title: Unlawful combatant

text: The Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War, 12 August 1949 (GCIII) of 1949 defines the requirements for a captive to be eligible for treatment as a POW. A lawful combatant is a person who commits belligerent acts, and, when captured, is treated as a POW. An "unlawful combatant" is someone who commits belligerent acts but does not qualify for POW status under GCIII Articles 4 and 5.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: These terms thus divide combatants in a war zone into two classes: those in armies and organised militias and the like (lawful combatants), and those who are not. The critical distinction is that a "lawful combatant" (defined above) cannot be held personally responsible for violations of civilian laws that are permissible under the laws and customs of war; and if captured, a lawful combatant must be treated as a prisoner of war by the enemy under the conditions laid down in the Third Geneva Convention.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: If there is any doubt about whether a detained alleged combatant is a "lawful combatant" then the combatant must be held as a prisoner of war until his or her status has been determined by "a competent tribunal". If that tribunal rules that a combatant is an "unlawful combatant" then the person's status changes to that of a civilian which may give them some rights under the Fourth Geneva Convention.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: A civilian "in the hands" of the enemy often gains rights through the "Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War", 12 August 1949 (GCIV), if they qualify as a "protected person".


title: Unlawful combatant

text: If the individual fulfills the criteria as a protected person, they are entitled to all the protections mentioned in GCIV. In a war zone, a national of a neutral state, with normal diplomatic representation, is not a protected person under GCIV.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: If a combatant does not qualify as a POW, then, if they qualify as a protected person, they receive all the rights which a non-combatant civilian receives under GCIV, but the party to the conflict may invoke Articles of GCIV to curtail those rights. The relevant Articles are 5 and 42.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: It is likely that if a competent tribunal under GCIII Article 5 finds they are an "unlawful combatant", and if they are a protected person under GCIV, the Party to the conflict will invoke GCIV Article 5. In this case, the "unlawful combatant" does not have rights under the present Convention as granting them those rights would be prejudicial to the security of the concerned state. They do, however, retain the right "... to be treated with humanity and, in case of trial, shall not be deprived of the rights of fair and regular trial prescribed by the present Convention",


title: Unlawful combatant

text: If, after a "fair and regular trial", an individual is found guilty of a crime, they can be punished by whatever lawful methods are available to the party to the conflict.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: If the party does not use Article 5 of GCIV, the party may invoke Article 42 of GCIV and use "internment" to detain the "unlawful combatant".


title: Unlawful combatant

text: For those nations that have ratified Protocol I of the Geneva Conventions, are also bound by Article 45.3 of that protocol which curtails GCIV Article 5.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: If the combatant is engaged in "armed conflict not of an international character" then under the Article 3 of the general provisions of the Geneva Conventions they should be "treated humanely", and if tried "sentences must ... be pronounced by a regularly constituted court"


title: Unlawful combatant

text: The last time that American and British unlawful combatants were executed, after "a regularly constituted court", was the Luanda Trial as mercenaries.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: A combatant who is a POW, and who is subsequently paroled on the condition that he will not take up arms against the belligerent power (or co-belligerent powers) that had held him as a prisoner, is considered a parole violator if he breaks said condition. He is regarded as guilty of a breach in the laws and customs of war, unless there are mitigating circumstances such as coercion by his state to break his parole. As with other combatants, he is still protected by the Third Geneva Convention (GCIII), until a competent tribunal finds him in violation of his parole.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: The Geneva Convention (1929) made no mention of parole, but as it was supplemental to the Hague conventions, it relied on the wording of Hague to address this issue. The authors of GCIII, 1949, decided to include a reference with some modification to parole, because during the Second World War, some belligerent countries did permit such release to some extent.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: Article 21 of GCIII (1949) reproduces the Articles 10 and 11 of the "Hague IV: Regulations Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land", 18 October 1907, but did not include Article 12, which provides: "Prisoners of war liberated on parole and recaptured bearing arms against the Government to whom they had pledged their honour, or against the allies of that Government, forfeit their right to be treated as prisoners of war, and can be brought before the courts". Nevertheless, contained in the commentary on GCIII: The only safeguard available to a parole violator—who has been coerced into fighting, and who has been recaptured by the Power that detained him previously—is contained in the procedural guarantees to which he is entitled, pursuant to Article 85 of GCIII.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: In the opinion of Major Gary D. Brown, United States Air Force (USAF), this means that "[T]he Hague Convention specified that parole breakers would forfeit their right to be treated as prisoners of war if recaptured. The 1949 Geneva Convention is less direct on the issue. A recaptured parole violator under the Convention would be afforded the opportunity to defend himself against charges of parole breaking. In the interim, the accused violator would be entitled to P[o]W status".


title: Unlawful combatant

text: Under Article 47 of Protocol I (Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts) it is stated in the first sentence "A mercenary shall not have the right to be a combatant or a prisoner of war".


title: Unlawful combatant

text: On 4 December 1989 the United Nations passed resolution 44/34 the "International Convention against the Recruitment, Use, Financing and Training of Mercenaries". It entered into force on 20 October 2001 and is usually known as the UN Mercenary Convention. Article 2 makes it an offence to employ a mercenary and Article 3.1 states that "A mercenary, as defined in article 1 of the present Convention, who participates directly in hostilities or in a concerted act of violence, as the case may be, commits an offence for the purposes of the Convention".


title: Unlawful combatant

text: Two separate issues to be determined in evaluating the category "unlawful combatant" as applied by the government of the United States. One issue is whether such a category can exist without violating the Geneva Conventions, and another issue is, if such a category exists, what steps the US executive branch must take to comply with municipal laws as interpreted by the judicial branch of the federal government.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: The term "unlawful combatant" has been used for the past century in legal literature, military manuals and case law. The term "unlawful combatants" was first used in U.S. municipal law in a 1942 United States Supreme Court decision in the case "Ex parte Quirin". In that case, the Supreme Court upheld the jurisdiction of a US military tribunal over the trial of eight German saboteurs in the US during World War II:


title: Unlawful combatant

text: The validity of the case as basis for denying prisoners in the War on Terrorism the protection of the Geneva Conventions has been disputed. A report by the American Bar Association on the case commented:


title: Unlawful combatant

text: Since the 1942 Quirin case, the US. signed and ratified the 1949 Geneva Conventions, which are therefore considered to be part of US federal law, in accordance with the Supremacy Clause in the Constitution of the United States. In addition, the US Supreme Court invalidated the premise, in "Hamdan v. Rumsfeld", by ruling that Common Article Three of the Geneva Conventions applies to detainees in the War on Terror and that the Military Commissions that were used to try suspects were in violation of U.S. and international law.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: Congress addressed the issues in the Military Commissions Act of 2006 so that enemy combatants and unlawful enemy combatants might be tried under military commissions; however, on 12 June 2008, the Supreme Court ruled, in "Boumediene v. Bush", that Guantanamo Bay captives were entitled to access the US justice system and that the military commissions constituted under the Military Commissions Act of 2006 fell short of what was required of a court under the United States constitution (see the section below for more details).


title: Unlawful combatant

text: In the wake of the September 11, 2001 attacks, the US Congress passed a resolution known as the "Authorization for Use of Military Force" (AUMF) on 18 September 2001. In this, Congress invoked the War Powers Resolution and stated:


title: Unlawful combatant

text: That the President is authorized to use all necessary and appropriate force against those nations, organizations, or persons he determines planned, authorized, committed, or aided the terrorist attacks that occurred on 11 September 2001, or harbored such organizations or persons, in order to prevent any future acts of international terrorism against the United States by such nations, organizations or persons.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: Using the authorization granted to him by Congress, on 13 November 2001, President Bush issued a Presidential Military Order: "Detention, Treatment, and Trial of Certain Non-Citizens in the War Against Terrorism" which allowed "individuals ... to be detained, and, when tried, to be tried for violations of the laws of war and other applicable laws by military tribunals", where such individuals are members of the organization known as al Qa'ida; or has conspired or committed acts of international terrorism, or have as their aim to cause, injury to or adverse effects on the United States, its citizens, national security, foreign policy, or economy. The order also specifies that the detainees are to be treated humanely.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: The length of time for which a detention of such individuals can continue before being tried by a military tribunal is not specified in the military order. The military order uses the term "detainees" to describe the individuals detained under the military order. The U.S. administration chooses to describe the detainees held under the military order as "illegal enemy combatants".


title: Unlawful combatant

text: US secretary of defense announced Guantanamo Bay detainees would be held as illegal enemy combatants instead of prisoners of war, permitting lack of compliance with the Geneva Conventions. Bush administration maintained that the terrorists aren’t prisoners of war due to the distinction between unlawful combatant and lawful combatant. Despite this, the administration held that the detainees will be treated in compliance with the Geneva Convention.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: With the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan, some lawyers in the Justice Department's Office of Legal Counsel and in the office of White House counsel Alberto Gonzales advised President Bush that he did not have to comply with the Geneva Conventions in handling detainees in the War on Terrorism. This applied not only to members of al Qa'ida but the entire Taliban, because, they argued, Afghanistan was a "failed state".


title: Unlawful combatant

text: Despite opposition from the U.S. State Department, which warned against ignoring the Geneva Conventions, the Bush administration thenceforth began holding such individuals captured in Afghanistan under the military order and not under the usual conditions of Prisoners of War. For those U.S. citizens detained under the military order, U.S. officials, such as Vice President Dick Cheney, argue that the urgency of the post-9/11 environment called for such tactics in administration's war against terrorism.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: Most of the individuals detained by the U.S. military on the orders of the U.S. administration were initially captured in Afghanistan. The foreign detainees are held in the Guantanamo Bay detention camp established for the purpose at the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, Cuba. Guantanamo was chosen because, although it is under the "de facto" control of the United States administration, it is not a sovereign territory of the United States, and a previous Supreme Court ruling "Johnson v. Eisentrager" in 1950 had ruled that U.S. courts had no jurisdiction over enemy aliens held outside the USA.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: In "Rasul v. Bush", the Supreme Court ruled that "the U.S. Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, Naval Base, which the United States occupies under a lease and treaty recognizing Cuba's ultimate sovereignty, but giving this country complete jurisdiction and control for so long as it does not abandon the leased areas", and that as the United States had complete jurisdiction, the federal courts have the authority under the federal "habeas corpus" statute to decide whether foreign nationals (non-U.S. citizens) held in Guantanamo Bay were rightfully imprisoned. This ruling largely overturned the judicial advantage for the U.S. administration of using the Naval Base that "Johnson v. Eisentrager" seemed to have conferred.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: There have been a number of legal challenges made on behalf of the detainees held in Guantanamo Bay detention camp and in other places. These include:


title: Unlawful combatant

text: Yaser Hamdi was captured in Afghanistan in November 2001. He was taken to Guantanamo Bay Naval Base, but was transferred to jails in Virginia and South Carolina after it became known that he was a U.S. citizen. On 23 September 2004, the United States Justice Department agreed to release Hamdi to Saudi Arabia, where he is also a citizen, on the condition that he gave up his U.S. citizenship. The deal also bars Hamdi from visiting certain countries and to inform Saudi officials if he plans to leave the kingdom. He was a party to a Supreme Court decision "Hamdi v. Rumsfeld" which issued a decision on 28 June 2004, repudiating the U.S. government's unilateral assertion of executive authority to suspend the constitutional protections of individual liberty of a U.S. citizen. The Court recognized the power of the government to detain unlawful combatants, but ruled that detainees must have the ability to challenge their detention before an impartial judge. Though no single opinion of the Court commanded a majority, eight of the nine justices of the Court agreed that the Executive Branch does not have the power to hold indefinitely a U.S. citizen without basic due process protections enforceable through judicial review.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: On 8 May 2002, José Padilla, also known as Abdullah al-Muhajir, was arrested by FBI agents at Chicago's O'Hare International Airport and held as material witness on the warrant issued in New York State about the 2001 9/11 attacks. On 9 June 2002 President Bush issued an order to Secretary Rumsfeld to detain Padilla as an "enemy combatant". The order justified the detention by leaning on the AUMF which authorized the President to "use all necessary force against those nations, organizations, or "persons"" and in the opinion of the administration a U.S. citizen can be an enemy combatant (this was decided by the United States Supreme Court in the case of "Ex parte Quirin"). Padilla is being detained in Miami and is accused of providing material support for terrorism.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: Following the "Hamdan v. Rumsfeld"-ruling (November 2004) the Bush administration has begun using Combatant Status Review Tribunals to determine the status of detainees. By doing so the obligation under Article 5 of the GCIII was to be addressed.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: However, critics maintain these CSRTs are inadequate to warrant acceptance as "competent tribunal". Their principal arguments are:


title: Unlawful combatant

text: Notable cases pointed to by critics as demonstrating the flawed nature of the procedure include: Mustafa Ait Idir, Moazzam Begg, Murat Kurnaz, Feroz Abbasi, and Martin Mubanga. A comment by legal experts states:


title: Unlawful combatant

text: It appears ... that the procedures of the Combatant Status Review Tribunals do not qualify as status determination under the Third Geneva Convention. ... The fact that no status determination had taken place according to the Third Geneva Convention was sufficient reason for a judge from the District Court of Columbia dealing with a habeas petition, to stay proceedings before a military commission. Judge Robertson in Hamdan v. Rumsfeld held that the Third Geneva Convention, which he considered selfexecuting, had not been complied with since a Combatant Status Review Tribunal could not be considered a 'competent tribunal' pursuant to article 5 of the Third Geneva Convention.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: James Crisfield, the legal advisor to the Tribunals, offered his legal opinion, that CSRT "do not have the discretion to determine that a detainee should be classified as a prisoner of war — only whether the detainee satisfies the definition of 'enemy combatant'". Determining whether a captive should be classified as a prisoner of war is the sole purpose of a competent tribunal.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: Analysis of these Tribunals by two lawyers for Guananamo detainees, Professor Mark P. Denbeaux of the Seton Hall University School of Law, his son Joshua Denbeaux, and some of his law students resulted in a report called "No-hearing hearings". In essence it supports the criticism voiced above.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: As of 17 October 2006, when President Bush signed the Military Commissions Act of 2006 into law, Title 10 of the United States Code was amended to include a definition of an "unlawful enemy combatant" as


title: Unlawful combatant

text: The definition of a lawful enemy combatant is also given, and much of the rest of the law sets out the specific procedures for determining whether a given detainee of the U.S. armed forces is an unlawful enemy combatant and how such combatants may or may not be treated in general and tried for their crimes in particular. Among its more controversial provisions, the law stipulates that a non United States citizen held as an enemy combatant or is awaiting such determination may not seek habeas corpus relief. Such detainees must simply wait until the military convene a detainee status review tribunal (under the procedures described in the Detainee Treatment Act of 2005).


title: Unlawful combatant

text: Immediately after Bush signed the Act into law, the U.S. Justice Department notified the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia that the Court no longer had jurisdiction over a combined "habeas" case that it had been considering since 2004. A notice dated the following day listed 196 other pending habeas cases for which it made the same claim.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: Of the first three war crimes cases brought against Guantanamo Bay detainees under the Military Commissions Act, one resulted in a plea bargain and the two others were dismissed on jurisdictional grounds.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: On 4 June 2007, in two separate cases, military tribunals dismissed charges against detainees who had been designated as "enemy combatants" but not as "unlawful enemy combatants". The first case was that of Omar Khadr, a Canadian who had been designated as an "enemy combatant" in 2004. Khadr was accused of throwing a grenade during a firefight in Afghanistan in 2002. Colonel Peter Brownback ruled that the military tribunals, created to deal with "unlawful enemy combatants", had no jurisdiction over detainees who had been designated only as "enemy combatants". He dismissed without prejudice all charges against Khadr. Also on 4 June, Captain Keith J. Allred reached the same conclusion in the case of Salim Ahmed Hamdan.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: The United States Department of Defense responded by stating: "We believe that Congress intended to grant jurisdiction under the Military Commissions Act to individuals, like Mr. Khadr, who are being held as enemy combatants under existing C.S.R.T. procedures". That position was called "dead wrong" by Specter.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: On 12 June 2008, the Supreme Court ruled, in Boumediene v. Bush, 5-4 that Guantanamo captives were entitled to access the US justice system. Justice Anthony Kennedy wrote in the majority opinion:


title: Unlawful combatant

text: The Court also ruled that the Combatant Status Review Tribunals were "inadequate". Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Stephen Breyer, David Souter and John Paul Stevens joined Kennedy in the majority.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: Vincent Warren, the executive director of the Center for Constitutional Rights, the organization that initiated the action that triggered the Supreme Court ruling responded:


title: Unlawful combatant

text: In January and February 2009, President Barack Obama's nominees for Attorney General and Solicitor General, Eric Holder and Elena Kagan, both testified they agreed the U.S. government may detain combatants in accordance with the laws of war until the end of the war, (this sidesteps the issue of deciding whether the combatant is a lawful or unlawful combatant and the need to try them). When asked by Senator Lindsey Graham "If our intelligence agencies should capture someone in the Philippines that is suspected of financing Al Qaeda worldwide, would you consider that person part of the battlefield?" Both Holder and Kagan said that they would.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: On 28 October 2009, President Obama signed the Military Commissions Act of 2009 into law, which was included in the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2010 (). While critics said it is an improvement over prior versions of military-commissions passed during the Bush administration, it still fails to provide many of the fundamental elements of a fair trial.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: Israel, since the 2002 "Imprisonment of Illegal Combatants Law", makes theoretical distinctions between lawful and unlawful combatants and the legal status thereof.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: The United Kingdom Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) makes the distinction. The CPS conducted a "through review of the evidence concerning the deaths of Sergeant Steven Roberts of the 2nd Royal Tank Regiment and Mr Zaher Zaher, an Iraqi national, at Az Zubayr, Iraq on 24 March 2003":


title: Unlawful combatant

text: The designation of some prisoners as "unlawful combatants", has been the subject of criticism by international human rights institutions; including Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch and the International Committee of the Red Cross.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: In response to the U.S.-led military campaign in Afghanistan, a legal advisor at the Legal Division of the ICRC, published a paper on the subject, in which it states:


title: Unlawful combatant

text: Whereas the terms "combatant" "prisoner of war" and "civilian" are generally used and defined in the treaties of international humanitarian law, the terms "unlawful combatant", "unprivileged combatants/belligerents" do not appear in them. They have, however, been frequently used at least since the beginning of the last century in legal literature, military manuals and case law. The connotations given to these terms and their consequences for the applicable protection regime are not always very clear.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: Human Rights Watch have pointed out that in a judgement, the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia interpreted the International Committee of the Red Cross, "Commentary: IV Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War" (Geneva: 1958) to mean that:


title: Unlawful combatant

text: there is no gap between the Third and Fourth Geneva Conventions. If an individual is not entitled to the protection of the Third Convention as a prisoner of war ... he or she necessarily falls within the ambit of [the Fourth Convention], provided that its article 4 requirements [defining a protected person] are satisfied.


title: Unlawful combatant

text: This does not mean that the status of unlawful combatant does not exist because in the opinion of the ICRC "If civilians directly engage in hostilities, they are considered 'unlawful' or 'unprivileged' combatants or belligerents ... [and] They may be prosecuted under the domestic law of the detaining state for such action".


title: Unlawful combatant

text: Critics of the U.S. internment at Guantanamo Bay worry that the introduction of the "unlawful combatant" status sets a dangerous precedent for other regimes to follow. When the government of Liberia detained local journalist Hassan Bility in 2002, Liberian authorities dismissed the complaints of the United States, responding that he had been detained as an unlawful combatant.


title: Bluffmaster!

text: Bluffmaster! is a 2005 Indian Hindi-language crime comedy film directed by Rohan Sippy and produced by Ramesh Sippy. The film stars Abhishek Bachchan, Riteish Deshmukh, Priyanka Chopra, Sanjay Mishra, Boman Irani and Nana Patekar. It is an adaptation of the 2000 Argentine film "Nine Queens". It follows a conman who gets dumped by his girlfriend and after realising he is suffering from a severe illness, decides to help a new apprentice before dying.


title: Bluffmaster!

text: "Bluffmaster" was released on 16 December 2005, and received mixed reviews from critics. The film became a box office success, becoming a semi-hit, as well as being the 13th highest-grossing Bollywood film of 2005.


title: Bluffmaster!

text: Roy Kapoor (Abhishek Bachchan) is a conman, information that his girlfriend Simran 'Simi' Ahuja (Priyanka Chopra) is not privy to. On the day of their engagement, however, Roy's true character is exposed and Simi leaves him. Consequently, Roy starts drinking heavily.


title: Bluffmaster!

text: Six months later, Roy meets Aditya 'Dittu' Srivastav (Riteish) and Jassi (Sanjay Mishra), amateur conmen who attempt to con him but are unable to do so. They set their sights on a doctor, Dr. Bhalerao (played by Boman Irani) instead. Roy helps Bhalerao after he is conned and Bhalerao feels greatly indebted to him.


title: Bluffmaster!

text: One fateful day, Roy drinks too much and starts feeling dizzy. In the middle of the street, he falls unconscious and is saved by Dittu. Dittu begs Roy to teach him (Dittu) all he (Roy) knows about the art of conning. Roy reluctantly agrees and the two start their escapades, conning everyone from a family to a "gang" who possesses black money. Roy and Dittu decide to visit a club, where Roy starts feeling dizzy again. He again falls unconscious. Dittu then takes him to hospital. Roy learns (via a CAT scan done by Dr. Bhalerao) that he has a brain tumor and will die within three months.


title: Bluffmaster!

text: Simi, meanwhile, is working as a restaurant manager and is again engaged to be married to a man whom she doesn't love. Roy tries to tell her that he has a brain tumor. She eventually believes him – after meeting with the doctor – and they rekindle their friendship.


title: Bluffmaster!

text: It is then revealed that Dittu's father and many others have been duped of their life savings by a man called Chandru (Nana Patekar), the main reason that Dittu became a conman in the first place. Roy decides that, before he dies, he'll help Dittu con Chandru of his stolen wealth. However, while planning the ultimate fraud, Roy's cancer enters its final stages.


title: Bluffmaster!

text: Simi is then kidnapped by Chandru and Roy goes to rescue her. Roy is afterwards pushed by Chandru from the terrace of a building, only to survive because he falls on a huge inflated square. Roy then goes for an MRI scan at the hospital, which is actually closed, to realise that he is well and that his cancer has been cured.


title: Bluffmaster!

text: Roy goes home, only to find that everything that happened until then was staged, masterminded by Dittu and scripted by Chandru. Almost everybody involved in the plan was duped by Roy and the plan was to get him out of his wrong ways. Roy never had cancer: he thought he did because the scans were fake and drugs were sometimes added to Roy's drinks to make him feel those were symptoms of cancer. Roy then decides to mend his ways and thus the film ends happily.


title: Bluffmaster!

text: The soundtrack was released on 20 November 2005. The background score was composed by Sameeruddin. According to the Indian trade website "Box Office India", it was the tenth-highest-selling soundtrack album of that year, with around 1.4 million units sold.


title: Bluffmaster!

text: "BBC News" gave the film 4 stars out of 5, appreciating the "cleverly-constructed" storyline, direction and performances by the supporting cast. Raja Sen from "Rediff.com" praised the film, noting the film's comedy, dialogue, tone and music as its major positives and calling it a feel-good style "Matchstick Men" (2003). However, film and trade analyst Taran Adarsh reacted negatively, giving the film 1.5 stars out of 5, praising several individualistic sequences, music, dialogue and cinematography but criticizing the romance track, and mainly the climax, which he called ""The Sixth Sense"" kind of an ending.


title: Bluffmaster!

text: According to "Box Office India", lifetime collection of the film is Rs. 327 million, and was thus declared a semi-hit at the box-office.


title: Ruthanna Hopper

text: A member of the Hopper family, her father was Dennis Hopper. A member of the Halprin family, her mother is Daria Halprin. Her grandparents are Anna and Lawrence Halprin.


title: Ruthanna Hopper

text: Hopper was born in Taos, New Mexico, the daughter of actor Dennis Hopper and actress Daria Halprin, and grew up in Marin County, California. She describes her upbringing as "bohemian". She has three paternal half-siblings (two sisters, one brother) and a maternal half-sibling (brother) with whom she was raised in Marin County. Hopper studied art at UC Davis and theater arts in New York.


title: Ruthanna Hopper

text: In 2008, she co-wrote "Celebutantes" with Amanda Goldberg, daughter of producer Leonard Goldberg. The novel became a "New York Times" bestseller. In 2011, the follow-up novel "Beneath a Starlet Sky" was published by St. Martin's Press.


title: Ruthanna Hopper

text: Hopper returned to her work in visual art in 2011 after release of her second novel. Her art practice is in the tradition of the Halprin work. Hopper is a visual artist and a curator.


title: Marlene Favela

text: Marlene Favela (born Silvia Marlene Favela Meraz on August 5, 1977, in Santiago Papasquiaro, Durango, Mexico) is a Mexican actress and model. In Mexican television, as of 2013 she was best known as Esmeralda in the TV show "Zorro, La Espada y la Rosa".


title: Marlene Favela

text: On December 12, 2017, Favela married George Seely, at a hacienda in San Juan del Río, Querétaro, Mexico.


title: Joma

text: Joma () is a Spanish sports clothing manufacturer that currently produces footwear and clothing for football, futsal, handball, basketball, volleyball, running, tennis, and padel. Its headquarters are located in Portillo de Toledo, Spain.


title: Joma

text: Joma was founded in 1965 by Fructoso López to produce shoes for general use. The brand name comes from the given name of Fructuoso's first born son (José Manuel). In 1968, the company began to specialize in sport shoes production and distribution. After a relative success, Joma entered into football market, obtaining a great success domestically and internationally. Eventually, Joma Sport opened offices in the United States, Europe and Asia, currently present in over 70 countries throughout the world.


title: Pumpkin pie spice

text: Pumpkin pie spice, also known as pumpkin spice, is an American spice mix commonly used as a flavoring for pumpkin pie, but does not include pumpkin as an ingredient.


title: Pumpkin pie spice

text: Pumpkin pie spice is similar to the British and Commonwealth mixed spice. It is generally a blend of ground cinnamon, nutmeg, ginger, cloves, and sometimes allspice. It can also be used as a seasoning in general cooking.


title: Pumpkin pie spice

text: As of 2016, pumpkin spice consumables produce $500 million in annual sales. The spice is often referred to in the context of a Pumpkin Spice Latte from Starbucks, with the company selling more than 200 million lattes between its launch and 2013, generating revenue of at least $80 million a year.


title: Pumpkin pie spice

text: A "Pompkin" recipe calling for a similar spice mix (mace, nutmeg and ginger) can be found as far back as 1796 in the first known published American cookbook, "American Cookery", written by Amelia Simmons:


title: Pumpkin pie spice

text: No. 1. One quart stewed and strained, 3 pints cream, 9 beaten eggs, sugar, mace, nutmeg and ginger, laid into paste No. 7 or 3, and with a dough spur, cross and chequer it, and baked in dishes three quarters of an hour.


title: Pumpkin pie spice

text: No. 2. One quart of milk, 1 pint pompkin, 4 eggs, molasses, allspice and ginger in a crust, bake 1 hour.


title: Pumpkin pie spice

text: Blended pumpkin pie spice was introduced commercially by McCormick & Company in 1934. and is now commercialized by many companies.


title: Pumpkin pie spice

text: The American coffee chain Starbucks developed a Pumpkin Spice Latte in January 2003, adding it to a range of seasonal winter drinks. Starbucks' director of espresso Americas, Peter Dukes, said that "developers realized there was something special around the pumpkin flavor, especially since there wasn't anything around pumpkin at the time". The company experimented with different combinations and ratios of pumpkin to spice, ultimately deciding on a recipe with no pumpkin in it. It became Starbucks' most popular seasonal beverage.


title: Chūgoku region

text: The , also known as the region, is the westernmost region of Honshū, the largest island of Japan. It consists of the prefectures of Hiroshima, Okayama, Shimane, Tottori, and Yamaguchi. In 2010, it had a population of 7,563,428.


title: Chūgoku region

text: "Chūgoku" literally means "middle country", but the origin of the name is unclear. Historically, Japan was divided into a number of provinces called "koku", which were in turn classified according to both their power and their distances from the administrative center in Kansai. Under the latter classification, most provinces are divided into , , and . Therefore, one explanation is that "Chūgoku" was originally used to refer to the collection of "middle countries" to the west of the capital. However, only five (fewer than half) of the provinces normally considered part of Chūgoku region were in fact classified as middle countries, and the term never applied to the many middle countries to the east of Kansai. Therefore, an alternative explanation is that "Chūgoku" referred to provinces between Kansai and Kyūshū, which was historically important as the link between Japan and mainland Asia.


title: Chūgoku region

text: Historically, "Chūgoku" referred to the 16 provinces of and , which led to the region’s alternative name described below. However, because some of the easternmost provinces were later subsumed into prefectures based primarily in Kansai, those areas are, strictly speaking, not part of the Chūgoku region in modern usage.


title: Chūgoku region

text: In Japanese, the characters and the reading "Chūgoku" began to be used to mean "China" after the founding of the Republic of China. The same characters are used in Chinese to refer to China, but pronounced "Zhōngguó", lit. "Middle Kingdom" or "Middle Country" (Wade Giles: "Chung-kuo"). It is similar to the use of the West Country in English for a region of England.


title: Chūgoku region

text: The city of Hiroshima, the "capital" of the Chūgoku region, was rebuilt after being destroyed by an atomic bomb in 1945, and is now an industrial metropolis of more than one million people.


title: Chūgoku region

text: Since the founding of the Republic of China to the end of WW2, China was called in order to avoid confusing the Chūgoku region. Due to the extensive use of this word during the Sino-Japanese War, the term "shina" has become an offensive word and was abandoned thereafter, and "Chūgoku" has since then been used instead of "shina". In modern times, primarily in the tourism industry, for the same purpose, the Chūgoku region is also called the "San'in‐San'yō region". San'in ("yīn of the mountains") is the northern part facing the Sea of Japan. San'yō ("yáng of the mountains") is the southern part facing the Seto Inland Sea. These names were created using the "yin" and "yang"‐based place‐naming scheme.


title: Chūgoku region

text: Overfishing and pollution reduced the productivity of the Inland Sea fishing grounds; and San'yo is an area concentrated on heavy industry. In contrast, San'in is less industrialized with an agricultural economy.


title: Chūgoku region

text: The Chūgoku region consists of the following prefectures: Hiroshima, Yamaguchi, Shimane, and Tottori. Okayama is also included, although only Bitchū Province was considered a Middle Country; Mimasaka Province and Bizen Province, the other two components of modern-day Okayama, were considered Near Countries. Kyūshū, Shikoku, and Kansai neighbor the Chūgoku region.


title: Chūgoku region

text: The Chūgoku region is characterized by irregular rolling hills and limited plain areas and is divided into two distinct parts by mountains running east and west through its center.


title: Chūgoku region

text: The two largest metropolitan areas in Chūgoku region are Hiroshima and Okayama whose total population of the two metropolitan areas amount to 2.808 million as of 2020.


title: Chūgoku region

text: Their Urban Employment Area amounts to around 3 million people for the Chūgoku region. The rest of Chūgoku region is sparsely populated and very rural.


title: Chūgoku region

text: Per Japanese census data, Chūgoku region as a whole has experienced a steady population decline since 1992 with some prefectures within the region experiencing the decline since 1985. The region reached a peak population of roughly 7.8 million in 1991.


title: Mike Gesicki

text: Michael William Gesicki (born October 3, 1995) is an American football tight end for the Miami Dolphins of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Penn State. He is the record holder for most receptions by a tight end in Penn State history. He was drafted in the second round of the 2018 NFL Draft by the Miami Dolphins.


title: Mike Gesicki

text: A resident of the Manahawkin section of Stafford Township, New Jersey, Gesicki was a 2014 graduate of Southern Regional High School, where he set school records in basketball scoring (1,866 points), football catches (103) and receiving yards (1,817) and volleyball blocks (519).


title: Mike Gesicki

text: Gesicki attended Southern Regional High School in Stafford Township, New Jersey where he played football, basketball, and volleyball. He finished his career as the Rams' all-time leading receiver with 1,817 yards on 103 receptions, with 16 touchdown catches.


title: Mike Gesicki

text: Gesicki attended and played college football at Penn State from 2014 to 2017. Gesicki was named to the John Mackey Award watchlist in July 2017, which is awarded to College Football's most outstanding tight end.


title: Mike Gesicki

text: The Miami Dolphins selected Gesicki in the second round with the 42nd overall pick in the 2018 NFL Draft. Gesicki was the second tight end to be drafted in 2018.


title: Mike Gesicki

text: On June 18, 2018, the Miami Dolphins signed Gesicki to a four-year, $6.61 million contract that includes $3.66 million guaranteed and a signing bonus of $2.88 million.


title: Mike Gesicki

text: In the Dolphins' 2018 season opener against the Tennessee Titans, Gesicki had a reception for 11 yards in his NFL debut. Gesicki finished his rookie season with 22 receptions for 202 receiving yards.


title: Mike Gesicki

text: In Week 12 of the 2019 season, Gesicki recorded his first career receiving touchdown on a 11-yard reception from Ryan Fitzpatrick against the Cleveland Browns. In Week 16, against the Cincinnati Bengals, he had six receptions for 82 receiving yards and two receiving touchdowns in the 38–35 overtime victory. Overall, Gesicki finished the 2019 season with 51 receptions for 570 receiving yards and five receiving touchdowns.


title: Mike Gesicki

text: In Week 2 of the 2020 season against the Buffalo Bills, Gesicki finished with eight receptions for 130 yards and his first touchdown of the season. It marked the first time in his NFL career with 100+ receiving yards in a single game, but the Dolphins lost the game 28–31. In Week 14, against the Kansas City Chiefs, he had five receptions for 65 receiving yards and two touchdowns in the 33–27 loss. In the 2020 season, Gesicki finished with 53 receptions for 706 receiving yards and six receiving touchdowns.


title: Commodore 128

text: The Commodore 128, also known as the C128, C-128, C= 128, is the last 8-bit home computer that was commercially released by Commodore Business Machines (CBM). Introduced in January 1985 at the CES in Las Vegas, it appeared three years after its predecessor, the bestselling computer in the 80s Commodore 64.


title: Commodore 128

text: The C128 is a significantly expanded successor to the C64, with nearly full compatibility. The newer machine has 128 KB of RAM in two 64 KB banks, and an 80-column color video output. It has a redesigned case and keyboard. Also included is a Zilog Z80 CPU which allows the C128 to run CP/M, as an alternative to the usual Commodore BASIC environment. The presence of the Z80 and the huge CP/M software library it brings, coupled with the C64's software library, gave the C128 one of the broadest ranges of available software among its competitors.


title: Commodore 128

text: The primary hardware designer of the C128 was Bil Herd, who had worked on the Plus/4. Other hardware engineers were Dave Haynie and Frank Palaia, while the IC design work was done by Dave DiOrio. The main Commodore system software was developed by Fred Bowen and Terry Ryan, while the CP/M subsystem was developed by Von Ertwine.


title: Commodore 128

text: The C128's keyboard includes four cursor keys, an Alt key, Help key, Esc key, Tab key and a numeric keypad. None of these were present on the C64 which had only two cursor keys, requiring the use of the Shift key to move the cursor up or left. This alternate arrangement was retained on the 128, for use under C64 mode. The lack of a numeric keypad, Alt key, and Esc key on the C64 was an issue with some CP/M productivity software when used with the C64's Z80 cartridge. A keypad was requested by many C64 owners who spent long hours entering machine language type-in programs. Many of the added keys matched counterparts present on the IBM PC's keyboard and made the new computer more attractive to business software developers. While the 128's 40-column mode closely duplicates that of the C64, an extra 1K of color RAM is made available to the programmer, as it is multiplexed through memory address 1. The C128's power supply is improved over the C64's unreliable design, being much larger and equipped with cooling vents and a replaceable fuse. The C128 does not perform a system RAM test on power-up like previous Commodore machines. Instead of the single 6510 microprocessor of the C64, the C128 incorporates a two-CPU design. The primary CPU, the 8502, is a slightly improved version of the 6510, capable of being clocked at 2 MHz. The second CPU is a Zilog Z80 which is used to run CP/M software, as well as to initiate operating-mode selection at boot time. The two processors cannot run concurrently, thus the C128 is not a multiprocessing system.


title: Commodore 128

text: The C128's complex architecture, includes four differently accessed kinds of RAM (128 KB main RAM, 16–64 KB VDC video RAM, 2 kNibbles VIC-II Color RAM, 2-kilobyte floppy-drive RAM on C128Ds, 0, 128 or 512 KB REU RAM), two or three CPUs (main: 8502, Z80 for CP/M; the 128D also incorporates a 6502 in the disk drive), and two different video chips (VIC-IIe and VDC) for its various operational modes.


title: Commodore 128

text: Early versions of the C128 occasionally experience temperature-related reliability issues due to the use of an electromagnetic shield over the main circuit board. The shield was equipped with fingers that contacted the tops of the major chips, ostensibly causing the shield to act as a large heat sink. A combination of poor contact between the shield and the chips, the inherently limited heat conductivity of plastic chip packages, as well as the relatively poor thermal conductivity of the shield itself, resulted in overheating and failure in some cases. The SID sound chip is particularly vulnerable in this respect. The most common remedy is to remove the shield, which Commodore had added late in development to comply with FCC radio-frequency regulations.


title: Commodore 128

text: The C128 has three operating modes. "C128 Mode" (native mode) runs at 1 or 2 MHz with the 8502 CPU and has both 40- and 80-column text modes available. "CP/M Mode" uses both the Z80 and the 8502, and is able to function in both 40- or 80-column text mode. "C64 Mode" is nearly 100 percent compatible with the earlier computer. Selection of these modes is implemented via the Z80 chip. The Z80 controls the bus on initial boot-up and checks to see if there is a CP/M disk in the drive, if there are any C64/C128 cartridges present, or if the Commodore key (which serves as the C64-mode selector) is being depressed on boot-up. Based on these conditions, it will switch to the appropriate mode of operation.


title: Commodore 128

text: In 1984, a year before the release of the Commodore 128, Commodore released the Plus/4. Although targeted at a low-end business market that could not afford the relatively high cost and training requirements of early IBM PC compatibles, it was perceived by the Commodore press as a follow-up to the 64 and would be expected to improve upon that model's capabilities. While the C64's graphics and sound capabilities were generally considered excellent, the response to the Plus/4 was one of disappointment. Upon the Plus/4's introduction, repeated recommendations were made in the Commodore press for a new computer called the "C-128" with increased RAM capacity, an 80-column display as was standard in business computers, a new BASIC programming language that made it easy for programmers to use the computer's graphics and sound without resorting to PEEK and POKEs, a new disk drive that improved upon the 1541's abysmal transfer rate, as well as total C64 compatibility.


title: Commodore 128

text: The designers of the C128 succeeded in addressing most of these concerns. A new chip, the VDC, provides the C128 with an 80-column color CGA-compatible display (also called "RGBI" for "red-green-blue plus intensity"). The then-new 8502 microprocessor is completely backward-compatible with the C64's 6510, but can run at double the speed if desired. The C64's BASIC 2.0 was replaced with BASIC 7.0, which includes structured programming commands from the Plus/4's BASIC 3.5, as well as keywords designed specifically to take advantage of the machine's capabilities. A sprite editor and machine language monitor were added. The screen-editor part of the Kernal was further improved to support an insert mode and other features accessed through ESC-key combinations, as well as a rudimentary windowing feature, and was relocated to a separate ROM. The VIC-II chip which controls the 40-column display can only operate at 1 MHz, so the 40-column display appears jumbled in codice_1 mode. In 80-column mode the editor takes advantage of VDC features to provide blinking and underlined text, activated through escape codes, in addition to the standard Commodore reverse text. The C128's 80-column mode can display lowercase characters along with PETSCII graphics characters; 40-column mode is subject to the same "upper- and lowercase" or "uppercase-plus-graphics" restriction as earlier Commodores. The 40- and 80-column modes are independent and both can be active at the same time. A programmer with both a composite and RGB display can use one of the screens as a "scratchpad" or for rudimentary multiple buffer support. The active display can be switched with ESC-X. A hardware reset button was added to the system. The keyboard, however, was not switched to the Selectric layout as had become standard, instead retaining the same ADM-3A-derived design as on Commodore's prior models.


title: Commodore 128

text: The VDC chip is largely useless for gaming since it has no sprites or raster interrupts. NTSC C128s will work with any CGA-type monitor (TTL RGB @ 15 kHz/60 Hz) such as the IBM 5153. However, PAL models of the C128 operate at 50 Hz and aren't compatible with most CGA monitors, which expect a 60 Hz refresh rate. Pin 7 of the VDC output (normally unused on CGA monitors) produces a monochrome NTSC/PAL signal, but no cable was provided for it and interested users had to make their own or purchase one on the aftermarket.


title: Commodore 128

text: Two new disk drives were introduced in conjunction with the C128: the short-lived single-sided 1570 and the double-sided 1571. A dual-disk 1572 model was announced but never produced. Later on, the 3.5-inch 1581 was introduced. All of these drives are more reliable than the 1541 and promise much better performance via a new "burst mode" feature. The 1581 drive also has more on-board RAM than its predecessors, making it possible to open a larger number of files at one time. BASIC 7.0 includes codice_2 and codice_3 commands to support loading and saving to disk without using the codice_4 or other device number, and also a codice_5 command that reads a disk's catalog information directly to screen memory without overwriting BASIC memory as in BASIC 2.0. In addition, the C128 introduces auto-booting of disk software, a feature standard on most personal computers, but absent from Commodore machines up to that point. Users no longer have to type codice_6. BASIC also added a COLLECT command for removing "splat" files (files that were not closed properly and truncated to zero length).


title: Commodore 128

text: All 1571 drives will normally start up in native mode on the C128. If the user switches to C64 mode by typing "GO 64", the drive remains in native mode. But if C64 mode is activated by holding the Commodore key down when powering-up, the 1571 then goes into 1541 mode. This routine is necessary for software that performs low-level drive access.


title: Commodore 128

text: The C128 has twice the RAM of the C64, a far higher proportion of which is available for BASIC programming, due to the new MMU bank-switching chip. This allows BASIC program code to be stored separately from variables, greatly enhancing the machine's ability to handle complex programs, speeding garbage collection and easing debugging for the programmer. An executing program can be codice_7ped, its code edited, variable values inspected or altered in direct mode, and program execution resumed with the variable table intact using BASIC's codice_8 command. Although other BASICs support the codice_9 command to restart execution without clearing variables, editing any code causes them to be cleared. Different memory configurations can be loaded using BASIC's codice_10 command.


title: Commodore 128

text: BASIC 7.0 has a full complement of graphics and sound-handling commands, as well as BASIC 4.0's disk commands and improved garbage cleanup, and support for structured programming via IF...THEN...ELSE, DO...WHILE, and WHILE...WEND loops. Programmable characters are still however not supported, so the programmer will have to manipulate them with PEEK and POKE as on the VIC-20 and C64.


title: Commodore 128

text: On the downside, BASIC 7.0 ran considerably slower than BASIC 2.0 unless 2 MHz mode was used due to its 28 KB size (a 250% increase over BASIC 2.0) and having to bank switch to access program variables and BASIC program text (if greater than 16k in length).


title: Commodore 128

text: The 128's ROM contains an easter egg: Entering the command codice_11 in native mode reveals a screen with a listing of the machine's main developers followed by the message codice_12 Also, entering the keywords codice_13 or codice_14 will produce an codice_15. These commands are holdovers from the BASIC interpreter intended for a planned but never-produced LCD portable computer and had been intended to exit from the BASIC interpreter and to ignore keyboard input during sensitive program execution, respectively.


title: Commodore 128

text: The C128's greater hardware capabilities, especially the increased RAM, screen display resolution, and serial bus speed, made it a more capable platform than the C64 for running the GEOS graphical operating system.


title: Commodore 128

text: The second of the C128's two CPUs is the Zilog Z80, which allows the C128 to run CP/M. The C128 was shipped with CP/M 3.0 (a.k.a. CP/M Plus, which is backward-compatible with CP/M 2.2) and ADM31/3A terminal emulation. A CP/M cartridge had been available for the C64, but it was expensive and of limited use since the 1541 drive cannot read the MFM-formatted disks that CP/M software was distributed on. Software had to be made available on Commodore-specific disks formatted using the GCR encoding scheme. Commodore made versions of PerfectCalc and the EMACS-derived PerfectWriter available, and Commodore user groups sometimes had a selection of CP/M diskettes, but the limited software availability negated one of CP/M's chief attractions—its huge software library. In addition, the cartridges only work on early model C64s from 1982 and are incompatible with later units. Since they were also incompatible with the C128, the design team decided to support CP/M by putting the Z80 on the main system board.


title: Commodore 128

text: The C128 runs CP/M noticeably slower than most dedicated CP/M systems, as the Z80 processor runs at an effective speed of only . This was because the C128's system bus was designed around the 65xx CPUs. These CPUs handle data and memory addressing very differently from the Z80. CP/M also ran more slowly due to the reasons mentioned below, such as needing to pass control to the 8502 for any I/O or interrupt processing. For these reasons, few users actually ran CP/M software on the C128.


title: Commodore 128

text: When the C128 is powered on, the Z80 is active first and executes a small boot loader ROM at $0-$FFF to check for the presence of a CP/M disk. If one is not detected, control is passed to the 8502 and C128 native mode is started.


title: Commodore 128

text: CP/M mode in practice requires a 1571 or 1581 drive to be useful, since a 1541 cannot read MFM disks and will run much slower due to not supporting the C128's burst mode. CP/M boot disks nonetheless must be in the drive's native GCR format; MFM disks cannot be booted from, only read once the user is already in CP/M. This is because the code necessary to operate the drive in MFM mode is loaded as part of the boot process. In addition, 80-column mode is generally required since most CP/M software expects an 80-column screen. The C128 emulates an ADM-3A terminal in CP/M mode, so software will have to be set up for that. Aside from the standard ADM-3A terminal commands, a number of extra ones are available to use the VIC-II and VDC's features, including setting the text and background color. The CP/M command interpreter (although not application software) includes a safeguard to prevent the user from issuing a control code to make the text and background the same color, which would render text invisible and force the user to reset the computer. If this happens, it will default to a gray background with brown text.


title: Commodore 128

text: In CP/M mode, it is possible to run MBASIC, Microsoft's release of BASIC-80 for CP/M. Compared with the native mode BASIC 7.0, MBASIC is terse and limited in its capabilities, requiring the use of terminal-style key combinations to edit program lines or move the text cursor and lacking any sound or graphics features. Although MBASIC has mathematical and calculation features that BASIC 7.0 lacks such as integer and double precision variable support, any speed advantage gained by the use of integer variables is rendered moot by the extremely slow performance of the computer in CP/M mode. Moreover, Commodore BASIC has 40-bit floating point which serves as a middle ground between MBASIC's 32-bit floating point and 64-bit double precision variables. MBASIC also offers only 34k of free program space against BASIC 7.0's approximately 90k.


title: Commodore 128

text: Other CP/M software such as Wordstar and Supercalc will also be significantly outperformed by native mode C128 equivalents like PaperClip, which also have an easier to use interface.


title: Commodore 128

text: The CP/M CBIOS (the part of CP/M that interfaces with the hardware) does not directly interface with the hardware like on most CP/M implementations, rather it calls the kernal routines for interrupt handing and I/O—when the kernal needs to be used, the Z80 uses routines at - to pass parameter data to the 8502, which is then activated and the Z80 deactivated. After the kernal routine is finished executing, control is passed back to the Z80. It was reported that the programmer in charge of porting CP/M to the C128 had intended to have the CBIOS interface with the hardware directly in Z80 machine language, but had great difficulty with the VDU chips as they were prone to overheating and self-destructing. The VDU also underwent numerous hardware revisions while the C128 was in development and the CP/M programmer was unable to get his code working properly, so the C128 engineering team requested instead that he simply rewrite the CBIOS to pass function calls to the 8502.


title: Commodore 128

text: CP/M mode is very different from the operating environments familiar to Commodore users. While Commodore DOS is built into the ROM of Commodore disk drives and is usually accessed through BASIC, CP/M requires the use of a boot diskette and requires entry of terse commands inherited from minicomputer platforms. CP/M programs tend to lack the user-friendly nature of most Commodore applications. Intended to give the new computer a large library of professional-grade business software that Commodore lacked, CP/M was long past its prime by the mid-1980s, and so it was seldom used on the C128.


title: Commodore 128

text: By incorporating the original C64 BASIC and Kernal ROMs in their entirety (16 KB total), the C128 achieves almost 100 percent compatibility with the Commodore 64. The C64 mode can be accessed in three ways:


title: Commodore 128

text: Grounding the cartridge port's /EXROM and/or /GAME lines will cause the computer to automatically start up in C64 mode. This feature faithfully duplicates the C64's behavior when a cartridge (such as Simons' BASIC) is plugged into the port and asserts either of these lines but, unlike an actual C64, where the memory-map-changing action of these lines is implemented directly in hardware, the C128's Z80 firmware startup code polls these lines on power-up and then switches modes as necessary. C128 native-mode cartridges are recognized and started by the kernal polling defined locations in the memory map.


title: Commodore 128

text: C64 mode almost exactly duplicates the features of a hardware C64. The MMU, Z80, and IEC burst mode are disabled in C64 mode, however all other C128 hardware features including the VDU and 2 MHz mode are still accessible. The extended keys of the C128 keyboard may be read from machine language, although the kernal routines only recognize the keys that exist on the C64. A few games are capable of detecting if a C128 is running and switching to 2 MHz mode during the vertical retrace for faster performance.


title: Commodore 128

text: On North American C128s, when in C64 mode, even the character (font) ROM changes from that of C128 mode. Early C128 prototypes had a single ROM, with a slightly improved character set over that of the C64. But some C64 programs read the character ROM as data, and will fail in various ways on a C128. Thus, the C128 was given a double-sized character ROM, which delivers the C128 font in C128 mode, and the C64 font in C64 mode. International models of the C128 use the unmodified C64 font in both modes, since the second half of the character ROM is instead dedicated to the international font (containing such things as accented characters or German umlauts).


title: Commodore 128

text: Some of the few C64 programs that fail on a C128 will run correctly when the codice_19 key is pressed down (or the ASCII/National key on international C128 models). This has to do with the larger built-in I/O port of the C128's CPU. Whereas the codice_20 key found on both C64 and C128 is simply a mechanical latch for the left codice_21 key, the codice_22 key on the C128 can be read via the 8502's built-in I/O port. A few C64 programs are confused by this extra I/O bit; keeping the codice_22 key in the down position will force the I/O line low, matching the C64's configuration and resolving the issue.


title: Commodore 128

text: A handful of C64 programs write to codice_24, often as part of a loop initializing the VIC-II chip registers. This memory-mapped register, unused in the C64, determines the system clock rate. Since this register is fully functional in C64 mode, an inadvertent write can scramble the 40-column display by switching the CPU over to 2–MHz, at which clock rate the VIC-II video processor cannot produce a coherent display. Fortunately, few programs suffer from this flaw. In July 1986, "COMPUTE!'s Gazette" published a type-in program that exploited this difference by using a raster interrupt to enable fast mode when the bottom of the visible screen was reached, and then disable it when screen rendering began again at the top. By using the higher clock rate during the vertical blank period, standard video display is maintained while increasing overall execution speed by about 20 percent.


title: Commodore 128

text: An easy way to differentiate between a hardware C64 and a C128 operating in C64 mode, typically used from within a running program, is to write a value different from codice_25 to memory address codice_26, a register which is used to decode the extra keys of the C128 (the numerical keypad and some other keys). On the C64 this memory location will always contain the value codice_27 no matter what is written to it, but on a C128 in C64 mode the value of the location—a memory-mapped register—can be changed. Thus, checking the location's value after writing to it will reveal the actual hardware platform.


title: Commodore 128

text: To handle the relatively large amounts of ROM and RAM (tenfold the size of 8502's address space) the C128 uses the 8722 MMU chip to create different memory maps, in which different combinations of RAM and ROM would appear according to bit patterns written into the MMU's configuration register at memory address . Another feature of the memory management unit is to allow relocation of zero page and the stack.


title: Commodore 128

text: Although the C128 can theoretically support 256k of RAM in four blocks, the PCB has no provisions to add this extra RAM, nor can the MMU actually access more than 128k. Therefore, if the MMU is programmed to access blocks 2 or 3, all that results is a mirror of the RAM in blocks 0 and 1.


title: Commodore 128

text: Since the I/O registers and system ROMs can be disabled or enabled freely, as well as being locatable in either RAM bank and the VIC-II set to use either bank for its memory space, up to 256 memory configurations are possible, although the vast majority of them are useless (for example, unworkable combinations like the kernal ROM in bank 0 and the I/O registers in bank 1 are possible). Because of this, BASIC's BANK statement allows the user to select 15 of the most useful arrangements, with the power-on default being Bank 15. This default places the system ROMs, I/O registers, and BASIC program text in block 0, with block 1 being used by BASIC program variables. BASIC program text and variables can extend all the way to . But since block 0 contains the ROMs and I/O registers from onward, BASIC uses an internal switching routine to read program text higher than .


title: Commodore 128

text: The top and bottom 1k of RAM (– and -) are "shared" RAM, visible from both blocks. The MMU allows either to be expanded in increments up to 16k. The – range contains the zero page and stack while - contains the MMU registers and reset vectors. These areas are always shared and cannot be switched to non-shared RAM. Shared RAM is always the opposite bank from the one currently being used by the CPU, thus if bank 0 is selected, any read or write to shared RAM will refer to the corresponding locations in bank 1 and vice versa. The VIC-II can be set to use either RAM bank and from there, its normal 16k window. While on the C64, the VIC-II can only see the character ROM in banks 2 and 4 of its memory space, the C128, on the other hand, makes it possible to enable or disable the character ROM for any VIC-II bank via the register at . Also, there are two sets of color RAM—one visible to the CPU, the other to the VIC-II and the user may select what chip sees what.


title: Commodore 128

text: In CP/M mode, the Program Segment Prefix and Transient Program Area reside in Bank 1 and the I/O registers and CP/M system code in Bank 0.


title: Commodore 128

text: The C128's RAM is expandable from the standard 128 KB to 256, 512 or even 1,024 KB, either by using commercial memory expansion modules, or by making one based on schematics available on the internet.


title: Commodore 128

text: Commodore's RAM Expansion Units use an external 8726 DMA controller to transfer data between the C128's RAM and the RAM in the expansion unit.


title: Commodore 128

text: Late in 1985, Commodore released to the European market a new version of the C128 with a redesigned chassis resembling the Amiga 1000. Called the Commodore 128D, this new European model featured a plastic chassis with a carrying handle on the side, incorporated a 1571 disk drive into the main chassis, replaced the built-in keyboard with a detachable one, and added a cooling fan. The keyboard also featured two folding legs for changing the typing angle.


title: Commodore 128

text: According to Bil Herd, head of the Hardware Team (a.k.a. the "C128 Animals"), the C128D was ready for production at the same time as the regular version. Working to release two models at the same time had increased the risk for on-time delivery and was apparent in that the main PCB has large holes in critical sections to support the C128D case and the normal case concurrently.


title: Commodore 128

text: In the latter part of 1986, Commodore released a version of the C128D in North America and parts of Europe referred to as the C128DCR, CR meaning "cost-reduced". The DCR model features a stamped-steel chassis in place of the plastic version of the C128D (with no carrying handle), a modular switched-mode power supply similar to that of the C128D, retaining that model's detachable keyboard and internal 1571 floppy drive. A number of components on the mainboard were consolidated to reduce production costs and, as an additional cost-reduction measure, the cooling fan that was fitted to the D model's power supply was removed. However, the mounting provisions on the power supply subchassis were retained, as well as the two 12-volt DC connection points on the power supply's printed circuit board for powering the fan. The C128DCR mounting provision is for a 60 mm fan.


title: Commodore 128

text: A significant improvement introduced with the DCR model was the replacement of the 8563 video display controller (VDC) with the more technically advanced 8568 VDC and equipping it with 64 kilobytes of video RAM—the maximum amount addressable by the device. The four-fold increase in video RAM over that installed in the "flat" C128 made it possible, among other things, to maintain multiple text screens in support of a true windowing system, or generate higher-resolution graphics with a more flexible color palette. Little commercial software took advantage of these possibilities.


title: Commodore 128

text: The C128DCR is equipped with new ROMs dubbed the "1986 ROMs," so-named from the copyright date displayed on the power-on banner screen. The new ROMs address a number of bugs that are present in the original ROMs, including an infamous off-by-one error in the keyboard decoding table, in which the 'Q' character would remain lower case when CAPS LOCK was active. Some software will only run on the DCR, due to dependencies on the computer's enhanced hardware features and revised ROMs.


title: Commodore 128

text: Despite the DCR's improved RGB video capabilities, Commodore did not enhance BASIC 7.0 with the ability to manipulate RGB graphics. Driving the VDC in graphics mode continues to require the use of calls to screen-editor ROM primitives or their assembly language equivalents, or by using third-party BASIC language extensions, such as Free Spirit Software's "BASIC 8", which adds high-resolution VDC graphics commands to BASIC 7.0.


title: Commodore 128

text: By January 1987, "Info" reported that "All of those rumors about the imminent death of the C128 may have some basis in fact." Stating that Commodore wanted to divert resources to increasing 64C production and its PC clones, the magazine stated that, "The latest word online is that the last C128 will roll off the lines in December of 1987." "Compute!" stated in 1989, "If you bought your 128 under the impression that 128-specific software would be plentiful and quick to arrive, you've probably been quite disappointed. One of the 128's major selling points is its total compatibility with the 64, a point that's worked more against the 128 than for it." Because the 128 would run virtually all 64 software, and because the next-generation 32/16-bit home computers—primarily the Commodore Amiga and Atari ST—represented the latest technology, relatively little software for the C128's native mode appeared (probably on the order of 100–200 commercial titles, plus the usual share of public domain and magazine type-in programs), leading some users to regret their purchase. While the C128 sold a total number of 4 million units between 1985 and 1989, its popularity paled in comparison to that of its predecessor. One explanation for these lower sales numbers may be because the C64 was sold to people primarily interested in video games, which the more expensive C128 didn't add much value towards improving.


title: Commodore 128

text: Some C64 software such as "Bard's Tale III" and "Kid Niki" ran in 128 mode without stating this in the documentation, using the autoboot and the 1571's faster disk access. Some Infocom text adventures took advantage of the 80-column screen and increased memory capacity. Some C64 games were ported to native mode like "Kikstart 2" and "The Last V8" from Mastertronic, which had separate C128 versions, and "" from Origin Systems, which used extra RAM for music if running on the C128. "" from Interstel had separate versions, and took advantage of 80-column display on the C128. The vast majority of games simply ran in C64 mode.


title: Commodore 128

text: By contrast, many C64 productivity software titles were ported to the C128, including the popular PaperClip and Paperback Writer series. This software used the extra memory, 80-column screen, enhanced keyboard and large-capacity disk drives to provide features that were considered essential for business use. With its advanced BASIC programming language, CP/M compatibility and "user-friendly" native software packages such as Jane, Commodore attempted to create a low-end business market for the C128 similar to its strategy with the Plus/4, even distancing itself from the home computer label by branding the C128 a "Personal Computer" on the case. Significantly, the C128 was the first Commodore computer to advertise its use of Microsoft BASIC, where the Microsoft name would have been a competitive asset.


title: Commodore 128

text: The C128 was certainly a better business machine than the C64, but not really a better gaming machine. People who wanted business machines bought IBM PC clones almost exclusively by the time the C128 was released. The availability of low-cost IBM compatibles like the Leading Edge Model D and Tandy 1000 that, in some cases, sold for less than a complete C128 system derailed Commodore's small business computer strategy. There was a professional-level CAD program, Home Designer by BRiWALL, but again, most of this work was done on PCs by the C128's era. The main reason that the C128 still sold fairly well was probably that it was a much better machine for hobbyist programming than the C64, as well as being a natural follow-on model to owners with significant investments in C64 peripherals and software.


title: Commodore 128

text: But ultimately the C128 could not compete with the new 16/32-bit systems, which outmatched it and the rest of its 8-bit generation in nearly every aspect. When the C128(D/DCR) was discontinued in 1989, it was reported to cost nearly as much to manufacture as the Amiga 500, even though the C128D had to sell for several hundred dollars less to keep the Amiga's high-end marketing image intact.


title: Commodore 128

text: Bil Herd has stated that the design goals of the C128 did not initially include 100% compatibility with the C64. Some form of compatibility was always intended after Herd was approached at the Plus/4's introduction by a woman who was disappointed that the educational software package she had written for the C64 would not run on Commodore's new computer, but when Commodore's marketing department learned of this, they independently announced total compatibility. Herd gave the reason for the 128's inclusion of a Z80 processor as ensuring this "100% compatibility" claim, since supporting the C64's Z80 cartridge would have meant the C128 supplying additional power to the cartridge port. He also stated that the VDC video chip and Z80 were sources of trouble during the machine's design. Herd added that "I only expected the C128 to be sold for about a year, we figured a couple of million would be nice and of course it wouldn’t undercut Amiga or even the C64". After Commodore raised the price of the 64 for the first time by introducing the redesigned 64C in 1986, its profit from each 64C sold was reportedly much greater than that from the C128.


title: Aquarium (Aqua album)

text: Aquarium is the debut studio album by Danish-Norwegian band Aqua, released on 26 March 1997. Although the group had been together for three years under their original name Joyspeed, their only release under that name was a single called "Itzy Bitzy Spider". The album is best known for including the successful singles "Barbie Girl", "Doctor Jones" and "Turn Back Time", the first of those being a huge hit around the world. (The album was preceded by the two singles "Roses Are Red" and "My Oh My", with the latter re-released in 1998.)


title: Aquarium (Aqua album)

text: The album's third single, "Barbie Girl", brought the group to international attention after reaching number one across Europe and in Australia and New Zealand. It would later peak at number 7 in the US. Its success helped the album reach number one in both the group's home countries, and make the top 10 in the UK and US. While not selling as highly "Barbie Girl", the album's fourth single, "Doctor Jones", was released in late 1997 and became a number one in Australia and the UK. "Turn Back Time" would later give the group their third consecutive number-one single in the UK despite reaching only number 16 in Denmark. The final single, "Good Morning Sunshine", failed to chart highly and was only released in select regions like the earlier "Lollipop (Candyman)", the group's only other song to chart in the US. The album has sold 14 million copies worldwide.


title: Aquarium (Aqua album)

text: "Aquarium" debuted at number one in Denmark. As of August 2001, the album had sold 430,000 copies in Denmark. It is the third best-selling album in Denmark to date, only beaten by Danish recording artist Kim Larsen's 1983 album "Midt om natten" and his 1986 album "Forklædt som voksen". The album debuted at number 15 on the "Billboard" 200 in the United States, and later peaked at number seven. It would spend a total of 50 weeks on the album sales chart, and sold 1,7 million copies in 1997. On 4 March 1999, the album was certified three times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for sales of three million units, becoming the most successful Eurodance album in the US since Ace of Base's "The Sign" (1993). "Aquarium" has been certified four times platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) for shipments of four million copies inside Europe.


title: Emtricitabine/tenofovir

text: Emtricitabine/tenofovir, sold under the brand name Truvada among others, is a fixed-dose combination antiretroviral medication used to treat and prevent HIV/AIDS. It contains the antiretroviral medications emtricitabine and tenofovir disoproxil. For treatment, it must be used in combination with other antiretroviral medications. For prevention before exposure, in those who are at high risk, it is recommended along with safer sex practices. It does not cure HIV/AIDS. Emtricitabine/tenofovir is taken by mouth.


title: Emtricitabine/tenofovir

text: Common side effects include headache, tiredness, trouble sleeping, abdominal pain, weight loss, and rash. Serious side effects may include high blood lactate levels and enlargement of the liver. Use of this medication during pregnancy does not appear to harm the baby, but has not been well studied.


title: Emtricitabine/tenofovir

text: Emtricitabine/tenofovir was approved for medical use in the United States in 2004. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. In the United States, emtricitabine/tenofovir was under patent until 2020, but is now available as a generic worldwide. In 2020, it was the 278th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 1million prescriptions.


title: Emtricitabine/tenofovir

text: Emtricitabine/tenofovir is used both to treat and to prevent HIV/AIDS. The U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH) recommends antiretroviral therapy (ART) for all people with HIV/AIDS.


title: Emtricitabine/tenofovir

text: The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommends the use of emtricitabine/tenofovir for pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for uninfected, HIV-1 negative individuals that may be at risk for HIV-1 infection. A Cochrane systematic review found a 51% relative risk reduction of contracting HIV with both tenofovir alone and the tenofovir/emtricitabine combination. A JAMA systematic review found a similar relative risk reduction of 54% on average and greater reduction with greater adherence. It was approved for PrEP against HIV infection in the United States in 2012.


title: Emtricitabine/tenofovir

text: The consideration of utilizing emtricitabine/tenofovir as a reduction strategy involves discussion with a health professional who can help the patient navigate the benefits and risks. Patients are advised to discuss any history of bone issues, kidney issues, or hepatitis B infection with their health care provider. Effectiveness of PrEP for prevention of infection is reliant on an individual's ability to take the medication consistently.


title: Emtricitabine/tenofovir

text: Emtricitabine/tenofovir is also used for HIV post-exposure prophylaxis. People who start taking emtricitabine/tenofovir see HIV reduction benefit up to 72 hours after starting, but the medicine must be taken for thirty days after a high-risk sexual event to ensure HIV transmission levels are optimally reduced.


title: Emtricitabine/tenofovir

text: Emtricitabine/tenofovir has been approved in the United States as part of antiretroviral combination therapy for the treatment of HIV-1. The combination therapy is suggested as one of the options for adults who have not received any prior treatment for HIV infection.


title: Emtricitabine/tenofovir

text: Both emtricitabine and tenofovir are indicated for the treatment of hepatitis B, with the added benefit that they can target HIV for those with co-infection. Emtricitabine/tenofovir may also be considered for some antiviral resistant hepatitis B infections.


title: Emtricitabine/tenofovir

text: In the United States, it is recommend that all pregnant HIV-infected women start antiretroviral therapy (ART) as early in pregnancy as possible to reduce risk of transmission. ART generally does not increase risk of birth defects with exception of dolutegravir, which is not recommended during first trimester of pregnancy only due to potential risk of neural tube defects.


title: Emtricitabine/tenofovir

text: Emtricitabine/tenofovir is secreted in breast milk. In developed countries, HIV-infected mothers are generally recommended to not breastfeed due to slight risk of mother-to-children HIV transmission. In developing countries, where avoiding breastfeeding may not be an option, the World Health Organization recommends a triple drug regimen of tenofovir, efavirenz, and either lamivudine or emtricitabine.


title: Emtricitabine/tenofovir

text: Fat redistribution and accumulation (lipodystrophy) has been observed in people receiving antiretroviral therapy, including fat reductions in the face, limbs, and buttocks and increases in visceral fat of the abdomen and accumulations in the upper back. When used as pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) this effect may not be present. Weight changes have however been linked to the medication.


title: Emtricitabine/tenofovir

text: Other drugs with adverse reactions include dabigatran etexilate, lamivudine, and vincristine. Dabigatran etexilate used with p-glycoprotein inducers require monitoring of decreased levels and effects of dabigatran. Lamivudine may increase the adverse or toxic effect of emtricitabine. Vincristine used with P-glycoprotein/ABCB1 inducers can decrease the serum concentration of vincristine.


title: Emtricitabine/tenofovir

text: The patent for the drug combination is owned by Gilead Sciences in some regions. The European patent EP0915894B1 expired in July 2018, Gilead Sciences wished the patent to be extended, however "four rival labs—Teva, Accord Healthcare, Lupin and Mylan—had sought to have that overturned in the courts in Britain", the High Court of England and Wales invalidated Gilead's patent, however the company appealed and the UK referred the case to the European Court of Justice who refused to extend the patent. An Irish court rejected an injunction request to prevent the launch of generic Emtricitabine/tenofovir prior to the resolution of the case. Despite the expiration of the Gilead Sciences patent, as of 2021, there are still widespread challenges to the availability and uptake of generic PrEP throughout Europe.


title: Emtricitabine/tenofovir

text: In the United States, most healthcare plans are required to cover PrEP without any copay or other cost sharing. This is due to a United States Preventive Services Task Force recommendation that gave PrEP a grade A rating. Under the Affordable Care Act, this recommendation requires all non-grandfathered private health plans to cover PrEP without cost sharing.


title: Emtricitabine/tenofovir

text: In the United Kingdom, PrEP is widely available to all at risk groups following the Department for Health and Social Care's decision to make it available across England from 2020. Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland made it available in 2017 and 2018.


title: Water Resistant mark

text: Water Resistant is a common mark stamped on the back of wrist watches to indicate how well a watch is sealed against the ingress of water. It is usually accompanied by an indication of the static test pressure that a sample of newly manufactured watches were exposed to in a leakage test. The test pressure can be indicated either directly in units of pressure such as bar, atmospheres, or (more commonly) as an equivalent water depth in metres (in the United States sometimes also in feet).


title: Water Resistant mark

text: An indication of the test pressure in terms of water depth does not mean a water-resistant watch was designed for repeated long-term use in such water depths. For example, a watch marked 30 metres water resistant cannot be expected to withstand activity for longer time periods in a swimming pool, let alone continue to function at 30 metres under water. This is because the test is conducted only once using static pressure on a sample of newly manufactured watches. As only a small sample is tested there is likelihood that any individual watch is not water resistant to the certified depth or even at all.


title: Water Resistant mark

text: The test for qualifying a diving watch for repeated usage in a given depth includes safety margins to take factors into account like aging of the seals, the properties of water and seawater, rapidly changing water pressure and temperature, as well as dynamic mechanical stresses encountered by a watch. Also every diving watch has to be tested for water resistance or water-tightness and resistance at a water overpressure as it is officially defined.


title: Water Resistant mark

text: The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) issued a standard for water-resistant watches which also prohibits the term "waterproof" to be used with watches, which many countries have adopted. This standard was introduced in 1990 as the ISO 2281:1990 and only designed for watches intended for ordinary daily use and are resistant to water during exercises such as swimming for a short period. They may be used under conditions where water pressure and temperature vary; German Industrial Norm DIN 8310 is an equivalent standard. However, whether they bear an additional indication of overpressure or not, they are not intended for submarine diving.


title: Water Resistant mark

text: The ISO 2281 standard specifies a detailed testing procedure for each mark that defines not only pressures but also test duration, water temperature, and other parameters. Besides this "ISO 2859-2 Sampling plans indexed by limiting quality (LQ) for isolated lot inspection" and "ISO 2859-3 Sampling procedures for inspection by attributes – Part 3: Skip-lot sampling procedures" concerning procedures regarding lot sampling testing come into play, since not every single watch has to be tested for ISO 2281 approval.


title: Water Resistant mark

text: Except the thermal shock resistance test all further ISO 2281 testing should be conducted at 18 °C to 25 °C temperature. Regarding pressure ISO 2281 defines: 1 bar = 10 Pa = 10 N/m.


title: Water Resistant mark

text: This has since be replaced by the ISO 22810:2010 standard, which covers all activities up to specified depth and clears up ambiguities with the previous standard.


title: Water Resistant mark

text: In practice, the survivability of the watch will depend not only on the water depth, but also on the age of the sealing material, past damage, temperature, and additional mechanical stresses.


title: Water Resistant mark

text: The standards and features for diving watches are regulated by the ISO 6425 – Divers' watches international standard. This standard was introduced in 1996. ISO 6425 defines such watches as: A watch designed to withstand diving in water at depths of at least 100 m and possessing a system to control the time. Diving watches are tested in static or still water under 125% of the rated (water) pressure, thus a watch with a 200-metre rating will be water resistant if it is stationary and under 250 metres of static water. ISO 6425 testing of the water resistance or water-tightness and resistance at a water overpressure as it is officially defined is fundamentally different from non-dive watches, because every single watch has to be tested. Testing diving watches for ISO 6425 compliance is voluntary and involves costs, so not every manufacturer present their watches for certification according to this standard.


title: Water Resistant mark

text: Except the thermal shock resistance test all further ISO 6425 testing should be conducted at 18 to 25 °C temperature. Regarding pressure ISO 6425 defines: 1 bar = 10 Pa = 10 N/m.


title: Water Resistant mark

text: The required 125% test pressure provides a safety margin against dynamic pressure increase events, water density variations (seawater is 2% to 5% denser than freshwater) and degradation of the seals.


title: Water Resistant mark

text: Movement induced dynamic pressure increase is sometimes the subject of urban myths and marketing arguments for diver's watches with high water resistance ratings. When a diver makes a fast swimming movement of 10 m/s (32.8 ft/s) (the best competitive swimmers and finswimmers do not move their hands nor swim that fast) physics dictates that the diver generates a dynamic pressure of 50 kPa or the equivalent of 5 metres of additional water depth.


title: Water Resistant mark

text: Besides water resistance standards to a minimum of depth rating ISO 6425 also provides minimum requirements for mechanical diver's watches (quartz and digital watches have slightly differing readability requirements) such as:


title: Water Resistant mark

text: Diving at a great depth and for a long period is done in a diving chamber, with the (saturation) diver spending time alternately in the water and in a pressurized environment, breathing a gas mixture. In this case, the watch is subjected to the pressure of the gas mixture and its functioning can be disturbed. Consequently, it is recommended to subject the watch to a special extra test.


title: Water Resistant mark

text: ISO 6425 defines a diver's watch for mixed-gas diving as: A watch required to be resistant during diving in water to a depth of at least 100 m and to be unaffected by the overpressure of the mixed gas used for breathing.


title: Water Resistant mark

text: The following specific additional requirements for testing of diver's watches for mixed-gas diving are provided by ISO 6425:


title: Water Resistant mark

text: Most manufacturers recommend divers to have their diving watch pressure tested by an authorized service and repair facility annually or every two to three years and have the seals replaced.


title: Water Resistant mark

text: Watches are often classified by watch manufacturers by their degree of water resistance which, due to the absence of official classification standards, roughly translates to the following (1 metre ≈ 3.29 feet). These vagueries have since been superseded by ISO 22810:2010, in which "any watch on the market sold as water-resistant must satisfy ISO 22810 – regardless of the brand."


title: Branka Katić

text: Branka Katić (; born 20 January 1970) is a Serbian actress known for appearing in the films "Black Cat, White Cat" and "Public Enemies", and the TV series "Big Love".


title: Branka Katić

text: Katić debuted in the film "Nije lako sa muškarcima" when she was 14 years old. She was a student of the Academy of Dramatic Art, and received instruction from actor Rade Šerbedžija. She appeared in theatre in Subotica, Novi Sad and Belgrade. Her film appearances include "Black Cat, White Cat", "In July" and "Public Enemies". Her television work includes playing Tatiana Taylor, the second wife of Barry Taylor, in "Auf Wiedersehen, Pet"; Ana, Bill Henrickson's fourth wife for a brief period on the HBO series "Big Love"; Charlotte Kaletta in the TV miniseries ""; Nika Marx, the producer's wife in the episode "The Prince's Bride" of "Entourage"; and as a prostitute in an episode of "The Vice".


title: Branka Katić

text: Katić is married to British film and television director Julian Farino. They have two sons: Louis and Joe.


title: Ramin Bahrani

text: Ramin Bahrani (; born March 20, 1975) is an American director and screenwriter. Film critic Roger Ebert ranked Bahrani's "Chop Shop" (2007) as the sixth-best film of the 2000s, calling him "the new director of the decade". Bahrani was the recipient of the 2009 Guggenheim Fellowship. Bahrani is a professor of film directing at his alma mater the Columbia University School of the Arts.


title: Ramin Bahrani

text: In 2021, Bahrani was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay for "The White Tiger". He is a BAFTA and Emmy Award nominee.


title: Ramin Bahrani

text: Bahrani was born in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, the son of Iranian immigrants. His father, originally from Shiraz, initially exposed him to the poetic works of Hafez and encouraged him to pursue his passion for the arts. He received his Bachelor of Arts degree from Columbia University in 1996. Bahrani also studied filmmaking in Iran and briefly lived in Paris after graduating from college.


title: Ramin Bahrani

text: Bahrani's first feature film, "Man Push Cart" (2005), premiered at the Venice Film Festival and screened at the Sundance Film Festival in 2006. The film won over 10 international prizes, was released theatrically around the world, and was nominated for three Independent Spirit Awards.


title: Ramin Bahrani

text: Bahrani's second film, "Chop Shop" (2007), premiered at the 2007 Director's Fortnight of the Cannes International Film Festival, and then screened at the Toronto International Film Festival (2007) and the Berlin International Film Festival (2008) before being released theatrically to wide and positive reviews. Bahrani won the 2007 Independent Spirit Someone to Watch Award, and was nominated for the 2008 Independent Spirit Best Director Award.


title: Ramin Bahrani

text: "Goodbye Solo", Bahrani's third feature film, premiered as an official selection of the Venice Film Festival (2008) where it won the international film critics' FIPRESCI Award for Best Film, and later had its North American premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival (2008). The film was called a "masterpiece" by numerous critics including Roger Ebert, and A. O. Scott of "The New York Times".


title: Ramin Bahrani

text: In 2009, he made a short film, "Plastic Bag", with the voice of German filmmaker Werner Herzog and an original score from Kjartan Sveinsson of the band Sigur Rós. "Plastic Bag" premiered as the opening night film of Corto Cortissimo in the Venice Film Festival where Bahrani was also on the jury for Best First Films. It later screened at Telluride and The New York Film Festival. In 2012, he made a music video of the song "Eg anda" for the Sigur Rós album Valtari.


title: Ramin Bahrani

text: Bahrani's fourth feature film, "At Any Price" (2013) stars Dennis Quaid, Zac Efron, Heather Graham, Kim Dickens, Clancy Brown and Chelcie Ross. It was selected to compete for the Golden Lion at the 69th Venice International Film Festival. The film, despite its relative star power and a notable performance by Dennis Quaid, received mixed reviews from most critics and earned less than $500,000 at the box office.


title: Ramin Bahrani

text: Bahrani's fifth feature film, "99 Homes" (2015), opened to strong reviews at the Venice Film Festival, and was nominated for a Golden Globe Award.


title: Ramin Bahrani

text: Bahrani's film for HBO, "Fahrenheit 451", an adaptation of Ray Bradbury's 1953 dystopian novel of the same name, was released on May 12, 2018, receiving mostly negative reviews.


title: Ramin Bahrani

text: In 2021, he adapted Aravind Adiga's 2008 novel The White Tiger as a feature film of the same title on Netflix, to positive critical reception.


title: Las 30 Cumbias Más Pegadas

text: Las 31 Cumbias Más Pegadas (Eng.: "The 30 Best Cumbias") is the title of a compilation album, which features music from Los Angeles Azules, Los Askis, Rayito Colombiano, Grupo Latino, Grupo Maracuya, Los Llayras, Mr. Chivo, Aniceto Molina, Super Grupo G, La Tropa Vallenata, Los Vallenatos, Yahari, among others. This album peaked at number-one in the "Billboard" Top Latin Albums chart for one week.


title: Longaniza

text: Longaniza (, or ) is a Spanish sausage (embutido) similar to a chorizo and also closely associated with the Portuguese linguiça. Its defining characteristics are interpreted differently from region to region. It is popular in the cuisines of several regions of Spain, Argentina, Uruguay, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico and Chile. In the Philippines, it is called longganisa and has hundreds of variants with different vernacular tastes and forms due to the 144 ethno-linguistic groups of the archipelago.


title: Longaniza

text: In Spain, "longaniza" is similar to "salchichón", though thinner; both differ from chorizo in that black pepper is used for them instead of paprika and may have different spices in them like nutmeg.


title: Longaniza

text: In Argentina and Uruguay, longaniza is a very long, cured and dried pork sausage that gets its particular flavour from ground anise seeds. This results in a very particular aroma, and a mildly sweet flavour that contrasts with the strong salty taste of the stuffing. It is used mainly as an appetizer or in sandwiches, and very rarely cooked.


title: Longaniza

text: In Chile and Peru, longaniza may be eaten during a barbecue with bread as a choripán. The city of Chillán is known for its longanizas. Chillán's football team Ñublense are nicknamed "The Clockwork Longaniza" (Spanish: "La longaniza mecánica"). During the festivities of the 18th of September, longaniza is prepared in great quantities.