title: President of Croatia

text: Legislation defines the appearance and use of the Presidential Standard of Croatia as a symbol of the President of Croatia, and the appearance and use of the presidential sash as a symbol of honour of the office of the president. The presidential standard is a square, blue field with a thin border of alternating red and white squares on each side. In the centre of the blue field is the main shield of the coat of arms of Croatia with the historical arms of Croatia surrounding the main shield. From left to right, these are the oldest known coats of arms of Croatia, the Republic of Dubrovnik, Dalmatia, Istria and Slavonia, adorned with bands of gold, red and white stripes extending down vertically. Atop the shield there is a Croatian tricolour ribbon with golden letters "RH" that stand for the Republic of Croatia, executed in Roman square capitals. The presidential standard is flown on buildings of the Office of the President of Croatia, the residence of the president, transportation vehicles when in use by the president, and in other ceremonial occasions. The presidential standard was designed by Miroslav Šutej in 1990.


title: President of Croatia

text: The presidential sash is a Croatian tricolour band, trimmed with gold and adorned with the coat of arms of Croatia, which is placed in a white field, with the tricolour at the front. The arms are bordered by oak branches on the left and olive branches on the right. The sash is worn diagonally, over the right shoulder, and is fastened using a square clasp trimmed with golden Croatian interlace. The sash is adorned with the arms used on the presidential standard, although without the ribbon used in the arms. The constitution specifies that the sash is worn on Statehood Day, during awards ceremonies, during the acceptance of letters of credence and in other ceremonial occasions. The presidential sash was not in use since 2000 inauguration of Stjepan Mesić.


title: President of Croatia

text: Former presidents of the Republic of Croatia are provided with an office and two staff members paid by the state once they leave the office. In addition, former presidents are assigned a driver, an official car and bodyguards. The government of Croatia is required to provide these benefits within 30 days following the end of the term of president, upon a president's personal request. Stjepan Mesić's office is located in Grškovićeva Street in Zagreb. The office employs a public-relations advisor and a foreign policy advisor. The office was established in 2010 and assigned an annual budget of 1.3 million kuna ( 175,000 euro). According to Mesić himself, his new office of the former president shall be at the disposal of Croatian companies to help them expand their market. Since the office has been established, former president Mesić also receives foreign diplomats and visits abroad where he meets officials and delivers lectures on occasion.


title: President of Croatia

text: The rights of the former presidents are defined by a parliamentary Act enacted in 2004, during the first term of Stjepan Mesić. Before that act was enacted, the constitution provided that the former presidents shall become members of the Chambers of Counties of the Parliament of Croatia for life, unless otherwise requested by the president. This was never exercised in practice, since Franjo Tuđman died in office and the Chamber of Counties was abolished before the end of the first term of Stjepan Mesić.


title: The Long Road

text: The Long Road is the fourth studio album by Canadian rock band Nickelback, released on September 23, 2003. Recorded at the famed Greenhouse Studios in Vancouver, British Columbia, it is the band's last album with Ryan Vikedal as drummer, and features a notable change in style towards more aggressive riffs and double bass drumming.


title: The Long Road

text: The album was certified 3× Platinum by the RIAA in March 2005 and it had sold 3,591,000 copies as of April 2011. It has sold over 5 million copies worldwide and was the only album of 2003 to have sold over 2 million copies worldwide. It debuted at #6 on the "Billboard" 200 and was ranked #157 on "Billboard"'s 200 Albums of the Decade.


title: The Long Road

text: Country music singer Travis Tritt released a cover version of the track "Should've Listened" on his 2007 album "The Storm".


title: Zack Knight

text: Zack Knight (born 22 November 1991) is a British-Pakistani singer-songwriter. Formerly known by the stage name, Zeekay (before 2011), Knight is well-known for hit songs including Bom Diggy, Galtiyan, Nakhre and Enemy, the former appearing on a Bollywood comedy.


title: Zack Knight

text: Knight was born in Grimsby, Lincolnshire, England, to a Pakistani-Punjabi mother and an Afro-Asian father. He moved to Haywards Heath in 1999, studying at Oathall Community College, and was present during the visit to the school by the then-Prince Charles. He uses influences from both his heritage and upbringing in his music, which he describes as R&B infused style with a crossover sound, peppered with Bollywood and Middle-Eastern influences. Knight cites Michael Jackson, Boyz II Men and Usher as the main inspirations behind his music. He also produces, composes and engineers his own music. Knight is a multilingual artist, chaining together lyrics in English, Urdu and Punjabi, as well as elements of Arabic and Bengali.


title: Zack Knight

text: Operating under the stage name 'Zeekay'/'Zee Kay Knight began his career primarily as a songwriter, writing songs for artists such as Tinie Tempah, Ginuwine, Stylo G, IYAZ and various X Factor contestants. His first major success was with writing the hit single "Baby (Dil Deewana)", for US R&B artist Ginuwine, released in 2007. Shortly after, he started producing several R&B/Hip-hop singles himself; his debut single My Moment(Produced by Pcru, Flipnotez), released in 2008, reaching third in the Myspace R&B charts, which consequently led to him landing a production deal with "Mr Skills, creator of Big Brova's, with whom he had been working on his debut album. From here, Knight produced several other singles across the span of 2 years, including "In Denial (which he performed at various Live shows), Love U Right ft Tinie Tempah, Save It and Inspiration.


title: Zack Knight

text: Knight supported the likes of Taio Cruz, Mario and Jessie J in live concerts and shows. Simultaneously, he was studying for a Degree in Economics, which he had to put on hold in order to concentrate on his musical aspirations. He eventually graduated; however, after 2010, he had to re-brand his music from under his stage name/alias, Zeekay, to under his real name, Zack Knight, as he is still known by now.


title: Zack Knight

text: After 2010, Knight, now operating without his stage name/alias, produced several singles and albums. As a result of the re-branding, he was now working with new artists and producers, therefore his style of music changed, with a less of a focus on hip-hop mainstream music to more of a pop music sound. He received regional and national support from his debut single "All Over Again" in 2012, and his second single "Who I Am" was also featured as one of iTunes "New & Noteworthy" picks of the month, which was followed by his third single "When I'm Gone". (although these three singles later become incorporated into his 2016-released album "On Repeat"). He was also active in producing his own covers, as well as remixes of popular songs, on his YouTube channel. As well as this, he produced two albums: "Poison In My Sleep" (2014) and "On Repeat" (released 2016, although the songs dated back to 2011-12).


title: Zack Knight

text: In 2014, Knight signed a deal with T-Series which propelled him to fame both in the UK Asian industry as well as in the Indian subcontinent. Under this record label, he produced several popular singles, including hits like "Dheere", "Nakhre", "Enemy", "Looking For Love", and "Tere Naam", most of which topped the BBC Asian Network Charts. He collaborated with various high-profile artists within the BBC Asian Network Industry, including the likes of Raxstar and Jasmin Walia amongst others. He has also collaborated with artists outside the United Kingdom, such as rapper Badshah, playback singer Mohammad Irfan, and American YouTube personality Adam Saleh. After being appointed BBC Music Ambassador in 2017, he successfully sold out both of his own UK headline tours in the following year.


title: Zack Knight

text: During this period, Knight also wrote and produced "Bom Diggy", featuring Jasmin Walia, amassing over 1.1 billion views on YouTube (as of April 2021). This track also appeared in the Bollywood comedy Sonu Ke Titu Ki Sweety (2018), albeit it being a re-make. This was accompanied by 2 Top 5 peaking singles in the UK R&B iTunes charts ("Ya Baba", "Tears"), 1 Top 10 UK Dance iTunes chart ("Love Controller"), three Consecutive Number ones on the BBC Asian Network Download Chart ("Nakhre", "Lamhe", "Enemy"), and 10 top five singles in the World/Asian Charts.


title: Zack Knight

text: He continues to create remixes, mashups and medleys. His remixes typically follow the style of compiling several Bollywood songs and mixing them with English R&B fusion, or making acoustic-type covers and remixes of popular songs or his own songs.


title: Zack Knight

text: On 28 February 2021, Knight released a new song named "Para Rum Pa", in collaboration with Jernade Miah and Kayes Rashid, on YouTube, reaching over 200k+ views on its release day, and over 1M views within 2 weeks.


title: Zack Knight

text: On 14 October 2021, Knight released a 3-track album titled 'Dear Dad', in memory of his beloved father, who died in August of 2021. He is currently working on another album, which is due to be released in December of 2021.


title: Joel Fabiani

text: Joel Fabiani (born September 28, 1936, in Watsonville, California) is an American film, television and theater actor. Known for his leading role in the British TV series "Department S", Fabiani has guest starred in "The FBI", "Barnaby Jones", "The Streets of San Francisco", "Banacek", "Cannon", "The Rockford Files" and "Starsky and Hutch".


title: Joel Fabiani

text: His film appearances include "Looking for Mr. Goodbar" (1977), "Reuben, Reuben" (1983) and "Tune In Tomorrow" (1990), and he has also had recurring roles in soap operas such as "Dallas", "Dynasty", "As the World Turns", and "All My Children".


title: Joel Fabiani

text: Fabiani was born in Watsonville, California, as the youngest of three children to parents whose backgrounds were a mix of Italian, Austrian, Irish and Native American roots. The family moved a lot, so young Joel attended a total of no less than 17 different schools. After graduating from high school, he joined the Army, then went to college, where he earned a degree in English and became interested in acting. After graduation, he studied at the Actors Workshop in San Francisco for two years.


title: Joel Fabiani

text: At the San Francisco Actors Workshop, he learned acting, as well as stagecraft, and appeared in plays such as "The Alchemist" (1960, as Kastril), "Saint's Day" and "Twinkling of an Eye", as well as classics such as "King Lear".


title: Joel Fabiani

text: After two years at the Workshop, he moved to New York, where he started out playing in summer stock and Off-Broadway productions. He appeared in "One Way Pendulum" (1961), was an understudy for Robert Shaw and Alan Bates in a Broadway production of "The Caretaker" (1961), had his Broadway debut in "The Affair" (1962), and played in "A Thousand Clowns", "A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum", and others, plus more Shakespeare, such as "Romeo and Juliet", "Richard II", and "Henry IV, Part 1", as well as the U.S. tour of "Beyond The Fringe" (1965).


title: Joel Fabiani

text: He became the star of a series of commercials for a cigarette, in which he played what Fabiani himself described as a "watered-down James Bond character", usually wearing a tuxedo and being surrounded by beautiful girls while smoking that particular brand of cigarette. His first small roles on television shows were in "Love of Life" and "The Doctors" (in 1963, and later again in 1968), "Look Up and Live" (1964) and "Dark Shadows" (1966). Afterwards he played Dr. Schley in the pilot episode of "Ironside" (1967).


title: Joel Fabiani

text: Fabiani and his wife moved to the United Kingdom, where he co-starred in "Department S", first screened in 1969 and 1970. The show features a fictional branch of Interpol dealing with particularly baffling cases that other agencies had failed to solve. Fabiani played the field team leader Stewart Sullivan.


title: Joel Fabiani

text: In episode 2, "The Trojan Tanker", Fabiani was once more in a tuxedo, gambling in a casino, and looking very Bond-ish; and there were several episodes in which he wore the tuxedo at least for one scene, usually whenever he was meeting the head of the department, Sir Curtis, for a briefing during some gala, opera or exclusive party. Like most SpyFi shows of the 1960s, "Department S" did have elements of Bond. Episode 7 for instance, "Handicap – Dead", where Sullivan attends a golf tournament in Scotland and ends up investigating the suspicious death of one of the golfers, was inspired by "Goldfinger".


title: Joel Fabiani

text: Fabiani was highly esteemed and appreciated by his fellow cast members. Guest star Kate O'Mara described him as "most charming" and a "perfect American gentleman". His co-star Rosemary Nicols called him "a very sweet guy, and extremely professional. He always came prepared, and he knew exactly what he was doing." And Peter Wyngarde declared, "Joel was wonderful!"


title: Joel Fabiani

text: The show was syndicated worldwide, including the US. At one point in the early 1970s it was voted the most popular series in the world. "For his part, Fabiani wasn't too disappointed that no more episodes were commissioned. 'When I came back to the States from England, I […] wanted to go out and conquer Hollywood, which is what I immediately set out to do – and didn't – but I had an awful lot of fun trying.' "


title: Joel Fabiani

text: Fabiani returned to television work, at first still very much in line with his "Department S" character, such as playing the FBI agent Barris in the TV movie "The Longest Night" (1972) opposite David Janssen. Then he went on to guest star in many other television shows, including "The FBI", "Banacek", "Barnaby Jones", "Cannon", "The Streets of San Francisco", "The Rockford Files", "Matt Helm", "S.W.A.T.", "Starsky & Hutch", "Columbo" and "Black Sheep Squadron", playing good guys and villains alike, from lawyers, prosecutors and doctors to pilots, P.I.s and gangsters.


title: Joel Fabiani

text: He also appeared in numerous TV movies, including "Brenda Starr" (1976) with Jill St. John, thrillers like the Edgar Allan Poe Award-nominated "One of My Wives Is Missing" (1976) with Jack Klugman and "The President's Mistress" (1978) with Beau Bridges and Larry Hagman, and the prison movie "Attica" (1980) with Morgan Freeman, which was nominated for several Emmys and won one.


title: Joel Fabiani

text: In between, he still worked in the theatre, appearing in Broadway plays such as "Love for Love" (1974) and Luigi Pirandello's "The Rules of the Game" (1975, as Barelli) – a show that was also featured in the PBS "Great Performances" series – as well as "Ashes" (1977, as Colin), the original run of the musical "I'm Getting My Act Together and Taking It on the Road" (1978, as Joe Epstein), the courtroom drama "As To The Meaning of Words" (1981, as Alexander Thomas), and more.


title: Joel Fabiani

text: In addition he appeared in several feature films, including high-profile movies such as "Looking for Mr. Goodbar" (1977), the Oscar-nominated "Reuben, Reuben" (1983), and "Tune In Tomorrow" (1990). Others were the independent movie "Dark Echoes" (1977), which, ahead of its time, was a kind of forerunner of John Carpenter's "The Fog" (1980), and mainstream movies like "Snake Eyes" (1998).


title: Joel Fabiani

text: From the 1980s on, he had several recurring roles in prime time soaps, where he appeared as publisher Alex Ward in "Dallas" and played the role of King Galen of Moldavia on "Dynasty", where his son's wedding, unceremoniously interrupted by terrorists shooting at the gathered crowd, provided the famous season 5 cliffhanger finale. The viewers then had to wait quite a while until it was finally revealed that most of the characters, including King Galen, had – despite initial rumors to the contrary – indeed survived the attack. Fabiani also guest starred in "Hotel", and had the somewhat difficult task of assessing Jane Wyman's mental capacities as Dr. Quentin King in "Falcon Crest". Later he moved back to New York, and also played in day time dramas, where he served as temporary replacement for Michael Zaslow as Roger Thorpe four times on "Guiding Light" in February 1991, August 1992, early 1994 and late May to June 1995 while Zaslow was on personal leave, played a major part in "The City" as Jared Chase in 1996, had a recurring role in "As the World Turns" as Winston Lowe/"Mr. Smith" in 2000 and a long run on "All My Children" (from 1999 to 2010) as Barry Shire (whom a soap magazine labelled a "bona fide scene stealer" ), a lawyer who never seemed to run out of work trying to get either Chandler Enterprises or various members of the Chandler clan out of trouble, out of court, or out of jail... or all of the above. (Or, as the magazine put it, "Adam's crazy antics on AMC keep Barry - and Fabiani - busy!" )


title: Joel Fabiani

text: He continued to guest star in other shows too, including "Murder, She Wrote" (in 1992 and 1994), "Third Watch" (2000), "Law & Order" (2004) and "" (2004). The latter's episode meant a reunion with Claire Bloom - with whom he had worked over thirty years before in the theater - and centered around the events at a fundraiser. In between he had occasional parts in TV comedy series, such as "The Cosby Show" (1988), "Strangers With Candy" (2000) and "Ed" (2003), and also kept appearing in plays in the theater.


title: Joel Fabiani

text: Apart from that, he appeared as presenter in theater documentaries, such as "Ghosts of Glory" about Eugene O"Neill and his plays, which was hosted by Joanne Woodward, and as narrator on several Barbara Walters Specials. Fabiani, who "has an uncanny ability to imitate numerous voices, moods, and inflections" also narrates audio books, including Norman McLean's "A River Runs Through It", Conrad Richter's "The Light in the Forest" and Loren D. Estleman's award-winning "Aces and Eights".


title: Joel Fabiani

text: In 2008, when The Smiths released their album "Singles Box" (Cf.The Smiths Singles Box), Morrissey personally chose a PR picture of Joel Fabiani (from 1970, for "Department S") as the cover for the album.


title: Joel Fabiani

text: At the very beginning of his career, he was married to Katharine Ross. (They first met and started dating at Santa Rosa Junior College in 1957, then later resumed dating when studying at the San Francisco Actors Workshop together.) They married on February 28, 1960, and later divorced after about two and a half years of marriage, in 1962.


title: Joel Fabiani

text: Fabiani then married actress Audree Rae, whom he also met while they were doing a stage play together. This proved to be a long-lasting relationship (until her death in 2009), while Ross went on to have four more husbands. While Fabiani and Ross had appeared on stage together, they never had any screen appearances together. (The closest they came was in 1985/86, when Ross appeared on the "Dynasty" spinoff "The Colbys", while Fabiani appeared on "Dynasty".)


title: Joel Fabiani

text: Joel was also the voice-over for dozens of Sony television and radio commercials in the late 1970s and early 1980s when the New York advertising agency McCann-Erickson had the account.


title: Joel Fabiani

text: Fabiani started out at the San Francisco Actor's Workshop and afterwards worked with several theater companies over the years, including the National Touring Company, Phoenix Theater Company, Paper Mill Playhouse, and the American Shakespeare Festival, appearing in numerous plays both on and off Broadway, including:


title: Joel Fabiani

text: Fabiani appeared in many television shows in either starring, recurring, or guest starring roles, as well as numerous television movies and half a dozen feature films. Overview:


title: Larry Norman

text: Larry David Norman (April 8, 1947 – February 24, 2008) was an American musician, singer, songwriter, record label owner, and record producer. He is considered to be one of the pioneers of Christian rock music and released more than 100 albums.


title: Larry Norman

text: Larry Norman was born in Corpus Christi, Texas, the oldest son of Joe Hendrex "Joe Billy" Norman (December 9, 1923 – April 28, 1999), and his wife, Margaret Evelyn "Marge" Stout (born in 1925 in Nebraska). Joe Norman had served as a sergeant in the US Army Air Corps during World War II and worked at the Southern Pacific Railroad while studying to become a teacher. After Norman's birth, the family joined the Southern Baptist church. In 1950 the family moved to San Francisco, where they attended an African American Pentecostal church and then a Baptist church, where Norman became a Christian at the age of five. In 1959, Norman performed on the syndicated television show "The Original Amateur Hour".


title: Larry Norman

text: In 1960, Norman's father began teaching in San Jose, California; the family lived in nearby Campbell. Norman graduated from Campbell High School in 1965 and won an academic scholarship to major in English at San José State University. After one semester, Norman "flunked out of college and lost [his] scholarship".


title: Larry Norman

text: Although Norman was able to play a variety of musical instruments, he never learned to read or write musical notation.


title: Larry Norman

text: While still in high school, Norman formed a group called The Back Country Seven, which included his sister Nancy Jo and friend Gene Mason. After graduating, Norman continued performing locally.


title: Larry Norman

text: In 1966 Norman opened a concert for People! at the Asilomar Conference Grounds in Pacific Grove, California. He later became the band's principal songwriter, sharing lead vocals with his Back Country Seven bandmate Gene Mason. People! performed about 200 concerts a year, appearing with Van Morrison and Them, the Animals, the Dave Clark Five, Paul Revere & the Raiders, the Doors, the Who, Janis Joplin, Jimi Hendrix, Moby Grape, and San Jose bands Syndicate of Sound and Count Five. The band's cover of the Zombies' "I Love You" became a hit single, selling over one million copies and charting strongly in several markets. Norman left People! just as Capitol released the band's first album in mid 1968, but reunited with Mason for concerts in 1974 and 2006. According to rock historian Walter Rasmussen, Pete Townshend once said that The Who's 1969 album "Tommy" was inspired by the rock opera "Epic" by People!; however, Townshend has since denied the connection.


title: Larry Norman

text: Soon after Norman left People!, he had "a powerful spiritual encounter that threw him into a frenzy of indecision about his life [and] for the first time in his life, he received what he understood to be the Holy Spirit".


title: Larry Norman

text: In July 1968, following a job offer to write musicals for Capitol Records, Norman moved to Los Angeles where he "spent time sharing the gospel on the streets". As he described in 2006: "I walked up and down Hollywood Boulevard several times a day ... witnessing to businessmen and hippies, and to whomever the Spirit led me. I spent all of my Capitol Records' royalties starting a halfway house and buying clothes and food for new converts." He was initially associated with the First Presbyterian Church of Hollywood, and its Salt Company coffee house outreach ministry, where he explored and pioneered the rock-gospel genre.


title: Larry Norman

text: In 1968 Norman wrote several songs for the rock musicals "Alison" and "Birthday for Shakespeare", both of which were performed in Los Angeles.<ref name="NORMAN%20LARRY%20DAVID&querytype=WriterID&keyid=251231&page=1&blnWriter=True&blnPublisher=True&blnArtist=True&affiliation=BMI&cae=214063413 |title=Songwriter/Composer: Norman Larry David"></ref>


title: Larry Norman

text: The next year, Norman and his friend Teddy Neeley auditioned for the Los Angeles production of the rock musical "Hair" and were offered the roles of George Berger and Claude Bukowski, respectively; Neeley accepted, but Norman rejected the role of George, despite his own financial struggles, because "of its glorification of drugs and free sex as the answers to today's problems". Also in 1969, Norman wrote a musical called "Love on Haight Street" and a rock opera called "Lion's Breath", which led Capitol to re-sign Norman to record an album, with the promise of complete creative control.


title: Larry Norman

text: In 1969, Capitol Records released Norman's first solo album, "Upon This Rock", produced by Hal Yoergler, is now considered to be "the first full-blown Christian rock album". Norman was denounced by various television evangelists, and Capitol deemed the album a commercial flop and dropped Norman from the label. However, his music gained a large following in the emerging countercultural movements. Sales of the album rose following its distribution in Christian bookstores.


title: Larry Norman

text: By the early 1970s, Norman was performing frequently for large audiences, and appeared at several Christian music festivals, including Explo '72, a six-day Dallas event which has been called the "Jesus Woodstock." Norman established a half-way house where he "housed and fed various groups of people, supervised their Bible studies and drove them to church on Fridays and Sundays". He earned $80 per month from Capitol for polishing and refining songs for Capitol artists. In 1970, Norman began a record label, One Way Records. He released two of his own albums "Street Level" and "Bootleg" on the label as well as Randy Stonehill's first album, "Born Twice".


title: Larry Norman

text: In 1971, Norman first visited England where he lived and worked for several years. He recorded two studio albums, "Only Visiting This Planet" and "So Long Ago the Garden", in London's AIR Studios. Released in 1972, "Visiting" "was meant to reach the flower children disillusioned by the government and the church" with its "abrasive, urban reality of the gospel", and has often been ranked as Norman's best album. The release of "Garden" in November 1973 was met with controversy in the Christian press, due to the album's cover art and some songs in which Norman took the persona of a backslider.


title: Larry Norman

text: In 1974, Norman founded Solid Rock Records to produce records for Christian artists "who didn't want to be consumed by the business of making vinyl pancakes but who wanted to make something 'non-commercial' to the world". Norman produced music on the label for artists including Randy Stonehill, Mark Heard and Tom Howard. Norman also worked with several artists who were signed to other labels, including Malcolm and Alwyn, Bobby Emmons and the Crosstones, Lyrix, James Sundquist and David Edwards. Norman signed a deal with ABC Records to distribute Solid Rock's releases, but was later moved to ABC subsidiary Word Records. In the same year, Norman founded the Christian artist booking agency Street Level Artists Agency.


title: Larry Norman

text: "In Another Land", the third album in Norman's trilogy and the best-selling album of his career, was released in 1976 by Solid Rock and distributed through Word. Soon afterward, Norman recorded the blues-rock concept album "Something New under the Son", but it would not be released until 1981. Following clashes with Word over "Something New" and several other projects, Norman started Phydeaux Records in 1980 to release his albums.


title: Larry Norman

text: In 1978, Norman was injured during a plane landing at Los Angeles International Airport. Norman claimed to have suffered mild brain damage due to being hit by parts of the cabin's roof, and that this damage left him unable to complete projects and focus artistically. William Ayers wrote in 1991: "As family, friends and fans watched, his life spiraled downward. He was unable to record a bonafide album from the time of his airplane accident in 1978 until ... he attempted to release the badly produced "Home at Last" [recorded in 1986]. He never expected to be healed."


title: Larry Norman

text: In September 1979, Norman performed his "The Great American Novel", "a Dylanesque protest song", for U.S. president Jimmy Carter and about 1,000 guests at the "Old Fashioned Gospel Singin" concert held on the south lawn of the White House.


title: Larry Norman

text: Following a prolonged dispute with Solid Rock artists Daniel Amos which ended in estrangement, Solid Rock's business manager, Philip Mangano, and several Solid Rock musicians organized an intervention with Norman in June 1980, which led him to begin closing the company. Religious history professor Randall Balmer attributed the company's demise to "idealism, marital difficulties, and financial naivete—as well as changing musical tastes."


title: Larry Norman

text: In late 1980, Norman moved to England and, with his father, founded Phydeaux Records, a company designed to compete with the bootleg market by selling rarities from Norman's own archives. He signed a distribution deal with British label Chapel Lane and released several albums before returning to the United States in 1985. Norman then began work on an anthology project celebrating his career in Christian music, beginning with the album "White Blossoms from Black Roots: The History and the Chronology: Volume One"; however, the project collapsed when the head of the distribution company was arrested for check forgery and the company's merchandise was seized by the FBI.


title: Larry Norman

text: Norman signed to Benson Records in 1986 and recorded the album "Home at Last", although the album was not released until 1989 due to legal problems. Despite extensive promotion, the album was negatively reviewed, and Norman himself later dismissed the album as "just a collection of tapes I had", although he said separately that he was "extremely happy" with the level of support he'd received from Benson. In 1989, Norman received the Christian Artists' Society Lifetime Achievement Award.


title: Larry Norman

text: While visiting another musician at the close of a February 1991 tour, Norman received prayer for his long-term health problems from a pastor of London's Elim Way Fellowship. Norman maintained that through this prayer God repaired the damage to his brain and he was able to function again. That year, he collaborated with his brother Charles on the album "Stranded in Babylon", hailed by both critics and fans as one of his best. They would reunite for the 2001 album "Tourniquet".


title: Larry Norman

text: Norman continued to perform and release albums throughout his later years in order to raise funds for medical expenses stemming from heart problems. He gave his last official concert on August 4, 2007, in New York City.


title: Larry Norman

text: Throughout his career, Norman had a contentious relationship with the wider Christian church and with the Christian music industry. He wrote in September 2007, "I love God and I follow Jesus but I just don't have much affinity for the organized folderol of the churches in the Western World." Norman's music addressed a wide range of social issues, such as politics, free love, the occult, the passive commercialism of wartime journalists, and religious hypocrisy, that were outside the scope of his contemporaries. Defending the confrontational approach of his music, Norman said, "My primary emphasis is not to entertain. But if your art is boring, people will reject your message as well as your art." In the 1980s, he complained that Christian music generally meant "sloppy thinking, dishonest metaphors and bad poetry," and that he had "never been able to get over the shock of how bad the lyrics are."


title: Larry Norman

text: Norman disapproved of Christian musicians who were unwilling to play in secular venues or to "preach" between songs. He also criticized what he saw as the "commercialization of Christian music in America", including the role of copyrights and licensing.


title: Larry Norman

text: In 2008, Christian rock historian John J. Thompson wrote, "It is certainly no overstatement to say that Larry Norman is to Christian music what John Lennon is to rock & roll or Bob Dylan is to folk music." Thompson credited Norman for his impact on the genre as a musician, a producer, and a businessman.


title: Larry Norman

text: In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Norman also influenced a number of emerging punk and alternative rock artists. According to documentarian Larry Di Sabatino, Larry Norman was "an early influence" on the post-punk band U2. When Bono met with a summit of Nashville Christian music artists in 2002 to garner support for an African aid campaign, he specifically asked to see Norman. Upon Larry Norman's death, Bono sent flowers to his funeral with the note "Eternal singer, still eternal, Bono."


title: Larry Norman

text: According to Charles Normal, Larry Norman attended his "first of many" punk rock shows while touring London in 1977, seeing Richard Hell and the Voidoids, the Damned, and Dead Boys. Regarding the punk movement, Norman stated that while he initially disliked some of the lyrical content, he was generally supportive of it and its youthful energy, which he viewed as preferable to disco.


title: Larry Norman

text: Norman subsequently introduced his younger brother, Charles, to the genre, including the music of the Sex Pistols. Within several years, Charles was the lead guitarist for the Bay Area hardcore punk band, Executioner. Larry paid for the recording of Executioner's first EP in 1982, on the condition that they also record one of his songs. Larry Norman began to meet figures from the L.A. punk scene, and eventually recorded tracks with former Sex Pistols guitarist Steve Jones. Norman also released a live recording of a punk version of "Why Should the Devil Have All the Good Music?"


title: Larry Norman

text: Pixies frontman Black Francis described Larry Norman as having been his "total idol" as a teenager, whom he attempted to imitate. The band's first demo, "The Purple Tape", was to contain a cover of Norman's song "Watch What You're Doing", but it was never released. A lyric from the song ("Come on pilgrim, you know He loves you!") formed the basis for the title of Pixies' 1987 EP "Come On Pilgrim". Black was eventually introduced to Norman by members of U2 during the Zoo TV tour. Black's post-Pixies band, Frank Black and the Catholics, covered Larry Norman's song "Six Sixty Six". Norman and Black performed a duet of "Watch What You're Doing" at Norman's "farewell" concert, and the two were reportedly working on an album together at the time of his death, along with Isaac Brock of Modest Mouse.


title: Larry Norman

text: Steve Camp, Carolyn Arends, Bob Hartman, TobyMac, Mark Salomon, Martyn Joseph, and Steve Scott have credited Norman as influences. Overall over 300 artists have covered songs by Norman.


title: Larry Norman

text: Norman married actress and model Pamela Fay Ahlquist in December 1971. They separated in 1978 and divorced in September 1980.


title: Larry Norman

text: In April 1982, Norman married Sarah Mae Finch. However another source indicates this was in April 1984. Finch had previously been married to Randy Stonehill from 1975 to 1980. The two had first met at a religious retreat in 1969. Their only child, Michael David Fariah Finch Norman, was born in August 1985. The couple divorced in 1995.


title: Larry Norman

text: In 2008, the Christian magazine "World" reported that Norman had allegedly fathered a son with an Australian woman during a 1988 tour.


title: Larry Norman

text: In February 1992, Norman suffered a nine-hour heart attack that resulted in permanent heart damage, leading to frequent hospitalizations in the years that followed. By early 1995, Norman had been hospitalized thirteen times and had a defibrillator implant, which enabled him to perform occasional small concerts.


title: Larry Norman

text: After a lengthy illness, Norman died on February 24, 2008, at the age of 60 at his home in Salem, Oregon. The previous day he had posted on his website:


title: Larry Norman

text: I feel like a prize in a box of Cracker Jacks with God's hand reaching down to pick me up. I have been under medical care for months. My wounds are getting bigger. I have trouble breathing. I am ready to fly home. I won't be here much longer. I can't do anything about it. My heart is too weak. I want to say goodbye to everyone ... I want to say I love you. I'd like to push back the darkness with my bravest effort ... Goodbye, farewell, we will meet again.


title: Larry Norman

text: Following a public memorial on March 1 at the Church on the Hill in Turner, Oregon, Norman was buried in Salem's City View Cemetery. His tombstone reads: "Larry Norman / Evangelist Without Portfolio / 1947–2008 / Bloodstained Israelite".


title: Larry Norman

text: "Fallen Angel: The Outlaw Larry Norman: A Bible Story" is a controversial 2008 documentary on Norman's life by filmmaker David Di Sabatino. "Fallen Angel" includes interviews with several people who had worked with or been close to Norman thirty years earlier, including his first wife and Randy Stonehill, who recorded the film's official soundtrack, "Paradise Sky".


title: Larry Norman

text: Norman and his second wife had refused to participate in or cooperate with the project. A cease and desist notice initiated by Norman's family temporarily prevented the film's public screening, and prompted Di Sabatino to file his own lawsuit against Solid Rock in March 2009. Four months later, the case was settled out of court, allowing the film to be shown. While interviewing Stonehill, "Cross Rhythms" Mike Rimmer said the film portrayed Norman as "Machiavellian, particularly in his dealings with his artists."


title: Larry Norman

text: Norman's Solid Rock Records was said to have ended when, "Things finally fell apart in 1979, after it was discovered Larry was cheating on his wife – and having an affair with Randy's wife", a claim Norman's brother denies. Gregory Alan Thornbury's biography of Norman proposes an alternate date and reason for Solid Rock Records being wound up and the artists released from their contracts. Word Records signalled they planned to end their relationship with Solid Rock due to poor sales performances of a few of the albums and the infrequent nature of releases being delivered by the label and this news led to a breakdown in the working and personal relationship between Larry Norman and Philip Mangano in May 1980. Some discussions had already begun about certain artists being released from their contracts prior to the meeting on June 17, 1980, which was called to "clear up the relationship between Solid Rock and Street Level Artists Agency, and to deal with Daniel Amos' request to have all their contracts back from Solid Rock — management, recording, tapes, publishing, and so on" and which ended two hours later in stalemate and acrimony rather than resolution.


title: Larry Norman

text: Since the 1960s, Norman's work has appeared on over 100 albums, compilations, and concert bootlegs. These recordings have been released under various labels and with various artists. Some of his principal albums are:


title: Green-cheeked parakeet

text: The green-cheeked parakeet or green-cheeked conure (Pyrrhura molinae) is a small parrot of the genus "Pyrrhura", which is part of a long-tailed group of the New World parrot subfamily Arinae. The term "conure" is often used for this parrot and its relatives in aviculture. It is native to the forests of Central and South America.


title: Green-cheeked parakeet

text: The green-cheeked parakeet is typically long and weighs 60 to 80 g. It is mainly green, with a brown/black/grey crown, white periophthalmic rings, green cheeks, blue primary wing feathers, a grey beak, and a long, mainly maroon tail. It has short transverse striations on its breast and a red abdominal area. Males and females have a mostly identical external appearance. The only truly verifiable way to identify the gender of a green-cheeked parakeet is through a DNA test.


title: Green-cheeked parakeet

text: "P. m. sordida" naturally occurs as a common green morph or as a rare yellow morph (which however is more frequent in captivity). The yellow morph is also called the yellow-sided conure and was once erroneously considered to be a separate species, "P. hypoxantha". As "P. hypoxantha" was described before "P. m. sordida" the older name goes first, therefore "P. m. sordida" is called "P. m. hypoxantha" these days.


title: Green-cheeked parakeet

text: The green-cheeked parakeet is similar to the maroon-bellied parakeet ("P. frontalis"), and formerly there have been speculations that they were conspecific. It is also similar in appearance to the blaze-winged parakeet and the black-capped parakeet.


title: Green-cheeked parakeet

text: The green-cheeked parakeet occurs in west-central and southern Mato Grosso, Brazil, northern and eastern Bolivia, northwestern Argentina, and western Paraguay. Its habitat is forests and woodland, where it usually forms flocks of 10 to 20 individuals at treetop level, or larger flocks where there is more food. It is also emerging as a popular pet for families and individuals.


title: Green-cheeked parakeet

text: The green-cheeked parakeet has a varied diet that, in the wild, consists of fruits, seeds, flowers and, to a lesser extent, nectar and leaves. They are the quietest of the conures and can learn tricks and have a limited vocabulary, with extensive training.


title: Green-cheeked parakeet

text: The green-cheeked parakeet nests in hollow trees. 4-6 eggs are laid, which are incubated for 22 to 25 days.


title: Green-cheeked parakeet

text: Green-cheeked parakeets are common in aviculture and are popular companion parrots. They are playful, affectionate and intelligent, known as having a "big personality in a small body". They can learn to talk, albeit with a limited vocabulary and a gravelly voice. They like to be held (although some like it more than others) and can learn tricks such as lying on their backs, "kissing," shaking, hanging upside down and even can be potty trained. Green-cheeked parrots are not very loud at most times, so even an apartment dweller can enjoy their companionship. They can be prone to biting, particularly when young, but an owner can cure this behavior with patience and time.


title: Green-cheeked parakeet

text: When cared for properly, captive green-cheeked parakeets can live 25-30 years. However, their average lifespan in captivity is closer to 10 years, due to frequent neglect and/or an incorrect diet.


title: Fregoli delusion

text: The Fregoli delusion is a rare disorder in which a person holds a delusional belief that different people are in fact a single person who changes appearance or is in disguise. The syndrome may be related to a brain lesion and is often of a paranoid nature, with the delusional person believing themselves persecuted by the person they believe is in disguise.


title: Fregoli delusion

text: A person with the Fregoli delusion can also inaccurately recall places, objects, and events. This disorder can be explained by "associative nodes". The associative nodes serve as a biological link of information about other people with a particular familiar face (to the patient). This means that for any face that is similar to a recognizable face to the patient, the patient will recall that face as the person they know.


title: Fregoli delusion

text: The Fregoli delusion is classed both as a monothematic delusion, since it only encompasses one delusional topic, and as a delusional misidentification syndrome (DMS), a class of delusional beliefs that involve misidentifying people, places, or objects. Like Capgras delusion, psychiatrists believe it is related to a breakdown in normal face perception.


title: Fregoli delusion

text: Levodopa, also known as L-DOPA, is the precursor to several catecholamines, specifically of dopamine, epinephrine and norepinephrine. It is clinically used to treat Parkinson's disease and dopamine-responsive dystonia. Clinical studies have shown that the use of levodopa can lead to visual hallucinations and delusions. In most patients, delusions were more salient than hallucinations. With prolonged use of levodopa, the delusions occupy almost all of a patient's attention. In experimental studies, when the concentration of levodopa decreases, the number of reported delusions decreases as well. It has been concluded that delusions related to antiparkinsonian medications are one of the leading causes of Fregoli syndrome.


title: Fregoli delusion

text: Injury to the right frontal and left temporo-parietal areas can cause Fregoli syndrome. Research by Feinberg, et al. has shown that significant deficits in executive and memory functions follow shortly after damage in the right frontal or left temporoparietal areas. Tests performed on patients that have had a brain injury revealed that basic attention ability and visuomotor processing speed are typically normal. However, these patients made many errors when they were called to participate in detailed attention tasks. Selective attention tests involving auditory targets were also performed, and brain-injured patients had many errors; this meant that they were deficient in their response regulation and inhibition.


title: Fregoli delusion

text: The most profound finding in Feinberg et al.'s paper is that performance tests on the retrieval process of memory was significantly damaged in brain-injured patients. They found, however, that these patients chose incorrect answers that were related semantically (i.e., chose vegetable instead of fruit). More importantly, tests of visual memory showed that there was a severe inability in visual recollection. Overall, brain-injured patients were severely impaired in many executive functions such as self-monitoring, mental flexibility, and social reasoning.


title: Fregoli delusion

text: Fregoli syndrome is an illusion of positive doubles where there is an over-familiarity with the environment. This over-familiarity may have four causes:


title: Fregoli delusion

text: Current research has shown that lesions in the right temporal lobe and the fusiform gyrus may contribute to DMSs. MRIs of patients exemplifying Fregoli symptoms have shown parahippocampal and hippocampal damage in the anterior fusiform gyrus, as well as the middle and inferior of the right temporal gyri. The inferior and medial of the right temporal gyri are the storage locations for long-term memory in retrieving information on visual recognition, specifically of faces; thus, damage to these intricate connections could be one of the leading factors in face misidentification disorders.


title: Fregoli delusion

text: Recently, a face-specific area in the fusiform gyrus has been discovered and is close to the anterior fusiform gyrus. MRI studies performed by Hudson, et al. have shown lesions in the anterior fusiform gyrus, which is close to the face specific area (ventral fusiform cortex), may also be associated with Fregoli syndrome and other DMSs. Such damage may cause disruption in long-term visual memory and lead to improper associations of human faces.


title: Fregoli delusion

text: On another note, our brains interpret visual scenes in two pathways: one is via the Parietal lobe-occipital dorsal pathway (visual spatial material is analyzed here), and the other is via the temporal-occipital ventral pathway (recognizes objects and faces). Thus, lesions in either structures or disruption of delicate connections may produce DMSs.


title: Fregoli delusion

text: Delusional misidentification syndrome is thought to occur due to a dissociation between identification and recognition processes. The integration of information for further processing is referred to as working memory (WM). The P300 (P stands for positive voltage potential and the 300 for the 300-millisecond poststimulus) is an index of WM and is used during a WM test in DMS patients. In comparison to normal patients, DMS patients generally exhibit an attenuated amplitude of P300 at many abductions. These patients also exhibit prolonged latencies of P300 at all abductions. These implications suggest that DMSs are accompanied by abnormal WM, specifically affecting the prefrontal cortex (both outside and inside).


title: Fregoli delusion

text: Past studies have shown correlations between DMS and damages to the right-hemispheric function, which has an array of functions (insight, 3D shapes, art awareness, imagination, left-hand control, music awareness, etc.). In recent years, the P300 auditory component, which forms in response to a detection task that occurs a short time after a stimulus, has acquired a great deal of recognition. The P300 component is an index of mental activity in that its amplitude increases highly with increased stimuli. This P300 component is correlated with updating the working memory to what is expected in the environment. Other findings enhance the belief that defects in the working memory are associated with DMS. Papageorgio et al.'s paper, psychological evidence for altered information processing in delusional misidentification syndromes, hypothesized that electrophysiological brain activity in the working memory and P300 component can help identify the mechanisms of DMS. Thus, they concentrated on P300 released during a working memory test in DMS patients.


title: Fregoli delusion

text: Papageorgio et al. also found that DMS patients had a lower P300 amplitude in the right hemisphere compared to the control group (non-DMS patients). From this result, the researchers implied that shorter P300 amplitudes are highly correlated with gray matter abnormalities; this finding is consistent with the DMS patients' characteristics and the presence of gray-matter deterioration. DMS patients were also found to have prolonged P300 lag, and their memory performance was lower than the control groups. The researchers were, thus, able to imply that DMS patients have trouble in focusing their resources to a stimulus; this was hypothesized to be caused by the neurodegeneration of the right hemisphere. Overall, other research studies have also provided evidence in the correlation of DMS and gray-matter degeneration of the right frontal region, which controls attentional resources. This research is important, because it can help determine the mechanisms of DMS, which can then help conjure a more effective target drug and/or treatment plan for those with DMS.


title: Fregoli delusion

text: Once it has been positively identified, pharmacotherapy follows. Antipsychotic drugs are the frontrunners in treatment for Fregoli and other DMSs. In addition to antipsychotics, anticonvulsants and antidepressants are also prescribed in some treatment courses. If a Fregoli patient has other psychological disorders, treatment often results in the use of trifluoperazine.


title: Fregoli delusion

text: The condition is named after the Italian actor Leopoldo Fregoli, who was renowned for his ability to make quick changes of appearance during his stage act.


title: Fregoli delusion

text: P. Courbon and G. Fail first reported the condition in a 1927 paper ("Syndrome d'illusion de Frégoli et schizophrénie"). They described a 27-year-old woman living in London who believed she was being persecuted by two actors she often saw at the theatre. She believed these people pursued her closely, taking the form of people she knew or met.


title: Fregoli delusion

text: Delusional misidentification syndromes (DMS) are rooted in the inability to register the identity of something, whether it is an object, event, place or even a person. There are various forms of DMS, such as the syndrome of subjective doubles, intermetamorphosis, Capgras syndrome and Fregoli syndrome. However, all of these various syndromes have a common denominator: they are all due to malfunctional familiarity processing during information processing. The most common syndromes are Capgras and Fregoli. Capgras syndrome is the delusional belief that a friend, family member, etc., has been replaced by a twin impostor. Fregoli syndrome is the delusional belief that different people are in fact a single person who is in disguise. Other commonalities among these syndromes are that they are discriminatory in which object(s) are misidentified. Lastly, dopamine hyperactivity is evident in all DMSs and thus, all syndromes utilize antipsychotic medications to help control DMS.


title: Fregoli delusion

text: Delusional misidentification syndromes (DMSs) are four types of syndromes: the syndrome of subjective doubles, the syndrome of intermetamorphosis, Fregoli delusion and Capgras syndrome. Of the four, Fregoli syndrome is the least frequent, followed by Capgras. Of more rarity is the coexistence of both Fregoli and Capgras syndromes. Coexistence of DMSs are enhanced when coupled with other mental disorders such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and other mood disorders. Depersonalization and derealization symptoms are usually manifested in patients exhibiting two misidentification delusions. However, such symptoms have been witnessed to cease once the coexisting DMSs are fully developed.


title: Fregoli delusion

text: The study of DMS currently remains controversial, as they are often coupled with many psychological disorders (i.e. schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, etc.). Although there is an abundance of information on DMS, there are still many mysteries of the physiological and anatomical details of DMS. An accurate semiological analysis of higher visual anomalies and their corresponding topographic sites may help elucidate the aetiology of Fregoli's and other misidentification disorders.


title: Fregoli delusion

text: Charlie Kaufman's 2015 film "Anomalisa" has several direct and indirect references to the Fregoli delusion. Kaufman adapted the screenplay from his 2005 audio play "Anomalisa", written under the pseudonym Francis Fregoli, and the hotel that Michael stays in is called "The Fregoli".


title: Fregoli delusion

text: The science fiction short story "", from the collection "Stories of Your Life and Others" by Ted Chiang, refers to Fregoli syndrome in the context of artificial targeted neurological impairment.


title: Fregoli delusion

text: In March 2020, the delusion was covered in an episode of the BBC medical soap opera "Doctors" when Lizzie Milton (Adele James) believes she is being stalked by Joe Pasquale.


title: Campus Martius

text: The Campus Martius (Latin for the "Field of Mars", Italian "Campo Marzio") was a publicly owned area of ancient Rome about in extent. In the Middle Ages, it was the most populous area of Rome. The IV rione of Rome, Campo Marzio, which covers a smaller section of the original area, bears the same name.


title: Campus Martius

text: According to Rome's foundation myth, prior to the founding of the city, Rhea Silvia had her twin sons, Romulus and Remus, taken by the King of Alba Longa. The boys were later discarded in the swelling Tiber River, which would later run along the Campus' western boundary. Washing ashore further downriver, the brothers would return decades later to found a new city. Romulus, who became Rome's sole king (after killing his brother Remus), ruled for many years until sometime in the seventh century B.C. As he came to the end of his life, a storm cloud descended upon the center of the open field outside the city's pomerium in order to lift the elderly king to heaven.


title: Campus Martius

text: This land, "between the city and the Tiber", became the property of Rome's last Etruscan king, Tarquinius Superbus. After his defeat and exile, the plain was dedicated to the god Mars. Roman men assembled every spring before heading off to fight the hostile tribes that surrounded Rome, and citizens gathered for important religious festivals. With the exception of a small altar to Mars near the center of the field, no visible changes were made to the field until the fifth century B.C.


title: Campus Martius

text: In 435 B.C. the Villa Publica was established in a prepared 300-meter clearing. The area was a gathering space for citizens to congregate every five years to be counted in a census, but had no permanent structures; no additions would be made for another two centuries.


title: Campus Martius

text: With the advent of the Punic Wars in the mid-third century B.C., Roman military expansion moved out of the Italian peninsula, resulting in the reduction of seasonal musters on the field. The number of foreign wars, however, greatly increased the amount of wealth flowing into Rome. Generals who had sworn to various deities to build temples in their honor if victorious used the vast amounts of wealth to fund these construction projects. Besides temples and wooden markets, entertainment venues were built as well, though they were to be temporary.


title: Campus Martius

text: Starting in the time of Sulla, building lots were sold or granted to influential Romans, and insulae (apartment blocks) and villas encroached on the common land. It later became the place for comitia centuriata, civic meetings with weapons, and for the city's militia. In 55 BC, Pompey constructed a permanent theater, the Theatrum Pompeium, the first stone theater in Rome. When the Curia Hostilia burnt down in 52 BC, the theater was sometimes used as a meeting place for the Senate. The area was also used as the assembling ground for elections. Julius Caesar planned for the Saepta (enclosures used for elections) to be placed there; they were later completed by his heir Augustus (Octavian). In 33 BC, Octavian dedicated the Porticus Octaviae, built from spoils of the Dalmatian War.


title: Campus Martius

text: During the Augustan period of the early Roman Empire, the area became officially part of the city: Rome was split into 14 regions, and the Campus Martius was divided into the VII Via Lata on the east and the IX Circus Flaminius nearer to the river. The Campus Martius also held the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace), built by the Senate to mark the establishment of peace by Augustus. It was intended to symbolize the successful completion of Augustus' efforts to stabilize the Empire. Marcus Agrippa had the original swampy ground made into a pool and baths in a setting of parkland and temples, the Laconicum Sudatorium or Baths of Agrippa. Also, he built the Porticus Argonautarum and the Pantheon, which was later rebuilt by Hadrian as it still stands today. In 19 BC, he also completed the Aqua Virgo, to supply water to these new baths and fountains.


title: Campus Martius

text: In the non-populated northern area was the huge Mausoleum of Augustus. Other buildings that were made were the Theatre of Marcellus, the Temple for Isis (from around the time of Caligula), the baths and bridge by Nero, and Pompey's Theatre, where Julius Caesar was murdered by Marcus Brutus and his allies. After the great fire of 64 A.D. Domitian rebuilt the burnt monuments plus a stadium (eventually to become today's Piazza Navona) and an Odeion (a small performance hall). In 119 A.D, reinforcing the themes of imperial divinity and apotheosis established by Augustus, Hadrian and the succeeding Antonines added a temple to Hadrian's mother-in-law, the Divine Matidia, and a temple to the Divine Hadrian himself built by Antoninus Pius.


title: Campus Martius

text: As was the case with the first two Flavian and Antonine emperors, the Severans did not commit many resources to construction projects in an already crowded Campus Martius. Their interests lay elsewhere in repairs and commissioning new structures in other regions of the capital. The Campus did not see another major architectural change until the reign of Aurelian.


title: Campus Martius

text: The citizens of Rome took great pride in knowing that Rome required no fortifications because of the stability brought by the Pax Romana under the protection of the Roman Army. In 270 A.D., however, barbarian tribes flooded across the Germanic frontier and reached northern Italy as the Roman army struggled to stop them. To alleviate the city's vulnerability, the emperor ordered the construction of a 19-kilometer-long, 6- to 8-meter-high brick wall, fortified with defensive turrets, named the Aurelian Walls. Aurelian did not live to see his work completed under his successor Probus, in 276 A.D. With the completion of the walls, the Campus Martius was finally incorporated into the rest of the city.


title: Campus Martius

text: By the mid-fourth century, when emperor Constantius II visited Rome, now the former capital, many of the pagan temples were closed. Buildings dedicated to Christianity began to occupy their spaces. Some were reduced to supporting material, some were razed, and some were given new roles, such as the Pantheon. In 663 A.D. its bronze roof tiles were removed and replaced with lead, an act that Gregorius said was the result of "excessive avarice and the 'excessive greed for gold.'" In the fifth century, Rome was burned and sacked twice: by the Visigoths in 410 A.D. and by the Vandals in 455 A.D. Three earthquakes racked the city between 408 and 508 A.D, and two floods washed over low-lying spaces in 398 and 411 A.D. Many marble facings and columns were tossed into kilns to be burned into lime powder for reuse.


title: Campus Martius

text: Writing in the twelfth or thirteenth century, Magister Gregorius, marveled at those edifices in the Field of Mars whose antiquity was clear but whose names were not as certain. Looking down from the heights of one of Rome's hills, he recorded that the great structures had been replaced by a "forest of [medieval] towers". In 1581, French essayist Michel de Montaigne traveled to Rome and noted that "upon the very wrecks of the ancient buildings, as they fall to ruin, the builders set out casually the foundations of new houses, as if these fragments were great masses of rock, firm and trustworthy. It is evident that many of the old streets lie more than thirty feet below the level of those now in existence."


title: Campus Martius

text: The Campus Martius was located not in the city proper, but north of the Capitoline Hill. Until the imperial era, most of the region lay outside of the pomerium. The field covered an area of about 250 hectares, or , extending a little more than two kilometres north and south from the Capitoline to the porta Flaminia, and a little less than two kilometers east and west in its widest part, between the Quirinal and the river. It was low, from 10 to 15 metres above the level of the sea in antiquity, now 13 to 20, and from 3 to 8 above that of the Tiber, and of course subject to frequent inundations. Ancient writers say that there were several recognizable natural points, such as an oak grove north of the Tiber Island and the Palus Caprae, in the center of the space.


title: Campus Martius

text: In Latin, Campus Martius means "Field of Mars", a god highly considered in the Roman pantheon. Paul W. Jacobs III attributes the significance of Mars to his patronage of both military and agriculture. In the calendar year, March was the month named after Mars: this month first marked the beginning of when the consuls started to work until 153 BC.


title: Campus Martius

text: The Campus Martius may have been named after the Ara Martis ("Mars' altar"), which was talked about starting in the eighth century BC. It is not known exactly when the Ara Martis was built or when it was destroyed.


title: Campus Martius

text: The social climate and events surrounding Campus Martius were significant to Roman culture. Livy describes a horse race called the second Equirria, which started on March 14. The winning horse was killed and sacrificed to Mars.


title: Campus Martius

text: The second event used to support his claim was the Anna Perenna. This event was when the plebs would go out to Campus Martius to eat and drink. The reason why Anna Perenna was important was because she was an ugly hag and she represented the end of a year, and Mars represented the nice beginning of the year.


title: Campus Martius

text: The last event Jacobs II talks about is the Tubilustrium festival, which purified military instruments to summon the cruciate assemblies. This celebration used to validate the emperors' imperium, but later on the festival validated the consuls imperium.


title: Campus Martius

text: The style and structure of Campus Martius architecture went through several stages of development between the 6th century BC through Late Antiquity. It is virtually impossible to pinpoint exactly when and why these stages occurred, but some historians have sectionalized different periods where Roman architecture faced relatively significant transformation.


title: Campus Martius

text: Between the mid-6th century BC and the end of the early Republic (324 BC) four “temples” were built. These were Temple of Diana [6th century], Temple of Castor and Pollux [495 BC], Temple of Apollo Sosianus [431 BC] and Temple of Juno Regina [392 BC]. Of these four structures, many view the Temple of Diana (Rome) as semi-legendary since it lacks enough sustainable evidence to prove its existence. The reason these two periods are combined as one is because there is minimal certainty on the structure and style of these temples. The reason for this, out of probability, is because the material used at the time was neither concrete, stone or marble, materials that are sustainable longer term and not only that but over two centuries there is certainly the risk of the destruction of these temples.


title: Campus Martius

text: After the death of Alexander the Great in 324 BC or the beginning of the "wave of Hellenism" there was a drastic increase in terms building construction within the city of Rome. In the case of Campus Martius, specifically during the "wave of Hellenism", there were seven temples built. These new temples constructed were as follows; Temple of Bellona [296 BC], Temple of Fortuna [293 BC], Temple of Juturna [241 BC], Temple of Hercules [221 BC], Temple of Vulcan [214 BC) and Temple of Fortuna Equestris [173 BC]. The one temple excluded on that prior list is a temple built between 190 BC and 179 BC. It is uncertain if this temple was as Cicero writes, the “Temple of Nymphs”, or as other sources believe the “Temple of the Lares Permarini.


title: Campus Martius

text: This “period of Hellenism” was the first major step in which the Roman temples, as well as the temples found in Campus Martius were generally made of stone architecture. This new style was in a way, a step up from the simpler early forms, which often appear coarse and bulky in comparison to the aesthetic perfection and refinement of the later structures. This period a transformation occurred from simple experimentation to the strict mathematical complexity of ground plans and superstructures. The Hellenistic Period was not only an expansion in terms of temples numerically within the Campus Martius, but also a stylistic transformation.


title: Campus Martius

text: Similar to the Hellenistic Period, the Late Republic and Early Empire was also a period of several construction projects within the Campus Martius. This period, chronologically, began at the end of the third and final Punic War and lasted until the end of the Julio-Claudian Dynasty in 65 AD. During this period there were six temples built in Campus Martius. They were the Temple of Jupiter Stator [146 BC], the Temple of Feronia [Pre-100 BC], the Temple of Neptunus [97 BC], the Temple of Isis and Serapis [43 BC] and the Temple of Mars Ultor [2 BC]. The one temple excluded from this list is the Temple of Minerva Chalcidica. The reason for this exclusion is because it is unknown whether this temple was built by Pompey in 60 BC or built by Augustus in 29 BC. Certain sources support the belief that Dion Cassius attributes this temple to Augustus: "Temple of Minerva, which was called Chalcidicum”


title: Campus Martius

text: Unlike the structural and stylistic transformation from Regal Period to the Hellenistic Period the temples in the Campus Martius were rather consistent. The main reason that these two periods are separated is because the motivation or reasoning for building these temples changed. In the past these temples were more commonly than not, an attribute to certain individuals for their past success by fellow patrons, but following the end of the Hellenistic period these temples became more of political instruments than ever before. Instead of being merely genuine and slightly political “donations” that exemplified the successful of individuals, these temples in Campus Martius now were expected to trigger propaganda values whenever large architectural projects took place.


title: Campus Martius

text: Alongside Rome, temples built within the Campus Martius faced a “fundamental change in stylistic direction” during the latter half of the first century on. This was a period when the sculptures and linear forms of the classical past was first firmly challenged by the canopied volume of the future. This was a historical period for Roman architecture in that, the catalyst for architects to embrace concrete as a design material or as Nero describes it break free from “the shackles of the classical past”. For possibly the first time Campus Martius and all of Rome faced a period where they moved away from the classical ways of architecture.


title: Campus Martius

text: Before the 1980s, the reconstruction of the obelisk and its usage were erroneous. Prior to that era, Buchner's paper and reconstruction of the obelisk was blindly believed and deemed as accurate. His reconstruction was arguing that the obelisk with the gnomon on top of it was used as a sundial, using the sun's shadow's reflection to keep track of the hours of the day. Furthermore, Buchner argued that the sundial was integrated into the design of the Ara Pacis in a way that the shadow cast directly onto the altar on Augustus’s birthday. The sundial was also integrated in the design of the Mausoleum of Augustus in such a way which illustrated that the entire complex was a cosmic representation of the Principate and the destiny of Augustus, along with his peaceful reign and death.


title: Campus Martius

text: In the mid-1980s Schutz and Bandini challenged the erroneous reconstruction. Bandini found several mistakes made by Buchner on interpreting the ancient texts written by Pliny. Pliny referred to a solar meridian, not a sundial. A solar meridian indicates the length of days and nights, therefore reflecting the timing of the solstices. It was used as an instrument to check the congruence of the civil calendar with the solar year. Further archeological findings where a travertine pavement embedded with a line running north to south with Greek lettering in bronze with zodiac signs confirmed Pliny's writing. Also, the fact that the site was measured to be about a meter too high to be considered of Augustan date, therefore indicated that the instrument built under Augustus lost its accuracy and was renovated by Domitian.


title: Campus Martius

text: Schutz then highlighted some technical failure further refuting the previous reconstruction such as: The erroneous marking of the site where the obelisk lay, the mislabeling of the angles for the relationship between the three monuments and the fact that the gnomon's shadow would cast several football fields away from the obelisk due to the sun's angle.


title: Campus Martius

text: It is worth noting, however, that even after those findings, the relevance and the cosmic meaning of the obelisk and the two other monuments constructed under Augustus's reign remain right. The importance of Augustus's reign is supported by the evidence that Domitian decided to renovate the instrument and keep it dedicated to Augustus.


title: Campus Martius

text: The Ara Pacis is an altar that was built during the reign of Augustus; begun in 13 BCE, the monument was dedicated in 9 BCE, on Livia's birthday. Allegedly altars were used for sacrifices to Pagan Gods in Ancient Rome. The Ara Pacis represented Augustus' goal to represent the era of peace that came with the end of the Republic and the beginning of the Empire. The south panel depicts a religious process with Augustus, Agrippa, Livia, Tiberius and others of the Augustan family. The message conveyed was that the Augustan family was to stand the test of time and stay. The north panel depicted the senate in a procession. The message was that the senate was with Augustus instead of against him. The east panel depicts Tellus, the Roman Goddess of the earth and Pax. The message was that Roman people were no longer starving, which was consistent with Augustus’ promise of “peace and fertility”, where he gave land to farmers to plant in the fall and harvest in the spring. The west panel depicts the sacrifice of either Aeneas, the founder of Rome or Numa Pompilius the second king of Rome, it is also where the entrance is located.


title: Campus Martius

text: The steps leading up to the table on top of the altar represent the ascendence from a public space to a sacred one. Also, the fact that the Ara Pacis did not have a roof or doors and that Gods were depicted looking down from the friezes indicated that the person undertaking vows was looked down upon. When the Senate decreed the building of the Ara Pacis for Augustus, they did not specify any restrictions to the architects. The architects in Ancient Rome used to draw plans with dimensions in proportions and ratios; for instance, the enclosure's size and the number of steps were all specific ratios related to the size of the base. The Ara Pacis’ eclectic art leads us to believe that components might have come from other altars in other provinces most likely salvaged on the troops’ way back to Rome.


title: Campus Martius

text: Before Andersen's studies, it was assumed that the monument's structure was more or less unchanged between its erection and dedication. Andersen relied on evidence from Ovid's "Fasti" and the “Calendar of the Feasts” which depicts Augustus as Pontifex Maximus, a status that he achieved in 12 BCE; his return from the provinces as victor was celebrated with a massive feast during which, as depicted by Ovid, a white bull was slaughtered. But such a feast could not have taken place in the “complete” Ara Pacis; the elevated area was much too small for such a large gathering. Andersen makes a point that the feast actually took place on the foundation of the Ara Pacis, which was then called Ara Fortunae Reducis; at that time, this was simply a plinth on a step base.


title: Campus Martius

text: After Lepidus’ death and Augustus' election as Pontifex Maximus, the building of the complete Ara Pacis began; steps were carved into the plinth, a table was put on top, and friezes were carved onto panels affixed to the walls. Evidence of this historical discrepancy was made evident by Gatti's reconstruction plans, which contrasted with Moretti's in the lack of moldings for the steps.


title: Campus Martius

text: A large portion of events occurring on Campus Martius were associated with either Roman military or Roman electoral or political activities. On it, troops trained for war, and successful generals displayed their riches taken from conquered lands, erecting temples and public buildings to impress the Roman populace in order to curry favor in the elections. In the 30s and 20s B.C.E Rome was experiencing unparalleled growth in public building projects sponsored by many different leading men in the Roman State. In Rome, the sponsorship of these public buildings provided special prestige to each of the individual builders and their families. Augustus, however, expanded past receiving simple prestige, in favor of a much more powerful role. Augustus was amongst numerous builders during the time, but by focusing on the construction of buildings to hold political functions, Augustus was able to occupy a central place in Rome's political atmosphere. The first building on Campus Martius to be associated with Augustus was the Saepta Julia, which was designed to manage the crowds at elections and prevent fraud. Voters would gather in the pen space north of the Saepta and enter the structure on its northern end, where they would then cast their ballots. Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa completed the Saepta Julia and dedicated it in honor of Augustus. The Pantheon, which was also built by Agrippa and associated with Augustus, was completed within a year of the Saepta Julia and was used for pre-election functions. Agrippa tried to name the Pantheon after Augustus but was denied, instead he erected a statue of Augustus, Julius Caesar and himself in the porch of the Pantheon, forever associating the Pantheon with Augustus, Julius Caesar and Agrippa. So when the crowds gathered to listen to speeches concerning important political events, they did so in buildings dedicated to Augustus, automatically drawing the connection between Augustus and important Roman politics. All of the sites built specifically to host political activities, meetings of the Senate and both legislative and electoral assemblies, were sponsored by or closely associated with Augustus. The ancient Roman historian Strabo describes the presence Augustus left throughout Campus Martius:


title: Campus Martius

text: As this series of architectural changes occurred following Augustus’ defeat of Mark Antony, Augustus’ association with the new political buildings furthered his rise to political power and status in Rome. Years of civil war from The Great Roman Civil War (49–45 BC) to the Final War of the Roman Republic (32–30 BC) had left Rome in a state of near lawlessness, but the Republic was not prepared to accept the control of Augustus just yet. At the same time Augustus could not give up his authority without risking further civil wars among other Roman generals, and even if he desired no political position, it was his duty to look after the well-being of Rome and Roman provinces. Augustus’ aims from this point forward was to return Rome to a state a stability and civility by lifting the political pressure imposed on the courts of law and ensuring free elections in name at least. Not only did Augustus return the Senate and popular assemblies to their former role, his new buildings on Campus Martius provided the Senate and assemblies with new political homes, all of which were closely associated with Augustus. By willingly restoring the Roman Senate and popular assemblies to their former role and building several monumental politically focused buildings throughout Campus Martius, Augustus permanently connected himself with Rome's political atmosphere.


title: Campus Martius

text: In the Campus Martius, many public monuments had a religious significance, as they were temples to various gods that were absorbed into the Roman culture. One of the biggest monuments is the temple of Mars Ultor (the avenger) dedicated to Mars, the god of War. It is in the Forum Augustum and is Augustus's most ambitious architectural building. The construction started in 30BC and took three decades. The exterior of the temple was constructed using the Italian white Luna marble from Carrara and the columns reflect the Corinthians style. The architecture is strongly influenced by the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus in terms of its dimensions (36 meters wide and its length is 50 meters. It was also a political entity aimed at magnifying Augustus role in avenging Caesar’s assassination.


title: Campus Martius

text: Some of the most significant temples of the campus are the rectangular temples of Largo di Torre Argentina, located in the southern part of the Campus Martius. It is a religious complex composed of four temples: Temple Juturna, Temple Fortuna Huiusce Diei, Temple Feronia, and Temple Lares Permarini. Those temples demonstrate that religious activity is being spread out across Rome and is not focused on the former religious places of the Capitoline Hill or the Forum Romanum. Art historian Stamper argues that the Largo Argentina has marked the beginning of multiple triumphal processions of successful generals. During the 1st century BC, there was a change from the Ionic style to the Corinthian Order. Acanthus leaves were sculpted on the top of these columns.


title: Campus Martius

text: Two other important temples are the Temple of Apollo Sosianus and the temple of Bellona. One is associated with the cult of Apollo, and the other one is dedicated to the goddess of war, respectively. Both temples are located in the Circus Flaminius and were built during the 2nd century BC. Bellona's Temple was rebuilt in marble and travertine with six Corinthian columns along the front and nine along the sides


title: Campus Martius

text: The Campus Martius was an area of religious practice. During the Ides of October fall, more specifically the 15th, it was seat of a festival dedicated to Mars takes, the October Horse. This tradition is said to have started during the 6th century B.C. The festival's rituals were supposed to protect the coming year's crop and the soldiers that had returned to Rome after a campaign. This festival was composed of many stages, including horse chariot races and the sacrifice of a horse followed by the decoration of the severed head with leaves.


title: Campus Martius

text: Another important religious event was the Secular Games (Latin: ludi saeculares). Established during the Roman Republic, the games were resurrected by emperor Claudius when a man named Valesius prayed for a cure for his children's illness and was instructed to sacrifice to the underworld deities. Claudius did this as a way to not only appease the gods after several lightning bolts struck the city of Rome, but to emphasize the birth of a Golden Age. These games were a sort of a rite of passage that were held over several days and nights to mark the end of a new saeculum and the beginning of the next one. A saeculum was supposedly the longest possible length of a human life, either to 100 or 110 years old. The procession started at the Temple of Apollo, near the Circus Flaminius, proceeded into the Forum, passed along to the Vicus Tuscus, Velabrum, through the Forum Boarium, and finally ended at the Temple of Juno Regina. Augustus, when he revived the games, changed the destination of the procession from the Temple of Juno Regina to the Temple of Ceres, which is on the Aventine. The Temple of Apollo that was most likely used was that of Apollo Sosianus, establishing a religious connection between the Aventine and the southwestern Campus.


title: Campus Martius

text: One of the last events was the Anna Perenna, also celebrated in the Campus Martius during the Ides of March. The people would go out to the Field of Mars for a day of feasting and drinking. According to historian Johannes Lylud, during the festival they also make public and private sacrifice for securing a healthy year.


title: Campus Martius

text: After the barbarian invasions cut the aqueducts, the rapidly dwindling population abandoned the surrounding hills and concentrated in the Campus Martius, depending on the Tiber for water, but subject to its flooding. Since it was next to the river and next to the Vatican, the area became the most populous part of Rome in the Middle Ages. The river supported a thriving economy and a supply of water, and the continuous stream of pilgrims to the city brought wealth to the area.


title: Campus Martius

text: The main road connecting Rome to the rest of Europe was the Via Cassia, entering Rome through the "Porta del Popolo" in the northern part of the Campus Martius. Via Cassia became the most important road in medieval times, because it connected Rome with Viterbo, Siena, and Florence.


title: Campus Martius

text: The other main road to Rome, the Via Aurelia, became unsafe in medieval times with the spread of malaria, because it passed through the unhealthy marshes near several coastal lakes in the Maremma lowlands (as Orbetello lagoon, Capalbio lake, and other Tombolos), and because its route by the sea made it more susceptible to attack from raiders. The coastal towns around Via Aurelia were areas subjected to kidnapping of women and plunder by Muslim Saracen pirates.


title: Campus Martius

text: Because of the increasing importance of the area, several popes decided to improve its conditions. In the period 1513–1521, Pope Leo X built a route connecting "Porta del Popolo" to the Vatican. This road was first called the "Via Leonina" after the pope, later the more famous "Via di Ripetta" after the name of the river port. To improve the hygiene of the area, several ancient Roman aqueducts were restored to operating condition.


title: Campus Martius

text: As the population of Rome greatly increased in the Middle Ages, the Campus Martius became a crowded multi-cultural place where many foreigners settled. In 1555, Pope Paul IV designated part of the southern part of the Campus Martius as the ghetto to contain the city's Jewish population.


title: Campus Martius

text: After the Renaissance, as was the case for the rest of Rome, the Campus Martius did not change much; there were no other great building projects and the population decreased. This was reversed after Rome became capital of the newly established Kingdom of Italy in 1870.


title: Campus Martius

text: Later, the area became even more crowded, and protecting embankments were built to stop the flooding of the Tiber. This made the area much safer from threat of water, but the tall embankments effectively destroyed the traditional embarkation point called the Ripetta ("little bank"), the narrow streets leading down to the river, and the vernacular buildings along the river edge.


title: Hydroxocobalamin

text: Hydroxocobalamin, also known as vitamin B and hydroxycobalamin, is a vitamin found in food and used as a dietary supplement. As a supplement it is used to treat vitamin B12 deficiency including pernicious anemia. Other uses include treatment for cyanide poisoning, Leber's optic atrophy, and toxic amblyopia. It is given by injection into a muscle or vein.


title: Hydroxocobalamin

text: Side effects are generally few. They may include diarrhea, low blood potassium, allergic reactions, and high blood pressure. Normal doses are considered safe in pregnancy. Hydroxocobalamin is the natural form of vitamin B and a member of the cobalamin family of compounds. Hydroxocobalamin, or another form of vitamin B, are required for the body to make DNA.


title: Hydroxocobalamin

text: Hydroxocobalamin was first isolated in 1949. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Hydroxocobalamin is available as a generic medication. Commercially it is made using one of a number of types of bacteria.


title: Hydroxocobalamin

text: Standard therapy for treatment of vitamin B deficiency has been intramuscular (IM) or intravenous (IV) injections of hydroxocobalamin (OHCbl), since the majority of cases are due to malabsorption by the enteral route (gut). It is used pediatric patients with intrinsic cobalamin metabolic diseases, vitamin B-deficient patients with tobacco amblyopia due to cyanide poisoning, and patients with pernicious anemia who have optic neuropathy.


title: Hydroxocobalamin

text: In a newly diagnosed vitamin B-deficient patient, normally defined as when serum levels are less than 200 pg/ml, daily IM injections of hydroxocobalamin up to 1,000 μg (1 mg) per day are given to replenish the body's depleted cobalamin stores. In the presence of neurological symptoms, following daily treatment, injections up to weekly or biweekly are indicated for six months before initiating monthly IM injections. Once clinical improvement is confirmed, maintenance supplementation of B will generally be needed for life.


title: Hydroxocobalamin

text: Hydroxocobalamin is first line therapy for people with cyanide poisoning. Hydroxocobalamin converts cyanide to the much less toxic cyanocobalamin. Cyanocobalamin is renally cleared. The use of hydroxocobalamin became first line due to its low adverse risk profile, rapid onset of action, and ease of use in the prehospital setting.


title: Hydroxocobalamin

text: Injection of hydroxocobalamin is used to rectify the following causes of vitamin B deficiency (list taken from the drug prescription label published by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration)


title: Hydroxocobalamin

text: Pernicious anemia is the most common cause of vitamin B deficiency. While it technically refers to anemia caused specifically by autoimmune deficiency of intrinsic factor, it is commonly used to refer to B-deficient anemia as a whole, regardless of cause.


title: Hydroxocobalamin

text: The literature data on the acute toxicity profile of hydroxocobalamin show it is generally regarded as safe with local and systemic exposure. The ability of hydroxocobalamin to rapidly scavenge and detoxify cyanide by chelation has resulted in several acute animal and human studies using systemic hydroxocobalamin doses at suprapharmacological doses as high as 140 mg/kg to support its use as an intravenous (IV) treatment for cyanide exposure. The US FDA at the end of 2006 approved the use hydroxocobalamin as an injection for the treatment of cyanide poisoning.


title: Hydroxocobalamin

text: The drug causes a reddish discoloration of the urine (chromaturia), which can look like blood in the urine.


title: Hydroxocobalamin

text: Hydroxocobalamin acetate occurs as odorless, dark-red orthorhombic crystals. The injection formulations appear as clear, dark-red solutions. It has a distribution coefficient of 1.133 × 10-5 and a pKa of 7.65.


title: Hydroxocobalamin

text: Vitamin B refers to a group of compounds called cobalamins that are available in the human body in a variety of mostly interconvertible forms. Together with folate, cobalamins are essential cofactors required for DNA synthesis in cells where chromosomal replication and division are occurring—most notably the bone marrow and myeloid cells. As a cofactor, cobalamins are essential for two cellular reactions:


title: Hydroxocobalamin

text: Cobalamins are characterized by a porphyrin-like corrin nucleus that contains a single cobalt atom bound to a benzimidazolyl nucleotide and a variable residue (R) group. The variable R group gives rise to the four most commonly known cobalamins: CNCbl, methylcobalamin, 5-deoxyadenosylcobalamin, and OHCbl. In the serum, hydroxocobalamin and cyanocobalamin are believed to function as storage or transport forms of the molecule, whereas methylcobalamin and 5-deoxyadenosylcobalamin are the active forms of the coenzyme required for cell growth and replication. Cyanocobalamin is usually converted to hydroxocobalamin in the serum, whereas hydroxocobalamin is converted to either methylcobalamin or 5-deoxyadenosyl cobalamin. Cobalamins circulate bound to serum proteins called transcobalamins (TC) and haptocorrins. Hydroxocobalamin has a higher affinity to the TC II transport protein than cyanocobalamin, or 5-deoxyadenosylcobalamin. From a biochemical point of view, two essential enzymatic reactions require vitamin B (cobalamin).


title: Hydroxocobalamin

text: Intracellular vitamin B is maintained in two active coenzymes, methylcobalamin and 5-deoxyadenosylcobalamin. In the face of vitamin B deficiency, conversion of methylmalonyl-CoA to succinyl-CoA cannot take place, which results in accumulation of methylmalonyl-CoA and aberrant fatty acid synthesis. In the other enzymatic reaction, methylcobalamin supports the methionine synthase reaction, which is essential for normal metabolism of folate. The folate-cobalamin interaction is pivotal for normal synthesis of purines and pyrimidines and the transfer of the methyl group to cobalamin is essential for the adequate supply of tetrahydrofolate, the substrate for metabolic steps that require folate. In a state of vitamin B deficiency, the cell responds by redirecting folate metabolic pathways to supply increasing amounts of methyltetrahydrofolate. The resulting elevated concentrations of homocysteine and MMA are often found in patients with low serum vitamin B and can usually be lowered with successful vitamin B replacement therapy. However, elevated MMA and homocysteine concentrations may persist in patients with cobalamin concentrations between 200 and 350 pg/mL. Supplementation with vitamin B during conditions of deficiency restores the intracellular level of cobalamin and maintains a sufficient level of the two active coenzymes: methylcobalamin and deoxyadenosylcobalamin.


title: Peloponnesian League

text: The Peloponnesian League was an alliance of ancient Greek city-states, dominated by Sparta and centred on the Peloponnese, which lasted from c.550 to 366 BC. It is known mainly for being one of the two rivals in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), against the Delian League, which was dominated by Athens.


title: Peloponnesian League

text: The Peloponnesian League is the modern name given to the Spartan system of alliances, but it is inaccurate because there were members outside the Peloponnese, and it was not really a league. The ancient name of the League was "the Lacedemonians and their allies". This is misleading as well, because Sparta could have allies outside of the Peloponnesian League.


title: Peloponnesian League

text: In its early history, Sparta expanded by conquering Laconia and Messenia and reducing their population into slavery (as helots), but the subjugation of Tegea on its northern border failed at the battle of the Fetters. Following this defeat, Sparta abandoned its military conquests and adopted a diplomatic strategy, known as the "bones policy", by appropriating the relics of mythical heroes worshipped in the Peloponnese, starting with Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, whose bones were transferred from Tegea to Sparta. This new diplomacy was likely sponsored by Chilon, ephor c.556, who therefore enabled Sparta to present itself as the natural successor of the mythical Achaean kingdom of Agamemnon as described by Homer. Tegea then signed an alliance treaty with Sparta, which became the starting point of the subsequent Peloponnesian League.


title: Peloponnesian League

text: Tegea was pushed towards Sparta by its fear of Argos, its eastern neighbour. For the same reason, all the other neighbours of Argos rapidly concluded treaties with Sparta on the Tegean model: Mantinea, Phlieus, Corinth, Epidaurus and the other cities of Argolis. They were followed by Elis, the large city of the western Peloponnesus, and all the Arcadian communities of central Peloponnesus. By 540s, Sparta had concluded alliances with all the Peloponnesian cities, apart from Argos and Achaean cities on the northern shore.


title: Peloponnesian League

text: There was no collective treaty between all the members of the League. As "hegemon" (leader of the League), Sparta concluded a separate treaty with each member, which therefore entered the League upon its conclusion. Each member swore the same oath with Sparta: "to have the same friends and enemies as the Spartans, and to follow them withersoever they may lead". League members were consequently not bound together, only to Sparta, and could even wage war on each other. However, in 378 a League decision forbade internal wars if the League was operating an army outside of the Peloponnese, but perhaps this disposition had already been in place from much earlier and was a part of the constitution of the League. L. H. Jefery summarises the constitution of the League as "a circle centred on Sparta, with the spokes of a wheel but not necessarily with the added cross-links of a web."


title: Peloponnesian League

text: The League treaties contained defensive obligations: Sparta had to assist an ally attacked by a non-League member, and conversely the allies had to help Sparta in case of an attack. The famous Spartan fear of the helots is shown by a special clause providing that allies had to assist Sparta in case of a slave-revolt and must not offer citizenship to Messenians, because the Arcadians assisted the latter during the Spartan conquest of Messenia. This clause was activated in the 460s during the Third Messenian War. The treaties between Sparta and the allies were also permanent, with a clause forbidding secession. Several secessions did occur, but as a result of a breach of a treaty. Seceding members usually pointed out a breach of the treaties from Sparta to leave. The procedure to admit new members is not known. Sparta could either decide alone, or request the approval from their allies in the subsequent League congress.


title: Peloponnesian League

text: Another reason for the allies to remain within the League, despite their loss of autonomy, was the support of oligarchy by Sparta. The oligarchs that ruled most of the League members could rely on Sparta to retain their status in their city. Moreover, many of them had friendship ties with Spartan citizens, or even the kings. The Spartan king Agesilaus II (r.c.400–c.360) was especially known for his guest-friendships ("xenia") among his allies. Thanks to these friendships, leading oligarchs could send their sons to the agoge, the Spartan education system, where they became "trophimoi xenoi", and further developed their attachment to Sparta.


title: Peloponnesian League

text: A major change in the organisation of the League took place c.506, when the Spartan king Cleomenes I attempted to capture Athens and place at its head his friend Isagoras as tyrant or as member of an oligarchy. A full army of the League was called and marched on Athens, but the Corinthians returned home when they discovered the purpose of the expedition, also encouraged by the other king Demaratus, who opposed Cleomenes. The campaign therefore failed, and as a result Sparta had to concede the creation of a congress of the League, where members could vote on war and peace. It means that before that time, Sparta could call its allies at will without informing them of the purposes of the war.