title: Dhol

text: In Maharashtra, dhol is a primary instrument used in Ganesh festivals. In the city of Pune, locals come together to form dhol pathaks (troupes). Pune supposedly has the largest number dhols in India. In the city of Nagpur, there are many troupes, play dhol in festivals and other occasions. Here dhol is referred to as 'Sandhal'. Dhol is made up of two stretched membranes tied by strong string. One side of dhol is played by wooden stick called "tiparu", on that side black coloured ink paste stick in the centre. This membrane is called the "dhum". In technical language it is called base. Another side of dhol is called "thapi" or "chati". In technical language it is called as tremer, this side of membrane is only played by palm. Boll of the dhol is "Taa", "Dhin" and "Dha". "Taa" for the "Thapi" side, "Dhin" for the "Dhum" side and "Dha" for both sides played together.


title: Dhol

text: Called "Dhollu" in Kannada, the folk dance is known as Dollu Kunitha -Kunitha meaning dance. The folk art is mainly preserved and performed by the people of the Kuruba community of Karnataka.


title: Dhol

text: In the Garhwal region, specific musical caste groups like the "auji", "das" or "dholi" have historically played the dhol and damau, the two folk instruments of the region, at special occasions or religious festivals according to the Dhol Sagar, an ancient treatise that was transmitted orally and by practical teaching.


title: Dhol

text: The "dhak" (Bengali: ঢাক) is a huge membranophone instrument from India. The shapes differ from the almost cylindrical to the barrel. The manner of stretching the hide over the mouths and lacing also varies. It suspended from the neck, tied to the waist and kept on the lap or the ground, and usually played with wooden sticks. The left side is coated to give it a heavier sound.


title: Dhol

text: The dhol is the main musical instrument in the Pashtun dance known as "attan". The Afghan and Iranian Dhol is not the same drum on the Indian subcontinent.


title: Dhol

text: Caucasian dhol is called dhol in Armenia, dholi or doli in Georgia and Abkhazia, and doul in North Caucasus.


title: Dhol

text: It has become popular in other parts of the world due to Indian diaspora and diaspora from the Indian subcontinent. Dhol has been a popular musical instrument in formal and informal dance performances for decades.


title: Syed Saddiq

text: Syed Saddiq bin Syed Abdul Rahman (born 6 December 1992) is a Malaysian politician who has served as the Member of Parliament (MP) for Muar since May 2018. He served as the Minister of Youth and Sports in the Pakatan Harapan (PH) administration under former Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad from July 2018 to the collapse of the PH administration in February 2020. He is a founding member of the Malaysian United Democratic Alliance (MUDA) and has served as 1st President of MUDA since the founding in September 2020. He was also a founding member of the Malaysian United Indigenous Party (BERSATU), a former component party of the PH coalition and served as 1st Youth Chief of BERSATU from the founding in September 2016 to his removal from the party in May 2020. He is presently the sole MUDA MP.


title: Syed Saddiq

text: In 2021, he was charged with several counts of corruption, including criminal breach of trust, misappropriation of funds, and money laundering. On 28 October 2022, he has been ordered by the High Court to enter his defense after the prosecution showed that there was enough evidence against him to prove that he probably committed the crime.


title: Syed Saddiq

text: Saddiq was born on 6 December 1992 in Pulai, Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia. His father is a Singaporean, who used to work as a construction worker in Singapore. His mother used to be an English teacher. The youngest of four siblings, he had studied at the Royal Military College (RMC) before continuing his studies at the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM) in Bachelor of Laws (LLB). During his time at IIUM, he competed in an Asian-level debate competition and successfully won the United Asian Debating Championship (UADC). He is widely known in the debating community after having won Asia's Best Speaker award at the Asian British Parliamentary (ABP) Debating Championship three times.


title: Syed Saddiq

text: In 2017, he allegedly rejected a counter offer to pursue his studies at Oxford University, England [Oxford University however denied the offer] to remain active in politics. A year later, after being elected as MP at the age of 25, Syed Saddiq once again allegedly dismissed another scholarship offer, this time rejecting the Chevening Scholarship proposal to pursue a Master in Public Policy at Oxford University.


title: Syed Saddiq

text: In April 2021, he successfully completed the Lee Kuan Yew Senior Fellowship in Public Service Programme at Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore.


title: Syed Saddiq

text: Saddiq as a law graduate came to prominence in 2016 when he joined 24 other youths, a group that called themselves Change Led by the Young Generation (Challenger), published a statement rejecting Najib Razak's leadership over the scandal of 1Malaysia Development Berhad (1MDB).


title: Syed Saddiq

text: Saddiq was the leader of ARMADA ("Angkatan Bersatu Anak Muda"); the youth wing of the BERSATU. He has been a spokesperson for the party since its inception in September 2016 and is considered one of the founding members and sits on the party council.


title: Syed Saddiq

text: Saddiq made his debut contesting the 2018 general election (GE14) for the Muar parliamentary seat and was elected to the Parliament. He was then appointed as the Minister of Youth and Sports in the PH new government making him the youngest ever federal minister in 2018 since Malaysia's independence.


title: Syed Saddiq

text: He is the youngest cabinet Minister to be appointed at the age of 25 as well as the third youngest MP after also 2018-elected Prabakaran Parameswaran (21) and 1976-elected Najib Razak (22) since Independence in the history of Malaysia. He was even called as " 'cucu' ", literally means 'grandson' for his youthfulness in the Parliament house.


title: Syed Saddiq

text: As the Minister of Youth and Sports, Saddiq has pushed for a lower voting age, or eligibility to vote in Malaysia, from 21 to 18 years old ahead of the 15th General Election (GE15), an effort dubbed as ""Undi18"". However, he has agreed that first a political exposure programme for the young people of Malaysia is needed. In July 2019, Saddiq has tabled a Bill in Parliament to amend the Federal Constitution to lower the voting age to 18 but was withdrawn and re-tabled later after it was tweaked to accommodate some changes.


title: Syed Saddiq

text: The Dewan Rakyat on 16 July unanimously passed the re-tabled "Constitution (Amendment) Act 2019" bill to lower the voting age, as well as eligibility to contest in election to 18 and automatic registration of voters by Election Commission (EC). In November 2021, the constitutional amendment was finally gazetted which stated that Undi18 amendments would come into effect for implementation on 15 December as consented by Yang di-Pertuan Agong.


title: Syed Saddiq

text: He became an Independent in May 2020 after being terminated as a member and first youth chief of the Malaysian United Indigenous Party (BERSATU), which was a component party of the then-ruling Pakatan Harapan (PH) coalition.


title: Syed Saddiq

text: Following his expulsion from BERSATU, Mahathir and his-led MPs have formed a new party, named Party of Homeland's Fighters (PEJUANG). However instead of joining PEJUANG, on 21 August Syed Saddiq announced that he will be establishing a new multi-racial, youth-centric party.


title: Syed Saddiq

text: On 17 September 2020, Saddiq launched and co-founded the Malaysian United Democratic Alliance (MUDA) and was officially registered as political party on 23 December 2021.


title: Syed Saddiq

text: In July 2021, he was charged with criminal breach of trust and misappropriation of funds belonging to his former party, BERSATU. For the first charge, Syed Saddiq, the then-BERSATU's youth chief, was charged with criminal breach of trust for withdrawing RM1.12 million via a cheque without BERSATU's supreme council's approval. He was charged with another accusation of misappropriating RM120,000 in BERSATU donation money intended for the 2018 general election. He had claimed trial to both counts of corruption and was released on bail of RM330,000 with additional conditions. He claimed that the allegations were brought against him because he refused to back the Perikatan Nasional administration.


title: Syed Saddiq

text: In August 2021, Syed Saddiq had been charged again with two corruption charges of money laundering. According to the charge sheet, the accused transferred RM50,000 from his bank account to his Amanah Saham Bumiputera account on 16 June 2018 and another RM50,000 on 19 June 2018. Saddiq pleaded not guilty to the charges. He claimed that Wan Ahmad Fayhsal, the BERSATU youth chief, came to his house before he was accused and persuaded him to rejoin BERSATU and support Muhyiddin Yassin as prime minister. Although Wan Fayhsal admitted that there was a meeting with Syed Saddiq, he insisted that the meeting was not to make an offer or threat to Syed Saddiq.


title: Syed Saddiq

text: On 5 July 2022, a witness, Rafiq Hakim Razali, in Syed Saddiq's trial said that Saddiq asked him to dispose of part of the RM1 million Bersatu funds. The RM1 million was in Syed Saddiq's possession.


title: Syed Saddiq

text: On 18 July 2022, the High Court rejected Syed Saddiq's bid to impeach star witness Rafiq Hakim Razali due to his 'contradicting statements' in his ongoing criminal breach of trust trial. This means that Rafiq can still testify against Syed Saddiq in the trial.


title: Syed Saddiq

text: On 19 July 2022, an MACC officer, Khairi claimed that the MACC is investigating Syed Saddiq for making false statements about RM250,000 that went missing. They went to his house to try to find out more information, and during the investigation, they seized a phone belonging to Rafiq Hakim Razali. Gobind Singh Deo, Syed Saddiq's lawyer, cross-examined Khairi and said that the act of going to Syed Saddiq's house was an abuse of power by MACC. Khairi denied that MACC had abused its powers, saying the investigation was launched based on information received.


title: Syed Saddiq

text: On 28 October 2022, the High Court found that the prosecution had succeeded in proving a prima facie case against Syed Saddiq, and he was ordered to enter his defense on four charges of misappropriation of assets, money laundering and abetting in criminal breach of trust.


title: Syed Saddiq

text: Syed Saddiq has been vocal in his support for Palestine and criticism of Israel. He has stated that Palestine existed long before Israel, and criticised Israel for illegally appointing themselves as the “guardians” of Palestine. He also stands firm with Malaysia's ban on Israeli athletes, and has called for the freedom of Palestine.


title: Syed Saddiq

text: During a forum on 1 September 2020, when Syed Saddiq was asked whether the MUDA party would accept LGBT members, he stated:


title: Syed Saddiq

text: Saddiq is an avid social media user and regularly posts about political and social issues in Malaysia. In September 2015, Saddiq said he would "teach" Nurul Hidayah, the daughter of ex-Deputy Prime Minister Ahmad Zahid Hamidi, who criticized participants in the Bersih 4.0 demonstration. In November 2015, Saddiq admitted that he had supported Najib Razak, but later said Najib had embarrassed the country because of the 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal. In October 2018, he said that "Ketuanan Melayu" had ended by calling the term nothing more than a mere meaningless phrase. His statement then evoked various responses from many parties. He defended the actions of four academics who allegedly submitted an executive summary on the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC) to the Conference of Rulers and insisted their actions were part of the academic freedom promised by Pakatan Harapan (PH) in celebrating democracy and differences of opinion in Malaysia.


title: Syed Saddiq

text: In 2019, he denied being in an "open warfare" with the Crown Prince of Johor, Tunku Ismail Idris. He responded on his Twitter to Tunku Ismail Idris that there were some parties that had considered it a “declaration of war”.


title: Syed Saddiq

text: In May 2021, he was investigated by the Malaysian police for a video he posted on TikTok. In this video, he demanded justice for the late A. Ganapathy who recently died in police custody. Saddiq starts the video with the hashtag #justiceforganapathy and goes on to describe the serious injuries inflicted on Ganapathy that ultimately led to his death. Saddiq continues by saying "police brutality is a serious issue" and then he begins to list the names of the men that have died in police custody custody from the year 2009 to 2021. Saddiq then ends the video by encouraging viewers to "push for the IPCMC bill (to establish the Independent Police Complaints & Misconduct Commission) and to push for justice".


title: Syed Saddiq

text: On 22 May 2021, the police brought Saddiq into the Dang Wangi District Police Headquarters, seized his phone and took control of his Instagram and TikTok accounts after being instructed to do so by the Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission (MCMC). According to Datuk Mohd Azman Ahmad Sapri, the deputy director of the Bukit Aman Criminal Investigation Department, Saddiq was being investigated under Section 505(b) of the Penal Code and Section 233 of the Communications and Multimedia Act.


title: Syed Saddiq

text: However, MCMC has denied instructing the Royal Malaysia Police (RMP) to seize Saddiq's phone, they merely "acted as a technical agency in assisting police investigation". Despite claims from Saddiq that this was a "politically motivated move orchestrated by MCMC", the MCMC stated that they will continue to "provide assistance and technical recommendations for the investigation without any hidden agenda including political agenda".


title: Indiana Massara

text: Indiana Marie Ella Massara (born 23 August 2002), sometimes shortened to just Indiana, is an Australian singer, actress, model, and Internet personality. Massara has been named one of Kiss FM's youngest New Next Up Artists.


title: Indiana Massara

text: Massara was born in Coolbinia, a suburb of Perth, Western Australia. She is of Italian descent. Massara was a "tom-boy" as a child with an interest in sports. She initially stayed in Australia with her grandparents when her parents and older brother, Presley, moved to Los Angeles, California in the United States so he could pursue acting. Indiana attended Mercedes College in the City of Perth before making the decision to join them.


title: Indiana Massara

text: Massara began working with Brat in 2017 when she landed the role of Rooney Forrester in "Chicken Girls", a character she would also play in various series and films for the network such as "Attaway Appeal", "", "Holiday Spectacular", "Intern-in-Chief", the lead in "Rooney's Last Roll", as well as cameos in "Total Eclipse" and "Stuck". She also hosted "Brat Chat" alongside Darius Marcell and performed the theme song for "Red Ruby", "Run You Down".


title: Indiana Massara

text: Massara released her debut single, "Drama" featuring Stoppa, in 2017, which made it into the top ten chart on Radio Disney. She has been in the top three on Radio Disney multiple times as well as receiving radio play in the United States, Australia, and Canada. Massara has released several singles including "Smoke In My Eyes", "In Your Dreams", "Do Yourself A Favour" and "Apology" featuring 24hrs in 2018 and "That Day", "I Think We're Alone Now" in 2019, and "Squeeze" in 2020. As of 2018, she was working on an EP.


title: Indiana Massara

text: In October 2018, Massara went on her first ever tour alongside Tayler Holder, Zach Clayton, and Joey Birlem with Swipe Up Live in Australia. Massara opened for Why Don't We, Bryce Vine, and Ava Max at 103.7 KISS-FM's Kiss the Summer Hello in June 2019.


title: Indiana Massara

text: In June of 2020, she started a podcast with her friends Zach Justice and Jared Bailey (Stage Name: JareBear). They named the podcast "Dropouts" and it has featured celebrities like: Riley Lewis; Matt Sato; Sam Hurley & Hootie Hurley; the Montoya Twinz; Madison Lewis; Paris Berelc; Brighton Sharbino; Markell Washington; The Mian Twins; Christian Plourde and Mads Lewis; Tayler Holder; Nick Turturro; Ashley Nicole Williams; Mariah Amato; Ilya and Joe; Jenna and Seth Pry; Mikey Tua & Katie Tua; Kian and JC; David Alvareeezy; Zane Hijazi; Harry Jowsey; Josh Peck and Joe Vulpis; Toddy Smith & Brett Bassock; Matt King; Jason Nash; Hayley Leblanc; and Mike E. Winfield. They've recorded 122 episodes as of October 25th, 2022.


title: Indiana Massara

text: She played Paige in the 2021 film "Hero Mode" . She has an upcoming role as Jess in "The Crusades". In 2022, she joined the podcast series called Broken Road.


title: Indiana Massara

text: Massara takes inspiration from Sza, Khalid, Jack & Jack, and Beyonce. Her early inspirations include Elvis Presley and Frank Sinatra.


title: Steve Finnan

text: Stephen John Finnan (born 24 April 1976) is an Irish former international footballer who played as a right back.


title: Steve Finnan

text: He is the only player to have played in the World Cup, UEFA Champions League, UEFA Cup, Intertoto Cup, all four levels of the English league football and the Football Conference. Among the honours won during his career was the 2005 UEFA Champions League Final for Liverpool. Finnan was known for his attacking role and ability to cross the ball.


title: Steve Finnan

text: He played 52 internationals for the Republic of Ireland from his debut in 2000, scoring twice. He played for them at the 2002 FIFA World Cup.


title: Steve Finnan

text: Finnan was born in the Janesboro area of Limerick, and moved to Chelmsford, England, at a young age. He began his career playing in Wimbledon's youth system, but he joined non-League club Welling United in 1993 after being released at the age of 16. Finnan turned professional when he signed with Birmingham City in 1995, who paid a fee of £100,000 to Welling United to acquire his services. He scored his first professional goal against Watford.


title: Steve Finnan

text: Finnan made a loan switch to Notts County in March 1996, making his debut in a 2–1 victory over Walsall and scoring his first goal a month later in a 4–2 victory over Bristol Rovers. He appeared in all of Notts' games for the remainder of the season, helping the team finish fourth in the Second Division and qualify for the promotion play-offs. In the first leg of the semi-finals held at the Alexandra Stadium he scored against Crewe Alexandra, with the match ending 2–2. The return leg at home saw Notts win 1–0, winning 3–2 on aggregate. In the play-offs final against Bradford City at Wembley Stadium, Notts County lost 2–0. He returned to Birmingham following the conclusion of the loan deal.


title: Steve Finnan

text: During the following season, 1996–97, Notts County signed Finnan for a fee £300,000 on 30 October 1996. He played his first match as a permanent player for Notts County after being introduced as a substitute against Shrewsbury Town. The season was not a successful one for Finnan as Notts County finished 24th in the table and were relegated to the Third Division.


title: Steve Finnan

text: In the 1997–98 season, his first full season at the club, Finnan established himself as a key member of the team and was an ever present, appearing in 51 matches, helping the club win the Third Division title with record points and time. The other notable record Finnan established with Notts County during this season was a streak of 10 consecutive victories; a club record and one which still stands today.


title: Steve Finnan

text: After strong showings for Notts County in the 1997–98 season, Fulham manager Kevin Keegan paid £600,000 for his services in November 1998. He made his Fulham debut against Chesterfield on 21 November 1998 and scored his first goal for Fulham against Blackpool on 20 March 1999. While at Fulham, he also became a favourite among the fans. His first season with the club was a success, with Fulham winning the Second Division championship and being promoted to the First Division.


title: Steve Finnan

text: Finnan finished ninth with Fulham the following season under new manager Paul Bracewell, despite promising early season form and an unbeaten run lasting over two months. Bracewell was replaced with Jean Tigana in May 2000, and under him in the 2000–01 season, Fulham won the First Division championship, winning promotion to the Premier League, with Finnan appearing in all but one of the league matches.


title: Steve Finnan

text: In his debut season in the Premier League, he helped Fulham qualify for the UEFA Intertoto Cup, was voted into the 2001–02 Professional Footballers' Association team of the year and was also voted as the Fulham player of the year. Fulham then went on to win the Intertoto Cup, giving Finnan his first taste of European football. Next season saw Jean Tigana replaced by Chris Coleman, Finnan's fourth manager in five seasons. By April 2003 with few games to go, Fulham were close to the relegation zone but picked up 10 points out of a possible 15 to stay in the top-flight, finishing in 14th position.


title: Steve Finnan

text: In the summer of 2003 Finnan found himself courted by many of England's top clubs, and eventually Fulham agreed to sell Finnan to Liverpool for a fee of £3.5m.


title: Steve Finnan

text: Finnan made his Liverpool debut against Chelsea on 17 August 2003. His first season was disrupted by injury, but in 2004–05, he established himself as the first-choice right back and a firm fan favourite. The season was a highly successful one for Finnan. He scored his first and only goal for Liverpool against West Bromwich Albion, played in the League Cup final, and was in the starting eleven as Liverpool won the Champions League Final, though a thigh injury meant he was substituted at half time. Finnan's goal against WBA meant that he became only the second player to score in each of the five highest divisions of English football; the first was Jimmy Willis.


title: Steve Finnan

text: In the 2005–06 season, Liverpool broke their record for number of points in a Premier League season, finishing on 82 points with Finnan being ever present. At the end of the season he picked up another medal with Liverpool, winning the FA Cup.


title: Steve Finnan

text: Finnan played for Liverpool as first choice right back for the 2006–07 season despite heavy competition from newly arrived teammate Álvaro Arbeloa. He started in the 2007 UEFA Champions League Final and was subbed off after 88 minutes, Liverpool went on to lose the game 2–1. In July 2007, Finnan agreed a new two-year contract to remain with Liverpool.


title: Steve Finnan

text: The following season, Liverpool's success continued as they finished third in the League and reached the semi-finals of the Champions League. Finnan took his total appearances for Liverpool past the 200 mark and also made it into the top 100 capped Liverpool players of all time. Finnan featured in 35 games, but lost his starting place, manager Rafa Benítez often preferring Arbeloa to start. In the summer of 2008, after the arrival of fullback Philipp Degen at the club from Borussia Dortmund, Finnan was linked with a move away from Anfield. He was offered by Liverpool as a makeweight in a deal to sign Gareth Barry from Aston Villa; the player accepted the move but the clubs were unable to agree a fee. He made a guest appearance in Jamie Carragher's testimonial match in September 2010.


title: Steve Finnan

text: On transfer deadline day, 1 September 2008, Finnan signed a two-year deal with La Liga club Espanyol for an undisclosed fee. Injuries limited his first team appearances, and rumours of a return to the Premier League in the January 2009 transfer window with Arsenal or Tottenham Hotspur were dismissed by Espanyol's sports director Paco Herrera and by coach Mané, who considered him an important member of the team. By mid-January, Espanyol were "surprised" that a move to Hull City did not proceed, apparently for medical reasons. In July 2009, Espanyol and Finnan agreed to mutually terminate the remainder of his contract.


title: Steve Finnan

text: Finnan signed a one-year contract with Premier League side Portsmouth on 31 July 2009. He made his debut for the club on 3 October in a 1–0 victory against Wolverhampton Wanderers at Molineux, and played regularly in the second half of the season, but with the club in administration and relegated to the Championship, he was not offered a new deal. His last appearance for the club was the 2010 FA Cup Final against Chelsea.


title: Steve Finnan

text: A Republic of Ireland Under-21 international, Finnan stepped up to the senior side in 2000 against Greece. He cemented his place in the Irish starting XI during the 2002 World Cup qualification matches, supplying the cross for Jason McAteer to score the only goal in a crucial 1–0 home win against the Netherlands in September 2001.


title: Steve Finnan

text: Finnan appeared in all three of Ireland's group E games in the 2002 FIFA World Cup against Cameroon, Germany and Saudi Arabia. Ireland progressed to the second round of the tournament for only the third time in their history where they faced Spain. The match ended 1–1 in extra time and went to penalties. Finnan took a penalty and scored, but Ireland eventually lost 3–2.


title: Steve Finnan

text: Injury disrupted Finnan's participation in the unsuccessful attempt to reach the Euro 2004 finals. He was a regular choice in the 2006 World Cup qualification games but Ireland failed to qualify for the finals.


title: Steve Finnan

text: He was again a regular selection in the 2008 Euro qualification games but Ireland did not qualify for the finals. He scored his second international goal in the group game against Cyprus in a 1–1 draw. He then announced his retirement from international football on 22 January 2008 after making 50 appearances for the Republic of Ireland. Tempted by the prospect of working with the newly appointed Ireland manager Giovanni Trappatoni, Finnan came out of retirement in August 2008 to be included in the squad to face Norway in an international friendly.


title: Steve Finnan

text: Finnan was arrested in June 2005 after running over an 81-year-old man from Liverpool, who later died of his injuries. Finnan faced no charges over the man's death, despite travelling more than twice the speed-limit at the time.


title: Molly house

text: Molly-house was a term used in 18th- and 19th-century Britain for a meeting place for homosexual men. The meeting places were generally taverns, public houses, coffeehouses or even private rooms where men could either socialise or meet possible sexual partners.


title: Molly house

text: Despite the reputation of molly-houses as places having primarily sexual connotations, rather than as social meeting places, some historians are reluctant to classify them specifically as brothels. Rictor Norton, for example, argues that the regular customers could have been in fact mutual friends, at least at the beginning, since consistent evidence concerning male prostitution seems to be insufficient in Britain until the 1780s.


title: Molly house

text: From 1533 onwards, homosexual relations and sexual activities remained illegal and were frequently prosecuted, with homosexual sexual activities being included in the offence categories of buggery and sodomy (the terms which were often used interchangeably), they remained capital offences until 1861. From the 16th century onwards until 1861, particularly during the 1720s, molly-houses came to be the scenes of raids and arrests, and their customers frequently became targets for blackmail.


title: Molly house

text: Molly-houses can be considered a precursor to some types of contemporary meeting places for the gay community.


title: Molly house

text: The word "molly" (also spelt as "molley", "mollie", "mally") is a pet-form of the female forename Mary, and had two main connotations in 18th century English. The first one is close to the word moll, designating a lower-class girl or woman, occasionally a prostitute. The second one is classified as slang, defining an effeminate, usually homosexual, male. Along with the possible perception of intrinsic female features deriving from the association with the name Mary, another possible origin of this denomination for a homosexual man could be found in the Latin form "mollis", indicating the supposed passive-effeminate partner in male homosexual relationships. In a 1762 Swedish/English dictionary by Jacob Serenius and in a 1767 French/English dictionary by Thomas Nugent the word was present, but simply defined a sodomite, without effeminate connotations.


title: Molly house

text: Other uses of the word can be seen in the verb "to molly" (to have homosexual intercourse), in the expressions "mollycot" (a British regional expression indicating man interested in activities traditionally associated with women) and "Miss Molly" (referring to an effeminate or homosexual male).


title: Molly house

text: According to one historian, English society of Georgian era accorded high importance to the concepts of family and household as fundamental units for reproduction, subsistence and interaction between generations: in this context, male and female roles evolved into more static forms. Men were associated with an active, assertive role both in sexual behaviour and in managing the household, while women were "defined in terms of their maternal functions", contrarily to a tradition common at the start of the century, attributing them features related to lustfulness and aggressiveness in sexual matters. It is possible to see that the notion of "molly-house" was rooted in the emergence of a distinctive identity according to gender and sexual orientation, a peculiar social phenomenon considered crucial by some critics in gender studies. As stated by Robert Shoemaker, "... any activity (such as homosexual intercourse), in which [men] could be seen as acting passively was further marginalised".


title: Molly house

text: Some of the activities popular among the homosexual community, that were seemingly taking place in molly-houses (by nature, marginalised meeting places), were often associated both to female roles and to a family environment (e.g. cross-dressing, "marriage" and "mock birth" rituals, as described in a satire work of the time, Edward Ward's "Satyrical Reflections on Clubs, Chapter XXV Of the Mollies Club").


title: Molly house

text: As sodomy was a capital offence, the organisation of homosexual men and their activities had to be a crucial point, in order to keep the community as safe as possible from prosecution. As a consequence, molly districts seemed to appear, and eventually grow, in areas in which their business could be acknowledged and tolerated at the same time: such connivance could be often found in areas with a high rate of criminal acts such as theft and prostitution.


title: Molly house

text: The presence of pillories punishing sodomitical offences, ironically, identified the sites where such acts frequently took place. Pillories were often organised near the crime locations attributed to the accused.


title: Molly house

text: Molly-houses could be considered the most organised phenomenon of London 18th-century homosexual subculture. They were enclosed, private spaces gathering individuals with a common purpose ie socializing and seeking pleasure with partners of the same sex.


title: Molly house

text: Before 1533, the "unnatural sin" (also defined "detestable crime" in trial records) of sodomy or "buggery", (a specific common law offence, meaning anal intercourse between a man and another man or woman, or anal or vaginal intercourse with a beast – in this way encompassing both sodomy and bestiality) was dealt with by the ecclesiastical courts. From that year however, the country's first civil sodomy law was introduced as "An Acte for the punishment of the vice of Buggerie" (Buggery Act 1533), and also criminal courts could prosecute individuals accused of such crimes. According to the Old Bailey Online Proceedings site:In order to obtain a conviction, it was necessary to prove that both penetration and ejaculation had occurred, and two witnesses were required to prove the crime. Both the "active" and "passive" partner could be found guilty of this offence. But due to the difficulty of proving this actual penetration and ejaculation many men were prosecuted with the reduced charge of assault with sodomitical intent.From the late 1690s to the early 1710s, the Societies for the Reformation of Manners (organizations born after the Revolution in 1688, seeking to eliminate immorality and disrespect for religion from public life) actively pursued prostitutes, Sabbath breakers and also homosexual men, through the means of spies and "provocateurs" to dismantle molly houses and prosecute individuals. In the 1720s and 30s thief-takers like Charles Hitchen and Jonathan Wild stimulated the Societies' activities. The peak of this wave of prosecution is to be recognized in the late 1720s with a raid on the most famous molly house, Mother Clap's. According to Rictor Norton:


title: Molly house

text: Molly-houses at that time were evidently and intrinsically related to since they gathered those who were called sodomites being a capital offence, so most of the information concerning molly-houses and the community around them is available through an indirect form, that is, mostly through newspaper reports and the accounts given during the Old Bailey trials relating to sexual offences, such as "sodomy, assault with sodomitical intent" and "keeping a brothel", or sometimes the ones related to theft cases (for example, in cases with men caught stealing during a sexual encounter).


title: Molly house

text: Other important sources include satires and pamphlets, such as "An Answer To A Late Insolent Libel" by Jonathan Wild, Edward Ward's "Satyrical Reflections on Clubs", Chapter XXV "Of the Mollies Club", John Dunton's "The He-Strumpets. A Satyr on the Sodomite-Club", James Dalton's "A Genuine Narrative of all the Street Robberies Committed since October last".


title: Molly house

text: Later in the eighteenth century, waves of prosecutions can be identified in the 1750s and 1770s. However most of the details concerning sexual offences trials came to be more and more rare owing to a trend for a strait-laced morality, but fraud and extortion cases seemed to continue in giving "retail at length detailed accounts of alleged sexual encounters between men".


title: Molly house

text: The adoption of specific codes and rituals in relating to each other seemed to be another feature allowing cohesion in the group. These peculiarities were often described in trials and libels, often to be put on public display and disapproval. Some of the uses seemed to be:


title: Molly house

text: the "Marshal" was complimented by the Company with the Titles of "Madam" and "Ladyship".From James Dalton's "A Genuine Narrative of all the Street Robberies Committed since October last":They could take on a female persona, have a female name, and affect feminine mannerisms and speech. Again from Jonathan Wild:The men calling one another "my Dear", and hugging, kissing, and tickling each other, as if they were a Mixture of wanton Males and Females, and assuming effeminate Voices and Airs


title: Molly house

text: The most known molly-house in 18th century London was that owned by Mother Clap, which had been open from 1724 to 1726, when a raid sustained by the Societies for the Reformation of Manners had it dismantled. It was located in Field Lane, near to another tavern "The Bunch of Grapes" in Holborn, a suburban parish of Middlesex a short distance from the City of London. This area came to be renowned as a rookery in the next decades, and described as "a sort of distinct town, or district calculated for the reception of the darkest and most dangerous enemies to society; in which when pursued for the commission of crimes they easily conceal themselves and readily escape". A literary example can be interpreted as a sort of confirmation of the reputation of this lane, since Charles Dickens placed here Fagin's den, an old Jewish man earning a living as a fence, in his 1837 novel "Oliver Twist". This peculiar homosexual meeting place, however, became well known to the public during the 1720s through the trial of its keeper, Margaret Clap, indicted for keeping a disorderly house and for encouraging her customers to commit sodomy; and, particularly, through the account given by an agent provocateur, Samuel Stevens.


title: Molly house

text: On Sunday Night the 14th of November. I went to the Prisoners House in Field-Lane, Holbourn. I found near Men Fifty there, making Love to one another as they call'd it. Sometimes they'd sit in one anothers Laps, use their Hands indecently Dance and make Curtsies and mimick the Language of Women – O Sir! - Pray Sir! - Dear Sir! Lord how can ye serve me so! - Ah ye little dear Toad! Then they'd go by Couples, into a Room on the same Floor to be marry'd as they call'd it. The Door at that Room was kept by – Ecclestone to prevent any body from balking their Diversions.


title: Molly house

text: She and half a dozen of her customers were also put into the pillory, fined, and imprisoned for periods of up to two years. Three of her customers were hanged for sodomy: Gabriel Lawrence, a 43-year-old milkman; William Griffin, a 43-year-old furniture upholsterer; and Thomas Wright, who was a molly house keeper.


title: Molly house

text: In the eighteenth century according to the Old Bailey Proceedings, only two individuals were formally arrested for keeping a molly-house: Margaret Clap and Julius Cesar Taylor but several accused of sodomitical practices seems to be reported as brothel keepers as well (i.e. Thomas Wright).


title: Molly house

text: On 9 May 1726, three men (Gabriel Lawrence, William Griffin, and Thomas Wright) were hanged at Tyburn for buggery following a raid of Margaret Clap's molly-house. Their trials are fundamental since they provide important details for the descriptions of the gay community surroundings. On 12 April 1727 Charles Hitchin was convicted of assault with sodomitical intent .


title: Molly house

text: References and representations of molly-houses and gay subculture during the 18th and the 19th century London can be found in several contemporary productions.


title: Observational study

text: In fields such as epidemiology, social sciences, psychology and statistics, an observational study draws inferences from a sample to a population where the independent variable is not under the control of the researcher because of ethical concerns or logistical constraints. One common observational study is about the possible effect of a treatment on subjects, where the assignment of subjects into a treated group versus a control group is outside the control of the investigator. This is in contrast with experiments, such as randomized controlled trials, where each subject is randomly assigned to a treated group or a control group. Observational studies, for lacking an assignment mechanism, naturally present difficulties for inferential analysis.


title: Observational study

text: "Although observational studies cannot be used to make definitive statements of fact about the "safety, efficacy, or effectiveness" of a practice, they can:


title: Observational study

text: In all of those cases, if a randomized experiment cannot be carried out, the alternative line of investigation suffers from the problem that the decision of which subjects receive the treatment is not entirely random and thus is a potential source of bias. A major challenge in conducting observational studies is to draw inferences that are acceptably free from influences by overt biases, as well as to assess the influence of potential hidden biases. The following are a non-exhaustive set of problems especially common in observational studies.


title: Observational study

text: In lieu of experimental control, multivariate statistical techniques allow the approximation of experimental control with statistical control by using matching methods. Matching methods account for the influences of observed factors that might influence a cause-and-effect relationship. In healthcare and the social sciences, investigators may use matching to compare units that nonrandomly received the treatment and control. One common approach is to use propensity score matching in order to reduce confounding, although this has recently come under criticism for exacerbating the very problems it seeks to solve.


title: Observational study

text: Multiple comparison bias can occur when several hypotheses are tested at the same time. As the number of recorded factors increases, the likelihood increases that at least one of the recorded factors will be highly correlated with the data output simply by chance.


title: Observational study

text: An observer of an uncontrolled experiment (or process) records potential factors and the data output: the goal is to determine the effects of the factors. Sometimes the recorded factors may not be directly causing the differences in the output. There may be more important factors which were not recorded but are, in fact, causal. Also, recorded or unrecorded factors may be correlated which may yield incorrect conclusions.


title: Observational study

text: Another difficulty with observational studies is that researchers may themselves be biased in their observational skills. This would allow for researchers to (either consciously or unconsciously) seek out the information they're looking for while conducting their research. For example, researchers may exaggerate the effect of one variable, or downplay the effect of another: researchers may even select in subjects that fit their conclusions. This selection bias can happen at any stage of the research process. This introduces bias into the data where certain variables are systematically incorrectly measured.


title: Observational study

text: A 2014 Cochrane review concluded that observational studies produce results similar to those conducted as randomized controlled trials. The review reported little evidence for significant effect differences between observational studies and randomized controlled trials, regardless of design, heterogeneity, or inclusion of studies of interventions that assessed drug effects.


title: Four Kumaras

text: The Kumaras are four sages ("rishis") from the Puranic texts of Hinduism who roam the universe as children, generally named Sanaka kumara, Sanatana kumara, Sanandana kumara and Sanat kumara. They are described as the first mind-born creations and sons of the creator-god Brahma. Born from Brahma's mind, the four Kumaras undertook lifelong vows of celibacy (brahmacharya) against the wishes of their father. They are said to wander throughout the materialistic and spiritualistic universe without any desire but with purpose to teach. All four brothers studied Vedas from their childhood, and always travelled together.


title: Four Kumaras

text: The "Bhagavata Purana" lists the Kumaras among the twelve "Mahajanas" (great devotees or bhaktas) who although being eternally liberated souls from birth, still became attracted to the devotional service of Vishnu from their already enlightened state. They play a significant role in a number of Hindu spiritual traditions, especially those associated with the worship of Vishnu and his avatar Krishna, sometimes even in traditions related to Lord Shiva.


title: Four Kumaras

text: The group is known by various names: "Kumaras" (the boys/male children/young boys), "Chatursana" or "Chatuh Sana" (the four with names starting with Sana) and "Sanakadi" (Sanaka and the others). Individual names usually include Sanaka (Ancient), Sanatana (Eternal), Sanandana (Ever Joyful) and Sanatkumara (Ever Young). Sometimes, Sanatana is replaced by Sanatsujata. A fifth Kumara named Ribhu is sometimes added. Sometimes, the Kumaras are enumerated as six with Sana and Ribhu or Sanatsujata added.


title: Four Kumaras

text: Though in Mahabharata, a total of seven sons is mentioned, namely: Aniruddha, Sana, Sanatsujata, Sanaka, Sanandana, Sanatkumara, Kapila, and Sanatana and further mentions that, "Knowledge comes to these seven rishis, of itself (without being dependent on study or exertion). These seven are wedded to the religion of "Nivritti" (inward contemplation).


title: Four Kumaras

text: Sanatkumara in Sanskrit means "eternal youth". He is the author of the "Sanatkumara Samhita", which is part of the Shiva Purana, and has 59 chapters. It is also taken as a part of the Pañcaratra, Vaishnavite devotional texts. He taught Bhishma the mental and spiritual sciences.


title: Four Kumaras

text: The Chandogya Upanishad, Chapter seven, is about Sanatkumara's Instructions on Bhuma-Vidya to celestial sage Narada, Sanatkumara finds mention across Mahabharata, as a great sage, who dispels doubts and the preceptor in all matters affecting Yoga


title: Four Kumaras

text: Also mentioned is the Tirtha of Kanakhala near "Gangadwara" or Haridwar, where through extensive tapas, he attained great ascetic powers.


title: Four Kumaras

text: The four Kumaras are the eldest sons of the creator-god Brahma. When Brahma undertook the task of creating the universe, he first created some beings from different parts of his body to aid him. The Kumaras were the first such beings. They were created from his mind and appeared as infants. Brahma ordered them to aid in the creation, but as manifestations of Sattva (purity), and uninterested in worldly life, they refused and instead devoted themselves to God and celibacy, against the wishes of their father. The "Bhagavata Purana" narrates further that their refusal made Brahma angry and his wrath manifested into the god Rudra, also known as Lord Shiva. As per a variant, Brahma practised austerities ("tapas") and pleased the Supreme God Vishnu, so he appeared in the form of the four infant Kumaras as Brahma's sons. Some texts like the "Devi Bhagavata Purana" and the "Bhavishya Purana" narrates the four Kumaras appeared even before the Brahma of the present age. (In a cycle of time, some texts say that a Brahma dies and is reborn.)


title: Four Kumaras

text: The four Kumaras learnt the "Veda"s at the age of four or five. They thus became great "jnani"s (learned beings), yogis and "Siddha"s (the perfect enlightened ones). The Kumaras remained in form of children due to their spiritual virtues. The age of the sages varies in various sacred texts. While five is the most popular, they are also mentioned as being five-year-old boys. They practised the vow of renunciation ("Sannyasa") and celibacy (brahmacharya) and remained naked. They wander together throughout the materialistic and spiritualistic universe without any desire but with a purpose to teach. They are sometimes included in the list of Siddhars (Tamil equivalent to Siddha).


title: Four Kumaras

text: The four Kumaras are said to reside in "Jana Loka" or "Janar Loka" (loka or world of the intellectuals in the present parlance) or in Vishnu's abode Vaikuntha. They constantly recite the mantra "Hari sharanam" ("God the Redeemer our Refuge") or sing Vishnu's praises. These hymns and glories of Vishnu serve as their only food. Another son of Brahma, the sage Narada, who is described as their disciple, extolls their virtues in the "Padma Purana". Narada says though they appear as five-year-old children, they are the great ancestors of the world.


title: Four Kumaras

text: They are possessed also of deep knowledge of the Sankhya philosophy. They are preceptors of the scriptures on duty and it is they that introduce the duties of the religion of "Nivritti" (inward contemplation), and cause them to flow in the worlds".


title: Four Kumaras

text: The discourses of the four Kumaras are found in the Hindu epic "Mahabharata" as well as the "Bhagavata Purana".


title: Four Kumaras

text: The "Shanti Parva" book of the "Mahabharata" describes the discourse given by the four Kumaras to the demon king Vritra and his guru – the sage Shukra. The king and his guru worship the Kumaras and then Shukra asks them to describe the greatness of Vishnu. Sanat-kumara starts by describing Vishnu as the creator and destroyer of all beings. He equates Vishnu's body parts with parts of the universe and the elements, for example, the earth is Vishnu's feet and water is his tongue. All gods are described as being Vishnu. Then Sanatkumara categorizes all beings into six colours depending upon the proportion of the three gunas: Sattva (pure), Rajas (dim) and Tamas (dark). From the lowest to the foremost beings, the colours are dark (Tamas is high, Rajas is mid, Sattva is low), tawny (Tamas is high, Sattva is mid, Rajas is low), blue (Rajas is high, Tamas is mid, Sattva is low), red (Rajas is high, Sattva is mid, Tamas is low), yellow (Sattva is high, Tamas is mid, Rajas is low) and white (Sattva is high, Rajas is mid, Tamas is low). (The "Vishnu Purana" gives non-living things, lower animals and birds, humans, Prajapatis, gods and the Kumaras are respective examples of the above colours.) Sanat-kumara elaborates further how a Jiva (living entity) journeys from dark to white in his various births, ultimately gaining moksha if he does good deeds, devotion and yoga.


title: Four Kumaras

text: The "Bhagavata Purana" narrates the visit of the four Kumaras to the court of King Prithu, the first sovereign in Hindu mythology and an avatar of Vishnu. The king worships the sages and asked them about the way of emancipation (moksha) that can be followed by all people who caught in the web of worldly things. Sanat-kumara tells the king that Vishnu is the refuge to all and grants liberation of the cycle of births and rebirths. His worship frees one from material desires and lust. One should be freed from material objects, lives a simple life of non-violence and devotion of Vishnu and follows the teachings of a good guru and undergo Self-realization. One should realize that all living things are forms of God. Without devotion and knowledge, humans are incomplete. Out of four "purushartha"s ("goals of life"), only moksha is eternal, while religious duty, wealth and pleasure decay with this life. While all beings are subject to destruction, the soul and God in our bodies are eternal. So it is paramount that one surrenders to God (as Vishnu or Krishna), said Sanat-kumara ending his counsel. Prithu worships the Kumaras again, who blessed him.


title: Four Kumaras

text: The first section or "Purvabhaga" of "Naradiya Purana", an upapurana has 4 "pada"s or sections, each told by the four Kumaras respectively to Narada. Brahma, who had received the knowledge of the Puranas from Vishnu, imbibed this to his Four Kumaras, who then taught the Puranas to Narada. Narada transmitted it to Vyasa, who scripted them into the Puranic texts. The "Vishnu Purana" is recorded in two parts, the Vishnu Purana and Naradiya Purana. The teachings of Sanaka of the Kumara brothers are contained in the Naradiya Purana which is also divided into two parts, the first part containing the teachings of Sanaka and others.


title: Four Kumaras

text: The four Kumaras roamed around at their free will with their cosmic powers all over the universe. During one of their sojourns, they arrived at Vaikuntha, the abode of Vishnu. The city, with the residence of Vishnu located at the center of seven circular walls, is considered as a place of bliss and purity. It has seven gates of entry. The four Kumaras passed through the first six gates without any hindrance. The seventh gate was guarded by Jaya and Vijaya, the two dvarapalas (door-guards) of Vishnu's palace. The angry guardians stopped the four Kumaras and laughed at them since they looked like children and were also naked, and did not permit them to enter through the seventh gate. The four Kumaras were perplexed by the behaviour of the gatekeepers as they had not faced such a situation and ridicule anywhere else. They expected Jaya and Vijaya to be like their master Vishnu, who does not differentiate among beings. Enraged, the Kumaras cursed them to be born on earth thrice, as three villains with characteristics of "lust, anger and greed". The gatekeepers accept the curse and bow to the Kumaras and beg for their forgiveness. Lord Vishnu who learnt of the incident, appeared before the Kumaras in all his glory with his retinue. The four Kumaras, who were on their first visit to Vaikuntha, took in by the sight and the glittering divine figure of Vishnu. With deep devotion, they appealed to him to accept them as his devotees and allow them to offer worship at his feet for all time to come and let his feet be their final emancipation. Vishnu complied with their request and also assured Jaya and Vijaya that they will born as demons on earth but will be released from all births (killed) by an avatar of Vishnu. The two guards were dismissed by Vishnu to go and suffer the curse of the Kumaras on earth and then only return to his abode, after the end of the curse. The two banished guards were then born on earth in "Satya Yuga at" an inauspicious hour, to the sage Kashyapa and his wife Diti (daughter of Daksha) as asuras. They were named Hiranyakashipu and Hiranyaksha. Lord Vishnu undertook the Varaha Avatar to kill Hiranyaksha, and the Narasimha avatar to kill Hiranyakasipu.


title: Four Kumaras

text: In the second life, during the "Treta Yuga", they were born as Ravana and Kumbhakarna and defeated and killed by Rama avatar as mentioned in the epic Ramayana. Finally, in their third and final life in "Dvapara Yuga," they were born as Sishupala and Dantavakra during the time of Krishna avatar and got killed by him, which is also mentioned in epic Mahabharatha.


title: Four Kumaras

text: Shiva had assumed the form of Dakshinamurti, the great teacher and meditating facing South observing a vow of silence. The four Kumaras approached Shiva for self-realization. He taught them about the Supreme reality – Brahman by making the "" gesture with his hand. The index finger is touched to the thumb, indicating the union of Brahman and jiva. Thus, Shiva made the Kumaras as his disciples.


title: Four Kumaras

text: The "Linga Purana" describes that Shiva or his aspect Vamadeva will be born as a Kumara and then multiply into the four Kumaras in each kalpa (eon) as sons of Brahma of that Kalpa. In the 29th Kalpa, Swetha Lohita is the main Kumara; where they are named as Sananda, Nandana, Vishwananda and Upananadana of white colour; then in the 30th Kalpa, they are named as Virajas, Vivahu, Visoka and Vishwbhavana, all of the red colour; and in the 31st Kalpa in yellow colour; and in the 32nd Kalpa, as of black colour.


title: Four Kumaras

text: The four sages Sanak, Sananda, Sanatan, Sanat were learned Brahmins. They were the sons of Lord Brahma. They were very proud of their father, Brahma because he was the creator of the holy books, Vedas. They were aware of three Vedas,- Rigved, Yajurved, and Samveda and considered that the whole knowledge is complete in these three books. On the other hand, Sage Atharva approached Lord Shiva to get an approval of his knowledge which he gathered from the universe using his divine powers. Lord Shiva, impressed by his creation and blessed Sage Atharva that his book of knowledge would constitute the list of Vedas and will be called as ‘Atharvaveda’. When this news reached the sons of Lord Brahma, they protested as according to them the other three Vedas was a complete set of knowledge and there was no need for a fourth Veda. They argued with Lord Shiva and challenged his authority to certify the fourth Veda. Finally, in all humble fairness and peaceful reverence for not blemishing the value of the wealth of knowledge, the decision whether to certify a fourth Veda or not was mutually agreed to purely depend upon the results of a Knowledge-debate (Jyan-Vivad) amongst them (i.e. 4 Kumaras' & Lord Shiva). Goddess Saraswati was appointed as a judge. The four Sages addressed very complicated questions to Lord Shiva and were very confident of their victory. But Shiva, who is the Lord of all the Supreme Knowledge, answered each and every question. The Sages accepted their defeat gracefully and asked for forgiveness. Since then Atharva Veda was added to the list of Vedas, making the total four. The Sages went to their brother Prajapati Daksha who was a bitter rival of Lord Shiva. On listening about the defeat of his four brothers, he cursed them to be small children. After that, the four sages turned into small children. Since the sages were very learned, they thanked their brother for the curse because after becoming children their urge for learning would be greater.


title: Four Kumaras

text: An incident about the meeting of the four Kumaras with Vishnu's avatar Rama is narrated in the "Uttarakanda" of the "Ramcharitmanas". The Kumaras once stayed in the hermitage of the sage Agastya, who told them about the glory of Rama. So to meet Rama, they went to a forest grove where Rama with his brothers and disciple Hanuman had come. Rama and his brothers were so pleased with meeting the four enlightened sages that they paid obeisance to them. The sages were wonderstruck looking at the divinity of Rama that they prostrated before him and out of great ecstasy started shedding tears of happiness. Rama looking at the sages was deeply impressed and asked them to be seated and praised them for their great achievements and their erudite knowledge of the Vedas and Puranas. The four Kumaras were also delighted to hear the words of praise showered on them by Rama. They in turn extolled his great virtues in a hymn.


title: Four Kumaras

text: Vaishnavism (the devotees that worships Vishnu as the Supreme) is divided into four "sampradaya"s or traditions. Each of them traces its lineage to a heavenly being. The Kumara Sampradaya, also known as the Nimbarka Sampradaya, Catuḥ Sana Sampradaya and Sanakadi Sampradaya, and its philosophy Dvaitadvaita ("duality in unity") is believed to be propagated in humanity by the four Kumaras. The swan avatar of Vishnu Hamsa was the origin of this philosophy and taught it to the four Kumaras, who in turn taught Narada, who finally passed it to the earthy Nimbarka, the main exponent of the sampradaya.


title: Bridgette Andersen

text: Bridgette Andersen (July 11, 19751997) was an American child actress and child model. She starred in 1982's "Savannah Smiles", for which she received her first of four Youth in Film Award nominations.


title: Bridgette Andersen

text: Andersen was born on July 11, 1975, to Frank and Teresa Andersen. By April 1982, she lived in Malibu, California, with her parents, younger sister Angelica, and two brothers. As an infant, Angelica appeared in television advertisements for Bank of America and Mervyn's.


title: Bridgette Andersen

text: A reader since age two-and-a-half, the "Havre Daily News" reported that six-year-old Andersen had "a staggering IQ". Her favorite author was Ernest Hemingway, and her favorite book was "The Old Man and the Sea". A fan of the TV series "Diff'rent Strokes" and "Silver Spoons", she decided to pursue acting, and aspired to produce and direct films as well.


title: Bridgette Andersen

text: During a February 1983 interview with Johnny Carson on his late-night show, Andersen related a family anecdote of her trying to climb into the television and play with "Our Gang" ("The Little Rascals") at age two. Caught by her father, she was taught about actors and acting, whereafter she secured a talent agent and began acting. She spent three years fashion modeling and acting in television advertisements. She also appeared in television shows including "King's Crossing" and "Washington Mistress".


title: Bridgette Andersen

text: In 1982, Andersen starred as Savannah Driscoll in the film "Savannah Smiles". Writer and co-star Mark Miller was inspired by—and wrote the part for—his daughter, Savannah Miller. However, when the film was ready to shoot, Ms. Miller was too old for the part at age eleven, so Mark Miller auditioned almost 150 children before discovering and choosing Andersen for the part. In a contemporary interview, Andersen opined that she and the Driscoll character were "like twins! We do the same things." According to "The Cumberland Times", only three months after the release of "Savannah Smiles", Miller was already writing another script to star Andersen.


title: Bridgette Andersen

text: That same year, Andersen portrayed the six-year-old Mae West in the biographical television film, "Mae West". In 1983, Andersen explained that she preferred working in films versus television because they gave her more to do. During the 1983–84 run of "The Mississippi", Anderson was nominated for a Youth in Film Award ("Best Young Actress - Guest in a Television Series") for her work thereon. Andersen went on to star in the short-lived CBS sitcom, "Gun Shy"; she portrayed Celia, one of two children won in a card game by Barry Van Dyke's Russell Donovan.


title: Bridgette Andersen

text: In 2015, actress Amber Tamblyn published her third book of poetry—"Dark Sparkler"—"featuring elegies to late actresses both legendary and unknown, all who suffered untimely deaths." Andersen is the subject of one such poem, as is pornographic film actor Shannon Michelle Wilsey (1970–1994), whose stage name "Savannah" was derived from Andersen's "Savannah Smiles". Wilsey's poem is written as "a meta-poem, where she's writing for Bridgette Andersen, and telling her how they're the same."


title: Bridgette Andersen

text: When MVD Entertainment Group published "Savannah Smiles" on DVD in 2018 as part of their MVD Rewind Collection, among the bonus materials included was "a featurette about the memories of Andersen".


title: Springfield rifle

text: The term Springfield rifle may refer to any one of several types of small arms produced by the Springfield Armory in Springfield, Massachusetts, for the United States armed forces.


title: Springfield rifle

text: In modern usage, the term "Springfield rifle" most commonly refers to the Springfield Model 1903 for its use in both world wars.


title: Springfield rifle

text: There were also numerous limited production, experimental, marksmanship, and sporting rifles produced by the Springfield Armory which are referred to as "Springfield rifles".


title: Springfield rifle

text: Some examples of the smoothbore Springfield Model 1842 musket that were later modified with rifling and used during the American Civil War may also be referred to as "Springfield rifles".


title: Commerzbank

text: Commerzbank AG () is a major German bank operating as a universal bank, headquartered in Frankfurt am Main. In the 2019 financial year, the bank was the second largest in Germany by the total value of its balance sheet. Founded in 1870 in Hamburg, the bank is today present in more than 50 countries around the world and provides almost a third of Germany's trade finance. In 2017, it handled 13 million customers in Germany and 5 million customers in Central and Eastern Europe. Commerzbank is a member of the Cash Group.


title: Commerzbank

text: On 26 February 1870, mainly Hanseatic merchants, merchant bankers and private bankers founded the Commerz- and Disconto-Bank in Hamburg. Shipowner C. Woermann was the first chairman of the supervisory board of Commerz- und Disconto-Bank from 1870. In the founding consortium, the following banks were represented:


title: Commerzbank

text: In 1873, the subsidiary London and Hanseatic Bank was founded, which was active until the First World War. In Germany, Commerzbank was initially active in Hamburg until 1897 branches were built in Berlin and Frankfurt am Main. After the merger in 1905 with the Berliner Bank, founded in 1871, the focus shifted increasingly to Berlin.


title: Commerzbank

text: In 1920, Commerzbank AG merged with in Magdeburg to form "Commerz- und Privat-Bank AG", thereby gaining a dense branch network in the provinces of Saxony and Thuringia. In the early 1920s, many smaller banks were taken over (including the Hessian Bank Association) and in 1929 it merged with the in Frankfurt am Main. In 1927, Commerzbank increased business in the US by establishing an office in New York and issuing a ten-year, $20-million-dollar bond.


title: Commerzbank

text: In 1931, during the Great Depression Commerzbank, ran into difficulties. The Reich government under Chancellor Heinrich Brüning decided in February 1932 to merge Commerzbank with , which had a dense branch network in northern and western Germany. Majority of shares of this bank were bought by the government and the Reichsbank.


title: Commerzbank

text: In 1937, the nationalized shares were then transferred back to private shareholders. In 1940, the name Commerzbank Aktiengesellschaft, which had already been used in public, was adopted and the logo changed to "C" with side wings. Through Aryanization of the property of Jews displaced or murdered during the Holocaust, Commerzbank participated and benefited mostly through brokerage commissions. From 1940 to 1944, Commerzbank opened several subsidiaries in countries occupied by the German Reich, including the Netherlands, Belgium, Estonia and Latvia. Towards the end of the war, the bank's headquarters moved to Hamburg.


title: Commerzbank

text: With the division of Europe after World War II, three regional banks were united in 1958 to form Commerzbank AG, which had its headquarters in Düsseldorf. Commerzbank stepped up its economic financing activities and started expanding around the globe. From 1970 onwards, the bank's administrative activities were shifted to Frankfurt am Main, which has been its legal domicile since 1990.


title: Commerzbank

text: Commerzbank suffered reversals in a disastrous foray into investment banking in the first half decade of the 2000s and eventually shut down its Commerzbank Securities investment banking unit run by Mehmet Dalman and Roman Schmidt after Chairman Klaus-Peter Müller labelled it a "problem child" and a review by consulting firm Mercer Oliver Wyman which concluded that Commerzbank Securities lacked a viable business model. What was left of Commerzbank Securities was folded into a division of the commercial bank called Corporates and Markets.


title: Commerzbank

text: Further mergers, acquisitions and restructures saw the group grow to servicing over 4 million customers in 1998, 6 million customers in 2001 and 15 million post the global financial crisis oriented takeover of Dresdner Bank from Allianz for €5.5 billion in 2008. Commerzbank was hit hard by the financial crisis and received an €18 billion ($22.3 billion) state bailout. In September 2016, Commerzbank planned to cut 9,600 jobs or about a fifth of its workforce in 4 years.


title: Commerzbank

text: In late 2019, Commerzbank entered into talks with Petrus Advisers to buy its 7.5% stake in Comdirect and take over the entire online bank.


title: Commerzbank

text: In 2021 the bank announced it will reduce the number of branches in Germany from 790 to 450 and cut jobs by 10,000 (a third of its German workforce) by 2024.


title: Commerzbank

text: As of December 2018, the bank's two largest shareholders were the Government of Germany (15.6%) and Cerberus Capital Management (5.01%). In July 2020, the bank's chairman Stefan Schmittmann announced that he will be resigning by August 3. Subsequently, Martin Zielke, Commerzbank's chief executive said that he is ready to step out of its function. The decisions were made after in June 2020, Cerberus attacked the firm's leadership team, "significant change at the supervisory board, the management board and the company’s strategic plan to stop a 'downward spiral' caused by what the investor said were bloated costs, low profits and managerial inaction." In the Q2 of 2020, the company made an operating profit of €205 million; it was 34 per cent less compared to the same period of 2019. "According to people familiar with the matter", the bank's profit was more affected by the insolvency of Wirecard than the economic effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. In September 2020, the bank named Deutsche Bank AG German retail head Manfred Knof to take over as the chief executive officer on Jan 1, 2021.


title: Commerzbank

text: For more than a decade, Commerzbank was involved in laundering hundreds of billions of U.S. dollars out of Iran, Sudan and Myanmar, against United States sanctions. Commerzbank agreed to pay US$1.5 billion in fines and dismiss several employees for their role in laundering US$253 billion, and for helping the Japanese company Olympus Corporation orchestrate accounting fraud.


title: Commerzbank

text: The bank has been subject to several corruption investigations, paying US$1.5 billion in fines in 2015.


title: Commerzbank

text: In 2017, Frankfurt prosecutors, together with federal crime police and tax officials, conducted searches of Commerzbank offices as well as the flats of three suspects in Frankfurt and nearby Hanau. The police raid was about a "tax evasion probe in which several current and former managers are suspected of evading €40 million in taxes via dividend stripping, also known as "cum-ex" transactions". The investigation also extended to trades in 2008 at Dresdner Bank, which was taken over by Commerzbank in 2009. Commerzbank said "it proactively notified the authorities with the preliminary results of that investigation and is cooperating fully". In 2019, Cologne prosecutors again raided Commerzbank's Frankfurt headquarters as part of the criminal investigation.


title: Commerzbank

text: It was announced in July 2019 that Commerzbank was being investigated by the European Central Bank and BaFin for facilitating its subsidiary mBank's toxic financial product offering in Poland, as well as for the linked potential tax evasion resulting from Commerzbank's financing of mBank's CHF-linked toxic financial products.


title: 2020 Washington Football Team season

text: The 2020 season was the Washington Football Team's 89th in the National Football League and their first under head coach Ron Rivera. The season also marked the first time since their inaugural season as the Braves in 1932 that the team was not known as the Redskins, as they retired the name and logo during the offseason in the wake of the George Floyd protests, after decades of controversy.


title: 2020 Washington Football Team season

text: The team improved upon its 3–13 record in 2019 by going 7–9 and winning the NFC East for the first time since 2015. In doing so they became only the third team in NFL history to win a division with a losing record after the 2010 Seattle Seahawks and 2014 Carolina Panthers, the latter of which Rivera also coached. They also became the first team in NFL history to make the playoffs after a 2–7 start. Their season would end with a 23–31 loss to the eventual Super Bowl LV champion Tampa Bay Buccaneers in the Wild Card round. The season also marked the return of quarterback Alex Smith, who suffered a life-threatening leg injury late in the 2018 season and missed the entire 2019 season. Smith was named NFL Comeback Player of the Year, while defensive end Chase Young, selected second overall in the 2020 NFL Draft, was named Defensive Rookie of the Year.


title: 2020 Washington Football Team season

text: For the fourth time in five seasons, Washington played on Thanksgiving, playing the Dallas Cowboys for the third time in that span. Also notable was their scheduled absence from "Monday Night Football" for the first time since 1999, although the Week 13 game against the Pittsburgh Steelers was played on a Monday due to COVID-19-related schedule changes affecting the Steelers' previous week. Washington ended up winning that game to hand the 11–0 Steelers their first loss of the season.


title: 2020 Washington Football Team season

text: The team's preseason schedule was announced on May 7, but was later cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: 2020 Washington Football Team season

text: In their first game as the Washington Football Team, they fell behind 17-0 to the Eagles. Despite the deficit, Washington shut out the Eagles in the second half by accumulating 8 sacks on defense and scoring 27 unanswered points for a 27–17 victory. This was Washington's first victory over the Eagles since Week 14 of the 2016 season, snapping a six-game losing streak against Philadelphia. The win was also the largest comeback against the Eagles in franchise history. With the win, Washington improved to 1–0 for the first time since 2018 (the first time winning a home opener since 2014). Washington also snapped a ten-game division losing streak dating back to 2018.


title: 2020 Washington Football Team season

text: Washington was overmatched by Arizona quarterback Kyler Murray, who had two rushing touchdowns, and could not overcome a 20-0 halftime deficit.


title: 2020 Washington Football Team season

text: Haskins threw for a career-high three interceptions and lost one fumble. With the loss, the all-time regular season record for the franchise fell to 604–605–28, making it the first time since 1975 that the record fell below a .500 winning percentage.


title: 2020 Washington Football Team season

text: Dwayne Haskins set a career high in passing yards but was benched in favor of Kyle Allen the following week.


title: 2020 Washington Football Team season

text: In the second quarter Kyle Allen left the game with what was ruled as an arm injury, leaving Alex Smith to play the remainder of the game. This marked Smith's first NFL game appearance since suffering a severe leg fracture in 2018. Washington's offense was again hampered by quarterback play as they lost 30–10. Their 108 total yards of offense was the fewest by any team in any game all season.


title: 2020 Washington Football Team season

text: Giants linebacker Tae Crowder recovered a Kyle Allen fumble for the go-ahead score and Washington responded with a touchdown of their own with 36 seconds remaining. Coach Rivera opted to go for the game-winning two point conversion which fell incomplete. As a result, Washington lost their fifth straight game overall and their fourth consecutive against the Giants.


title: 2020 Washington Football Team season

text: Washington's defense had six sacks and only allowed 142 yards of offense. Heading into the bye, the team improved to 2–5, moved to 2–1 in the NFC East, and snapped a three-game losing streak to the Cowboys.


title: 2020 Washington Football Team season

text: In the first and only game with fans, starting quarterback Kyle Allen suffered a gruesome injury early in the game and was subsequently replaced by Alex Smith. Washington failed to complete a 20–3 comeback and lost 23–20 when Smith threw two interceptions on the final two possessions. Washington was swept by the Giants for the second consecutive season and the seventh time dating back to the 2008 season.


title: 2020 Washington Football Team season

text: Alex Smith started his first game since Week 11 of the 2018 season. After falling behind 24–3, Smith and the offense rallied with three straight touchdowns by running backs Antonio Gibson and J. D. McKissic in the second half to tie the game at 24. The Lions responded with a field goal and Washington responded with one of their own to tie the game at 27 with 16 seconds to play. However, on the ensuing Detroit drive, kicker Matt Prater drilled a 59-yard field goal as the clock expired. Washington fell to 2–7 after the crushing loss.


title: 2020 Washington Football Team season

text: The Bengals were playing a close game against Washington until the third quarter when Bengals rookie quarterback and Heisman Trophy winner Joe Burrow suffered a season-ending knee injury. The Bengals were unable to move the ball with backup Ryan Finley and Washington took control of the game. With the win on Homecoming Weekend, the team improved to 3–7, matching their win total from the previous season. This was Washington's first victory over Cincinnati since their 1991 Super Bowl-winning season and their first at home since 1985.


title: 2020 Washington Football Team season

text: Washington and Dallas played on Thanksgiving afternoon for the 10th time in the rivalry's history. After a close first half, Washington went on a run of 21 unanswered points in the fourth quarter, including a 15-yard interception return for a touchdown by Montez Sweat, the first of his career. Antonio Gibson became the first rookie with three touchdowns on Thanksgiving since Randy Moss in 1998. With the win, Washington improved to 4–7 and swept Dallas for the first time since 2012 and only the second time since 2005. Washington also won in Dallas on Thanksgiving for the second time ever, the first since 2012, and won for the fourth time on the holiday all-time, their first since 2017.


title: 2020 Washington Football Team season

text: The game was originally scheduled for Sunday, but was postponed to Monday due to scheduling changes amid the COVID-19 pandemic. While down 14–0 in the second quarter, Washington got a quick field goal before halftime and opened the second half with a Peyton Barber touchdown run to cut the deficit to 14–10 before the Steelers offense regained possession. Their defense clamped down, only allowing 120 total yards in the second half. Logan Thomas tied the game mid-way through the fourth quarter while Jon Bostic intercepted a pass tipped by Montez Sweat with 1:59 to play. Kicker Dustin Hopkins made two field goals to put the game at 23–17, which the Steelers were not able to recover from. With the win, Washington improved to 5–7, having won three straight games for the first time since Weeks 6–8 of the 2018 season. This was also Washington's first win over Pittsburgh since their 1991 Super Bowl-winning season.


title: 2020 Washington Football Team season

text: With scores from rookie defenders Chase Young and Kamren Curl, Washington scored two defensive touchdowns in a game for the first time since Week 17 of the 1997 season, when Darryl Pounds and Hall of Famer Darrell Green accomplished this feat. With the win, Washington improved their record to 6–7 and, with the Giants' loss to the Arizona Cardinals earlier that day, took over sole possession of first place in the NFC East. Washington also won four games in a row for the first time since 2016.


title: 2020 Washington Football Team season

text: With a Giants loss to the Baltimore Ravens earlier that afternoon, Washington had an opportunity to clinch the division title against Carolina. The team instead put together a performance of errors, including a mishandled punt by Steven Sims that was recovered for a Panthers touchdown, a 10-play scoring drive of all run plays allowed by the defense and an additional three turnovers from Dwayne Haskins, who was eventually benched in the fourth quarter for Taylor Heinicke. With their second consecutive loss, the team dropped to 6–9 and clinched their fourth straight losing season. Haskins was released by the team the following day.


title: 2020 Washington Football Team season

text: In a matchup that was flexed to "NBC Sunday Night Football", Washington defeated the Eagles 20–14 to clinch the NFC East for the first time since the 2015 season. This was Washington's first sweep of Philadelphia since the 2016 season. With a final record of 7–9, Washington became just the third team in league history to win their division with a losing record after the 2010 Seattle Seahawks and 2014 Carolina Panthers, the latter of whom were also coached by Rivera. They also became the first team in NFL history to clinch a playoff berth after starting the season 2–7.


title: 2020 Washington Football Team season

text: Despite a late comeback and a strong performance from quarterback Taylor Heinicke, Washington's season ended at the hands of Tom Brady and the eventual Super Bowl LV champion Tampa Bay Buccaneers with a 31–23 home loss. It was Washington's fifth straight playoff loss dating back to 2005 and their third consecutive home playoff loss dating back to 1999.


title: Second Turkic Khaganate

text: The Second Turkic Khaganate (, , known as "Turk Bilge Qaghan country" () in Bain Tsokto inscriptions. 682–744), was a khaganate in Central and Eastern Asia founded by Ashina clan of the Göktürks. It was preceded by the Eastern Turkic Khaganate (552-630) and then a period of Tang dynasty rule (630-682). The Second Khaganate was centered on Ötüken in the upper reaches of the Orkhon River. It was succeeded by its subject Toquz Oghuz confederation, which became the Uyghur Khaganate.


title: Second Turkic Khaganate

text: After the fall of Eastern Turkic Khaganate in 679, Ashina Nishufu was declared qaghan and revolted against the Tang dynasty. In 680, he was defeated by Pei Xingjian. Shortly afterwards, Nishufu was killed by his men. Following Nishufu's death, Ashina Funian, another scion of the royal clan, was made qaghan and the Eastern Turks once again rebelled against Tang rule. The early stages of the rebellion brought about some victories for Funian, however later, Turks were once again defeated by Pei Xiangjin. According to Tonyukuk, the attempt to revolt against the Tang and set a qaghan on the throne was legitimate action. It was the people's fault that they deposed and killed Nishufu, and subduing themselves again to the Tang dynasty.


title: Second Turkic Khaganate

text: The uprising in 679–681 was at first unsuccessful, although it led, in 682, to the withdrawal of Qutlugh into the Gobi desert. Once they had established themselves in the Yin Mountains, Qutlugh, his brother Bögü-chor, and his closest comrade-in-arms, Tonyukuk succeeded in winning the support of most of the Turks and conducted successful military operations against the imperial forces in Shanxi between 682 and 687. In 687 Ilterish Qaghan left the Yin Shan mountains and turned his united and battle-hardened army to the conquest of the Türk heartlands in modern-day central and northern Mongolia.


title: Second Turkic Khaganate

text: Between 687 and 691 Toquz Oghuz and the Uyghurs, who had occupied these territories, were routed and subjugated. Their chief, Abuz kaghan, fell in battle. The centre of the Second Turkic Khaganate shifted to the Otuken mountains, and the rivers Orkhon, Selenga and Tola.


title: Second Turkic Khaganate

text: In 691 Ilterish Qaghan died and was succeeded by his younger brother, who assumed the title Qapaghan Qaghan. In 696–697 Qapaghan subjugated the Khitans and sealed an alliance with the Kumo Xi (Tatabï in Turkic texts), which stemmed the advance of the Tang armies to the northeast, into the foothills of the Khingan, and secured the empire's eastern frontier. Between 698 and 701 the northern and western frontiers of Qapaghan's state were defined by the Tannu Ola, Altai and Tarbagatai mountain ranges. After defeating the Bayirku tribe in 706–707, the Türks occupied lands extending from the upper reaches of the Kerulen to Lake Baikal. In 709–710


title: Second Turkic Khaganate

text: the Türk forces subjugated the Az and the Chik, crossed the Sayan mountains (Kögmen yïš in Turkic texts), and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Yenisei Kyrgyz. The Kyrgyz ruler, Bars beg, fell in battle, and his descendants were to remain vassals of the Göktürks for several generations. In 711 the Türk forces, led by Tonyukuk, crossed the Altai Mountains, clashed with the Türgesh army in Dzungaria on the River Boluchu, and won an outright victory. Tonyukuk forced a crossing over the Syr Darya in pursuit of the retreating Türgesh, leading his troops to the border of Tokharistan. However, in battles with the Arabs near Samarkand the Türk forces were cut off from their rear services and suffered considerable losses; they had difficulty in returning to the Altai in 713–714. There they reinforced the army that was preparing to besiege Beshbalik. The siege was unsuccessful and, after losing in six skirmishes, the Türks lifted it.


title: Second Turkic Khaganate

text: In violation of custom, the throne was taken by Qapaghan's son Inel Qaghan (716). Inel, who had no right to the throne, and his supporters, were killed by Kul Tigin, who had support of many Turkic families, and set on the throne his elder brother Bilge Qaghan, who ruled from 716 to 734.


title: Second Turkic Khaganate

text: Bilge Qaghan mounted the throne at a time when the empire founded by his father was on the verge of collapse. The western lands seceded for good, and immediately after the death of Qapagan, the Türgesh leader Suluk proclaimed himself kaghan. The Kitan and Tatabi tribes refused to pay tribute, the Toquz Oghuz revolt continued, and the Türk tribes themselves began to rebel. Feeling unable to control the situation, Bilge kaghan offered the


title: Second Turkic Khaganate

text: throne to his brother, Kul Tigin. The latter, however, would not go against the legal order of succession. Then, at last, Bilge decided to act. Kul Tigin was put at the head of the army, and Tonyukuk, who had great authority among the tribes, became the kaghan's closest adviser.


title: Second Turkic Khaganate

text: In 720 Emperor Xuanzong of Tang attacked but Tonyukuk defeated his Basmyl cavalry and the Turks pushed into Gansu. Next year Xuanzong bought him off. In 727 he received 100,000 pieces of silk in return for a 'tribute' of 30 horses. He refused to ally with the Tibet Empire against the Tang dynasty. His wisdom was praised by Zhang Yue (Tang dynasty).


title: Second Turkic Khaganate

text: The deaths of Tonyukuk (726) and Kul Tigin (731) removed Bilge's best advisors. It is reported that Bilge was killed by poison, but the poison was slow-acting and he managed to kill his murderers before he died. Bilge was followed by his elder son Yollig Khagan, and later Yollig was succeeded by his brother Tengri Qaghan. After the death of Tengri Qaghan, the empire began to disintegrate. The Ashina tribe was less and less able to cope with central power. The young Tengri kaghan was killed by his uncle, Kutlug Yabghu, who seized power. War broke out with the tribal groups of the Uyghurs, the Basmils and the Karluks, and Kutluk Yabgu Khagan and his followers perished in


title: Second Turkic Khaganate

text: Kutlug I Bilge Kagan of Uyghurs allied himself with the Karluks and Basmyls, and defeated the Göktürks. In 744 Kutlug seized Ötüken and beheaded the last Göktürk qaghan, Ozmish Qaghan. His head was sent to the Tang court. In the span of a few years, the Uyghurs gained mastery of Inner Asia and established the Uyghur Khaganate. Kulun Beg succeeded his father Ozmish. The Tang emperor Xuanzong decided to destroy the last traces of the Turkic khaganate and sent general Wang Zhongsi Kulun's forces. Meanwhile, Ashina Shi was deposed by Kutlug Bilge Qaghan. Wang Zhongsi, defeated the eastern flank of Turkic army headed by Apa Tarkhan. Although Kulun Beg tried to escape, he was arrested by the Uyghurs and was beheaded just like his father in 745. Most of the Turks fled to other Turkic tribes like Basmyl. However, a group including Qutluğ Säbäg Qatun, Bilge Khagan's widow, and Tonyukuk's daughter, took refuge in the Tang dynasty. The Tang emperor legitimised her as a princess and she was appointed as the ruler of her people.


title: Second Turkic Khaganate

text: Under Ilterish, the traditional structure of the Turkic state was restored. The empire created by Ilterish and his successors was a territorial union of ethnically related and hierarchically co-ordinated tribes and tribal groups. They were ideologically linked by common beliefs and accepted genealogies, and politically united by a single military and administrative organization (el) and by general legal norms (törü). The tribal organization (bodun)


title: Second Turkic Khaganate

text: and the political structure (el) complemented one another, defining the strength and durability of social ties. In the words of the Türk inscriptions, the khan controlled the state and was head of the tribal group (el tutup bodunïm bašladïm). The principal group in the empire was composed of twelve Turkic tribes headed by the dynastic tribe of the Ashina. Next in political importance were the Toquz Oghuz.


title: Second Turkic Khaganate

text: The basis of the economy of the Türk tribes was nomadic cattle-raising. Organized hunting in the steppes and mountains was of military as well as economic significance: during these hunts the warriors were trained and the various detachments were coordinated. A Chinese chronicler describes the economy and way of life of the Türks thus: "They live in felt tents and wander following the water and the grass". Horses were of vital importance to the Türks. Although the economy rested on cattle-raising, winter feed for


title: Second Turkic Khaganate

text: livestock was not stored. The advantage of the horse was that it could be at grass all the year round, feeding even under a light cover of snow. Sheep and goats followed the horses, eating the grass that they themselves would have been unable to clear of snow. Bulls, yaks and camels are also frequently mentioned in Türk texts as valuable items of livestock.


title: Second Turkic Khaganate

text: Tengrism was the official religion of the Second Turkic Khaganate. Khagans believed that ruling Ashina family gained legitimacy "through its support from Tengri". Chinese sources state that Bilge wanted to convert to Buddhism and establish cities and temples. However, Tonyukuk discouraged him from this by pointing out that their nomadic lifestyle was what made them a greater military power when compared to Tang dynasty. While Turks' power rested on their mobility, conversion to Buddhism would bring pacifism among population. Therefore, sticking to Tengriism was necessary to survive.


title: Second Turkic Khaganate

text: Numerous artifacts of gold and silver are known from the graves of the rulers of the Second Turkic Khaganate.


title: Corporals killings

text: British Army corporals Derek Wood and David Howes were killed by the Provisional IRA on 19 March 1988 in Belfast, Northern Ireland, in what became known as the corporals killings. The soldiers (wearing civilian clothes, both armed with Browning Hi-Power pistols and in a civilian car) drove into the funeral procession of an IRA member. Three days before, loyalist Michael Stone had attacked an IRA funeral and killed three people. Believing the soldiers were loyalists intent on repeating Stone's attack, dozens of people surrounded and attacked their car. During this, Corporal Wood drew his service pistol and fired a shot into the air. The soldiers were then dragged from the car and taken to a nearby sports ground where they were beaten, stripped and searched. They were then driven to a nearby waste ground where they were shot dead.


title: Corporals killings

text: The incident was filmed by an overhead British Army helicopter and television news cameras; the images have been described by journalist Peter Taylor as some of the "most dramatic and harrowing" of the conflict in Northern Ireland.


title: Corporals killings

text: Two men were sentenced to life imprisonment for murder, but were released in 1998 under the terms of the Good Friday Agreement. Several other men received lesser sentences for their part in the corporals killings.


title: Corporals killings

text: The killings took place against a backdrop of violence at high-profile Irish republican funerals. The presence of large numbers of riot police and soldiers at IRA funerals was criticized for sparking unrest. On 6 March 1988, three unarmed IRA members alleged to have been preparing for a bomb attack on British military personnel were killed by the Special Air Service (SAS) in Gibraltar during Operation Flavius. Their joint funeral was due to be held in Belfast's Milltown Cemetery on 16 March. The security forces agreed to stay away from the funeral in exchange for guarantees that there would be no three-volley salute by IRA gunmen. A member of the Ulster Defence Association (UDA), Michael Stone, learned of this agreement. He attacked the funeral with pistols and grenades, killing three people and wounding more than sixty.


title: Corporals killings

text: One of those killed was IRA member Caoimhín Mac Brádaigh. Mac Brádaigh's funeral, just three days after Stone's attack, took place amid an extremely tense atmosphere, and those attending feared another loyalist attack. Those attending the funeral included IRA members who acted as stewards.


title: Corporals killings

text: Derek Tony Wood, aged 24, and David Robert Howes, aged 23, were corporals in the British Army's Royal Corps of Signals. According to the British Army, Wood and Howes ignored general orders to stay away from the area where the funeral was being held. It has been presumed that the two men drove into the procession by mistake. Howes had arrived in Northern Ireland one week before. Soldiers and police officers suggested that the corporals had gone "wandering", and that Wood was showing his newly arrived colleague the republican districts of Belfast. Former British soldier Seán Hartnett stated the corporals were members of a military surveillance unit known as the Joint Communications Unit (JCU).


title: Corporals killings

text: Corporals Wood and Howes were wearing civilian clothes and driving in a silver Volkswagen Passat hatchback. The Mac Brádaigh funeral was making its way along the Andersonstown Road towards Milltown Cemetery when the corporals' car appeared from the opposite direction. The car drove straight towards the front of the funeral, which was headed by several black taxis. It drove past a Sinn Féin steward who had signalled it to turn. Mourners at the funeral said they believed they were under attack from Ulster loyalists. The car then mounted a pavement, scattering mourners, and turned into a small side road. When this road was blocked, it then reversed at speed, ending up within the funeral procession. Corporal Wood attempted to drive the car out of the procession but his exit route was blocked by a black taxi.


title: Corporals killings

text: An angry crowd surrounded the car, smashed the windows and attempted to drag the soldiers out. Wood produced a Browning Hi-Power 9mm handgun, which each of the soldiers was armed with. Wood climbed partly out of a window and fired a shot in the air, which briefly scattered the crowd. The crowd then surged back, with some of them attacking the car with a wheel-brace and a stepladder snatched from a photographer. The corporals were eventually pulled from the car and punched and kicked to the ground.


title: Corporals killings

text: The attack was witnessed by the media and passersby. Journalist Mary Holland recalled seeing one of the men being dragged past a group of journalists: "He didn't cry out; just looked at us with terrified eyes, as though we were all enemies in a foreign country who wouldn't have understood what language he was speaking if he called out for help".


title: Corporals killings

text: They were taken to nearby Casement Park sports ground, just opposite. Here they were beaten, stripped to their underpants and socks, and searched by a small group of men. The BBC and "The Independent" wrote that the men were "tortured". A search revealed that the men were British soldiers. Their captors found a military ID on Howes which was marked "Herford", the site of a British military base in Germany, but it is believed they misread it as "Hereford", the headquarters of the SAS.


title: Corporals killings

text: Redemptorist priest Father Alec Reid, who played a significant part in the peace process leading to the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, intervened and attempted to save the soldiers, and asked people to call an ambulance.I got down between the two of them and I had my arm around this one and I was holding this one up by the shoulder...They were so disciplined, they just lay there totally still and I decided to myself they were soldiers. There was a helicopter circling overhead and I don't know why they didn't do something, radio to the police or soldiers to come up, because there were these two of their own soldiers.


title: Corporals killings

text: The two soldiers were placed in a taxi and driven fewer than to a waste ground near Penny Lane (South Link), just off the main Andersonstown Road. There they were taken out of the vehicle and shot dead. Wood was shot six times: twice in the head and four times in the chest. He had also been stabbed four times in the back of the neck. Howes was shot five times: once in the head and four times in the body. Each also had multiple injuries to other parts of their bodies. The perpetrators quickly left the scene. Reid heard the shots and rushed to the waste ground. He believed one of the soldiers was still breathing and attempted to give him the kiss of life. Upon realizing that the soldiers were dead, he gave them the last rites. According to photographer David Cairns, although photographers were having their films taken by the IRA, he was able to keep his by quickly leaving the area after taking a photograph of Reid kneeling beside the almost naked body of Howes, administering the last rites. Cairns' photograph was later named one of the best pictures of the past 50 years by "Life" magazine.


title: Corporals killings

text: The whole incident was filmed by a British Army helicopter hovering overhead. An unnamed soldier of the Royal Scots said his eight-man patrol was nearby and saw the attack on the corporals' car, but were told not to intervene. Soldiers and police arrived on the scene three minutes after the corporals had been shot. A British Army spokesman said the army did not respond immediately because they needed time to assess the situation and were wary of being ambushed by the IRA. The large funeral procession also prevented them getting to the scene quickly.


title: Corporals killings

text: The Belfast brigade, IRA, claims responsibility for the execution of two SAS members who launched an attack on the funeral cortege of our comrade volunteer Kevin Brady. The SAS unit was initially apprehended by the people lining the route in the belief that armed loyalists were attacking them and they were removed from the immediate vicinity. Our volunteers forcibly removed the two men from the crowd and, after clearly ascertaining their identities from equipment and documentation, we executed them.