title: 76th Golden Globe Awards

text: The Cecil B. DeMille Award is an honorary award bestowed for outstanding contributions to the world of entertainment. It is awarded to honorees who have made a significant mark in the film industry and is named after its first recipient, director Cecil B. DeMille.


title: 76th Golden Globe Awards

text: The Carol Burnett Award was first awarded at this ceremony and is an honorary award given for outstanding and lasting contributions to television on or off the screen. It is named in honor of its first recipient.


title: 76th Golden Globe Awards

text: The Golden Globe Ambassador is a young person, generally a celebrity's daughter or son, who assists in the awards presentations.


title: 76th Golden Globe Awards

text: For the first time, NBC televised the 4:40 p.m. EST Sunday afternoon NFL Wild Card playoff game (which has historically gone to another NFL broadcast partner such as Fox) as a lead-in to the Golden Globes. Because of the large viewership of NFL playoff games, this was expected to boost the Golden Globes' TV ratings, which dropped 11% between 2017 and 2018. Despite the NFL lead-in, the Golden Globes achieved a lower household rating and less total viewers than the 2018 ceremony, though the show experienced a slight increase in the 18–49 demographic.


title: 76th Golden Globe Awards

text: The regular Golden Globes Red Carpet Preshow was livestreamed exclusively on Facebook Watch instead of airing on NBC.


title: 76th Golden Globe Awards

text: No "In Memoriam" section was broadcast on television during the ceremony, so the HFPA included a slideshow on their website, and they included the following names:


title: Lennon Wall

text: The Lennon Wall or John Lennon Wall is a wall in Prague, Czech Republic. Since the 1980s, this once-typical wall has been filled with John Lennon–inspired graffiti, lyrics from Beatles' songs, and designs relating to local and global causes.


title: Lennon Wall

text: Located in a small and secluded square across from the French Embassy, the wall had been decorated by love poems and short messages against the regime since 1960s. It received its first decoration connected to John Lennon—a symbol of freedom, western culture, and political struggle—following the 1980 assassination of John Lennon when an unknown artist painted a single image of the singer-songwriter and some lyrics.


title: Lennon Wall

text: In 1988, the wall was a source of irritation for Gustáv Husák's communist regime. Following a short-lived era of democratization and political liberalization known as the Prague Spring, the newly-installed communist government dismantled the reforms, inspiring anger and resistance. Young Czechs wrote their grievances on the wall and, according to a report of the time, this led to a clash between hundreds of students and security police on the nearby Charles Bridge. The liberalization movement these students followed was described as Lennonism (not to be confused with Leninism), and Czech authorities described participants variously as alcoholic, mentally deranged, sociopathic, and agents of Western free market capitalism.


title: Lennon Wall

text: The wall continuously undergoes change, and the original portrait of Lennon is long lost under layers of new paint. Even when the wall was repainted by authorities, by the next day it was again full of poems and flowers. Today, the wall represents a symbol of global ideals such as love and peace.


title: Lennon Wall

text: The wall is owned by the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, which allowed the graffiti, and is located at "Velkopřevorské náměstí" (Grand Priory Square), Malá Strana.


title: Lennon Wall

text: On 17 November 2014, the 25th anniversary of the Velvet Revolution, the wall was painted over in pure white by a group of art students, leaving only the text “wall is over” . The Knights of Malta initially filed a criminal complaint for vandalism against the students, which they later retracted after contacting them.


title: Lennon Wall

text: The wall mural is still there as of 23 July 2017. And the “Wall is Over” bit has been changed to “War Is Over” from the song Happy Xmas (War Is Over).


title: Lennon Wall

text: On 22 April 2019, Earth Day, the action group Extinction Rebellion repainted the entire wall with slogans demanding action from the Czech government on climate change. “KLIMATICKÁ NOUZE” was painted in large block print letters, which reads “climate emergency” in Czech. Members of the public were encouraged to add their own messages during the process, resulting in calls for action painted in several languages. A giant image of a skull was also painted. The repaint was carried out in a manner which allowed some of the existing artwork to be included on the new wall.


title: Lennon Wall

text: In July 2019, artists painted a memorial on the wall for Hong Kong democracy activist Marco Leung Ling-kit, who became known as a martyr and a symbol of hope for the 2019 anti-extradition bill protest movement. The image on the wall depicts the yellow raincoat he was wearing during the banner drop that eventually led to a fall from the building, along with some words of solidarity: “Hong Kong, Add oil.”


title: Lennon Wall

text: On 4 August 2019, it was reported that the wall will be put under CCTV surveillance to block unlawful graffiti and combat the swaths of tourists that pass by it every day.


title: Lennon Wall

text: In October 2019, the Sovereign Military Order of Malta together with Prague 1 started the reconstruction of the Lennon Wall which lasted until November. They reacted thus to the recent situation of vandalism on the wall and its surroundings connected to the overtourism which became unbearable this summer. The place should have regained its respectable form which was going to be introduced on the occasion of the 30th anniversary of the Velvet Revolution in November as an open-air gallery with new rules. On 7 November 2019, the new face of the Lennon Wall as an open-air gallery was created and introduced to the public. Over 30 Czech and foreign professional artists gathered by the Czech designer Pavel Šťastný painted the Wall. New rules of the Wall no longer allow spraying, people can leave their messages connected to freedom and love only in the white free zones andy in more sensitive materials than sprays, e.g. pencil, marker, or chalk. Cameras and police monitor the wall to ensure the artistic portion is not defaced.


title: Lennon Wall

text: In July 2021, a new museum about the history of the Lennon Wall, the Lennon Wall Story, was set in Prokopska Street 8 in the cool underground. The Lennon Wall Story is a new museum that tracks the history and art of one of Prague’s major attractions. Located just a few hundred metres from the famous Lennon Wall itself, the museum seeks to entice visitors with dozens of photos, historic objects, Beatles memorabilia and a half hour documentary about the history of the wall, known for political and artistic expression.


title: Lennon Wall

text: During the 2014 democracy protests in Hong Kong, a similar Lennon Wall appeared along the staircase outside of the Hong Kong Central Government Offices. Inspired by the original in Prague, many thousands of people posted colourful post-it notes expressing democratic wishes for Hong Kong. The wall was one of the major arts of the Umbrella Movement. Throughout several months of occupations and protest, many efforts were made by different groups to ensure physical and digital preservation of the Hong Kong Lennon Wall.


title: Lennon Wall

text: Five years later, during the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests, the same wall was created again, with new post-it notes. Within days, dozens of post-it note Lennon Walls had “blossomed everywhere” (遍地開花) throughout Hong Kong, including on Hong Kong Island itself, Kowloon, the New Territories, and on the many outlying islands. There are even some Lennon Walls located inside government offices, including RTHK and the Policy Innovation and Co-ordination Office. According to a crowd-sourced map of Hong Kong, there are over 150 Lennon Walls throughout the region.


title: Lennon Wall

text: On 21 September 2019, police in Hong Kong began tearing down Lennon Walls across the city to remove anti-government statements.


title: Lennon Wall

text: Lennon Walls have also appeared outside of Hong Kong in Toronto, Vancouver BC, Calgary, Seoul, Tokyo, Berlin, London, Sydney, Manchester, Melbourne, Taipei, and Auckland.


title: Do while loop

text: In most [[computer programming]] languages a do while loop is a [[control flow]] [[statement (computer science)|statement]] that executes a block of code and then either repeats the block or exits the loop depending on a given [[Boolean data type|boolean]] condition.


title: Do while loop

text: The "do while" construct consists of a process symbol and a condition. First the code within the block is executed. Then the condition is evaluated. If the condition is [[Truth|true]] the code within the block is executed again. This repeats until the condition becomes [[False (logic)|false]].


title: Do while loop

text: Do while loops check the condition after the block of code is executed. This control structure can be known as a post-test loop. This means the do-while loop is an exit-condition loop. However a [[while loop]] will test the condition before the code within the block is executed.


title: Do while loop

text: This means that the code is always executed first and then the expression or test condition is evaluated. This process is repeated as long as the expression evaluates to true. If the expression is false the loop terminates. A while loop sets the truth of a statement as a necessary condition for the code's execution. A do-while loop provides for the action's ongoing execution until the condition is no longer true.


title: Do while loop

text: It is possible and sometimes desirable for the condition to always evaluate to be true. This creates an [[infinite loop]]. When an infinite loop is created intentionally there is usually another control structure that allows termination of the loop. For example a [[Control flow#Early exit from loops|break statement]] would allow termination of an infinite loop.


title: Do while loop

text: Some languages may use a different naming convention for this type of loop. For example, the [[Pascal programming language|Pascal]] and [[Lua (programming language)|Lua]] languages have a ""repeat until"" loop, which continues to run "until" the control expression is true and then terminates. In contrast a "while" loop runs "while" the control expression is true and terminates once the expression becomes false.


title: Do while loop

text: In this manner, the do ... while loop saves the initial "loop priming" with codice_1 on the line before the codice_2 loop.


title: Do while loop

text: As long as the "continue" statement is not used, the above is technically equivalent to the following (though these examples are not typical or modern style used in everyday computers):


title: Do while loop

text: These example programs calculate the [[factorial]] of 5 using their respective languages' syntax for a do-while loop.


title: Do while loop

text: Early BASICs (such as [[GW-BASIC]]) used the syntax WHILE/WEND. Modern BASICs such as [[PowerBASIC]] provide both WHILE/WEND and DO/LOOP structures, with syntax such as DO WHILE/LOOP, DO UNTIL/LOOP, DO/LOOP WHILE, DO/LOOP UNTIL, and DO/LOOP (without outer testing, but with a conditional EXIT LOOP somewhere inside the loop). Typical BASIC source code:


title: Do while loop

text: Do-while(0) statements are also commonly used in C macros as a way to wrap multiple statements into a regular (as opposed to compound) statement. It makes a semicolon needed after the macro, providing a more function-like appearance for simple parsers and programmers as well as avoiding the scoping problem with . It is recommended in [[CERT C Coding Standard]] rule PRE10-C.


title: Do while loop

text: Fortran 90 and later does not have a do-while construct either, but it does have a [[While_loop#Fortran|while loop]] construct which uses the keywords "do while" and is thus actually the same as the [[for loop]].


title: Do while loop

text: //These line of code is almost the same as the above JavaScript codes, the only difference is the keyword that shows the results


title: Do while loop

text: [[Pascal (programming language)|Pascal]] does not have a do/while; instead, it has a repeat/until. As mentioned in the introduction, one can consider a repeat/until to be equivalent to a 'do code while not expression' construct.


title: Do while loop

text: The [[PL/I]] DO statement subsumes the functions of the post-test loop ("do until"), the pre-test loop ("do while"), and the [[for loop]]. All functions can be included in a single statement. The example shows only the "do until" syntax.


title: Do while loop

text: Python lacks a specific do while flow control construct. However, the equivalent may be constructed out of a while loop with a break.


title: Do while loop

text: In Racket, as in other [[Scheme (programming language)|Scheme]] implementations, a "named-let" is a popular way to implement loops:


title: Do while loop

text: Compare this with the first example of the [[While loop#Racket|while loop]] example for Racket. Be aware that a named let can also take arguments.


title: Superstore (season 5)

text: The fifth season of "Superstore", the U.S. television series, was ordered on March 4, 2019 and filming began in August 2019. The season premiered on September 26, 2019 on NBC. The series continues to air in its Thursday at 8:00 PM timeslot. The season was set to contain 22 episodes, however production was shut down after the completion of the 21st episode due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Superstore (season 5)

text: "Superstore" follows a group of employees working at Cloud 9, a fictional big-box store in St. Louis, Missouri. The ensemble and supporting cast features America Ferrera, Ben Feldman, Lauren Ash, Colton Dunn, Nico Santos, Nichole Bloom, Mark McKinney, and Kaliko Kauahi. Kauahi joins the regular cast after being credited as a recurring character in seasons 1–4.


title: Superstore (season 5)

text: It was announced on May 22, 2019 that Kaliko Kauahi, who portrays Sandra Kaluiokalani since the first season, has been promoted to series regular. On August 28, 2019 it was announced that Justina Machado joined the cast as a recurring character, playing the new district manager Maya. Heidi Gardner was cast as Dina's nemesis Colleen.


title: Superstore (season 5)

text: After NBC had initially announced the sixth season renewal of the series, the network revealed on February 28, 2020, that series star America Ferrera would be departing at the end of the fifth season, citing she has new projects and wants to spend more time with her family. However, due to season 5 production being halted by the COVID-19 pandemic, Ferrera returned to finish the story of Amy's departure in season 6.


title: Khufiya

text: Khufiya () is an upcoming Hindi-language neo-noir spy thriller film written, produced and directed by Vishal Bhardwaj. The film is based on Amar Bhushan's espionage novel "Escape to Nowhere." It stars Tabu, Ali Fazal, Wamiqa Gabbi, Ashish Vidyarthi, Azmeri Haque Badhon and Alexx O'Nell. The film is scheduled to be released on Netflix in 2023.


title: Khufiya

text: Krishna Mehra is an operative at the Research & Analysis Wing. She is assigned to track down the mole selling India's defense secrets, while grappling with her dual identity as a spy and lover.


title: George Enescu

text: George Enescu (; – 4 May 1955), known in France as Georges Enesco, was a Romanian composer, violinist, conductor and teacher. Regarded as one of the greatest musicians in Romanian history, Enescu is featured on the Romanian five lei.


title: George Enescu

text: Enescu was born in Romania, in the village of Liveni (later renamed "George Enescu" in his honor), then in Dorohoi County, today Botoșani County. His father was Costache Enescu, a landholder, and his mother was Maria Enescu (née Cosmovici), the daughter of an Orthodox priest. Their eighth child, he was born after all the previous siblings had died in infancy. His father later separated from Maria Enescu and had another son with Maria Ferdinand-Suschi: the painter Dumitru Bâșcu.


title: George Enescu

text: A child prodigy, Enescu began experimenting with composing at an early age. Several, mostly very short, pieces survive, all for violin and piano. The earliest work of significant length bears the title "Pămînt românesc" ("Romanian Land"), and is inscribed "opus for piano and violin by George Enescu, Romanian composer, aged five years and a quarter". Shortly thereafter, his father presented him to the professor and composer Eduard Caudella. On 5 October 1888, at the age of seven, he became the youngest student ever admitted to the Vienna Conservatory, where he studied with Joseph Hellmesberger Jr., Robert Fuchs, and Sigismund Bachrich. He was the second person ever to be admitted to the Vienna Conservatory by a dispensation of age, and was the first non-Austrian (in 1882, Fritz Kreisler had also been admitted at the age of seven; according to the rules, nobody younger than 14 years could study there).


title: George Enescu

text: In 1891, the ten-year-old Enescu gave a private concert at the Court of Vienna, in the presence of Emperor Franz Joseph.


title: George Enescu

text: Joseph Hellmesberger Sr., one of his teachers and the director of the Vienna Conservatory, hosted Enescu at his home, where the child prodigy met his idol, Johannes Brahms.


title: George Enescu

text: He graduated at the age of 12, earning the silver medal. In his Viennese concerts young Enescu played works by Brahms, Sarasate and Mendelssohn. In 1895, he went to Paris to continue his studies. He studied violin with Martin Pierre Marsick, harmony with André Gedalge, and composition with Jules Massenet and Gabriel Fauré.


title: George Enescu

text: Enescu then studied from 1895 to 1899 at the Conservatoire de Paris. André Gedalge said that he was "the only one [among his students] who truly had ideas and spirit".


title: George Enescu

text: On 6 February 1898, at the age of 16, Enescu presented in Paris his first mature work, "Poema Română", played by the Colonne Orchestra, then one of the most prestigious in the world, and conducted by Édouard Colonne.


title: George Enescu

text: Many of Enescu's works were influenced by Romanian folk music, his most popular compositions being the two "Romanian Rhapsodies" (1901–02), the opera "Œdipe" (1936), and the suites for orchestra. He also wrote five mature symphonies (two of them unfinished), a symphonic poem "Vox maris", and much chamber music (three sonatas for violin and piano, two for cello and piano, a piano trio, two string quartets and two piano quartets, a wind decet (French, "dixtuor"), an octet for strings, a piano quintet, and a chamber symphony for twelve solo instruments). A young Ravi Shankar recalled in the 1960s how Enescu, who had developed a deep interest in Oriental music, rehearsed with Shankar's brother Uday Shankar and his musicians. Around the same time, Enescu took the young Yehudi Menuhin to the Colonial Exhibition in Paris, where he introduced him to the Gamelan Orchestra from Indonesia.


title: George Enescu

text: On 8 January 1923 he made his American debut as a conductor in a concert given by the Philadelphia Orchestra at Carnegie Hall in New York City, and subsequently visited the United States many times. It was in America, in the 1920s, that Enescu was first persuaded to make recordings as a violinist. He also appeared as a conductor with many American orchestras and, in 1936, was one of the candidates considered to replace Arturo Toscanini as permanent conductor of the New York Philharmonic. In 1932, Enescu was elected a titular member of the Romanian Academy. In 1935, he conducted the Orchestre Symphonique de Paris and Yehudi Menuhin (who had been his pupil for several years starting in 1927) in Mozart's Violin Concerto No. 3 in G major. He also conducted the New York Philharmonic between 1937 and 1938. In 1939, he married Maria Tescanu Rosetti (known as Princess Maruca Cantacuzino through her first husband Mihail Cantacuzino), a good friend of Queen Marie of Romania. While staying in Bucharest, Enescu lived in the Cantacuzino Palace on Calea Victoriei (now the George Enescu Museum, dedicated to his work).


title: George Enescu

text: He lived in Paris and in Romania, but after World War II and the Soviet occupation of Romania, he remained in Paris.


title: George Enescu

text: He was also renowned as a violin teacher. He began teaching at the Mannes School of Music in 1948. His students included Yehudi Menuhin, Christian Ferras, Ivry Gitlis, Arthur Grumiaux, Serge Blanc, Ida Haendel, Uto Ughi, and Joan Field.


title: George Enescu

text: He promoted contemporary Romanian music, playing works of Constantin Silvestri, Mihail Jora, Jonel Perlea and Marţian Negrea. Enescu considered Bach's Sonatas and Partitas for solo violin as the "Himalayas of violinists". An annotated version of this work brings together the indications of Enescu regarding sonority, phrasing, tempos, musicality, fingering and expression.


title: George Enescu

text: Today, Bucharest houses a museum in the Cantacuzino Palace in Bucharest in his memory; his house in Dorohoi is also open to the public; likewise, the Symphony Orchestra of Bucharest and the George Enescu Festival—founded by his friend, musical advocate, and sometime collaborator, the conductor George Georgescu—are named and held in his honor. Recently, Bacău International Airport was named George Enescu International Airport.


title: George Enescu

text: Pablo Casals described Enescu as "the greatest musical phenomenon since Mozart" and "one of the greatest geniuses of modern music". Queen Marie of Romania wrote in her memoirs that "in George Enescu was real gold". Yehudi Menuhin, Enescu's most famous pupil, once said about his teacher: "He will remain for me the absoluteness through which I judge others", and "Enescu gave me the light that has guided my entire existence." He also considered Enescu "the most extraordinary human being, the greatest musician and the most formative influence" he had ever experienced. Vincent d'Indy claimed that if Beethoven's works were destroyed, they could be all reconstructed from memory by George Enescu. Alfred Cortot, one of the greatest pianists of all time, once said that Enescu, though primarily a violinist, had better piano technique than his own.


title: George Enescu

text: Enescu's only opera, "Œdipe" ("Oedipe"), was staged for the first time at the Royal Opera House in London in 2016, 80 years after its Paris premiere, in a production directed and designed by La Fura dels Baus which received superlative reviews in "The Guardian", "The Independent", "The Times" and other publications. An analysis of Enescu's work and the reasons why it is less known in the UK was published by musician Dominic Saunders in "The Guardian".


title: George Enescu

text: Near Moinesti there is a mansion from Tescani, donated by Enescu's wife to the Romanian state, provided that a cultural centre be built there. In Liveni is the house where the composer grew up. There is a George Enescu memorial house in Sinaia (Villa Luminiș, Cumpatul neighborhood). In the mansion in Tescani, Bacău (the "Rosetti-Tescanu Cultural Center"), the Romanian state opened a creative center in the 80s, where literary works were composed (Jurnalul de la Tescani, Andrei Plesu) during annual painting and philosophy camps.


title: George Enescu

text: Enescu's maternal grandfather's house in Mihăileni, where Enescu spent part of his childhood, declined to an advanced state of deterioration by 2014. In August 2014 it was rescued from demolition by a team of volunteer architects.


title: Accreditation

text: Accreditation is the independent, third-party evaluation of a conformity assessment body (such as certification body, inspection body or laboratory) against recognised standards, conveying formal demonstration of its impartiality and competence to carry out specific conformity assessment tasks (such as certification, inspection and testing).


title: Accreditation

text: Accreditation bodies are established in many economies with the primary purpose of ensuring that conformity assessment bodies are subject to oversight by an authoritative body. Accreditation bodies, that have been peer evaluated as competent, sign regional and international arrangements to demonstrate their competence. These accreditation bodies then assess and accredit conformity assessment bodies to the relevant standards.


title: Accreditation

text: An authoritative body that performs accreditation is called an 'accreditation body'. The International Accreditation Forum (IAF) and International Laboratory Accreditation Cooperation (ILAC) provide international recognitions to accreditation bodies. There are many internationally recognized accreditation bodies approved by the IAF and ILAC.


title: Accreditation

text: The Emirates International Accreditation Centre (EIAC) is the largest accreditation body in Middle East region, whereas in South Asia the Pakistan National Accreditation Council (PNAC) and National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories (NABL), Quality Council of India (QCI) are the largest. In East Asia, the China National Accreditation Board is the largest, while the United Kingdom Accreditation Service (UKAS) is the largest in Europe. The National Association of Testing Authorities (NATA) and the Joint Accreditation System of Australia and New Zealand (JAS-ANZ) being the largest in the Oceania region, with the South African National Accreditation System being the largest in Africa.


title: Accreditation

text: For most of the accreditation schemes, international standards issued by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) are used.


title: Accreditation

text: Many accreditation bodies, such as the UKAS, EIAC, EGAC, PNAC, IAS, NABCB operate according to processes developed by the ISO as specified in ISO/IEC 17011. Accredited entities in specific sectors must provide evidence to the accreditation body that they conform to other standards in the same series:


title: Kilo-

text: Kilo is a decimal unit prefix in the metric system denoting multiplication by one thousand (10). It is used in the International System of Units, where it has the symbol k, in lowercase.


title: Kilo-

text: In 19th century English it was sometimes spelled chilio, in line with a puristic opinion by Thomas Young. As an opponent of suggestions to introduce the metric system in Britain, he qualified the nomenclature adopted in France as barbarous.


title: Kilo-

text: For the kilobyte, a second definition has been in common use in some fields of computer science and information technology. It uses "kilobyte" to mean 2 bytes (= 1024 bytes), because of the mathematical coincidence that 2 is approximately 10. The reason for this application is that digital hardware and architectures natively use base 2 exponentiation, and not decimal systems. JEDEC memory standards still permit this definition, but acknowledge the correct SI usage.


title: Kilo-

text: NIST comments on the confusion caused by these contrasting definitions: "Faced with this reality, the "IEEE Standards Board" decided that IEEE standards will use the conventional, internationally adopted, definitions of the SI prefixes", instead of kilo for 1024. To address this conflict, a new set of binary prefixes has been introduced, which is based on powers of 2. Therefore, 1024 bytes are defined as one kibibyte (1 KiB).


title: Kilo-

text: When units occur in exponentiation, such as in square and cubic forms, any multiplier prefix is considered part of the unit, and thus included in the exponentiation.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Marxist historiography, or historical materialist historiography, is an influential school of historiography. The chief tenets of Marxist historiography include the centrality of social class, social relations of production in class-divided societies that struggle against each other, and economic constraints in determining historical outcomes (historical materialism). Marxist historians follow the tenets of the development of class-divided societies, especially modern capitalist ones.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Yet, the way Marxist historiography has developed in different regional and political contexts has varied. Marxist historiography has had unique trajectories of development in the West, in the Soviet Union, and in India, as well as in the pan-Africanist and African-American traditions, adapting to these specific regional and political conditions in different ways.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Marxist historiography has made contributions to the history of the working class, and the methodology of a history from below.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Marxist historiography is sometimes criticized as deterministic, in that it posits a direction of history, towards an end state of history as classless human society. Marxist historiography within Marxist circles is generally seen as a tool; its aim is to bring those it perceives as oppressed by history to self-consciousness, and to arm them with tactics and strategies from history. For these Marxists, it is both a historical and a liberatory project.


title: Marxist historiography

text: However, not all Marxist historiography is socialist. Methods from Marxist historiography, such as class analysis, can be divorced from the original political intents of Marxism and its deterministic nature; historians who use Marxist methodology, but disagree with the politics of Marxism, often describe themselves as "marxian" historians, practitioners of this "marxian historiography" often refer to their techniques as "marxian".


title: Marxist historiography

text: Friedrich Engels' (1820–1895) most important historical contribution to the development of Marxist historiography was "Der Deutsche Bauernkrieg" ("The German Peasants' War", 1850), which analysed social warfare in early Protestant Germany in terms of emerging capitalist classes. Although "The German Peasants' War" was overdetermined lacked a rigorous engagement with archival sources, it exemplifies an early Marxists' interest in history from below and in class analysis, it also attempts a dialectical analysis.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Karl Marx's (1818–1883) most important works on social and political history include "The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Napoleon" (1852), "The Communist Manifesto" (1848), "The German Ideology" (written in 1845, published in 1932), and those chapters of "Das Kapital" (1867–1894) dealing with the historical emergence of capitalists and proletarians from pre-industrial English society.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Engels' short treatise "The Condition of the Working Class in England" (, 1845; English-language translation published in 1887) was salient in giving a socialist impetus to British politics from then on, for e.g. the Fabian Society.


title: Marxist historiography

text: The key to understanding Marxist historiography is his view of labour. For Marx "historical reality is none other than objectified labor, and all conditions of labor given by nature, including the organic bodies of people, are merely preconditions and 'disappearing moments' of the labor process." This emphasis on the physical as the determining factor in history represents a break from virtually all previous historians. Until Marx developed his theory of historical materialism, the overarching determining factor in the direction of history was some sort of divine agency. In Marx's view of history "God became a mere projection of human imagination" and more importantly "a tool of oppression". There was no more sense of divine direction to be seen. History moved by the sheer force of human labour, and all theories of divine nature were a concoction of the ruling powers to keep the working people in check. For Marx, "The first historical act is... the production of material life itself." As one might expect, Marxist history not only begins with labour, it ends in production: "history does not end by being resolved into "self-consciousness" as "spirit of the spirit," but that in it at each stage there is found a material result: a sum of productive forces, a historically created relation of individuals to nature and to one another, which is handed down to each generation from its predecessor..." For further, and much more comprehensive, information on this topic, see historical materialism.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Historical materialism is a methodology to understand human societies and their development throughout history. Marx's theory of history locates historical change in the rise of class societies and the way humans labour together to make their livelihoods. Marx argues that the introduction of new technologies and new ways of doing things to improve production eventually lead to new social classes which in turn result in political crises which can threaten the established order.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Marx's view of history is in contrast to the commonplace notion that the rise and fall of kingdoms, empires and states, can broadly be explained by the actions, ambitions and policies of the people at the top of society kings, queens, emperors, generals, or religious leaders. This view of history is summed up by the 19th-century Scottish philosopher Thomas Carlyle who wrote "the history of the world is nothing but the biography of great men". An alternative to the "great man" theory is that history is shaped by the motivating force of "great ideas" – the struggle of reason over superstition or the fight for democracy and freedom.


title: Marxist historiography

text: The "great man" and occasionally "great women" theory of history and the view that history is primarily shaped by ideas has provoked no end of debate but many historians have believed there are more fundamental patterns at play beneath historical events.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Karl Marx (1818–1883) asserted that the material conditions of a society's mode of production, or in Marxist terms a society's productive forces and relations of production, fundamentally determine society's organization and development including the political commitments, cultural ideas and values that dominate in any society.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Marx argues that there is a fundamental conflict between the class of people who create the wealth of society and those who have ownership or control of the means of production, decide how society's wealth and resources are to be used and have a monopoly of political and military power. Historical materialism provides a profound challenge to the view that the historical process has come to a close and that capitalism is the end of history. Since Marx's time, the theory has been modified and expanded. It now has many Marxist and non-Marxist variants.


title: Marxist historiography

text: The main modes of production that Marx identified generally include primitive communism, slave society, feudalism, mercantilism, and capitalism. In each of these social stages, people interacted with nature and production in different ways. Any surplus from that production was distributed differently as well. To Marx, ancient societies (e.g. Rome and Greece) were based on a ruling class of citizens and a class of slaves; feudalism was based on nobles and serfs; and capitalism based on the capitalist class (bourgeoisie) and the working class (proletariat).


title: Marxist historiography

text: Historical materialism builds upon the idea of historical progress that became popular in philosophy during the Enlightenment, which asserted that the development of human society has progressed through a series of stages, from hunting and gathering, through pastoralism and cultivation, to commercial society. Historical materialism rests on a foundation of dialectical materialism, in which matter is considered primary and ideas, thought, and consciousness are secondary, i.e. consciousness and human ideas about the universe result from material conditions rather than vice versa. Marxism uses this materialist methodology, referred to by Marx and Engels as the materialist conception of history and later better known as historical materialism, to analyse the underlying causes of societal development and change from the perspective of the collective ways in which humans make their living.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Historical materialism springs from a fundamental underlying reality of human existence: that in order for subsequent generations of human beings to survive, it is necessary for them to produce and reproduce the material requirements of everyday life. Marx then extended this premise by asserting the importance of the fact that, in order to carry out production and exchange, people have to enter into very definite social relations, or more specifically, "relations of production". However, production does not get carried out in the abstract, or by entering into arbitrary or random relations chosen at will, but instead are determined by the development of the existing forces of production. How production is accomplished depends on the character of society's productive forces, which refers to the means of production such as the tools, instruments, technology, land, raw materials, and human knowledge and abilities in terms of using these means of production. The relations of production are determined by the level and character of these productive forces present at any given time in history. In all societies, Human beings collectively work on nature but, especially in class societies, do not do the same work. In such societies, there is a division of labour in which people not only carry out different kinds of labour but occupy different social positions on the basis of those differences. The most important such division is that between manual and intellectual labour whereby one class produces a given society's wealth while another is able to monopolize control of the means of production and so both governs that society and lives off of the wealth generated by the labouring classes.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Marx's account of the theory is in "The German Ideology" (1845) and in the preface "A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy" (1859). All constituent features of a society (social classes, political pyramid and ideologies) are assumed to stem from economic activity, forming what is considered as the base and superstructure. The base and superstructure metaphor describes the totality of social relations by which humans produce and re-produce their social existence. According to Marx, the "sum total of the forces of production accessible to men determines the condition of society" and forms a society's economic base.


title: Marxist historiography

text: The base includes the material forces of production such as the labour, means of production and relations of production, i.e. the social and political arrangements that regulate production and distribution. From this base rises a superstructure of legal and political "forms of social consciousness" that derive from the economic base that conditions both the superstructure and the dominant ideology of a society. Conflicts between the development of material productive forces and the relations of production provokes social revolutions, whereby changes to the economic base leads to the social transformation of the superstructure.


title: Marxist historiography

text: This relationship is reflexive, in that the base initially gives rise to the superstructure and remains the foundation of a form of social organization. Those newly formed social organizations can then act again upon both parts of the base and superstructure so that rather than being static, the relationship is dialectic, expressed and driven by conflicts and contradictions. Engels clarified: "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes."


title: Marxist historiography

text: Marx considered recurring class conflicts as the driving force of human history as such conflicts have manifested themselves as distinct transitional stages of development in Western Europe. Accordingly, Marx designated human history as encompassing four stages of development in relations of production:


title: Marxist historiography

text: While historical materialism has been referred to as a materialist theory of history, Marx did not claim to have produced a master-key to history and that the materialist conception of history is not "an historico-philosophic theory of the , imposed by fate upon every people, whatever the historic circumstances in which it finds itself." In a letter to editor of the Russian newspaper paper (1877), he explained that his ideas are based upon a concrete study of the actual conditions in Europe.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels worked in relative isolation together outside the larger mainstream. However, by the turn of the twentieth century, Marxist thought was perhaps the most prominent opposition to the idealist traditions.


title: Marxist historiography

text: R. H. Tawney (1880–1962) was an early historian working in this tradition. "The Agrarian Problem in the Sixteenth Century" (1912) and "Religion and the Rise of Capitalism" (1926), reflected his ethical concerns and preoccupations in economic history. He was profoundly interested in the issue of the enclosure of land in the English countryside in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and Max Weber's thesis on the connection between the appearance of Protestantism and the rise of capitalism. His belief in the rise of the gentry in the century before the outbreak of the Civil War in England provoked the "Storm over the Gentry" in which his methods were subjected to severe criticisms by Hugh Trevor-Roper and John Cooper.


title: Marxist historiography

text: A circle of historians inside the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB) was formed in 1946. It became a highly influential cluster of British Marxist historians, who shared a common interest in and contributed to history from below and class structure in early capitalist society. While some members of the group (most notably Christopher Hill [1912–2003] and E. P. Thompson [1924–1993]) left the CPGB after the 1956 Hungarian Revolution, the common points of British Marxist historiography continued in their works. They placed a great emphasis on the subjective determination of history. E. P. Thompson famously engaged Althusser in "The Poverty of Theory", arguing that Althusser's theory overdetermined history, and left no space for historical revolt by the oppressed.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Christopher Hill's studies on 17th-century English history were widely acknowledged and recognized as representative of Marxist historians and Marxist historiography in general. His books include "Puritanism and Revolution" (1958), "Intellectual Origins of the English Revolution" (1965 and revised in 1996), "The Century of Revolution" (1961), "AntiChrist in 17th-century England" (1971), "The World Turned Upside Down" (1972) and many others.


title: Marxist historiography

text: E. P. Thompson pioneered the study of history from below in his work, "The Making of the English Working Class", published in 1963. It focused on the forgotten history of the first working-class political left in the world in the late-18th and early-19th centuries. In his preface to this book, Thompson set out his approach to writing history from below:


title: Marxist historiography

text: Thompson's work was also significant because of the way he defined "class". He argued that class was not a structure, but a relationship that changed over time. Thompson's work is commonly considered the most influential work of history in the twentieth century and a crucial catalyst for social history and from social history to gender history and other studies of marginalized peoples. His essay, "Time, Work, Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism" is also hugely influential and argues that industrial capitalism fundamentally altered (and accelerated) humans' relationship to time. He opened the gates for a generation of labour historians, such as David Montgomery (1927–2011) and Herbert Gutman (1928–1985), who made similar studies of the American working classes.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Perhaps the best known of the Communist historians was E. B. Hobsbawm(1917–2012). He is credited for establishing many of the basic historical arguments of current historiography and synthesizing huge amounts of modern historical data across time and space – most famously in his trilogy: The Age of Revolutions, The Age of Empires, and The Age of Extremes. Hobsbawm's "Bandits" is another example of this group's work.


title: Marxist historiography

text: C. L. R. James (1901–1989) was also a great pioneer of the 'history from below' approach. Living in Britain when he wrote his most notable work "The Black Jacobins" (1938), he was an anti-Stalinist Marxist and so outside of the CPGB. The Black Jacobins was the first professional historical account of the greatest and only successful slave revolt in colonial American history, the "Haitian Revolution". James's history is still touted as a remarkable work of history nearly a century after publication, an immense work of historical investigation, story-telling, and creativity.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Other important British Marxist historians included Raphael Samuel (1934–1996), A. L. Morton (1903–1987), and Brian Pearce (1915–2008).


title: Marxist historiography

text: In the United States, Marxist historiography greatly influenced the history of slavery and labour history. Marxist historiography also greatly influenced French historians, including France's most famous and enduring historian Fernand Braudel (1902–1985), as well as Italian historians, most famously the Autonomous Marxist and micro-history fields.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Soviet-era historiography was deeply influenced by Marxism. Marxism maintains that the moving forces of history are determined by material production and the rise of different socioeconomic formations. Applying this perspective to socioeconomic formations such as slavery and feudalism is a major methodological principle of orthodox Marxist historiography. Based on this principle, historiography predicts that there will be an abolition of capitalism by a socialist revolution made by the working class. Soviet historians believed that Marxist–Leninist theory permitted the application of categories of dialectical and historical materialism in the study of historical events.


title: Marxist historiography

text: However Soviet historiography was significantly influenced by the strict control by the authorities aimed at propaganda and Soviet power as well, as a result Marxist historiography suffered in the Soviet Union, as the government required overdetermined historical writing. Soviet historians tended to avoid contemporary history (after 1903) where possible, and effort was predominantly directed at pre-modern history (before 1850). As history was considered to be a politicized academic discipline, historians limited their creative output to avoid prosecution. Since the late 1930s, Soviet historiography treated the party line and reality as one and the same. As such, if it was a science, it was a science in service of a specific political and ideological agenda, commonly employing historical negationism. In the 1930s, historical archives were closed and original research was severely restricted. Historians were required to pepper their works with references—appropriate or not—to Stalin and other "Marxist–Leninist classics", and to pass judgment—as prescribed by the Party—on pre-revolution historic Russian figures. Nikita Khrushchev commented that "Historians are dangerous and capable of turning everything upside down. They have to be watched."


title: Marxist historiography

text: The Soviet interpretation of Marxism predetermined much of the research done by historians. Research by scholars in the USSR was limited to a large extent due to this predetermination. Some Soviet historians could not offer non-Marxist theoretical explanations that did not fit with the parties official ideology for their interpretation of sources. This was true even when alternate theories had a greater explanatory power in relation to a historian's reading of source material.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Marx and Engels' ideas of the importance of class struggle in history, the destiny of the working class, and the role of the dictatorship of the proletariat and the revolutionary party are of major importance in Marxist methodology.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Marxist–Leninist historiography has several aspects. It explains the social basis of historical knowledge, determines the social functions of historical knowledge and the means by which these functions are carried out, and emphasizes the need to study concepts in connection with the social and political life of the period in which these concepts were developed.


title: Marxist historiography

text: It studies the theoretical and methodological features in every school of historical thought. Marxist–Leninist historiography analyses the source-study basis of a historical work, the nature of the use of sources, and specific research methods. It analyses problems of historical research as the most important sign of the progress and historical knowledge and as the expression of the socioeconomic and political needs of a historical period.


title: Marxist historiography

text: The Marxist theory of historical materialism identified means of production as chief determinants of the historical process. They led to the creation of social classes, and class struggle was the motor of history. The sociocultural evolution of societies was considered to progress inevitably from slavery, through feudalism and capitalism to socialism and finally communism. In addition, Leninism argued that a vanguard party was required to lead the working class in the revolution that would overthrow capitalism and replace it with socialism.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Soviet historiography interpreted this theory to mean that the creation of the Soviet Union was the most important turning event in human history, since the USSR was considered to be the first socialist society. Furthermore, the Communist Party – considered to be the vanguard of the working class – was given the role of permanent leading force in society, rather than a temporary revolutionary organization. As such, it became the protagonist of history, which could not be wrong. Hence the unlimited powers of the Communist Party leaders were claimed to be as infallible and inevitable as the history itself. It also followed that a worldwide victory of communist countries is inevitable. All research had to be based on those assumptions and could not diverge in its findings. In 1956, Soviet academician Anna Pankratova said that "the problems of Soviet historiography are the problems of our Communist ideology."


title: Marxist historiography

text: Soviet historians have also been criticized for a Marxist bias in the interpretation of other historical events, unrelated to the Soviet Union. Thus, for example, they assigned to the rebellions in the Roman Empire the characteristics of the social revolution.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Often, the Marxist bias and propaganda demands came into conflict: hence the peasant rebellions against the early Soviet rule, such as the Tambov Rebellion of 1920–21, were simply ignored as inconvenient politically and contradicting the official interpretation of the Marxist theories.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Notable histories include the "Short Course History of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolshevik)", published in 1938, which was written to justify the nature of Bolshevik party life under Joseph Stalin. This work crystallised the "piatichlenka" or five acceptable moments of history in terms of vulgar dialectical materialism: primitive-communism, slavery, feudalism, capitalism and socialism.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Most Chinese history that is published in the People's Republic of China (PRC) is based on a Marxist interpretation of history. These theories were first applied in the 1920s by Chinese scholars such as Guo Moruo and became orthodoxy in academic study after 1949. The Marxist view of history is that history is governed by universal laws and that according to these laws, a society moves through a series of stages, with the transition between stages being driven by class struggle. These stages are:


title: Marxist historiography

text: The official historical view within the People's Republic of China associates each of these stages with a particular era in Chinese history.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Because of the strength of the Chinese Communist Party and the importance of the Marxist interpretation of history in legitimizing its rule, it was for many years difficult for historians within the PRC to actively argue in favour of non-Marxist and anti-Marxist interpretations of history. However, this political restriction is less confining than it may first appear in that the Marxist historical framework is surprisingly flexible, and it is a rather simple matter to modify an alternative historical theory to use language that at least does not challenge the Marxist interpretation of history.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Partly because of the interest of Mao Zedong, historians in the 1950s took a special interest in the role of peasant rebellions in Chinese history and compiled documentary histories to examine them.


title: Marxist historiography

text: There are several problems associated with imposing Marx's European-based framework on Chinese history. First, slavery existed throughout China's history but never as the primary form of labour. While the Zhou and earlier dynasties may be labeled as feudal, later dynasties were much more centralized than how Marx analysed their European counterparts as being. To account for the discrepancy, Chinese Marxists invented the term "bureaucratic feudalism". The placement of the Tang as the beginning of the bureaucratic phase rests largely on the replacement of patronage networks with the imperial examination. Some world-systems analysts, such as Janet Abu-Lughod, claim that analysis of Kondratiev waves shows that capitalism first arose in Song dynasty China, although widespread trade was subsequently disrupted and then curtailed.


title: Marxist historiography

text: The Japanese scholar Tanigawa Michio, writing in the 1970s and 1980s, set out to revise the generally Marxist views of China prevalent in post-war Japan. Tanigawa writes that historians in Japan fell into two schools. One held that China followed the set European pattern which Marxists thought to be universal; that is, from ancient slavery to medieval feudalism to modern capitalism; while another group argued that "Chinese society was extraordinarily saturated with stagnancy, as compared to the West" and assumed that China existed in a "qualitatively different historical world from Western society". That is, there is an argument between those who see "unilinear, monistic world history" and those who conceive of a "two-tracked or multi-tracked world history". Tanigawa reviewed the applications of these theories in Japanese writings about Chinese history and then tested them by analysing the Six Dynasties 220–589 CE period, which Marxist historians saw as feudal. He concluded that China did not have feudalism in the sense that Marxists use, that Chinese military governments did not lead to a European-style military aristocracy. The period established social and political patterns which shaped China's history from that point on.


title: Marxist historiography

text: There was a gradual relaxation of Marxist interpretation after the death of Mao in 1976, which was accelerated after the Tian'anmen Square protest and other revolutions in 1989, which damaged Marxism's ideological legitimacy in the eyes of Chinese academics.


title: Marxist historiography

text: In India Marxist historiography takes the form of marxian historiography where marxian techniques of analysis are used but Marxist political intentions and prescriptions are discarded.


title: Marxist historiography

text: B. N. Datta, and D. D. Kosambi are considered the founding fathers of Marxist historiography in India. D. D. Kosambi was apologetic of the revolution of Mao and thought of Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru's policies as pro-capitalist. Kosambi, a polymath, viewed Indian History from a Marxist viewpoint. The other Indian scholars of marxian historiography are R. S. Sharma, Irfan Habib, D. N. Jha, and K. N. Panikkar. Other historians such as Satish Chandra, Romila Thapar, Bipan Chandra, Arjun Dev, and Dineshchandra Sircar, are sometimes referred to as "influenced by the marxian approach to history."


title: Marxist historiography

text: The marxian historiography of India has focused on studies of economic development, land ownership, and class conflict in precolonial India and deindustrialization during the colonial period.


title: Marxist historiography

text: One debate in Indian history that relates to a historical materialist schema is on the nature of feudalism in India. D. D. Kosambi in the 1960s outlined the idea of "feudalism from below" and "feudalism from above". Element of his feudalism thesis was rejected by R. S. Sharma in his monograph Indian Feudalism (2005) and various other books, However R. S. Sharma also largely agrees with Kosambi in his various other books. Most Indian marxian historians argue that the economic origins of communalism are feudal remnants and the economic insecurities caused by slow development in India.


title: Marxist historiography

text: The marxian school of Indian historiography is accused of being too ideologically influenced. Though influenced by Marxist theory B. R. Ambedkar criticized Marxists, as he deemed them to be unaware or ignorant of the specifics of caste issues. Also though most criticisms of marxian historiography is levied by people who are not historians, some historians have debated marxian historians and critically examined their analysis of the history of India.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Many have alleged that marxian historians used negationism to whitewash some of the atrocities committed by Muslim rulers in the Indian Subcontinent. Since the late 1990s, Hindu nationalist scholars especially have polemicized against the marxian tradition in India for neglecting what they believe to be the country's 'illustrious past' based on Vedic-puranic chronology. An example of such works is Arun Shourie's "Eminent Historians" (1998).


title: Marxist historiography

text: Even non-academic and lay men contributions to Marxist historiography exist in India. The book "Coffee Housinte Katha" (The Story of Coffee House), written in Malayalam, a regional language of India, spoken in the state of Kerala, by one of the leaders of the Indian Coffee House Movement, Nadakkal Parameswaran Pillai, is an example of this.


title: Marxist historiography

text: Marxist historiography has had an enormous influence on historiography, and compares with empiricist historiography as one of the basic and foundational historiographic methodologies. Most non-Marxist historians make use of tools developed within Marxist historiography, like dialectical analysis of social formations, class analysis, or the project of broadening the scope of history into social history. Marxist historiography provided the first sustained efforts at social history, and is still highly influential within this area. The contribution of class analysis has also led to the development of gender and race as other analytical tools.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: Familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) is a genetic disorder characterized by high cholesterol levels, specifically very high levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL cholesterol), in the blood and early cardiovascular disease. The most common mutations diminish the number of functional LDL receptors in the liver. Since the underlying body biochemistry is slightly different in individuals with FH, their high cholesterol levels are less responsive to the kinds of cholesterol control methods which are usually more effective in people without FH (such as dietary modification and statin tablets). Nevertheless, treatment (including higher statin doses) is usually effective.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: FH is classified as a type 2 familial dyslipidemia. There are five types of familial dyslipidemia (not including subtypes), and each are classified from both the altered lipid profile and by the genetic abnormality. For example, high LDL (often due to LDL receptor defect) is type 2. Others include defects in chylomicron metabolism, triglyceride metabolism, and metabolism of other cholesterol-containing particles, such as VLDL and IDL.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: About 1 in 100 to 200 people have mutations in the "LDLR" gene that encodes the LDL receptor protein, which normally removes LDL from the circulation, or apolipoprotein B (ApoB), which is the part of LDL that binds with the receptor; mutations in other genes are rare. People who have one abnormal copy (are heterozygous) of the "LDLR" gene may develop cardiovascular disease prematurely at the age of 30 to 40. Having two abnormal copies (being "homozygous") may cause severe cardiovascular disease in childhood. Heterozygous FH is a common genetic disorder, inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, occurring in 1:250 people in most countries; homozygous FH is much rarer, occurring in 1 in 300,000 people.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: Heterozygous FH is normally treated with statins, bile acid sequestrants, or other lipid-lowering agents that lower cholesterol levels. New cases are generally offered genetic counseling. Homozygous FH often does not respond to medical therapy and may require other treatments, including LDL apheresis (removal of LDL in a method similar to dialysis) and occasionally liver transplantation.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: High cholesterol levels normally do not cause any symptoms. Yellow deposits of cholesterol-rich fat may be seen in various places on the body such as around the eyelids (known as xanthelasma palpebrarum), the outer margin of the iris (known as arcus senilis corneae), and in the tendons of the hands, elbows, knees and feet, particularly the Achilles tendon (known as a tendon xanthoma).


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: Accelerated deposition of cholesterol in the walls of arteries leads to atherosclerosis, the underlying cause of cardiovascular disease. The most common problem in FH is the development of coronary artery disease (atherosclerosis of the coronary arteries that supply the heart) at a much younger age than would be expected in the general population. This may lead to angina pectoris (chest pain or tightness on exertion) or heart attacks. Less commonly, arteries of the brain are affected; this may lead to transient ischemic attacks (brief episodes of weakness on one side of the body or inability to talk) or occasionally stroke. Peripheral artery occlusive disease (obstruction of the arteries of the legs) occurs mainly in people with FH who smoke; this can cause pain in the calf muscles during walking that resolves with rest (intermittent claudication) and problems due to a decreased blood supply to the feet (such as gangrene).


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: Atherosclerosis risk is increased further with age and in those who smoke, have diabetes, high blood pressure and a family history of cardiovascular disease.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: Approximately 85% of individuals with this disorder have not been diagnosed and consequently are not receiving lipid-lowering treatments. Physical examination findings can help a physician make the diagnosis of FH. Tendon xanthomas are seen in 20-40% of individuals with FH and are pathognomonic for the condition. A xanthelasma or corneal arcus may also be seen. These common signs are supportive of the diagnosis, but are non-specific findings.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: Cholesterol levels may be determined as part of health screening for health insurance or occupational health, when the external physical signs such as xanthelasma, xanthoma, arcus are noticed, symptoms of cardiovascular disease develop, or a family member has been found to have FH. A pattern compatible with hyperlipoproteinemia type IIa on the Fredrickson classification is typically found: raised level of total cholesterol, markedly raised level of low-density lipoprotein (LDL), normal level of high-density lipoprotein (HDL), and normal level of triglycerides. Total cholesterol levels of 350–550 mg/dL are typical of heterozygous FH while total cholesterol levels of 650–1000 mg/dL are typical of homozygous FH. The LDL is typically above the 75th percentile, that is, 75% of the healthy population would have a lower LDL level. Cholesterol levels can be drastically higher in people with FH who are also obese.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: On the basis of the isolated high LDL and clinical criteria (which differ by country), genetic testing for LDL receptor mutations and ApoB mutations can be performed. Mutations are detected in between 50 and 80% of cases; those without a mutation often have higher triglyceride levels and may in fact have other causes for their high cholesterol, such as combined hyperlipidemia due to metabolic syndrome.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: FH needs to be distinguished from familial combined hyperlipidemia and polygenic hypercholesterolemia. Lipid levels and the presence of xanthomata can confirm the diagnosis. Sitosterolemia and cerebrotendineous xanthomatosis are two rare conditions that can also present with premature atherosclerosis and xanthomas. The latter condition can also involve neurological or psychiatric manifestations, cataracts, diarrhea and skeletal abnormalities.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: The most common genetic defects in FH are "LDLR" mutations (prevalence 1 in 250, depending on the population), ApoB mutations (prevalence 1 in 1000), "PCSK9" mutations (less than 1 in 2500) and "LDLRAP1". The related disease sitosterolemia, which has many similarities with FH and also features cholesterol accumulation in tissues, is due to "ABCG5" and "ABCG8" mutations.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: The LDL receptor gene is located on the short arm of chromosome 19 (19p13.1-13.3). It comprises 18 exons and spans 45 kb, and the protein gene product contains 839 amino acids in mature form. A single abnormal copy (heterozygote) of FH causes cardiovascular disease by the age of 50 in about 40% of cases. Having two abnormal copies (homozygote) causes accelerated atherosclerosis in childhood, including its complications. The plasma LDL levels are inversely related to the activity of LDL receptor (LDLR). Homozygotes have LDLR activity of less than 2%, while heterozygotes have defective LDL processing with receptor activity being 2–25%, depending on the nature of the mutation. Over 1000 different mutations are known.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: Apolipoprotein B, in its ApoB100 form, is the main apolipoprotein, or protein part of the lipoprotein particle. Its gene is located on the second chromosome (2p24-p23) and is 46.2 kb long. FH is often associated with the mutation of R3500Q, which causes replacement of arginine by glutamine at position 3500. The mutation is located on a part of the protein that normally binds with the LDL receptor, and binding is reduced as a result of the mutation. Like "LDLR", the number of abnormal copies determines the severity of the hypercholesterolemia.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: Mutations in the proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 ("PCSK9") gene were linked to autosomal dominant (i.e. requiring only one abnormal copy) FH in a 2003 report. The gene is located on the first chromosome (1p34.1-p32) and encodes a 666 amino acid protein that is expressed in the liver. It has been suggested that PCSK9 causes FH mainly by reducing the number of LDL receptors on liver cells.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: Abnormalities in the "ARH" gene, also known as "LDLRAP1", were first reported in a family in 1973. In contrast to the other causes, two abnormal copies of the gene are required for FH to develop (autosomal recessive). The mutations in the protein tend to cause the production of a shortened protein. Its real function is unclear, but it seems to play a role in the relation between the LDL receptor and clathrin-coated pits. People with autosomal recessive hypercholesterolemia tend to have more severe disease than "LDLR"-heterozygotes but less severe than "LDLR"-homozygotes.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: LDL cholesterol normally circulates in the body for 2.5 days, and subsequently the apolipoprotein B portion of LDL cholesterol binds to the LDL receptor on the liver cells, triggering its uptake and digestion. This process results in the removal of LDL from the circulatory system. Synthesis of cholesterol by the liver is suppressed in the HMG-CoA reductase pathway. In FH, LDL receptor function is reduced or absent, and LDL circulates for an average duration of 4.5 days, resulting in significantly increased level of LDL cholesterol in the blood with normal levels of other lipoproteins. In mutations of "ApoB", reduced binding of LDL particles to the receptor causes the increased level of LDL cholesterol. It is not known how the mutation causes LDL receptor dysfunction in mutations of "PCSK9" and "ARH".


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: Although atherosclerosis occurs to a certain degree in all people, people with FH may develop accelerated atherosclerosis due to the excess level of LDL. The degree of atherosclerosis approximately depends on the "number" of LDL receptors still expressed and the "functionality" of these receptors. In many heterozygous forms of FH, the receptor function is only mildly impaired, and LDL levels will remain relatively low. In the more serious homozygous forms, the receptor is not expressed at all.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: Some studies of FH cohorts suggest that additional risk factors are generally at play when a person develops atherosclerosis. In addition to the classic risk factors such as smoking, high blood pressure, and diabetes, genetic studies have shown that a common abnormality in the prothrombin gene (G20210A) increases the risk of cardiovascular events in people with FH. Several studies found that a high level of lipoprotein(a) was an additional risk factor for ischemic heart disease. The risk was also found to be higher in people with a specific genotype of the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE).


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: Cholesterol screening and genetic testing among family members of people with known FH is cost-effective. Other strategies such as universal screening at the age of 16 were suggested in 2001. The latter approach may however be less cost-effective in the short term. Screening at an age lower than 16 was thought likely to lead to an unacceptably high rate of false positives.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: A 2007 meta-analysis found that "the proposed strategy of screening children and parents for familial hypercholesterolaemia could have considerable impact in preventing the medical consequences of this disorder in two generations simultaneously." "The use of total cholesterol alone may best discriminate between people with and without FH between the ages of 1 to 9 years."


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: Screening of toddlers has been suggested, and results of a trial on 10,000 one-year-olds were published in 2016. Work was needed to find whether screening was cost-effective, and acceptable to families. Genetic counseling can help assist in genetic testing following a positive cholesterol screen for FH.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: FH is usually treated with statins. Statins act by inhibiting the enzyme hydroxymethylglutaryl CoA reductase (HMG-CoA-reductase) in the liver. In response, the liver produces more LDL receptors, which remove circulating LDL from the blood. Statins effectively lower cholesterol and LDL levels, although sometimes add-on therapy with other drugs is required, such as bile acid sequestrants (cholestyramine or colestipol), nicotinic acid preparations or fibrates. Control of other risk factors for cardiovascular disease is required, as risk remains somewhat elevated even when cholesterol levels are controlled. Professional guidelines recommend that the decision to treat a person with FH with statins should not be based on the usual risk prediction tools (such as those derived from the Framingham Heart Study), as they are likely to underestimate the risk of cardiovascular disease; unlike the rest of the population, FH have had high levels of cholesterol since birth, probably increasing their relative risk. Prior to the introduction of the statins, clofibrate (an older fibrate that often caused gallstones), probucol (especially in large xanthomas) and thyroxine were used to reduce LDL cholesterol levels.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: More controversial is the addition of ezetimibe, which inhibits cholesterol absorption in the gut. While it reduces LDL cholesterol, it does not appear to improve a marker of atherosclerosis called the intima-media thickness. Whether this means that ezetimibe is of no overall benefit in FH is unknown.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: There are no interventional studies that directly show mortality benefit of cholesterol lowering in FH. Rather, evidence of benefit is derived from a number of trials conducted in people who have polygenic hypercholesterolemia (in which heredity plays a smaller role). Still, a 1999 observational study of a large British registry showed that mortality in people with FH had started to improve in the early 1990s when statins were introduced.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: A cohort study suggested that treatment of FH with statins leads to a 48% reduction in death from coronary heart disease to a point where people are no more likely to die of coronary heart disease than the general population. However, if the person already had coronary heart disease the reduction was 25%. The results emphasize the importance of early identification of FH and treatment with statins.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: Alirocumab and evolocumab, both monoclonal antibodies against PCSK9, are specifically indicated as adjunct to diet and maximally tolerated statin therapy for the treatment of adults with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia, who require additional lowering of LDL cholesterol.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: Homozygous FH is harder to treat. The LDL (Low Density Lipoprotein) receptors are minimally functional, if at all. Only high doses of statins, often in combination with other medications, are modestly effective in improving lipid levels. If medical therapy is not successful at reducing cholesterol levels, LDL apheresis may be used; this filters LDL from the bloodstream in a process reminiscent of dialysis. Very severe cases may be considered for a liver transplant; this provides a liver with normally functional LDL receptors, and leads to rapid improvement of the cholesterol levels, but at the risk of complications from any solid organ transplant (such as rejection, infections, or side-effects of the medication required to suppress rejection). Other surgical techniques include partial ileal bypass surgery, in which part of the small bowel is bypassed to decrease the absorption of nutrients and hence cholesterol, and portacaval shunt surgery, in which the portal vein is connected to the vena cava to allow blood with nutrients from the intestine to bypass the liver.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: Lomitapide, an inhibitor of the microsomal triglyceride transfer protein, was approved by the US FDA in December 2012 as an orphan drug for the treatment of homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. In January 2013, The US FDA also approved mipomersen, which inhibits the action of the gene apolipoprotein B, for the treatment of homozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. Gene therapy is a possible future alternative.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: Evinacumab, a monoclonal antibody inhibiting angiopoietin-like protein 3, was approved in 2021 for adjunct therapy.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: Given that FH is present from birth and atherosclerotic changes may begin early in life, it is sometimes necessary to treat adolescents or even teenagers with agents that were originally developed for adults. Due to safety concerns, many physicians prefer to use bile acid sequestrants and fenofibrate as these are licensed in children. Nevertheless, statins seem safe and effective, and in older children may be used as in adults.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: An expert panel in 2006 advised on early combination therapy with LDL apheresis, statins, and cholesterol absorption inhibitors in children with homozygous FH at the highest risk.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: The global prevalence of FH is approximately 10 million people. In most populations studied, heterozygous FH occurs in about 1:250 people, but not all develop symptoms. Homozygous FH occurs in about 1:1,000,000.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: "LDLR" mutations are more common in certain populations, presumably because of a genetic phenomenon known as the "founder effect"—they were founded by a small group of individuals, one or several of whom was a carrier of the mutation. The Afrikaner, French Canadians, Lebanese Christians, and Finns have high rates of specific mutations that make FH particularly common in these groups. "APOB" mutations are more common in Central Europe.


title: Familial hypercholesterolemia

text: The Norwegian physician Dr Carl Müller first associated the physical signs, high cholesterol levels and autosomal dominant inheritance in 1938. In the early 1970s and 1980s, the genetic cause for FH was described by Dr Joseph L. Goldstein and Dr Michael S. Brown of Dallas, Texas. Initially, they found increased activity of HMG-CoA reductase, but studies showed that this did not explain the very abnormal cholesterol levels in people with FH. The focus shifted to the binding of LDL to its receptor, and effects of impaired binding on metabolism; this proved to be the underlying mechanism for FH. Subsequently, numerous mutations in the protein were directly identified by sequencing. They later won the 1985 Nobel Prize in Medicine for their discovery of the LDL receptor and its impact on lipoprotein metabolism.


title: North Wales

text: North Wales () is a region of Wales, encompassing its northernmost areas. It borders Mid Wales to the south, England to the east, and the Irish Sea to the north and west. The area is highly mountainous and rural, with Snowdonia National Park ( and the Clwydian Range and Dee Valley (), known for its mountains, waterfalls and trails, wholly within the region. Its population is concentrated in the north-east and northern coastal areas, with significant Welsh-speaking populations in its western and rural areas. North Wales is imprecisely defined, lacking any exact definition or administrative structure. It is commonly defined administratively as its six most northern principal areas, but other definitions exist, with Montgomeryshire historically considered to be part of the region.


title: North Wales

text: Those from North Wales are sometimes referred to as "Gogs" (from "Gogledd" – the Welsh word for "north"); in comparison, those from South Wales are sometimes called "Hwntws" by those from North Wales.


title: North Wales

text: The region includes the localities of Wrexham, Deeside, Rhyl, Colwyn Bay, Flint, Bangor, Llandudno, and Holyhead. The largest localities in North Wales are the city of Wrexham and the conurbations of Deeside and Rhyl/Prestatyn, where the main retail, cultural, educational, tourism, and transport infrastructure and services of North Wales are located. Bangor and St Asaph are the region's cities, Bangor is Wales' oldest city, whereas St Asaph is one of Wales' smallest and was awarded status in 2012. Wrexham, the region's largest settlement, became a city in 2022.


title: North Wales

text: Historically, for most of North Wales, the region can be referred to as simply ""Gwynedd"", named after one of the last independent Welsh kingdoms, the Kingdom of Gwynedd. This has led to a stronger sense of Welsh identity and home to more Welsh-language speakers, especially in North West Wales, than the rest of Wales. The term "North Wales" is rarely applied to all of Wales during the Anglo-Saxon invasion of Britain and the period of the Heptarchy, to distinguish it from "West Wales", known today as Cornwall, although the term "Wales" or the names of the various petty kingdoms of Wales ("Gwynedd, and Powys" in North Wales) are more commonly used to depict the region during this time.


title: North Wales

text: The region is steeped in history, being a crucial component in Welsh medieval history, and was from the 5th to the 12th/13th centuries under the control of the influential Welsh kingdoms of Gwynedd, and Powys following the end of Roman rule in Britain. The Kingdom of Gwynedd controlled the majority of what is now the commonly defined 6 counties of North Wales, including all of the North Wales coast, with Powys retaining control over what is modern Powys, and parts of Wrexham and Flintshire, in addition to part of Shropshire. Through their over 800 year existences', their rulers acclaimed themselves to be the "King(s) of the Britons", and Gwynedd would lead the charge in the subsequent formation of the Principality of Wales. The mountainous stronghold of Snowdonia formed the nucleus of that realm and would become the last redoubt of independent Medieval Wales — only overcome in 1283 by English forces under Edward I. To this day it remains a stronghold of the Welsh language and a centre for Welsh national and cultural identity.


title: North Wales

text: The area is home to three of the four UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Wales. These are Pontcysyllte Aqueduct and Canal, the Slate Landscape of Northwest Wales and, collectively, the Edwardian castles and town walls of the region which comprise those at Caernarfon, Beaumaris, Conwy and Harlech. It also shares with Powys and Ceredigion the distinction of hosting the only UNESCO Biosphere (from Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme to promote sustainable development) reserve in Wales, namely, Biosffer Dyfi Biosphere. London has only one more site than North Wales.


title: North Wales

text: The boundaries and status of North Wales are undefined (compared to regions of England), definitions, and the boundary of North Wales with South or Mid Wales differs between organisations. It is strongly used culturally for comparison to the more urban South Wales. The most common definition for statistical and administrative purposes of North Wales contains the 6 principal areas of: Isle of Anglesey, Conwy, Denbighshire, Flintshire, Gwynedd, and Wrexham. Of which have a combined estimated population in 2018 of 698,400 people. Under this definition, the area borders the principal areas of Ceredigion, Powys, and the rest of Wales to the south, England and its counties of Shropshire, and Cheshire to the east, and the Irish sea to the north and west. Other definitions, especially historical, commonly include Montgomeryshire, one of the historic counties of Wales, to be part of North Wales, although as part of Powys its more commonly considered Mid Wales today. The definitions of North and Mid Wales constantly overlap, with Meirionnydd (southern part of the modern principal area of Gwynedd) sometimes considered Mid Wales.


title: North Wales

text: North Wales may also be spelled as 'north Wales' with a lower case 'n' for north, coined as the "to cap or not to cap" debate. It is argued that using a lower case 'n' is to be only used to signify "north" as merely a geographic identifier, and a capital 'N' to distinctly separate the region for cultural, organisational, or statistical purposes from the rest of Wales. Such usage may follow ideological lines, with North Wales used to confer the region as a distinctly separate entity from the rest of Wales, whilst north Wales as merely the northern bit of Wales. Organisations, where the region is administered the same as with the rest of Wales, may prefer to use a lower case for north. Whilst organisations only operating in the region or separate from any others in the rest of Wales may use a capitalised N. Local newspapers, such as the Daily Post describe themselves to be a "capper" capitalising the 'N', whereas other organisations such as BBC News may use a lower case. The Welsh Government's style guide uses lowercase, whereas Visit Wales uses capitalised. David Williams, chairman of the North Wales Business Club, announced his support for capping the term "North", stating that North Wales should be a "very recognisable region in our own right".


title: North Wales

text: For local administration, the region is made up of the following 6 principal areas, consisting of counties, and county boroughs, they are: the Isle of Anglesey, Conwy County Borough, Denbighshire, Flintshire, Gwynedd, and Wrexham County Borough.


title: North Wales

text: These principal areas are commonly divided into two groups, used for local news (e.g. BBC), regional tourism boards, town and country planning, and were the proposed replacements to the existing 6 principal areas before proposals were scrapped in 2019. They are: North East Wales (Denbighshire, Flintshire, Wrexham), and North West Wales (Anglesey, Conwy, Gwynedd) being the two most popular groupings, although a North Central Wales (Conwy and Denbighshire) grouping has been occasionally used, specifically for health administration.


title: North Wales

text: In addition to the six principal areas, North Wales is also divided into the following preserved counties for various ceremonial purposes: Clwyd (comprising Conwy, Denbighshire, Flintshire and Wrexham), and Gwynedd (comprising Gwynedd and Isle of Anglesey) The preserved counties are based on the counties created by the Local Government Act 1972 and were used for local government purposes (with county councils) between 1974 and 1996. During this period up to the present, Montgomeryshire remained a part of Powys.


title: North Wales

text: Prior to the preserved counties, there were counties, now referred to as historic counties. These are the oldest of the counties of North Wales, used for centuries. North Wales contained 6 historic counties during these times, the counties were; Anglesey, Caernarfonshire, Denbighshire, Flintshire, Merionethshire, and Montgomeryshire. The most notable difference between these six counties and the present six (seven with Montgomeryshire) is that Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire were combined into one principal area, initially called 'Caernarfonshire and Merionethshire' until a day after its formation where it took the name Gwynedd instead, and the formation of two county boroughs, Conwy carved out of Caernarfonshire and Denbighshire, and Wrexham carved out of Denbighshire and Flintshire.


title: North Wales

text: The north of Wales was traditionally divided into three regions during the middle ages: Upper Gwynedd (or Gwynedd above the Conwy), defined as the area north of the River Dyfi and west of the River Conwy; Lower Gwynedd (or Gwynedd below the Conwy), also known as the "Perfeddwlad ("the middle country")" and defined as the region east of the River Conwy and west of the River Dee; and Ynys Môn (or Anglesey), a large island off the north coast. English Maelor, currently part of Wrexham County Borough, located east of the River Dee, as the name suggests, was part of England during a significant part of this period.


title: North Wales

text: North Wales is electorally divided into constituencies and electoral wards to elect local representatives to multiple layers of government.


title: North Wales

text: There are eleven constituencies used for both the UK Parliament and the Senedd (Welsh Parliament; ): Aberconwy (, Alyn and Deeside (, Arfon (, Clwyd South (, Clwyd West (, Delyn (, Dwyfor Meironnydd (, Montgomeryshire (, Vale of Clwyd (, Wrexham (, and Ynys Môn (Anglesey, .


title: North Wales

text: An electoral region for the Senedd, shares the name "North Wales", yet does not cover all of North Wales, only the northern coast, Anglesey, and northeast of Wales (specifically the entire area of the former pre-1996 county of Clwyd); the rest of North Wales (mainly Meirionnydd) is covered by the Mid and West Wales Senedd electoral region. All constituencies aside Dwyfor Meironnydd, and Montgomeryshire are in the North Wales Senedd electoral region.


title: North Wales

text: Between 1979 and 1994, all of North Wales (including Montgomery) was a single European Parliament constituency (EPC), the North Wales European Parliament Constituency. In 1994, minor border changes put parts of Montgomeryshire in the neighbouring Mid and West Wales constituency. In 1999, both of the constituencies ceased, when it was absorbed into the larger Wales constituency until 2020 when it was subsequently abolished following the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union on 31 January 2020.


title: North Wales

text: The division with the rest of Wales is arbitrary and depends on the particular use being made. For example, the boundary of North Wales Police differs from the boundary of the North Wales area of the Natural Resources Wales and the North Wales Regional Transport Consortium ("Taith"). The historic boundary follows the pre-1996 county boundaries of Merionethshire and Denbighshire which in turn closely follow the geographic features of the River Dyfi to Aran Fawddwy, then crossing the high moorlands following the watershed until reaching Cadair Berwyn and then following the River Rhaeadr and River Tanat to the Shropshire border. The most common definition is that North Wales ends at the peripheries of the northern 6 principal areas, therefore the border is between Wrexham - Powys, Denbighshire - Powys, Gwynedd - Powys, and Gwynedd - Ceredigion (over the River Dyfi).


title: North Wales

text: The area is mostly rural with many mountains and valleys. This, in combination with its coast (on the Irish Sea), means tourism is the principal industry. Farming, which was once the principal economic force in the area, is now much reduced in importance. The average income per capita of the local population is the lowest in the UK.


title: North Wales

text: The eastern part of North Wales contains the most populous areas, with more than 300,000 people living in the areas around Wrexham and Deeside. Wrexham, with a population of 65,692 at the 2011 census in its built-up area, it is North Wales' largest city. The total population of North Wales is 696,300 (2017). The majority of other settlements are along the coast, including some popular resort towns, such as Rhyl, Llandudno, Pwllheli, Prestatyn and Tywyn. There are two cathedral citiesBangor and St. Asaphand a number of medieval castles (e.g. Criccieth, Dolbadarn, Dolwyddelan, Harlech, Caernarfon Castle, Beaumaris, Conwy) The area of North Wales is about 6,172 square kilometres, making it slightly larger than the country of Brunei, or the island of Bali.


title: North Wales

text: North Wales does not have any motorways, with the only motorways in Wales being present in South Wales, and nearest motorways (M53 and M56) being on the other side of the Wales-England border. There have been proposals to upgrade the A55 into a motorway or have more motorway-like features. Trunk roads in the region are maintained by the North and Mid Wales Trunk Road Agent (NMWTRA).


title: North Wales

text: The main roads spanning across North Wales, mostly span east to west, especially along the North Wales coast. This is mainly due to the mountainous terrain in the middle of Wales, leading most north-south connections to be slower, leading to diversions onto north-south roads in England. The emphasis on east-west roadways has led to North Wales having closer connections with North West England (centred on Liverpool and Manchester) rather than with South Wales.


title: North Wales

text: The busiest road in North Wales is the A55, the "North Wales Expressway", a dual carriageway primary road connecting Chester to Holyhead, along the North Wales coast and passing Deeside, Llandudno Junction, Conwy, and Bangor. It is described as the economic lifeline for North Wales, and the second most important road in all of Wales, only to the M4 in South Wales. The road connects all the way to the Port of Holyhead following an extension in 2001, which provides ferry connections to the Republic of Ireland. The majority of the road is part of the E-road network as E22 (until Ewloe, where it goes along the A494 into England), and is a dual carriageway, grade-separated, for its entire 88-mile length.


title: North Wales

text: A historically important road in the region is the A5, a major road that was the primary link between the region and London (as the ""London-Holyhead Trunk Road""). The road crosses the Menai Suspension Bridge and is regarded as a more scenic route, with its historical importance as a connection between London and the Port of Holyhead, superseded by the A55. Other roads transiting North Wales, from east to west include the A458 from Halesowen to Mallwyd, and the A494 from Dolgellau to Saughall (originally to Birkenhead).


title: North Wales

text: The busiest north-south road travelling through the region is the A483 from Chester (originally from Manchester) through Wrexham and into England near Oswestry, before re-entering Montgomeryshire and passing Welshpool and Newtown, before continuing onto Swansea. Other major north-south roads include the single-carriageways of the A470 from Llandudno to Cardiff via the Conwy valley, and the A487 from Bangor to Haverfordwest via Caernarfon and Snowdonia.


title: North Wales

text: The Port of Holyhead, on the isle of Anglesey, is the main commercial and ferry port in North Wales. The port had the third-largest volume of freight traffic, in Wales, in 2018 (5.2 million tonnes), after Milford Haven and Port Talbot, and it is the main port for freight and sea passenger transport with the Republic of Ireland, handling more than 2 million passengers each year. 81% of freight traffic going through Welsh ports to the Republic of Ireland, and 75.5% of sea passenger traffic between Wales and the Republic of Ireland went through Holyhead in 2018. Historically, there were two routes between Holyhead and the Irish ports of Dublin and Dun Laoghaire. The route to Dun Laoghaire was the most popular in 1998 with over 1.7 million passengers ferried, however following a consistent decline in passenger traffic, it was removed in 2015. The other route to Dublin saw an overall increase in passenger numbers from just over 1 million in 1998 to just over 1.9 million in 2018, an increase of 82%.


title: North Wales

text: A Mostyn-Dublin ferry service once existed, on the now Liverpool-Dublin route, attracting a peak of 48,000 passengers in 2003, before being discontinued in 2004.


title: North Wales

text: The public rail network of the region is largely split into two sections. These sections are centred around the two main west-east railway lines transversing the region, as there are currently no north-south railway lines wholly in the region. This is largely due to the mountainous regions of Snowdonia resting between the two lines, and low passenger numbers of north-south lines leading to their closure. The public rail network is managed and maintained by Network Rail. Historically, the region had a more extensive rail network with more interconnectivity of the current lines and more connections to the south. However, due to falling passenger numbers, the emergence of automobiles and other factors, the region's railways came under review, resulting in the Beeching cuts to the network. Many former rail corridors of the once more extensive network were superseded by road infrastructure. The numerous heritage railways scattered across the region serve as a reminder of the former railways across the region.


title: North Wales

text: The majority of lines operated in Wales are part of the Wales & Borders franchise, the current operator is Transport for Wales Rail, a Welsh-Government owned company, although some services (from Holyhead and Wrexham) are operated by the West Coast Partnership operator, Avanti West Coast on services using the West Coast Main Line to London Euston.


title: North Wales

text: According to StatsWales, the number of rail journeys across the 6 principal areas of North Wales, made in 2017-18 was 1.4 million, an increase of 20,525 from 2007-8. The largest share of these rail journeys, at 38.4%, was within the boundaries of Gwynedd. Conwy was the principal area which saw the greatest increase in rail journeys as a percentage of journeys over the ten-year period, at 22.5%. The least amount of rail journeys in 2018-19 was in Anglesey.