title: Multilateralism

text: One modern instance of multilateralism occurred in the nineteenth century in Europe after the end of the Napoleonic Wars, where the great powers met to redraw the map of Europe at the Congress of Vienna (November 1814 to June 1815). The Concert of Europe, as it became known, was a group of great and lesser powers that would meet to resolve issues peacefully. Conferences such as the Conference of Berlin in 1884 helped reduce power conflicts during this period, and the 19th century was one of Europe's most peaceful.


title: Multilateralism

text: Industrial and colonial competition, combined with shifts in the balance of power after the creation - by diplomacy and conquest - of Germany by Prussia meant cracks were appearing in this system by the turn of the 20th century. The concert system was utterly destroyed by the First World War. After that conflict, world leaders created the League of Nations (which became the precursor of the United Nations) in an attempt to prevent a similar conflict. Although the League of Nations failed in its security mission, it initiated a variety of specialized organizations that continue to operate today. Moreover, although the US did not join, it did provide a degree of support from individual Americans and American philanthropies that started a tradition of public and private participation.


title: Multilateralism

text: After the Second World War the victors, drawing upon experience from the League's failure, created the United Nations in 1945. Since then, the "breadth and diversity" of multilateral arrangements have escalated. Unlike the League, the UN had the active participation of the United States and the Soviet Union, the world's then greatest contemporary powers. Along with the political institutions of the UN, the post-war years also saw the development of organizations such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) (now the World Trade Organization), the World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) (the so-called 'Bretton Woods' institutions), and other technical institutions that were part of the UN system—including the World Health Organization. Formation of these and other subsequent bodies under the United Nations made the new system more powerful than the old League system. Moreover, United Nations peacekeepers stationed around the world became a visible symbol of multilateralism. Later, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed as a defensive alliance that used the multilateral form to promote collective security in the postwar era.


title: Multilateralism

text: Multilateral institutions of varying scope and subject matter range from the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) to the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)


title: Multilateralism

text: The United States became increasingly dominant in terms of military and economic power, which has led countries such as Iran, China and India to question the UN's relevance. Concurrently, a perception developed among internationalists such as former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, that the United States is more inclined to act unilaterally in situations with international implications. This trend began when the U.S. Senate, in October 1999, refused to ratify the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, which President Bill Clinton had signed in September 1996. Under President George W. Bush the United States rejected such multilateral agreements as the Kyoto Protocol, the International Criminal Court, the Ottawa Treaty banning anti-personnel land mines and a draft protocol to ensure compliance by States with the Biological Weapons Convention. Also under the George W. Bush administration, the United States withdrew from the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, which the Richard Nixon administration and the Soviet Union had signed in 1972.


title: Multilateralism

text: These challenges presented by the U.S. could be explained by a strong belief in bilateral alliances as instruments of control. Liberal institutionalists would argue, though, that great powers might still opt for a multilateral alliance. But great powers can amplify their capabilities to control small powers and maximize their leverage by forging a series of bilateral arrangements with allies, rather than see that leverage diluted in a multilateral forum. Arguably, the Bush administration favoured bilateralism over multilateralism, or even unilateralism, for similar reasons. Rather than going it alone or going it with others, the administration opted for intensive one-on-one relationships with handpicked countries that maximized the U.S. capacity to achieve its objectives.


title: Multilateralism

text: Another challenge in global governance through multilateralism involves national sovereignty. Regardless of the erosion of nation-states' legal and operational sovereignty in international relations, "nation-states remain the ultimate locus of authoritative decision making regarding most facets of public and private life". Hoffman asserted that nation-states are "unlikely to embrace abstract obligations that clash with concrete calculations of national interest."


title: Multilateralism

text: Global multilateralism is challenged, particularly with respect to trade, by regional arrangements such as the European Union and NAFTA, although these are not in themselves incompatible with larger accords. The original sponsor of post-war multilateralism in economic regimes, the United States, turned towards unilateral action and in trade and other negotiations as a result of dissatisfaction with the outcomes of multilateral fora. As the most powerful nation, the United States had the least to lose from abandoning multilateralism; the weakest nations have the most to lose, but the cost for all would be high. Aside from changes in the US, populism in Europe has proven to be problematic to multilateralism in recent years. Results from direct elections to the European Parliament give evidence to this claim, as Eurosceptic parties have made advances.


title: Multilateralism

text: When enacting foreign policies, governments face a choice between unilateralism, bilateralism and multilateralism.


title: Multilateralism

text: Bilateralism means coordination with another single country. Multilateralism has attempted to find common ground based on generalized principles of conduct, in addition to details associated with a particular agreement. Victor Cha argued that: power asymmetries predict the type of structures, bilateral or multilateral, that offer the most control. If small powers try to control a larger one, then multilateralism is effective. But if great powers seek control over smaller ones, bilateral alliances are more effective.


title: Multilateralism

text: Thus, a country's decision to select bilateralism or multilateralism when enacting foreign policies is greatly affected by its size and power, as well as the size and power of the country over which it seeks to control. Take the example of Foreign Policy of the United States. Many references discuss how the United States interacts with other nations. In particular, the United States chose multilateralism in Europe and decided to form NATO, while it formed bilateral alliances, or the Hub and spokes architecture, in East Asia. Although there are many arguments about the reasons for this, Cha's "powerplay" theory provides one possible reason. He argued: ...postwar U.S planners had to contend with a region uniquely constituted of potential rogue allies, through their aggressive behaviour, could potentially entrap the United States in an unwanted wider war in Asia... To avoid this outcome, the United States created a series of tight, deep bilateral alliances with Taiwan, South Korea, and Japan through which it could exercise maximum control and prevent unilateral aggression. Furthermore, it did not seek to make these bilateral alliances multilateral, because it wanted to amplify U.S. control and minimize any collusion among its partners.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: In the ancient Punjabi region, people wore cotton clothing. Both men and women wore knee-length tops. A scarf was worn over the tops which would be draped over the left shoulder and under the right. A large sheet would be further draped over one shoulder which would hang loose towards the knees. Both male and female wore a dhoti around the waist. Modern Punjabi dress has retained this outfit but over its long history has added other forms of dress.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The Punjab region had a flourishing industry in cotton during the 19th and early 20th centuries, when various kinds of coarse cotton cloths including were manufactured in Hoshiarpur, Gurdaspur, Peshawar, Lahore, Multan, Amritsar, Ludhiana, Jhang, Shahpur, Jalandhar, Delhi, Gurgaon, Rohtak, Karnal, Rewari, Panipat etc. This cotton industry added to the richness of Punjabi clothing which exhibits Punjab's rich and vibrant culture in its dresses. Various types of dresses are worn based on different Punjabi festivals, local events and ceremonies.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The use of the suthan in the Punjab region also called suthana in Punjabi is a survival of the ancient svasthana. Svasthana referred to a lower garment which can be described as a type of trousers. The svasthana was in use amongst the rulers in the Mauryan times(322–185 BCE), amongst the ruling classes in North India during the Kushan Empire between the 1st and 3rd centuries C.E, during the Gupta Empire between 4th and 6th centuries C.E. and during King Harsha's rule during the 7th century C.E.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The Punjabi suthan is a direct variation of the svasthana which can either be loose to above the ankles and tight around the ankles, or loose to the knees and tight to the ankles. The suthan is a male and female garment but its use is particularly important in the Punjabi suthan suit whereby it is worn by women with a kurti or kurta. It is also a part of the Punjabi ghagra outfit. Other variations include the choga (robe) and suthan combination.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The kurta with its side slits in the Punjabi kurta can be traced to the 11th century C.E. female kurtaka worn in parts of north India. The kurtaka was a short shirt, with sleeves extending from the shoulders, to the middle of the body, and had slashes on the left and the right sides. This is the same as the modern Punjabi kurta which has side slits and is worn by women in the Punjab region as do men. The kurta also draws inspiration from the jama and the Punjabi angarkha. The kurta can be worn with a and jeans.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The Phulkari sari is the most loved sari that is available in Punjab. In Punjabi, the word 'phulkari' signifies floral designs. The sari derives its name from the unique floral motifs that are used to decorate the sari.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The Multani kurta is crocheted using designs of Multan (Punjab, Pakistan). Local Ajrak prints are also used.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: Bandhani tye-dyeing is popular in the Cholistan desert area of the Punjab region. Bandhani patterns are used on kurtas.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The traditional Punjabi kurta of the Punjab region is wide and falls to the knees and is cut straight. The modern version of the regional kurta is the Mukatsari kurta which originates from Muktsar in Punjab. This modern Punjabi kurta is famous for its slim fitting cuts and smart fit designs. It is very popular among young politicians.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The Salwar is the traditional dress of women in the Punjab region. It is made up of a kurta or kameez and a straight cut salwar. In some parts of the Punjab region, men also wear the Punjabi suit.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The Punjabi suit is cut differently to the styles worn in Balochistan and Afghanistan and is known as a "Punjabi suit" with the kameez being cut straight and flat with side slits (which is a local development as earlier forms of kameez did not have side slits/it's a remnant of the varbana). The salwar is wide at the top but fits closely to the legs and is gathered at the ankles. The Punjabi salwar is also cut straight and gathered at the ankles with a loose band reinforced with coarse material. In rural Punjab, the salwar is still called the suthan. The Punjabi suit is popular in other regions of the subcontinent, such as Mumbai and Sindh. It is also popular in Afghanistan, where it is called the Punjabi.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The Punjabi version of the dhoti is known as or . Whereas the is of one colour and has no border, the has a border and is variegated so that it has more than one colour.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: In modern usage, a short kurta is referred to as the kurti. However, traditionally, the kurti refers to upper garments which sit above the waist without side slits, and are believed to have descended from the tunic of the Shunga period (2nd century B.C.).


title: Punjabi clothing

text: In the Punjab region, the kurti is a short cotton coat. Another style of Punjabi kurti is a short version of the anga (robe). The kurti can be worn by men but women wear it along with the Punjabi ghagra or suthan.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: Another style of the Punjabi suit is the use of the salwar which hails from the Pothohar region of Punjab, Pakistan and is known as the Pothohari salwar. The Pothohari salwar retains the wideness of the older Punjabi suthan and also has some folds. The kameez is also wide. The head scarf is traditionally large, similar to the chador or Phulkari that was used throughout the plains of the Punjab region.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The chola is a long outfit which is similar to a gown. It is worn by women and men and can reach the ankles, or fall just below the knees. The traditional chola is closed by loops and is tied on either shoulder and tends not to have side slits. The chola is the traditional alternative to other upper garments of the local region. The modern chola opens at the front below the neck, is closed with buttons and may have side slits, and is worn like a kurta. In Himachal Pradesh, the woolen waist band is called a dora.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: A choga is a long sleeved, skirted cloak that opens to the down front and is fastened above the waist.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The Punjabi suthan and kurta/kurti suit is an outfit with a very long history. The Punjabi suthan is a local variation of the ancient svasthana tight fitting trousers which have been used in the Punjab region since the ancient period and was worn with the tunic called varbana which was tight fitting.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The Punjabi suthan is arranged in plaits and uses large amounts of material (traditionally coloured cotton with vertical silk lines, called sussi) of up to 20 yards hanging in innumerable folds. The suthan ends at the ankles with a tight band which distinguishes the suthan from a salwar. Some versions of the Punjabi suthan tighten from the knees down to the ankles (a remnant of the svasthana). If a tight band is not used, the ends of the suthan fit closely around the ankles. The head scarf can be a wide chador, phulkari or modern dupatta/chunni.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The Punjabi ghagra was the traditional apparel for women before the advent of the Punjabi suit. It is still worn in parts of the Punjab region and the outfit comprises the head scarf, kurta/kurti, suthan/salwar and the ghagra.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The ghagra has its origin in the candataka, which had become a popular garment in the Gupta period. The candataka was a men's half trousers which eventually developed into the ghagra. The intermediate formation has been described as a shirt like dress for men and women from the neck to the thighs. Candataka continued as a popular female dress in the seventh century.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The Punjabi Jutti is the Punjabi version of the shoe. Local styles include designs from Patiala, the Pothohari shoe with sharp pointed toes, and the Derawali shoe with silk embroidery and round tipped.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: Saraiki shalwar suits are Punjabi outfits which include the Bahawalpuri shalwar suit and the Multani shalwar suit. For Suit DIKSHA'S SUITS


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The Bahawalpuri shalwar originates from the Bahawalpur region of Punjab, Pakistan. The Bahawalpuri shalwar is very wide and baggy with many voluminous folds. The material traditionally used for the Bahawalpuri shalwar and suthan is known as Sufi which is a mixture of cotton warp mixed with silk weft and gold threads running down the material. The other name for these types of mixed cloth is shuja khani. The Bahawalpuri shalwar is worn with the Bahawalpur style kameez, the Punjabi kurta or chola.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The Multani shalwar, also known as the 'ghaire wali' or 'Saraiki ghaire wali' shalwar as it is very wide around the waist, originates from the Multan area of the Punjab region. The style is similar to the Sindhi kancha shalwar as both are derivatives of the pantaloon shalwar worn in Iraq and adopted in these locations during the 7th century A.D. The Multani shalwar is very wide, baggy, full and has folds like the Punjabi suthan. The upper garments include the Punjabi kameez and the chola of the Punjab region.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: Block printing on cotton and other materials is popular in Multan which utilises local Ajrak prints. The other type of prints are known as chit Multani or Multani chint.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: Cholistan, Bahawalpur and Multan are known for its tie-dying material which is popular in this region.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The embroidery styles of the Punjab region include the styles of Multani embroidery which features kalabatun patterns using thin wires. This type of embroidery is also common in the rest of the Punjab region. Kalabatan surkh involves using gold wires on orange coloured and red silk. Kalabatan safed involves using silver wires on white material. There are two kinds of gold embroidery, one of a solid and rich kind called kar-chob and the other called tila-kar or kar-chikan utilising gold thread. The former is used for carpets and saddle cloths whereas the latter is used for dresses. The Punjab region also uses mukesh embroidery: mukesh bati-hui, twisted tinsel, , flattened gold wire for embroidery of a heavy kind, and waved mukesh, made by crimping mukesh batihui with iron tongs.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: Ludhiana and Amritsar are known for embroidery using white, silver and gold threads on clothes such as and waistcoats (). Kangra is known for the patterns embroidered on its handkerchiefs known as Kangra rumal. The designs include representations of religious stories. These rumals are also embroidered in Chamba.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The Phulkari is the traditional Punjabi embroidery used to embroider shawls and head scarfs in the Punjab region.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The two styles of and are worn by brides. The is embroidered on both sides of the cloth. Only the borders and the four edges of the cloth are embroidered in fine embroidery. The subar has a central motif and four motifs on the corners.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The til (sesame) patra has decorative embroidery which is spread out as if spreading sesame seeds. The term til patra means 'the sprinkling of seeds'.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The is made of a black or red background with yellow or bright red embroidery. The colour of the phulkari is mixed with metals.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: Originating in Rawalpindi, the ghoonghat bagh is heavily embroidered around the centre on the edge to be worn over the head. The embroidered centre is then pulled over the face so as to form an embroidered veil.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The chhaamas phulkari hails from Rohtak, Gurgaon, Hissar and Delhi. The incorporates mirrors which are sewn into the cloth with yellow, grey or blue thread.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The phulkari of south and southwestern Punjab region, has wide edges upon which designs of animals and birds are embroidered. As is the case of the , the edges are embroidered on both sides of the cloth. South and southwestern Punjab region includes the south Punjab, India, south and south west of Punjab, Pakistan.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The senchi phulkari is popular in and around Ferozepur. The incorporates designs of birds, jewellery such as bracelets, earrings, rings and necklaces.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: Luanchari is a full-dress made of two parts stitched together: the upper part is the choli and the lower is the lehanga. It is traditional garment worn by Gaddis of Himachal Pradesh.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The Punjabi ghuttana was popular with women and men in the Punjab region, a type of pajama which is shorter than the full length pajama, and is tight and ends at the calf. Its variation is still worn in Jammu.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The use of the churidar is traditionally associated with the northern regions of the sub-continent. Although there is no consensus as to its origins, the churidar pajama was adopted by the former princely families. In the Punjab region however, its use was amongst the general population.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: For people of the Punjab region, the churidar pajama which forms part of the traditional attire of men and women in Punjab is a combination of the tight suthan of the Punjab region, the churidar suthan of the Punjab's hill area, and the traditional Dogri suthan which ends in loose bangles (and is more of a loose pajama as the suthan has to have a tight band at the ankles). Accordingly, the churidar pajama is believed to be derived from the suthan. The Churidar is popular all over the sub-continent and was developed in the Punjab region, and is associated with the Punjab. The churidar pajama can be of any colour but traditionally is of sussi (cotton) material, in blue with vertical stripes.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The churidar pajama is also known as the (full length) ghuttana. When soldiers from Lucknow travelled to the British Punjab province, they saw the long ghuttana pajama and adopted its use in Lucknow during the 19th century.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The jama was worn by men in the Punjab region during the Mughal period. The phrase "jora jama" refers to the clothes given by the maternal uncle to the groom, which points to the jama being part of Punjabi clothing (although grooms do not wear the jama now). A local style of shawl called the jamawar which was striped was used as a gown.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The anga (robe) also known as an angarkha and peshwaj) is similar to a loose coat and wadded with cotton. The anga can be worn by men and women. When worn by men, it falls to below the knees, is a loose tunic and is fastened either to the right of the left. An angarkha typically does not have front buttons. Grooms traditionally wore the angarkha which has now been superseded by the achkan. The anga worn by women is a long robe.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The Chamba angarkhi of Himachal Pradesh is sewen tight at the torso, but below the waist it has an open fall like the modern skirt. The angarkhi is tied at the waist with a sash.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: Men traditionally wear the turban. In the past, large turbans were worn such as the type in Bahawalpur which could be up to 40 feet long. Now the turbans are shorter of various designs.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: Khes is a stout damask cloth used for winter wraps, generally weaved with coarse yarns made of cotton. It is a simple clothing item to wear loosely. Khes is a comfort object used in bedding and also as like a shawl- wrap by men in Punjab, India, and Pakistan to cover upper body parts. Khes was an important cloth of Punjab province.


title: Punjabi clothing

text: The is a tight fitting waistcoat which was worn in Sindh and the Punjab region. It is also worn in Uttar Pradesh.


title: Skiff

text: A skiff is any of a variety of essentially unrelated styles of small boats. Traditionally, these are coastal craft or river craft used for leisure, as a utility craft, and for fishing, and have a one-person or small crew. Sailing skiffs have developed into high performance competitive classes. Many of today's skiff classes are based in Australia and New Zealand in the form of , , and skiffs. The 29er, 49er, SKUD and Musto Skiff are all considered to have developed from the skiff concept, all of which are sailed internationally.


title: Skiff

text: The word is related to "ship" and has a complicated etymology: "skiff" comes from the Middle English "skif", which derives from the Old French "esquif", which in turn derives from the Old Italian "schifo", which is itself of Germanic origin (German "Schiff"). "Ship" comes from the Old English "scip", which has the same Germanic predecessor.


title: Skiff

text: The term has been used for a number of styles of craft round the United Kingdom, often small river and sea going craft. They varied from double ended rowing boats to small sailing boats. The poet John Milton refers to a 'night foundered skiff' in "Paradise Lost" as early as 1670. There are references to skiffs on the River Thames (as a result of accidents) as early as 1812 and 1824 at Oxford. In August 1815, the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley was taken on an expedition by skiff from Old Windsor to Lechlade by Charles Clairmont and Thomas Love Peacock. He subsequently settled at Marlow where he regularly rowed his skiff through the locks. Shelley later drowned sailing in a skiff off the coast of Italy. It was also used in the Lady of the Lake by Sir Walter Scott.


title: Skiff

text: The Thames skiff became formalised as a specific design in the early part of the 19th century. It is a round-bottom clinker-built rowing boat that is still very common on the River Thames and other rivers in England. Rowing skiffs became very popular in Victorian Britain and a skiff journey up the River Thames features in "Three Men in a Boat" by Jerome K. Jerome, These skiffs could carry a sail and could be used for camping. Although general usage has declined, skiffs are still used for leisure and racing. During the year, skiffing regattas are held in various riverside towns in England—the major event being the Skiff Championships Regatta at Henley.


title: Skiff

text: Akin to the skiff is the yoal or yole which is a clinker built boat used for fishing in the Orkney and Shetland Islands. The boat itself is a version of the Norwegian Oselvar which is similar to a skiff in appearance, while the word is cognate with "yawl". The French "" is a leisure craft similar to the Thames Skiff and is translated as "skiff", while the French "" translates to a single scull. In Dutch and German, "Skiff" also means a single scull, while Czech "" refers to sculling boats in general.


title: Skiff

text: Regattas also take place across Northern Ireland with one of the largest being held in Portadown but smaller events take place throughout the year across County Down.


title: Skiff

text: In American usage, the term is used to apply to small sea-going fishing boats. It is referred to historically in literature in "Moby-Dick" by Herman Melville and "The Old Man and the Sea" by Ernest Hemingway. The skiff could be powered by sails as well as oars.


title: Skiff

text: One usage of skiff is to refer to a typically small flat-bottomed open boat with a pointed bow and a flat stern originally developed as an inexpensive and easy to build boat for use by inshore fishermen. Originally designed to be powered by rowing, their form has evolved so that they are efficiently powered by outboard motors. The design is still in common use today for both work and pleasure craft. They can be made of wood or other materials. There is a similar style of craft in Central America and Mexico, generally called a panga.


title: Skiff

text: The term skiff has been applied to motorized boats of small size and construction used as sea-going vessels for piracy or drug smuggling.


title: Skiff

text: The skiff with a sail has developed into specific sailing boats bearing the name "skiff". In Sydney, the term was used for a number of racing classes (sizes from 6 ft to 23 ft have existed). These were originally heavily crewed and canvassed boats that were relatively short for the canvas and crew carried and were developed from working boats of the time. This style of boat is still active in the form of Historical 10 foot and 18 foot classes.


title: Skiff

text: The skiff classes developed to become much lighter and faster with relatively smaller (but still very large by any other standards) rigs and smaller crews. 12ft Skiff, 13 ft Skiff, 16ft Skiff, and 18ft Skiff classes are raced in that form. With two crew on the 12 and 13 footer and three on the 16 and 18 these are still heavily crewed boats for their size. Modern developments began with the introduction of carbon fibre reinforced composite hulls, allowing for a significant reduction in weight, and an increase in rigidity. Following this, the use of carbon in masts and rigging allowed for more sail area, and better gust response. Moulded sails are being tested in both 12 ft and 16 ft skiffs, with most modern Australian 18 ft Skiffs utilising the new technology.


title: Skiff

text: Because the modern 18s have such a high profile, the term skiff is widely used internationally to refer to other high-performance sailing dinghy classes, mostly featuring asymmetrical spinnaker and trapeze which have been strongly influenced by modern skiffs. Examples include: Cherub Skiff, International 14, 29er, and 49er. These boats tend to be less heavily crewed in relation to their length than the traditional Australian Skiff Classes. The term is even used for some single-handed boats like the Musto Skiff which are far removed from the heavily crewed original boats.


title: Skiff

text: The SKUD 18 is a two-person keelboat which claims strong influence from skiff development. This made its debut in the 2008 Paralympic Games.


title: Skiff

text: In the International Moth class the term skiff is used to distinguish designs that have an essentially vertical bow from scow designs, which have a broadly horizontal bow.


title: Cinema of South India

text: The Cinema of South India refers collectively to the six distinct film industries based in Southern region of India namely Tamil, Telugu, Tulu, Kannada, Konkani, and Malayalam. Although these industries developed independently for a long period of time, gross exchange of artists and technicians, as well as globalisation helped in shaping this unique identity.


title: Cinema of South India

text: By 2010, South India became the home for 6320, or about 62% of the 10,167 movie theatres in India. For the financial year of 2013, the combined net box office revenue of Tamil and Telugu films stood at nearly 40% of the total net revenue of Indian films.


title: Cinema of South India

text: In 2020, the combined market of the Tamil, Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam film industries grossed revenue of Rs 1,040 crore, and surpassed that of Hindi film markets where box office collection stood at Rs 870 crore. In 2021, Telugu film industry emerged as the largest film industry of India in terms of box office revenue.


title: Cinema of South India

text: In 1897, a European exhibitor first screened a selection of silent short films at the Victoria Public Hall in Madras (Present-day Chennai). The films all featured non-fictional subjects; they were mostly photographed records of day-to-day events. In Madras (present-day Chennai), the "Electric Theatre" was established for the screening of silent films. It was a favourite haunt of the British community in Madras. The theatre was shut down after a few years. This building is now part of a post office complex on Anna Salai (Mount Road). The "Lyric Theatre" was also built in the Mount Road area. This venue boasted a variety of events, including plays in English, Western classical music concerts, and ballroom dances. Silent films were also screened as an additional attraction. Swamikannu Vincent, an employee of the South Indian Railways in Coimbatore, purchased a film projector and silent films from the Frenchman DuPont and set up a business as film exhibitor. He erected tents for screening films. His tent cinema became popular and he travelled throughout the state with his mobile unit. In later years, he produced talkies and also built a cinema in Coimbatore.


title: Cinema of South India

text: To celebrate the event of King George V's visit in 1909, a grand exhibition was organised in Madras. Its major attraction was the screening of short films accompanied by sound. A British company imported a Crone megaphone, made up of a film projector to which a gramophone with a disc containing prerecorded sound was linked, and both were run in unison, producing picture and sound simultaneously. However, there was no synched dialogue. Raghupathy Venkaiah Naidu, a successful photographer, took over the equipment after the exhibition and set up a tent cinema near the Madras High Court. R. Venkaiah, flush with funds, in 1912 built a permanent cinema in the Mount Road area named Gaiety Theatre. It was the first in Madras to screen films on a full-time basis. The theatre later closed for commercial developments.


title: Cinema of South India

text: Swamikannu Vincent, who had built the first cinema of South India in Coimbatore, introduced the concept of "Tent Cinema" in which a tent was erected on a stretch of open land close to a town or village to screen the films. The first of its kind was established in Madras, called "Edison's Grand Cinemamegaphone". This was due to the fact that electric carbons were used for motion picture projectors. Full-fledged film studios were built in Salem (Modern Theatres Studio) and Coimbatore (Central Studios, Neptune, and Pakshiraja). Chennai became the hub of studio activity with two more movie studios built in Chennai, Vijaya Vauhini Studios and Gemini Studios. Thus, with the undivided Madras Presidency, being the Capital to most of South India, Chennai became the center for South Indian language films.


title: Cinema of South India

text: The first Madras production was "Keechaka Vadham" (The Destruction of Keechaka), produced and directed by R. Nataraja Mudaliar, who established the "India Film Company Limited". During the 1920s, silent Tamil language films were shot at makeshift locations in and around Chennai, and for technical processing, they were sent to Pune or Calcutta. Later, some films featuring M. K. Thyagaraja Bhagavathar were shot in those cities as well. Telugu artists became active with the production of "Bhisma Pratighna", a silent film, in 1921. The film was directed by Raghupathi Venkaiah Naidu and his son R. S. Prakash. The two, along with Yaragudipati Varada Rao, would go on to produce and direct dozens of films throughout the decade, casting theater actors in major roles. They established a long-lasting precedent of focusing exclusively on religious themes; "Nandanar", "Gajendra Moksham", and "Matsyavatar", three of their most famous productions, centered on religious figures, parables, and morals.


title: Cinema of South India

text: The first Tamil silent film, "Keechaka Vadham", was made by R. Nataraja Mudaliar in 1918. The first talking motion picture, "Kalidas", was a multilingual and was released on 31 October 1931, less than seven months after India's first talking motion picture "Alam Ara". Popularly known as talkies, films with sound quickly grew in number and popularity. In 1934, the industry saw its first major commercial success with "Lavakusa". Directed by C. Pullaiah and starring Parupalli Subbarao and Sriranjani, the film attracted unprecedented numbers of viewers to theaters and thrust the young film industry into mainstream culture.


title: Cinema of South India

text: During the same time, the first Kannada talkie, "Sati Sulochana", appeared in theatres, followed by "Bhakta Dhruva" (aka "Dhruva Kumar"). Both "Sati Sulochana" and "Bhakta Dhruva" were major successes. But prospective filmmakers in Karnataka were handicapped by the lack of studios and technical crews. "Sati Sulochana" was shot in Kolhapur at the Chatrapathi studio; most filming, sound recording, and post-production was done in Madras. It was difficult, as well, to find financial backing for new film projects in the region; thus, very few movies in Kannada were released during the early years of Indian sound cinema. The first talkie in Malayalam was "Balan", released in 1938. It was directed by S. Nottani with a screenplay and songs written by Muthukulam Raghavan Pillai. Malayalam films continued to be made mainly by Tamil producers until 1947, when the first major film studio, Udaya, was established in Alleppey, Kerala by Kunchacko, who earned fame as a film producer and director.


title: Cinema of South India

text: The Madras presidency was divided into linguistic States, known today as Karnataka, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The division marked the beginning of a new era in South Indian cinema. Cinema was celebrated regionally and exclusively in the language of the respective State. By 1936, the mass appeal of film allowed directors to move away from religious and mythological themes. One such film, "Jeevitha Nouka" (1951), was a musical drama which spoke about the problems in a joint family. Earlier, dozens of 'social films', notably "Prema Vijayam", "Vandemataram" and "Maala Pilla", have been released in Telugu. Touching on societal problems like the status of Untouchables and the practice of giving dowry, Telugu films increasingly focused on contemporary living: 29 of the 96 films released between 1937 and 1947 had social themes.


title: Cinema of South India

text: Attempts made by some Congress leaders in Tamil Nadu to use stars of Tamil cinema were limited since this media remained inaccessible to the rural population, who were in the majority. The politicizing of movies by the Congress virtually stopped soon after Indian Independence in 1947. With the introduction of electricity to rural areas in the 1950s Dravidian politicians could implement movies as a major political organ. Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) was the first – and at the time the only – party to take advantage of visual movie media. Actors and writers of guerrilla theater, who were inspired by the ideologies of Periyar E. V. Ramasamy, brought the philosophies of Tamil nationalism and anti-Brahminism to celluloid media. The movies not only made direct references to the independent Dravida Nadu that its leaders preached for but also at many times displayed party symbols within the movie. When the DMK began using cinema for political purposes and actors like MGR and S. S. Rajendran rode into politics on their popularity as actors, Tamil cinema began to be noticed by academics, S.S.Rajendran, as a film actor, became the first elected 'Member of legislative assembly in the industry from Tamil Nadu.


title: Cinema of South India

text: Meanwhile, Tamil film "Chandralekha" crossed all language borders. It was the time, when M. G. Ramachandran became one of the most remembered actors of India. His popularity enabled him to found a political party, the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam, which is regularly part of the Government of Tamil Nadu. He posthumously won Bharat Ratna.


title: Cinema of South India

text: The time was hailed as "the period of giants" in Malayalam film industry, due to the work of film stars Sathyan and Prem Nazir. Nazir catapulted to the row of the finest actors of India with the film "Iruttinte Athmavu" (1967). Playing a demented youth – Velayadhan, Nazir discovered his prowess as a dramatic actor of great intensity. Many critics have evaluated this role as his masterpiece, and as one of the finest onscreen performances ever. He holds the record for having acted in the most leading roles – about 700 films. Another record is for the most enduring screen team along with actress Sheela. They played opposite each other in 130 movies. It was also the time when Rajkumar shot to fame. Rajkumar acted in more than 200 movies who also won National Awards for singing songs like "Naadamaya Ee Lokavella" from the movie "Jeevana Chaitra". His film Bangaaradha Manushya created a record at the box office for successfully running in the main theaters for more than two continuous years. He later spearheaded the Kannada language movement, followed by millions of his fans, however the star remained away from politics.


title: Cinema of South India

text: South Indian films, whether Kannada, Malayalam, Telugu, or Tamil, have been predominantly rooted in their specific geography. They tell stories that are in tune with the culture, dialect, politics, social structure, and lifestyle of the people in their respective regions. This can be seen in the films of Padmarajan or Bharathiraja that were set in the Malayali or Tamil milieu respectively. Similarly, K. Viswanath directed films based on arts performing and visual, aesthetics, social structure and lifestyle of Telugu people. South Indian cinema has been able to find audiences across India, and even outside because of its ability to remain rooted in a certain milieu, while appealing to the collective “Indian” sensibility, whereas Hindi films, of late aren’t able to strike this balance because of their essential non-rootedness. For many years, films in Hindi have gone urbane and elitist, while down South, they remained rooted in telling the stories of people in a way they can enjoy as their own.


title: CHARGE syndrome

text: CHARGE syndrome (formerly known as CHARGE association) is a rare syndrome caused by a genetic disorder. First described in 1979, the acronym "CHARGE" came into use for newborn children with the congenital features of coloboma of the eye, heart defects, atresia of the nasal choanae, retardation of growth and/or development, genital and/or urinary abnormalities, and ear abnormalities and deafness. These features are no longer used in making a diagnosis of CHARGE syndrome, but the name remains. About two thirds of cases are due to a CHD7 mutation. CHARGE syndrome occurs only in 0.1–1.2 per 10,000 live births; as of 2009, it was the leading cause of congenital deafblindness in the US.


title: CHARGE syndrome

text: CHARGE syndrome was formerly referred to as CHARGE association, which indicates a non-random pattern of congenital anomalies that occurs together more frequently than one would expect on the basis of chance. Very few people with CHARGE will have 100% of its known features. In 2004, mutations on the CHD7 gene (located on Chromosome 8) were found in 10 of 17 patients in the Netherlands, making CHARGE an official syndrome. A 2006 US study of 110 individuals with CHARGE syndrome showed that 60% of those tested had a mutation of the CHD7 gene.


title: CHARGE syndrome

text: In 2010, a review of 379 clinically diagnosed cases of CHARGE syndrome, in which CHD7 mutation testing was undertaken found that 67% of cases were due to a CHD7 mutation. CHD7 is a member of the chromodomain helicase DNA-binding (CHD) protein family that plays a role in transcription regulation by chromatin remodeling.


title: CHARGE syndrome

text: The diagnosis of CHARGE syndrome is often difficult, because it is rare. The syndrome spans many disciplines, and as such, can be diagnosed by a pediatrician, family medicine physician, oral and maxillofacial surgeon, ENT specialist, ophthalmologist, endocrinologist, cardiologist, urologist, developmental specialist, radiologist, geneticist, physiotherapist, occupational therapist, speech therapist, or orthopedic specialist.


title: CHARGE syndrome

text: Although genetic testing positively identifies nearly two thirds of children with CHARGE syndrome, diagnosis is still largely clinical. The following signs were originally identified in children with this syndrome, but are no longer used to make the diagnosis alone.


title: CHARGE syndrome

text: Genetic testing for CHARGE syndrome involves specific genetic testing for the CHD7 gene. The test is available at most major genetic testing laboratories. Insurance companies sometimes do not pay for such genetic tests, though this is changing rapidly as genetic testing is becoming standard across all aspects of medicine. CHARGE syndrome is a clinical diagnosis, which means genetic testing is not required in order to make the diagnosis. Rather, the diagnosis can be made based on clinical features alone.


title: CHARGE syndrome

text: Once the diagnosis is made based on clinical signs, it is important to investigate other body systems that may be involved. For example, if the diagnosis is made based on the abnormal appearance of the ears and developmental delay, it is important to check the child's hearing, vision, heart, nose, and urogenital system. Ideally, every child newly diagnosed with CHARGE syndrome should have a complete evaluation by an ENT specialist, audiologist, ophthalmologist, pediatric cardiologist, developmental therapist, and pediatric urologist.


title: CHARGE syndrome

text: Children with CHARGE syndrome may have a number of life-threatening medical conditions; with advances in medical care, these children can survive and can thrive with the support of a multidisciplinary team of medical professionals. Therapies and education must take into consideration hearing impairment, vision problems, and any others. Early intervention, such as occupational, speech-language, and physical therapy, to improve static posture, ambulation, and self-care skills is important. The intelligence of children with multiple health impairments, such as combined deafblindness, can be underestimated in the absence of early intervention.


title: CHARGE syndrome

text: Children with CHARGE syndrome will vary greatly in their abilities in the classroom: some may need little support, while some may require full-time support and individualized programs.


title: CHARGE syndrome

text: Taking each of the various affected body systems into account is vital to the success of the child in the educational setting.


title: CHARGE syndrome

text: An important step in dealing with abnormal behavior is understanding why it is occurring and helping the child learn more appropriate methods of communicating.


title: CHARGE syndrome

text: The incidence is estimated to range from 0.1 to 1.2 per 10,000 live births, though the true incidence is unknown. As of 2005, the highest prevalence was found in Canada and estimated at 1 in 8,500 live births.


title: CHARGE syndrome

text: B.D. Hall first described the CHARGE association in a 1979 journal paper of about 17 children who had been born with choanal atresia. During the same year, H.M. Hittner described 10 children who had choanal atresia as well as coloboma, congenital heart defect, and hearing loss. Using both coloboma or choanal atresia and some of the other related characteristic malformations, R. A. Pagon first coined the acronym CHARGE in 1981 to emphasize that this cluster of associated malformations occurred together.


title: CHARGE syndrome

text: It came to be recognised as a syndrome within the umbrella of the CHARGE association, a set of apparently random signs occurring together. Since the signs seen in CHARGE are caused by a genetic anomaly, its name was eventually changed to 'CHARGE syndrome'.


title: CHARGE syndrome

text: The CHARGE Syndrome Foundation, formally incorporated in 1993, is a US-based organization for individuals with CHARGE syndrome, families, researchers, and clinicians to further research and scientific knowledge about CHARGE Syndrome. The Foundation holds a biennial international conference that was first held in 1993.


title: Expansion joint

text: An expansion joint, or movement joint, is an assembly designed to hold parts together while safely absorbing temperature-induced expansion and contraction of building materials, and vibration, or to allow movement due to ground settlement or seismic activity. They are commonly found between sections of buildings, bridges, sidewalks, railway tracks, piping systems, ships, and other structures.


title: Expansion joint

text: Building faces, concrete slabs, and pipelines expand and contract due to warming and cooling from seasonal variation, or due to other heat sources. Before expansion joint gaps were built into these structures, they would crack under the stress induced.


title: Expansion joint

text: Bridge expansion joints are designed to allow for continuous traffic between structures while accommodating movement, shrinkage, and temperature variations on reinforced and prestressed concrete, composite, and steel structures. They stop the bridge from bending out of place in extreme conditions, and also allow enough vertical movement to permit bearing replacement without the need to dismantle the bridge expansion joint. There are various types, which can accommodate movement from , including joints for small movement (EMSEAL BEJS, XJS, JEP, WR, WOSd, and Granor AC-AR), medium movement (ETIC EJ, Wd), and large movement (WP, ETIC EJF/Granor SFEJ).


title: Expansion joint

text: Modular expansion joints are used when the movements of a bridge exceed the capacity of a single gap joint or a finger type joint. One watertight system, invented by the Swiss company Mageba, is designed on a modular basis and can be tailored to satisfy the specific requirements of almost any structure. Modular multiple-gap expansion joints can accommodate movements in all directions and rotations about every axis. They can be used for longitudinal movements of as little as 160 mm, or for very large movements of over 3000 mm. The total movement of the bridge deck is divided among a number of individual gaps which are created by horizontal surface beams. The individual gaps are sealed by watertight elastomeric profiles, and surface beam movements are regulated by an elastic control system. The drainage of the joint is via the drainage system of the bridge deck. Certain joints feature so-called “sinus plates” on their surface, which reduce noise from over-passing traffic by up to 80%.


title: Expansion joint

text: Clay bricks expand as they absorb heat and moisture. This places compression stress on the bricks and mortar, encouraging bulging or flaking. A joint replacing mortar with elastomeric sealant will absorb the compressive forces without damage. Concrete decking (most typically in sidewalks) can suffer similar horizontal issues, which is usually relieved by adding a wooden spacer between the slabs. The wooden expansion joint compresses as the concrete expands. Dry, rot-resistant cedar is typically used, with a row of nails protruding out that will embed into the concrete and hold the spacer in place.


title: Expansion joint

text: Control joints, or contraction joints, are sometimes confused with expansion joints, but have a different purpose and function. Concrete and asphalt have relatively weak tensile strength, and typically form random cracks as they age, shrink, and are exposed to environmental stresses (including stresses of thermal expansion and contraction). Control joints attempt to attenuate cracking by designating lines for stress relief. They are cut into pavement at regular intervals. Cracks tend to form along the cuts, rather than in random fashion elsewhere. This is primarily an aesthetic issue; the appearance of even, regular cracking, which may be hidden in the joint’s crevice, is often preferred over random cracking.


title: Expansion joint

text: Thus, expansion joints "reduce cracks", including in the overall structure, while control joints "manage cracks," primarily along the visual surface.


title: Expansion joint

text: Roadway control joints may be sealed with hot tar, cold sealant (such as silicone), or compression sealant (such as rubber or polymers based crossed linked foams). Mortar with a breakaway bond may be used to fill some control joints.


title: Expansion joint

text: Control joints must have adequate depth and not exceed maximum spacing for them to be effective. Typical specifications for a four-inch-thick slab are:


title: Expansion joint

text: If a railway track runs over a bridge which has expansion joints that move more than a few millimeters, the track must be able to compensate this longer expansion or contraction. On the other hand, the track must always provide a continuous surface for the wheels traveling over it. These conflicting requirements are served by special expansion joints, where two rails glide along with each other at a very acute angle during expansion or contraction. They are typically seen near one or both ends of large steel bridges. Such an expansion joint looks somewhat like the tongue of a railroad switch, but with a different purpose and operation.


title: Expansion joint

text: Expansion joints are required in large ducted air systems to allow fixed pieces of piping to be largely free of stress as thermal expansion occurs. Bends in elbows also can accommodate this. Expansion joints also isolate pieces of equipment such as fans from the rigid ductwork, thereby reducing vibration to the ductwork as well as allowing the fan to “grow” as it comes up to the operating air system temperature without placing stress on the fan or the fixed portions of ductwork.


title: Expansion joint

text: An expansion joint is designed to allow deflection in the axial (compressive), lateral (shear), or angular (bending) deflections. Expansion joints can be non-metallic or metallic (often called bellows type). Non-metallic can be a single ply of rubberized material or a composite made of multiple layers of heat and erosion resistant flexible material. Typical layers are: outer cover to act a gas seal, a corrosion-resistant material such as Teflon, a layer of fiberglass to act as an


title: Expansion joint

text: insulator and to add durability, several layers of insulation to ensure that the heat transfer from the flue gas is reduced to the required temperature and an inside layer.


title: Expansion joint

text: A bellows is made up of a series of one or more convolutions of metal to allow the axial, lateral, or angular deflection.


title: Expansion joint

text: Pipe expansion joints are necessary in systems that convey high temperature substances such as steam or exhaust gases, or to absorb movement and vibration. A typical joint is a bellows of metal (most commonly stainless steel), plastic (such as PTFE), fabric (such as glass fibre) or an elastomer such as rubber.


title: Expansion joint

text: A bellows is made up of a series of convolutions, with the shape of the convolution designed to withstand the internal pressures of the pipe, but flexible enough to accept axial, lateral, and angular deflections. Expansion joints are also designed for other criteria, such as noise absorption, anti-vibration, earthquake movement, and building settlement. Metal expansion joints have to be designed according to rules laid out by EJMA, for fabric expansion joints there are guidelines and a state-of-the-art description by the Quality Association for Fabric Expansion Joints. Pipe expansion joints are also known as "compensators", as they compensate for the thermal movement.


title: Expansion joint

text: Expansion joints are often included in industrial piping systems to accommodate movement due to thermal and mechanical changes in the system. When the process requires large changes in temperature, metal components change size. Expansion joints with metal bellows are designed to accommodate certain movements while minimizing the transfer of forces to sensitive components in the system.


title: Expansion joint

text: Pressure created by pumps or gravity is used to move fluids through the piping system. Fluids under pressure occupy the volume of their container. The unique concept of pressure balanced expansion joints is they are designed to maintain a constant volume by having balancing bellows compensate for volume changes in the bellows (line bellows) which is moved by the pipe. An early name for these devices was “pressure-volumetric compensator”.


title: Expansion joint

text: Rubber expansion joints are mainly manufactured by manual wrapping of rubber sheets and fabric reinforced rubber sheets around a bellows-shaped product mandrel. Besides rubber and fabric, reinforced rubber and/or steel wires or metal rings are added for additional reinforcement. After the entire product is built up on the mandrel, it is covered with a winding of (nylon) peel ply to pressurize all layers together. Because of the labor-intensive production process, a large part of the production has moved to eastern Europe and Asian countries.


title: Expansion joint

text: Some types of rubber expansion joints are made with a molding process. Typical joints that are molded are medium-sized expansion joints with bead rings, which are produced in large quantities. These rubber expansion joints are manufactured on a cylindrical mandrel, which is wrapped with bias cut fabric ply. At the end the bead rings are positioned and the end sections are folded inwards over the bead rings. This part is finally placed in a mold and molded into shape and vulcanized. This is a highly automated solution for large quantities of the same type of joint.


title: Expansion joint

text: New technology has been developed to wind rubber and reinforcement layers on the (cylindrical or bellows-shaped) mandrel automatically using industrial robots instead of manual wrapping. This is fast and accurate and provides repeatable high quality. Another aspect of using industrial robots for the production of rubber expansion joints is the possibility to apply an individual reinforcement layer instead of using pre-woven fabric. The fabric reinforcement is pre-woven and cut at the preferred bias angle. With individual reinforcement it is possible to add more or less fiber material at different sections of the product by changing the fiber angles over the length of the product.


title: Expansion joint

text: Internal liners can be used to either protect the metallic bellows from erosion or reduce turbulence across the bellows. They must be used when purge connectors are included in the design. In order to provide enough clearance in the liner design, appropriate lateral and angular movements must be specified by the designer. When designing an expansion joint with combination ends, flow direction must be specified as well.


title: Expansion joint

text: External covers or shrouds should be used to protect the internal bellows from being damaged. They also serve a purpose as insulation of the bellows. Covers can either be designed as removable or permanent accessories.


title: Expansion joint

text: In systems that have a media with significant particulate content (i.e. flash or catalyst), a barrier of ceramic fiber can be utilized to prevent corrosion and restricted bellows flexibility resulting from the accumulation of the particulate. Purge connectors may also be utilized to perform this same function. Internal liners must also be included in the design if the expansion joint includes purge connectors or particulate barriers.


title: Expansion joint

text: Limit rods may be used in an expansion joint design to limit the axial compression or expansion. They allow the expansion joint to move over a range according to where the nut stops are placed along the rods. Limit rods are used to prevent bellows over-extension while restraining the full pressure thrust of the system.


title: Expansion joint

text: Expansion joint failure can occur for various reasons, but experience shows that failures fall into several distinct categories. This list includes, but is not limited to: shipping and handling damage, improper installation/insufficient protection, during/after installation, improper anchoring, guiding, and supporting of the system, anchor failure in service, corrosion, system over-pressure, excessive bellows deflection, torsion, bellows erosion, and particulate matter in bellows convolutions restricting proper movement.


title: Expansion joint

text: There are various actions that can be taken to prevent and minimize expansion joint failure. During installation, prevent any damage to the bellows by carefully following the instructions furnished by the manufacturer. After installation, carefully inspect the entire piping system to see if any damage occurred during installation, if the expansion joint is in the proper location, and if the expansion joint flow direction and positioning is correct. Also, periodically inspect the expansion joint throughout the operating life of the system in order to check for external corrosion, loosening of threaded fasteners and deterioration of anchors, guides, and other hardware.


title: Expansion joint

text: Other types of expansion joints can include: fabric expansion joint, metal expansion joint (Pressure balanced expansion joints are a type of Metal expansion joints), toroidal expansion joint, gimbal expansion joint, universal expansion joint, in-line expansion joint, refractory lined expansion joint, hinged expansion joint, reinforced expansion joint and more.


title: Expansion joint

text: Copper expansion joints are excellent materials designed for the movement of building components due to temperature, loads, and settlement. Copper is easy to form and lasts a long time. Details regarding roof conditions, roof edges, floors, are available.


title: National Vocational Qualification

text: National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs) are practical work-based awards in England, Wales and Northern Ireland that are achieved through assessment and training. The regulatory framework supporting NVQs was withdrawn in 2015 and replaced by the Regulated Qualifications Framework (RQF), although the term "NVQ" may be used in RQF qualifications if they "are based on recognised occupational standards, work-based and/or simulated work-based assessment and where they confer occupational competence".


title: National Vocational Qualification

text: As the NVQ are based on a student's practical skills, it is completed in the workplaces. The NVQ was assessed through building up a portfolio of evidence based on the student's professional experience. At the end of the NVQ, the student undergoes final practical assessments, during which an NVQ assessor will observe and ask questions. To achieve an NVQ, candidates have to prove that they had the ability (competence) to carry out their job to the required standard. NVQs are based upon meeting National Occupational Standards which described the "competencies" expected in any given job role.


title: National Vocational Qualification

text: NVQ's are not awarded by Pass or Fail: instead the NVQ grading criteria was either awarding a successful ‘Competent’ award (which was seen as passing the NVQ). Alternatively, if further work needed completing, the student receives a ‘Not Yet Competent’ (which was regarded as failing the NVQ). Typically, candidates worked towards an NVQ that reflected their role in a paid or voluntary position. For example, someone working in an admin office role may take an NVQ in Business and Administration. There were five levels of NVQ ranging from Level 1, which focuses on basic work activities, to Level 5 for senior management.


title: National Vocational Qualification

text: Although NVQ's such as a NVQ Level 3 can be roughly translated as being at the same level as a GCE Advanced Level or BTEC Level 3 Extended Diploma, in terms of depth and vigor of study, the NVQ cannot be compared with other academic qualifications at the same level, i.e. GCE Advanced Levels and the BTEC Level 3 Extended Diploma (A* at A-Level is equivalent to a D* at BTEC Level 3). For this reason, the NVQ Level 3 does not attract UCAS points and cannot be used for university admission.


title: National Vocational Qualification

text: In Scotland the approximately equivalent qualification is the Scottish Vocational Qualification. They are the responsibility of the Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Apprenticeships and Skills in the Department for Education.


title: National Vocational Qualification

text: NVQs are competence-based qualifications. The five levels of NVQ are defined as having the following competencies:


title: National Vocational Qualification

text: Gov.uk lists the equivalents for academic qualifications between the Regulated Qualifications Framework (RQF) and the framework for Higher Education Qualifications (FHEQ).


title: National Vocational Qualification

text: NVQs are not formally defined in terms of equivalence to conventional academic qualifications. However, for the compilation of social statistics and other purposes, approximate equivalences have to be established. The following equivalences are used by the London School of Economics's Research Lab


title: National Vocational Qualification

text: Licentiateship (post nominal: LCGI) sits on level 4 of the National Qualifications Framework, and is therefore comparable to lower NVQ level 4. Both Graduateship (GCGI) and Associateship (ACGI) are at level six of the National Qualifications Framework, compared by OFQUAL to the highest category NVQs of level 4. Membership (MCGI) is placed on NQF level 7, and Fellowship (FCGI) on level 8, compared by OFQUAL to NVQs of level 5. City & Guilds itself ties each NVQ to the level on the NQF with the same number.


title: National Vocational Qualification

text: Both Graduateship (GCGI) and Associateship (ACGI) have been awarded, before the year 2004, at level 5 of NVQ.


title: Ryan Cartwright

text: Cartwright was born on 14 March 1981 in Erdington, Birmingham, West Midlands. He has an older brother, Che Cartwright, who is also an actor.


title: Ryan Cartwright

text: He began acting with the Central Junior Television Workshop. His first major role came at the age of 15 in the British ITV comedy-drama "The Grimleys". He has also appeared in such other British television programmes as "Seriously Weird", "Hardware", "Donovan", "Microsoap", "Look Around You" and "All About Me".


title: Ryan Cartwright

text: Since moving to the US, Cartwright had a recurring role on the television series "Bones" as the laboratory intern Vincent Nigel-Murray, until the death of his character in the season 6 episode "The Hole in the Heart". He also completed filming a Hallmark Channel television film, "Dear Prudence" alongside Jane Seymour, in which he used an American accent. He had a recurring role (as upper class Briton John Hooker) on Season 3 of "Mad Men".


title: Ryan Cartwright

text: He played Gary Bell, an autistic character, on the Syfy television series "Alphas" (2011–2012). To prepare for the role, Cartwright consulted with people who worked with autistic people, watched documentaries, read blogs created by autistic people, and books from autistic authors, such as Temple Grandin and Daniel Tammet. Cartwright's portrayal of Bell has earned praise from the neurological science community, crediting his complexity for eschewing stereotypes of autism previously displayed in mass media.


title: Ryan Cartwright

text: In September 2016, Cartwright began a main role in the CBS sitcom "Kevin Can Wait" as Chale Witt. On 12 May 2018, the series was canceled after two seasons.


title: Kerala cuisine

text: Kerala cuisine is a culinary style originated in the Kerala, a state on the southwestern Malabar Coast of India. Kerala cuisine offers a multitude of both vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes prepared using fish, poultry and red meat with rice as a typical accompaniment. Chillies, curry leaves, coconut, mustard seeds, turmeric, tamarind, asafoetida and other spices are also used in the preparation.


title: Kerala cuisine

text: Kerala is known as the "Land of Spices" because it traded spices with Europe as well as with many ancient civilizations with the oldest historical records of the Sumerians from 3000 BCE.


title: Kerala cuisine

text: In addition to historical diversity, cultural influences, particularly the large introduction of Muslims and Christians, have also added unique dishes and styles to Kerala cuisine, especially non-vegetarian dishes.


title: Kerala cuisine

text: Most modern-day Hindus do not observe religious dietary restrictions, except a few belonging to specific castes that do not consume beef or pork. Most Muslims do not eat pork and other food forbidden by Islamic law. Alcohol is available in Kerala in many hotels and over a thousand bars and liquor stores.


title: Kerala cuisine

text: One of the traditional Kerala dishes is vegetarian and is called the Kerala "sadya". A full-course "sadya", consists of rice with about 20 different accompaniments and desserts, and is the ceremonial meal of Kerala eaten usually on celebratory occasions including weddings, Onam and Vishu. It is served on a plantain leaf.


title: Kerala cuisine

text: Because of its rich trading heritage, over time, various indigenous Kerala dishes have been blended with foreign dishes to adapt them to local tastes. Coconuts grow in abundance in Kerala, so grated coconut and coconut milk are commonly used for thickening and flavouring.


title: Kerala cuisine

text: Kerala's long coastline and numerous rivers have led to a strong fishing industry in the region, making seafood a common part of meals. Rice is grown in abundance along with tapioca. It is the main starch ingredient used in Kerala's food.


title: Kerala cuisine

text: Having been a major production area of spices for thousands of years, the region makes frequent use of black pepper, cardamom, clove, ginger, and cinnamon. Kerala also has a variety of breakfast dishes like "idli," "dosa," "appam," "idiyappam," "puttu," and "pathiri".


title: Kerala cuisine

text: The vast majority of Kerala's Hindus, except certain communities and ovo-lacto vegetarians, eat fish, red meat (beef, carabeef, and pork) and chicken. There are many vegetarians in Kerala, also throughout India.


title: Kerala cuisine

text: Muslim cuisine or Mappila cuisine is a blend of traditional Kerala, Persian, Yemenese, and Arab food culture. This confluence of culinary cultures is best seen in the preparation of most dishes. "Kallummakkaya" (mussels) curry, "irachi puttu" ("irachi" meaning meat), "Pathiri" (a type of rice pancake), and "ghee" rice are some of the other specialties. The characteristic use of spices is the hallmark of Mappila cuisine—black pepper, cardamom, and clove are used profusely.


title: Kerala cuisine

text: "Kuzhi Mandi" (Mandi (food)) is another popular item, which has an influence from Yemen. Malabar biriyani is known as Thalassery biriyani which uses kaima rice for preparation and is called as dum biriyani. Malabar biriyani originated from Thalassery and spread to other places.


title: Kerala cuisine

text: The snacks include "unnakkaya" (deep-fried, boiled ripe banana paste covering a mixture of cashew, raisins and sugar), "pazham nirachathu" (ripe banana filled with coconut grating, molasses or sugar), "muttamala" made of eggs, "chatti pathiri", a dessert made of flour, like a baked, layered "chapati" with rich filling, "arikkadukka", and more.


title: Kerala cuisine

text: Christians of Kerala—especially Mar Thoma Nasranis (St Thomas Christians)—have their own cuisine which is a blend of Indian, Middle Eastern, Syrian, Jewish and Western styles and flavours of cooking.


title: Kerala cuisine

text: A favourite dish of Kerala Christians is "mappas", or ishtu. For this dish, chicken/ beef, potatoes, carrots, green peas and onions are simmered gently in coconut milk flavoured with black pepper, cinnamon, coriander, mint, cloves, green chillies, lime juice, and shallots . In Central Kerala, this is made only with beef or lamb, the usage of chicken in stew is very rare. Lamb and duck can replace chicken in the stew recipe.


title: Kerala cuisine

text: "Pidi" is another dish made mainly by Syrian Christians from Central Kerala (Ernakulam and Thrissur), consisting of dumplings made from rice flour boiled in a mixture of coconut milk, cumin seeds and garlic.""


title: Kerala cuisine

text: Other dishes include "piralen" (chicken stir-fried), "meat thoran/ roast/ullathiyathu" (dry curry with shredded coconut), seafood and duck roast, and "meen molee" (spicy stewed fish). This is eaten with "appam". Pork vindaloo and Meen mulakittathu or meen vatichathu (fish in fiery red chilli sauce) is another favourite item.


title: Kerala cuisine

text: Bread and stew are served after cake and wine at the banquet, followed by a meal with fish, cutlets, salads, pork, vindaloo, fish moli, duck roast and mustad (mustard and coriander skins fried in vinegar) are important in the diet.


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: The was a light tank used by the Empire of Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War, at Nomonhan against the Soviet Union, and in the Second World War. It proved sufficient against infantry but, like the American M3 Stuart light tank, was not designed to combat other tanks. Approximately 2,300 were produced, making it the most numerous Japanese armoured fighting vehicle of the Second World War.


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: From early 1930s, the Japanese army began experimenting with a mechanized warfare unit combining infantry with tanks. However, the Type 89 Medium tank could not keep pace with the motorized infantry, which could move at by truck. For transport, tanks could be loaded on train platforms like in any other army of the times. To solve this problem, Tomio Hara of the Army Technical Bureau proposed a new light tank capable of 40 km/h speed and started development in 1933.


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: The prototype of the tank was begun in 1933 and completed in June 1934 at the Army's Sagami Arsenal. Initial tests were positive, but it was too heavy at 7.5 tons and was reworked to bring the weight down to 6.5 tons. Due to doubts by the infantry as to its capability for infantry support it was tested in Manchuria in the winter of 1934/1935. The reports were favourable and a second prototype built, which was started in June and completed in November 1935.


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: In 1935, at a meeting in the Army Technical Bureau, the Type 95 was proposed as the main tank for mechanized infantry units. The infantry had concerns that the armor was insufficient; however, the cavalry indicated that the improved speed and armament compensated for thin armor. In the end, the infantry agreed, as the Type 95 was still superior to the available alternatives of the Type 92 cavalry tank and Type 94 tankette.


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: The name was based on the year since the beginning of the Empire that the tank was produced; Type 2595. Sometimes a surname was used to supplement or replace the naming ideograms used for Japanese armored fighting vehicles. The Type 95 had the surname "Ha-Go" (third model) that was given by the designer of the tank, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries started production of the tank in 1936. Mass production began in 1938 with the tank and parts made by several different companies; besides Mitsubishi, that included, Niigata Tekkoshō, Dowa Jido Sho, Sagami Arsenal Kokura Rikugu Jiohei Sho and Ihesil.


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: The Type 95 was a 7.4-ton vehicle with a complement of 3 crewmen: a commander, a hull machine gunner, and a driver. Only the commander was seated in the turret, hence he was responsible for observation, loading, aiming, firing the main gun, as well as decision-making and commanding the crew. The hand-operated turret was small and extremely cramped.


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: The primary armament of the most produced version was a Type 94 (1934) 37 mm tank gun (not to be confused with the Type 94 37 mm anti-tank gun introduced two years later) with a barrel length of 46.1 calibers. It elevated between −15 to +20 degrees. The tank carried two types of 37 mm ammunition, the high-explosive and armor-piercing. For the latter, muzzle velocity was and armor penetration was at a distance of .


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: Secondary armament was originally two 6.5 mm Type 91 machine guns, but these were replaced with two 7.7 mm Type 97 light machine guns, one mounted in the hull front and the other in the back of the turret, facing to the rear right (that is, in the five-o-clock direction).


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: The most characteristic feature of the Type 95 tank was its simple suspension system. Army officer Tomio Hara designed the bell crank scissors system. This suspension system became standard on the majority of the subsequently designed Japanese tanks. For the Type 95, two paired bogie wheels per side were suspended on a single bell crank and connected to a coil spring mounted horizontally outside the hull. The tracks were driven through the front sprockets. There were two return wheels. The suspension had troubles early on, with a tendency to pitch on rough ground, and so it was modified with a brace to connect the pairs of bogies. Despite this, the tank continued to give its users a rough ride across any uneven ground. It was provided with an interior layer of asbestos padding separated from the hull with an air gap, to isolate the crew from the sun-heated armor plates, and to protect the crew from injury when the tank moved across rough terrain.


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: The Type 95 was fitted with a 120 hp (89.5 kW) Mitsubishi A6120VDe air-cooled 6-cylinder diesel engine. It was located in the rear compartment on the right side. The power unit gave it good mobility. Some tanks were fitted with two reflectors in the front of the vehicle for night operations.


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: The tank was considered one of the best of its type in 1935, being armed with a 37 mm cannon, and powered by a diesel engine, a fuel considered by some to be superior due to its low volatility. As with most armies in the 1930s the tank, and the light tank in particular, were used primarily to support infantry or serve as cavalry reconnaissance and to a lesser extent, as raiding vehicles. Its speed was about 18 mph cross country, which was comparable to the M3 Stuart's 20 mph nearly 6 years later in 1941. In armor, road speed, and weaponry, the Type 95 was far inferior to the (five years younger) American M3 Stuart light tanks, but the environment of the Philippines (where roads were sparse and tank engagements took place at near point blank range) largely minimized these disadvantages and allowed the Type 95 to be competitive, as its off-road speed and turret rotation were comparable.


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: Type 95 proved sufficient against opposing infantry in campaigns in Manchuria and China, as the Chinese National Revolutionary Army had only three tank battalions consisting of Vickers export tanks, German PzKpfw I light tanks, and Italian CV33 tankettes to oppose them. However, the Type 95, like the US M3 Stuart, was not designed to fight other tanks, but for infantry support. Due to the IJN's priority in receiving new technology and steel for warship construction, tanks for the IJA and used by the IJN's SNLF detachments were relegated to receiving what was left. By 1942, Japanese armor remained largely the same as it did in the 1930s, and new tank development was "stymied".


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: Under the mistaken belief that the Red Army was retreating from the area of the Khalkhyn Gol river, the IJA command in Manchuria transferred the 1st Tank Corps, under the command of Lt. Gen. Yasuoka Masaomi to the village of Nomonhan to cut off the retreating Soviets at Khalkhyn Gol. After a two-day journey by rail, the 1st Tank Corps began unloading its 3rd Tank Regiment and 4th Tank Regiment from their trains at Arshaan in Manchuria on 22 June 1939. While the 3rd Tank Regiment was composed primarily of the nearly decade-old Type 89 medium tanks, the 4th Tank Regiment, commanded by 48-year-old Col. Tamada Yoshio, consisted of 35 Type 95 light tanks, eight Type 89s, and three Type 94 tankettes.


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: From the beginning of Soviet General Zhukov's assumption of command at Nomonhan in June 1939, he had deployed his BT-5 and BT-7 light tanks ("Bystrokhodnyi tanks", meaning "high-speed tank") and incorporated them into all of his combined artillery, infantry and armor attacks. Although in the same light tank category as the Type 95, also with 3 man crews, and similar dimensions, the BT tanks were nearly twice as heavy, at 13.8 tons but were highly susceptible to close-quarter (tank killer) teams using fire bombs (Molotov cocktails); that was primarily due to their gasoline engines. As such, Japanese tank crews held a generally low opinion of the Soviet Red Army tanks, but the BT tank's 45 mm gun was a different matter. With a velocity of over , Soviet tanks could penetrate the Japanese tanks at a range of over 1,000 meters (the Type 95's 37 mm main gun had a maximum effective range of less than 700 meters); as one Type 95 tank officer put it, "...no sooner did we see the flash, than there would be a hole in our tank! And the Soviets were good shots too!"


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: On 2 July 1939, at approximately 18:10 (6:10 pm), Col. Tamada's 4th Tank Regiment of more mobile Type 95 tanks took the lead in front of the medium tanks of the 3rd Tank Regiment, as the 1st Tank Corps launched its first offensive against the Soviet forces at Khalkhin Gol. While the 3rd Tank Regiment passed through Soviet artillery fire, becoming decisively engaged by about 20:00 hours (8 pm) during their movement forward, the 4th Tank Regiment, while avoiding Soviet artillery barrages had advanced in a southeast direction instead of due south, engaging Soviet forces southwest of Uzuru pond. Observing a Soviet artillery battery between himself and his objective, a "junction", Tamada ordered an attack in the darkness. At about 23:00 (11 pm), the 4th Tank moved towards their objective with about 6 meters between tanks and 30 meters between companies and platoons. Just after midnight, a thunderstorm struck, conveniently exposing the Soviet positions while at the same time masking the advancing 4th Tank Regiment. While at close range, the lightning storm suddenly illuminated the advancing Type 95s, and the Soviet defense line immediately opened fire with heavy machine guns, artillery, BT-7 light tanks, and anti-tank guns. However, since the range was so close, the Soviet artillery could not depress their barrels low enough to hit the tanks, and their shells flew wildly over the advancing tanks. At about 00:20 (12:20 am) Tamada ordered the 4th Tank Regiment to "charge", and by 02:00 his light tanks had penetrated over through Soviet lines and knocked out 12 artillery guns.


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: Japanese losses consisted of one Type 95 light tank, one officer and one enlisted man killed and 8 wounded; the 4th Tank had expended approximately 1,100 37 mm and 129 57 mm tank shells, and 16,000 rounds of machine gun ammunition. After the action, the Soviet command acknowledged that 1st Tank Corps armor had reached the Soviet guns.


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: The United States military had been operating in the Philippines since the Philippine–American War (1899-1902) and the United Kingdom had military bases in Singapore since at least the 1840s; they both had many years of so-called "jungle warfare" experience between them, which no doubt influenced their beliefs that "tanks could not operate in those jungles". On the other hand, the IJA had always been focused upon the Soviet Union and China and had never conducted major military campaigns in tropical (jungle) regions. Facing thick and impenetrable jungles, two experienced and powerful armies, and lacking any jungle combat experience themselves, the IJA's Type 95s, together with Type 97 Chi-Ha medium tanks, led the Japanese assault forces into taking British Malaya and Singapore by 15 February in 1942 and Bataan in the US-held Philippines by April in that same year. The Type 95 proved to be an extremely successful light tank during the early military campaigns of Japan leading into mid-1942. The "rough terrain" did not prove to be a severe obstacle for the generally-light Japanese armour. In addition, poor planning on the part of the British Army resulted in very few to practically no tanks being deployed by the UK in British Malaya or the British colony of Burma by December 1941.


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: America's first tank versus tank battle of World War II occurred when Type 95 light tanks of the IJA 4th Tank Regiment engaged a US Army tank platoon, consisting of five brand new M3 Stuart light tanks from "B" company, 192nd Tank Battalion, on 22 December 1941, north of Damortis during the retreat to the Bataan Peninsula in 1941. Both the M3 and Type 95 light tanks were armed with a 37 mm gun, but the M3 was better armored, with 32 mm (1¼ inches) thick turret sides, vs the Type 95's 12 mm thick armor; however, as the US Army's Ballistics Research Lab (BRL) found after conducting the first large study of tank vs tank warfare in 1945, the most important factor in a tank duel was which side spotted the enemy first, fired first, and hit first. In this first engagement the IJA reacted first, destroying the lead M3 as it tried to leave the road. The four remaining American tanks all suffered hits as they retreated.


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: On 6 June 1942, the Japanese 3rd Special Naval Landing Forces (SNLF) landed on Kiska Island during the Japanese invasion of the Aleutian Islands, part of today's state of Alaska. The SNLF landing was reinforced by Type 95 light tanks from the IJAs 11th Tank Regiment, which became the only enemy tanks to ever land on United States soil. After the U.S./Allied landing of Kiska to recapture the island in August 1943, the U.S. captured two Type 95s and transported them to Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland for study and evaluation.


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: Two Type 95 tanks were deployed to support the Japanese landing at Milne Bay, New Guinea, in late August 1942. Initially, the tanks proved successful against the lightly armed Australian infantry, whose 'sticky bombs' failed to stick due to the humidity. Although the tanks had proved reliable in the tropical conditions of Malaya, they could not handle the volume of mud caused by intense, almost daily rainfall at Milne Bay. One tank was knocked out by a Boys anti-tank rifle and the other bogged down and was abandoned a few days after the landing.


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: The Type 95 first began to show its vulnerability during later battles against British/Commonwealth forces, where the tank's 37 mm gun could not penetrate the armor of the British Matilda infantry tanks which were deployed against them. The thin armor of the Type 95 made it increasingly vulnerable, as Allied forces realized that standard infantry weapons were capable of penetrating the minimal armor around the engine block, and even its thickest armor was vulnerable to heavy machine gun fire. By 1944, it was already known that the 10-year-old Type 95's firepower was insufficient to take on the newest US tanks, such as the medium M4 Sherman, or the M5 Stuart light tank, although the Type 95 could still give the older M3 Stuart a run for its money at close range.


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: In August 1942, the US launched its first counter-offensive against Japan, when it landed US Marines on Guadalcanal. The US Marine Corps deployed its 1st Tank Battalion, which was equipped with the only M2A4 light tanks to see combat with US forces during World War II. The M2A4 was the foundation for the M3 Stuart, and both vehicles were nearly identical when viewed side by side; with the primary difference being the rear idler wheel lowered to the ground on the M3. Although the M2A4 was newer by five years, being built in 1940, than the Type 95, it was the closest US tank in armament and armor to the Type 95; with 25 mm (1") thick turret sides vs the 95's 12 mm turret sides; and both tanks were equipped with 37 mm main guns. Several Type 95s were destroyed or captured by the United States Army during the Battle of Biak in 1944. As the tide of the war turned against Japan, the Type 95s were increasingly expended in banzai charges or were dug-in as pillboxes in static defense positions in the Japanese-occupied islands. During the Battle of Tarawa, seven entrenched Type 95s of the 7th Sasebo SNLF opposed the American landings. Those seven, along with the two on nearby Makin Island, were destroyed. More were destroyed on Parry Island and on Eniwetok. On Saipan, Type 95s attacked the Marine beachhead at dawn on 16 June 1944, and were destroyed by tank fire. The Marines had landed the day before with two tank battalions. On the night of 16–17 June, the Japanese made an "all-out counterattack". Leading the attack were 44 tanks of the IJA 9th Tank Regiment. The Type 97s and Type 95s were knocked out by a Marine platoon of M4A2 tanks, several M3 75mm half-tracks, bazookas and 37mm antitank guns. It was the largest Japanese armor attack of the war.


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: During the Battle of Guam, 29 Type 97 and Type 95 tanks of the IJA 9th Tank Regiment and nine Type 95s of the 24th Tank Company were lost to bazooka fire or M4 tanks. Seven more were destroyed on Tinian on 24 July, and 15 more on Battle of Peleliu on 15 September. Likewise, in the Philippines, at least ten Type 95s were destroyed in various engagements on Leyte, and another 20 on Luzon. At the Battle of Okinawa, 13 Type 95s and 14 Type 97 "Shinhoto" medium tanks of the understrength IJA 27th Tank Regiment faced 800 American tanks of eight US Army and two USMC tank battalions.


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: In 1942 the IJA pushed through Southeast Asia, through Thailand and into Burma, and headed for India. Type 95 light tanks of the IJA 14th Tank Regiment led the way. They engaged the M3 Stuarts of the British 7th Hussars and 2nd Royal Tank Regiment, and as the British retreated towards India, the IJA re-equipped their armoured units, following significant losses of Type 95s in combat, with at least some captured M3 Stuarts seized from the British. By 1944, the 14th Tank Regiment was effectively starved of its combat supplies due to British deep battle tactics of cutting the IJA's logistical lines, and a final push by the IJA was stopped at Imphal in northeastern India.


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: In the Battle of Hukawng Valley, Type 95s of the 18th Division were joined by remnants of the 14th Tank Division. They were met with the offensive launched by the India-based Nationalist Chinese Army but the Japanese troops were virtually annihilated with the rest of the division as only 1,700 out of the 12,000 strong Chrysanthemum Division managed to break out.


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: When the M4 Sherman became available for the British to use in the North Africa campaign, they were able to transfer their M3 Medium tanks to India and Burma, which by then had become obsolete in the fighting in Europe, but the Type 95 was outclassed by these M3 tanks. When the war ended in 1945 and Japan capitulated, many Type 95s were left behind in China. They were used on both the Nationalist and Communist sides during the Chinese Civil War. After the Communists' victory in 1949, the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) continued to use them in their inventory.


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: Although tank brigades equipped with the Type 95 were present during the 1945 Soviet invasion of Manchuria, the war ended before the Red Army had engaged their main formations. The only use of the Type 95 in any numbers against Soviet forces was at the Battle of Shumshu during the Invasion of the Kuril Islands, when shortly before the Japanese surrender had been finalized, they formed part of an armored force which unsuccessfully attacked the Soviet beach head, but was defeated by their anti-tank guns.


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: Although no surviving examples of the Type 95 light tank remain in Japan, a number have been preserved at museums around the world. In 2007, the Oregon Military Museum sponsored the complete reconstruction of a Type 95 light tank. The tank is no longer operational, however, as the original engine encountered mechanical issues and lost oil pressure during a test drive. A second running Type-95 recovered from a Pacific island and restored largely in Poland is currently on loan to the Tank Museum at Bovington UK by its private owner. Following restoration and public debut at Bovington Tankfest 2019 this vehicle has been sold to a Japanese buyer and will be returned to Japan for presentation and public display once the COVID-19 situation permits.


title: Type 95 Ha-Go light tank

text: In addition to the examples detailed above, a replica of the Type 95 is exhibited at the National Museum of Singapore. The model was originally one of four models constructed for Tom Hanks and Steven Spielberg's 2010 mini-series, "The Pacific".


title: 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification (CONMEBOL)

text: The South American section of the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification acted as qualifiers for the 2018 FIFA World Cup held in Russia, for national teams which are members of the South American Football Confederation (CONMEBOL). A total of 4.5 slots (4 direct slots and 1 inter-confederation play-off slot) in the final tournament were available for CONMEBOL teams.


text: Two-time defending Copa América champions Chile did not qualify for 2018 FIFA World Cup after a 3–0 loss to Brazil on the final day of qualifying campaign, resulting in a sixth-place finish. As a result, following intercontinental play-offs against the record five-time OFC Nations Cup champions New Zealand, Peru qualified for the World Cup for the first time since 1982.


text: The qualification structure was the same as for the previous five tournaments. The ten teams played in a league of home-and-away round-robin matches. The top four teams qualified for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, and the fifth-placed team advanced to the inter-confederation play-offs.


text: Unlike previous qualifying tournaments where the fixtures were pre-determined, the fixtures were determined by draw, which was held as part of the 2018 FIFA World Cup Preliminary Draw on 25 July 2015, starting 18:00 MSK (), at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg, Russia.


text: For scheduling reasons, Argentina and Brazil were automatically positioned as Teams 4 and 5 respectively to ensure that no team has to play both of them on any double matchday. The remaining eight teams were drawn into one of the remaining eight positions from Teams 1 to 10 (except 4 and 5).


text: Note: Bolded teams qualified for the World Cup. "Peru" advanced to the inter-confederation play-offs.


text: The draw for the inter-confederation play-offs was held as part of the 2018 FIFA World Cup Preliminary Draw on 25 July 2015, starting 18:00 MSK (), at the Konstantinovsky Palace in Strelna, Saint Petersburg. The fifth-placed team from CONMEBOL was drawn against the first-placed team from OFC, with the CONMEBOL team hosting the second leg.


title: Kenya Air Force

text: The main airbase operating fighters is Laikipia Air Base in Nanyuki, while Moi Air Base in Eastleigh, Nairobi is the headquarters. Other bases include Forward Operating Base (FOB) Mombasa (Moi International Airport), FOB Mandera, FOB Wajir & FOB Nyeri (mainly helicopters/small planes).


title: Kenya Air Force

text: The Kenya Air Force flies some two dozen F-5E/F Tiger II fighters, a dozen Tucano trainers, a dozen Y-12 transport aircraft, half a dozen G120A basic trainers, several dozen MD500 helicopters.


title: Kenya Air Force

text: Kenya also flies small numbers of other different types, such as Pumas, Mi-17s etc. Recent acquisitions include AW139, AS350 FENNEC, UH-1H helicopters, H124M Fennec, MD530Fs and C-27J Spartan transports.


title: Kenya Air Force

text: In 2017 Jordan donated 2 confirmed AH-1 Cobra attack helicopters for the air force; these together with the Army's 50th Air Cavalry helicopters are controlled by the Joint Helicopter Command based at Embakasi Garrison.


title: Kenya Air Force

text: The Kenya Air Force was formed on 1 June 1964, soon after independence, with the assistance of the United Kingdom.


title: Kenya Air Force

text: Former aircraft in service included de Havilland Canada Chipmunks and Beavers (since 1974), six Hawker Hunters (bought from RAF, in operation from 1974–79), six BAC Strikemaster fighters (in operation from 1971), and 12 BAE Systems Hawks delivered in 1980. All these types have now been withdrawn.


title: Kenya Air Force

text: As a result of the war over the Ogaden region between Ethiopia and Somalia and tensions with neighboring Uganda, the Kenya Air Force ordered 10 F-5Es and 2 F-5Fs in 1976. Deliveries took place in 1978 and give Kenya's air force an interceptor capability for the first time in its history. Two F-5Fs were delivered as attrition replacements in July 1982. From 1979–1982 President Daniel arap Moi used Northrop F-5 fighter jets to escort his flights in and out of the country; later commentators have pointed out that there was no threat justifying the waste of fuel and the difficult and complex requirements of the escort mission.


title: Kenya Air Force

text: After a failed coup by a group of Air Force officers on 1 August 1982, the Air Force was disbanded. Air Force activity was reconstituted and placed under tighter army control as the 82 Air Force. The Air Force regained its independent status in 1994.


title: Kenya Air Force

text: On 10 April 2006 a KAF Harbin Y-12 crashed near Marsabit with 17 on board, of whom 14 died. It was carrying several local and national politicians; Bonaya Godana, a former minister, was among the casualties. The pilot in command was Major David Njoroge.


title: Kenya Air Force

text: Since 1978, the F-5 has been the KAF's main air defence fighter. A total of 29 were delivered: 12 F-5E & 2 F-5F from the US, and 10 F-5E, 3 F-5EM, & 2 F-5F formerly in service with the Royal Jordanian Air Force (RJAF). The ex-RJAF aircraft were upgraded to F-5EM standard before being delivered to the Kenya Air Force. There was controversy over the purchase of the F-5s from Jordan, which were shipped to Kenya and assembled locally, Currently a F-5 upgrade and procurement program is underway for 10 F-5E, 2 F-5F, and 3 F-5EM from Jordan.