title: Paratyphoid fever

text: Paratyphoid fever, also known simply as paratyphoid, is a bacterial infection caused by one of the three types of "Salmonella enterica". Symptoms usually begin 6–30 days after exposure and are the same as those of typhoid fever. Often, a gradual onset of a high fever occurs over several days. Weakness, loss of appetite, and headaches also commonly occur. Some people develop a skin rash with rose-colored spots. Without treatment, symptoms may last weeks or months. Other people may carry the bacteria without being affected; however, they are still able to spread the disease to others. Typhoid and paratyphoid are of similar severity. Paratyphoid and typhoid fever are types of enteric fever.


title: Paratyphoid fever

text: Paratyphoid is caused by the bacterium "Salmonella enterica" of the serotypes Paratyphi A, Paratyphi B, or Paratyphi C growing in the intestines and blood. They are usually spread by eating or drinking food or water contaminated with the feces of an infected person. They may occur when a person who prepares food is infected. Risk factors include poor sanitation as is found among poor crowded populations. Occasionally, they may be transmitted by sex. Humans are the only animals infected. Diagnosis may be based on symptoms and confirmed by either culturing the bacteria or detecting the bacterial DNA in the blood, stool, or bone marrow. Culturing the bacteria can be difficult. Bone-marrow testing is the most accurate. Symptoms are similar to those of many other infectious diseases. Typhus is a different disease.


title: Paratyphoid fever

text: While no vaccine is available specifically for paratyphoid, the typhoid vaccine may provide some benefit. Prevention includes drinking clean water, better sanitation, and better handwashing. Treatment of the disease is with antibiotics such as azithromycin. Resistance to a number of other previously effective antibiotics is common.


title: Paratyphoid fever

text: Paratyphoid affects about six million people a year. It is most common in parts of Asia and rare in the developed world. Most cases are due to Paratyphi A rather than Paratyphi B or C. In 2015, paratyphoid fever resulted in about 29,200 deaths, down from 63,000 deaths in 1990. The risk of death is between 10% and 15% without treatment, while with treatment, it may be less than 1%.


title: Paratyphoid fever

text: Paratyphoid fever resembles typhoid fever. Infection is characterized by a sustained fever, headache, abdominal pain, malaise, anorexia, a nonproductive cough (in early stage of illness), a relative bradycardia (slow heart rate), and hepatosplenomegaly (an enlargement of the liver and spleen). About 30% of Caucasians develop rosy spots on the central body. In adults, constipation is more common than diarrhea.


title: Paratyphoid fever

text: Only 20 to 40% of people initially have abdominal pain. Nonspecific symptoms such as chills, sweating, headache, loss of appetite, cough, weakness, sore throat, dizziness, and muscle pains are frequently present before the onset of fever. Some very rare symptoms are psychosis (mental disorder), confusion, and seizures.


title: Paratyphoid fever

text: Paratyphoid fever is caused by any of three serovars of "Salmonella enterica" subsp. "enterica": "S." Paratyphi A, "S." Paratyphi B (invalid alias "S. schottmuelleri"), "S." Paratyphi C (invalid alias "S. hirschfeldii").


title: Paratyphoid fever

text: They are usually spread by eating or drinking food or water contaminated with the feces of an infected person. They may occur when a person who prepares food is infected. Risk factors include poor sanitation as is found among poor crowded populations. Occasionally, they may be transmitted by sex. Humans are the only animals infected.


title: Paratyphoid fever

text: Paratyphoid B is more frequent in Europe. It can present as a typhoid-like illness, as a severe gastroenteritis or with features of both. Herpes labialis, rare in true typhoid fever, is frequently seen in paratyphoid B. Rarely a subdural empyema can occur. Diagnosis is with isolation of the agent in blood or stool and demonstration of antibodies antiBH in the Widal test. The disease responds well to chloramphenicol or co-trimoxazole.


title: Paratyphoid fever

text: Paratyphoid C is a rare infection, generally seen in the Far East. It presents as a septicaemia with metastatic abscesses. Cholecystitis is possible in the course of the disease. Antibodies to paratyphoid C are not usually tested and the diagnosis is made with blood cultures. Chloramphenicol therapy is generally effective.


title: Paratyphoid fever

text: Humans and, occasionally, domestic animals are the carriers of paratyphoid fever. Members of the same family can be transient or permanent carriers. In most parts of the world, short-term fecal carriers are more common than urinary carriers. The chronic urinary carrier state occurs in those who have schistosomiasis (parasitic blood fluke).


title: Paratyphoid fever

text: Continuing to shed "Salmonella" Paratyphi is possible for up to one year, and during this phase, a person is considered to be a carrier. The chronic carrier state may follow acute illness, or mild or even subclinical infections. Chronic carriers are most often women who were infected in their middle age.


title: Paratyphoid fever

text: After ingestion, if the immune system is unable to stop the infection, the bacteria multiply and then spread to the bloodstream, after which the first signs of disease are observed in the form of fever. They penetrate further to the bone marrow, liver, and bile ducts, from which bacteria are excreted into the bowel contents. In the second phase of the disease, the bacteria penetrate the immune tissue of the small intestine, and the initial symptoms of small-bowel movements begin.


title: Paratyphoid fever

text: Providing basic sanitation and safe drinking water and food are the keys for controlling the disease. In developed countries, enteric fever rates decreased in the past when treatment of municipal water was introduced, human feces were excluded from food production, and pasteurization of dairy products began. In addition, children and adults should be carefully educated about personal hygiene. This would include careful handwashing after defecation and sexual contact, before preparing or eating food, and especially the sanitary disposal of feces. Food handlers should be educated in personal hygiene prior to handling food or utensils and equipment. Infected individuals should be advised to avoid food preparation. Sexually active people should be educated about the risks of sexual practices that permit fecal-oral contact.


title: Paratyphoid fever

text: Those who travel to countries with poor sanitation should receive a live attenuated typhoid vaccine—Ty21a (Vivotif), which, in addition to the protection against typhoid fever, may provide some protection against paratyphoid fever caused by the "S. enterica" serotypes A and B. In particular, a reanalysis of data from a trial conducted in Chile showed the Ty21a vaccine was 49% effective (95% CI: 8–73%) in preventing paratyphoid fever caused by the serotype B. Evidence from a study of international travelers in Israel also indicates the vaccine may prevent a fraction of infections by the serotype A, although no trial confirms this. This cross-protection by a typhoid vaccine is most likely due to O antigens shared between different "S. enterica" serotypes.


title: Paratyphoid fever

text: Exclusion from work and social activities should be considered for symptomatic, and asymptomatic people who are food handlers, healthcare/daycare staff who are involved in patient care and/or child care, children attending unsanitary daycare centers, and older children who are unable to implement good standards of personal hygiene. The exclusion applies until two consecutive stool specimens are taken from the infected patient and are reported negative.


title: Paratyphoid fever

text: Control requires treatment of antibiotics and vaccines prescribed by a doctor. Major control treatments for paratyphoid fever include ciprofloxacin for 10 days, ceftriaxone/cefotaxime for 14 days, or aziththromycin.


title: Paratyphoid fever

text: Those diagnosed with Type A of the bacterial strain rarely die from it except in rare cases of severe intestinal complications. With proper testing and diagnosis, the mortality rate falls to less than 1%. Antibiotics such as azithromycin are particularly effective in treating the disease.


title: Paratyphoid fever

text: Factors outside the household, such as unclean food from street vendors and flooding, help distribute the disease from person to person.


title: Paratyphoid fever

text: Because of poverty and poor hygiene and insanitary conditions, the disease is more common in less-industrialized countries, principally owing to the problem of unsafe drinking water, inadequate sewage disposal, and flooding. Occasionally causing epidemics, paratyphoid fever is found in large parts of Asia, Africa, and Central and South America. Many of those infected get the disease in Asian countries. About 16 million cases occur a year, which result in about 25,000 deaths worldwide.


title: Lists of centenarians

text: The following is a list of lists of well documented famous centenarians by categorized occupation (people who lived to be or are currently living at 100 years or more of age) that are therein known for reasons other than just longevity.


title: Nicholas Scibetta

text: Nicholas Scibetta, also known as "Little Nicky" (died 1978), was a Sicilian American mobster who was the nephew of Joseph and John Zicarelli, the brother-in-law of mobster Sammy Gravano and uncle of Gerard Gravano, who was a Gambino crime family mob associate who was later marked as an informant by fellow crime family members.


title: Nicholas Scibetta

text: Scibetta was born and raised in Bensonhurst, Brooklyn, like his future brother-in-law Gravano. He was the only son born to first-generation immigrants, his father from Cammarata in the province of Agrigento, Sicily, and his Italian-American mother from Bayonne, New Jersey. Scibetta had two older sisters, Debra and Diane. His mother was a housewife and their father was "a terrific father, but very strict" man who was a certified electrical engineer who worked the night shift for Western Electric (now AT&T Technologies) putting together circuit boards for the telephone company.


title: Nicholas Scibetta

text: In 1978, Castellano allegedly ordered the murder of Gambino associate Scibetta. A cocaine and alcohol user, Scibetta participated in several public fights and insulted the daughter of George DeCicco. Since Scibetta was Salvatore "Sammy the Bull" Gravano's brother-in-law, Castellano asked Frank DeCicco to first notify Gravano of the impending hit. When advised of Scibetta's fate, a furious Gravano said he would kill Castellano first. However, Gravano was eventually calmed by DeCicco and accepted Scibetta's death as the punishment earned by his behavior. Another part of the motive for the murder was that Scibetta was suspected of being gay. Gravano later said, "I chose against Nicky. I took an oath that Cosa Nostra came before everything."


title: Nicholas Scibetta

text: In the made-for-television HBO movie "Gotti", Scibetta is portrayed as "Nicky Scibetta" by actor Frank Crudele. In the film "Witness to the Mob", Nicky is portrayed by actor Kirk Acevedo. He is allegedly a real-life inspiration for HBO prison drama series "Oz" characters father and son Nino Schibetta and Peter Schibetta.


title: Nicholas Scibetta

text: In the television movie "Gotti", Sammy Gravano, portrayed by William Forsythe, murders Nicholas by himself in a construction supply warehouse, while in his autobiography "Underboss" he states that members his own crew, allegedly Liborio Milito, Joseph D'Angelo and Frank DeCicco, carried out the murder contract for Paul Castellano and not Gravano. The Gravano character also states that his wife Debra, the sister of Nicholas, would be divorcing him after he testified in court about being an accomplice in both before and after the fact of Nicholas' gangland execution. Debra did not.


title: Vernix caseosa

text: Vernix caseosa, also known as vernix or birthing custard, is the waxy white substance found coating the skin of newborn human babies. It is produced by dedicated cells and is thought to have some protective roles during fetal development and for a few hours after birth.


title: Vernix caseosa

text: In Latin, "vernix" means "varnish" and "caseosa" means "cheesy". The term was first published in 1846 in the "Dunglison Dictionary of Medical Sciences".


title: Vernix caseosa

text: Vernix is produced during a distinct phase of the epidermal development. Around the 21st week of gestation, periderm cells are being shed and replaced with stratum corneum; these shedding mix with secretions of sebum by the sebaceous glands to form vernix, which gradually covers the body in an anteroposterior and dorsoventral pattern. Vernix, in itself, is also believed to aid in the formation of stratum corneum. By early third trimester, the process is complete.


title: Vernix caseosa

text: Soon enough, part of the vernix is emulsified by increasing concentrations of pulmonary surfactants and desiccates, only to be consumed by the fetus; a corresponding increase in amniotic fluid turbidity is noticed.


title: Vernix caseosa

text: Vernix has a highly variable makeup but is primarily composed of sebum, cells that have sloughed off the fetus's skin and shed lanugo hair. Chemically, it is water (80%), lipids (10%) and proteins (10%). The lipids include ceramides, cholesterol, fatty acids, triglycerides, waxes and sterol esters, squalene, and phospholipids; multiple detailed analyses of the polar components have been done. The protein composition is relatively understudied. Vernix of term infants has more squalene and a higher wax ester to sterol ester ratio than preterm infants.


title: Vernix caseosa

text: Vernix is composed of mobile corneocytes embedded in an amorphous lipid matrix. Precise biological mechanisms leading to its formation are poorly understood.


title: Vernix caseosa

text: The cells are polygonal or ovoid in shape, malleable, and lack nuclei; typical thickness is 1-2 µm. Nuclear ghosts are frequently observed and Acid Phosphatase Activity is nonuniform. Keratin filaments build a scaffold like structure which form a water-storage area. As opposed to stratum corneum, the vernix corneocytes lack desmosomal attachment and the lipid layer is more disordered.


title: Vernix caseosa

text: The water is not uniformly distributed throughout, but rather exclusively present in the sponge-like corneocytes; despite its high water content, vernix is non-polar (due to lipids) and more vapor-permeable than stratum corneum.


title: Vernix caseosa

text: Vernix appears in all full term infants but with widely varying body-coverage, while premature and post-mature births generally do not display any.


title: Vernix caseosa

text: Electrical isolation of the fetus is also thought to occur due to vernix caseosa (this could affect accurate fECG measurement of fetal heartbeat).


title: Vernix caseosa

text: Vernix is used as a reliable site-of-record for measuring cocaine exposure in pregnant women. Using vernix for diagnosing uterine rupture and amniotic fluid embolism has been proposed.


title: Vernix caseosa

text: Granuloma and peritonitis of vernix have been observed in Caesarean sections. High volumes of vernix cause Neonatal Aspiration Syndrome.


title: Vernix caseosa

text: Vernix is thought to be unique to human fetal development; in 2018, vernix-like material was reportedly obtained from pups of "Zalophus californianus".


title: Andrey Andreev

text: Andrey Andreev (; born Andrey Vagnerovich Ogadzhanyants (); 3 February 1974) is a multinational tech entrepreneur. He is known for founding the dating and social networking apps, Bumble and Badoo, amongst others. In 2019, Andreev sold the apps holding company, MagicLab, to Blackstone at a $3 Billion valuation. In 2020, he founded the social audio app Stereo. His previous ventures include SpyLog, Begun, and Mamba.


title: Andrey Andreev

text: In interviews, Andreev discussed an early interest in communication technology: stating he built a homemade radio at ten years old.


title: Andrey Andreev

text: In 1992, Andreev moved to Valencia, Spain, where he enrolled in university and studied management. In 1995, he dropped out to pursue his first business, Virus.


title: Andrey Andreev

text: In 2005, he moved to London, England, settling in Covent Garden. He became a British citizen in 2008.


title: Andrey Andreev

text: Andreev lists cooking as one of his greatest passions and contributes dishes to the menus of his favorite restaurants. The sweet onion soup 'Andreï Style' at two-Michelin-starred L'Atelier de Joël Robuchon in Covent Garden, London, is named after him.


title: Andrey Andreev

text: In 2018, Andreev made the "Forbes" global list of billionaires for the first time. In August 2022, his net worth was estimated at $2.0 billion.


title: Andrey Andreev

text: In 1995, Andreev founded, Virus, an online store selling computers and accessories. In 1997, he sold Virus for an undisclosed amount.


title: Andrey Andreev

text: In 1999, Andreev founded the web-tracking business, SpyLog. In 2001, he sold the company for an undisclosed amount.


title: Andrey Andreev

text: In 2002, Andreev founded the digital advertising firm, Begun. In 2003, he sold the majority share of the company to Russian investment firm Finam Holdings and sold his remaining stake in 2004.


title: Andrey Andreev

text: In 2004, Andreev founded the freemium, desktop-based dating site, Mamba. In its first year of operation, Mamba grew to more than 4 million users. In 2006, he sold his stake in the company for an undisclosed amount.


title: Andrey Andreev

text: In 2006, Andreev launched Badoo, the social networking and photo-sharing app. Initially developed to compete with Facebook, Andrey decided to pivot to dating after the release of the iPhone. The company experienced rapid growth throughout Europe and Latin America, growing to nearly 12 million users within the first year.


title: Andrey Andreev

text: In an article in 2011, "Wired" described Badoo as a 'mass phenomenon' in Brazil, Mexico, France, Spain, and Italy. By 2019, Badoo had 425 million registered users globally and operated in 190 countries.


title: Andrey Andreev

text: In a 2017 interview, Andreev claimed that Badoo had invented the popular dating application "swipe" feature. Andreev also introduced industry-standard paid features such as “rise up” and the “lookalike” feature that allows users to search for others who have similar characteristics to their favorite celebrity. In an October 2017 interview with Shortlist magazine, Andreev stated his philosophy and management style is, 'to make people happy.’ describing Badoo’s company culture and the perks they offered including food and parties.


title: Andrey Andreev

text: In April 2019, Andreev committed 100% of Badoo’s revenue to restore the Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris following the fire.


title: Andrey Andreev

text: In 2014, Andreev contacted former Tinder marketing executive Whitney Wolfe about working together. Andreev initially offered Wolfe a role as Chief Marketing Officer at Badoo, but she refused. He persuaded her to move back into the dating space by offering her funding and access to Badoo's team. In December 2014, they launched Bumble, the women-focused dating app.


title: Andrey Andreev

text: Speaking to "The Guardian", Wolfe named Andreev as her biggest mentor in business and that he, "took the chance on her when no one else would", and that "without him, the Bumble journey wouldn’t have been possible."


title: Andrey Andreev

text: Per their agreement, Andreev oversaw the company's operations and leveraged Badoo's infrastructure and engineering resources. He also provided USD $10 million in funding and owned 79% of the company. Wolfe served as founder and CEO and owned 20%.


title: Andrey Andreev

text: In 2019, Andreev launched MagicLab, a holding company that builds and owns dating and social networking apps Badoo, Bumble, Lumen, Chappy, and Hot or Not in partnership with their founders. In November 2019, he sold his shares to Blackstone Group, the largest alternative investment firm in the world, which became a majority owner of MagicLab. At the time of purchase, Bumble and its sister apps were valued at $3 billion. In 2020, MagicLab was renamed Bumble as the parent company of both Bumble and Badoo.


title: Andrey Andreev

text: In 2020, after the sale of MagicLab to Blackstone, Andreev launched the social audio app Stereo. The app allows users to interact with live talks via hosting and listening capabilities. The company has offices in London and Los Angeles, with 20 former MagicLab employees involved.


title: Immunoglobulin class switching

text: Immunoglobulin class switching, also known as isotype switching, isotypic commutation or class-switch recombination (CSR), is a biological mechanism that changes a B cell's production of immunoglobulin from one type to another, such as from the isotype IgM to the isotype IgG. During this process, the constant-region portion of the antibody heavy chain is changed, but the variable region of the heavy chain stays the same (the terms "variable" and "constant" refer to changes or lack thereof between antibodies that target different epitopes). Since the variable region does not change, class switching does not affect antigen specificity. Instead, the antibody retains affinity for the same antigens, but can interact with different effector molecules.


title: Immunoglobulin class switching

text: Class switching occurs after activation of a mature B cell via its membrane-bound antibody molecule (or B cell receptor) to generate the different classes of antibody, all with the same variable domains as the original antibody generated in the immature B cell during the process of V(D)J recombination, but possessing distinct constant domains in their heavy chains.


title: Immunoglobulin class switching

text: Naïve mature B cells produce both IgM and IgD, which are the first two heavy chain segments in the immunoglobulin locus. After activation by antigen, these B cells proliferate. If these activated B cells encounter specific signaling molecules via their CD40 and cytokine receptors (both modulated by T helper cells), they undergo antibody class switching to produce IgG, IgA or IgE antibodies. During class switching, the constant region of the immunoglobulin heavy chain changes but the variable regions do not, and therefore antigenic specificity, remains the same. This allows different daughter cells from the same activated B cell to produce antibodies of different isotypes or subtypes (e.g. IgG1, IgG2 etc.).


title: Immunoglobulin class switching

text: Class switching occurs by a mechanism called class switch recombination (CSR) binding. Class switch recombination is a biological mechanism that allows the class of antibody produced by an activated B cell to change during a process known as isotype or class switching. During CSR, portions of the antibody heavy chain locus are removed from the chromosome, and the gene segments surrounding the deleted portion are rejoined to retain a functional antibody gene that produces antibody of a different isotype. Double-stranded breaks are generated in DNA at conserved nucleotide motifs, called switch (S) regions, which are upstream from gene segments that encode the constant regions of antibody heavy chains; these occur adjacent to all heavy chain constant region genes with the exception of the δ-chain. DNA is nicked and broken at two selected S-regions by the activity of a series of enzymes, including activation-induced (cytidine) deaminase (AID), uracil DNA glycosylase and apyrimidic/apurinic (AP)-endonucleases. The intervening DNA between the S-regions is subsequently deleted from the chromosome, removing unwanted μ or δ heavy chain constant region exons and allowing substitution of a γ, α or ε constant region gene segment. The free ends of the DNA are rejoined by a process called non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) to link the variable domain exon to the desired downstream constant domain exon of the antibody heavy chain. In the absence of non-homologous end joining, free ends of DNA may be rejoined by an alternative pathway biased toward microhomology joins. With the exception of the μ and δ genes, only one antibody class is expressed by a B cell at any point in time.


title: Immunoglobulin class switching

text: While class switch recombination is mostly a deletional process, rearranging a chromosome in "cis", it can also occur (in 10 to 20% of cases, depending upon the Ig class) as an inter-chromosomal translocation mixing immunoglobulin heavy chain genes from both alleles.


title: Immunoglobulin class switching

text: T cell cytokines modulate class switching in mouse (Table 1) and human (Table 2). These cytokines may have suppressive effect on production of IgM.


title: Immunoglobulin class switching

text: In addition to the highly repetitive structure of the target S regions, the process of class switching needs S regions to be first transcribed and spliced out of the immunoglobulin heavy chain transcripts (where they lie within introns). Chromatin remodeling, accessibility to transcription and to AID and synapsis of broken S regions are under the control of a large super-enhancer, located downstream the more distal Calpha gene, the 3' regulatory region (3'RR). In some occasions, the 3'RR super-enhancer can itself be targeted by AID and undergo DNA breaks and junction with Sμ, which then deletes the Ig heavy chain locus and defines locus suicide recombination (LSR).


title: Christopher Priest (novelist)

text: Christopher Priest (born 14 July 1943) is a British novelist and science fiction writer. His works include "Fugue for a Darkening Island", "The Inverted World", "The Affirmation", "The Glamour", "The Prestige", and "The Separation".


title: Christopher Priest (novelist)

text: Priest has been strongly influenced by the science fiction of H. G. Wells and in 2006 was appointed Vice-President of the international H. G. Wells Society.


title: Christopher Priest (novelist)

text: As a child, Priest spent some time holidaying in the English county of Dorset. Here he explored the ancient hillfort of Maiden Castle, near Dorchester, which he would later use as the location for the novel A Dream of Wessex.


title: Christopher Priest (novelist)

text: Priest's first story, "The Run", was published in 1966. Formerly an accountant and audit clerk, he became a full-time writer in 1968. One of his early novels, "The Affirmation", concerns a traumatized man who apparently flips into a delusional world in which he experiences a lengthy voyage to an archipelago of exotic islands. This setting featured in many of Priest's short stories, which raises the question of whether the Dream Archipelago is actually a fantasy. The state of mind depicted in this novel is similar to that of the delusional fantasy-prone psychoanalytic patient ("Kirk Allen") in Robert Lindner's "The Fifty-Minute Hour", or Jack London's tortured prisoner in "The Star Rover".


title: Christopher Priest (novelist)

text: Priest also dealt with delusional alternate realities in "A Dream of Wessex", in which a group of experimenters for a British government project are brain-wired to a hypnosis machine and jointly participate in an imaginary but as-real-as-real future in a vacation island off the coast of a Sovietized Britain.


title: Christopher Priest (novelist)

text: His most recent novels are "The Islanders" (2011), set in the Dream Archipelago, and "The Adjacent" (2013), a multi-strand narrative with recurring characters.


title: Christopher Priest (novelist)

text: Of his narrative's plot twists, Priest told an interviewer in 1995, "my shocks are based on a sudden devastating reversal of what the reader knows or believes."


title: Christopher Priest (novelist)

text: Priest wrote the tie-in novel to accompany the 1999 David Cronenberg movie "eXistenZ", which contains themes of the novels "A Dream of Wessex" and "The Extremes". Such themes include the question of the extent to which we can trust what we believe to be reality and our memories.


title: Christopher Priest (novelist)

text: Priest was approached to write stories for the 18th and 19th seasons of "Doctor Who". The first, "Sealed Orders", was a political thriller based on Gallifrey commissioned by script editor Douglas Adams; it was eventually abandoned due to script problems and replaced with "Warriors' Gate". The second, "The Enemy Within", was also eventually abandoned due to script problems and what Priest perceived as insulting treatment after he was asked to modify the script to include the death of Adric. It was replaced by "Earthshock". Priest received payment while "Doctor Who" producer John Nathan-Turner and script editor Eric Saward were forced to pen a letter of apology for the treatment of the writer. This falling-out soured the attitude of the production office to the use of established literary authors, and no more were commissioned until Neil Gaiman authored the episode "The Doctor's Wife" in 2011.


title: Christopher Priest (novelist)

text: A film of his novel "The Prestige" was released on 20 October 2006. It was directed by Christopher Nolan and starred Christian Bale and Hugh Jackman. Despite differences between the novel and screenplay, Nolan was reportedly so concerned the denouement be kept a surprise that he blocked plans for a lucrative US tie-in edition of the book.


title: Christopher Priest (novelist)

text: Priest has written for "The Guardian" since 2002, largely obituaries of such figures as Robert Sheckley, Stanislaw Lem, Jack Williamson, Diana Wynne Jones, John Christopher and many more.


title: Christopher Priest (novelist)

text: Priest has won the BSFA award for the best novel four times: in 1974 for "Inverted World"; in 1998 for "The Extremes"; in 2002 for "The Separation" and in 2011 for "The Islanders".


title: Christopher Priest (novelist)

text: He has won the James Tait Black Memorial Prize for Fiction and the World Fantasy Award (for "The Prestige").


title: Christopher Priest (novelist)

text: He won the BSFA award for short fiction in 1979 for the short story "Palely Loitering"; and has been nominated for Hugo Awards in the categories of Best Novel, Best Novella, Best Novelette, and Best Non-Fiction Book (this last for "The Book on the Edge of Forever" (also known as "Last Deadloss Visions"), an exploration of the unpublished "Last Dangerous Visions" anthology). "The Space Machine" won the International SF prize in the 1977 Ditmar Awards . Priest's 1979 essay "The Making of the Lesbian Horse" (published as a Novacon chapbook) takes a humorous look at the roots of his acclaimed novel "Inverted World". He was guest of honour at Novacon 9 in 1979 and Novacon 30 in 2000, and at the 63rd World Science Fiction Convention in 2005.


title: Christopher Priest (novelist)

text: In 1983 Priest was named one of the 20 Granta Best of Young British Novelists. In 1988 he won the Kurd-Laßwitz-Preis for "The Glamour" as Best Foreign Fiction Book.


title: Christopher Priest (novelist)

text: Between 7 November and 7 December 2007, the Chelsea College of Art and Design had an exhibition in its gallery Chelsea Space inspired by Priest's novel "The Affirmation". It followed "themes of personal history and memory (which) through the lens of a more antagonistic and critical form of interpretation, aims to point towards an overtly positive viewpoint on contemporary art practice over any traditional melancholy fixation".


title: Christopher Priest (novelist)

text: Priest lived in Devon, but now lives on Isle of Bute. He was married to writer Lisa Tuttle from 1981 to 1987 and to Leigh Kennedy from 1988 to 2011, with whom he had twins. He currently lives with speculative fiction writer Nina Allan.


title: Convention of Kanagawa

text: The Convention of Kanagawa, also known as the Kanagawa Treaty (, "Kanagawa Jōyaku") or the Japan–US Treaty of Peace and Amity (, "Nichibei Washin Jōyaku"), was a treaty signed between the United States and the Tokugawa Shogunate on March 31, 1854. Signed under threat of force, it effectively meant the end of Japan's 220-year-old policy of national seclusion ("sakoku") by opening the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate to American vessels. It also ensured the safety of American castaways and established the position of an American consul in Japan. The treaty precipitated the signing of similar treaties establishing diplomatic relations with other Western powers.


title: Convention of Kanagawa

text: Since the beginning of the 17th century, the Tokugawa Shogunate pursued a policy of isolating the country from outside influences. Foreign trade was maintained only with the Dutch and the Chinese and was conducted exclusively at Nagasaki under a strict government monopoly. This "Pax Tokugawa" period is largely associated with domestic peace, social stability, commercial development, and expanded literacy. This policy had two main objectives:


title: Convention of Kanagawa

text: By the early 19th century, this policy of isolation was increasingly under challenge. In 1844, King William II of the Netherlands sent a letter urging Japan to end the isolation policy on its own before change would be forced from the outside. In 1846, an official American expedition led by Commodore James Biddle arrived in Japan asking for ports to be opened for trade but was sent away.


title: Convention of Kanagawa

text: In 1853, United States Navy Commodore Matthew C. Perry was sent with a fleet of warships by U.S. President Millard Fillmore to force the opening of Japanese ports to American trade, through the use of gunboat diplomacy if necessary. The growing commerce between America and China, the presence of American whalers in waters offshore Japan, and the increasing monopolization of potential coaling stations by the British and French in Asia were all contributing factors. The Americans were also driven by concepts of manifest destiny and the desire to impose the "benefits" of western civilization and the Christian religion on what they perceived as backward Asian nations. From the Japanese perspective, increasing contacts with foreign warships and the increasing disparity between western military technology and the Japanese feudal armies created growing concern. The Japanese had been keeping abreast of world events via information gathered from Dutch traders in Dejima and had been forewarned by the Dutch of Perry's voyage. There was a considerable internal debate in Japan on how best to meet this potential threat to Japan's economic and political sovereignty in light of events occurring in China with the Opium Wars.


title: Convention of Kanagawa

text: Perry arrived with four warships at Uraga, at the mouth of Edo Bay on July 8, 1853. He blatantly refused Japanese demands that he proceed to Nagasaki, which was the designated port for foreign contact. After threatening to continue directly on to Edo, the nation's capital, and to burn it to the ground if necessary, he was allowed to land at nearby Kurihama on July 14 and to deliver his letter. Such refusal was intentional, as Perry wrote in his journal: “To show these princes how little I regarded their order for me to depart, on getting on board I immediately ordered the whole squadron underway, not to leave the bay… but to go higher up… would produce a decided influence upon the pride and conceit of the government, and cause a more favorable consideration of the President’s letter." Perry’s power front did not stop with refusing to land in Uraga, but he continued to push the boundaries of the Japanese. He ordered the squadron to survey Edo bay, which led to a stand-off between Japanese officers with swords and Americans with guns. By firing the guns into the water, Perry demonstrated their military might, which greatly affected Japanese perceptions of Perry and the United States. Namely, a perception of fear and disrespect.


title: Convention of Kanagawa

text: Despite years of debate on the isolation policy, Perry's letter created great controversy within the highest levels of the Tokugawa shogunate. The "shōgun" himself, Tokugawa Ieyoshi, died days after Perry's departure and was succeeded by his sickly young son, Tokugawa Iesada, leaving effective administration in the hands of the Council of Elders ("rōjū") led by Abe Masahiro. Abe felt that it was impossible for Japan to resist the American demands by military force and yet was reluctant to take any action on his own authority for such an unprecedented situation. Attempting to legitimize any decision taken, Abe polled all of the "daimyō" for their opinions. This was the first time that the Tokugawa shogunate had allowed its decision-making to be a matter of public debate and had the unforeseen consequence of portraying the shogunate as weak and indecisive. The results of the poll also failed to provide Abe with an answer; of the 61 known responses, 19 were in favour of accepting the American demands and 19 were equally opposed. Of the remainder, 14 gave vague responses expressing concern of possible war, 7 suggested making temporary concessions and 2 advised that they would simply go along with whatever was decided.


title: Convention of Kanagawa

text: Perry returned again on February 11, 1854, with an even larger force of eight warships and made it clear that he would not be leaving until a treaty was signed. Perry continued his manipulation of the setting, such as keeping himself aloof from lower-ranking officials, implying the use of force, surveying the harbor, and refusing to meet in the designated negotiation sites. Negotiations began on March 8 and proceeded for around one month. Each party shared a performance when Perry arrived. The Americans had a technology demonstration, and the Japanese had a sumo wrestling show. While the new technology awed the Japanese people, Perry was unimpressed by the sumo wrestlers and perceived such performance as foolish and degrading: “This disgusting exhibition did not terminate until the whole twenty-five had, successively, in pairs, displayed their immense powers and savage qualities." The Japanese side gave in to almost all of Perry's demands, with the exception of a commercial agreement modelled after previous American treaties with China, which Perry agreed to defer to a later time. The main controversy centered on the selection of the ports to open, with Perry adamantly rejecting Nagasaki. The treaty, written in English, Dutch, Chinese and Japanese, was signed on March 31, 1854, at what is now Kaikō Hiroba (Port Opening Square) Yokohama, a site adjacent to the current Yokohama Archives of History.


title: Convention of Kanagawa

text: At the time, "shōgun" Tokugawa Iesada was the de facto ruler of Japan; for the Emperor of Japan to interact in any way with foreigners was out of the question. Perry concluded the treaty with representatives of the shogun, led by plenipotentiary and the text was endorsed subsequently, albeit reluctantly, by Emperor Kōmei.


title: Convention of Kanagawa

text: In the short term, the U.S. was content with the agreement since Perry had achieved his primary objective of breaking Japan's "sakoku" policy and setting the grounds for protection of American citizens and an eventual commercial agreement. On the other hand, the Japanese were forced into this trade, and many saw it as a sign of weakness. The Tokugawa shogunate could point out that the treaty was not actually signed by the shogun, or indeed any of his "rōjū", and that it had at least temporarily averted the possibility of immediate military confrontation.


title: Convention of Kanagawa

text: Externally, the treaty led to the United States-Japan Treaty of Amity and Commerce, the "Harris Treaty" of 1858, which allowed the establishment of foreign concessions, extraterritoriality for foreigners, and minimal import taxes for foreign goods. The Japanese chafed under the "unequal treaty system" which characterized Asian and western relations during this period. The Kanagawa treaty was also followed by similar agreements with the United Kingdom (Anglo-Japanese Friendship Treaty, October 1854), Russia (Treaty of Shimoda, February 7, 1855), and France (Treaty of Amity and Commerce between France and Japan, October 9, 1858).


title: Convention of Kanagawa

text: Internally, the treaty had far-reaching consequences. Decisions to suspend previous restrictions on military activities led to re-armament by many domains and further weakened the position of the shogun. Debate over foreign policy and popular outrage over perceived appeasement to the foreign powers was a catalyst for the "sonnō jōi" movement and a shift in political power from Edo back to the Imperial Court in Kyoto. The opposition of Emperor Kōmei to the treaties further lent support to the "tōbaku" (overthrow the shogunate) movement, and eventually to the Meiji Restoration, which affected all realms of Japanese life. Following this period came an increase in foreign trade, the rise of Japanese military might, and the later rise of Japanese economic and technological advancement. Westernization at the time was a defense mechanism, but Japan has since found a balance between Western modernity and Japanese tradition.


title: Stan and Jan Berenstain

text: Stanley Melvin Berenstain (September 29, 1923 – November 26, 2005) and Janice Marian Berenstain (née Grant; July 26, 1923 – February 24, 2012) were American writers and illustrators best known for creating the children's book series "The Berenstain Bears".


title: Stan and Jan Berenstain

text: Both Stan and Jan were born and raised in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Jan attended Radnor High School in Radnor, Pennsylvania. Stan was Jewish and Jan was an Episcopalian. They were married for 59 years until Stan's death in 2005.


title: Stan and Jan Berenstain

text: They met on their first day of art school at the Philadelphia Museum School of Industrial Art in 1941. During WWII, Stan served in the Army as a medical illustrator while Jan was a draft artist for the Army Corps of Engineers in addition to working in an aircraft factory. Jan fashioned a pair of wedding rings from spare aluminum collected at the latter job, and the two married on April 17, 1946.


title: Stan and Jan Berenstain

text: In an interview about the books, the Berenstains said that a big reason behind their inspiration was some of the difficulties parents faced, as well as some childhood tribulations when they were kids themselves. The Berenstains also noted there were some issues which seemed to appear in every generation, such as kids throwing tantrums in public places, which made important subject matter for their stories. However, they deliberately wanted to steer clear of overly heavy issues, such as violence. In their later years, critics sometimes dismissed the books for having social attitudes stuck in the 1950s along with the bears' clothing styles and penchant for activities such as playing jacks and hopscotch, even though they did change with the times somewhat by introducing things like video games and cell phones.


title: Stan and Jan Berenstain

text: In 1951, the couple published "Berenstains' Baby Book", which dealt with the issues of pregnancy and child-rearing. Although containing practical advice, the book used humor and reminded parents not to take every situation too seriously. They would go on to publish another two books on parenting, "How to Teach Your Children About Sex Without Making a Complete Fool of Yourself" and "Have a Baby, My Wife Just Had a Cigar!".


title: Stan and Jan Berenstain

text: The Berenstains were successful cartoonists with several adult humor books and magazine credits to their names before their first Berenstain Bears book.


title: Stan and Jan Berenstain

text: They produced together the magazine cartoon feature "It's All in the Family" from 1956 to 1989 in "McCall's" and "Good Housekeeping". Inspired by their children's enthusiasm for Dr. Seuss books, the Berenstains decided to attempt a series with animal protagonists themselves, settling on bears not because of their surname as was commonly believed, but because "bears are furry and appealing." They published their first book featuring the Berenstain Bears, "The Big Honey Hunt", in 1962. At the time, their inspiration, Theodor Geisel (Dr. Seuss), was working as an editor in the children's division of Random House Publishing and eagerly approved the concept. He edited several books in the Berenstain Bears series and created a lasting franchise including many more books, television series, toys, and stage productions. Over 300 books were published in 23 languages. Jan was inducted into Radnor High School's Hall of Fame on October 20, 2006.


title: Stan and Jan Berenstain

text: The Berenstains' cartoon feature "It's All in the Family" (unrelated to the similarly named TV series) appeared regularly in "McCall's" and depicted the antics of a suburban family with mother, father, eldest and youngest sons, and middle daughter. "It's All in the Family" was not a conventional comic strip in the sense of a sequential progression of panels. Each issue featured a single situation, often seasonally appropriate, such as the daughter preparing, cooking, and serving a family meal for the first time or the costume preparations, rehearsal, and performance of the youngest child's Christmas pageant. Within a given issue, each "It's All in the Family" drawing was a stand-alone panel with a caption gag, rather than one panel of a sequential strip, but individual panels in order depicted the complete arc (preparation, completion, aftermath) of that issue's family experience.


title: Stan and Jan Berenstain

text: The Berenstains were married for 59 years until Stan's death from cancer on November 26, 2005. They had two sons, Leo (born 1948) and Mike (born 1951). Mike Berenstain is a writer/illustrator who has been a published author since 1976. He worked with his parents on several Berenstain Bears books, and has continued to create new books in the franchise on his own.


title: Great Britain road numbering scheme

text: The Great Britain road numbering scheme is a numbering scheme used to classify and identify all roads in Great Britain.


title: Great Britain road numbering scheme

text: Each road is given a single letter (which represents the road's category) and a subsequent number (between 1 and 4 digits). Introduced to arrange funding allocations, the numbers soon became used on maps and as a method of navigation. Two sub-schemes exist: one for motorways, and another for non-motorway roads. While some major roads form part of the International E-road network, no E-routes are signposted in Great Britain, or the rest of the UK. Due to changes in local road designation, in some cases roads are numbered out of zone. There are also instances where road numbers in one area are also found in another location. For example the A594 is designated as the Leicester Ring Road and also allocated to a road in Cumbria.


title: Great Britain road numbering scheme

text: The scheme applies only to England, Scotland and Wales; a similar system is used in Northern Ireland, as well as outside the UK in the Isle of Man, Jersey and British overseas territories. These other numbering schemes use similar conventions.


title: Great Britain road numbering scheme

text: Work on classification began in 1913. The Road Board had been established in 1909 to administer Vehicle Excise Duty - money raised by taxation to pay for new road construction and for repair of damage done to existing roads by the growing number of motorists. As the Board needed to work out which roads should be funded, upgraded or replaced, its secretary, William Rees Jeffreys, appointed Henry Maybury, one of the Board's senior engineers, to devise a classification system and then assign numbers to the highways for identification purposes. The work was interrupted by the First World War. It did not resume until the Ministry of Transport was formed in 1919 and given authority to classify highways and to allocate funding for road maintenance, authority for which was granted by section 17 (2) of the Ministry of Transport Act 1919. A classification system was created, under which important routes connecting large population centres, or for through traffic, were designated as Class I, and roads of lesser importance were designated as Class II. The definitive list of those roads was published on 1 April 1923, following consultations with local authorities. Government funding towards the repairs of these roads were set at 60% for the former and 50% for the latter.


title: Great Britain road numbering scheme

text: Shortly after this, the numbers started to appear in road atlases and on signs on the roads themselves, making them a tool for motorists in addition to their use for determining funding. The numbers of the roads changed quite frequently during the early years of the system, because it was a period of rapid expansion of the network and some numbered routes did not follow the most usual routes taken. The Trunk Roads Act 1936 gave the Ministry direct control of major routes and a new classification system was created to identify these routes. Originally, those numbers beginning in T were to be made public, but that was eventually deemed unnecessary.


title: Great Britain road numbering scheme

text: With the introduction of motorways in the late 1950s, a new classification of "M" was introduced. In many cases the motorways duplicated existing stretches of A road, which therefore lost much of their significance and were in some cases renumbered. There was no consistent approach to the renumbering – some A roads retained their existing number as non-primary roads (e.g. the A40 running alongside the M40), others were given "less significant" numbers (e.g. the A34 in Warwickshire became the A3400 after the M40 was built), and the remainder were downgraded to B or unclassified roads (e.g. the A38, which was replaced by the M5 between Tiverton and Exeter). Occasionally, the new motorway would take the name of the old A road rather than having its own number. The most notable example of that is the A1(M).


title: Great Britain road numbering scheme

text: In England and Wales the road numbering system for all-purpose (i.e. non-motorway) roads is based on a radial pattern centred on London. In Scotland the same scheme is centred on Edinburgh. In both cases the main single-digit roads normally define the zone boundaries. The exception is between Zones 1 and 2, where the River Thames defines the boundary so that all of Kent is in


title: Great Britain road numbering scheme

text: The first digit in the number of any road should be the number of the furthest-anticlockwise zone entered by that road. For example, the A38 road, a trunk road running from Bodmin to Mansfield starts in Zone 3, and is therefore numbered with an A3x number, even though it passes through Zones 4 and 5 to end in Zone 6. Additionally, the A1 in Newcastle upon Tyne has moved twice. Originally along the Great North Road, it then moved to the Tyne Tunnel, causing some of the roads in Zone 1 to lie in Zone 6. The designated A1 later moved to the western bypass around the city, and roads between the two found themselves back in Zone 1. For the most part the roads affected retained their original numbers throughout.


title: Great Britain road numbering scheme

text: Elsewhere when single-digit roads were bypassed, roads were often re-numbered in keeping with the original zone boundaries.


title: Great Britain road numbering scheme

text: In a limited number of cases road numbering does not necessarily follow the rules with some anomalously numbered.


title: Great Britain road numbering scheme

text: Motorways first came to Britain over three decades after the advent of the A-road numbering event, and as a result required a new numbering system. They were given an M prefix, and in England and Wales a numbering system of their own not coterminous with that of the A-road network, though based on the same principle of zones. Running clockwise from the M1 the zones were defined for Zones 1 to 4 based on the proposed M2, M3 and M4 motorways. The M5 and M6 numbers were reserved for the other two planned long distance motorways. The Preston Bypass, the UK's first motorway section, should have been numbered A6(M) under the scheme decided upon, but it was decided to keep the number M6 as had already been applied. The first full-length motorway in the UK was the M1 motorway.


title: Great Britain road numbering scheme

text: Shorter motorways typically take their numbers from a parent motorway in contravention of the zone system, explaining the apparently anomalous numbers of the M48 and M49 motorways as spurs of the M4, and M271 and M275 motorways as those of the M27.


title: Great Britain road numbering scheme

text: This numbering system was devised in 1958–59 by the then Ministry of Transport and Civil Aviation, and applied only in England and Wales. It was decided to reserve the numbers 7, 8 & 9 for Scotland. In Scotland, where roads were the responsibility of the Scottish Office (Scottish Government after 1999), the decision was taken to adopt a scheme whereby motorways took the numbers of the all-purpose routes they replaced. As a result, there is no M7 (as no motorway follows the A7), and when the A90 was re-routed to replace the A85 south of Perth, the short M85 became part of the M90.


title: Great Britain road numbering scheme

text: In England and Wales, the six single-digit numbers reflect the traditionally most important radial routes coming out of London. Starting with the A1 which heads due north, numbers were allocated sequentially in a clockwise direction, thus:


title: Great Britain road numbering scheme

text: While these routes remain the basis for the numbering of the A road network, they are no longer necessarily major roads, having been bypassed by motorways or other changes to the road network.


title: Great Britain road numbering scheme

text: These radials are supplemented by two-digit codes which are routes that "may" be slightly less important, but may still be classified as trunk routes, although many of these routes have lost a lot of their significance due to motorway bypasses, or the upgrading of other A-roads. These routes are not all centred on London, but as far as possible follow the general principle that their number locates them radially clockwise from the associated single digit route. For example, the A10 (London to King's Lynn) is the first main route clockwise from the A1, the A11 (London to Norwich) is the next, then the A12 (London to Great Yarmouth) and the A13 (London to Shoeburyness); the next radial is the A2, followed by the A20 (London to Dover), and so on. These roads have been numbered either outwards from or clockwise around their respective hubs, depending on their alignment.


title: Great Britain road numbering scheme

text: The system continues to three and four digit numbers which further split and criss-cross the radials. Lower numbers originate closer to London than higher numbered ones. As roads have been improved since the scheme commenced, some roads with 3 or 4 digit numbers have increased in significance, for example the A127, A1079 and A414. New routes have also been allocated 3 or 4 digit numbers, for example the Edinburgh City Bypass is the A720.


title: Great Britain road numbering scheme

text: The Major Road Network is a proposed classification of major local-authority controlled A roads that the government committed to implementing in 2017, with the aim of better targeting road funding.


title: Great Britain road numbering scheme

text: Some A roads are designated trunk roads, which implies that central government rather than local government has responsibility for them. A more recent classification is that of primary routes, the category of recommended routes for long-distance traffic. Primary routes include both trunk and non-trunk roads.


title: Great Britain road numbering scheme

text: Some sections of A roads have been improved to the same standard as motorways, but do not completely replace the existing road; they form a higher standard part of the route for those which are not excluded. These sections retain the same number but are suffixed with (M), for example the A1(M) and A404(M). There have been occasions where this designation has been used to indicate motorway bypasses of an existing road, but the original retains the A road designation, for example A3(M), A329(M), A38(M), A48(M) and A627(M).


title: Great Britain road numbering scheme

text: B roads are numbered distributor roads, which have lower traffic densities than the main trunk roads, or A roads. This classification has nothing to do with the width or quality of the physical road, and B roads can range from dual carriageways to single track roads with passing places. B roads follow the same numbering scheme as A roads, but almost always have 3- and 4-digit designations. Many 3-digit B roads outside the London area are former A roads which have been downgraded owing to new road construction; others may link smaller settlements to A roads.


title: Great Britain road numbering scheme

text: Despite numerous large roads in Great Britain being part of the International E-road network, no road that forms part of this network is signposted as such and only the road's national designation is shown. The same is true in Northern Ireland.


title: Great Britain road numbering scheme

text: Roads and lanes with yet lower traffic densities are designated as "unclassified" roads commonly using C, D and U prefixes but, while these are numbered, in general this is done for use by the local authorities who are responsible for maintaining them and the non-unique numbering is in a local series which usually does not appear on road signs; use of local numbers on signs in England is "not advised". Exceptions to this are known however both in the form of numbers on signs and past use of prefixes H and V on signs in Milton Keynes where main roads have a regular grid system. These designations are, however, used when planning officers deal with certain planning applications, including the creation of a new vehicular access onto a highway. The letter Q is used for many important unclassified roads in Fife.


title: Great Britain road numbering scheme

text: In London, Cycleways are using the C prefix and marked using pale green signs. There are also some CS prefixes for Cycle Superhighways, marked using magenta signs, but these are being phased out.


title: Old Hungarian script

text: The Old Hungarian script or Hungarian runes (, 'székely-magyar runiform', or ) is an alphabetic writing system used for writing the Hungarian language. Modern Hungarian is written using the Latin-based Hungarian alphabet. The term "old" refers to the historical priority of the script compared with the Latin-based one. The Old Hungarian script is a child system of the Old Turkic alphabet.


title: Old Hungarian script

text: The Hungarians settled the Carpathian Basin in 895. After the establishment of the Christian Hungarian kingdom, the old writing system was partly forced out of use during the rule of King Stephen, and the Latin alphabet was adopted. However, among some professions (e.g. shepherds who used a "rovás-stick" to officially track the number of animals) and in Transylvania, the script has remained in use by the Székely Magyars, giving its Hungarian name . The writing could also be found in churches, such as that in the commune of Atid.


title: Old Hungarian script

text: In modern Hungarian, the script is known formally as ('Szekler script'). The writing system is generally known as , , and (or simply 'notch, score').


title: Old Hungarian script

text: Linguist András Róna-Tas derives Old Hungarian from the Old Turkic script, itself recorded in inscriptions dating from . The origins of the Turkic scripts are uncertain. The scripts may be derived from Asian scripts such as the Pahlavi and Sogdian alphabets, or possibly from Kharosthi, all of which are in turn derived from the Aramaic script. Alternatively, according to some opinions, ancient Turkic runes descend from primaeval Turkic graphic logograms.


title: Old Hungarian script

text: Speakers of Proto-Hungarian would have come into contact with Turkic peoples during the 7th or 8th century, in the context of the Turkic expansion, as is also evidenced by numerous Turkic loanwords in Proto-Hungarian.


title: Old Hungarian script

text: All the letters but one for sounds which were shared by Turkic and Ancient Hungarian can be related to their Old Turkic counterparts. Most of the missing characters were derived by script internal extensions, rather than borrowings, but a small number of characters seem to derive from Greek, such as 'eF'.


title: Old Hungarian script

text: The modern Hungarian term for this script (coined in the 19th century), , derives from the verb ('to score') which is derived from old Uralic, general Hungarian terminology describing the technique of writing ( 'to write', 'letter', 'knife, also: for carving letters') derive from Turkic, which further supports transmission via Turkic alphabets.


title: Old Hungarian script

text: Epigraphic evidence for the use of the Old Hungarian script in medieval Hungary dates to the 10th century, for example, from Homokmégy. The latter inscription was found on a fragment of a quiver made of bone. Although there have been several attempts to interpret it, the meaning of it is still unclear.


title: Old Hungarian script

text: In 1000, with the coronation of Stephen I of Hungary, Hungary (previously an alliance of mostly nomadic tribes) became a kingdom. The Latin alphabet was adopted as official script; however, Old Hungarian continued to be used in the vernacular.


title: Old Hungarian script

text: The runic script was first mentioned in the 13th century Chronicle of Simon of Kéza, where he stated that the Székelys may use the script of the Blaks. Johannes Thuróczy wrote in the Chronica Hungarorum that the Székelys did not forget the Scythian letters and these are engraved on sticks by carving.


title: Old Hungarian script

text: The Old Hungarian script became part of folk art in several areas during this period. In Royal Hungary, Old Hungarian script was used less, although there are relics from this territory, too.


title: Old Hungarian script

text: There is another copy – similar to the Nikolsburg Alphabet – of the Old Hungarian alphabet, dated 1609. The inscription from Énlaka, dated 1668, is an example of the "folk art use".


title: Old Hungarian script

text: There are a number of inscriptions ranging from the 17th to the early 19th centuries, including examples from Kibéd, Csejd, Makfalva, Szolokma, Marosvásárhely, Csíkrákos, Mezőkeresztes, Nagybánya, Torda, Felsőszemeréd, Kecskemét and Kiskunhalas.


title: Old Hungarian script

text: Hungarian script was first described in late Humanist/Baroque scholarship by János Telegdy in his primer . Published in 1598, Telegdi's primer presents his understanding of the script and contains Hungarian texts written with runes, such as the Lord's Prayer.


title: Old Hungarian script

text: In the 19th century, scholars began to research the rules and the other features of the Old Hungarian script. From this time, the name ('runic writing') began to re-enter the popular consciousness in Hungary, and script historians in other countries began to use the terms "Old Hungarian", , and so on. Because the Old Hungarian script had been replaced by Latin, linguistic researchers in the 20th century had to reconstruct the alphabet from historic sources. Gyula Sebestyén, an ethnographer and folklorist, and Gyula (Julius) Németh, a philologist, linguist, and Turkologist, did the lion's share of this work. Sebestyén's publications, ("Runes and runic writing", Budapest, 1909) and ("The authentic relics of Hungarian runic writing", Budapest, 1915) contain valuable information on the topic.


title: Old Hungarian script

text: Beginning with Adorján Magyar in 1915, the script has been promulgated as a means for writing modern Hungarian. These groups approached the question of representation of the vowels of modern Hungarian in different ways. Adorján Magyar made use of characters to distinguish "a"/"á" and "e"/"é" but did not distinguish the other vowels by length. A school led by Sándor Forrai from 1974 onward did, however, distinguish "i"/"í", "o"/"ó", "ö"/"ő", "u"/"ú", and "ü"/"ű". The revival has become part of a significant ideological nationalist subculture present not only in Hungary (largely centered in Budapest), but also amongst the Hungarian diaspora, particularly in the United States and Canada.


title: Old Hungarian script

text: Old Hungarian has seen other usages in the modern period, sometimes in association with or referencing Hungarian neopaganism, similar to the way in which Norse neopagans have taken up the Germanic runes, and Celtic neopagans have taken up the ogham script for various purposes.


title: Old Hungarian script

text: Not all scholars agree with the "Old Hungarian" notion, mainly based on the actual literary facts. The linguist and sociolinguist told in an interview that most of the "romantic" statements about the script appear to be false. According to her analysis, the origin of the writing is probably runiform (and with high probability its origins are in the western Turkic runiform writings) and it's not a different writing system and contrary to the sentiment the writing is neither Hungarian nor Székely-Hungarian; it is a Székely writing since there are no authentic findings outside the historic Székely lands (mainly today's Transylvania); the only writing found around 1000 AD had a different writing system. While it may have been sporadically used in Hungary its usage was not widespread. The "revived" writing (in the 1990s) was artificially expanded with (various) "new" letters which were unneeded in the past since the writing was cleanly phonetic, or the long vowels which were not present back in the time. The shape of many letters were substantially changed from the original.


title: Old Hungarian script

text: She stated that no works since 1915 has reached the expected quality of the state of the linguistic sciences, and many was influenced by various agendas.


title: Old Hungarian script

text: The use of the script often has a political undertone as it is often used along with irredentist or nationalist propaganda, and they can be found from time to time in graffiti with a variety of content. Since most of the people cannot read the script it has led to various controversies, for example when the activists of the Hungarian Two-tailed Dog Party (opposition) exchanged the rovas sign of the city Érd to "szia" 'Hi!', which stayed unnoticed a month.


title: Old Hungarian script

text: The runic alphabet included 42 letters. As in the Old Turkic script, some consonants had two forms, one to be used with back vowels (a, á, o, ó, u, ú) and another for front vowels (e, é, i, í, ö, ő, ü, ű). The names of the consonants are always pronounced with a vowel. In the old alphabet, the consonant-vowel order is reversed, unlike today's pronunciation ("ep" rather than "pé"). This is because the oldest inscriptions lacked vowels and were rarely written down, similar to other ancient languages' consonant-writing systems (Arabic, Hebrew, Aramaic, etc.). The alphabet did not contain letters for the phonemes dz and dzs of modern Hungarian, since these are relatively recent developments in the language's history. Nor did it have letters corresponding to the Latin q, w, x and y. The modern revitalization movement has created symbols for these; in Unicode encoding, they are represented as ligatures.


title: Old Hungarian script

text: The Old Hungarian runes also include some non-alphabetical runes which are not ligatures but separate signs. These are identified in some sources as "" (likely a misspelling of ). Further research is needed to define their origin and traditional usage. Some common examples are:


title: Old Hungarian script

text: Old Hungarian letters were usually written from right to left on sticks. Later, in Transylvania, they appeared on several media. Writings on walls also were right to left and not boustrophedon style (alternating direction right to left and then left to right).


title: Old Hungarian script

text: The numbers are almost the same as the Roman, Etruscan, and Chuvash numerals. Numbers of livestock were carved on tally sticks and the sticks were then cut in two lengthwise to avoid later disputes.


title: Old Hungarian script

text: After many proposals Old Hungarian was added to the Unicode Standard in June, 2015 with the release of version 8.0.


title: Old Hungarian script

text: A set of closely related 8-bit code pages exist, devised in the 1990s by Gabor Hosszú. These were mapped to Latin-1 or Latin-2 character set fonts. After installing one of them and applying their formatting to the document – because of the lack of capital letters – runic characters could be entered in the following way: those letters which are unique letters in today's Hungarian orthography are virtually lowercase ones, and can be written by simply pressing the specific key; and since the modern digraphs equal to separate rovás letters, they were encoded as 'uppercase' letters, i.e. in the space originally restricted for capitals. Thus, typing a lowercase "g" will produce the rovás character for the sound marked with Latin script "g", but entering an uppercase "G" will amount to a rovás sign equivalent to a digraph "gy" in Latin-based Hungarian orthography.


title: Alien Nation (TV series)

text: Alien Nation is a science fiction police procedural television series in the "Alien Nation" franchise. Adapted from the 1988 "Alien Nation" movie, it stars Gary Graham as Detective Matthew Sikes, a Los Angeles police officer reluctantly working with "Newcomer" alien Sam "George" Francisco, played by Eric Pierpoint. Sikes also has an on again-off again flirtation with a female Newcomer, Cathy Frankel, played by Terri Treas.


title: Alien Nation (TV series)

text: The series is set in the near future in the United States. In 1990, a flying saucer crashes in the Mojave Desert containing a race of extraterrestrials, the Tenctonese, escaping from slavery under a cruel Overseer race. They are humanoid but have certain anatomical differences and have been bred with greater physical strength and intelligence. These Newcomers, as they are called, are accepted as the latest immigrants to the US. The series explores issues around their integration into the multicultural society of the US.


title: Alien Nation (TV series)

text: The storylines often are morality plays on the evils of racism and bigotry, using Newcomers as the discriminated minority. As fictional extraterrestrial immigrants, the Newcomers could stand in for social issues about various races, as well as sexual minorities such as gays and lesbians, and would invert the usual expectations. For instance, during the run of the series, George becomes pregnant (the male of his species carrying the fetus for part of its gestation), and during much of the episode, dialog included lines like, "If you females had to feel the pain we males feel during pregnancy, there wouldn't be any babies." The series offers social commentary by illustrating what it means to be human and the often bizarre rituals we observe.


title: Alien Nation (TV series)

text: In an April 2, 2008 episode of "Fanboy Radio" (#463), creator Johnson explains: Having been responsible for science-fiction television series such as "The Six Million Dollar Man", "V" and "The Incredible Hulk", was approached for the television adaptation of the 1988 film "Alien Nation". He had no interest in the project and agreed to watch the film which left him unimpressed except for one scene when a Newcomer, George, leaves his suburban wife and child and goes to work.


title: Alien Nation (TV series)

text: Johnson returned to the network, which envisioned a weekly science-fiction version of "Lethal Weapon", and sold them on a different concept of social commentary about what happens when a new minority appears overnight. He intended his version to be more akin to the film "In the Heat of the Night" than a traditional action film.


title: Alien Nation (TV series)

text: The weekly series ran for one season, from 1989 through 1990, and was one of the few successes the fledgling Fox Network had at the time. However, the network suffered from financial shortage caused by lower-than-expected advertising income. As a result, Fox executives cancelled all of their dramatic series for the 1990–1991 season. A second season of "Alien Nation" was clearly expected by the producers, as the season ended with a cliffhanger. The show built a strong fan base, and popular demand led to "Dark Horizon", the episode that would have begun the second season, being novelized and adapted as a comic book as well as spawning a series of novels. Four years later, after a change of management at Fox, the story of "Alien Nation" continued with five television movies (including all the original cast), picking up with the cliffhanger.


title: Alien Nation (TV series)

text: A spaceship transporting slaves from an alien planet, crash landed on earth. While trying to integrate into human society, the “Newcomers” are accepted by some and hated by others.


title: Alien Nation (TV series)

text: The series was released on DVD by 20th Century Fox on January 3, 2006. The five telefilms that followed after the series was cancelled were released in Region 1 by Best Buy exclusively on September 11, 2007, and worldwide on April 15, 2008.


title: Alien Nation (TV series)

text: In June 2009, Syfy (formerly Sci-Fi Channel) announced that they were developing a new take on the series. Tim Minear ("Angel", "Firefly") was announced to pen the series. But later in 2014, it was reported that the series was cancelled by the network in favor of paranormal reality shows and professional wrestling. In 2015, it was reported that a remake of the series was again in the works, with Art Marcum and Matt Holloway writing the script.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: Jamie Lee Collins Sr. (born October 20, 1989) is an American football linebacker for the New England Patriots of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Southern Miss and was selected by the Patriots in the second round of the 2013 NFL Draft. As a member of the Patriots for seven non-consecutive seasons, Collins earned Pro Bowl honors in 2015 when he led the league in forced fumbles. Collins also won a Super Bowl title in Super Bowl XLIX. Outside of his New England tenure, he played three seasons with the Cleveland Browns and two with the Detroit Lions.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: Collins was born in McCall Creek, Mississippi. He attended Franklin County High School in Meadville, Mississippi, where he played high school football for the Franklin County Bulldogs. He first played as a quarterback, receiver and safety before concluding his career as a quarterback and outside linebacker. He led the team to the Class 3A State Championship during his first year at quarterback, accounting for over 2,000 yards of offense and 26 touchdowns for the 2006 season. As a senior in 2007, he had over 1,200 yards rushing and 1,000 yards passing while leading his team to the state championship game. He was selected to play in the Mississippi-Alabama All-Star game, where he recorded a solo tackle.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: Also a standout track and field athlete, Collins was a state track qualifier. At the 2009 3A South State Meet, he earned first-place finishes in the shot put (51-6) and discus throw (156-0 or 47.80m), while also placing second in both the high jump (6-4 or 1.93m) and triple jump (43-10.5) events. He captured the 2009 MHSAA (Mississippi High School Athletics Association) 3A shot put title with a throw of 15.90 meters (52-1), and also took third in the triple jump after recording a career-best leap of 13.58m (44-5.25).


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: A three-star athlete by Rivals.com, Collins was ranked No. 68 at that position in the country and No. 21 overall in the state of Mississippi. He was a three-star prospect by "Scout.com". He was named 1st team All-State by The Clarion-Ledger. He was Max Lemming's of MaxPreps.com's No. 12 combo passer in the country.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: Collins enrolled in the University of Southern Mississippi, and played for the Southern Miss Golden Eagles football team from 2009 to 2012. He played defensive back, defensive end and linebacker. During his college career, he compiled 314 tackles, 21 quarterback sacks, three interceptions and three touchdowns. He was a first-team All-Conference USA selection following his senior season in 2012.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: Collins entered the 2013 NFL Draft and attended the NFL Scouting Combine in Indianapolis, Indiana. He completed all of the combine and positional drills and immensely helped his draft stock with his overall performance. Collins set an NFL Combine record by finishing with a broad jump of 11'7". The record was previously 11'5" which was set by running back Justin Fargas in the 2003 NFL combine. Collins held the record until it was broken by cornerback Byron Jones in 2015 (12'3") and was also surpassed by Obi Melifonwu in 2017 (11'9"). He also finished with the second best vertical jump at the combine, fourth best short shuttle among edge rushers, and eighth best 40-yard dash time among pass rushers at the combine.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: On March 8, 2013, Collins participated at Southern Mississippi's pro day, but opted to stand on his combine performance and only performed positional drills. At the conclusion of the pre-draft process, he was projected to be a second round pick by NFL draft experts and scouts. Collins was ranked as the third best outside linebacker by NFL analyst Mike Mayock, the fifth best outside linebacker by NFL analyst Josh Norris, and was ranked the sixth best outside linebacker prospect in the draft by DraftScout.com.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: The New England Patriots selected Collins in the second round (52nd overall) of the 2013 NFL Draft. Collins was the seventh linebacker drafted in 2013.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: On May 17, 2013, the New England Patriots signed Collins to a four-year, $3.75 million contract that includes $1.86 million guaranteed and a signing bonus of $1.11 million.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: Collins entered training camp as a backup outside linebacker. Head coach Bill Belichick named Collins a backup outside linebacker to start the regular season, behind starters Dont'a Hightower and Jerod Mayo.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: He made his professional regular season debut in the New England Patriots' season-opening 23–21 victory at the Buffalo Bills. On September 22, 2013, Collins made two combined tackles during a 23–3 win against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in Week 3. Collins made his first career tackle on running back Doug Martin to stop a one-yard run in the fourth quarter. On October 20, 2013, Collins earned his first career start after Jerod Mayo sustained a tear to his pectoral muscle the previous week. Collins recorded five combined tackles in his first start as the Patriots lost 30–27 to at the New York Jets in Week 7. In Week 12, he collected a season-high ten combined tackles (six solo) during a 34–31 win against the Denver Broncos. Collins finished his rookie season in 2013 with 43 combined tackles (24 solo) and four pass deflections in 16 games and eight starts.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: The New England Patriots finished first in the AFC East with a 12-4 record and earned a first round bye. On January 11, 2014, Collins started in his first career playoff game and recorded six combined tackles, a pass deflection, made his first career sack, and recorded his first career interception as the Patriots defeated the Indianapolis Colts in the AFC Divisional Round. The following week, he made seven combined tackles and deflected a pass in a 26-16 loss to the Denver Broncos in the AFC Championship Game.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: Collins entered training camp slated as the starting weakside linebacker after Jerod Mayo was moved to middle linebacker, following his return from injury, to replace Brandon Spikes. Head coach Bill Belichick named Collins and Dont'a Hightower the starting outside linebackers to begin the regular season.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: Collins started in the New England Patriots' season-opener at the Miami Dolphins and recorded a season-high eight solo tackles and deflected a pass in their 33–20 loss. He was inactive for the Patriots' Week 2 victory at the Minnesota Vikings after sustaining a thigh injury. On October 12, 2014, Collins made four combined tackles, broke up a pass, and made his first career regular season interception during a 37–22 victory at the Buffalo Bills. Collins intercepted a pass by quarterback Kyle Orton, that was initially intended for wide receiver Marquise Goodwin, in the second quarter. The following week, he collected a season-high 13 combined tackles (seven solo) in the Patriots' 27–25 win against the New York Jets in Week 7. On November 30, 2014, Collins tied his season-high of 13 combined tackles (seven solo), recorded his first career regular season sack, and forced a fumble during a 26–21 loss at the Green Bay Packers. Collins recorded a strip/sack for a six-yard loss on quarterback Aaron Rodgers during the fourth quarter. The following game, Collins made nine combined tackles and had two sacks on quarterback Philip Rivers as the Patriots earned a 23–14 victory at the San Diego Chargers in Week 14. He finished the 2014 season with a career-high 116 combined tackles (74 solo), four sacks, four forced fumbles, and two interceptions in 15 games and 15 starts. Collins earned an overall grade of 87.9 from Pro Football Focus in 2014 and received the 11th highest grade of all the linebackers who qualified in 2014.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: The New England Patriots finished atop the AFC East with a 12–4 record and earned a first round bye and home-field advantage throughout the playoffs. On January 10, 2015, Collins made 11 combined tackles (eight solo) and deflected two passes during a 35–31 victory against the Baltimore Ravens in the AFC Divisional Round. The following week, he made four combined tackles, a pass deflection, and an interception as the Patriots defeated the Indianapolis Colts 45–7 in the AFC Championship Game. On February 1, 2015, Collins recorded eight combined tackles as the Patriots defeated the Seattle Seahawks 28–24 in Super Bowl XLIX.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: Collins, Dont'a Hightower, and Jerod Mayo were retained as the starting linebackers to start the 2015 regular season. In Week 2, Collins recorded 11 combined tackles (eight solo) and made a career-high 2.5 sacks on quarterback Tyrod Taylor during a 40–32 victory at the Buffalo Bills.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: On October 18, 2015, Collins made five combined tackles, a pass deflection, and blocked an extra point during the Patriots' 34–27 win at the Indianapolis Colts. Collins blocked an extra point by Adam Vinatieri in the fourth quarter after leaping over the offensive line. The following week, he collected a season-high 12 combined tackles (six solo) and a sack in the Patriots' 30–23 win against the New York Jets. On November 6, 2015, it was reported that Collins was diagnosed with an undisclosed illness and was sidelined for the next four games (Weeks 9–12). On December 4, 2015, Collins confirmed he was fully recovered from his illness. On December 22, 2015, Collins was selected to the 2016 Pro Bowl as his first Pro Bowl selection. On December 27, 2015, Collins recorded eight combined tackles and returned a fumble for his first career touchdown during a 26–20 loss at the New York Jets. Collins recovered a fumble after Jabaal Sheard stripped it from Jets' quarterback Ryan Fitzpatrick and returned it for a 14-yard touchdown in the third quarter. Collins was limited to 12 games in 2015 and made 89 combined tackles (51 solo), six pass deflections, a career-high 5.5 sacks, five forced fumbles, a fumble recovery, one interception, and a touchdown. He was selected to the 2015 AP All-Pro second team at outside linebacker, finishing fourth at that position with eight votes; he also received two votes at inside linebacker. He earned an overall grade of 91.3 from Pro Football Focus, which was the fourth highest grade among all qualifying linebackers in 2015.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: The New England Patriots finished first in their division with a 12–4 record and clinched a playoff berth. They defeated the Kansas City Chiefs 27–20 in the AFC Divisional Round. On January 24, 2016, Collins recorded eight combined tackles and had two sacks on quarterback Peyton Manning as the Patriots lost 20–18 at the Denver Broncos in the AFC Championship Game.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: Defensive coordinator Matt Patricia named Collins and Jonathan Freeny the starting outside linebackers, alongside starting middle linebacker Dont'a Hightower. On September 22, 2016, Collins recorded 14 combined tackles (eight solo), a pass deflection, and an interception during a 27–0 win against the Houston Texans in Week 3. Collins was inactive during a Week 6 victory against the Cincinnati Bengals due to a hip injury.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: On October 31, 2016, Collins was traded to the Cleveland Browns for a conditional 2017 third round draft pick. The pick was later traded to the New Orleans Saints and used on Trey Hendrickson. Head coach Hue Jackson named Collins a starting outside linebacker opposite Cam Johnson and alongside inside linebackers Demario Davis and Christian Kirksey.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: On November 6, 2016, Collins made his debut with the Cleveland Browns and recorded eight combined tackles during their 35–10 loss to the Dallas Cowboys in Week 9. On December 11, 2016, Collins collected a season-high 15 combined tackles (13 solo) and a sack in the Browns' 25–10 loss to the Cincinnati Bengals. He finished the 2016 season with a total of 112 combined tackles (79 solo), three passes defensed, three sacks, two interceptions, and two forced fumbles in 15 games and 14 starts. Pro Football Focus gave Collins an overall grade of 88.6, which ranked seventh among all qualifying linebackers in 2016.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: On January 8, 2017, the Cleveland Browns fired defensive coordinator Ray Horton after they finished with a 1-15 record in 2016. On January 23, 2017, the Cleveland Browns signed Collins to a four-year, $50 million contract with $26.40 million guaranteed and a signing bonus of $5 million.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: The Cleveland Browns hired Gregg Williams as their new defensive coordinator and installed a base 4-3 defense. Head coach Hue Jackson named Collins the starting strongside linebacker to begin the regular season, along with Christian Kirksey and starting middle linebacker Joe Schobert. On September 17, 2017, Collins collected a season-high seven solo tackles before exiting in the fourth quarter of the Browns' 24-10 loss at the Baltimore Ravens due to a concussion. Collins was inactive and remained in concussion protocol for the next three games (Weeks 3-5). In Week 6, he collected a season-high eight combined tackles and deflected a pass during a 33–17 loss at the Houston Texans. On November 12, 2017, Collins made a tackle, broke up a pass, and intercepted a pass by quarterback Matthew Stafford in the Browns' 38–24 loss at the Detroit Lions. Collins left the game in the first quarter after he sustained an injury to his right knee that occurred when he was tackled by Graham Glasgow while returning his interception. On November 14, 2017, the Cleveland Browns officially placed Collins on injured reserve due to his torn MCL. Collins finished the 2017 season with 31 combined tackles (21 solo), three pass deflections, a sack, a forced fumble, and an interception in six games and six starts. Pro Football Focus gave Collins an overall grade of 35.9, which ranked 82nd among all qualifying linebackers in 2017.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: In 2018, Collins recorded 104 tackles, 4.0 sacks, a forced fumble, and an interception in sixteen games and sixteen starts. He would collect a season-high 12 tackles, including a sack, in a 12–9 win over the Baltimore Ravens. He recorded an interception in a 26–23 loss over the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. He forced a fumble in an 18–33 loss to the Pittsburgh Steelers. Pro Football Focus gave him a 62.3 overall grade in 2018.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: In week 2 against the Miami Dolphins, Collins made 5 tackles, half a sack, and 2 interceptions in the 43-0 win. On Collins' first interception, he picked off a pass from Ryan Fitzpatrick that was bobbled in the hands of running back Kalen Ballage and returned it for a 69 yard touchdown. Collins made his second interception off Josh Rosen as time expired in the game.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: In week 4 against the Buffalo Bills, Collins sacked Josh Allen once and intercepted Matt Barkley late in the fourth quarter to seal a 16-10 win for the Patriots.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: In week 6 against the New York Giants, Collins forced a fumble on running back Jon Hilliman that was recovered by teammate Kyle Van Noy who returned the ball for a touchdown in the 35-14 win.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: In week 8 against his former team, the Cleveland Browns, Collins recorded a team high 13 tackles and sacked Baker Mayfield 1.5 times in the 27-13 win.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: On March 25, 2020, Collins signed a three-year, $30 million contract with the Detroit Lions. Collins reunited with former New England Patriots’ defensive coordinator and Detroit Lions head coach Matt Patricia and teammates Duron Harmon and Danny Shelton.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: On September 13, 2020, Collins was ejected after making contact with a referee after a play during the second quarter of a 27–23 loss to the Chicago Bears.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: In the following week's game against the Green Bay Packers, Collins recorded his first sack as a Lion on Aaron Rodgers during the 42–21 loss.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: In Week 3 against the Arizona Cardinals, Collins recorded his first interception as a Lion during the 26–23 win.


title: Jamie Collins (American football)

text: The Patriots re-signed Collins on October 6, 2021. Collins made his third debut for the Patriots in the week 5 match against the Houston Texans. He recorded a sack of Texans quarterback Davis Mills during a 25-22 road victory for the Patriots. He was placed on injured reserve on November 13. He was activated on December 6. Collins re-signed with the Patriots on October 3, 2022 to the practice squad.


title: Cystocele

text: A cystocele, also known as a prolapsed bladder, is a medical condition in which a woman's bladder bulges into her vagina. Some may have no symptoms. Others may have trouble starting urination, urinary incontinence, or frequent urination. Complications may include recurrent urinary tract infections and urinary retention. Cystocele and a prolapsed urethra often occur together and is called a cystourethrocele. Cystocele can negatively affect quality of life.


title: Cystocele

text: Causes include childbirth, constipation, chronic cough, heavy lifting, hysterectomy, genetics, and being overweight. The underlying mechanism involves weakening of muscles and connective tissue between the bladder and vagina. Diagnosis is often based on symptoms and examination.


title: Cystocele

text: If the cystocele causes few symptoms, avoiding heavy lifting or straining may be all that is recommended. In those with more significant symptoms a vaginal pessary, pelvic muscle exercises, or surgery may be recommended. The type of surgery typically done is known as a colporrhaphy. The condition becomes more common with age. About a third of women over the age of 50 are affected to some degree.


title: Cystocele

text: A bladder that has dropped from its normal position and into the vagina can cause some forms of incontinence and incomplete emptying of the bladder.


title: Cystocele

text: Complications may include urinary retention, recurring urinary tract infections and incontinence. The anterior vaginal wall may actually protrude though the vaginal introitus (opening). This can interfere with sexual activity. Recurrent urinary tract infections are common for those who have urinary retention. In addition, though cystocele can be treated, some treatments may not alleviate troubling symptoms, and further treatment may need to be performed. Cystocele may affect the quality of life, women who have cystocele tend to avoid leaving their home and avoid social situations. The resulting incontinence puts women at risk of being placed in a nursing home or long-term care facility.


title: Cystocele

text: A cystocele occurs when the muscles, fascia, tendons and connective tissues between a woman's bladder and vagina weaken, or detach. The type of cystocele that can develop can be due to one, two or three vaginal wall attachment failures: the midline defect, the paravaginal defect, and the transverse defect. The midline defect is a cystocele caused by the overstretching of the vaginal wall; the paravaginal defect is the separation of the vaginal connective tissue at the arcus tendineus fascia pelvis; the transverse defect is when the pubocervical fascia becomes detached from the top (apex) of the vagina. There is some pelvic prolapse in 40–60% of women who have given birth. Muscle injuries have been identified in women with cystocele. These injuries are more likely to occur in women who have given birth than those who have not. These muscular injuries result in less support to the anterior vaginal wall.


title: Cystocele

text: Some women with connective tissue disorders are predisposed to developing anterior vaginal wall collapse. Up to one third of women with Marfan syndrome have a history of vaginal wall collapse. Ehlers-Danlos syndrome in women is associated with a rate of 3 out of 4.


title: Cystocele

text: Connective tissue disorders predispose women to developing cystocele and other pelvic organ prolapse. The tissues tensile strength of the vaginal wall decreases when the structure of the collagen fibers change and become weaker.


title: Cystocele

text: There are two types of cystocele. The first is distension. This is thought to be due to the overstretching of the vaginal wall and is most often associated with aging, menopause and vaginal delivery. It can be observed when the rugae are less visible or even absent. The second type is displacement. Displacement is the detachment or abnormal elongation of supportive tissue.


title: Cystocele

text: The initial assessment of cystocele can include a pelvic exam to evaluate leakage of urine when the women is asked to bear down or give a strong cough (Valsalva maneuver), and the anterior vaginal wall measured and evaluated for the appearance of a cystocele. If a woman has difficulty emptying her bladder, the clinician may measure the amount of urine left in the woman's bladder after she urinates called the postvoid residual. This is measured by ultrasound. A voiding cystourethrogram is a test that involves taking x-rays of the bladder during urination. This x-ray shows the shape of the bladder and lets the doctor see any problems that might block the normal flow of urine. A urine culture and sensitivity test will assess the presence of a urinary tract infection that may be related to urinary retention. Other tests may be needed to find or rule out problems in other parts of the urinary system. Differential diagnosis will be improved by identifying possible inflammation of the Skene's glands and Bartholin glands.


title: Cystocele

text: The pelvic organ prolapse quantification (POP-Q) assessment, developed in 1996, quantifies the descent of the cystocele into the vagina. The POP-Q provides reliable description of the support of the anterior, posterior and apical vaginal wall. It uses objective and precise measurements to the reference point, the hymen. Cystocele and prolapse of the vagina from other causes is staged using POP-Q criteria can range from good support (no descent into the vagina) reported as a POP-Q stage 0 or I to a POP-Q score of IV which includes prolapse beyond the hymen. It also used to quantifies the movement of other structures into the vaginal lumen and their descent.


title: Cystocele

text: The Baden–Walker Halfway Scoring System is used as the second most used system and assigns the classifications as mild (grade 1) when the bladder droops only a short way into the vagina; (grade 2) cystocele, the bladder sinks far enough to reach the opening of the vagina; and (grade 3) when the bladder bulges out through the opening of the vagina.


title: Cystocele

text: Apical cystocele is located upper third of the vagina. The structures involved are the endopelvic fascia and ligaments. The cardinal ligaments and the uterosacral ligaments suspend the upper vaginal-dome. The cystocele in this region of the vagina is thought to be due to a cardinal ligament defect.


title: Cystocele

text: Medial cystocele forms in the mid-vagina and is related to a defect in the suspension provided by to a sagittal suspension system defect in the uterosacral ligaments and pubocervical fascia. The pubocervical fascia may thin or tear and create the cystocele. An aid in diagnosis is the creation of a 'shiny' spot on the epithelium of the vagina. This defect can be assessed by MRI.