title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko (abbreviated as 67P or 67P/C–G) is a Jupiter-family comet, originally from the Kuiper belt, with a current orbital period of 6.45 years, a rotation period of approximately 12.4 hours and a maximum velocity of . Churyumov–Gerasimenko is approximately at its longest and widest dimensions. It was first observed on photographic plates in 1969 by Soviet astronomers Klim Ivanovych Churyumov and Svetlana Ivanovna Gerasimenko, after whom it is named. It most recently came to perihelion (closest approach to the Sun) on 2 November 2021, and will next come to perihelion on 9 April 2028.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: Churyumov–Gerasimenko was the destination of the European Space Agency's "Rosetta" mission, launched on 2 March 2004. "Rosetta" rendezvoused with Churyumov–Gerasimenko on 6 August 2014 and entered orbit on 10 September 2014. "Rosetta" lander, "Philae", landed on the comet's surface on 12 November 2014, becoming the first spacecraft to land on a comet nucleus. On 30 September 2016, the "Rosetta" spacecraft ended its mission by landing on the comet in its Ma'at region.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: Churyumov–Gerasimenko was discovered in 1969 by Klim Ivanovich Churyumov of the Kyiv University's Astronomical Observatory, who examined a photograph that had been exposed for comet Comas Solà by Svetlana Ivanovna Gerasimenko on 11 September 1969 at the Alma-Ata Astrophysical Institute, near Alma-Ata (now Almaty), the then-capital city of Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic, Soviet Union. Churyumov found a cometary object near the edge of the plate, but assumed that this was comet Comas Solà.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: After returning to his home institute in Kyiv, Churyumov examined all the photographic plates more closely. On 22 October, about a month after the photograph was taken, he discovered that the object could not be Comas Solà, because it was about 1.8 degrees off the expected position. Further scrutiny produced a faint image of Comas Solà at its expected position on the plate, thus proving the other object to be a different body.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: The comet consists of two lobes connected by a narrower neck, with the larger lobe measuring about and the smaller one about . With each orbit the comet loses matter, as gas and dust are evaporated away by the Sun. It is estimated that currently a layer with an average thickness of about is lost per orbit. The comet has a mass of approximately 10 billion tonnes.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: The two-lobe shape of the comet is the result of a gentle, low-velocity collision of two objects, and is called a contact binary. The "terraces", layers of the interior of the comet that have been exposed by partial stripping of outer layers during its existence, are oriented in different directions in the two lobes, indicating that two objects fused to form Churyumov–Gerasimenko.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: There are 26 distinct regions on Churyumov–Gerasimenko, with each named after an Egyptian deity; regions on the large lobe are named after gods, whereas those on the small lobe are named after goddesses. 19 regions were defined in the northern hemisphere prior to equinox. Later, when the southern hemisphere became illuminated, seven more regions were identified using the same naming convention.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: Features described as "gates", twin prominences on the surface so named for their appearance, were named after deceased members of the "Rosetta" team.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: During "Rosetta" lifetime, many changes were observed on the comet's surface, particularly when the comet was close to perihelion. These changes included evolving patterns of circular shapes in smooth terrains that at some point grew in size by a few metres per day. A fracture in the neck region was also observed to grow in size; boulders tens of metres wide were displaced, sometimes travelling more than 100 metres; and patches of the ground were removed to expose new features. A number of collapsing cliffs have also been observed. One notable example in December 2015 was captured by "Rosetta" NAVCAM as a bright patch of light shining from the comet. "Rosetta" scientists determined that a large cliff had collapsed, making it the first landslide on a comet known to be associated with an outburst of activity. An apparent outburst of the comet was observed on 14 November 2021. According to the researchers, "At the time of the outburst discovery with ZTF, the comet was 1.23 au from the Sun and 0.42 au from the Earth. The comet's last perihelion passage was on 2021 Nov 2.".


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: Cheops is the largest boulder on the surface of the comet, measuring up to 45 meters. It is located in the comet's larger lobe. It was named for the pyramid in Giza because its shape is similar to that of a pyramid.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: Like the other comets of the Jupiter family, Churyumov–Gerasimenko probably originated in the Kuiper belt and was ejected towards the interior of the Solar System, where later encounters with Jupiter successively changed its orbit.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: Up to 1840, the comet's perihelion distance was , too far for the Sun to vaporize the nucleus. In 1840 Jupiter changed the orbit to a perihelion distance of , and later encounters further decreased that distance to .


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: In February 1959, a close encounter with Jupiter moved Churyumov–Gerasimenko's perihelion inward to about , where it remains today. In November 2220 the comet will pass about from Jupiter which will move perihelion inwards to about from the Sun.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: Before Churyumov–Gerasimenko's perihelion passage in 2009, its rotational period was 12.76 hours. During this perihelion passage, it decreased to 12.4 hours, which likely happened because of sublimation-induced torque.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: , Churyumov–Gerasimenko's nucleus had an apparent magnitude of roughly 20. It came to perihelion on 13 August 2015. From December 2014 until September 2015, it had an elongation less than 45 degrees from the Sun. On 10 February 2015, it went through solar conjunction when it was 5 degrees from the Sun and was from Earth. It crossed the celestial equator on 5 May 2015 and became easiest to see from the Northern Hemisphere. Even right after perihelion when it was in the constellation of Gemini, it only brightened to about apparent magnitude 12, and required a telescope to be seen. , the comet had a total magnitude of about 20.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: The "Rosetta" mission was the first mission to include an orbiter that accompanied a comet for several years, as well as a lander that collected close-up data from the comet's surface. The mission launched in 2004, arrived at comet 67P in 2014, and concluded with a touchdown on the comet's surface in 2016.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: As preparation for the "Rosetta" mission, Hubble Space Telescope pictures taken on 12 March 2003 were closely analysed. An overall 3D model was constructed and computer-generated images were created.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: On 25 April 2012, the most detailed observations until that time were taken with the 2-metre Faulkes Telescope by N. Howes, G. Sostero and E. Guido while it was at its aphelion.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: On 6 June 2014, water vapor was detected being released at a rate of roughly when "Rosetta" was from Churyumov–Gerasimenko and from the Sun. On 14 July 2014, images taken by "Rosetta" showed that its nucleus is irregular in shape with two distinct lobes. The size of the nucleus was estimated to be . Two explanations for its shape were proposed at the time: that it was a contact binary, or that its shape may have resulted from asymmetric erosion due to ice sublimating from its surface to leave behind its lobed shape. By September 2015, mission scientists had determined that the contact binary hypothesis was unambiguously correct.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: Beginning in May 2014, "Rosetta" velocity was reduced by with a series of thruster firings. Ground controllers rendezvoused "Rosetta" with Churyumov–Gerasimenko on 6 August 2014. This was done by reducing "Rosetta" relative velocity to . "Rosetta" entered orbit on 10 September, at about from the nucleus.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: Descent of a small lander occurred on 12 November 2014. "Philae" is a robotic probe that set down on the surface with landing gear. The landing site has been christened "Agilkia" in honor of Agilkia Island, where the temples of Philae Island were relocated after the construction of the Aswan Dam flooded the island. The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of Churyumov–Gerasimenko has been estimated for simulation purposes at 10 m/s, or about 1/10000 of that on Earth.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: Because of its low relative mass, landing on the comet involved certain technical considerations to keep "Philae" anchored. The probe contains an array of mechanisms designed to manage Churyumov–Gerasimenko's low gravity, including a cold gas thruster, harpoons, landing-leg-mounted ice screws, and a flywheel to keep it oriented during its descent. During the event, the thruster and the harpoons failed to operate, and the ice screws did not gain a grip. The lander bounced twice and only came to rest when it made contact with the surface for the third time, two hours after first contact.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: Contact with "Philae" was lost on 15 November 2014 because of dropping battery power. The European Space Operations Centre briefly reestablished communications on 14 June 2015 and reported a healthy spacecraft but communications were lost again soon after. On 2 September 2016, "Philae" was located in photographs taken by the "Rosetta" orbiter. It had come to rest in a crack with only its body and two legs visible. While the discovery solves the question of the lander's disposition, it also allows project scientists to properly contextualise the data it returned from the comet's surface.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: The composition of water vapor from Churyumov–Gerasimenko, as determined by the "Rosetta" spacecraft, is substantially different from that found on Earth. The ratio of deuterium to hydrogen in the water from the comet was determined to be three times that found for terrestrial water. This makes it unlikely that water found on Earth came from comets such as Churyumov–Gerasimenko. The water vapor is also mixed with significant amount of formaldehyde (0.5 wt%) and methanol (0.4 wt%), these concentrations falling within common range for Solar system comets. On 22 January 2015, NASA reported that, between June and August 2014, the comet released increasing amounts of water vapor, up to tenfold as much. On 23 January 2015, the journal "Science" published a special issue of scientific studies related to the comet.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: Measurements carried out before "Philae" batteries failed indicate that the dust layer could be as much as thick. Beneath that is hard ice, or a mixture of ice and dust. Porosity appears to increase toward the center of the comet.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: The nucleus of Churyumov–Gerasimenko was found to have no magnetic field of its own after measurements were taken during "Philae" descent and landing by its ROMAP instrument and "Rosetta" RPC-MAG instrument. This suggests that magnetism may not have played a role in the early formation of the Solar System, as had previously been hypothesized.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: The ALICE spectrograph on "Rosetta" determined that electrons (within above the comet nucleus) produced from photoionization of water molecules by solar radiation, and not photons from the Sun as thought earlier, are responsible for the degradation of water and carbon dioxide molecules released from the comet nucleus into its coma. Also, active pits, related to sinkhole collapses and possibly associated with outbursts are present on the comet.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: Measurements by the COSAC and Ptolemy instruments on the "Philae" lander revealed sixteen organic compounds, four of which were seen for the first time on a comet, including acetamide, acetone, methyl isocyanate and propionaldehyde. Astrobiologists Chandra Wickramasinghe and Max Wallis stated that some of the physical features detected on the comet's surface by "Rosetta" and "Philae", such as its organic-rich crust, could be explained by the presence of extraterrestrial microorganisms. "Rosetta" program scientists dismissed the claim as "pure speculation". Carbon-rich compounds are common in the Solar System. Neither "Rosetta" nor "Philae" is equipped to search for direct evidence of organisms. The only amino acid detected thus far on the comet is glycine, along with precursor molecules methylamine and ethylamine.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: Solid organic compounds were also found in the dust particles emitted by the comet; the carbon in this organic material is bound in "very large macromolecular compounds", analogous to the insoluble organic matter in carbonaceous chondrite meteorites. Scientists think that the observed cometary carbonaceous solid matter could have the same origin as the meteoritic insoluble organic matter, but suffered less modification before or after being incorporated into the comet.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: One of the most outstanding discoveries of the mission so far is the detection of large amounts of free molecular oxygen () gas surrounding the comet. Current solar system models suggest the molecular oxygen should have disappeared by the time 67P was created, about 4.6 billion years ago in a violent and hot process that would have caused the oxygen to react with hydrogen and form water. Molecular oxygen has never before been detected in cometary comas. "In situ" measurements indicate that the / ratio is isotropic in the coma and does not change systematically with heliocentric distance, suggesting that primordial was incorporated into the nucleus during the comet's formation. This interpretation was challenged by the discovery that may be produced on the surface of the comet in water molecule collisions with silicates and other oxygen-containing materials. Detection of molecular nitrogen () in the comet suggests that its cometary grains formed in low-temperature conditions below .


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: On 3 July 2018, researchers hypothesized that molecular oxygen may not be made on the surface of comet 67P in sufficient quantity, thus deepening the mystery of its origin.


title: 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko

text: CAESAR was a proposed sample-return mission aimed at returning to 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko, capturing regolith from the surface, and returning it to Earth. This mission was competing in NASA's New Frontiers mission 4 selection process, and was one of two finalists in the program. In June 2019, it was passed over in favor of "Dragonfly".


title: S. V. Krishna Reddy

text: Satti Venkata Krishna Reddy is an Indian film director, screenwriter, composer, and actor known for his works predominantly in Telugu cinema. He has garnered three state Nandi Awards and the Filmfare Best Telugu Director Award.


title: S. V. Krishna Reddy

text: His notable films include "Rajendrudu Gajendrudu" (1993), "Mayalodu" (1993), "Yamaleela" (1994), "Number One" (1994), "Subha Lagnam" (1994), "Ghatothkachudu" (1995), "Maavichiguru" (1996), "Vinodam" (1996), "Egire Paavurama" (1997), "Aahvaanam" (1997), "Premaku Velayara" (1999), "Sardukupodaam Randi" (2000), "Sakutumba Saparivaara Sametham" (2000), "Pellam Oorelithe" (2003), "Athade Oka Sainyam" (2004), and "Hungama" (2005). In 2012 he directed the romantic comedy "Divorce Invitation", an American film.


title: S. V. Krishna Reddy

text: Krishna was born in Konkuduru village, East Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh. After his post graduation in Bheemavaram, he moved to Hyderabad and scripted "Kobbari Bondam" (1991). He played a small role in the 1986 film "Kirathakudu".


title: Otter Media

text: Otter Media Holdings, LLC was an American digital media company owned by WarnerMedia. The company was founded in 2014 by AT&T and The Chernin Group as a holding company of the anime streaming service, Crunchyroll who the latter invested in 2013.


title: Otter Media

text: In addition to Crunchyroll, it owned Rooster Teeth and held an ownership stake in Gunpowder & Sky with Floris Bauer. AT&T would later acquire the remaining stake of Otter Media in 2018 and later divested Crunchyroll to Sony Pictures Television's subsidiary Funimation in 2021. The company folded into Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment after the merger of WarnerMedia into Warner Bros. Discovery.


title: Otter Media

text: In April 2014, AT&T and the Chernin Group established Otter Media as the 50:50 joint venture to offer OTT services.


title: Otter Media

text: In January 2016, Otter Media invested in Van Toffler (former CEO of Viacom Media Networks Music Group) and Floris Bauer's Gunpowder & Sky, a digital content company, which eventually merged with FilmBuff.


title: Otter Media

text: In November 2016, Otter Media and actress Reese Witherspoon formed Hello Sunshine, a joint venture focused on telling female-driven stories on film, TV, and digital platforms; the company was later sold to a media company backed by the Blackstone Group.


title: Otter Media

text: In January 2018, Otter Media bought the remaining stake in Ellation, the owner of VRV and Crunchyroll, and integrated it as Otter Media's Consumer Division.


title: Otter Media

text: On June 20, 2018, "Recode" reported that AT&T was close to buying out Chernin's stake in Otter Media, on the heel of its acquisition of Time Warner (whose digital media holdings included Machinima). On August 7, 2018, AT&T announced their acquisition of Chernin Group's stake in Otter Media for an undisclosed amount, believed to be around $1 billion.


title: Otter Media

text: On August 22, 2018, Ellation formed Ellation Studios, a production studio with facilities in both the U.S. and Japan, to produce original content for Crunchyroll and VRV.


title: Otter Media

text: On December 4, 2018, Otter announced a broad restructuring that would result in the layoff of about ten percent of its staff. As part of the reorganization, Machinima, which had been part of Warner Bros. Digital Networks, was re-organized under Otter Media. After the restructuring, Ellation housed Rooster Teeth, Crunchyroll, and VRV, while Machinima became a unit of Fullscreen.


title: Otter Media

text: On March 4, 2019, following the reconstruction of WarnerMedia's businesses, Otter Media became part of Warner Bros. Entertainment. However, on May 31, it was transferred to the WarnerMedia Entertainment division in order to oversee HBO Max.


title: Otter Media

text: In September 2019, Crunchyroll announced it had acquired a majority stake in Viz Media Europe from Hitotsubashi Group, and later rebranded Viz Media Europe as Crunchyroll SAS. As a result, the Ellation name was moved from being Otter Media's Consumer Division to Crunchyroll's subsidiary in Moldova, and VRV was made a brand of Crunchyroll.


title: Otter Media

text: On December 9, 2020, Sony-owned Funimation announced its acquisition of Crunchyroll from Otter Media for $1.175 billion, which was finalized on August 9, 2021.


title: Rainbow Herbicides

text: The Rainbow Herbicides are a group of tactical-use chemicals used by the United States military in Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War. Success with Project AGILE field tests with herbicides in South Vietnam in 1961 and inspiration by the British use of herbicides and defoliants during the Malayan Emergency in the 1950s led to the formal herbicidal program Trail Dust (see Operation Ranch Hand). Herbicidal warfare is the use of substances primarily designed to destroy the plant-based ecosystem of an agricultural food production and/or to destroy foliage which provides the enemy cover.


title: Rainbow Herbicides

text: The United States discovered 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) during World War II. It was recognized as toxic and was combined with large amounts of water or oil to function as a weed-killer. Army experiments with the chemical eventually led to the discovery that 2,4-D combined with 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T) yielded a more potent herbicide. It was found that 2,4,5-T was contaminated with 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD), commonly called "dioxin". Researcher Alvin Lee Young found that samples of 2,4,5-T in Agents Pink and Green had doubled the TCDD concentration of Agents Purple or Orange.


title: Rainbow Herbicides

text: In Vietnam, the early large-scale defoliation missions (1962-1964) used 8,208 gallons of Agent Green, 122,792 gallons of Pink, and 145,000 of Purple. These were dwarfed by the 11,712,860 gallons of Orange (both versions) used from 1965 to 1970. Agent White started to replace Orange in 1966; 5,239,853 gallons of White were used. The only agent used on a large scale in an anti-crop role was Blue, with 2,166,656 gallons used. The bombardment occurred most heavily in the area of the Ho Chi Minh Trail.


title: Rainbow Herbicides

text: The rainbow herbicides damaged the ecosystems and cultivated lands of Vietnam, and led to buildup of dioxins in the regional food chain. About 4.8 million people were affected.


title: Rainbow Herbicides

text: In addition to testing and using the herbicides in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia, the US military also tested the "Rainbow Herbicides" and many other chemical defoliants and herbicides in the US, Canada, Puerto Rico, Korea, India, and Thailand from the mid-1940s to the late 1960s. Herbicide persistence studies of Agents Orange and White were conducted in the Philippines. The Philippine herbicide test program was conducted in cooperation with the University of the Philippines College of Forestry, and was also described in a 1969 issue of The Philippine Collegian, the college's newspaper. Super or enhanced Agent Orange was tested by representatives from Fort Detrick and Dow Chemical in Texas, Puerto Rico, Hawaii, and later in Malaysia, in a cooperative project with the International Rubber Research Institute. Picloram in Agent White and Super-Orange was contaminated by hexachlorobenzene (HCB) a dioxin-like carcinogen. The Canadian government also tested these herbicides and used them to clear vegetation for artillery training.


title: Rainbow Herbicides

text: Vietnam remains heavily contaminated by dioxin-like compounds, which are classified as persistent organic pollutants. These compounds remain in the water table and have built up in the tissues of local fauna. However, the contamination has begun to deteriorate, and the forest canopy has regrown somewhat since the Vietnam War.


title: Rainbow Herbicides

text: Rainbow herbicides and other dioxin-like compounds are endocrine disruptors, and evidence suggests that they continue to have long-term health consequences many years after exposure. Because they mimic, or interfere with, hormonal function, adverse effects can include problems with reproduction, growth and development, immune function, and metabolic function. As an example, dioxins and dioxin-like compounds influence the hormone dehydoepiandosterone (DHEA), which has a role in the determination of male or female sex characteristics. There have been thousands of documented instances of health problems and birth defects associated with rainbow herbicide exposure in Vietnam, where tested levels remain high in the soil, water, and atmosphere, decades after initial exposure.


title: Rainbow Herbicides

text: Soldiers exposed to Rainbow Herbicides in Southeast Asia reported long-term health effects, which led to several lawsuits against the U.S. government and the manufacturers of the chemical.


title: Bong Joon-ho filmography

text: Bong Joon-ho is a South Korean film director, producer, and screenwriter who began his career in 1994 after creating the short films "Baeksaekin" ("White Man"), "Memories in My Frame", and "Incoherence". In 1997, Bong wrote the feature film "Motel Cactus", for which he also served as an assistant director. Two years later, he wrote "Phantom: The Submarine", and later made his feature-length directorial debut with "Barking Dogs Never Bite" (2000). In the following years, Bong wrote and directed "Memories of Murder" (2003), "The Host" (2006), "Mother" (2009), and "Snowpiercer" (2013), films which received "universal acclaim" from critics.


title: Bong Joon-ho filmography

text: After writing and producing 2014's "Sea Fog", Bong co-wrote, directed, and produced the action-adventure film "Okja", which earned a nomination for the Palme d'Or at the 70th Cannes Film Festival. While working on "Snowpiercer", Bong was encouraged to write a play, which resulted in the creation and release of the film "Parasite" in 2019. The film received the Palme d'Or, acclaim from critics internationally, and numerous accolades. It also earned Bong the Academy Award for Best Director, further establishing him as a profound filmmaker around the world.


title: Dastaan (2010 TV series)

text: Dastaan () is a Pakistani TV series based on the novel "Bano", by Razia Butt. Broadcast on Hum TV in 2010, it was dramatized by Samira Fazal. Based on the partition of the Indian Subcontinent and the resulting independence of Pakistan, the story takes place takes place between 1947 and 1956. The drama depicts the story of Bano, a girl from a close knit Muslim family living in Ludhiana (located in undivided Punjab) in the pre-1947 era. The story is about the trials and tribulations Bano faces after she decides to dedicate her life to the All-India Muslim League.


title: Dastaan (2010 TV series)

text: "Dastaan" is the first project of its kind taken up by the Pakistani media. Director Haissam Hussain stated in an interview that production for the drama began months in advance, and that the filming itself only took a little over two months. It is considered to be one of the best Pakistani television series of all times.


title: Dastaan (2010 TV series)

text: Built on the true events of partition of 1947, the series depicts the events of rioting and chaos in 1947.


title: Dastaan (2010 TV series)

text: Based on the novel, Bano, "Dastaan" begins with the wedding of Suraiya and Salim. Suraiya's nephew, Hassan was the son of Rasheeda. When Hassan's father died, he and his mother were kicked out of his fathers house by his paternal family and they moved back to Rasheeda's maternal house. Bano, Suraiya, Faheem and Salim and Hassan were childhood friends and all grew up together. When Hassan went to study at University he left home and went to Islamia college in Peshawar. Hassan returns for Saleem and Suraiya's wedding where Hassan and Bano meet for the first time as adults after three years. (The last time they met was three years ago when they were children). The whole family was gathered for the wedding, including Hassan's aunt Jameela from Amritsar and his aunt Sultana and her daughter Rabia from Lahore. Hassan spent most of his time at the wedding preaching the Quaid's message and the rest of it teasing his cousin Rabia and flirting with Bano. Although Rabia was only 14 years old and Hassan thought of her as a younger sister, she started developing feelings for him. As Hassan starts teasing and flirting with Bano, they slowly begin to develop feelings for each other, with Hassan visiting Ludhiana every now and then. Hassan is in his final year at the Islamia College as an engineering student. He is an active supporter of the All-India Muslim League, and the leader of the Ludhiana Branch. He strongly believes in the establishment of Pakistan and is an avid follower of Qaid-E-Azam, the leader of the Muslim League and Pakistan Movement. Meanwhile, Saleem is an active supporter of the Indian National Congress, with all his friends being Hindu. He strictly believes that the establishment of Pakistan will not help, but rather lessen the position of Muslims in India. The political debate between Saleem and Hassan begins as friendly competition, but intensifies as conditions worsen throughout India for Muslims. Saleem, hot-tempered and rash, begins to bring political debates into family life and eventually forbids Suraiya to visit Hassan, her nephew. But Hassan is not dissuaded. He continues to spread the message of Pakistan throughout Saleem's family, causing Saleem's anger to explode on many occasions. Other than Saleem, his entire family become strong supporters of the Muslim League, especially Bano, who makes posters and signs for the Pakistan Movement.


title: Dastaan (2010 TV series)

text: Bibi tells Suraiya that a marriage proposal has come for Bano from Patiala. Suraiya panicked and tells her sister Rashida that Bano and Hassan like each other and have become close, and that if they don't get married Bano would commit suicide and Hassan wouldn't marry anyone else either. Upon hearing this Rashida takes her brother and sister-in-law and asks for Banos hand in marriage for Hassan. Saleem overhears this and politely tells them that they can leave because a proposal has come for Bano. Bano's parents become angry and ask Saleem who he had in mind and Saleem tells them for his Hindu friend called Ram. His parents immediately agree for Bano's proposal with Hassan. Hassan and Bano eventually become engaged, and Saleem decides to leave behind his rivalry with Hassan for Bano's sake. Soon, Hassan gets a job in Rawalpindi and has to leave immediately. He leaves Ludhiana, with the promise that they will return four months later for the wedding. Meanwhile, Suraiya is 4 months pregnant.


title: Dastaan (2010 TV series)

text: During this time tensions between Hindus and Muslims escalate dramatically, and violence breaks out all across India. Hate crimes against Muslims become common, and fighting spreads to all states, getting threateningly closer to Ludhiana every day. As the fighting becomes more pronounced, Muslims retaliate, leaving nobody safe. Saleem seems to be under the impression that his Hindu friends and their families will be able to protect his family from rioters, however, he soon feels them to be distant and aloof, and soon realises that he was wrong all along.


title: Dastaan (2010 TV series)

text: On a fateful night, a group of Sikhs and Hindus attack the family's home. All of the men (which includes many other Muslims who sought refuge in their house) stay on the bottom floor with their swords and knives intending to fight. All the women (including Bano, Suraiya, and Bano's mother, Bibi, Sakina Khala and her daughters) are huddled on the roof of the house. All the men are brutally killed while the women are either taken to be raped and killed or committed suicide to save themselves from that fate. Bano and Bibi however survive and are 'rescued' by Salim's hindu friends.


title: Dastaan (2010 TV series)

text: Saleem's friend, Ram, tries to rape Bano, but his other friend saves her by killing Ram out of guilt. Bano, alone with Bibi, manages to escape Ludhiana, where they seek shelter in a refugee camp for Muslims. The Muslim refugees are headed by a young brave Muslim man who lost his entire family. Thirsty and hungry, they try to walk to Pakistan, encountering poisoned wells along the way. Eventually, Hindu rioters attack this caravan. Bano is separated from Bibi and both are gang raped. Bano crawls toward her mother's now lifeless body, seeing her Ta'wiz necklace next to it. Bano, grief-stricken and in shock, wears it and lays next to her body.


title: Dastaan (2010 TV series)

text: A Sikh man stumbles upon Bano and her dead mother, and he helps nurse her back to health. He then boards her on a train heading from Jalandhar towards Lahore and leaves. It was common for trains to arrive in Lahore full of dead Muslims with only a few survivors and vice versa. Soon this train is attacked by rioters. Basant Singh, a rioter, chases after Bano on the train. She falls unconscious, and Basant Singh kidnaps her, bringing her to his home in Kapurthala. She awakens in his home where he and his mother live. At first, she refuses to tell them her name, and so Basant Singh calls her Sundar Kaur, meaning "beautiful lioness" in Punjabi. He gives her the impression that he will take her to Pakistan himself once the dangers are gone. He also tells her she can write to Hassan and he'll deliver the letters. Bano believes his lies and cannot wait to go to Pakistan.


title: Dastaan (2010 TV series)

text: Nearly a year later, Basant has not lived up to his promise, claiming that the roadways are still blocked and that traveling to Pakistan is too dangerous. Eventually, Bano learns of his plans to forcibly marry her and convert her, and she attempts to run away again. This time though, when Basant catches her, he doesn't treat her gently as the first time. He spends the next 5 years beating, raping, emotionally torturing Bano after forcibly marrying and converting her. However she doesn't give up and makes his blood boil by shouting abuses at him and never forgetting that she is a muslim. One fateful day, Basant dies as he tries to save their infant son Bhagat Singh as he's about to fall from the roof. Bano takes her son and migrates to Pakistan.


title: Dastaan (2010 TV series)

text: In Pakistan, Hassan goes through severe depression after realising that Suraiyyah and Bano along with their other relatives must have been brutally raped and killed. He goes from a friendly extrovert to a miserable reserved person. For the next five years, his mother did not see him laugh. Seeing this, she asks him to get married but her disagrees as he believes himself to be married to Bano. One day, Sultana, his aunt, along with her children decides to visit. Hassan is excited after a long time to meet his only surviving family, especially Rabia. Expecting the same 14 year-old child with ponytails whom he could tease again, he's astonished when he encounters a young woman instead. He becomes distant from her as he can sense her feelings. However its been five years since Bano's 'death' and he needs to move on. Later Rabia and her mother moved from Karachi to Lahore to meet Hassan and her mother.


title: Dastaan (2010 TV series)

text: Bano ends up in a shelter for refugees. The caretaker woman writes a letter to Hassan asking him to come and take Bano.


title: Dastaan (2010 TV series)

text: Hassan receives the letter and takes Bano and the child home. Hassan decides to marry Bano, and wants to break off his engagement to Rabia. Rabia and her mother come to know of this and visit Hassan's house. Rabia's mother tells Rabia to take care of Bano to please Hassan. However, one day, he overhears a conversation between his parents about Rabia taking care of Bano so Hassan can see the goodness in her. He argues with Rabia, but Rabia insists that her love is truer than Bano's. Bano overhears this and interrupts them telling them that if they truly want to do something for her, they should get married. The next day, Hassan finds out that Bano has left the house. Hassan spends many days and weeks searching for Bano. He blames Rabia for this. Bano is living with a family where she does their household chores, she gets a job in a modern family where she realises that Pakistan is not how she thought it would be. She is fired from the job. One day Hassan sees her in the mosque and he runs after her to get her back home but Bano says her friend to go to Hassan and ask him to forget Bano. Hassan then goes home and agrees to marry Rabia as Bano had wished their marriage.


title: Dastaan (2010 TV series)

text: One day she goes to a birthday party where she meets a gentleman who has similar thoughts to those of Bano. He offers Bano to come and work in his office where they work for the welfare of people. Bano is very happy and accepts his proposal.


title: Dastaan (2010 TV series)

text: One day, Rabia learns of Bano's whereabouts and she begs her to marry Hassan. Eventually, Bano agrees and she promises that she will come. She goes to her office where the same gentleman leads her to storage room and attempts to abuse her, but she stabs hims to death. She is arrested by the police. Bano is taken to a mental asylum for recovery. Later, Hassan and Rabia, who are now husband and wife, visit Bano.


title: Dastaan (2010 TV series)

text: The "Dastaan" theme "Aasmanon Se" was composed and sung by Sohail Haider and was written by Sahir Altaf. A frequent background music on the show, played during scenes asserting Pakistani independence or Pakistani pride is based after the tune of Aye Watan Pyare Watan by Ustad Amanat Ali Khan.


title: Dastaan (2010 TV series)

text: On being asked to choose Razia Butt’s novel "Bano" as an inspiration for serial "Dastaan", Haissam Hussain revealed that about three years ago, he did a tele-film by Umera Ahmad, "Mutthi Bhar Mitti" which got a very good response, so Momina Duraid and he decided to work with the theme of partition and the novel "Bano" provided the perfect opportunity to pursue this.


title: Dastaan (2010 TV series)

text: The producer, Momina Duraid said that she read the novel "Bano" in her childhood and she want to make partition play but she was told that it is a failure to produce dramas on partition because nobody would watch it. She decided to make play on the novel "Bano" for which she met Razia Butt, the author of the novel who said to Duraid, "I am giving you the my precious thing, made it good."


title: Dastaan (2010 TV series)

text: The serial takes place at a number of locations, primarily in Lahore. It starts out at a neighborhood of Lahore, which was shown as Ludhiana, India. The locations changed with every couple of episodes as the story corresponds. Other locations include Karachi, Rawalpindi, and Kapurthala. Notable locations include the Islamia College and the famous Badshahi Masjid in Lahore, as well as the Pakistan Railways Station. Location of this drama was being praised by the mass as it looked like of that time zone.


title: Dastaan (2010 TV series)

text: "Dastaan" was aired in Middle East on MBC Bollywood under the title "حب عبر الحدود" (). It was also aired in India on Zindagi under the title "Waqt Ne Kiya Kya Haseen Sitam" from 23 March 2015 onwards. Previously, it was decided to aired the show under the title "Lakeerein", but the decision was later changed. In UK, the show was aired on Hum Europe premiering on September 19, 2015.


title: Dastaan (2010 TV series)

text: The show was available for online streaming on iflix from 2017 to 2019 and is also available on Indian streaming platform, Eros Now. Hum TV uploaded all the episodes of the series on official YouTube channel in May 2019.


title: Dastaan (2010 TV series)

text: "Dastaan" was widely appreciated by the viewers and received positive reviews from critics due to its subject, genre, performances and direction. In a poll by "Dawn", "Dastaan" was rated as the second best drama of 2010, after "Dolly ki Ayegi Baraat", that aired on Geo Entertainment, and Sanam Baloch was voted best actress for "Dastaan", with Mehreen Raheel in third place, while Samira Fazal was voted third best writer, also for "Dastaan." It is also among the few dramas to have received 4.5 stars from TV Kahani. The review said: "Please, do yourself a favor and watch this one. You will learn and be entertained at the same time." "The News International" praised it to illustrate the minority representation sensitively.


title: Dastaan (2010 TV series)

text: "DAWN Images" ranked it as a most iconic TV drama of Pakistan, praising the direction and for balancing the historical details and political sensitivities.


title: Dastaan (2010 TV series)

text: A notice was issued by Justice Mukul Mudgal against Zindagi on account of complaints received by the Indian Ministry of Broadcasting and Information. It stated that the show had depicted Indians in bad light.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Putnam County is a county located in the U.S. state of New York. As of the 2020 census, the population was 97,668. The county seat is Carmel. Putnam County formed in 1812 from Dutchess County and is named for Israel Putnam, a hero in the French and Indian War and a general in the American Revolutionary War.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Putnam County is included in the New York-Newark-Jersey City, NY-NJ-PA Metropolitan Statistical Area. It is located in the lower Hudson River Valley. Midtown Manhattan is around a one-hour drive, and Grand Central Terminal is approximately one hour and twenty minutes by train from the county.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: It is one of the most affluent counties in America, ranked 21st by median household income, and 43rd by per-capita income, according to the 2012 American Community Survey and 2009-2013 American Community Survey, respectively.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: In 1609, the Wappinger Native American people inhabited the east bank of the Hudson River. They farmed, hunted, and fished throughout their range, often encountering Dutch fur traders. They obtained metal tools and goods such as alcohol and firearms in exchange for furs.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: The colonial Province of New York and the Connecticut Colony negotiated an agreement on November 28, 1683, establishing their border as east of the Hudson River, and north to Massachusetts. Dutchess county was organized as one of New York's twelve counties. It included all of today's Putnam County and two towns in the present Columbia county. Until 1713, Dutchess was administered by Ulster county.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: In 1691, a group of Dutch traders purchased a tract of land from the Wappingers that spanned from the Hudson River to the Connecticut border. Six years later they sold it to wealthy Dutch-American merchant Adolphus Philipse, who obtained a Royal sanction for a "Highland Patent" (later to be known as the Philipse Patent) that encompassed most of today's Putnam County. Unknown at that time was a northwest veer in the river's path at the Hudson Highlands. This generated a dispute over a roughly 2-mile-wide section of border between northern Westchester County, then-Dutchess County, and the Connecticut Colony, which came to be known as "The Oblong".


title: Putnam County, New York

text: In 1737, the New York Colonial Assembly designated the Philipse Patent as the South Precinct of Dutchess County. The Philipses began leasing farms to migrants from Massachusetts, Connecticut, Long Island, and lower Westchester. After Adolph Philipse's death, the Patent was divided in 1754 into nine lots granted to three heirs: Mary Philipse, Philip Philipse, and Susannah Philipse Robinson. During the French and Indian War, many of the Wappinger went to Stockbridge, Massachusetts.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Compared to other parts of the Hudson Valley, Putnam County had slow settlement. It was privately owned and settlement was limited to tenant farmers willing to pay the Philipse family for leases. Secondly, it was mostly hilly and rocky, making it unappealing to men looking for tillable cropland. Its use was generally limited to dairy farming and wood cutting. The first non-tenant settlers in the county were along its eastern edge. The ambiguous border with Connecticut attracted farmers from New England. They assumed that Philipse did not own the disputed area.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Among early settlers were the Hayt family, which built a farm called The Elm in 1720. Jacob Haviland settled in the Oblong in 1731 in what became known as Haviland Hollow. The first village in the county was Fredericksburg, now the hamlet of Patterson.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: During the American Revolution, the Philipses stayed loyal to the Crown. As a consequence, their lands were confiscated by the New York government. It sold the Philipse Patent along with the rest of their holdings. The dispute over The Oblong was resolved in the aftermath of the war, with the heavily settled tract being incorporated as the first of two versions of the Town of Southeast. Also resolved were two "Gores", the Beekman Gore and the Rombout Gore, which being geographically similar to the Livingston and Beekman patents they abutted, were ceded by the Philipses to Dutchess County in 1758 and 1771 respectively.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Due to the increasing population of the Southern Precinct of Dutchess County and the great distance of these communities from the county seat in Poughkeepsie, Putnam was split from Dutchess in 1812 and organized as an independent county. It encompassed all of the Philipse Patent and the Oblong abutting it, less a triangular area in the farthest northwest reach of the Patent. There, a lowland near Fishkill Creek isolated from the rest of Putnam County and its adjacent upland drainage leading into the Hudson Highlands to the south, were ceded to Dutchess.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Putnam travelers mostly used boats and ships along the Hudson River. Boats transporting goods traveled up the Hudson to ports, mainly at Peekskill, New York. They were transported by road into Putnam County, or goods were unloaded in Putnam County at Cold Spring, New York. Such transport suffered in winter, when the river froze. At that time, little food or goods could be shipped to the county.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: The Philipstown Turnpike was created in 1815 as a toll road from Cold Spring to Connecticut. The wagons that traveled the road would transport produce from eastern Putnam County and iron ore from the mines. The route of the turnpike can roughly be traced today: Rt 301 from Cold Spring to Farmers Mills Road, to White Pond Road to Pecksville, then Holmes Rd to Patterson, then Quaker Hill Rd to Connecticut. Transportation improved with the advent of the railroad, namely the Harlem Line, which was built in the 1840s, connecting Putnam by rail to New York City. Originally there were four stations on the Harlem line in Putnam County: Brewster, Dykemans, Towners, and Patterson. Today only the Brewster and Patterson stops remain; a new one called Southeast was added in modern times.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Putnam County played an important role in the Civil War. One third of the county's men between the ages of 15 and 55 served in the military during the war years. During the post-Civil War years, industry and agriculture suffered losses as the economy contracted. Iron, which was produced in the Highland Mountains, could be found elsewhere. Agriculture was also affected greatly. The increasing need for drinking water in New York City led the city to search for sources in the Hudson Valley. In Putnam County, much of the farmland was flooded to create reservoirs as part of New York City's Croton Watershed. The abandoning of farms, the creation of reservoirs, and the preservation of the remaining open land resulted in scenic lands that drew large amounts of tourism from New York City.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: By the 20th century, improved roads brought vacationers from New York City. The Taconic State Parkway was constructed during the Great Depression as one of numerous infrastructure projects in the state and country. This brought more vacationers from the city, who were attracted to the scenic lands and the inexpensive hotels, inns, and summer houses. Putnam County's population doubled during the summer months.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: After World War II, Putnam County became an exurb of New York City. Rapid residential development occurred and the county became a bedroom community. However, the prevalent rocky uplands and protection of Putnam county's reservoirs inherently limited development, as much of the land in the county is close to wetlands or reservoirs.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Governmental operations in Putnam County are outlined in the County Charter, which was approved by the voters of the County in November 1977. It is administered by a County Executive, elected at-large, and a 9-member County Legislature, elected from single-member districts.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: The current County Executive is Republican MaryEllen Odell. She won a special election for the office in November 2011, following her defeat in 2010 for the office by then-state Senator Vincent Leibell (R). In 2010 Leibell pleaded guilty to two federal felony charges in 2010. Following a plea agreement with the US Attorney for the Southern District of New York, Leibell resigned his state Senate seat and did not assume the office of County Executive on January 1, 2011.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Prior to the Charter form of government, the county's affairs were managed by Board of Supervisors, with one Supervisor from each of the county's six towns. As these had populations of differing size, these geographic districts violated the principle of "one man, one vote."


title: Putnam County, New York

text: County Legislators are elected for three-year terms, and since 2011 are limited to four three-year terms in office. Legislative terms are staggered so that one-third of the legislative is elected each year.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: There are three types of general trial courts in Putnam County: the New York Supreme Court, the County Court and the Justice Courts. The Supreme Court is the trial level court of the New York State Unified Court System, which presents some confusion as the Supreme Court is the highest court of appeals in the federal system as well as in most states, whereas the Court of Appeals is the highest court in New York. The Supreme Court has broad authority over all categories of cases, both civil and criminal. Generally the Supreme Court in Putnam hears civil cases involving claims in excess of $25,000. While the Supreme Court has jurisdiction over criminal cases in most counties this is handled by the County Courts. In Putnam however, the Supreme Court does exercise jurisdiction over some criminal cases.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: The County Court is authorized to hear all criminal cases that have occurred in the county as well as limited jurisdiction over civil cases. The County Court handles felony cases exclusively and shares jurisdiction with the town and village justice courts on misdemeanor cases and other minor offenses and violations. The County Court's jurisdiction on civil cases is limited to those involving less than $25,000.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: The Historic Putnam County Courthouse is located in the town of Carmel. Built in 1814 in Greek Revival style, it is the second oldest working courthouse in New York, second to the one in Johnstown. Portico and pillars were added to the structure in the 1840s. It was recently extensively remodeled to preserve the structure and adapt it for use as the Surrogate's Court.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: The bew Putnam County Courthouse opened on January 2, 2008. It was constructed at a cost of $22.8 million. Jury assembly, court clerks and a public law library are located on the first floor. The second floor includes a Family Court and hearing room. On all floors are judges' chambers, jury deliberation rooms, prisoner cells and conference rooms. The third floor has two courtrooms for the County Court. The Supreme Court and a law library occupy the fourth floor.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: The Putnam County Sheriff's Office includes a Civil Bureau, patrol division, a marine unit, a motorcycle unit, a school resource unit, and a narcotics enforcement unit.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: The current Sheriff, Kevin McConville (Republican Party) was elected on November 3, 2021. The Sheriff's Department includes a Civil Bureau, patrol division, a marine unit, a motorcycle unit, a school resource unit, and a narcotics enforcement unit.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Putnam County is part of the 94th State Assembly District (Towns of Carmel, Patterson, Putnam Valley and Southeast), represented by Kevin M. Byrne (R), and the 95th State Assembly District (Towns of Kent and Phillipstown), represented by Sandra R. Galef (D).


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Putnam County is part of the 40th State Senate District (Towns of Carmel, Patterson and Southeast), represented by Peter Harckham (D), and the 41st State Senate District (Towns of Kent, Phillipstown and Putnam Valley), represented by Susan J. Serino (R).


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Putnam County is located in the 18th congressional district and has been represented by Democratic United States Congressman Sean Patrick Maloney since 2013. He unseated Republican Congresswoman Nan Hayworth.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Putnam County has voted solidly for Republican presidential candidates, largely bucking the Democratic trend in the New York City suburbs. Since the Civil War, the only Democratic presidential nominees to carry Putnam County have been New Yorker Horatio Seymour in 1868, Woodrow Wilson in 1912 and Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of , of which is land and (6.5%) is water.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Putnam County is situated in the lower Hudson Valley in the southeastern part of New York, between the Hudson River on its west and the New York-Connecticut border on its east.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Putnam is southeast of Newburgh, and it is north of White Plains. Depending on precise location within the county, road travel distance to New York City ranges between and .


title: Putnam County, New York

text: The terrain of the county is generally hilly. The region of the county nearest the Hudson River is especially so, and is part of the Hudson Highlands. The highest point in Putnam County is Scofield Ridge, with four summits at approximately 1,540 feet (469 m) above sea level. The lowest point is sea level along the Hudson.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: The Hudson River, named for Henry Hudson, has provided transportation of goods from New York City, north to the Hudson Valley, throughout history. Between the hills and glacial moraine, Putnam County's valleys contain numerous wetlands (including part of the Great Swamp), creeks, ponds, lakes (including the 583 acre Lake Mahopac, and reservoirs.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Putnam County is known for its many pristine reservoirs, part of the New York City water supply system's Croton Watershed. These include Bog Brook in Southeast; Croton Falls Reservoir in Carmel and Southeast; Diverting Reservoir in Southeast; East Branch in Brewster; Middle Branch Reservoir in Southeast; West Branch in Kent and Carmel, and Boyds Corner Reservoir in Kent. There are also three controlled lakes in the system in the town of Carmel, Kirk, Gilead, and Gleneida.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: The climate of Putnam County is humid continental, as is most of New York. In the winter, bouts of cold, dry air arrive from Canada, and interior sections of North America. In the summer, the Gulf Stream brings hot, moist, humid air to the county. Extratropical storms often affect the county; in the winter, Nor'easters bring heavy snow and rain, and sometimes high wind. In the summer and fall, back door cold fronts move in from the north and bring thunderstorms, sometimes severe. Putnam County receives on average 36 inches of snowfall a year.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: According to the 2020 Census, there were 97,668 people and 38,713 households in the county, with 2.76 persons per household. The population density was . 50.1% of the population was female. The racial makeup of the county was 77.1% White alone, not Hispanic or Latino, 3.9% Black or African American, 0.5% Native American, 2.3% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 3.0% from other races, 1.8% from two or more races and 16.4% Hispanic or Latino of any race. 12.9% of the population was foreign born.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: 4.5% of the population was under the age of 5, 19.4% under the age of 18, and 18.0% were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43.4 years.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: The median income for a household in the county was $104,486, and the per capita income was $47,448. 5.2% of the population was in poverty.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: 93% of the population at least 25 years old had a high school degree or higher, and 39.6% had a bachelor's degree or higher.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: There were 38,713 housing units, 81.8% of which were owner occupied. As of Q4 2021, the median value of all homes in Putnam County was $419,890, an increase of 12.1% from the prior year.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Mahopac is the largest school district in Putnam County, educating more than 5,000 students in four elementary schools, a middle school, and a high school (1600 students).


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Saint Basil Academy, a private boarding facility, functioned as a private school with in-house instruction until 1997.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: The library system consists of eight libraries; the Brewster Public Library in Brewster; the Kent Public Library in Kent; the Reed Memorial Library in Carmel; the Julia L. Butterfield Memorial Library in Cold Spring; the Alice Curtis Desmond and Hamilton Fish Library in Garrison; the Mahopac Public Library in Mahopac; the Patterson Library in Patterson, and the Putnam Valley Free Library in Putnam Valley.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Putnam County was provided with the majority of its electricity by the nuclear Indian Point Energy Center in Westchester County.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: The Putnam Hospital Center, located in Carmel, serves the eastern county. Western Putnam County is mainly served by hospitals in Dutchess or Westchester counties.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: The county has several passenger trains that serve the county. The Harlem Line and the Hudson Line of the Metro-North Railroad run north–south in Putnam. The Harlem Line makes stops at Brewster, Southeast, and Patterson. The Hudson Line makes stops at Manitou, Garrison, Cold Spring, and Breakneck Ridge. A connection to Amtrak can be made to the south at Croton-Harmon in upper Westchester County or to the north at Poughkeepsie in Dutchess County, both on the Hudson Line. Grand Central Terminal in Manhattan is roughly a one-hour train ride.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Until May 1958, a third commuter line, the New York Central’s Putnam Division, operating between the Bronx and points in the county, served the region. With no direct connection to Grand Central Terminal (a transfer was required in the Bronx), ridership on the line was weak compared to its counterparts. Freight service was also scant. The line was eventually abandoned in waves between 1962 and 1980. The former railbed has been converted to trails, and now serves as the South County Trailway, North County Trailway, and Putnam County Trailway rail trails.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Putnam has two interstate highways. The east–west Interstate 84 comes in from the north near Ludingtonville, and connects to the southbound Interstate 684 in Southeast toward the Connecticut border. The Taconic State Parkway runs north–south through central Putnam. Three of the region's major east–west routes traverse the eastern half of the county. NY 52 enters alongside I-84 from Dutchess County, to end at US 6 south of Carmel. East of Brewster, US 6 joins US 202 and the routes leave the county and state concurrently aside the interstate.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Chuang Yen Monastery, located in Kent, is home to the largest indoor Buddha statue in the Western Hemisphere. It has the only library in the United States specializing in Buddhist history.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Clarence Fahnestock State Park is a natural area containing over 50 miles of trails for walking and hiking, including nine miles of the Appalachian Trail. Donald J. Trump State Park (currently closed) is a park located in Putnam and Westchester counties. A small ski resort, Thunder Ridge Ski Area, with 30 trails and three lifts is located in the town of Patterson.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: "The Journal News" serves the region known as the Lower Hudson Valley, which comprises Westchester County, Rockland County, and Putnam County. "The Journal News" is owned by Gannett Company, Inc. Before Gannett merged its local dailies into the "Journal News", Putnam County was served by an edition of the "Reporter Dispatch".


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Putnam County newsreaders were served for generations by the "Putnam County News and Recorder", formerly an independently owned newspaper devoted to local affairs. The oversized broadsheet – measuring seventeen by twenty inches – was first published in Cold Spring as "The Recorder" in 1866. In July 2008, the local ownership sold the paper to Roger Ailes, chairman of Fox News, who named his wife Elizabeth as the new publisher. The paper altered its editorial content substantially, generating local controversy. In 2009 the Ailes family also purchased the "Putnam County Courier", when it was shut down by Journal Register Co. (The first issue after publication resumed listed Roger Ailes as owner and chairman, but Elizabeth Ailes has since been identified as the owner). "The Courier" was first established as the "Putnam County Democrat" in 1841. Under Ailes ownership, the "Courier" closed its Carmel office. The "News and Recorder" remained a full broadsheet, with a 17-inch-wide front page, until 2017. Both newspapers are now standard-sized broadsheets. The two newspapers share an editor and many of the same stories appear in both. Douglas Cunningham, editor-in-chief of the "Courier" and "News and Recorder" since 2011, purchased the two papers from the Ailes in December 2016 and became publisher.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Two other weeklies are the "Putnam County Times" (historically "Times & Republican") and "Putnam County Press", virtually identical except that the former is distributed free. Both have been owned since 1958 by Don Hall. Hall and Roger Ailes, though both Republicans, are bitter rivals. Hall had long derided Ailes as a part-time resident. When Ailes faced harassment allegations, leading to his ouster from "Fox News", his Putnam County connection contributed to his being featured on the front pages of the "Times" and "Press".


title: Putnam County, New York

text: In 2010, Gordon Stewart, a businessman living in Garrison, launched a news website to compete with the Ailes-owned "PCNR" called Philipstown.info. In 2012 a print version was launched called "The Paper". Shortly Stewart's death in 2014, the publication became a nonprofit led by a board of directors. It changed its name in 2016 to "The Highlands Current" to reflect its coverage of neighboring Beacon.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Carmel is the largest town of Putnam County, with a population of 34,300. The Town of Carmel includes the hamlets of the county seat Carmel, Carmel Hills, Field Corners, Hopkins Corners, Mahopac, Mahopac Falls, Secor Corners, Tilly Foster, and West Mahopac. Carmel is along the southern border of Putnam County.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Carmel is known for its historic courthouse and high school, which serves grades 9–12. Carmel was taken in 1795 from Frederickstown, a town which encompassed the present towns of Kent, Patterson, and Carmel.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Kent is a town located along the northern border of Putnam with a population of 14,000. Kent contains the hamlets of Lake Carmel, Kent Corners, Kent Hills, and Ludingtonville. Kent was the last remaining section of Frederickstown, after the towns of Carmel and Patterson were divided from it in 1795. Frederickstown was founded in 1788.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: The Town of Patterson is located in the northeast area of Putnam County and has a population of 12,000. Patterson, originally named Franklin, was divided from the former town of Frederickstown, in 1795. Patterson contains the hamlets of Patterson, Barnum Corners, Camp Brady, Fields Corners, Haines Corners, Haviland Hollow, Putnam Lake, Steinbeck Corners, Towners, and West Patterson.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Philipstown is a town located along the western end of Putnam County and it has a population of 10,000. Philipstown contains the villages and hamlets of Cold Spring, Forsonville, Garrison, Garrison Four Corners, Glenclyffe, Manitou, McKeel Corners, Nelsonville, North Highlands, Storm King, and the north side of Continental Village. It was founded in 1788. West Point (in Orange County) is located across the Hudson River from the village of Cold Spring.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: It has three stations on the Metro North Railroad Hudson line: in Garrison, Cold Spring and Manitou, which has limited train service.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Two public libraries are located in Philipstown: the Desmond-Fish Library in Garrison and the Julia L. Butterfield Library in Cold Spring.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Putnam Valley is a town located on the southern border of Putnam County with a population of 11,000. Putnam Valley contains the hamlets of Adams Corners, Christian Corners, Gilbert Corners, Lake Peekskill, Oscawana Corners, Putnam Valley, Tompkins Corners, Sunnybrook.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Putnam Valley was created in 1835 as the Town Of Quincy, taking its current name the following year. The town was created by splitting off from Philipstown. Putnam Valley is home to the Clarence Fahnestock State Park, which covers much of Putnam County and some of Dutchess County.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: The Town of Southeast is located in the southeastern corner of Putnam County, with a population of 18,000. It was founded in 1788 as one of the three original towns in what would later become Putnam County. Its shape changed greatly in 1795, when it lost its northern half to Patterson and gained a great amount on its western side.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: It is the second-largest town in Putnam County, second only to Carmel. The crossroads of Interstate highways 684 and 84; State Routes 22 and 312; and US Highways 6 and 202 are located here. Metro-North Railroad's Harlem Line has two stops that service the area, at Brewster Village and Southeast Station (formerly Brewster North) off Route 312. Southeast contains the village of Brewster, and the hamlets of Brewster Hill, Brewster Heights, Deans Corners, Deforest Corners, Drewville Heights, Dykemans, Milltown, Peach Lake, Sears Corners, and Sodom.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Cold Spring is an incorporated village surrounded by the Town of Philipstown and the village of Nelsonville.


title: Putnam County, New York

text: Nelsonville is an incorporated village surrounded by the Town of Philipstown and the village of Cold Spring.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: Amino acid synthesis is the set of biochemical processes (metabolic pathways) by which the amino acids are produced. The substrates for these processes are various compounds in the organism's diet or growth media. Not all organisms are able to synthesize all amino acids. For example, humans can synthesize 11 of the 20 standard amino acids. These 11 are called the non-essential amino acids).


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: Most amino acids are synthesized from α-ketoacids, and later transaminated from another amino acid, usually glutamate. The enzyme involved in this reaction is an aminotransferase.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: The α-ketoglutarate family of amino acid synthesis (synthesis of glutamate, glutamine, proline and arginine) begins with α-ketoglutarate, an intermediate in the Citric Acid Cycle. The concentration of α-ketoglutarate is dependent on the activity and metabolism within the cell along with the regulation of enzymatic activity. In "E. coli" citrate synthase, the enzyme involved in the condensation reaction initiating the Citric Acid Cycle is strongly inhibited by α-ketoglutarate feedback inhibition and can be inhibited by DPNH as well high concentrations of ATP. This is one of the initial regulations of the α-ketoglutarate family of amino acid synthesis.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: The regulation of the synthesis of glutamate from α-ketoglutarate is subject to regulatory control of the Citric Acid Cycle as well as mass action dependent on the concentrations of reactants involved due to the reversible nature of the transamination and glutamate dehydrogenase reactions.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: The conversion of glutamate to glutamine is regulated by glutamine synthetase (GS) and is a key step in nitrogen metabolism. This enzyme is regulated by at least four different mechanisms: 1. Repression and depression due to nitrogen levels; 2. Activation and inactivation due to enzymatic forms (taut and relaxed); 3. Cumulative feedback inhibition through end product metabolites; and 4. Alterations of the enzyme due to adenylation and deadenylation. In rich nitrogenous media or growth conditions containing high quantities of ammonia there is a low level of GS, whereas in limiting quantities of ammonia the specific activity of the enzyme is 20-fold higher. The confirmation of the enzyme plays a role in regulation depending on if GS is in the taut or relaxed form. The taut form of GS is fully active but, the removal of manganese converts the enzyme to the relaxed state. The specific conformational state occurs based on the binding of specific divalent cations and is also related to adenylation. The feedback inhibition of GS is due to a cumulative feedback due to several metabolites including L-tryptophan, L-histidine, AMP, CTP, glucosamine-6-phosphate and carbamyl phosphate, alanine, and glycine. An excess of any one product does not individually inhibit the enzyme but a combination or accumulation of all the end products have a strong inhibitory effect on the synthesis of glutamine. Glutamine synthase activity is also inhibited via adenylation. The adenylation activity is catalyzed by the bifunctional adenylyltransferase/adenylyl removal (AT/AR) enzyme. Glutamine and a regulatory protein called PII act together to stimulate adenylation.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: The regulation of proline biosynthesis can depend on the initial controlling step through negative feedback inhibition. In "E. coli", proline allosterically inhibits Glutamate 5-kinase which catalyzes the reaction from L-glutamate to an unstable intermediate L-γ-Glutamyl phosphate.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: Arginine synthesis also utilizes negative feedback as well as repression through a repressor encoded by the gene "argR". The gene product of "argR", ArgR an aporepressor, and arginine as a corepressor affect the operon of arginine biosynthesis. The degree of repression is determined by the concentrations of the repressor protein and corepressor level.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: Phenylalanine, tyrosine, and tryptophan, the aromatic amino acids, arise from chorismate. The first step, condensation of 3-deoxy-D-arabino-heptulosonic acid 7-phosphate (DAHP) from PEP/E4P, uses three isoenzymes AroF, AroG, and AroH. Each one of these has its synthesis regulated from tyrosine, phenylalanine, and tryptophan, respectively. The rest of the enzymes in the common pathway (conversion of DAHP to chorismate) appear to be synthesized constitutively, except for shikimate kinase, which can be inhibited by shikimate through linear mixed-type inhibition.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: Tyrosine and phenylalanine are biosynthesized from prephenate, which is converted to an amino acid-specific intermediate. This process is mediated by a phenylalanine (PheA) or tyrosine (TyrA) specific chorismate mutase-prephenate dehydrogenase. PheA uses a simple dehydrogenase to convert prephenate to phenylpyruvate, while TyrA uses a NAD-dependent dehydrogenase to make 4-hydroxylphenylpyruvate. Both PheA and TyrA are feedback inhibited by their respective amino acids. Tyrosine can also be inhibited at the transcriptional level by the TyrR repressor. TyrR binds to the TyrR boxes on the operon near the promoter of the gene that it wants to repress.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: Tryptophan biosynthesis involves conversion of chorismate to anthranilate using anthranilate synthase. This enzyme requires either glutamine as the amino group donor or ammonia itself. Anthranilate synthase is regulated by the gene products of trpE and trpG. trpE encodes the first subunit, which binds to chorismate and moves the amino group from the donor to chorismate. trpG encodes the second subunit, which facilitates the transfer of the amino group from glutamine. Anthranilate synthase is also regulated by feedback inhibition: tryptophan is a co-repressor to the TrpR repressor.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: The oxaloacetate/aspartate family of amino acids is composed of lysine, asparagine, methionine, threonine, and isoleucine. Aspartate can be converted into lysine, asparagine, methionine and threonine. Threonine also gives rise to isoleucine. The associated enzymes are subject to regulation via feedback inhibition and/or repression at the genetic level. As is typical in highly branched metabolic pathways, additional regulation at each branch point of the pathway. This type of regulatory scheme allows control over the total flux of the aspartate pathway in addition to the total flux of individual amino acids. The aspartate pathway uses L-aspartic acid as the precursor for the biosynthesis of one fourth of the building block amino acids.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: The enzyme aspartokinase, which catalyzes the phosphorylation of aspartate and initiates its conversion into other amino acids, can be broken up into 3 isozymes, AK-I, II and III. AK-I is feed-back inhibited by threonine, while AK-II and III are inhibited by lysine. As a sidenote, AK-III catalyzes the phosphorylation of aspartic acid that is the committed step in this biosynthetic pathway. Aspartate kinase becomes downregulated by the presence of threonine or lysine.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: Lysine is synthesized from aspartate via the diaminopimelate (DAP) pathway. The initial two stages of the DAP pathway are catalyzed by aspartokinase and aspartate semialdehyde dehydrogenase. These enzymes play a key role in the biosynthesis of lysine, threonine, and methionine. There are two bifunctional aspartokinase/homoserine dehydrogenases, ThrA and MetL, in addition to a monofunctional aspartokinase, LysC. Transcription of aspartokinase genes is regulated by concentrations of the subsequently produced amino acids, lysine, threonine, and methionine. The higher these amino acids concentrations, the less the gene is transcribed. ThrA and LysC are also feed-back inhibited by threonine and lysine. Finally, DAP decarboxylase LysA mediates the last step of the lysine synthesis and is common for all studied bacterial species. The formation of aspartate kinase (AK), which catalyzes the phosphorylation of aspartate and initiates its conversion into other amino acids, is also inhibited by both lysine and threonine, which prevents the formation of the amino acids derived from aspartate. Additionally, high lysine concentrations inhibit the activity of dihydrodipicolinate synthase (DHPS). So, in addition to inhibiting the first enzyme of the aspartate families biosynthetic pathway, lysine also inhibits the activity of the first enzyme after the branch point, i.e. the enzyme that is specific for lysine's own synthesis.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: The biosynthesis of asparagine originates with aspartate using a transaminase enzyme. The enzyme asparagine synthetase produces asparagine, AMP, glutamate, and pyrophosphate from aspartate, glutamine, and ATP. In the asparagine synthetase reaction, ATP is used to activate aspartate, forming β-aspartyl-AMP. Glutamine donates an ammonium group, which reacts with β-aspartyl-AMP to form asparagine and free AMP.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: Two asparagine synthetases are found in bacteria. Both are referred to as the AsnC protein. They are coded for by the genes AsnA and AsnB. AsnC is autogenously regulated, which is where the product of a structural gene regulates the expression of the operon in which the genes reside. The stimulating effect of AsnC on AsnA transcription is downregulated by asparagine. However, the autoregulation of AsnC is not affected by asparagine.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: Biosynthesis by the transsulfuration pathway starts with aspartic acid. Relevant enzymes include aspartokinase, aspartate-semialdehyde dehydrogenase, homoserine dehydrogenase, homoserine O-transsuccinylase, cystathionine-γ-synthase, Cystathionine-β-lyase (in mammals, this step is performed by homocysteine methyltransferase or betaine—homocysteine S-methyltransferase.)


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: Methionine biosynthesis is subject to tight regulation. The repressor protein MetJ, in cooperation with the corepressor protein S-adenosyl-methionine, mediates the repression of methionine's biosynthesis. The regulator MetR is required for MetE and MetH gene expression and functions as a transactivator of transcription for these genes. MetR transcriptional activity is regulated by homocystein, which is the metabolic precursor of methionine. It is also known that vitamin B12 can repress MetE gene expression, which is mediated by the MetH holoenzyme.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: In plants and microorganisms, threonine is synthesized from aspartic acid via α-aspartyl-semialdehyde and homoserine. Homoserine undergoes "O"-phosphorylation; this phosphate ester undergoes hydrolysis concomitant with relocation of the OH group. Enzymes involved in a typical biosynthesis of threonine include aspartokinase, β-aspartate semialdehyde dehydrogenase, homoserine dehydrogenase, homoserine kinase, threonine synthase.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: The biosynthesis of threonine is regulated via allosteric regulation of its precursor, homoserine, by structurally altering the enzyme homoserine dehydrogenase. This reaction occurs at a key branch point in the pathway, with the substrate homoserine serving as the precursor for the biosynthesis of lysine, methionine, threonin and isoleucine. High levels of threonine result in low levels of homoserine synthesis. The synthesis of aspartate kinase (AK), which catalyzes the phosphorylation of aspartate and initiates its conversion into other amino acids, is feed-back inhibited by lysine, isoleucine, and threonine, which prevents the synthesis of the amino acids derived from aspartate. So, in addition to inhibiting the first enzyme of the aspartate families biosynthetic pathway, threonine also inhibits the activity of the first enzyme after the branch point, i.e. the enzyme that is specific for threonine's own synthesis.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: In plants and microorganisms, isoleucine is biosynthesized from pyruvic acid and alpha-ketoglutarate. Enzymes involved in this biosynthesis include acetolactate synthase (also known as acetohydroxy acid synthase), acetohydroxy acid isomeroreductase, dihydroxyacid dehydratase, and valine aminotransferase.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: In terms of regulation, the enzymes threonine deaminase, dihydroxy acid dehydrase, and transaminase are controlled by end-product regulation. i.e. the presence of isoleucine will downregulate threonine biosynthesis. High concentrations of isoleucine also result in the downregulation of aspartate's conversion into the aspartyl-phosphate intermediate, hence halting further biosynthesis of lysine, methionine, threonine, and isoleucine.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: In "E. coli", the biosynthesis begins with phosphorylation of 5-phosphoribosyl-pyrophosphate (PRPP), catalyzed by ATP-phosphoribosyl transferase. Phosphoribosyl-ATP converts to phosphoribosyl-AMP (PRAMP). His4 then catalyzes the formation of phosphoribosylformiminoAICAR-phosphate, which is then converted to phosphoribulosylformimino-AICAR-P by the His6 gene product. His7 splits phosphoribulosylformimino-AICAR-P to form -erythro-imidazole-glycerol-phosphate. After, His3 forms imidazole acetol-phosphate releasing water. His5 then makes -histidinol-phosphate, which is then hydrolyzed by His2 making histidinol. His4 catalyzes the oxidation of -histidinol to form -histidinal, an amino aldehyde. In the last step, -histidinal is converted to -histidine.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: HisG → HisE/HisI → HisA → HisH → HisF → HisB → HisC → HisB → HisD (HisE/I and HisB are both bifunctional enzymes)


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: The enzymes are coded for on the His operon. This operon has a distinct block of the leader sequence, called block 1:


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: This leader sequence is important for the regulation of histidine in "E. coli". The "His" operon operates under a system of coordinated regulation where all the gene products will be repressed or depressed equally. The main factor in the repression or derepression of histidine synthesis is the concentration of histidine charged tRNAs. The regulation of histidine is actually quite simple considering the complexity of its biosynthesis pathway and, it closely resembles regulation of tryptophan. In this system the full leader sequence has 4 blocks of complementary strands that can form hairpin loops structures. Block one, shown above, is the key to regulation. When histidine charged tRNA levels are low in the cell the ribosome will stall at the string of His residues in block 1. This stalling of the ribosome will allow complementary strands 2 and 3 to form a hairpin loop. The loop formed by strands 2 and 3 forms an anti-terminator and translation of the "his" genes will continue and histidine will be produced. However, when histidine charged tRNA levels are high the ribosome will not stall at block 1, this will not allow strands 2 and 3 to form a hairpin. Instead strands 3 and 4 will form a hairpin loop further downstream of the ribosome. The hairpin loop formed by strands 3 and 4 is a terminating loop, when the ribosome comes into contact with the loop, it will be “knocked off” the transcript. When the ribosome is removed the "His" genes will not be translated and histidine will not be produced by the cell.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: Serine is the first amino acid in this family to be produced; it is then modified to produce both glycine and cysteine (and many other biologically important molecules). Serine is formed from 3-phosphoglycerate in the following pathway:


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: The conversion from 3-phosphoglycerate to phosphohydroxyl-pyruvate is achieved by the enzyme phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase. This enzyme is the key regulatory step in this pathway. Phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase is regulated by the concentration of serine in the cell. At high concentrations this enzyme will be inactive and serine will not be produced. At low concentrations of serine the enzyme will be fully active and serine will be produced by the bacterium. Since serine is the first amino acid produced in this family both glycine and cysteine will be regulated by the available concentration of serine in the cell.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: Glycine is biosynthesized from serine, catalyzed by serine hydroxymethyltransferase (SHMT). The enzyme effectively replaces a hydroxymethyl group with a hydrogen atom.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: SHMT is coded by the gene "glyA". The regulation of "glyA" is complex and is known to incorporate serine, glycine, methionine, purines, thymine, and folates, The full mechanism has yet to be elucidated. The methionine gene product MetR and the methionine intermediate homocysteine are known to positively regulate glyA. Homocysteine is a coactivator of "glyA" and must act in concert with MetR. On the other hand, PurR, a protein which plays a role in purine synthesis and S-adeno-sylmethionine are known to down regulate "glyA". PurR binds directly to the control region of "glyA" and effectively turns the gene off so that glycine will not be produced by the bacterium.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: The genes required for the synthesis of cysteine are coded for on the "cys" regulon. The integration of sulfur is positively regulated by CysB. Effective inducers of this regulon are N-acetyl-serine (NAS) and very small amounts of reduced sulfur. CysB functions by binding to DNA half sites on the "cys" regulon. These half sites differ in quantity and arrangement depending on the promoter of interest. There is however one half site that is conserved. It lies just upstream of the -35 site of the promoter. There are also multiple accessory sites depending on the promoter. In the absence of the inducer, NAS, CysB will bind the DNA and cover many of the accessory half sites. Without the accessory half sites the regulon cannot be transcribed and cysteine will not be produced. It is believed that the presence of NAS causes CysB to undergo a conformational change. This conformational change allows CysB to bind properly to all the half sites and causes the recruitment of the RNA polymerase. The RNA polymerase will then transcribe the "cys" regulon and cysteine will be produced.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: Further regulation is required for this pathway, however. CysB can down regulate its own transcription by binding to its own DNA sequence and blocking the RNA polymerase. In this case NAS will act to disallow the binding of CysB to its own DNA sequence. OAS is a precursor of NAS, cysteine itself can inhibit CysE which functions to create OAS. Without the necessary OAS, NAS will not be produced and cysteine will not be produced. There are two other negative regulators of cysteine. These are the molecules sulfide and thiosulfate, they act to bind to CysB and they compete with NAS for the binding of CysB.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: Pyruvate, the result of glycolysis, can feed into both the TCA cycle and fermentation processes. Reactions beginning with either one or two molecules of pyruvate lead to the synthesis of alanine, valine, and leucine. Feedback inhibition of final products is the main method of inhibition, and, in "E. coli", the "ilvEDA" operon also plays a part in this regulation.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: Alanine is produced by the transamination of one molecule of pyruvate using two alternate steps: 1) conversion of glutamate to α-ketoglutarate using a glutamate-alanine transaminase, and 2) conversion of valine to α-ketoisovalerate via Transaminase C.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: Not much is known about the regulation of alanine synthesis. The only definite method is the bacterium's ability to repress Transaminase C activity by either valine or leucine (see "ilvEDA" operon). Other than that, alanine biosynthesis does not seem to be regulated.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: Valine is produced by a four-enzyme pathway. It begins with the condensation of two equivalents of pyruvate catalyzed by acetohydroxy acid synthase yielding α-acetolactate. The second step involves the NADPH-dependent reduction of α-acetolactate and migration of methyl groups to produce α, β-dihydroxyisovalerate. This is catalyzed by acetohydroxy isomeroreductase. The third step is the dehydration of α, β-dihydroxyisovalerate catalyzed by dihydroxy acid dehydrase. In the fourth and final step, the resulting α-ketoisovalerate undergoes transamination catalyzed either by an alanine-valine transaminase or a glutamate-valine transaminase. Valine biosynthesis is subject to feedback inhibition in the production of acetohydroxy acid synthase.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: The leucine synthesis pathway diverges from the valine pathway beginning with α-ketoisovalerate. α-Isopropylmalate synthase catalyzes this condensation with acetyl CoA to produce α-isopropylmalate. An isomerase converts α-isopropylmalate to β-isopropylmalate. The third step is the NAD-dependent oxidation of β-isopropylmalate catalyzed by a dehydrogenase. The final step is the transamination of the α-ketoisocaproate by the action of a glutamate-leucine transaminase.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: Leucine, like valine, regulates the first step of its pathway by inhibiting the action of the α-Isopropylmalate synthase. Because leucine is synthesized by a diversion from the valine synthetic pathway, the feedback inhibition of valine on its pathway also can inhibit the synthesis of leucine.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: The genes that encode both the dihydroxy acid dehydrase used in the creation of α-ketoisovalerate and Transaminase E, as well as other enzymes are encoded on the ilvEDA operon. This operon is bound and inactivated by valine, leucine, and isoleucine. (Isoleucine is not a direct derivative of pyruvate, but is produced by the use of many of the same enzymes used to produce valine and, indirectly, leucine.) When one of these amino acids is limited, the gene furthest from the amino-acid binding site of this operon can be transcribed. When a second of these amino acids is limited, the next-closest gene to the binding site can be transcribed, and so forth.


title: Amino acid synthesis

text: The commercial production of amino acids usually relies on mutant bacteria that overproduce individual amino acids using glucose as a carbon source. Some amino acids are produced by enzymatic conversions of synthetic intermediates. 2-Aminothiazoline-4-carboxylic acid is an intermediate in the industrial synthesis of L-cysteine for example. Aspartic acid is produced by the addition of ammonia to fumarate using a lyase.


title: Subject (grammar)

text: The subject in a simple English sentence such as "John runs", "John is a teacher", or "John drives a car", is the person or thing about whom the statement is made, in this case "John". Traditionally the subject is the word or phrase which controls the verb in the clause, that is to say with which the verb agrees ("John is" but "John and Mary are"). If there is no verb, as in "John what an idiot!", or if the verb has a different subject, as in "John I can't stand him!", then 'John' is not considered to be the grammatical subject, but can be described as the "topic" of the sentence.


title: Subject (grammar)

text: While these definitions apply to simple English sentences, defining the subject is more difficult in more complex sentences and in languages other than English. For example, in the sentence "It is difficult to learn French", the subject seems to be the word "it", and yet arguably the real subject (the thing that is difficult) is "to learn French". A sentence such as "It was John who broke the window" is more complex still. Sentences beginning with a locative phrase, such as "There is a problem, isn't there?", in which the tag question "isn't there?" seems to imply that the subject is the adverb "there", also create difficulties for the definition of subject.


title: Subject (grammar)

text: In languages such as Latin and German the subject of a verb has a form which is known as the nominative case: for example, the form 'he' (not 'him' or 'his') is used in sentences such as "he ran", "he broke the window", "he is a teacher", "he was hit by a car". But there are some languages such as Basque or Greenlandic, in which the form of a noun or pronoun when the verb is intransitive ("he ran") is different from when the verb is transitive ("he broke the window"). In these languages, which are known as ergative languages, the concept of subject may not apply at all.


title: Subject (grammar)

text: The subject (glossing abbreviations: or ) is, according to a tradition that can be traced back to Aristotle (and that is associated with phrase structure grammars), one of the two main constituents of a clause, the other constituent being the predicate, whereby the predicate says something about the subject. According to a tradition associated with predicate logic and dependency grammars, the subject is the most prominent overt argument of the predicate. By this position all languages with arguments have subjects, though there is no way to define this consistently for all languages. Even in languages such as English, there is not always a perfect match between the semantic predicand and the subject, as a predicate may be predicated on an argument in another clause (see raising).


title: Subject (grammar)

text: From a functional perspective, a subject is a phrase that conflates nominative case with the topic. Many languages (such as those with ergative or Austronesian alignment) do not do this, and by this definition would not have subjects.


title: Subject (grammar)

text: All of these positions see the subject in English determining person and number agreement on the finite verb, as exemplified by the difference in verb forms between "he eats" and "they eat". The stereotypical subject immediately precedes the finite verb in declarative sentences in English and represents an agent or a theme. The subject is often a multi-word constituent and should be distinguished from parts of speech, which, roughly, classify words within constituents.


title: Subject (grammar)

text: The subject is a constituent that can be realized in numerous forms in English and other languages, many of which are listed in the following table:


title: Subject (grammar)

text: Of these three criteria, the first one (agreement) is the most reliable. The subject in English and many other languages agrees with the finite verb in person and number (and sometimes in gender as well). The second and third criterion are merely strong tendencies that can be flouted in certain constructions, e.g.


title: Subject (grammar)

text: In the first sentence, all three criteria combine to identify "Tom" as the subject. In the second sentence, which involves the subject-auxiliary inversion of a yes/no-question, the subject immediately follows the finite verb (instead of immediately preceding it), which means the second criterion is flouted. And in the third sentence expressed in the passive voice, the 1st and the 2nd criterion combine to identify "chemistry" as the subject, whereas the third criterion suggests that "by Tom" should be the subject because "Tom" is an agent.


title: Subject (grammar)

text: The fourth criterion is better applicable to languages other than English given that English largely lacks morphological case marking, the exception being the subject and object forms of pronouns, "I/me", "he/him", "she/her, they/them".


title: Subject (grammar)

text: The fifth criterion is helpful in languages that typically drop pronominal subjects, such as Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, Latin, Greek, Japanese, and Mandarin. Though most of these languages are rich in verb forms for determining the person and number of the subject, Japanese and Mandarin have no such forms at all. This dropping pattern does not automatically make a language a pro-drop language. In other languages, like English and French, most clauses should have a subject, which should be either a noun (phrase), a pronoun, or a clause. This is also true when the clause has no element to be represented by it. This is why verbs like "rain" must have a subject such as "it", even if nothing is actually being represented by "it". In this case, "it" is an expletive and a dummy pronoun. In imperative clauses, most languages elide the subject, even in English which typically requires a subject to be present, e.g.


title: Subject (grammar)

text: One criterion for identifying a subject in various languages is the possibility of its omission in coordinated sentences such as the following: The man hit the woman and [the man] came here.


title: Subject (grammar)

text: In a passive construction, the patient becomes the subject by this criterion: The woman was hit by the man and [the woman] came here.


title: Subject (grammar)

text: In ergative languages such as the nearly extinct Australian language Dyirbal, in a transitive sentence it is the patient rather than the agent that can be omitted in such sentences: "Balan dugumbil baŋgul yaraŋgu balgan, baninu" 'The man ("bayi yara") hit the woman ("balan dugumbil") and [she] came here'


title: Subject (grammar)

text: This suggests that in ergative languages of this kind the patient is actually the subject in a transitive sentence.


title: Subject (grammar)

text: There are certain constructions that challenge the criteria just introduced for identifying subjects. The following subsections briefly illustrate three such cases in English: 1) existential "there"-constructions, 2) inverse copular constructions, and 3) locative inversion constructions.


title: Subject (grammar)

text: Existential "there"-constructions allow for varying interpretations about what should count as the subject, e.g.


title: Subject (grammar)

text: In sentence 1, the first criterion (agreement) and the second criterion (position occupied) suggest that "there" is the subject, whereas the third criterion (semantic role) suggests rather that "problems" is the subject. In sentence 2, in contrast, agreement and semantic role suggest that "problems" is the subject, whereas position occupied suggests that "there" is the subject. In such cases then, one can take the first criterion as the most telling; the subject should agree with the finite verb.


title: Subject (grammar)

text: Another difficult case for identifying the subject is the so-called "inverse copular construction", e.g.


title: Subject (grammar)

text: The criteria combine to identify "the boys" as the subject in sentence 1. But if that is the case, then one might argue that "the boys" is also the subject in the similar sentence 2, even though two of the criteria (agreement and position occupied) suggest that "a chaotic force around here" is the subject. When confronted with such data, one has to make a decision that is less than fully arbitrary. If one assumes again that criterion one (agreement) is the most reliable, one can usually identify a subject.