title: Big Brother 2 (American season)

text: The remaining six HouseGuests entered the backyard to participate in the "Pushing It to the Limit" Head of Household competition. This competition saw the HouseGuests sliding their key to the house down a two-lane board towards a series of markers, each representing a different room in the house. The HouseGuest who landed their key closest to the room labeled HoH would become the new Head of Household; Nicole was the winner. Krista revealed to Will the Untouchables group, prompting Will to exaggerate the story to Nicole and cause doubt in her mind about Krista and Hardy. Hardy and Nicole later began to realize that Krista had lied to numerous HouseGuests in the game, and the two turned against her. On Day 41, the HouseGuests competed in the "A Is For Apple" food competition, which required HouseGuests to spell food items out of large plastic letters to earn them for the week. On Day 42, Nicole chose to nominate Krista and Monica for eviction, with Krista being her target. On Day 43, the group played in the "All the News That Fits" luxury competition. The HouseGuests participated as duos and attempted to guess whether news headlines given to them were true or false; the winning pair would win three minutes in the Diary Room with newspapers, magazines, and a newsreel playing on the television. Bunky and Will were the winning duo. On Day 44, the HouseGuests were given a trampoline as part of that week's America's Choice poll. The HouseGuests learned that week that the eviction vote would take place live on Thursday, rather than the group voting on Wednesday. On Day 47, Krista became the sixth HouseGuest to be evicted from the house in a unanimous vote of three to zero.


title: Big Brother 2 (American season)

text: The final five HouseGuests learned that there would be no eviction for the week as a result of Justin's expulsion from the game. This meant that the group did not participate in a Head of Household competition, and there were no nominations for the week; the group did participate in food and luxury competitions. On Day 48, the HouseGuests competed in the "Blockbuster" luxury competition, hosted by Bunky. HouseGuests were given ice blocks with a movie ticket in the center, and were required to break through the ice to reach their ticket. The first HouseGuest to get their ticket out of the ice would be able to watch a screening of the film "American Pie 2" (2001) in the Head of Household room. Bunky was the winner, and chose Monica to join him. Despite being aligned with him, Hardy and Nicole began to yet again have doubts about Will, believing he was stirring the pot too much. On Day 50, the HouseGuests participated in the "An Offer Almost Too Good to Refuse" food competition. For this competition, HouseGuests searched the house to find jars of peanut butter that had been hidden; the HouseGuests were required to stay where they found their jar. The HouseGuests were individually called into the Diary Room and offered $2,500 to put the HouseGuests on the peanut butter and jelly diet; should the HouseGuest decline this, the offer would be raised to $5,000, and then $7,500. Bunky and Hardy accepted, though Bunky had the highest number on his peanut butter jar thus won the $5,000 prize. Bunky and Hardy both admitted to accepting the offer, upsetting Monica and Nicole. That same day, Bunky won the America's Choice poll to receive a letter from home.


title: Big Brother 2 (American season)

text: On Day 51, the HouseGuests competed in the first round of the "Big Brother Road Trip" Head of Household competition. For this competition, the HouseGuests answered questions regarding the evicted HouseGuests with the answers being states. To gain a point, a HouseGuest had to be the first to strike a pole by driving a remote-control car; the two HouseGuests with the most points would move on to the second round. Bunky and Hardy advanced to the second round. On Day 52, Bunky and Hardy competed in the second round of the Head of Household competition. For this, the two had to drive their remote-control car through an obstacle course; each obstacle was based on the home state of an evicted HouseGuests, and the two had to drive their cars to approach each obstacle in the order that the HouseGuests were evicted. Hardy was the winner, giving him his third Head of Household win of the season. On Day 55, the HouseGuests competed in the "Big Brother Jenga" food competition. For this competition, the HouseGuests built a Jenga puzzle out of oversized pieces with food categories listed on them. They would then pull out the pieces one at a time, earning each category they successfully removed without knocking over the tower. That night, Hardy chose to nominate Bunky and Will for eviction, seeing Bunky as a physical threat due to his recent competition wins. Due to the low number of HouseGuests remaining in the house, the bedroom closest to the bathroom was shut down; the HouseGuests were allowed to paint the room before it was closed for good. On Day 56, the HouseGuests competed in "The Great Escape" luxury competition. The HouseGuests decorated a doll to their likeness, and later found their dolls outside in individual baskets. They had to blow up helium balloons, tie them to their doll's basket, and attempt to make their basket float over the walls of the house; the first two HouseGuests to complete this challenge would win a helicopter tour of Los Angeles. Will was the first to complete the challenge, with Bunky coming in second. Though the plan was to initially evict Bunky, Nicole continued to grow frustrated with Will and contemplated evicting him; the two later made up. The America's Choice poll saw the HouseGuests getting an in-house shopping spree for sportswear clothing. On Day 61, the eviction vote came to a tie, with Hardy casting the tie-breaker vote to evict Bunky.


title: Big Brother 2 (American season)

text: Following Bunky's eviction, the HouseGuests competed in the "Strange Bedfellows" endurance Head of Household competition. The HouseGuests found a replica of the Head of Household room in the backyard, and had to sit on the water bed in the backyard while holding onto their key that was placed in the nomination box. The last HouseGuests remaining on the bed, without letting go of their key, would be the winner. The competition quickly proved to be dramatic when a banner overhead sent by Nicole's husband accused her of betraying him; this was a result of a rumor spread online that something had happened between Nicole and Will in the hot tub. The competition came down to Monica and Will, with Will dropping out of the competition in exchange for a prize; this made Monica the new Head of Household. Will's prize was revealed to be a large peanut butter jar used in an earlier competition. Hardy and Nicole were both upset with Will for throwing the competition, as Will and Monica had made a deal that Will would not be nominated. On Day 62, the group played in the "Shop 'til You Drop" food competition, which required the HouseGuests to grab food items and carry them through an obstacle course; the group kept whatever food they got across. On Day 63, Monica chose to nominate Hardy and Nicole for eviction. On Day 64, the backyard was transformed into a "winter wonderland" as part of the America's Choice poll. On Day 65, Gervase Peterson and Susan Hawk, of "" (2000), and Alicia Calaway and Jeff Varner of, "" (2001), entered the house to spend the night. The group played in the "Fire and Ice" luxury competition, which saw the "Survivor" cast compete against the HouseGuests. The groups were bound together at the wrists and had to find the letters to spell out the name of their respective show; they would build the letters into a tower, untie themselves, jump one at a time into the pool to retrieve their keys, and hang their keys on torches at the end of the pool. The first team to complete the challenge would win a $15,000 prize; the "Survivor" group won the competition. That same night, the HouseGuests paired up with a "Survivor" member to compete in the "Crack the Code" luxury competition. The competition saw the pairs receiving a coded message, describing a location in the house, and the first pair to decode the location and find a computer mouse would win the right to view a fan-site made in their honor. On Day 68, Will chose to evict Hardy from the house.


title: Big Brother 2 (American season)

text: The final three HouseGuests then competed in the first round of the three-part final Head of Household competition. For the first two rounds the HouseGuest completed for points which would determine who would proceed to the final round. The first part of the competition saw Monica, Nicole, and Will determining which HouseGuest was being described by a specific adjective used by a former HouseGuest, with points being given for correct answers. Will was the winner with 5, Nicole in second on 4 and Monica in third with 3 points. The second round of the competition saw the HouseGuest complete an obstacle course of various household chours with in 6 minutes. Time was not a factor, instead points were awarded for each task completed; Nicole was the winner with 7, Monica was in second with 6 and Will came in last with 5. Once the scores were added up, it was Nicole(11 points) and Will (10 points) who would progress to the final round of the competition. Following the September 11th attacks, the rule stating that the HouseGuests would not be informed of world news was broken, and Monica learned that her cousin Tamitha had been in the buildings at the time of the attacks. Though the HouseGuests were initially only given the basics of the events that had occurred, they were later given a more detailed description of the events. On Day 77, Nicole and Will competed in the final round of the Head of Household competition, which saw the two being asked seven questions about their former housemates' experiences during their time in the house. Nicole was the winner, making her the final Head of Household of the season; she then chose to evict Monica from the house, making Nicole and Will the final two HouseGuests.


title: Big Brother 2 (American season)

text: On Day 82, the evicted HouseGuests returned to choose whether Nicole or Will should win the series. Nicole and Will learned that they could each nullify one HouseGuests vote for the winner; Nicole chose to void Shannon's vote, while Will reluctantly chose to void Bunky's vote – he was so confident that he felt he didn't need to nullify a vote at all but the producers required that he do so (while it was surprising that Will voided Bunky's vote instead of Hardy to many viewers, Will said that Bunky was a sincere player and his disgust with Will's tactics and previous statement that he would never vote to give Will the winner's money meant that he was the right person to remove from Nicole's vote side). Both Nicole and Will guessed correctly and were able to take a vote for each other out of the final tally. Nicole emphasized how evil Will was to an increasingly unimpressed jury that took pains to point out that she always cried about how awful it was to vote people out yet directly ended several of their games because she wanted to win (Monica followed up on an earlier interview where she'd said Nicole's claims of "love" for other players were selfish and aimed at boosting her own ego), while Will reminded the jury how charismatic he was through his eloquent final speech, though he appeared to irk some of the jurors who interpreted his charisma as arrogance and condescension. Dr. Will was crowned the winner of the series in a five to two vote, with Will receiving the votes of Krista, Mike, Kent, Sheryl and Monica, as Nicole received votes from Autumn and Hardy.


title: Big Brother 2 (American season)

text: "Big Brother 2" premiered on July 5, 2001 to a viewing audience of 8.2 million viewers. These numbers were significantly lower than the previous season's premiere, however, it was noted that ratings did increase in the second half-hour. The series was later the third most searched topic on the internet according to Lycos days following the premiere. The July 10 episode had a total of 8.3 million viewers, slightly higher than the premiere episode's ratings. The first eviction of the season, which featured both Sheryl's eviction and the expulsion of Justin, garnered 9.2 million viewers; the episode was the most watched in its time slot. Speaking on the topic of the ratings for the series, Les Moonves stated that he felt the series was "worthwhile" but "required diligence." The August 7 episode of the series had 8.9 million viewers, the second highest rated episode of the season at that point. The season finale garnered a total of 12.3 million viewers, making it the highest rated episode of the season; these numbers were noted as higher than the previous year's finale. In July, it was reported that an estimated 14,000 viewers had subscribed to view the life feeds. It was later reported by RealPlayer that over 25,000 subscriptions had been made to the feeds. Following the season finale, it was confirmed that 56,026 viewers paid for the full season of the live feeds, while 41,814 Gold Pass members viewed the feeds. CBS reported that the numbers "exceeded [their] expectations."


title: Big Brother 2 (American season)

text: Unlike the first season, "Big Brother 2" was well received by critics and fans. A CBS executive said that the revamped series was "compelling and interesting." "Variety" said of the season "The HouseGuests of 'BB2' are louder, bawdier and meaner than the comparatively tame folks of the first 'Big Brother'." On the online success of the series, RealPlayer stated "The popularity of the [program] is a testament to the power of the Internet as a new vehicle for television networks to deliver subscription programming to viewers." Shapiro later stated he wished he could edit what was shown on the live feeds, feeling that the feeds took from the "suspense" of the episode being broadcast. The second season is often noted by fans as a favorite, with numerous HouseGuests from the season coming back for future installments. Will is often regarded by fans as the greatest player to ever play the game following his appearance on the show. Shannon's decision to use Hardy's toothbrush to clean the toilet later became one of the more infamous moments in the series history, and is often remembered by fans. HouseGuests Bunky, Mike, Monica, and Will were all candidates to appear on "Big Brother: All-Stars" (2006), though only Mike and Will were selected to return. HouseGuests Hardy and Nicole both made appearances that season as well. Bunky later made an appearance on "Big Brother 10" (2008) during a food competition that featured one representative from each past season. Mike was interviewed during "Big Brother 11" along with three other former HouseGuests. Mike later joined the cast of "Big Brother 14" (2012) initially as a mentor to new HouseGuests before becoming an official HouseGuest himself. This made Mike one of two former HouseGuests to have competed in the series three times. Will made an appearance on every season from "Big Brother 15" (2013) to "Big Brother 21" (2019) as the moderator at the Jury roundtable discussion for the final three.


title: Big Brother 2 (American season)

text: The expulsion of Justin came with much controversy, as Justin had previously received warnings from production for intimidating behavior, threatening other housemates, and drunkenly urinating on a window. Justin's antics led several to request he receive a penalty nomination, while Hardy debated walking due to Justin's actions. Following the incident in which Justin held a knife to Krista's neck, he was expelled from the house. Krista, who was drunk at the time, later claimed to have no memory of the incident, and felt that CBS had "[blown the incident] completely out of proportion." Despite this statement, Krista later hired attorney L. Clayton Burgess and sued CBS for "damages for negligence on the part of CBS and the producers, pain and suffering, mental anguish, medical bills, mental impairment and loss of enjoyment of life." Justin felt that he should not have been removed from the house for his actions, telling host Julie Chen "If there's anyone that could perceive that as an act of violence or as a threat, then you’re an idiot." Other events in the house, namely Autumn and Mike engaging in arguments over which one tried to seduce the other at one point, caused a stir amongst viewers. Several of the HouseGuests came under fire for having previous arrest records. Mike "Boogie" Malin had been arrested for filming footage of the then-unreleased film "Batman & Robin" (1997), receiving five misdemeanor charges. Justin had previously been arrested once for "simple assault" and twice for "minor robberies." Krista had been arrested for battery after an argument with a boyfriend, though lied about this to producers prior to entering the house. Shannon and Mike came under fire for numerous slanderous remarks about Hardy, including calling him a "future rapist and child molester" and plotting to spread a rumor that he was gay; they were not spoken to by production for these comments.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: The Raven Cycle is a series of four contemporary fantasy novels written by American author Maggie Stiefvater. The first novel, "The Raven Boys", was published by Scholastic in 2012, and the final book, "The Raven King", was published on 26 April 2016.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: The Raven Cycle follows the story of teenagers Blue Sargent, Richard Gansey III, Adam Parrish, Ronan Lynch, and Noah, taking place in the fictional town of Henrietta, Virginia. Blue lives with her mother, Maura, and assorted other female relatives, all of whom are psychic except her, and they have predicted that if she kisses her true love, he will die. Her only power is that she makes the psychic's powers stronger. Blue joins her half-aunt, Neeve, who has arrived in Henrietta under mysterious circumstances, in an annual tradition of watching the spirits of those in Henrietta destined to die in the next year appear along an invisible line called the Corpse Road. Blue, having never been able to see the spirits before, sees a teenage boy who introduces himself only as “Gansey.” Neeve tells Blue she could see him either because he is her true love, or she will kill him.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: Richard Gansey III, Adam, Ronan, and Noah are so-called “Raven Boys” who attend the prestigious private school Aglionby Academy in Henrietta. Blue dislikes and is determined to stay away from Raven Boys, thinking them pretentious and self-absorbed. Realizing that Gansey is the spirit she saw on the corpse road, Blue vows she will never fall in love with him. She nevertheless befriends the group, showing an interest in Adam, a Henrietta boy at Aglionby on scholarship who lives with his abusive parents in a trailer park. Ronan lives with Gansey in a former factory called Monmouth Manufacturing, unable to return to his childhood home after his father was murdered and his mother fell into a coma. Noah also resides at Monmouth Manufacturing, and occasionally offhandedly remarks about how he is dead. Blue joins the boys as they attempt to find the Welsh king Owain Glendower, who is thought to be buried on the Corpse Road, also called the ley line, of Henrietta, Virginia. Gansey is determined to find Glendower, believing he saved his life seven years prior, and believes that the king is not dead, merely sleeping, and will grant a favor to those that wake him. In their search, the group discovers a mysterious forest along the ley line called Cabeswater that seems to exist out of time and speaks to them in Latin. They also begin to suspect that their search is being watched. The Aglionby Latin teacher, Barrington Whelk, remembers his days as an Aglionby student with his friend Czerny, and their exploration of the ley line, leading to Czerny’s death seven years prior in a ritual murder. Out exploring on their own, Gansey and Blue discover a human skeleton, with a wallet containing a driver’s license belonging to a Noah Czerny. Confronting Noah at Monmouth, they realize the boy has been a ghost as long as they’ve known him. As the investigation into Noah’s remains begins, Whelk becomes increasingly unhinged, realizing the police will connect him to Noah’s murder. He decides to perform a ritual on the ley line again in a last-ditch effort to control its power. He threatens Gansey with a gun and nearly shoots him in order to get information from Gansey’s journal on the ley lines. Blue learns that Neeve had come to Henrietta to help Maura with a mysterious task, but had also been contacted by Whelk, though she refused to help him. Meanwhile, Adam’s father, convinced that Adam has not turned over enough of his income from his three jobs to him, beats Adam severely to the point that he loses hearing in his left ear. Ronan intervenes and fights Adam’s father, and Adam prevents Ronan from being arrested by reporting the abuse from his father and pressing charges. The group of teens and the psychics try to determine how to prevent Whelk from taking control of the ley line, fearing they are running out of time. Neeve kidnaps Whelk, intending to use him in the ley line ritual, but is overpowered and nearly sacrificed to the line herself until she mysteriously disappears. Adam gives the line a sacrifice of his free will to become the hands and eyes of Cabeswater, and a stampede of mysterious creatures kills Whelk. The teens try to move forward with their search for Glendower and the mysteries of Cabeswater and the ley line, and Ronan reveals that he can take things out of his dreams.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: The second book in the series, "The Dream Thieves", focuses on Ronan's ability to take things from his dreams. The book begins by revealing Ronan has three secrets. A hit-man called the Gray Man, who killed Ronan's father, comes to Henrietta under the orders of a man named Colin Greenmantle looking for something called the Greywaren, which he believes is an object that allows the user to take things our of their dreams.. It's revealed that the Greywaren is not an object, but a name for Ronan. Cabeswater vanishes, and another teenage boy called Joseph Kavinsky reveals that he can take things out of his dreams as well. Kavinsky abuses the ability to steal from his dreams, and with both boys taking things out of their dreams, they stress the energy of Cabeswater and the ley line. Blue's mother, Maura and the Gray Man fall for each other, but the Gray Man runs from Henrietta claiming he stole the Greywaren so that Ronan will be safe from Greenmantle. Adam restores energy to the ley line with the help of Persephone, a psychic at 300 Fox Way. They bring back Cabeswater, and Ronan uses one of his night terrors to fight Kavinsky and his fire dragon. Eventually Kavinsky's life is ended by his own dragon. With his father's will stating that he cannot visit the home he grew up in, Ronan dreams up a new will so he can return to his sleeping mother. Ronan's three secrets are revealed. Blue reads a note saying that her mother is underground, setting up the next book.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: In the third book of the series, "Blue Lily, Lily Blue", Blue's mother Maura leaves to look for Artemus, Blue's birth father, in a cave. Persephone continues to help Adam learn how to fix the ley lines the way Cabeswater has asked. Calla, another psychic, tries to contact Maura with her abilities. She tells Blue and the boys of three sleepers in the caves and warns them not to wake the third sleeper. Colin Greenmantle becomes the Latin teacher at Aglionby, and Adam and Ronan plan to drive him out of Henrietta. Blue and Gansey find another cave in the backyard of a man named Jesse Dittley, who was one of the spirits Neeve saw in the graveyard and in the cave, they find a woman named Gwenllian, Glendower's daughter. Persephone dies in an attempt to find Maura, and Adam and Ronan blackmail Greenmantle into leaving. Greenmantle's wife Piper hires thugs and goes to Jesse Dittley's cave where she kills Dittley, captures the Gray Man, and enters the cave. The teens and Gwenllian go to the Cabeswater cave where they find animal skeletons that they collectively wake up. Blue and Ronan find a magic lake where after crossing the lake, Blue finds Maura and Artemus. Blue, Artemus, Maura, and the Gray Man escape, leaving Piper and the thug in the collapsed cave, where Neeve finds Piper who wakes up the third sleeper.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: The fourth and final installation of The Raven Cycle is entitled "The Raven King". Gansey, Adam, Ronan, Noah, and Blue continue their quest to find the Welsh King Glendower.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: While Piper wakes up the third sleeper, a demon with the power to "unmake", the boys and Blue race to save Cabeswater.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: Short Stories in the Raven Cycle universe include "Opal", "A Very Declan Christmas", and two short drabbles taking place around the holidays, one about Gansey and one about 300 Fox Way.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: Much of the story takes place in the fictional town of Henrietta, Virginia, which sits directly on top of a powerful ley line. Adam, Ronan, Blue, Noah, and Gansey repeatedly return to the mysterious Cabeswater, a forest that exists out of its own time and that talks to the group in Latin. Adam, Ronan, and Gansey all attend school at Aglionby Academy, an all-boys private school that is very expensive. Ronan's childhood home is called The Barns, and it's where he discovers his mother is one of his father's dream creations. 300 Fox Way is the home of Blue and the multitude of psychic women in Henrietta. Monmouth Manufacturing is the abandoned and gutted warehouse, owned by Gansey, in which he, Ronan, and Noah reside, as well as the place where Malory and his service dog stay during their visit. Some of the story takes place in the caves that are underneath Cabeswater where Glendower is supposedly sleeping.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: Blue Sargent is the daughter of a psychic named Maura, and lives with her and other psychic women at their home, 300 Fox Way. Despite not having psychic abilities of her own, Blue is able to amplify the energy of other psychics and supernatural beings. She works at a restaurant called Nino's and desperately wants to travel the world and help others. The psychic women that live with her have told her that if she ever kisses her true love, he will die.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: Maura is the psychic mother of Blue and she typically uses Tarot cards to make her readings. She usually wears her trademark tattered jeans, and has a penchant for going barefoot. She falls in love with the Gray Man, and later disappears underground, supposedly in search of Artemus, Blue's biological father. She does important tarot readings with her two best friends, Persephone and Calla.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: Called Gansey by his friends, Richard Campbell Gansey III is a student at Aglionby Academy who has been on a journey to find the sleeping Welsh king Glendower that he believes saved his life seven years prior. Gansey's allergy to bee stings caused him to die seven years ago from a hornet sting, but he was saved by Glendower. This experience left him anxious and prone to panic attacks. He is the son of a wealthy businessman and politician. Gansey drives an orange Camaro called the Pig.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: Adam Parrish is a student at Aglionby Academy who struggles financially, but doesn't want financial assistance or pity from his friends. At the beginning of the story, he lived with his mother and his abusive father in a trailer, but later he stands up for himself by pressing charges against his father and moves into an apartment above St. Agnes church. He sacrificed his free will to Cabeswater, promising to fix the ley lines and help restore Cabeswater. As of "The Raven King", he is in a relationship with Ronan Lynch. Adam is deaf in his left ear due to a violent incident with his father. He worked as a mechanic and later was taught how to harness Cabeswater's energy by Persephone before her death. He gets a car of his own that is old, beat-up, and made of parts from different makes and models of cars. Ronan refers to it as the "Hondayota".


title: The Raven Cycle

text: Ronan Lynch is described as "dangerous as a shark and about as friendly." Cabeswater calls him the Greywaren. Ronan also possesses the ability to take things out of his dreams. Ronan uses this ability to try and help wake up his mother and the livestock from his childhood home, all of which are things that Niall Lynch took out of his own dreams. He helps Adam create fake evidence against Greenmantle in order to blackmail him into leaving Henrietta. As of "The Raven King", he is in a relationship with Adam Parrish. Ronan is the central character in a companion series called The Dreamer Trilogy, which takes places after the events of The Raven King and Opal. He has two brothers: Declan and Matthew, who both attend Aglionby. Declan is his charasmatic older brother, and Matthew is his good-humored littler brother, who Ronan took out of his dreams when he was a child. His favorite past times include defenestrating his close friend Noah Czerny and (in book 2) racing with Kavinsky.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: Noah Czerny was a skater boy and student at Aglionby who has been dead for seven years at the time of the series. He was murdered by Barrington Whelk, his friend and classmate, when Whelk attempted, and failed, to sacrifice him to wake the ley lines. He relies on energy of the ley lines or Blue Sargent in order to stay substantial. Over the course of the series, it is revealed that his spirit is decaying and he needs more energy in order to look normal. He often is caught re-enacting his death at points in the story. On his final appearance he sacrifices the memories his friends have of him in order to save Gansey's life.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: Colin Greenmantle is a collecter of mysterious artifacts and the employer of the Gray Man. He sent the Gray Man to kill Ronan Lynch's father and then sends the Gray Man to find the Greywaren. He comes to Henrietta under the guise of Aglionby's new Latin teacher so that he can find the Greywaren himself after the Gray Man betrays him. He leaves Henrietta and returns to Boston, leaving his wife Piper alone in Jesse Dittley's cave. He is later killed by Piper using the demon against him.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: The Gray Man is a hit-man hired by Greenmantle initially to steal something called the Greywaren. While in Henrietta, he takes a liking to the town and falls in love with Blue's mother Maura, who likes him back. He leaves Henrietta to protect Ronan, but returns when he discovers that Greenmantle came back. He enjoys Anglo-Saxon poetry and recites poems from memory occasionally throughout the story. He listens to the 60s band the Kinks religiously, and is regarded as a calm, practical, capable man.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: Glendower is the Welsh king that allegedly saved Gansey's life seven years before the story takes place. Throughout the story, the characters talk about and refer Glendower, even though they do not directly interact with him. If the teenagers find Glendower and wake him up, they believe he will grant them a favor. It is later revealed in The Raven King, that Gansey did not hear Glendower's voice when he died, but Noah's.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: At 300 Fox Way, a multitude of psychics come into play, including Orla, Neeve, Persephone, Calla, and Jimi. These women all use their abilities to help the group of teenagers find their way to Glendower, as well as using their abilities to make a living.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: Neeve is Maura's half-sister. She is a commercial psychic and TV show host. She is morally ambiguous and it is never quite clear whose side she's on.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: Persephone is Maura and Calla's best friend and lives at 300 Fox Way. She is good at seeing vague details and tends to be a bit disconnected from the physical world around her. In Blue Lily Lily Blue, she begins tutoring Adam and teaching him how to use his newfound powers. She often acts as the middle ground between Calla and Maura. She is overall an otherworldly person.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: Calla is Maura and Persephone's best friend. She is the bluntest and most standoffish of the psychics with a penchant for purple lipsticks. Calla has a specific psychic power- when touching an object, she can divine details about its owner and their memories. Calla is prickly and shows a general disdain for those around her, but is a good person


title: The Raven Cycle

text: Orla is Jimi's daughter and Maura Sargent's niece. She is beautiful and knows it and has a knowledge of almost all town gossip. She has an endless string of ex-lovers and is self-confident and social.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: Jimi is Orla's mother and Blue's aunt. Her psychic specialty is in spiritual harmony and cleansing bad energy. She is peaceful and easygoing, but a very minor character.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: One of Glendower's followers and Blue's biological father. Blue had never met him until she found and rescued him from the cave underneath Cabeswater. At 300 Fox Way, he shuts himself in a closet because he is terrified of Gwenllian.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: Gwenllian is the daughter of Glendower and is discovered face down in a stone coffin in Jesse Dittley's cave. She continuously speaks in riddles and sings randomly. She and Blue are alike in that they don't have normal psychic abilities but rather they mirror others' abilities.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: An Aglionby student of Korean and Chinese descent who is friends with Gansey and later befriends Blue, while Adam and Ronan don't seem fond of him. Throughout The Raven King, his bond with Gansey and Blue is strengthened and he's present in various important passages. By the end of the series Henry, Gansey and Blue are out for an (at least) year-long journey.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: Referred to as "Kavinsky" and "K", he has the same ability as Ronan to pull things out of his dreams. He uses this ability to steal from his dreams, whereas Ronan asks for things. Kavinsky likes to race Ronan and has a field full of replicas of the same car. He has an fixation on Ronan and Gansey's relationship, often making gay jokes about them. He uses his dreaming ability for his own selfish purposes and eventually dies because of a fire dragon he took from a dream.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: A minor character, Jesse Dittley's name is on the list of people that Neeve saw at the beginning of the story in the graveyard indicating his death within twelve months. Later, Blue and Gansey meet him and convince him to let them explore his cave, even though Dittley tells them that his family is cursed by it. In the cave, they find Gwenllian, and later Dittley reveals that strange creatures have been coming out of the cave, sometimes coming into the house. Piper Greenmantle kills him in order to enter the cave.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: The wife of Colin Greenmantle, she first appears in Blue Lily, Lily Blue as a woman who simply wants to be entertained. When Colin moves her to Henrietta, she takes up an interest in psychics and Tarot cards, and eventually she decides to go out and get what they came to Henrietta for. She hires two thugs herself and kills Jesse Dittley, entering his cave. After a cave-in, she wakes up and enters a room where a mysterious, non-human creature is in a tomb and she tells it to wake up. This is later revealed to be a demon. Piper later attempts to sell the demon, and is unsuccessful when she is shot by her father.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: On April 10, 2017, it was announced that a TV adaptation of the series is in production, with Catherine Hardwicke attached to direct and produce, and Andrew Miller as its showrunner and will be distributed by Warner Bros. Domestic Television. In November 2019, Stiefvater confirmed she had written a pilot. In spring of 2020 Stiefvater confirmed production had stopped.


title: The Raven Cycle

text: On October 17, 2022, Maggie Steifvater announced via twitter that the novels will be adapted to a series of graphic novels, the first volume to be released in spring 2025. It will be adapted into the format by Stephanie Williams and Sas Milledge.


title: Sport climbing

text: Sport climbing (or Bolted climbing) is a form of rock climbing that relies on permanent anchors (or bolts), permanently fixed into the rock for climber protection, in which a rope that is attached to the climber is clipped into the anchors to arrest a fall; it can also involve climbing short distances with a crash pad underneath as protection. This is in contrast to traditional climbing where climbers must place removable protection as they climb. Sport climbing usually involves lead climbing and toproping techniques, but free solo and deep-water solo (i.e. no protection) climbing on sport routes is also sometimes possible.


title: Sport climbing

text: Since sport climbing routes do not need to follow traditional climbing route lines where protection can be placed into natural features (e.g. cracks), they tend to follow more direct lines up crags. This aspect, in addition to the lack of any need to install protection during the climb (e.g. the sport climber just clips into pre-installed bolts along the climb), results in different styles of climbing between sport rock climbing and traditional rock climbing.


title: Sport climbing

text: Sport climbing made its Olympic debut at the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, Japan, and was previously tested at the 2018 Summer Youth Olympics.


title: Sport climbing

text: On a sport climbing route, pre-placed bolts follow a 'line' up a rock face. Sport climbs can vary in length from a few metres to a full rope length for multi-pitch climbs. The climbs might be equipped with just a few bolts or many.


title: Sport climbing

text: Sport climbing can be undertaken with relatively little equipment. Equipment used in sport climbing includes:


title: Sport climbing

text: To lead a sport climb means to ascend a route with a rope tied to the climber's harness, and with the loose end of the rope handled by a belayer. As each bolt is reached along the route, the climber attaches a quickdraw to the bolt, and then clips the rope through the hanging end of the quickdraw. This bolt is now protecting the climber in the event of a fall. At the top of sport routes, there is typically a two-bolt anchor that can be used to return the climber to the ground or previous rappel point.


title: Sport climbing

text: Because sport routes do not require placing protection, the climber can concentrate on the difficulty of the moves rather than placing protection or the consequences of a fall.


title: Sport climbing

text: Sport climbing differs from traditional climbing with respect to the type and placement of protection. Traditional climbing uses mostly removable protection (such as cams or nuts), and tends to minimize the usage of pre-placed protection. Sport climbing typically involves single pitch routes but can have multi-pitch routes. Long multi-pitch routes may lack pre-placed anchors due to economical, logistical or ethical reasons.


title: Sport climbing

text: Rock types that produce good sport climbs include limestone, granite and quartzite, though sport climbs can be found on almost all rock types.


title: Sport climbing

text: Sport climbs are assigned subjective ratings to indicate difficulty. The type of rating depends on the geographic location of the route, since different countries and climbing communities use different rating systems.


title: Sport climbing

text: The UIAA grading system is mostly used for short rock routes in Western Germany, Austria and Switzerland and most countries in Eastern Europe. On long routes it is often used in the Alps and Himalaya. Using Roman numerals, it was originally intended to run from I (easiest) to X (hardest), but as with all other grading systems, improvements to climbing standards have led to the system being open-ended. An optional + or – may be used to further differentiate difficulty. As of 2018, the hardest climbs are XII.


title: Sport climbing

text: The Ewbank rating system, used in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, is a numerical open-ended system, starting from 1, which you can (at least in theory) walk up, up to 38 (as of 2013).


title: Sport climbing

text: The French rating system considers the overall difficulty of the climb, taking into account the difficulty of the moves and the length of climb. This differs from most grading systems where one rates a climbing route according to the most difficult section (or single move). Grades are numerical, starting at an easy 1, with the system being open-ended. Each numerical grade can be subdivided by adding a letter (a, b or c). Examples: 2, 4, 4b, 6a, 7c. An optional + (but not –) may be used to further differentiate difficulty. Many countries in Europe use a system with similar grades but not necessarily matching difficulties. Sport climbing in Britain and Ireland uses the French grading system, often prefixed with the letter "F".


title: Sport climbing

text: In the United States, the Yosemite Decimal System is used to rate sport climbs. Current grades for sport routes vary between an easy 5.0 to an extremely difficult 5.15d, although the system is open-ended. Past 5.10, letter grades between "a" and "d" are sometimes used for further subdivision (e.g. 5.11a or 5.10d). Pluses and minuses may also be used (e.g. 5.9+ or 5.11–). Originally, the YDS rating was designed to rate the difficulty of the hardest move on a given route. However, modern sport grades often take into account other features such as length and number of difficult moves along the route.


title: Sport climbing

text: The ethics climbers adopt toward their sport are not always steadfast, and they often depend on the venue. The following examples are merely outlines that do not always hold true.


title: Sport climbing

text: In some areas, including some in the United States, if a route cannot be safely climbed with the use of traditional gear, it is generally acceptable to the climbing community to bolt it. In much of the United Kingdom, similar bolting is widely considered unacceptable. Regulations regarding bolting can vary from state to state and between landowners or land managers.


title: Sport climbing

text: Additionally, the method of bolting may often be challenged. Many early sport routes were bolted on lead by the first ascender: a "traditional" approach. One could say that it became "sport" climbing when routes started to get bolted from the top (hanging on a rope).


title: Sport climbing

text: Sometimes, a newly bolted route is considered "red tagged," and ethics dictate that the person who bolted the route should be the only climber to attempt it until they have made a free ascent (a continuous roped ascent, made using only hands and feet, unaided – yet protected – by the bolts, quickdraws or rope). This is because equipping a new route is an expensive and time-consuming endeavor for the person who finds it. Other times, the bolter will allow the route they developed to become an "open project" that anyone can try. Ascents of reserved routes have led to a number of controversies in the sport climbing world.


title: Sport climbing

text: Changing the natural features of rock is often frowned upon, but in many parts of the world it is accepted to some extent. In some areas, "chipping" of the rock with a chisel or similar tool to create a hold that did not exist naturally is considered acceptable. This is particularly true in some quarries as well as some European crags. However, at many other areas, local ethics absolutely forbid this.


title: Sport climbing

text: Comfortizing holds often involves aggressively cleaning a route to the point where sharp holds have been filed down, often making them somewhat easier to use. While many climbers frown on this, in some areas comfortizing is considered acceptable to a point.


title: Sport climbing

text: Reinforcing rock with glue is the most widely accepted modification to natural features in the sport climbing world. When a popular route is climbed over and over, holds may become looser and closer to breaking. Sometimes, these holds will be reinforced to prevent them from breaking. Other times, if a hold entirely breaks off, it may be glued back on. In most areas, these practices are considered acceptable if done neatly.


title: Sport climbing

text: Sometimes, an ascent or the style in which it is done will come into dispute. For example, a leader who experiences tension on their rope from their belayer while climbing without falling may have not made a valid ascent, through no fault of their own. Additionally, the line between an onsight and a flash is often disputed. Some climbers consider any knowledge of a route, including its grade, to be data that invalidates an onsight. However, other climbers will go so far as to belay another climber on a route and still claim that they did not have enough prior knowledge to move from the onsight realm to the flash realm.


title: Sport climbing

text: If a climber fails to onsight or flash a route, they may decide to "work" it by attempting to climb it despite falling and hanging on the rope. If, after practising the moves either on lead or on toprope, they manage to lead the route cleanly (i.e. without any rests or falls) then it is called a redpoint. It is known as a 'ground up' ascent if they work the route from the bottom, progressing higher on successive attempts without cheating or resting. However, at popular destinations, multiple parties of climbers will often line up to try a route. A climber working a route may spend an inordinate amount of time on it, preventing other parties from climbing it. This is often frowned upon, particularly if the climber is toproping rather than leading.


title: Sport climbing

text: Not sending a route means that a climber was unable to climb a route without hanging on the rope or falling: a clean lead or send refers to someone climbing a route entirely under his/her own power without assist from the rope. Although not considered a proper, clean ascent if a climber does not do this in professional terms, a lower-level climber will have 'done' the route if he completed all the moves, even if it was 'unclean', i.e. rests or falls were taken (in this instance, it would be said that the route was 'dogged').


title: Sport climbing

text: The United States has a strong history of traditional climbing, especially at certain crags, and considerable value is placed on keeping routes the same as they were when pioneered by the first ascender. In the U.S. it is considered unacceptable to add bolts to an established traditional route to turn it into a sport climb.


title: Sport climbing

text: In the UK, a number of established routes have been bolted by sport climbers; this has generally been done in recent years by consensus with the first climber, though in earlier years this was not always the case. In Spain also, traditional climbs have been overbolted against the wishes of traditional climbers.


title: Sport climbing

text: In 2007, the British Mountaineering Council introduced 10,000 bolts into the UK climbing scene mostly to replace existing unsafe fixed protection.


title: Sport climbing

text: Bird watchers and other non-climbing rural visitors sometimes object to being distracted by brightly colored slings left at rappel anchors, which has led to climbers using webbing of the same color as the rock.


title: Sport climbing

text: Competition climbing is a form of sport climbing that takes place on artificial structures rather than natural rock surfaces. It has three different disciplines: lead climbing, speed climbing and bouldering. The latter is considered to be the most demanding of the three disciplines in terms of strength, co-ordination and agility.


title: Sport climbing

text: Sport climbing made its debut as an Asian Games sport in the 18th edition in Jakarta-Palembang, 2018.


title: Sport climbing

text: In September 2015, sport climbing was included in a shortlist along with baseball, softball, skateboarding, surfing, and karate to be considered for inclusion in the 2020 Summer Olympics; and in June 2016, the Executive Board of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) announced that they would support the proposal to include all of the shortlisted sports in the 2020 Games. Finally, on August 3, 2016, all five sports (counting baseball and softball together as one sport) were approved for inclusion in the 2020 Olympic program.


title: Sport climbing

text: The proposed format for Olympic sport climbing will require participants to compete in all three disciplines – lead climbing, speed climbing and bouldering – an approach that has been widely criticized by potential competitors and followers of the sport. However, the format has been adopted by the International Federation of Sports Climbing, who has already celebrated worldwide competitions with the Olympic format in 2018.


title: Robbi Chong

text: Chong was born on May 28, 1965, in Vancouver, British Columbia, the second daughter of Maxine Sneed and Tommy Chong, an actor, comedian, director and writer. Both parents are biracial: her mother is of Black Canadian and Cherokee descent and her father is half Scotch-Irish, French and half Chinese. Her sister Rae Dawn Chong is also an actress. They have three younger half-brothers (including one who is adopted) and a half-sister from their father's second marriage.


title: Robbi Chong

text: Robbi Chong studied acting in Los Angeles, California for two years and began appearing frequently on stage and television, working full-time. She was an international cover girl who joined the Click Modeling Agency at age 19 and modeled in Paris from 1983 to 1988.


title: Louis Zorich

text: Louis Zorich (February 12, 1924 – January 30, 2018) was an American actor. He played sporting good salesman Burt Buchman, Paul Buchman's father, on the NBC series "Mad About You" from 1993 to 1999.


title: Louis Zorich

text: Zorich was born in Chicago, Illinois, the son of Serb immigrants from Croatia, Anna (née Gledic) and Christ Zoric. He attended Earle Elementary School before going on to attend Roosevelt University and Goodman School of Drama at the Art Institute of Chicago (now at DePaul University) in his hometown of Chicago. Louis' nephew, Chris Zorich, played professional football.


title: Louis Zorich

text: Zorich made his Broadway debut in 1961 in Becket starring Sir Laurence Olivier and Anthony Quinn. In 1969 he played a "venal Italian cardinal" in "Hadrian VII" where he was nominated for a Tony Award.


title: Louis Zorich

text: In 1973 Zorich and his wife founded the Whole Theatre Company in Montclair, New Jersey — that state's first resident professional theater. They operated the theater for 18 years.


title: Louis Zorich

text: In the 1976 revival of "They Knew What They Wanted", Zorich played middle-aged Napa Valley grape farmer Tony and was nominated for a Drama Desk Award. Critic Douglas Watt wrote, "Zorich underlines the heartiness, canniness and energy of Tony -- even after he has suffered that crushing wedding-day accident --- in countless shrewd and effective details." He played Mr. Maraczek in the 1993 Broadway musical revival "She Loves Me". Critic Frank Scheck wrote, "...Louis Zorich is moving as the store owner trying to cope with the news of his wife's infidelity." Zorich said in 1993, "Actors are by nature introverted, sensitive people, who can lead behind their characters. Every time I walk on that stage I still get nervous."


title: Louis Zorich

text: Zorich was on the faculty of HB Studio in New York City. He also edited the anthology "What Have You Done: The Inside Stories of Auditioning from the Ridiculous to the Sublime."


title: Louis Zorich

text: Zorich played the Russian Constable in the movie version of "Fiddler on the Roof" (1971) and a cab dispatcher in the comedy "For Pete's Sake" (1974).


title: Louis Zorich

text: In "The Muppets Take Manhattan" (1984), Zorich played a Greek restaurant owner. Critic Vincent Canby wrote, "Louis Zorich is funny as a nice, helpful, harassed coffee-shop owner who feeds the Muppets in their lean days..." In a TV adaptation of "Death of a Salesman" (1985), he played Ben, the older brother of Willy Loman. Zorich appeared as a millionaire in "Dirty Rotten Scoundrels" (1988) with Steve Martin, and played


title: Louis Zorich

text: a shady murder victim in the TV crime drama series "Columbo". He co-starred in the critically acclaimed comedy TV series "Brooklyn Bridge" as family patriarch Jules Berger. In a 1993 interview, Zorich was asked which assignment best matched his personality. He said, "I think it would be Jules Bergen, the grandfather I played in "Brooklyn Bridge." By nature, I'm rather easygoing and tend to let thing slide." Zorich mentioned that the series "afforded me the type of visibility that you can't always get in the theater..."


title: Louis Zorich

text: Zorich was married to Academy Award winning actress Olympia Dukakis for 56 years, from 1962 until his death. They had three children together. He died at his Manhattan apartment at the age of 93 on January 30, 2018.


title: Gumrah (1993 film)

text: Gumrah (, ) is a 1993 Indian Hindi-language action crime drama film directed by Mahesh Bhatt and written jointly by Sujit Sen and Robin Bhatt. It stars Sridevi, Sanjay Dutt, Anupam Kher, and Rahul Roy. In the film, Roshni (Sridevi), an aspiring singer, is assisted by Rahul Malhotra (Roy) in flourishing her career and they fall in love. However, on a trip to Hong Kong, she is abandoned by him and later arrested by the police for supposed involvement in trafficking cocaine.


title: Gumrah (1993 film)

text: Gumrah was loosely based on the Australian miniseries "Bangkok Hilton", and was produced by Yash Johar under the Dharma Productions banner. Pravin Bhatt acted as the film's cinematographer, while Sanjay Sankla handled the editing. The duo Laxmikant–Pyarelal composed the film's music, with lyrics penned by Anand Bakshi.


title: Gumrah (1993 film)

text: Upon release, the film was critically well received, with major appreciation drawn towards Sridevi's performance, which is considered one of her career best and subsequently earned her a nomination for Best Actress at the 39th Filmfare Awards. The film was also a commercial success grossing worldwide against its budget. becoming the seventh highest-grossing film of 1993.


title: Gumrah (1993 film)

text: Roshni (Sridevi) is the only child of Sharda Chadda (Reema Lagoo). Her father, Prakash Chadda (Anupam Kher), left before she was born, and she has no knowledge of where he went. After her mother learns she has a fatal illness, she asks her family friend to take Roshni to Mumbai, so that she learns to live without her and be independent. Roshni is introduced to Rahul Malhotra (Rahul Roy), and they share a mutual attraction. When he learns that she is an aspiring singer, he assists in her career, so she becomes popular. She has a devoted fan named Jagannath, alias Jaggu (Sanjay Dutt), who is a petty thief. He is in love with her, but she rejects him. Roshni's mother reveals on her deathbed that Roshni's father is alive and had been forced to abandon his family over a government level criminal accusations exacerbated by Roshni's grandmother's reluctance to allow him back home. She tells Roshni that that she is free to go find her father. During a trip, she and Rahul take to Hong Kong to look for her father, Roshni is arrested for trafficking cocaine, and Rahul disappears. Jaggu brings an attorney, but she is quickly found guilty and sentenced to death, remanded to a prison where inmates are kept barefoot and in squalid conditions. Jaggu visits the prison and runs afoul of two guards, themselves lovers, who beat him in front of Roshni. The attorney works to help them escape. A fight ensues between Roshni and the female guard, in which the latter is killed. The warden intervenes and is killed by Jaggu, they escape and return to India. At the airport, Prakash is questioned by the police, and Roshni learns that he is her father, and that he had fled the country years earlier when he has been wrongfully accused of treason. Later at Rahul's house, Rahul admits that he had been dealing with drugs that resulted in Roshni's arrest. She slaps him for deceiving her and gets him arrested. With Prakash's blessings, Roshni and Jaggu get married.


title: Gumrah (1993 film)

text: During an episode of the reality show India's Next Superstars, Mahesh Bhatt shared that Sridevi shot for a sequence of the film in water despite having a high fever of 102 degrees. It was also reported that Reema Lagoo's role in the film was cut short only because Sridevi demanded for it; she felt that Lagoo's performance dominated over that of hers. Owing to this, Yash Johar promised to cast Lagoo in the role of the mother in all his subsequent films, which include "Kuch Kuch Hota Hai" and "Kal Ho Na Ho".


title: Gumrah (1993 film)

text: The soundtrack for the film was the second successive hit (after "Khalnayak") for the music director duo Laxmikant–Pyarelal.


title: Chronic pancreatitis

text: Chronic pancreatitis is a long-standing inflammation of the pancreas that alters the organ's normal structure and functions. It can present as episodes of acute inflammation in a previously injured pancreas, or as chronic damage with persistent pain or malabsorption. It is a disease process characterized by irreversible damage to the pancreas as distinct from reversible changes in acute pancreatitis.


title: Chronic pancreatitis

text: The relationship between etiologic factors, genetic predisposition, and the pace of disease progression requires further clarification, though recent research indicates smoking may be a high-risk factor to develop chronic pancreatitis. In a small group of patients chronic pancreatitis has been shown to be hereditary. Almost all patients with cystic fibrosis have established chronic pancreatitis, usually from birth. Cystic fibrosis gene mutations have also been identified in patients with chronic pancreatitis but in whom there were no other manifestations of cystic fibrosis. Obstruction of the pancreatic duct because of either a benign or malignant process may result in chronic pancreatitis.


title: Chronic pancreatitis

text: The mechanism of chronic pancreatitis viewed from a genetic standpoint indicates early onset of severe epigastric pain beginning in childhood. It is an autosomal dominant disease, chronic pancreatitis disease is identified in the cationic trypsinogen gene PRSS1, and mutation, R122H. R122H is the most common mutation for hereditary chronic pancreatitis with replacement of arginine with histidine at amino acid position 122 of the trypsinogen protein. There are, of course, other mechanisms – alcohol, malnutrition, smoking – each exhibiting its own effect on the pancreas.


title: Chronic pancreatitis

text: The diagnosis of chronic pancreatitis is based on tests on pancreatic structure and function. Serum amylase and lipase may be moderately elevated in cases of chronic pancreatitis. A secretin stimulation test is considered the best test for diagnosis of chronic pancreatitis. Other tests used to determine chronic pancreatitis are serum trypsinogen, computed tomography, ultrasound and biopsy.


title: Chronic pancreatitis

text: When chronic pancreatitis is caused by genetic factors, elevations in ESR, IgG4, rheumatoid factor, ANA and anti-smooth muscle antibody may be detected.


title: Chronic pancreatitis

text: On CT scan, pancreatic and bile duct dilatation, atrophy of pancreas, multiple calcifications of the pancreas, and enlargement of pancreatic glands can be found.


title: Chronic pancreatitis

text: On MRI scan, there is a low T1 signal due to inflammation, fibrosis, focal lesions, and calcifications. In those who are given a contrast agent, there would be a higher T1 signal with late gadolinium enhancement due to compression from the fibrotic areas. The overall thickness of the pancreas will be reduced. Magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) is the most useful option in accessing the pancreatic duct and bile duct.


title: Chronic pancreatitis

text: The different treatment options for management of chronic pancreatitis are medical measures, therapeutic endoscopy and surgery. Treatment is directed, when possible, to the underlying cause, and to relieve pain and malabsorption. Insulin dependent diabetes mellitus may occur and need long-term insulin therapy. The abdominal pain can be very severe and require high doses of analgesics, sometimes including opiates. Alcohol cessation and dietary modifications (low-fat diet) are important to manage pain and slow the calcific process. Antioxidants may help but it is unclear if the benefits are meaningful.


title: Chronic pancreatitis

text: Pancreatic enzyme replacement is often effective in treating the malabsorption and steatorrhea associated with chronic pancreatitis. Treatment of CP consists of administration of a solution of pancreatic enzymes with meals. Some patients do have pain reduction with enzyme replacement and since they are relatively safe, giving enzyme replacement to a chronic pancreatitis patient is an acceptable step in treatment for most patients. Treatment may be more likely to be successful in those without involvement of large ducts and those with idiopathic pancreatitis.


title: Chronic pancreatitis

text: Surgery to treat chronic pancreatitis tends to be divided into two areas – resectional and drainage procedures. Among the reasons to opt for surgery is if there is a pseudocyst, fistula, ascites, or a fixed obstruction. The Puestow procedure may be used for treatment of chronic pancreatitis.


title: Chronic pancreatitis

text: The annual incidence of chronic pancreatitis is 5 to 12 per 100,000 persons, the prevalence is 50 per 100,000 persons.


title: Chronic pancreatitis

text: In 2021, Venturi reported that pancreas is able to absorb in great quantity radioactive cesium (Cs-134 and Cs-137) causing chronic pancreatitis and probably pancreatic cancer with damage of pancreatic islands with Type 3c (pancreatogenic) diabetes.


title: Patrick Anson, 5th Earl of Lichfield

text: Thomas Patrick John Anson, 5th Earl of Lichfield (25 April 1939 – 11 November 2005) was an English photographer from the Anson family. He inherited the Earldom of Lichfield in 1960 from his paternal grandfather. In his professional practice he was known as Patrick Lichfield.


title: Patrick Anson, 5th Earl of Lichfield

text: Thomas Patrick John Anson was born on 25 April 1939. He was the only son of Lieutenant-Colonel Thomas William Arnold Anson, Viscount Anson (1913–1958), the eldest son and heir apparent of Thomas Edward Anson, 4th Earl of Lichfield (1883–1960). His mother was born Anne Bowes-Lyon (1917–1980), a niece of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother. His parents divorced in 1948, and his mother subsequently became Princess Anne of Denmark after her remarriage to Prince George Valdemar of Denmark in 1950. He had one sister, Elizabeth Georgiana (1941–2020), who married Sir Geoffrey Adam Shakerley, 6th Baronet Shakerley.


title: Patrick Anson, 5th Earl of Lichfield

text: Lichfield was educated at two boarding independent schools: Wellesley House School in the coastal town of Broadstairs in Kent, and Harrow School in Harrow on the Hill in north-west London, followed by the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst.


title: Patrick Anson, 5th Earl of Lichfield

text: His father died in 1958, leaving Patrick to succeed as 5th Earl of Lichfield when his grandfather died in 1960.


title: Patrick Anson, 5th Earl of Lichfield

text: Lichfield joined the Grenadier Guards in 1959. On leaving the Army in 1962, he began to work as a photographer's assistant, and built up his own reputation, partly as a result of having access to the Royal Family. He was selected to take the official photographs of the wedding of the Prince and Princess of Wales in 1981, and subsequently became one of the UK's best-known photographers. From 1999 onwards he was a pioneer of digital photography as a professional standard. He was chosen by Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh to take official pictures of her Golden Jubilee in 2002.


title: Patrick Anson, 5th Earl of Lichfield

text: In 2003, he made a cameo appearance in the BBC medical drama series "Casualty" for a story about raising money for Children in Need. He also cameoed in the British sitcom "Keeping Up Appearances", appearing in the episode "Sea Fever" as a passenger on the "Queen Elizabeth 2".


title: Patrick Anson, 5th Earl of Lichfield

text: Lichfield resided in an apartment at the former family seat of Shugborough Hall, near Cannock Chase in Staffordshire. In 1960 he had given the estate to the National Trust in lieu of death duties arising on his grandfather's death.


title: Patrick Anson, 5th Earl of Lichfield

text: On 8 March 1975 Lichfield married Lady Leonora Grosvenor, elder daughter of Robert Grosvenor, 5th Duke of Westminster, and Viola Grosvenor, Duchess of Westminster. They were divorced in 1986. The Countess of Lichfield has not remarried and has retained her title. She and the Earl had one son and two daughters together:


title: Patrick Anson, 5th Earl of Lichfield

text: Lichfield's most recent partner was the biographer Lady Annunziata Asquith, daughter of Julian Asquith, 2nd Earl of Oxford and Asquith.


title: Patrick Anson, 5th Earl of Lichfield

text: On 10 November 2005, Lichfield suffered a major stroke and died the following day at the John Radcliffe Hospital in Oxford. He was 66 years old.


title: Patrick Anson, 5th Earl of Lichfield

text: Lichfield's funeral was held on 21 November at St Michael and All Angels Church, Colwich, Staffordshire, where he was buried in the family vault.


title: Patrick Anson, 5th Earl of Lichfield

text: Since 2011, the private apartments at Shugborough have housed an exhibition of Lichfield's work. His cameras and lighting gear have been set up in a re-creation of his studio, and there is a gallery of some of his most famous photographic subjects.


title: Young–Laplace equation

text: In physics, the Young–Laplace equation () is an algebraic equation that describes the capillary pressure difference sustained across the interface between two static fluids, such as water and air, due to the phenomenon of surface tension or wall tension, although use of the latter is only applicable if assuming that the wall is very thin. The Young–Laplace equation relates the pressure difference to the shape of the surface or wall and it is fundamentally important in the study of static capillary surfaces. It's a statement of normal stress balance for static fluids meeting at an interface, where the interface is treated as a surface (zero thickness):


title: Young–Laplace equation

text: where formula_2 is the Laplace pressure, the pressure difference across the fluid interface (the exterior pressure minus the interior pressure), formula_3 is the surface tension (or wall tension), formula_4 is the unit normal pointing out of the surface, formula_5 is the mean curvature, and formula_6 and formula_7 are the principal radii of curvature. Note that only normal stress is considered, this is because it has been shown that a static interface is possible only in the absence of tangential stress.


title: Young–Laplace equation

text: The equation is named after Thomas Young, who developed the qualitative theory of surface tension in 1805, and Pierre-Simon Laplace who completed the mathematical description in the following year. It is sometimes also called the Young–Laplace–Gauss equation, as Carl Friedrich Gauss unified the work of Young and Laplace in 1830, deriving both the differential equation and boundary conditions using Johann Bernoulli's virtual work principles.


title: Young–Laplace equation

text: If the pressure difference is zero, as in a soap film without gravity, the interface will assume the shape of a minimal surface.


title: Young–Laplace equation

text: The equation also explains the energy required to create an emulsion. To form the small, highly curved droplets of an emulsion, extra energy is required to overcome the large pressure that results from their small radius.


title: Young–Laplace equation

text: The Laplace pressure, which is greater for smaller droplets, causes the diffusion of molecules out of the smallest droplets in an emulsion and drives emulsion coarsening via Ostwald ripening.


title: Young–Laplace equation

text: In a sufficiently narrow (i.e., low Bond number) tube of circular cross-section (radius "a"), the interface between two fluids forms a meniscus that is a portion of the surface of a sphere with radius "R". The pressure jump across this surface is related to the radius and the surface tension γ by


title: Young–Laplace equation

text: This may be shown by writing the Young–Laplace equation in spherical form with a contact angle boundary condition and also a prescribed height boundary condition at, say, the bottom of the meniscus. The solution is a portion of a sphere, and the solution will exist "only" for the pressure difference shown above. This is significant because there isn't another equation or law to specify the pressure difference; existence of solution for one specific value of the pressure difference prescribes it.


title: Young–Laplace equation

text: The radius of the sphere will be a function only of the contact angle, θ, which in turn depends on the exact properties of the fluids and the container material with which the fluids in question are contacting/interfacing:


title: Young–Laplace equation

text: In order to maintain hydrostatic equilibrium, the induced capillary pressure is balanced by a change in height, "h", which can be positive or negative, depending on whether the wetting angle is less than or greater than 90°. For a fluid of density ρ:


title: Young–Laplace equation

text: where "g" is the gravitational acceleration. This is sometimes known as the Jurin's law or Jurin height after James Jurin who studied the effect in 1718.


title: Young–Laplace equation

text: Thus for a 2 mm wide (1 mm radius) tube, the water would rise 14 mm. However, for a capillary tube with radius 0.1 mm, the water would rise 14 cm (about 6 inches).


title: Young–Laplace equation

text: In the general case, for a free surface and where there is an applied "over-pressure", Δ"p", at the interface in equilibrium, there is a balance between the applied pressure, the hydrostatic pressure and the effects of surface tension. The Young–Laplace equation becomes:


title: Young–Laplace equation

text: The equation can be non-dimensionalised in terms of its characteristic length-scale, the capillary length:


title: Young–Laplace equation

text: Thus, the surface shape is determined by only one parameter, the over pressure of the fluid, Δ"p" and the scale of the surface is given by the capillary length. The solution of the equation requires an initial condition for position, and the gradient of the surface at the start point.


title: Young–Laplace equation

text: The (nondimensional) shape, "r"("z") of an axisymmetric surface can be found by substituting general expressions for principal curvatures to give the hydrostatic Young–Laplace equations:


title: Young–Laplace equation

text: In medicine it is often referred to as the Law of Laplace, used in the context of cardiovascular physiology, and also respiratory physiology, though the latter use is often erroneous.


title: Young–Laplace equation

text: Francis Hauksbee performed some of the earliest observations and experiments in 1709 and these were repeated in 1718 by James Jurin who observed that the height of fluid in a capillary column was a function only of the cross-sectional area at the surface, not of any other dimensions of the column.


title: Young–Laplace equation

text: Thomas Young laid the foundations of the equation in his 1804 paper "An Essay on the Cohesion of Fluids" where he set out in descriptive terms the principles governing contact between fluids (along with many other aspects of fluid behaviour). Pierre Simon Laplace followed this up in "Mécanique Céleste" with the formal mathematical description given above, which reproduced in symbolic terms the relationship described earlier by Young.


title: Young–Laplace equation

text: Laplace accepted the idea propounded by Hauksbee in his book "Physico-mechanical Experiments" (1709), that the phenomenon was due to a force of attraction that was insensible at sensible distances. The part which deals with the action of a solid on a liquid and the mutual action of two liquids was not worked out thoroughly, but ultimately was completed by Carl Friedrich Gauss. Franz Ernst Neumann (1798-1895) later filled in a few details.


title: The Simpsons: Road Rage

text: The Simpsons: Road Rage is a 2001 video game based on the animated television series "The Simpsons", and is part of a series of games based on the show. It was released for PlayStation 2, Xbox and GameCube. A Game Boy Advance version was released in 2003. "The Simpsons: Road Rage" was later added to the Backwards Compatibility program of the Xbox 360 for original Xbox games.


title: The Simpsons: Road Rage

text: The game stars Homer, Marge, Bart, and Lisa, as well as Mr. Burns and several other characters from the show. "The Simpsons: Road Rage" is similar to Sega's 1999 video game "Crazy Taxi", in that the main objective is to drive picked up passengers to their destinations as quickly as possible. These similarities led to Sega suing Radical Entertainment and Electronic Arts for patent infringement, though it was settled before going to court. The game received mixed reviews, being considered a bare-bones "Crazy Taxi" clone and criticised for its poor graphics. A spiritual successor, "", was released in 2003 and developed by Radical Entertainment.


title: The Simpsons: Road Rage

text: "The Simpsons: Road Rage" is based on the animated television series "The Simpsons". In the story of the game, Mr. Burns has bought all transit systems in Springfield and has begun to create radioactive buses that threaten the public health. Because of this, the citizens of Springfield must use their own cars as a means of safer public transport and earn money in an attempt to pay back Burns to get rid of the radioactive buses and return the town back to normal.


title: The Simpsons: Road Rage

text: The citizens of the city (controlled by the game player) earn money by driving around a vehicle for a given amount of time, picking up passengers and taking them to their destinations. The player receives money upon successfully dropping off each passenger, and bonuses are obtained when they are transported in a short amount of time. Players have to avoid certain hurdles, such as other vehicles and Burns' nuclear transit buses. The game contains sixteen different collectible vehicles, six starting locations, and ten different missions. In order to collect the vehicles and unlock starting locations, players must earn progressively more money for each vehicle or starting location they want to get. In order to complete missions, players must do certain things (such as protecting Krusty the Clown from a fan mob by driving him away, and getting Homer to his workplace unnoticed).


title: The Simpsons: Road Rage

text: At first, the only playable characters (taxi drivers) are Homer, Marge, Bart, Lisa, and Grampa, but as the game progresses more characters are unlocked. There is also a multiplayer mode in which the two players compete to pick up the same passengers and drive them to their destinations.


title: The Simpsons: Road Rage

text: "The Simpsons: Road Rage" was developed by Radical Entertainment and published by Electronic Arts. The PlayStation 2 version was released first, on November 19, 2001 in North America, and the Xbox and GameCube versions followed in December of that year. The cast members of "The Simpsons" provided their voices for the game. Voice samples original to the game, as well as one-liners from the show, can be heard in "Road Rage".


title: The Simpsons: Road Rage

text: A version for the Game Boy Advance (GBA), developed by Altron and published by THQ, was released in North America on July 3, 2003. THQ reached a publishing agreement with Fox Interactive in 2002 that gave them the rights to publish this version and a "" game. Germaine Gioia, vice president of licensing at THQ, said ""The Simpsons" and "Buffy" properties have enjoyed tremendous consumer appeal in nearly every product category, including video game successes. Both properties will serve to further bolster our leadership position on the Game Boy Advance."


title: The Simpsons: Road Rage

text: During 2003, Sega, creator and owner of the "Crazy Taxi" franchise, set up a lawsuit against Fox Interactive, Electronic Arts, and Radical Entertainment, claiming that "Road Rage" was a patent infringement of the former as both games feature nearly identical gameplay and objectives with the Crazy Taxi game engine. According to "IGN", ""Road Rage" features similar game play, to the point where some reviews commented negatively on the parallels." The case, "Sega of America, Inc. v. Fox Interactive, et al.", was settled in private mediation for an undisclosed amount.


title: The Simpsons: Road Rage

text: The game received "mixed or average reviews" on all platforms according to the review aggregation website Metacritic.


title: The Simpsons: Road Rage

text: Amer Ajami of "GameSpot" said that the PlayStation 2 version "suffers from a number of problems, not the least of which is bad collision detection. You'll often find yourself clipping a corner of a building or slamming into another car even though you have room to spare." Ajami was also disappointed with the extremely slippery and overly sensitive control. Ajami added, however, that fans of the show should enjoy the game.


title: The Simpsons: Road Rage

text: "IGN"s David Zdyrko said of the same console version that "the gameplay just isn't deep or compelling enough to warrant picking this title up unless you absolutely MUST have every single product with "The Simpsons" plastered on it." Zdyrko also criticized the graphics, stating that the "framerate chugs in some of the levels when there are a lot of cars on screen and the textures are generally low resolution and completely bland." Zdyrko also said the "hilarious voice samples" were the "lone bright spot" of the game, although he admitted that some of them can get a bit repetitive.


title: The Simpsons: Road Rage

text: "NextGen" said of the Xbox version, "It's strange. "Crazy Taxi" is great, and "The Simpsons" is great, so the two together should be gaming magic, right? Yet the result is less than the sum of its parts. In the end, "Road Rage" is significant only as the most shameless incident of design burglary in recent memory."


title: The Simpsons: Road Rage

text: By July 2006, the PlayStation 2 version had sold 1.6 million copies and earned $41 million in the U.S. "NextGen" ranked it as the 25th highest-selling game launched for the PlayStation 2, Xbox, or GameCube between January 2000 and July 2006 in that country. Combined sales of "Simpsons" console games released in the 2000s reached 5.2 million units in the United States by July 2006. The same console version also received a "Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 300,000 copies in the U.K. The game has a total of at least 3 million copies sold.


title: Arawakan languages

text: Arawakan ("Arahuacan, Maipuran Arawakan, "mainstream" Arawakan, Arawakan proper"), also known as Maipurean (also "Maipuran, Maipureano, Maipúre"), is a language family that developed among ancient indigenous peoples in South America. Branches migrated to Central America and the Greater Antilles in the Caribbean and the Atlantic, including what is now the Bahamas. Almost all present-day South American countries are known to have been home to speakers of Arawakan languages, the exceptions being Ecuador, Uruguay, and Chile. Maipurean may be related to other language families in a hypothetical Macro-Arawakan stock.


title: Arawakan languages

text: The name "Maipure" was given to the family by Filippo S. Gilij in 1782, after the Maipure language of Venezuela, which he used as a basis of his comparisons. It was renamed after the culturally more important Arawak language a century later. The term "Arawak" took over, until its use was extended by North American scholars to the broader Macro-Arawakan proposal. At that time, the name "Maipurean" was resurrected for the core family. See Arawakan "vs" Maipurean for details.


title: Arawakan languages

text: The "Arawakan linguistic matrix hypothesis" (ALMH) suggests that the modern diversity of the Arawakan language family stems from the diversification of a trade language or lingua franca that was spoken throughout much of tropical lowland South America. Proponents of this hypothesis include Santos-Granero (2002) and Eriksen (2014). Eriksen (2014) proposes that the Arawakan family had only broken up after 600 CE, but Michael (2020) considers this to be unlikely, noting that Arawakan internal diversity is greater than that of the Romance languages. On the other hand, Blench (2015) suggests a demographic expansion that had taken place over a few thousand years, similar to the dispersals of the Austronesian and Austroasiatic language families in Southeast Asia.


title: Arawakan languages

text: As one of the most geographically widespread language families in all of the Americas, Arawakan linguistic influence can be found in many language families of South America. Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Arawa, Bora-Muinane, Guahibo, Harakmbet-Katukina, Harakmbet, Katukina-Katawixi, Irantxe, Jaqi, Karib, Kawapana, Kayuvava, Kechua, Kwaza, Leko, Macro-Jê, Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru, Mapudungun, Mochika, Mura-Matanawi, Nambikwara, Omurano, Pano-Takana, Pano, Takana, Puinave-Nadahup, Taruma, Tupi, Urarina, Witoto-Okaina, Yaruro, Zaparo, Saliba-Hodi, and Tikuna-Yuri language families due to contact. However, these similarities could be due to inheritance, contact, or chance.


title: Arawakan languages

text: Classification of Maipurean is difficult because of the large number of Arawakan languages that are extinct and poorly documented. However, apart from transparent relationships that might constitute single languages, several groups of Maipurean languages are generally accepted by scholars. Many classifications agree in dividing Maipurean into northern and southern branches, but perhaps not all languages fit into one or the other. The three classifications below are accepted by all:


title: Arawakan languages

text: An early contrast between "Ta-Arawak" and "Nu-Arawak", depending on the prefix for "I", is spurious; "nu-" is the ancestral form for the entire family, and "ta-" is an innovation of one branch of the family.


title: Arawakan languages

text: The following (tentative) classification is from Kaufman (1994: 57-60). Details of established branches are given in the linked articles. In addition to the family tree detailed below, there are a few languages that are "Non-Maipurean Arawakan languages or too scantily known to classify" (Kaufman 1994: 58), which include these:


title: Arawakan languages

text: Including the unclassified languages mentioned above, the Maipurean family has about 64 languages. Out of them, 29 languages are now extinct: Wainumá, Mariaté, Anauyá, Amarizana, Jumana, Pasé, Cawishana, Garú, Marawá, Guinao, Yavitero, Maipure, Manao, Kariaí, Waraikú, Yabaána, Wiriná, Aruán, Taíno, Kalhíphona, Marawán-Karipurá, Saraveca, Custenau, Inapari, Kanamaré, Shebaye, Lapachu, and Morique.


title: Arawakan languages

text: Apart from minor decisions on whether a variety is a language or a dialect, changing names, and not addressing several poorly attested languages, Aikhenvald departs from Kaufman in breaking up the "Southern Outlier" and "Western" branches of Southern Maipurean. She assigns Salumã and Lapachu ('Apolista') to what is left of Southern Outlier ('South Arawak'); breaks up the "Maritime" branch of Northern Maipurean, though keeping Aruán and Palikur together; and is agnostic about the sub-grouping of the "North Amazonian" branch of Northern Maipurean.


title: Arawakan languages

text: Aikhenvald classifies Kaufman's unclassified languages apart from Morique. She does not classify 15 extinct languages which Kaufman had placed in various branches of Maipurean.


title: Arawakan languages

text: Aikhenvald (1999:69) classifies Mawayana with Wapishana together under a Rio Branco branch, giving for Mawayana also the names "Mapidian" and "Mawakwa" (with some reservations for the latter).


title: Arawakan languages

text: Walker & Ribeiro (2011), using Bayesian computational phylogenetics, classify the Arawakan languages as follows.


title: Arawakan languages

text: The internal structures of each branch is given below. Note that the strictly binary splits are a result of the Bayesian computational methods used.


title: Arawakan languages

text: The internal classification of Arawakan by Henri Ramirez (2020) is as follows. This classification differs quite substantially from his previous classification (Ramirez 2001), but is very similar to the one proposed by Jolkesky (2016).


title: Arawakan languages

text: Below is a full list of Arawakan language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.


title: Arawakan languages

text: In 1783, the Italian priest Filippo Salvatore Gilii recognized the unity of the Maipure language of the Orinoco and Moxos of Bolivia; he named their family "Maipure". It was renamed "Arawak" by Von den Steinen (1886) and Brinten (1891) after Arawak in the Guianas, one of the major languages of the family. The modern equivalents are "Maipurean" or "Maipuran" and "Arawak" or "Arawakan".


title: Arawakan languages

text: The term "Arawakan" is now used in two senses. South American scholars use "Aruák" for the family demonstrated by Gilij and subsequent linguists. In North America, however, scholars have used the term to include a hypothesis adding the Guajiboan and Arawan families. In North America, scholars use the name "Maipurean" to distinguish the core family, which is sometimes called "core Arawak(an)" or "Arawak(an) proper" instead.


title: Arawakan languages

text: [The Arawakan] name is the one normally applied to what is here called Maipurean. Maipurean used to be thought to be a major subgroup of Arawakan, but all the "living" Arawakan languages, at least, seem to need to be subgrouped with languages already found within Maipurean as commonly defined. The sorting out of the labels Maipurean and Arawakan will have to await a more sophisticated classification of the languages in question than is possible at the present state of comparative studies.


title: Arawakan languages

text: The languages called Arawakan or Maipurean were originally recognized as a separate group in the late nineteenth century. Almost all the languages now called Arawakan share a first-person singular prefix "nu-", but Arawak proper has "ta-". Other commonalities include a second-person singular "pi-", relative "ka-", and negative "ma-".


title: Arawakan languages

text: The Arawak language family, as constituted by L. Adam, at first by the name of Maypure, has been called by Von den Steinen "Nu-Arawak" from the prenominal prefix "nu-" for the first person. This is common to all the Arawak tribes scattered along the coasts from Suriname to Guyana.


title: Arawakan languages

text: Upper Paraguay has Arawakan-language tribes: the "Quinquinaos", the "Layanas", etc. (This is the "Moho-Mbaure" group of L. Quevedo). In the islands of Marajos, in the middle of the estuary of the Amazon, the "Aruan" people spoke an Arawak dialect. The peninsula of Goajira (north of Venezuela) is occupied by the Goajires tribe, also Arawakan speakers. In 1890–95, De Brette estimated a population of 3,000 persons in the Goajires.


title: Arawakan languages

text: C. H. de Goeje's published vocabulary of 1928 outlines the Lokono/Arawak (Suriname and Guyana) 1400 items, comprising mostly morphemes (stems, affixes) and morpheme partials (single sounds), and only rarely compounded, derived, or otherwise complex sequences; and from Nancy P. Hickerson's "British Guiana" manuscript vocabulary of 500 items. However, most entries which reflect acculturation are direct borrowings from one or another of three model languages (Spanish, Dutch, English). Of the 1400 entries in de Goeje, 106 reflect European contact; 98 of these are loans. Nouns which occur with the verbalizing suffix described above number 9 out of the 98 loans.


title: Arawakan languages

text: Though a great deal of variation can be found from language to language, the following is a general composite statement of the consonants and vowels typically found in Arawak languages, according to Aikhenvald (1999):


title: Arawakan languages

text: Arawakan languages are polysynthetic and mostly head-marking. They have fairly complex verb morphology. Noun morphology is much less complex and tends to be similar across the family. Arawakan languages are mostly suffixing, with just a few prefixes.


title: Arawakan languages

text: Arawakan languages tend to distinguish alienable and inalienable possession. A feature found throughout the Arawakan family is a suffix (whose reconstructed Proto-Arawakan form is /*-tsi/) that allows the inalienable (and obligatorily possessed) body-part nouns to remain unpossessed. This suffix essentially converts inalienable body-part nouns into alienable nouns. It can only be added to body-part nouns and not to kinship nouns (which are also treated as inalienable). An example from the Pareci language is given below:


title: Arawakan languages

text: Many Arawakan languages have a system of classifier morphemes that mark the semantic category of the head noun of a noun phrase on most other elements of the noun phrase. The example below is from the Tariana language, in which classifier suffixes mark the semantic category of the head noun on all elements of a noun phrase other than the head noun (including adjectives, numerals, demonstratives, possessives) and on the verb of the clause:


title: Arawakan languages

text: Most Arawakan languages have split-intransitive alignment systems of subject and object cross-referencing on the verb. The agentive arguments of both transitive and intransitive verbs are marked with prefixes, whereas the patientive arguments of both transitive and intransitive verbs are marked with suffixes. The following example from Baniwa of Içana shows a typical Arawakan split-intransitive alignment:


title: Arawakan languages

text: The prefixes and suffixes used for subject and object cross-referencing on the verb are stable throughout the Arawakan languages, and can therefore be reconstructed for Proto-Arawakan. The table below shows the likely forms of Proto-Arawakan:


title: Arawakan languages

text: The Arawak word for corn is "marisi," and various forms of this word are found among the related languages:


title: Arawakan languages

text: Arawak is the largest family in the Americas with the respect to number of languages. The Arawakan languages are spoken by peoples occupying a large swath of territory, from the eastern slopes of the central Andes Mountains in Peru and Bolivia, across the Amazon basin of Brazil, northward into Suriname, Guyana, French Guiana, Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago and Colombia on the northern coast of South America, and as far north as Nicaragua, Honduras, Belize and Guatemala. The languages used to be found in Argentina and Paraguay as well.


title: Arawakan languages

text: Arawak-speaking peoples migrated to islands in the Caribbean some 2,500 years ago, settling the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas. It is possible that some poorly attested extinct languages in North America, such as the languages of the Cusabo and Congaree in South Carolina, were members of this family.


title: Arawakan languages

text: Taíno, commonly called Island Arawak, was spoken on the islands of Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and the Bahamas. A few Taino words are still used by English, Spanish, or Haitian Creole-speaking descendants in these islands. The Taíno language was scantily attested but its classification within the Arawakan family is uncontroversial. Its closest relative among the better attested Arawakan languages seems to be the Wayuu language, spoken in Colombia and Venezuela. Scholars have suggested that the Wayuu are descended from Taíno refugees, but the theory seems impossible to prove or disprove.


title: Arawakan languages

text: Garífuna (or Black Carib) is another Arawakan language originating on the islands. It developed as the result of forced migration among people of mixed Arawak, Carib, and African descent. It is estimated to have about 195,800 speakers in Honduras, Nicaragua, Guatemala and Belize combined.


title: Arawakan languages

text: Today the Arawakan languages with the most speakers are among the more recent "Ta-"Arawakan ("Ta-"Maipurean) groups: Wayuu [Goajiro], with about 300,000 speakers; and Garifuna, with about 100,000 speakers. The Campa group is next; Asháninca or Campa proper has 15–18,000 speakers; and Ashéninca 18–25,000. After that probably comes Terêna, with 10,000 speakers; and Yanesha' [Amuesha] with 6–8,000.


title: Arawakan languages

text: For lists of Proto-Arawakan reconstructions by Jolkesky (2016) and Ramirez (2019), see the corresponding .


title: Meeku Maathrame Cheptha

text: Meeku Maathrame Cheptha () is a 2019 Indian Telugu-language comedy drama film written and directed by Shammeer Sultan, and produced by Vardhan Deverakonda and Vijay Deverakonda under the banner King of the Hill Entertainment. The film features Tharun Bhascker and Abhinav Gomatam in lead roles while Anasuya Bharadwaj, Vani Bhojan, and Avantika Mishra play supporting roles. The film marks the debut of Sultan as director and Deverakonda as producer, who also makes a cameo appearance.


title: Meeku Maathrame Cheptha

text: It revolves around a man who lies to his fiancée and then his friends help him cover up the lies, which leads to humorous situations.


title: Meeku Maathrame Cheptha

text: Suresh Kavirayani of "Deccan Chronicle" rated the film 3 stars of 5, and praised the performances of the cast. "Tharun Bhascker steals the acting honours [...] Abhinav Gomatam does a fantastic job and is on par with Tharun Bhascker". "The Hindu" critic Y. Sunitha Cowdhary opined that though the film had situational humour and interesting dialogues, it is only entertaining in parts.


title: Meeku Maathrame Cheptha

text: A reviewer from "News18 India" called the film, "Smartest Black Comedy of the Year". The reviewer rated the film 3.5/5 and stated: "There is a sneakingly sinuous feel of a Guy Ritchie crime thriller in this Telugu gamechanger of a film. Except that Ritchie's characters are more laconic."


title: Irish people in Jamaica

text: Irish people in Jamaica or Irish Jamaicans, are Jamaican citizens whose ancestors originated from Ireland. Irish people are the second-largest reported ethnic group in Jamaica, after Jamaicans of African ancestry. Most Jamaicans with Irish ancestry also have African ancestry.


title: Irish people in Jamaica

text: The first wave of Irish immigrants occurred in the early 17th century, Irish emigrant principally sailors, servants, and merchants. Many of the poorer emigrants were displaced Gaelic-Irish and Anglo-Irish Catholics, as well as convicts who were indentured servants. Many of the indentured servants were transported unwillingly. Of those surviving the long journey many more succumbed to disease, the harsh conditions and unfamiliar tropical conditions.


title: Irish people in Jamaica

text: Irish merchant families from towns like Galway, Kinsale, and Waterford established their trading networks in the Caribbean.


title: Irish people in Jamaica

text: Irish-forced transportees were first brought to Jamaica in large numbers under the English republic of Oliver Cromwell following the capture of Jamaica from the Spanish in 1655 by William Penn and Robert Venables as part of Cromwell's strategic plan to dominate the Caribbean: the "Western Design".


title: Irish people in Jamaica

text: In 1655 Henry Cromwell, Major-General of the Parliamentary Army in Ireland arranged for the forced transplanting of 1,000 Irish girls and 1,000 Irish young men be sent to assist in the conquest and planting of Jamaica.


title: Irish people in Jamaica

text: In 1687 Christopher Monck, the 2nd Duke of Albemarle was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Jamaica by the Catholic King James II. His office was supported mainly by the Irish Catholic farmers and servants, an indication that the Irish were numerous, at least among the lower classes.


title: Irish people in Jamaica

text: Migration to Jamaica continued through the 17th century, especially during the sugar boom on the sugar plantations of the West Indies, which forced many freed servants to look for land on the bigger islands like Jamaica. A Barbadian historian has estimated that of 10,000 Irish servants who left Barbados in the last quarter of the 17th century, at least half were destined for Jamaica, where land was available for small farmers. Also, it suited the British to have Irish settle near the internal frontier with the Maroons. From 1670 to 1700, Jamaica became the preferred destination for Irish and English servants departing the Atlantic ports at Kinsale, Cork, Galway and Bristol. By the late 17th century, some 10 percent of Jamaica's landowners were of Irish extraction and several, such as Teague Mackmarroe (Tadhg MacMorrough), who owned Irish indentured servants, attained the rank of "middling planter."


title: Irish people in Jamaica

text: Later, in the mid-eighteenth century, Presbyterian colonial settlers who were fleeing Ireland arrived in the Caribbean. Scottish Gaelic speaking highlanders exiled after the Jacobite rebellions also came to the island in the 18th century.