan are the "Tomida femina", the "Boecis" and the "Cançó de Santa Fe". Old Occitan, the language used by the troubadours, was the first Romance language with a literary corpus and had an enormous influence on the development of lyric poetry in other European languages. The interpunct was a feature of its orthography and survives today in Catalan and Gascon.


title: Old Occitan

text: The official language of the sovereign principality of the Viscounty of Béarn was the local vernacular Bearnès dialect of Old Occitan. It was the spoken language of law courts and of business and it was the written language of customary law. Although vernacular languages were increasingly preferred to Latin in western Europe in the late Middle Ages, the status of Occitan in Béarn was unusual because its use was required by law: "lawyers will draft their petitions and pleas in the vernacular language of the present country, both in speech and in writing".


title: Old Occitan

text: Old Catalan and Old Occitan diverged between the 11th and the 14th centuries. Catalan never underwent the shift from to or the shift from to (except in unstressed syllables in some dialects) and so had diverged phonologically before those changes affected Old Occitan.


title: Old Occitan

text: Old Occitan changed and evolved somewhat during its history, but the basic sound system can be summarised as follows:


title: Old Occitan

text: Old occitan is a non-standardised language regarding its spelling, meaning that different graphemic signs can represent one sound and vice versa. For example:


title: Khanate of Kokand

text: The Khanate of Kokand (; "Khānneshin-e Khoqand", "Khoqand Khānligi") was a Central Asian polity in the Fergana Valley centred on the city of Kokand between 1709 and 1876. Its territory is today divided between Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Kazakhstan.


title: Khanate of Kokand

text: The Khanate of Kokand was established in 1709 when the Shaybanid emir Shahrukh, of the Ming Tribe of Uzbeks, declared independence from the Khanate of Bukhara, establishing a state in the eastern part of the Fergana Valley. He built a citadel as his capital in the small town of Kokand, thus starting the Khanate of Kokand. His son, Abdul Kahrim Bey, and grandson, Narbuta Bey, enlarged the citadel, but both were forced to submit as a protectorate, and pay tribute to, the Qing dynasty between 1774 and 1798.


title: Khanate of Kokand

text: Narbuta Bey’s son Alim was both ruthless and efficient. He hired a mercenary army of Ghalcha highlanders, and conquered the western half of the Fergana Valley, including Khujand and Tashkent. He was assassinated by his brother Umar in 1811. Umar's son, Mohammed Ali (Madali Khan), ascended to the throne in 1822 at the age of 12. During his reign, the Khanate of Kokand reached its greatest territorial extent. The Kokand Khanate also housed the Khojas of Kashgar like Jahangir Khoja. In 1841, the British officer Captain Arthur Conolly failed to persuade the various khanates to put aside their differences, in an attempt to counter the growing penetration of the Russian Empire into the area. In November 1841, Captain Conolly left Kokand for Bukhara in an ill-fated attempt to rescue fellow officer Colonel Charles Stoddart, and both were executed on 24 June 1842 by the order of Emir Nasrullah Khan of Bukhara.


title: Khanate of Kokand

text: Following this, Madali Khan, who had received Conolly in Kokand, and who had also sought an alliance with Russia, lost the trust of Nasrullah. The Emir, encouraged by the conspiratorial efforts of several influential figures in Kokand (including the commander in chief of its army), invaded the Khanate in 1842. Shortly thereafter he executed Madali Khan, his brother, and Omar Khan's widow, the famed poet Nodira. Madali Khan's cousin, Shir Ali, was installed as the Khan of Kokand in June 1842. Over the next two decades, the khanate was weakened by a bitter civil war, which was further exacerbated by Bukharan and Russian incursions. During this period, the Kyrgyz tribes also broke away, forming the under the leadership of Ormon Khan. Shir Ali's son, Khudayar Khan, ruled from 1844 to 1858, from 1862 to 1863, and from 1865 to 1875. In the meantime, Russia was continuing its advance; on 29 June 1865 Tashkent was taken by the Russian troops of General Chernyayev; the loss of Khujand followed in 1867.


title: Khanate of Kokand

text: Shortly before the fall of Tashkent, Kokand’s best-known son, Yakub Beg, former lord of Tashkent, was sent by the then Khan of Kokand, Alimqul, to Kashgar, where the Hui Muslims were in revolt against the Chinese. When Alimqul was killed in 1865 during the battle with Russia for Tashkent, many Kokandian soldiers fled to join Yaqub Beg, helping him establish his dominion throughout the Tarim Basin, which lasted until 1877, when Qing reconquered the region.


title: Khanate of Kokand

text: In 1868, a treaty turned Kokand into a Russian vassal state. The now powerless Khudayar Khan spent his energies improving his lavish palace. Western visitors were impressed by the city of 80,000 people, which contained some 600 mosques and 15 madrasahs. Insurrections against Russian rule and Khudayar’s oppressive taxes forced him into exile in 1875. He was succeeded by his son, Nasruddin Khan, whose anti-Russian stance provoked the annexation of Kokand (after six months of fierce fighting) by Generals Konstantin von Kaufman and Mikhail Skobelev. In January 1876, Tsar Alexander II stated that he had been forced to "... yield to the wishes of the Kokandi people to become Russian subjects." The Khanate of Kokand was declared abolished, and incorporated into the Fergana Oblast of Russian Turkestan.


title: Neil McCarthy (actor)

text: Eugene Neil McCarthy (26th July 1932 – 5th February 1985) was an English actor known for his dramatic physical appearance caused by acromegaly. He was also a talented linguist and pianist.


title: Neil McCarthy (actor)

text: Born in Lincoln, Lincolnshire, the son of Sleaford dentist Eugene Charles McCarthy (1899–1954) and Beatrice Annie ("née" Corney, 1901–1978), McCarthy was educated at Stamford School (where his contemporaries included cricketer M. J. K. Smith and author Colin Dexter) before reading modern languages at Trinity College Dublin, and trained as a Latin and French teacher (he could also speak fluent Greek).


title: Neil McCarthy (actor)

text: After his teacher training, McCarthy appeared in repertory theatre in Oxford, at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe and in the West End.


title: Neil McCarthy (actor)

text: McCarthy's film credits include memorable roles as Welsh soldier Private Thomas in "Zulu" (1964), as Sergeant Jock McPherson in "Where Eagles Dare" (1967), as Gates in "The Ruffians" (1973), as the villain Calibos in "Clash of the Titans" (1981) and as a robber in "Time Bandits" (1981). His television credits include: "Barnaby Rudge", "Man of the World", "Danger Man", "The Avengers", "The Saint", "Z-Cars", "Dixon of Dock Green", "Great Expectations", "Randall and Hopkirk (Deceased)", "Catweazle", "My Wife Next Door" (A Sense of Movement), "", "Department S", "Who Pays the Ferryman?", "Return of the Saint", "Doctor Who" (in the serials "The Mind of Evil" and "The Power of Kroll"), "Enemy at the Door", "Shogun", "The Professionals", "Some Mothers Do 'Ave 'Em", "Only When I Laugh", "The Gentle Touch" and "Emmerdale Farm", and the television adaptation of the Lord Peter Wimsey novel, "The Nine Tailors".


title: Straight-twin engine

text: A straight-twin engine, also known as an inline-twin, vertical-twin, or parallel-twin, is a two-cylinder piston engine whose cylinders are arranged in a line along a common crankshaft.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: Straight-twin engines are primarily used in motorcycles; other uses include automobiles, marine vessels, snowmobiles, Jet Skis, all-terrain vehicles, tractors and ultralight aircraft.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: Various different crankshaft configurations have been used for straight-twin engines, with the most common being 360 degrees, 180 degrees and 270 degrees.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: The straight-twin layout is also referred to as "parallel-twin", "vertical-twin" and "inline-twin". Some of these terms originally had specific meanings relating to the crankshaft angle or engine orientation, however they are often also used interchangeably.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: In the United Kingdom, the term "parallel-twin" is traditionally used for engines with a crankshaft angle of 360 degrees, since the two pistons are in the same direction (i.e. parallel to each other). "Vertical-twin" was used to describe engines with a crankshaft angle of 180 degrees, which causes the pistons to travel in opposite directions. The terms "straight-twin" and "inline-twin" were used more generically for any crankshaft angle.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: For motorcycles, "inline-twin" has sometimes referred to either a longitudinal engine orientation (i.e. with the crankshaft in line with the chassis) or a U-engine (tandem twin) where the cylinders are arranged longitudinally in the chassis (although the two crankshafts are actually oriented transversely).


title: Straight-twin engine

text: Compared with V-twin engines and flat-twin engines, straight-twins are more compact, a simpler design and cheaper to produce. Straight-twin engines can be prone to vibration, either because of the irregular firing interval present in 180° crank engines or the large uncountered reciprocating mass in 360° crank engines. Inline-twins also suffer further from torsional torque reactions and vibration.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: The most common crankshaft configurations for straight-twin engines are 360 degrees, 180 degrees and 270 degrees.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: In an engine with a 360 degree crankshaft, both pistons move up and down at the same time. However the firing interval is offset between cylinders, with one of the cylinders firing during the first crankshaft rotation and then the other cylinder in the following rotation. The 360 degree engines can use a single ignition system for both cylinders, using a wasted spark system.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: The imperfect primary balance is as per a single-cylinder engine of equivalent reciprocating mass. Early engines attempted to reduce vibration through counterweights on the crankshaft, however later methods also included balance shafts and a separate weighted connecting rod. Compared with a single-cylinder engine, the more frequent firing interval (360 degrees compared with 720 degrees) results in smoother running characteristics, despite the similar dynamic imbalance.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: From the 1930s, most British four-stroke straight-twin motorcycle engines used a 360 degree crankshaft, since this avoided the uneven intake pulsing of other configurations, thus preventing the need for twin carburettors. In the 1960s, even though Japanese motorcycles mostly switched to 180 degree crankshafts for engines sized from 250 to 500 cc, various smaller and larger engines continued to use a 360 degree crankshaft. Vibration was less of an issue for smaller engines, such as the 1965 Honda CB92 and 1979 Honda CM185. Larger engines, such as the 1969 Yamaha XS 650 and 1972 Yamaha TX750, often used balance shafts to reduce the vibration. The later 1978-1984 Honda CB250N/CB400N engines also used a 360 degree crankshaft. The 2008 BMW F series parallel-twin motorcycles also use 360 degree crankshafts, with a third "vestigial" connecting rod (acting as a counterbalance) and a rev limit of 9,000 rpm to reduce vibrations.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: In an engine with a 180 degree crankshaft, one piston rises as the other falls. In a four-stroke engine, the firing interval is uneven, with the second cylinder firing 180 degrees after the first, followed by a gap of 540 degrees until the first cylinder fires again. The uneven firing interval causes vibrations and results in a 'lumpy' power delivery. A 180° engine also requires a separate ignition system for each cylinder.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: Perfect primary balance is possible with a 180 degree straight-twin engine, however the design creates a rocking couple which requires use of a balance shaft to reduce the vibration. A 180 degree straight-twin engine has a secondary imbalance (similar to an inline-four engine), however the lower reciprocating mass means that this often does not require treatment.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: A 180° crankshaft engine suffers fewer pumping losses than a 360° twin, because displacement of the crankcase is relatively unchanged as the pistons move.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: In the 1960s, Japanese motorcycle manufacturers favoured the use of 180 degree crankshafts, since the increased smoothness allowed higher rpm and thus higher power outputs. For example, the 1966 Honda CB450 180 degree crankshaft engine has a similar power output to contemporary British 360 degree crankshaft engines, despite having a smaller displacement of 450 cc compared with 650 cc. Both the 1973 Yamaha TX500 and the 1977 Suzuki GS400 had a 180 degree crankshaft and a balance shaft. Since 1993, most Honda straight-twin motorcycle engines use 180 degree crankshafts.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: Two-stroke engines typically use a 180 degree crankshaft, since this results in two evenly-spaced power strokes per revolution. The fundamental frequency of vibration is twice that of an equivalent single-cylinder engine, however the amplitude is halved. Two-stroke engines that do not use a 180 degree crankshaft include the 1972 Yankee.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: In an engine with a 270 degree crankshaft, one piston follows three quarters of a rotation behind the other. This results in an uneven firing interval where the second cylinder fires 270 degrees after the first, followed by a gap of 450 degrees until the first cylinder fires again. This is the same pattern as a 90 degree V-twin engine, and both configurations have a similar 'pulsing' exhaust sound as a result. The pistons in a 270 degree straight-twin engine are never both stationary at the same time (as per a 90 degree V-twin engine), thereby reducing the net momentum exchange between the crank and pistons during a full rotation.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: An imperfect primary balance is created in a 270 degree straight-twin engine, due to a combination of free force and rocking couple; a balance shaft is often used to compensate for this. The secondary balance of a 270 degree engine is perfect, however the configuration does result in an unbalanced rocking couple.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: The first production 270 degree straight-twin motorcycle engines were fitted to the 1996 Yamaha TRX850 and Yamaha TDM. Later examples include the 2009 Triumph Thunderbird, 2010 Norton Commando 961, 2012 Honda NC700 series, 2014 Yamaha MT-07, 2016 Triumph Thruxton 1200, and 2018 Royal Enfield Interceptor 650 & continental gt .


title: Straight-twin engine

text: Each cylinder in a straight-twin engine has a separate crank pin, unlike V-twin engines which can use a common crank pin for both connecting rods. Most vintage British straight-twin motorcycle engines (such as Triumph, BSA, Norton and Royal Enfield) had two main bearings. Beginning in the late 1950s, most Honda straight-twin engines had four main bearings. Subsequent straight-twin engines had four or occasionally three main bearings.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: The world's first production motorcycle, the 1894 Hildebrand & Wolfmüller used a straight-twin engine. The cylinders lay flat and forward-facing, with the pistons connected directly to the rear wheel using a locomotive-style connecting rod. In 1903, the Werner Motocyclette became the second production motorcycle model, using a straight-twin engine with vertical cylinders. The Werner engine uses cast-iron cylinders with integral heads, side valves and has a displacement of 500 cc.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: The 1938 Triumph Speed Twin was a successful straight-twin motorcycle which also led to straight-twin engines becoming more widely used by other brands. The engine was designed by Edward Turner and Val Page, and was initially used in the 1933 Triumph 6/1 sidecar hauler (which won the International Six Days Trial silver medal and the 1933 Maudes Trophy). During the development of the engine, it was found that a 360 degree crank angle was better suited to the use of a single carburettor than a 180 degree crank angle.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: Following the trend created by the Triumph Speed Twin, the most common design used by British motorcycle manufacturers until the mid-1970s was a four-stroke straight-twin engine with a 360 degree crankshaft. The manufacturers producing these motorcycles included BSA, Norton, Triumph, Ariel, Matchless and AJS. Straight-twin engines were also produced by Italian and German manufacturers, along with the American manufacturer Indian.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: In 1949, the AJS E-90 Porcupine won the 500 1949 Grand Prix World Championship, becoming the first and only straight-twin motorcycle to win the championship. This engine is one of few four-stroke straight-twins to use cylinders oriented horizontally rather than vertically.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: Since the 2000s, BMW and several Japanese manufacturers have continued to produce straight-twin engines, mostly for middleweight models. Several large scooters have also used straight-twin engines, such as the 2001 Yamaha TMAX and the 2001 Honda Silver Wing. Straight-twin engines are also used in motorcross sidecar racing.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: Many large British motorcycles from 1945 to the 1960s used a straight-twin transverse engine (i.e. oriented with the crankshaft perpendicular to the frame), such as the Triumph Bonneville and Norton Commando. This layout is well suited to air-cooling, since both cylinders receive equal airflow and the exhaust can exit in the well-cooled location at the front of each cylinder.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: The transverse-engine straight-twin design has been largely replaced by V-twin engines, however the straight-twin design has the advantage of easier packaging of ancillaries (such as the air-filter, carburettor and ignition components), which also improves access to ancillaries for maintenance/repairs. A straight-twin engine using a 270 degree crankshaft can have a similar sound and feel to a V-twin engine with an uneven firing order.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: Longitudinal engine straight-twin motorcycles are less common, however examples include the 1930-1938 Dresch Monobloc and the 1949-1956 Sunbeam S7 and S8.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: This engine orientation allows for a motorcycle as narrow as a single-cylinder engine, which reduces the aerodynamic drag, especially for the purpose of motorcycle racing. However, the main disadvantage for air-cooled engines is that the rear cylinder runs hotter than the front cylinder.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: Although two-cylinder engines are quite uncommon in cars, the straight-twin layout has been used for several automobile engines over time.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: The first known straight-twin engine was a variant of the Daimler Motors' "Phoenix" engine introduced in 1895; these engines were used in Panhard cars that year. Another early straight-twin engined car was the 1898 Decauville Voiturelle, which used a pair of cylinders taken from a de Dion model mounted fore and aft and positioned below the seat.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: Straight-twin engines have been used in various small cars, such as the 1957 Fiat 500, 1958 Subaru 360, 1958 NSU Prinz, 1962 Mitsubishi Minica, 1967 Honda N360, 1970 Honda Z600, 1972 Fiat 126, 1988 VAZ Oka, 1988 Dacia Lăstun, and 1980 Daihatsu Cuore.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: Petrol straight-twin engines currently used in production cars include the Tata Nano and the Fiat TwinAir engine (used in various models from Fiat, Lancia and Alfa Romeo). Diesel straight-twin engines currently in production include the Piaggio Porter engine.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: In the early 20th century, gaff-rigged British fishing boats such as Morecambe Bay PrawnersLancashire Nobbys would sometimes retrofit an inboard engine, such as the Lister or the "Kelvin E2" 3.0 litre petrol-paraffin engine.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: From the 1950s, manufacturers of outboard motors had settled on the use of the basic inline engine design, cylinders stacked on top of each other with the crankshaft driving the propeller shaft. The "Suzuki 15" outbound motor was introduced in 1989.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: Other uses include tractors (such as various John Deere models until 1960), snowmobiles, personal watercrafts, and all-terrain vehicles. Design variations include two-stroke, four-stroke, petrol, diesel, air-cooling, water-cooling, natural aspiration and turbocharging.


title: Straight-twin engine

text: Ultralight aircraft, single seat gyro-copters and small homebuilt aircraft have also used straight-twin engines, often using engines originally designed for snowmobiles such as the Hirth 2704 and Cuyuna 430-D. Purpose-built engines for ultralight aircraft include the Rotax 503 and Rotax 582. Straight-twin engines are sometimes also used in large scale radio-controlled aircraft.


title: Kamen Rider W

text: , is a 2009-2010 Japanese tokusatsu drama, the eleventh series in the Heisei period run of the Kamen Rider Series and the twentieth overall. It premiered following the finale of "Kamen Rider Decade" on September 6, 2009, and aired alongside "Samurai Sentai Shinkenger" in TV Asahi's Super Hero Time programming block. Following "Shinkenger's" finale, it aired alongside "Tensou Sentai Goseiger", until "W" concluded on August 29, 2010. The series is described as the . In the first episode of Kamen Rider Fourze, W is revealed to be in the same continuity as the original Showa timeline, making it the first series to do so since "Kamen Rider Agito". The series is notable for being the first installment in what's popularly viewed as Heisei era Kamen Rider's second phase by fans. A sequel manga series, "Fuuto PI", began serialization in August 2017 and an anime adaptation began airing in August 2022.


title: Kamen Rider W

text: Advertisements throughout the months of May, June, and July 2009 built up to the debut of Kamen Rider W, who first appeared at the 10th Anniversary Project MASKED RIDER LIVE & SHOW event, and also featured in "".


title: Kamen Rider W

text: Hiroshi Tanahashi of New Japan Pro-Wrestling is a self-admitted fan of "Kamen Rider W", in June 2010 made a new costume designed after Kamen Rider W FangJoker's design and wore it at a match in Osaka on June 19. Rin Asuka also appeared at the match to promote the show.


title: Kamen Rider W

text: The series' main writer is Riku Sanjo and the main director is Ryuta Tasaki. The theme song titled "W-B-X ~W-Boiled Extreme~" is performed by Aya Kamiki with former JUDY AND MARY guitarist TAKUYA as the unit . The creature designer is Katsuya Terada, previously the character designer for "", the designer of Monster X for "", the designer of Cutie Honey's costume for "Cutie Honey", and the mechanic and character design refinement for "Yatterman".


title: Kamen Rider W

text: Newcomer Masaki Suda portrays the mysterious Philip. Drama actor Renn Kiriyama, who made his acting debut as Bunta Marui in "Musical Prince of Tennis: Absolute King Rikkai feat. Rokkaku ~ First Service", joins the cast as Shotaro Hidari. Hikaru Yamamoto, who made her acting debut in "Watashitachi no Kyōkasho" as Chiharu Nobue, portrays the female lead Akiko Narumi. Comedian and actor Takeshi Nadagi portrays Mikio Jinno and veteran actor Minori Terada, known for his leading role in "The Human Bullet", portrays Ryubee Sonozaki.