title: History of biology

text: In chemistry, one central issue was the distinction between organic and inorganic substances, especially in the context of organic transformations such as fermentation and putrefaction. Since Aristotle these had been considered essentially biological ("vital") processes. However, Friedrich Wöhler, Justus Liebig and other pioneers of the rising field of organic chemistry—building on the work of Lavoisier—showed that the organic world could often be analyzed by physical and chemical methods. In 1828 Wöhler showed that the organic substance urea could be created by chemical means that do not involve life, providing a powerful challenge to vitalism. Cell extracts ("ferments") that could effect chemical transformations were discovered, beginning with diastase in 1833. By the end of the 19th century the concept of enzymes was well established, though equations of chemical kinetics would not be applied to enzymatic reactions until the early 20th century.


title: History of biology

text: Physiologists such as Claude Bernard explored (through vivisection and other experimental methods) the chemical and physical functions of living bodies to an unprecedented degree, laying the groundwork for endocrinology (a field that developed quickly after the discovery of the first hormone, secretin, in 1902), biomechanics, and the study of nutrition and digestion. The importance and diversity of experimental physiology methods, within both medicine and biology, grew dramatically over the second half of the 19th century. The control and manipulation of life processes became a central concern, and experiment was placed at the center of biological education.


title: History of biology

text: At the beginning of the 20th century, biological research was largely a professional endeavour. Most work was still done in the natural history mode, which emphasized morphological and phylogenetic analysis over experiment-based causal explanations. However, anti-vitalist experimental physiologists and embryologists, especially in Europe, were increasingly influential. The tremendous success of experimental approaches to development, heredity, and metabolism in the 1900s and 1910s demonstrated the power of experimentation in biology. In the following decades, experimental work replaced natural history as the dominant mode of research.


title: History of biology

text: In the early 20th century, naturalists were faced with increasing pressure to add rigor and preferably experimentation to their methods, as the newly prominent laboratory-based biological disciplines had done. Ecology had emerged as a combination of biogeography with the biogeochemical cycle concept pioneered by chemists; field biologists developed quantitative methods such as the quadrat and adapted laboratory instruments and cameras for the field to further set their work apart from traditional natural history. Zoologists and botanists did what they could to mitigate the unpredictability of the living world, performing laboratory experiments and studying semi-controlled natural environments such as gardens; new institutions like the Carnegie Station for Experimental Evolution and the Marine Biological Laboratory provided more controlled environments for studying organisms through their entire life cycles.


title: History of biology

text: The ecological succession concept, pioneered in the 1900s and 1910s by Henry Chandler Cowles and Frederic Clements, was important in early plant ecology. Alfred Lotka's predator-prey equations, G. Evelyn Hutchinson's studies of the biogeography and biogeochemical structure of lakes and rivers (limnology) and Charles Elton's studies of animal food chains were pioneers among the succession of quantitative methods that colonized the developing ecological specialties. Ecology became an independent discipline in the 1940s and 1950s after Eugene P. Odum synthesized many of the concepts of ecosystem ecology, placing relationships between groups of organisms (especially material and energy relationships) at the center of the field.


title: History of biology

text: In the 1960s, as evolutionary theorists explored the possibility of multiple units of selection, ecologists turned to evolutionary approaches. In population ecology, debate over group selection was brief but vigorous; by 1970, most biologists agreed that natural selection was rarely effective above the level of individual organisms. The evolution of ecosystems, however, became a lasting research focus. Ecology expanded rapidly with the rise of the environmental movement; the International Biological Program attempted to apply the methods of big science (which had been so successful in the physical sciences) to ecosystem ecology and pressing environmental issues, while smaller-scale independent efforts such as island biogeography and the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest helped redefine the scope of an increasingly diverse discipline.


title: History of biology

text: 1900 marked the so-called "rediscovery of Mendel": Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak independently arrived at Mendel's laws (which were not actually present in Mendel's work). Soon after, cytologists (cell biologists) proposed that chromosomes were the hereditary material. Between 1910 and 1915, Thomas Hunt Morgan and the "Drosophilists" in his fly lab forged these two ideas—both controversial—into the "Mendelian-chromosome theory" of heredity. They quantified the phenomenon of genetic linkage and postulated that genes reside on chromosomes like beads on string; they hypothesized crossing over to explain linkage and constructed genetic maps of the fruit fly "Drosophila melanogaster", which became a widely used model organism.


title: History of biology

text: Hugo de Vries tried to link the new genetics with evolution; building on his work with heredity and hybridization, he proposed a theory of mutationism, which was widely accepted in the early 20th century. Lamarckism, or the theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics also had many adherents. Darwinism was seen as incompatible with the continuously variable traits studied by biometricians, which seemed only partially heritable. In the 1920s and 1930s—following the acceptance of the Mendelian-chromosome theory— the emergence of the discipline of population genetics, with the work of R.A. Fisher, J.B.S. Haldane and Sewall Wright, unified the idea of evolution by natural selection with Mendelian genetics, producing the modern synthesis. The inheritance of acquired characters was rejected, while mutationism gave way as genetic theories matured.


title: History of biology

text: In the second half of the century the ideas of population genetics began to be applied in the new discipline of the genetics of behavior, sociobiology, and, especially in humans, evolutionary psychology. In the 1960s W.D. Hamilton and others developed game theory approaches to explain altruism from an evolutionary perspective through kin selection. The possible origin of higher organisms through endosymbiosis, and contrasting approaches to molecular evolution in the gene-centered view (which held selection as the predominant cause of evolution) and the neutral theory (which made genetic drift a key factor) spawned perennial debates over the proper balance of adaptationism and contingency in evolutionary theory.


title: History of biology

text: In the 1970s Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge proposed the theory of punctuated equilibrium which holds that stasis is the most prominent feature of the fossil record, and that most evolutionary changes occur rapidly over relatively short periods of time. In 1980 Luis Alvarez and Walter Alvarez proposed the hypothesis that an impact event was responsible for the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event. Also in the early 1980s, statistical analysis of the fossil record of marine organisms published by Jack Sepkoski and David M. Raup led to a better appreciation of the importance of mass extinction events to the history of life on earth.


title: History of biology

text: By the end of the 19th century all of the major pathways of drug metabolism had been discovered, along with the outlines of protein and fatty acid metabolism and urea synthesis. In the early decades of the 20th century, the minor components of foods in human nutrition, the vitamins, began to be isolated and synthesized. Improved laboratory techniques such as chromatography and electrophoresis led to rapid advances in physiological chemistry, which—as "biochemistry"—began to achieve independence from its medical origins. In the 1920s and 1930s, biochemists—led by Hans Krebs and Carl and Gerty Cori—began to work out many of the central metabolic pathways of life: the citric acid cycle, glycogenesis and glycolysis, and the synthesis of steroids and porphyrins. Between the 1930s and 1950s, Fritz Lipmann and others established the role of ATP as the universal carrier of energy in the cell, and mitochondria as the powerhouse of the cell. Such traditionally biochemical work continued to be very actively pursued throughout the 20th century and into the 21st.


title: History of biology

text: Following the rise of classical genetics, many biologists—including a new wave of physical scientists in biology—pursued the question of the gene and its physical nature. Warren Weaver—head of the science division of the Rockefeller Foundation—issued grants to promote research that applied the methods of physics and chemistry to basic biological problems, coining the term "molecular biology" for this approach in 1938; many of the significant biological breakthroughs of the 1930s and 1940s were funded by the Rockefeller Foundation.


title: History of biology

text: Like biochemistry, the overlapping disciplines of bacteriology and virology (later combined as "microbiology"), situated between science and medicine, developed rapidly in the early 20th century. Félix d'Herelle's isolation of bacteriophage during World War I initiated a long line of research focused on phage viruses and the bacteria they infect.


title: History of biology

text: The development of standard, genetically uniform organisms that could produce repeatable experimental results was essential for the development of molecular genetics. After early work with "Drosophila" and maize, the adoption of simpler model systems like the bread mold "Neurospora crassa" made it possible to connect genetics to biochemistry, most importantly with Beadle and Tatum's one gene-one enzyme hypothesis in 1941. Genetics experiments on even simpler systems like tobacco mosaic virus and bacteriophage, aided by the new technologies of electron microscopy and ultracentrifugation, forced scientists to re-evaluate the literal meaning of "life"; virus heredity and reproducing nucleoprotein cell structures outside the nucleus ("plasmagenes") complicated the accepted Mendelian-chromosome theory.


title: History of biology

text: Oswald Avery showed in 1943 that DNA was likely the genetic material of the chromosome, not its protein; the issue was settled decisively with the 1952 Hershey–Chase experiment—one of many contributions from the so-called phage group centered around physicist-turned-biologist Max Delbrück. In 1953 James Watson and Francis Crick, building on the work of Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin, suggested that the structure of DNA was a double helix. In their famous paper "Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids", Watson and Crick noted coyly, "It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material." After the 1958 Meselson–Stahl experiment confirmed the semiconservative replication of DNA, it was clear to most biologists that nucleic acid sequence must somehow determine amino acid sequence in proteins; physicist George Gamow proposed that a fixed genetic code connected proteins and DNA. Between 1953 and 1961, there were few known biological sequences—either DNA or protein—but an abundance of proposed code systems, a situation made even more complicated by expanding knowledge of the intermediate role of RNA.


title: History of biology

text: In 1961, it was demonstrated that when a gene encodes a protein, three sequential bases of a gene’s DNA specify each successive amino acid of the protein. Thus the genetic code is a triplet code, where each triplet (called a codon) specifies a particular amino acid. Furthermore, it was shown that the codons do not overlap with each other in the DNA sequence encoding a protein, and that each sequence is read from a fixed starting point.


title: History of biology

text: To actually decipher the code, it took an extensive series of experiments in biochemistry and bacterial genetics, between 1961 and 1966—most importantly the work of Nirenberg and Khorana.


title: History of biology

text: During 1962-1964, numerous conditional lethal mutants of a bacterial virus were isolated. These mutants were used in several different labs to advance fundamental understanding of the functions and interactions of the proteins employed in the machinery of DNA replication, DNA repair, DNA recombination, and in the assembly of molecular structures.


title: History of biology

text: In addition to the Division of Biology at Caltech, the Laboratory of Molecular Biology (and its precursors) at Cambridge, and a handful of other institutions, the Pasteur Institute became a major center for molecular biology research in the late 1950s. Scientists at Cambridge, led by Max Perutz and John Kendrew, focused on the rapidly developing field of structural biology, combining X-ray crystallography with Molecular modelling and the new computational possibilities of digital computing (benefiting both directly and indirectly from the military funding of science). A number of biochemists led by Frederick Sanger later joined the Cambridge lab, bringing together the study of macromolecular structure and function. At the Pasteur Institute, François Jacob and Jacques Monod followed the 1959 PaJaMo experiment with a series of publications regarding the "lac" operon that established the concept of gene regulation and identified what came to be known as messenger RNA. By the mid-1960s, the intellectual core of molecular biology—a model for the molecular basis of metabolism and reproduction— was largely complete.


title: History of biology

text: The late 1950s to the early 1970s was a period of intense research and institutional expansion for molecular biology, which had only recently become a somewhat coherent discipline. In what organismic biologist E. O. Wilson called "The Molecular Wars", the methods and practitioners of molecular biology spread rapidly, often coming to dominate departments and even entire disciplines. Molecularization was particularly important in genetics, immunology, embryology, and neurobiology, while the idea that life is controlled by a "genetic program"—a metaphor Jacob and Monod introduced from the emerging fields of cybernetics and computer science—became an influential perspective throughout biology. Immunology in particular became linked with molecular biology, with innovation flowing both ways: the clonal selection theory developed by Niels Jerne and Frank Macfarlane Burnet in the mid-1950s helped shed light on the general mechanisms of protein synthesis.


title: History of biology

text: Resistance to the growing influence of molecular biology was especially evident in evolutionary biology. Protein sequencing had great potential for the quantitative study of evolution (through the molecular clock hypothesis), but leading evolutionary biologists questioned the relevance of molecular biology for answering the big questions of evolutionary causation. Departments and disciplines fractured as organismic biologists asserted their importance and independence: Theodosius Dobzhansky made the famous statement that "nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution" as a response to the molecular challenge. The issue became even more critical after 1968; Motoo Kimura's neutral theory of molecular evolution suggested that natural selection was not the ubiquitous cause of evolution, at least at the molecular level, and that molecular evolution might be a fundamentally different process from morphological evolution. (Resolving this "molecular/morphological paradox" has been a central focus of molecular evolution research since the 1960s.)


title: History of biology

text: Biotechnology in the general sense has been an important part of biology since the late 19th century. With the industrialization of brewing and agriculture, chemists and biologists became aware of the great potential of human-controlled biological processes. In particular, fermentation proved a great boon to chemical industries. By the early 1970s, a wide range of biotechnologies were being developed, from drugs like penicillin and steroids to foods like "Chlorella" and single-cell protein to gasohol—as well as a wide range of hybrid high-yield crops and agricultural technologies, the basis for the Green Revolution.


title: History of biology

text: Biotechnology in the modern sense of genetic engineering began in the 1970s, with the invention of recombinant DNA techniques. Restriction enzymes were discovered and characterized in the late 1960s, following on the heels of the isolation, then duplication, then synthesis of viral genes. Beginning with the lab of Paul Berg in 1972 (aided by "EcoRI" from Herbert Boyer's lab, building on work with ligase by Arthur Kornberg's lab), molecular biologists put these pieces together to produce the first transgenic organisms. Soon after, others began using plasmid vectors and adding genes for antibiotic resistance, greatly increasing the reach of the recombinant techniques.


title: History of biology

text: Wary of the potential dangers (particularly the possibility of a prolific bacteria with a viral cancer-causing gene), the scientific community as well as a wide range of scientific outsiders reacted to these developments with both enthusiasm and fearful restraint. Prominent molecular biologists led by Berg suggested a temporary moratorium on recombinant DNA research until the dangers could be assessed and policies could be created. This moratorium was largely respected, until the participants in the 1975 Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA created policy recommendations and concluded that the technology could be used safely.


title: History of biology

text: Following Asilomar, new genetic engineering techniques and applications developed rapidly. DNA sequencing methods improved greatly (pioneered by Frederick Sanger and Walter Gilbert), as did oligonucleotide synthesis and transfection techniques. Researchers learned to control the expression of transgenes, and were soon racing—in both academic and industrial contexts—to create organisms capable of expressing human genes for the production of human hormones. However, this was a more daunting task than molecular biologists had expected; developments between 1977 and 1980 showed that, due to the phenomena of split genes and splicing, higher organisms had a much more complex system of gene expression than the bacteria models of earlier studies. The first such race, for synthesizing human insulin, was won by Genentech. This marked the beginning of the biotech boom (and with it, the era of gene patents), with an unprecedented level of overlap between biology, industry, and law.


title: History of biology

text: By the 1980s, protein sequencing had already transformed methods of scientific classification of organisms (especially cladistics) but biologists soon began to use RNA and DNA sequences as characters; this expanded the significance of molecular evolution within evolutionary biology, as the results of molecular systematics could be compared with traditional evolutionary trees based on morphology. Following the pioneering ideas of Lynn Margulis on endosymbiotic theory, which holds that some of the organelles of eukaryotic cells originated from free living prokaryotic organisms through symbiotic relationships, even the overall division of the tree of life was revised. Into the 1990s, the five domains (Plants, Animals, Fungi, Protists, and Monerans) became three (the Archaea, the Bacteria, and the Eukarya) based on Carl Woese's pioneering molecular systematics work with 16S rRNA sequencing.


title: History of biology

text: The development and popularization of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in mid-1980s (by Kary Mullis and others at Cetus Corp.) marked another watershed in the history of modern biotechnology, greatly increasing the ease and speed of genetic analysis. Coupled with the use of expressed sequence tags, PCR led to the discovery of many more genes than could be found through traditional biochemical or genetic methods and opened the possibility of sequencing entire genomes.


title: History of biology

text: The unity of much of the morphogenesis of organisms from fertilized egg to adult began to be unraveled after the discovery of the homeobox genes, first in fruit flies, then in other insects and animals, including humans. These developments led to advances in the field of evolutionary developmental biology towards understanding how the various body plans of the animal phyla have evolved and how they are related to one another.


title: History of biology

text: The Human Genome Project—the largest, most costly single biological study ever undertaken—began in 1988 under the leadership of James D. Watson, after preliminary work with genetically simpler model organisms such as "E. coli", "S. cerevisiae" and "C. elegans". Shotgun sequencing and gene discovery methods pioneered by Craig Venter—and fueled by the financial promise of gene patents with Celera Genomics— led to a public–private sequencing competition that ended in compromise with the first draft of the human DNA sequence announced in 2000.


title: History of biology

text: At the beginning of the 21st century, biological sciences converged with previously differentiated new and classic disciplines like Physics into research fields like Biophysics. Advances were made in analytical chemistry and physics instrumentation including improved sensors, optics, tracers, instrumentation, signal processing, networks, robots, satellites, and compute power for data collection, storage, analysis, modeling, visualization, and simulations. These technological advances allowed theoretical and experimental research including internet publication of molecular biochemistry, biological systems, and ecosystems science. This enabled worldwide access to better measurements, theoretical models, complex simulations, theory predictive model experimentation, analysis, worldwide internet observational data reporting, open peer-review, collaboration, and internet publication. New fields of biological sciences research emerged including Bioinformatics, Neuroscience, Theoretical biology, Computational genomics, Astrobiology and Synthetic Biology.


title: Opera cake

text: Opera cake () is a French cake. It is made with layers of almond sponge cake (known as "" in French) soaked in coffee syrup, layered with ganache and coffee (or Grand Marnier) French buttercream, and covered in a chocolate glaze. Its namesake originates from the layers resembling the levels of an opera house.


title: Opera cake

text: According to ', " is an elaborate almond sponge cake with a coffee and chocolate filling and icing." Traditionally, the word "Opera" is also written on top of the chocolate glaze. Edible gold leaf is sometimes added to the presentation.


title: Opera cake

text: The cake was popularized by the French house Dalloyau, but its origin is unclear. Cyriaque Gavillon claimed to have created the cake there in 1955 and that his wife Andrée Gavillon named it after the Opéra Garnier.


title: Baháʼí House of Worship (Wilmette, Illinois)

text: The Baháʼí House of Worship in Wilmette, Illinois (or Chicago Baháʼí Temple) is a Baháʼí temple. It is the second Baháʼí House of Worship ever constructed and the oldest one still standing. It is one of eight continental temples, constructed to serve all of North America.


text: The temple was designed by French-Canadian architect Louis Bourgeois (1856–1930), who received design feedback from ʻAbdu'l-Bahá during a visit to Haifa in 1920. To convey the Baháʼí principle of the unity of religion, Bourgeois incorporated a variety of religious architecture and symbols. Although ʻAbdu'l-Bahá participated in a ground-breaking ceremony in 1912 that laid a cornerstone, construction began in earnest in the early 1920s and was delayed significantly through the Great Depression and World War II. Construction picked up again in 1947, and the temple was dedicated in a ceremony in 1953.


text: Baháʼí Houses of Worship are intended to include several social, humanitarian, and educational institutions clustered around the temple, although none have been built to such an extent. The temples are not intended as a local meeting place, but are instead open to the public and used as a devotional space for people of any faith.


text: In 1903, a small group of Baháʼís in downtown Chicago first discussed the idea of a Baháʼí House of Worship in the Chicago area. At the time, the world's first House of Worship was being built in Ashgabat, Russian Turkistan (what is now Turkmenistan). The Ioas family was particularly involved in the first requests. A Baháʼí from Chicago named Corinne Knight True went on pilgrimage to British Mandated Palestine in 1907 to visit ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, then leader of the religion, and tell him of the growing interest in a local house of worship. During Thornton Chase's pilgrimage, he had asked ʻAbdu'l-Bahá about it as well and was directed to work with True as "complete directions" had been given to her. A series of newspaper articles in the fall of 1908 including Chase among a set of women in several newspapers about the aim of the Baháʼís to build it. This interaction led to the next development of a national sense of community: The election of the first national council of the religion, with delegates present from across the US and Canada, in the spring of 1909. Thirty percent of the members elected were women. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá gave his blessing to the project, but recommended that the structure be built away from the Chicago business district, in a more quiet area near Lake Michigan. The Baháʼís considered building the temple in Chicago's Jackson Park or the suburb of Evanston, but eventually settled on Wilmette, Illinois, just north of Evanston. True began coordinating work and acted as the treasurer of the growing effort and it became a solace to her life in the face of many personal challenges. Subsequently, American Baháʼís came to refer to her as "the mother of the Temple" and she was eventually appointed one of the Hands of the Cause of the religion. The Baháʼí administrative body True initiated by direction of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, the "Baháʼí Temple Unity", began purchasing land and gradually assumed larger responsibilities across communities until it was renamed the National Spiritual Assembly.


text: Baháʼís from around the world gradually raised funds to pay for the project. For example, French Bahá'ís were noted as contributing even after facing the January 1910 Great Flood of Paris. A Chicago resident named Nettie Tobin, unable to contribute any money, famously donated a discarded piece of limestone from a construction site. This stone became the symbolic cornerstone of the building when ʻAbdu'l-Bahá arrived in Wilmette in 1912 for the ground-breaking ceremony during his journeys to the West. The actual construction of the building did not begin until the 1920s, after Baháʼís agreed to use a design by Louis Bourgeois. The design was seen as a mixture of many different architectural styles.


text: By 1922, the first part of the building, the Foundation Hall, was mostly finished, and Baháʼís began using it as a meeting place. Progress on construction soon stalled, however, as funds began to dwindle, and residents of Wilmette began expressing displeasure with the construction site. At this point, many strange rumors about the structure began to circulate. Some people believed that the building was used by the Baháʼís to keep a live white whale. Others said that the building was a refueling station for captured German submarines that had been brought to the Great Lakes.


text: Construction resumed as contributions from Baháʼís began to increase, and in 1930, the George A. Fuller Company was hired to complete the building's superstructure. The superstructure was completed in 1931, and a year later, John Joseph Earley was hired to begin work on the building's concrete cladding. A model of the temple was placed on display at Chicago's 1933–34 Century of Progress Exposition, and people began travelling to Wilmette to see the building taking shape. The temple was featured in a privately issued postal stationery cover on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of US airmail service in 1938. The exterior of the building was completed in January 1943.


text: Work remained to be done on the interior cladding of the structure, as well as the landscaping around the building. Louis Bourgeois' designs for the interior were incomplete. He had died in 1930, before he could finish his plans, so in 1947, Alfred Shaw was hired to work on the interior detailing of the building. By the 1940s the temple was again featured on a privately issued postal stationery cover and was used by the US Navy during World War II as a rendezvous point for training fighter pilots from the nearby Glenview Naval Air Station, and, by 1946 to mark a flightpath of a Navy Mars Seaplane. A plan for the building's gardens was approved in 1951, based on a design by Hilbert E. Dahl.


text: The temple was finally dedicated on May 2, 1953. Over 3,500 people attended the services, including 91-year-old Corinne True. Rúhíyyih Khánum, the wife of Shoghi Effendi (head of the religion after the death of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá), read a prayer at the dedication. Several prominent figures, such as Supreme Court Justice William O. Douglas and future justice Thurgood Marshall, sent messages of praise to the Baháʼís.


text: From 1958–2001, the Wilmette Bahá'í House of Worship was associated with a "home for the aged", operated by the U.S. Bahá'í community. The Bahá'í Home has since closed, although the building remains in use for a local Bahá'í School and a regional training center. A new welcome centre for the House of Worship was completed in 2015, described as connecting the temple with the community, including Bahá'ís and non-Bahá'ís.


text: The House of Worship is a domed structure surrounded by gardens and fountains on a 6.97-acre (2.82 ha) plot of land. The space between the floor of the auditorium and the ceiling of the dome measures 138 feet (42 m) high, and the interior of the dome is 72 feet (22 m) in diameter. The auditorium seats 1,191 people.


text: Since nine is the last number in the decimal system, Baháʼís believe it symbolizes perfection and completion. Nine is also the value of the word "Bahá" (Arabic for "glory") in Abjad numerology. Thus, many elements of the building occur in groups of nine. For example, there are nine entrances to the auditorium, nine interior alcoves, nine dome sections, and nine fountains in the garden area.


text: The cladding of the building is composed of a concrete mixture of portland cement and two types of quartz. Many intricate details are carved into the concrete. Various writings of Baháʼu'lláh, the founder of the religion, are inscribed above the building entrances and inside the interior alcoves. Symbols of many religions, such as the Christian cross, the Star of David, and the star and crescent, can be found in each exterior pillar. The pillars are also decorated with a symbol used by Hindus, and Buddhists in the form of a swastika. At the top of each pillar is a nine-pointed star, symbolizing the Baháʼí Faith.


text: Inside the center of the dome ceiling, one can see an Arabic inscription. This is a Baháʼí symbol called the "Greatest Name"; the script translates as "O Thou Glory of Glories". The secretary of Shoghi Effendi writing on his behalf explained, "By 'Greatest Name' is meant that Baháʼu'lláh has appeared in God's greatest name, in other words, that he is the supreme Manifestation of God."


text: Architect Louis Bourgeois' former studio sits across the street from the House of Worship at 536 Sheridan Road.


text: In 1978, the House of Worship was added to the National Register of Historic Places. The building has become a popular destination for tourists, and the Illinois Office of Tourism has named it one of the "Seven Wonders of Illinois". In 2012, the Bahá'í community of the United States celebrated the 100 years of the temple cornerstone dedication. In celebration of the 2018 Illinois Bicentennial, the Bahá'í House of Worship was selected as one of the Illinois 200 Great Places by the American Institute of Architects Illinois component (AIA Illinois) and was recognized by USA Today Travel magazine, as one of AIA Illinois' selections for Illinois 25 Must See Places. In 2019, a photo of the Wilmette Bahá'í House of Worship was among the 15 winners of the annual international Wiki Loves Monuments photo contest.


title: Finding Bigfoot

text: Finding Bigfoot was an American television series that aired on Animal Planet. The program followed four researchers and explorers investigating potential evidence of Bigfoot, a cryptid hominid allegedly living in the wildernesses of the United States and Canada. While the Finding Bigfoot team never captured photographic evidence of the creature's existence, the show gained high ratings and was a top earner for Animal Planet. It premiered on May 29, 2011, and the series finale and 100th episode was released on May 27, 2018.


title: Finding Bigfoot

text: The team consists of Bigfoot Field Researchers Organization (BFRO) founder and President Matt Moneymaker, researchers James "Bobo" Fay & Cliff Barackman, and skeptical scientist Ranae Holland. The series never questions the existence of bigfoot, but rather documents the team's futile search efforts and study of potential evidence in an attempt to prove the existence of the creature.


title: Finding Bigfoot

text: Over the course of the series, the team has introduced many new bigfoot related terms into the American vernacular. For example, the term "bigfoot" is rarely used in favor of "squatch" (short for sasquatch). Their investigations are referred to as "squatchin'". The areas they investigate are often described as "Squatchy", with Washington having been described as "the squatchiest state."


title: Finding Bigfoot

text: An episode begins with the Finding Bigfoot team driving to a location on the trail of photographic, video, audio, or eyewitness evidence of a Bigfoot. The team will go to the location where the evidence was gathered from, and speak to the person who gathered the evidence. If it is a photograph or a video, the team will perform a recreation and a size comparison of the event, using the same camera that the witness used. The team then performs their first night investigation at that same location. Its fairly lit


title: Finding Bigfoot

text: Starting with the second season, one member of the team will almost always remain at the location for a solo night investigation for several more nights. The other three (or all four in the first season) members will then head to a 'town hall meeting' to which members of the public are invited to come and share their Bigfoot encounter stories. In some heavily Bigfoot reported areas, such as Washington, these events are sometimes invite only.


title: Finding Bigfoot

text: After the witnesses tell their encounter stories, they are asked to mark their sighting locations on a map, which the team then uses to look for a pattern of sightings. The team will then visit three of the best-reported encounters, that are usually close to one another. After visiting all three witnesses, the team will collect the member who was doing the solo night investigation and select an area to do their final night investigation.


title: Finding Bigfoot

text: For the final night investigation, the team usually devises a unique plan to try to attract a Bigfoot, usually involving noise or light, by using boats on a lake, or silent electric ATVs. They also do wood knocks, which is believed to mimic a bigfoot's communication. Night-vision technology and forward looking infrared (FLIR) cameras are used to document these investigations. They will then evaluate what they learned and announce their evaluations during the ending credits. Occasionally, they will show their trail cam pictures or DNA results following the credits/summary.


title: Finding Bigfoot

text: In the third season, the team expanded their search from North America to investigate the Sasquatch phenomenon known as "Yowies" in Australia. Later in the season, they traveled to Indonesia searching for the "Orang Pendek", and to Vietnam to search for the "Wildman". In season four, the team traveled to China in search of the "Yeren", and Nepal in search of the "Yeti". In later seasons, the team traveled to other countries, including the United Kingdom and Brazil.


title: Finding Bigfoot

text: Season 5 of "Finding Bigfoot" debuted on June 8, 2014, as opposed to November when the last two seasons started.


title: Finding Bigfoot

text: On October 20, 2017, the "Finding Bigfoot" cast and crew revisited California to attend the 50th anniversary festival while filming the 100th and finale episode of the show. It aired on May 27, 2018 on Animal Planet. It was entitled "Return of the Legend".


title: Finding Bigfoot

text: On February 8, 2021, the series returned for a two-hour special entitled "Finding Bigfoot: The Search Continues." The special features the return of all four original cast members and focuses on utilizing new, advanced technologies to ultimately prove Bigfoot's existence. It was made available exclusively on the streaming service "Discovery+.". The special aired on Animal Planet for the first time on September 6, 2021.


title: Finding Bigfoot

text: Animal Planet received criticism for "Finding Bigfoot" and "" for their "outlandishness”. Fay defended "Finding Bigfoot", and to draw a line between the two programs. "You can't equate bigfoot with mermaids."


title: Finding Bigfoot

text: Several episodes of the first season received heavy criticism from the four 'Finding Bigfoot' members themselves, for the editing style that Animal Planet used, to make it appear that a horse and a person were unidentified by the team, and what they were remained unknown. The second event, involving the horse, led the team to threaten to quit the show if such techniques were used again.


title: Finding Bigfoot

text: "Finding Bigfoot" ranked among Animal Planet's top rated programs throughout its run. It has spawned two spin-offs: "Finding Bigfoot: Further Evidence" and "Finding Bigfoot: Rejected Evidence". "Finding Bigfoot: Further Evidence" is similar to VH-1's "Pop-Up Video". Episodes of "Finding Bigfoot" are re-aired with "info nuggets" from the team members. "Finding Bigfoot: Rejected Evidence" is an online-only series, in which executive producer Keith Hoffman airs video deemed not worthy of inclusion on the show.


title: Finding Bigfoot

text: Bigfoot enthusiasts have often ridiculed the show, due to the team's consistent lack of success, and the fact that any footage of a Bigfoot would be reported long before an episode airs.


title: M. R. R. Vasu

text: Madras Rajagopalan Radhakrishnan Vasudevan was an Indian actor who was active in Tamil cinema and theatre during the latter half of the 20th century. He was known for playing negative roles, but he was also a successful character actor. He acted in over 75 movies in Tamil. He is the eldest son of yesteryear actor M. R. Radha, father of Vasu Vikram and half-brother of Radha Ravi, Raadhika and Nirosha.


title: Gremyashchiy-class corvette

text: The "Gremyashchiy" class (), Russian designation Project 20385, is an update of the s of the Russian Navy. This follow-on project was designed by the Almaz Central Marine Design Bureau in Saint Petersburg. The first ship was laid down on 26 May 2011 and the official laying down ceremony took place on 1 February 2012. Although classified as corvettes by the Russian Navy, these ships carry sensors and weapon systems akin to frigates and, as a result, are so classified by NATO.


title: Gremyashchiy-class corvette

text: "Gremyashchiy"-class corvettes are very large multipurpose vessels, designed to complement the "Steregushchiy" class already being commissioned with the Russian Navy. They have been designed to have an improved habitability for higher endurance missions, and are able to launch cruise missiles.


title: Gremyashchiy-class corvette

text: The class was designed with German MTU diesels for propulsion. However, because of sanctions arising from the Ukrainian conflict, deliveries of MTU diesels beyond the first two units were stopped, resulting in the cancellation of further units. Instead, new units of the preceding "Steregushchiy" class are being ordered. In May 2016, corvette "Gremyashchiy" got two Russian-made 1DDA-12000 diesel units from Kolomna Works, based on their 16D49 engines, replacing the previously required German MTU diesels.


title: Gremyashchiy-class corvette

text: The lead vessel of the class, "Gremyashchiy", went on sea trials in late April 2019. On 31 October 2019, Russian President Vladimir Putin announced "Gremyashchiy" will be equipped with the hypersonic 3M22 Zircon anti-ship cruise missiles. In December 2019, as part of its state acceptance trials, the ship entered White Sea to test its main missile system against various types of targets.


title: Gremyashchiy-class corvette

text: An additional order of two corvettes was made in August 2020. Since the order for the Project 20385 vessels was made in conjunction with a larger order for additional Project 20380 ships, the new vessels could be built either at the Amur Shipyard, if destined for the Pacific Fleet, or alteratively at Severnaya Verf. As of November 2020, the allocation between shipyards had still to be decided. In December it was announced that four new corvettes of the class would be built at the Amur Shipyard for the Pacific Fleet with service entry envisaged between 2024 and 2028.


title: Gremyashchiy-class corvette

text: In December 2021, "Provornyy" suffered severe fire damage while under construction at the Severnaya Verf yard. A rebuild was reported as likely to take five years.


title: Gremyashchiy-class corvette

text: Project 20385 differs from its predecessor by greater dimensions and displacement. They have a steel hull and composite superstructure, with a bulbous bow and nine watertight subdivisions. Compared with the "Soobrazitelny", "Boikiy", "Sovershennyy" and "Stoikiy" ships, which are fitted with Redut air defense VLS system of 12 launchers on the bow, these new ships are equipped with a UKSK VLS system comprising eight launchers for either Kalibr, Oniks or Zircon anti-ship/cruise missiles. The Redut VLS system with 16 launchers has been placed on the stern. Another difference is the lack of the aft mast above the helicopter hangar, and single integrated mainmast that no longer includes separate open shelves for artillery and navigation radars.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: "" (, ) is a slogan and logo created by French art director Joachim Roncin and adopted by supporters of freedom of speech and freedom of the press after the 7 January 2015 shooting in which twelve people were killed at the offices of the French satirical weekly newspaper "Charlie Hebdo". It identifies a speaker or supporter with those who were killed at the "Charlie Hebdo" shooting, and by extension, a supporter of freedom of speech and resistance to armed threats. Some journalists embraced the expression as a rallying cry for the freedom of self-expression.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: The slogan was first used on Twitter. The website of "Charlie Hebdo" went offline shortly after the shooting and when it became live again, it bore the legend "Je suis Charlie" on a black background, a PDF containing translations in seven languages was added shortly thereafter. The statement was used as the hashtag #jesuischarlie and #iamcharlie on Twitter, as computer printed or hand-made placards and stickers, and displayed on mobile phones at vigils, and on many websites, particularly media sites.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: Within two days of the attack, the slogan had become one of the most popular news hashtags in Twitter history. "Je suis Charlie" was adopted worldwide, was used in music, displayed in print and animated cartoons (including "The Simpsons"), and became the new name of a town square in France. On 12 January, "Charlie Hebdo" revealed the cover of its 14 January issue, set to be published a week after the attacks began. The cover features a cartoon of the Islamic prophet Muhammad shedding a tear while holding a "Je suis Charlie" sign, below the words ""Tout est pardonné"" ("All is forgiven").


title: Je suis Charlie

text: About one hour after the attack, an image of the slogan was posted to Twitter by Joachim Roncin, a French artist and music journalist for "Stylist" magazine. Roncin says he created the image because he lacked words. Roncin said the phrase came to him naturally, because he regularly spends time with his son looking at "Où est Charlie?" books (the French language version of "Where's Wally?").


title: Je suis Charlie

text: The slogan is intended to evoke solidarity with the victims, as other similar phrases have done. Such "I am" and "We are" slogans "express empathy, outrage, and horror by subsuming ourselves into victims' identities", wrote Amanda Hess of "Slate". French media in particular noted its similarity to the phrase "Tonight, we are all Americans," (""Ce soir, nous sommes tous Américains"") spoken on air by France 2 reporter Nicole Bacharan on the evening of 11 September 2001. The phrase was widely embraced, including being printed on the front page of French newspaper "Le Monde" the following day. "Je suis Charlie" has also been compared to another phrase of solidarity, ""Ich bin ein Berliner"" ("I am a Berliner"), a declaration by U.S. President John F. Kennedy on 26 June 1963, in West Berlin on the 15th anniversary of the Berlin blockade.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: Media also have drawn comparisons to the iconic "I'm Spartacus" scene in the film "Spartacus" (1960). The phrase is also similar to "Main hoon aam aadmi" (meaning "I am the common man"), a slogan used by the Aam Aadmi Party in India.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: Beyond expressing sympathy for the victims, within hours of the attack the hashtag was used by journalists discussing the issue of censorship and threats. Sophie Kleeman of Mic wrote, "#JeSuisCharlie sends a clear message: Regardless of the threat of hatred or violence, journalists and non-journalists alike refuse to be silenced. As Charbonnier said in 2012, following the firebombing of his offices, 'I have neither a wife nor children, not even a dog. But I'm not going to hide.'"


title: Je suis Charlie

text: In the opinion of Gene Policinski, chief operating officer of the Newseum Institute and Senior Vice-President of the First Amendment Center, the "Charlie Hebdo" killings were part of a string of recent threats toward journalists and freedom of speech, following North Korea's threats over the release of the film "The Interview" (2014) and ISIL's executions of journalists. In his opinion, Policinski stated that instead of being successful at silencing anyone, these attempts at censorship and the Paris massacre have backfired and instead brought more awareness and support to freedom of speech. "Ironically, such violence directed at journalists, authors and others is recognition that free expression and the marketplace of ideas—enshrined in the U.S. [Constitution] in the First Amendment—is a powerful weapon against tyranny", he wrote; "For more than 220 years, in the U.S., the 45 words of the First Amendment have defined the nation's core freedoms of religion, speech, press, assembly and petition. We now have another few words that will serve as a global means of declaring those freedoms: #JeSuisCharlie."


title: Je suis Charlie

text: Journalist Peter Bella wrote that more than 100 reporters were killed "doing their jobs" in 2014 and that "many were executed just because they were journalists." He said the hashtag "was created to support "Charlie Hebdo", the victims, and freedom of the press, speech, and expression. I am Charlie. You are Charlie. We are all Charlie."


title: Je suis Charlie

text: Counter-hashtags also appeared as expressions of disagreement with the unconditional support of "Charlie Hebdo". The hashtag #JeNeSuisPasCharlie ("I am not Charlie") was used by those who accuse the magazine of racism. "Le Monde" reported that a fake bomb was left in the faculty lounge of a French high school containing the message: "Je ne suis pas Charlie". In an article titled "I Am Not Charlie Hebdo" published in "The New York Times", American journalist David Brooks, while describing the journalists at "Charlie Hebdo" as "martyrs on behalf of freedom of expression," described "Charlie Hebdo" as a puerile magazine whose offensive humor would be labelled as hate speech in the United States. News media also used the slogan "Je ne suis pas Charlie" to discuss why they chose not to publish any "Charlie Hebdo" cartoons as part of their news reporting. Others used the "Je ne suis pas Charlie" slogan to make a comparison between the loud outcry over the attacks in Paris, and the comparatively smaller outcry over other atrocities going on in non-Western countries that took place at the same time.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: In a "The New Yorker" essay, Teju Cole objected to the claim that "Charlie Hebdo" cartoonists and writers were equal opportunity offenders; to him, the magazine, in recent years, had taken a turn "specifically for racist and Islamophobic provocations (...) featuring hook-nosed Arabs, bullet-ridden Korans, variations on the theme of sodomy, and mockery of the victims of a massacre". Furthermore, he also posited that the outpouring of support for "Charlie Hebdo" was only possible because the attack fits in a pre-established narrative wherein Western lives are worth more, and which sees that violence that befalls the Third World and/or has Western allies as accomplices is paid comparatively little attention. Cole also rebuked the view that "violence by self-proclaimed Jihadists is the only threat to liberty in Western societies", stating that the very governments of France, the US, and the UK undermine free speech within their own societies via monitoring and punishment of dissidents and critics of the state. Cole was among the writers who boycotted the PEN American Center's May 2015 gala as an award to "Charlie Hebdo" was due to be presented at the ceremony.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: Glenn Greenwald accused supporters of "Je Suis Charlie" of either keeping silence about, or downright supporting, what he sees as free speech violations perpetrated by the French state in the year that followed the massacre, including the following events: the arrest of comedian Dieudonné M'bala M'bala for hate speech, and of further dozens of people for "acts insulting religious faiths, or for cheering the men who carried out the attacks"; the criminal conviction, by France's highest court, of pro-Palestinian protesters for having advocated a boycott of Israeli products at a supermarket; the shutting down of mosques and coffee shops; and France's use of "emergency powers", after the November 2015 Paris attacks, to ban a rally by environmental activists in protest to the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference which was taking place in the French capital. He has accused most "Je Suis Charlie" supporters of being, not true advocates of free speech rights, but anti-Muslim agitators who used the massacre at the magazine's headquarters as a "cynical weapon". Greenwald has cited in his support the work of French sociologist Emmanuel Todd. Todd claims that the marches on 11 January 2015 to show solidarity with the "Charlie Hebdo" victims were not an expression of positive French values but of right-wing and anti-immigrant elements in France. The biggest of such protests, says Todd, "had occurred in the country's most historically Catholic and reactionary regions", with the working class and children of immigrants being notably absent therefrom. In 2015 Todd published a book expanding on his view named "Qui est Charlie? Sociologie d'une crise religieuse" ("Who is Charlie? Sociology of a religious crisis"), which has become his most controversial and popular essay.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: "Je suis Charlie" trended at the top of Twitter hashtags on 7 January, the day of the attack. By the following afternoon it had appeared more than 3.4 million times, and was being used nearly 6,500 times per minute. By Friday, it had appeared more than 5 million times.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: The U.S. Embassy in Paris and the Association française pour le nommage Internet en coopération were among the people and organizations which changed their Twitter profile pictures to the "Je suis Charlie" placard.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: Numerous cartoonists created art using the slogan. Others used it in combination with pictures of the deceased.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: The "Je suis Charlie" slogan and translations were used on placards and mobile phone displays at vigils and demonstrations in many cities in France, Europe, North America, South America, Oceania and some Asian cities.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: The "Je suis Charlie" slogan showed up all over the world in street art and graffiti, especially in Paris, as a tribute to victims of the terrorist attacks.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: On United States television programs, there were several notable uses of the slogan. On 8 January, Jon Stewart closed the episode of "The Daily Show" with "Je suis Charlie" in a cartoon. On 11 January, "The Simpsons" episode, "Bart's New Friend" featured Maggie holding a black banner reading "Je suis Charlie" in a manner similar to either Eugène Delacroix's "Liberty Leading the People", or an iconic drawing by Emile Bayard of the character of Cosette from Victor Hugo's novel "Les Misérables", made famous as a publicity image for the novel's musical adaptation. It was shown after the conclusion of the program.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: The 72nd Golden Globe Awards show, held 11 January in Beverly Hills, was the first major entertainment event to take place after the killings. Prior to the awards show, film producer Harvey Weinstein penned a lengthy open letter to Hollywood in "Variety" about the attacks and the importance of free speech, writing that he hoped there would be displays of "solidarity" at the awards, before ending his letter with ""Je suis Charlie, je suis juif, je suis Ahmed."" ("I am Charlie, I am Jewish, I am Ahmed.")


title: Je suis Charlie

text: At the show, stars including George and Amal Clooney, Kathy Bates, Helen Mirren, Diane Kruger, Joshua Jackson and William H. Macy, wore "Je Suis Charlie" on pins affixed to their clothes or handbags, held signs with the slogan or used the phrase in red carpet interviews. In his acceptance speech for the Cecil B. DeMille Award, George Clooney wore a "Je suis Charlie" pin on his lapel and said, "Millions of people – not just in Paris but around the world, Christians and Jews and Muslims, leaders of countries all over the world – they didn't march in protest, they marched in support of the idea that we will not walk in fear. We won't do it. So "Je suis Charlie."" Jared Leto used the term in a speech before presenting an award.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: An exhibition titled "Je suis Charlie" honoring free expression was held in Drammen Theater on 27 February 2015. The exhibition which was arranged by the Universal Tolerance Organization featured 100 religious and political cartoons from 40 countries. Due to security concerns there were no cartoons of Mohammed and the exhibition only stayed open for six hours with heavily armed police present.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: The day after the attack, Jean-Pierre Tallieu, mayor of the city of La Tremblade, a suburb of Royan, Charente-Maritime, named a public square "Je suis Charlie Place" to perpetuate the memory of the victims. A temporary plaque was inaugurated on 10 January and will be permanently replaced once the paperwork is completed to register the new name.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: Notepad++ version 6.7.4, released on 10 January 2015, was named Je suis Charlie. In response the website was hacked by the Tunisian Fallaga Team, accusing Notepad++ of calling Islam a terrorist religion. GNU parallel's release 20150122 was named ((:~{> Je Suis Charlie.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: Several developers produced applications for smartphones. On Android, apps appeared to display the various versions of the "Je suis Charlie" slogan. French developers from the news agency Nice-Matin launched a "Je suis Charlie" smartphone app for iOS and Android. Installing the free app and giving it access to the phone's location adds a dot on a map alongside other supporters. While new iOS apps typically take at least a week to be vetted, the agency e-mailed Apple CEO Tim Cook and the app was approved in one hour after the shootings.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: Within days of the attack, merchandise featuring "Je suis Charlie" was available for sale around the world. This led to critical questioning of whether businesses were profiting off the tragedy or simply responding to market demand. By 12 January, eBay had more than 5,000 items on its site, including T-shirts, mugs, artwork, pins, posters, hats, phone cases, keychains and dogtags. The auction company announced it would donate fees earned from "Je suis Charlie"-related sales in France.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: On 8 January, French mail order company 3 Suisses drew criticism for appropriating the slogan for social media self-promotion after tweeting an image with the words "Je "Suisses" Charlie." It removed the slogan the same day and apologized. eBay stated it would remove any items featuring the slogan that were "inconsistent with its regulations, principles and values." The Hoxton Hotel chain was criticized for including "#jesuischarile " in a Facebook post promoting its new Paris hotel. The firm later published a post saying its intent was only to show solidarity with Paris.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: The domain name jesuischarlie.com was registered on the same day as the attack and featured an automatic redirect to the "Charlie Hebdo" website. Jesuischarlie.net, jesuischarlie.fr and iamcharlie.fr were also registered but initially had no content.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: A trademark application for the combination of words "Je suis Charlie" was filed at the Benelux Trademark Office on 8 January 2015 in the evening hours by Yanick Uytterhaegen of Brussels, who claims he wants to use the trademark to raise money for Charlie Hebdo. The trademark application covers several classes of the international classification including Classes 3, 25 35 and 38.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: After the Baga Massacre the hashtag #Jesuisnigeria was used to express support for Nigeria as well as point out the lack of media coverage of the event compared to the Charlie Hebdo shooting.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: Following the flogging of Saudi blogger Raif Badawi for the crimes of "insulting Islam", the hastag #Jesuisraif trended on Twitter.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: The hashtag #jesuisahmed ("I am Ahmed") was used to express solidarity with Ahmed Merabet, a Muslim police officer whose murder in the street by the attackers was captured on video.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: After the siege at the kosher Hypercacher supermarket in Vincennes on 9 January, the "Je suis Hypercacher" slogan was launched on an eponymous website after four hostages were shot dead. As the victims were targeted on account of their Jewish religion, people tweet the hashtag #JeSuisJuif ("I am Jewish") in honor of the victims.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: Following an attack on a bus on 13 January that killed 12 people near Volnovakha, eastern Ukraine, Ukrainian President Petro Poroshenko posted an image on Facebook of a bullet-riddled bus above the caption "Je Suis Volnovakha". On 18 January, thousands of Ukrainians marched in Kyiv and Odessa to commemorate the victims, holding signs reading "Je Suis Volnovakha" and "Я Волноваха".


title: Je suis Charlie

text: French far-right activists, including Generation Identity and National Front MEP Jean-Marie Le Pen, adopted the slogan "Je suis Charlie Martel", in reference to the Frankish king who defeated an Islamic invasion in 732 AD.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: Roger Cukierman, president of CRIF, a Jewish umbrella organisation in France, spoke against supporters of the "Charlie Hebdo" attackers who were using the hashtag "#IamKouachi" on social media, which he called "an apology for murder."


title: Je suis Charlie

text: French comedian Dieudonné M'bala M'bala was arrested the week after the shootings after stating on Facebook that: "Tonight, as far as I'm concerned, I feel like Charlie Coulibaly", which, according to "The Guardian", "[mixed] the slogan 'Je suis Charlie' ... with a reference to gunman Amedy Coulibaly".


title: Je suis Charlie

text: British Liberal Democrat MP David Ward, known for his opposition to Israel, tweeted "Je suis Palestinian" while watching the Republican marches, which together with other comments drew condemnation from his party leader, Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: On 16 January 2015, protests against the continued creation of cartoons depicting Muhammad turned violent in several countries, including Algeria, Nigeria and Pakistan. Protesters shouted "I am not Charlie, I am Muhammad" and President of Turkey Recep Tayyip Erdoğan stated that the cartoons had nothing to do with freedom of expression, but rather with "terrorising the freedom of others." In the city of Zinder, 4 died and 45 were wounded battling police.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: In response to the issue of "Charlie Hebdo" following the shooting ("Charlie Hebdo" issue No. 1178), a protest in Australia had signs saying "".


title: Je suis Charlie

text: In response to the apparent murder of prosecutor Alberto Nisman in Argentina in January 2015 protesters used "#Yo soy Nisman" and "Je suis Nisman" as slogans, while in response to the assassination of Russian politician Boris Nemtsov in February 2015, placards saying "Je suis Boris Nemtsov" were held up during the protest march in Moscow.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: After the 13 November 2015 Paris attacks, the slogan and layout was adopted and widely reused as "Je suis Paris".


title: Je suis Charlie

text: After a police raid in Saint-Denis that killed Paris attacks mastermind Abdelhamid Abaaoud, the hashtags #JeSuisDiesel and #JeSuisChien (I am dog) were used in tribute to Diesel, a police dog who died in the raid.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: The hashtag #JeSuisDaphne was used on the Maltese social media following the murder of the journalist and blogger Daphne Caruana Galizia in October 2017.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: Messages reading "Je suis Strasbourg" were left at makeshift shrines following the 2018 Strasbourg attack.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: The hashtags #Je Suis Prof and #Je Suis Enseignant, both meaning "I am a teacher", were launched in support of Samuel Paty, a French schoolteacher murdered and beheaded in 2020, and in support of freedom of expression.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: "Charlie Hebdo" staff hastily created a PDF of seven translations of "Je suis Charlie" which they made available on their website shortly after it returned to service. The pages appear to be scans of laser printed output, and are in a variety of fonts.


title: Je suis Charlie

text: Each translation is three words, where "I am" is a single word (or "am" has been elided), "Hebdo" has been added.


title: José Bosingwa

text: José Bosingwa da Silva (born 24 August 1982) is a Portuguese former footballer who played as a right-back.


title: José Bosingwa

text: An attacking fullback, his pace and ability to get up and down the flanks created problems for the opposition. He spent most of his professional career with Porto and Chelsea, winning 13 honours overall including the UEFA Champions League with both clubs: 2004 with the former and 2012 with the latter.


title: José Bosingwa

text: A Portuguese international since 2007, Bosingwa represented the nation at Euro 2008 and the 2004 Summer Olympics, earning a total of 27 caps.


title: José Bosingwa

text: Born in Mbandaka, Zaire to a Portuguese father and a Congolese mother, Bosingwa moved with his parents at a very young age to Seia in the Portuguese hinterland, in the Guarda District. He was the youngest of the couple's ten children.


title: José Bosingwa

text: Bosingwa was picked as a youth to play for Boavista FC, making his professional debut on loan to S.C. Freamunde in the Segunda Liga and appearing sparingly as the northern club finished last. He started his career as a midfielder.


title: José Bosingwa

text: After two full seasons with Boavista, Bosingwa signed with neighbouring FC Porto – coached by José Mourinho – for 2003–04. He was used sparingly in his first year, playing in only 13 Primeira Liga games; he made his UEFA Champions League debut on 16 September 2003 in a 1–1 away draw against FK Partizan, appearing in a further seven matches in the club's victorious campaign.


title: José Bosingwa

text: Fully established as a right-back and Porto's first-choice since 2004–05, after the departures of Paulo Ferreira and veteran Carlos Secretário, Bosingwa was a vital element in the team's conquest of another three league titles in four years. The campaign ended on a sour note as, in May, he was at the wheel of his jeep when excess speed and wet road conditions led to a serious accident, with the vehicle skidding off the motorway and rolling down an embankment before bursting into flames. Four other footballers travelled alongside him, including Boavista player Nélson. All escaped alive, but one of them, Sandro Luís (player of modest Grupo Desportivo os Minhocas), had to have his left foot amputated as a result of the accident, which took place in Valongo; years later, Bosingwa was made to pay €175.000 in compensation.


title: José Bosingwa

text: On 11 May 2008, Porto announced that Bosingwa had come to verbal agreements with Chelsea for €20.6 million (£16.3 million), with 20% of the transfer fee going to a third party called International Football – Gestão e Assessoria de Carreiras. He put pen to paper on a three-year deal and joined the London club after Euro 2008, along with Portugal national team boss Luiz Felipe Scolari and fellow international Deco; on 16 July he was officially presented with the number 16, but switched to No. 17 after exchanging with Scott Sinclair.


title: José Bosingwa

text: Bosingwa made his Premier League debut for the Blues on 17 August 2008, starting in a 4–0 home win against Portsmouth. His first Champions League appearance came the next month, against FC Girondins de Bordeaux (same venue, same result). He scored his first goal for them against Stoke City on 27 September, adding a second with a stunning left-foot attempt against West Bromwich Albion, scoring from 25 yards in a 3–0 away win.


title: José Bosingwa

text: On 1 February 2009, Bosingwa was involved in an incident on the field where he stamped Liverpool player Yossi Benayoun directly in the back, without making any attempt to play the ball. Although referee Mike Riley did not see it, assistant Mo Matadar would later claim to have seen the incident, signalling a foul at the time but subsequently awarding Chelsea a throw-in; in the days following the match, the Football Association claimed that FIFA regulations prevented them from imposing disciplinary sanctions, as no booking or sending off was issued.


title: José Bosingwa

text: Bosingwa was banned for three European matches as a result of comments he made about the refereeing of the Champions League semi-finals second leg clash against FC Barcelona (6 May 2009, 1–1 draw in England) on Portuguese television. He stated "I don't know whether he's a referee or a thief", but later apologised for his choice of words. The ban was later reduced to two games on appeal.


title: José Bosingwa

text: On 19 June 2009, FC Bayern Munich chairman Karl-Heinz Rummenigge conceded defeat in his club's attempt to sign Bosingwa, who remained at Stamford Bridge. He sustained a knee injury in October, being rendered unavailable for the rest of the season (the team won the title, but under league rules he had not made sufficient appearances for a medal). Chelsea announced in early March that he required further surgery, ruling him out of the 2010 FIFA World Cup.


title: José Bosingwa

text: On 16 October 2010, exactly one year after his injury, Bosingwa returned to action against the same opponent, Aston Villa playing the last 15 minutes in a 0–0 away draw at Villa Park after replacing compatriot Ferreira in the second half– both were relegated to the bench by Branislav Ivanović.


title: José Bosingwa

text: In the 2011–12 season, following the appointment of countryman André Villas-Boas as manager, Bosingwa returned to the starting lineup. On 27 August 2011, he scored his first goal in three years after a 25-yard strike against Norwich City in a 3–1 home win.


title: José Bosingwa

text: On 23 October 2011, in a game against Queen's Park Rangers, Bosingwa was controversially sent off by referee Chris Foy after a challenge with Shaun Wright-Phillips, as Chelsea went on to lose 0–1 away, with Didier Drogba also being dismissed for foul play. In late November, he started in the Champions League group stage match at Bayer 04 Leverkusen as left back, playing out of position to replace injured Ashley Cole in an eventual 1–2 defeat.


title: José Bosingwa

text: On 24 April 2012, Bosingwa played a vital role in the match against Barcelona in the Champions League semi-finals: he replaced injured Gary Cahill after only 12 minutes, and helped his side record a 2–2 draw at the Camp Nou and a 3–2 aggregate win; for most of the match he had to play as centre-back, as John Terry was also sent off before half-time.


title: José Bosingwa

text: In his natural position, Bosingwa played the full 120 minutes in the Champions League final against FC Bayern Munich, as Chelsea won 4–3 on penalties and became the first club from London to win the tournament. With the back four being commended for their ability to keep the strong opposing forward line at bay, he himself received plaudits for his efforts against winger Franck Ribéry; Shortly after, however, along with teammates Drogba and Salomon Kalou, he was told he could leave once his contract expired the following month.


title: José Bosingwa

text: Bosingwa was occasionally regarded as one of the worst players to win the Champions League in the 2010s.


title: José Bosingwa

text: On 17 August 2012, Bosingwa signed a three-year deal with Queens Park Rangers. He scored his first goal for his new club on the 28th, netting against Walsall in a 3–0 home win in the season's Football League Cup.


title: José Bosingwa

text: In December 2012, Bosingwa was fined two weeks' wages for refusing to sit on the bench for a league game against Fulham. When QPR sealed their relegation in April 2013 after a 0–0 draw at Reading, he was seen on TV cameras to be smiling as he left the pitch, which angered teammate Joey Barton and fans alike; three months later, he left the club by mutual consent.


title: José Bosingwa

text: On 29 July 2013, Bosingwa signed a three-year contract with Trabzonspor in the Turkish Süper Lig, for a €2.1 million salary in the first two seasons and to €1.6 million in the last. He left in early November 2015 claiming unpaid wages but, in the following transfer window, returned to the club and agreed to a half-year deal for €0.5 million plus €1,000 per match.


title: José Bosingwa

text: Due to his consistent performances at club level, Bosingwa received his first call-up to the Portuguese national team in May 2007, for a UEFA Euro 2008 qualifier away to Belgium, replacing Miguel in the second half of the 2–1 win on 2 June. After overtaking the Valencia CF player as first-choice, he started all four matches in the final stages in Austria and Switzerland as the country exited in the quarter-finals, being included in the team of the tournament.


title: José Bosingwa

text: Bosingwa also represented Portugal at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, and the 2004 UEFA European Under-21 Championship. Although he played for the country at under-21 level, he was also eligible to represent the Democratic Republic of Congo if he made an application to apply in 2004; subsequently, he was invited by the African nation to appear for them in the 2006 World Cup qualifying campaign.


title: José Bosingwa

text: On 8 November 2011, Bosingwa withdrew himself from international football until the removal of manager Paulo Bento. The latter claimed that the player was left out of the Euro 2012 qualifying matches against Bosnia and Herzegovina due to questions about his attitude and mentality; the Portuguese Football Federation criticized the player for his decision and the timing of his statement.


title: José Bosingwa

text: After more than three years of absence, on 7 November 2014, Bosingwa was called up by new manager Fernando Santos for a Euro 2016 qualifier against Armenia and a friendly with Argentina.


title: Greek love

text: Greek love is a term originally used by classicists to describe the primarily homoerotic customs, practices, and attitudes of the ancient Greeks. It was frequently used as a euphemism for homosexuality and pederasty. The phrase is a product of the enormous impact of the reception of classical Greek culture on historical attitudes toward sexuality, and its influence on art and various intellectual movements.


title: Greek love

text: 'Greece' as the historical memory of a treasured past was romanticised and idealised as a time and a culture when love between males was not only tolerated but actually encouraged, and expressed as the high ideal of same-sex camaraderie. ... If tolerance and approval of male homosexuality had happened once—and in a culture so much admired and imitated by the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries—might it not be possible to replicate in modernity the antique homeland of the non-heteronormative?


title: Greek love

text: Following the work of sexuality theorist Michel Foucault, the validity of an ancient Greek model for modern gay culture has been questioned. In his essay "Greek Love", Alastair Blanshard sees "Greek love" as "one of the defining and divisive issues in the homosexual rights movement.


title: Greek love

text: As a phrase in Modern English and other modern European languages, "Greek love" refers to various (mostly homoerotic) practices as part of the Hellenic heritage reinterpreted by adherents such as Lytton Strachey; quotation marks are often placed on either or both words ("Greek" love, Greek "love", or "Greek love") to indicate that usage of the phrase is determined by context. It often serves as a "coded phrase" for pederasty, or to "sanitize" homosexual desire in historical contexts where it was considered unacceptable.


title: Greek love

text: The German term "griechische Liebe" ("Greek love") appears in German literature between 1750 and 1850, along with "socratische Liebe" ("Socratic love") and "platonische Liebe" ("Platonic love") in reference to male-male attractions. Ancient Greece became a positive reference point by which homosexual men of a certain class and education could engage in discourse that might otherwise be taboo. In the early Modern period, a disjuncture was carefully maintained between idealized male eros in the classical tradition, which was treated with reverence, and sodomy, which was a term of contempt.


title: Greek love

text: In his classic study "Greek Homosexuality", Kenneth Dover states that the English nouns "a homosexual" and "a heterosexual" have no equivalent in the ancient Greek language. According to Dover, there was no concept in ancient Greece equivalent to the modern conception of "sexual preference"; it was assumed that a person could have both hetero- and homosexual responses at different times. Evidence for same-sex attractions and behaviors is more abundant for men than for women. Both romantic love and sexual passion between men were often considered normal, and under some circumstances healthy or admirable. The most common male-male relationship was "paiderasteia", a socially-acknowledged institution in which a mature male ("erastēs", the active lover) bonded with or mentored a teen-aged youth ("eromenos", the passive lover, or "pais", "boy" understood as an endearment and not necessarily a category of age ). Martin Litchfield West views Greek pederasty as "a substitute for heterosexual love, free contacts between the sexes being restricted by society".


title: Greek love

text: Greek art and literature portray these relationships as sometimes erotic or sexual, or sometimes idealized, educational, non-consummated, or non-sexual. A distinctive feature of Greek male-male eros was its occurrence within a military setting, as with the Theban Band, though the extent to which homosexual bonds played a military role has been questioned.


title: Greek love

text: Some Greek myths have been interpreted as reflecting the custom of "paiderasteia", most notably the myth of Zeus kidnapping Ganymede to become his cupbearer in the Olympian symposium. The death of Hyacinthus is also frequently referenced as a pederastic myth.


title: Greek love

text: The main Greek literary sources for Greek homosexuality are lyric poetry, Athenian comedy, the works of Plato and Xenophon, and courtroom speeches from Athens. Vase paintings from the 500s and 400s BCE depict courtship and sex between males.


title: Greek love

text: In Latin, "mos Graeciae" or "mos Graecorum" ("Greek custom" or "the way of the Greeks") refers to a variety of behaviors the ancient Romans regarded as Greek, including but not confined to sexual practice. Homosexual behaviors at Rome were acceptable only within an inherently unequal relationship; male Roman citizens retained their masculinity as long as they took the active, penetrating role, and the appropriate male sexual partner was a prostitute or slave, who would nearly always be non-Roman. In Archaic and classical Greece, "paiderasteia" had been a formal social relationship between freeborn males; taken out of context and refashioned as the luxury product of a conquered people, pederasty came to express roles based on domination and exploitation. Slaves often were given, and prostitutes sometimes assumed, Greek names regardless of their ethnic origin; the boys "(pueri)" to whom the poet Martial is attracted have Greek names. The use of slaves defined Roman pederasty; sexual practices were "somehow 'Greek when they were directed at "freeborn boys openly courted in accordance with the Hellenic tradition of pederasty".


title: Greek love

text: Effeminacy or a lack of discipline in managing one's sexual attraction to another male threatened a man's "Roman-ness" and thus might be disparaged as "Eastern" or "Greek". Fears that Greek models might "corrupt" traditional Roman social codes (the "mos maiorum") seem to have prompted a vaguely documented law ("Lex Scantinia") that attempted to regulate aspects of homosexual relationships between freeborn males and to protect Roman youth from older men emulating Greek customs of pederasty.


title: Greek love

text: By the close of the 2nd century BCE, however, the elevation of Greek literature and art as models of expression caused homoeroticism to be regarded as urbane and sophisticated. The consul Quintus Lutatius Catulus was among a circle of poets who made short, light Hellenistic poems fashionable in the late Republic. One of his few surviving fragments is a poem of desire addressed to a male with a Greek name, signaling the new aesthetic in Roman culture. The Hellenization of elite culture influenced sexual attitudes among "avant-garde, philhellenic Romans", as distinguished from sexual orientation or behavior, and came to fruition in the "new poetry" of the 50s BCE. The poems of Gaius Valerius Catullus, written in forms adapted from Greek meters, include several expressing desire for a freeborn youth explicitly named "Youth" ("Iuventius"). His Latin name and free-born status subvert pederastic tradition at Rome. Catullus's poems are more often addressed to a woman.


title: Greek love

text: The literary ideal celebrated by Catullus stands in contrast to the practice of elite Romans who kept a "puer delicatus" ("exquisite boy") as a form of high-status sexual consumption, a practice that continued well into the Imperial era. The "puer delicatus" was a slave chosen from the pages who served in a high-ranking household. He was selected for his good looks and grace to serve at his master's side, where he is often depicted in art. Among his duties, at a "convivium" he would enact the Greek mythological role of Ganymede, the Trojan youth abducted by Zeus to serve as a divine cupbearer. Attacks on emperors such as Nero and Elagabalus, whose young male partners accompanied them in public for official ceremonies, criticized the perceived "Greekness" of male-male sexuality. "Greek love", or the cultural model of Greek pederasty in ancient Rome, is a "topos or literary game" that "never stops being Greek in the Roman imagination", an erotic pose to be distinguished from the varieties of real-world sexuality among individuals. Vout sees the views of Williams and MacMullen as opposite extremes on the subject


title: Greek love

text: Male same-sex relationships of the kind portrayed by the "Greek love" ideal were increasingly disallowed within the Judaeo-Christian traditions of western society. In the postclassical period, love poetry addressed by males to other males has been in general taboo. According to Reeser's book "Setting Plato Straight", it was the Renaissance that shifted the idea of love in Plato's sense to what we now refer to as "Platonic love"—as asexual and heterosexual.


title: Greek love

text: In 1469, the Italian Neoplatonist Marsilio Ficino reintroduced Plato's "Symposium" to western culture with his Latin translation titled "De Amore" ("On Love"). Ficino is "perhaps the most important Platonic commentator and teacher in the Renaissance". The "Symposium" became the most important text for conceptions of love in general during the Renaissance. In his commentary on Plato, Ficino interprets "amor platonicus" ("Platonic love") and "amor socraticus" ("Socratic love") allegorically as idealized male love, in keeping with the Church doctrine of his time. Ficino's interpretation of the "Symposium" influenced a philosophical view that the pursuit of knowledge, particularly self-knowledge, required the sublimation of sexual desire. Ficino thus began the long historical process of suppressing the homoeroticism of in particular, the dialogue "Charmides" "threatens to expose the carnal nature of Greek love" which Ficino sought to minimize.


title: Greek love

text: For Ficino, "Platonic love" was a bond between two men that fosters a shared emotional and intellectual life, as distinguished from the "Greek love" practiced historically as the "erastes/eromenos" relationship. Ficino thus points toward the modern usage of "Platonic love" to mean love without sexuality. In his commentary to the "Symposium", Ficino carefully separates the act of sodomy, which he condemned, and praises Socratic love as the highest form of friendship. Ficino maintained that men could use each other's beauty and friendship to discover the greatest good, that is, God, and thus Christianized idealized male love as expressed by Socrates.


title: Greek love

text: During the Renaissance, artists such as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo used Plato's philosophy as inspiration for some of their greatest works. The "rediscovery" of classical antiquity was perceived as a liberating experience, and Greek love as an ideal after a Platonic model. Michelangelo presented himself to the public as a Platonic lover of men, combining Catholic orthodoxy and pagan enthusiasm in his portrayal of the male form, most notably the "David", but his great-nephew edited his poems to diminish references to his love for Tommaso Cavalieri.


title: Greek love

text: By contrast, the French Renaissance essayist Montaigne, whose view of love and friendship was humanist and rationalist, rejected "Greek love" as a model in his essay "De l'amitié" ("On Friendship"); it did not accord with the social needs of his own time, he wrote, because it involved "a necessary disparity in age and such a difference in the lovers' functions". Because Montaigne saw friendship as a relationship between equals in the context of political liberty, this inequality diminished the value of Greek love. The physical beauty and sexual attraction inherent in the Greek model for Montaigne were not necessary conditions of friendship, and he dismisses homosexual relations, which he refers to as "licence grecque", as socially repulsive. Although the wholesale importation of a Greek model would be socially improper, "licence grecque" seems to refer only to licentious homosexual conduct, in contrast to the moderate behavior between men in the perfect friendship. When Montaigne chooses to introduce his essay on friendship with recourse to the Greek model, "homosexuality's role as trope is more important than its status as actual male-male desire or act ... "licence grecque" becomes an aesthetic device to frame the center."


title: Greek love

text: The German term "griechische Liebe" ("Greek love") appears in German literature between 1750 and 1850, along with "socratische Liebe" ("Socratic love") and "platonische Liebe" ("Platonic love") in reference to male-male attractions. The work of the German art historian Johann Winckelmann was a major influence on the formation of classical ideals in the 18th century, and is also a frequent starting point for histories of gay German literature. Winckelmann observed the inherent homoeroticism of Greek art, though he felt he had to leave much of this perception implicit: "I should have been able to say more if I had written for the Greeks, and not in a modern tongue, which imposed on me certain restrictions." His own homosexuality influenced his response to Greek art and often tended toward the rhapsodic: "from admiration I pass to ecstasy ...," he wrote of the Apollo Belvedere, "I am transported to Delos and the sacred groves of Lycia—places Apollo honoured with his presence—and the statue seems to come alive like the beautiful creation of Pygmalion." Although now regarded as "ahistorical and utopian", his approach to art history provided a "body" and "set of tropes" for Greek love, "a semantics surrounding Greek love that ... feeds into the related eighteenth-century discourses on friendship and love".


title: Greek love

text: Winckelmann inspired German poets in the latter 18th and throughout the 19th century, including Goethe, who pointed to Winckelmann's glorification of the nude male youth in ancient Greek sculpture as central to a new aesthetics of the time, and for whom Winckelmann himself was a model of Greek love as a superior form of friendship. While Winckelmann did not invent the euphemism "Greek love" for homosexuality, he has been characterized as an "intellectual midwife" for the Greek model as an aesthetic and philosophical ideal that shaped the 18th-century homosocial "cult of friendship".


title: Greek love

text: German 18th-century works from the "Greek love" milieu of classical studies include the academic essays of Christoph Meiners and Alexander von Humboldt, the parodic poem "Juno and Ganymede" by Christoph Martin Wieland, and "" (1805), a novel about an explicitly male-male love affair in a Greek setting by Augustus, Duke of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg.


title: Greek love

text: Neoclassical works of art often represented ancient society and an idealized form of "Greek love". Jacques-Louis David's "Death of Socrates" is meant to be a "Greek" painting, imbued with an appreciation of "Greek love", a tribute and documentation of leisured, disinterested, masculine fellowship.


title: Greek love

text: The concept of Greek love was important to two of the most significant poets of English Romanticism, Byron and Shelley. During the Regency era in which they lived, homosexuality was looked upon with increased disfavour and denounced by many in the general public, in line with the encroachment of Victorian values into the public mainstream. The terms "homosexual" and "gay" were not used during this period, but "Greek love" among Byron's contemporaries became a way to conceptualize homosexuality, otherwise taboo, within the precedents of a highly esteemed classical past. The philosopher Jeremy Bentham, for instance, appealed to social models of classical antiquity, such as the homoerotic bonds of the Theban Band and pederasty, to demonstrate how these relationships did not inherently erode heterosexual marriages or the family structure.


title: Greek love

text: The high regard for classical antiquity in the 18th century caused some adjustment in homophobic attitudes on the Continent. In Germany, the prestige of classical philology led eventually to more honest translations and essays that examined the homoeroticism of Greek culture, particularly pederasty, in the context of scholarly inquiry rather than moral condemnation. An English archbishop penned what may be the most effusive account of Greek pederasty available in English at the time, duly noted by Byron on the "List of Historical Writers Whose Works I Have Perused" that he drew up at age 19.


title: Greek love

text: Plato was little read in Byron's time, in contrast to the later Victorian era when translations of the "Symposium" and "Phaedrus" would have been the most likely way for a young student to learn about Greek sexuality. The one English translation of the "Symposium", published in two parts in 1761 and 1767, was an ambitious undertaking by the scholar Floyer Sydenham, who nevertheless was at pains to suppress its homoeroticism: Sydenham regularly translated the word "eromenos" as "mistress", and "boy" often becomes "maiden" or "woman". At the same time, the classical curriculum in English schools passed over works of history and philosophy in favor of Latin and Greek poetry that often dealt with erotic themes.


title: Greek love

text: In describing homoerotic aspects of Byron's life and work, Louis Crompton uses the umbrella term "Greek love" to cover literary and cultural models of homosexuality from classical antiquity as a whole, both Greek and Roman, as received by intellectuals, artists, and moralists of the time. To those such as Byron who were steeped in classical literature, the phrase "Greek love" evoked pederastic myths such as Ganymede and Hyacinthus, as well as historical figures such as the political martyrs Harmodius and Aristogeiton, and Hadrian's beloved Antinous; Byron refers to all these stories in his writings. He was even more familiar with the classical tradition of male love in Latin literature, and quoted or translated homoerotic passages from Catullus, Horace, Virgil, and Petronius, whose name "was a byword for homosexuality in the eighteenth century". In Byron's circle at Cambridge, "Horatian" was a code word for "bisexual". In correspondence, Byron and his friends resorted to the code of classical allusions, in one exchange referring with elaborate puns to "Hyacinths" who might be struck by coits, as the mythological Hyacinthus was accidentally felled while throwing the discus with Apollo.


title: Greek love

text: Shelley complained that contemporary reticence about homosexuality kept modern readers without a knowledge of the original languages from understanding a vital part of ancient Greek life. His poetry was influenced by the "androgynous male beauty" represented in Winckelmann's art history. Shelley wrote his "Discourse on the Manners of the Antient Greeks Relative to the Subject of Love" on the Greek conception of love in 1818 during his first summer in Italy, concurrently with his translation of Plato's "Symposium". Shelley was the first major English writer to analyse Platonic homosexuality, although neither work was published during his lifetime. His translation of the "Symposium" did not appear in complete form until 1910. Shelley asserts that Greek love arose from the circumstances of Greek households, in which women were not educated and not treated as equals, and thus not suitable objects of ideal love. Although Shelley recognised the homosexual nature of the love relationships between males in ancient Greece, he argued that homosexual lovers often engaged in no behaviour of a sexual nature, and that Greek love was based on the intellectual component, in which one seeks a complementary beloved. He maintains that the immorality of the homosexual acts are on par with the immorality of contemporary prostitution, and contrasts the pure version of Greek love with the later licentiousness found in Roman culture. Shelley cites Shakespeare's sonnets as another expression of the same sentiments, and ultimately argues that they are chaste and platonic in nature.


title: Greek love

text: Throughout the 19th century, upper-class men of same-sex orientation or sympathies regarded "Greek love", often used as a euphemism for the ancient pederastic relationship between a man and a youth, as a "legitimating ideal": "the prestige of Greece among educated middle-class Victorians ... was so massive that invocations of Hellenism could cast a veil of respectability over even a hitherto unmentionable vice or crime." Homosexuality emerged as a category of thought during the Victorian era in relation to classical studies and "manly" nationalism; the discourse of "Greek love" during this time generally excluded women's sexuality. Late Victorian writers such as Walter Pater, Oscar Wilde, and John Addington Symonds saw in "Greek love" a way to introduce individuality and diversity within their own civilization. Pater's short story "Apollo in Picardy" is set at a fictional monastery where a pagan stranger named Apollyon causes the death of the young novice Hyacinth; the monastery "maps Greek love" as the site of a potential "homoerotic community" within Anglo-Catholicism. Others who addressed the subject of Greek love in letters, essays, and poetry include Arthur Henry Hallam.


title: Greek love

text: The efforts among aesthetes and intellectuals to legitimate various forms of homosexual behaviors and attitudes by virtue of a Hellenic model were not without opposition. The 1877 essay "The Greek Spirit in Modern Literature" by Richard St. John Tyrwhitt warned against the perceived immorality of this agenda. Tyrwhitt, who was a vigorous supporter of studying Greek, characterized the Hellenism of his day as "the total denial of any moral restraint on any human impulses", and outlined what he saw as the proper scope of Greek influence on the education of young men. Tyrwhitt and other critics attacked by name several scholars and writers who had tried to use Plato to support an early gay-rights agenda and whose careers were subsequently damaged by their association with "Greek love".


title: Greek love

text: In 1873, the poet and literary critic John Addington Symonds wrote "A Problem in Greek Ethics", a work of what could later be called "gay history", inspired by the poetry of Walt Whitman. The work, "perhaps the most exhaustive eulogy of Greek love", remained unpublished for a decade, and then was printed at first only in a limited edition for private distribution. Symonds's approach throughout most of the essay is primarily philological. He treats "Greek love" as central to Greek "aesthetic morality". Aware of the taboo nature of his subject matter, Symonds referred obliquely to pederasty as "that unmentionable custom" in a letter to a prospective reader of the book, but defined "Greek love" in the essay itself as "a passionate and enthusiastic attachment subsisting between man and youth, recognised by society and protected by opinion, which, though it was not free from sensuality, did not degenerate into mere licentiousness".


title: Greek love

text: Symonds studied classics under Benjamin Jowett at Balliol College, Oxford, and later worked with Jowett on an English translation of Plato's "Symposium". When Jowett was critical of Symonds' opinions on sexuality, Dowling notes that Jowett, in his lectures and introductions, discussed love between men and women when Plato himself had been talking about the Greek love for boys. Symonds asserted that "Greek love was for Plato no 'figure of speech', but a present and poignant reality. Greek love is for modern studies of Plato no 'figure of speech' and no anachronism, but a present poignant reality." Symonds struggled against the desexualization of "Platonic love", and sought to debunk the association of effeminacy with homosexuality by advocating a Spartan-inspired view of male love as contributing to military and political bonds. When Symonds was falsely accused of corrupting choirboys, Jowett supported him, despite his own equivocal views of the relation of Hellenism to contemporary legal and social issues that affected homosexuals.


title: Greek love

text: Symonds also translated classical poetry on homoerotic themes, and wrote poems drawing on ancient Greek imagery and language such as "Eudiades", which has been called "the most famous of his homoerotic poems": "The metaphors are Greek, the tone Arcadian and the emotions a bit sentimental for present-day readers."