title: Hilly Kristal

text: CBGB featured many famous musicians over the years and remained very popular until its closing in 2006 due to a personal disagreement with the landlord, who opted not to renew the lease. For a short while after the closing, Kristal considered moving the club to Las Vegas.


title: Hilly Kristal

text: A film, "CBGB", about Kristal and the origins of the club, was released in October 2013. Alan Rickman portrayed Kristal in the film.


title: Sam Spiegel (musician)

text: Sam Spiegel (born October 31, 1979), known by the stage name Sam i, is an American DJ, producer, composer, and director from New York City.


title: Sam Spiegel (musician)

text: In addition to creating his own material, Spiegel has worked with musicians such as Kanye West, Lizzo, Sia, Busta Rhymes, Doja Cat, Anderson .Paak, M.I.A., Maroon 5, and the Yeah Yeah Yeahs and many more. He has scored commercials for companies including Converse, Levi's, Kenzo x H&M, Reebok, ESPN, T Mobile, Jose Cuervo, and Saturn. His production company scored the video game "Skate 2". Though he attempts to create music free of record label restraints, Spiegel also licenses his songs whenever possible so as to maximize exposure for his work. He formerly produced albums under the name Squeak E. Clean.


title: Sam Spiegel (musician)

text: Spiegel is the brother of film director Spike Jonze. They collaborated on the Adidas TV commercial "Hello Tomorrow", for which Spiegel created the score sung by Karen O. The titular song briefly reached No. 1 on the iTunes singles chart. Spiegel also wrote the score for Jonze's 2010 short film "I'm Here", and produced an original song "Mutant Brain" with Ape Drums featuring Assassin for Jonze's Kenzo World advertisement.


title: Sam Spiegel (musician)

text: Spiegel is a founding partner of Squeak E. Clean Studios. They have studios in L.A., New York, Chicago, Austin, Sydney and Melbourne.


title: Sam Spiegel (musician)

text: 2009 saw the release of one of Sam's music projects, N.A.S.A.'s (North America South America) landmark debut LP, The Spirit of Apollo. Created with long time Brazilian music partner DJ Zegon.


title: Sam Spiegel (musician)

text: "The Spirit of Apollo" includes Kanye West, Karen O and Nick Zinner of Yeah Yeah Yeahs, Lykke Li, John Frusciante of Red Hot Chili Peppers, Tom Waits, Nina Persson of The Cardigans, George Clinton, David Byrne, M.I.A., RZA, Method Man, Ghostface Killah, and Ol' Dirty Bastard of Wu-Tang Clan while the corresponding music videos feature animated/live action collaborations by visual artists including Shepard Fairey, Sage Vaughn, Marcel Dzama, and The Date Farmers. Such collaborations earned Spiegel the title "King Sam" on "Rolling Stone"s annual "Hot List" in 2008. The album was "a conscious effort by NASA to show how people can be brought together by music and art."


title: Sam Spiegel (musician)

text: Spiegel's project, Maximum Hedrum, brought him together with Harold Faltermeyer and Derrick Green (of Sepultura). In 2011 "Keep in Touch (Feel Me)" feat. George Clinton, was licensed to a BlackBerry commercial. In November 2012 "Keep in Touch (Feel Me)" and "Synthesize", two tracks from the upcoming album, were released commercially on iTunes and Amazon.com, as well as via free download from SoundCloud and Facebook. "Synthesize" was featured in Girl Skateboards film, Pretty Sweet.


title: Sam Spiegel (musician)

text: In 2016, Spiegel began releasing music under his own name, Sam Spiegel. The first release under this new moniker was "Mutant Brain (feat. Assassin)" which he produced with Miami-based DJ and producer, Ape Drums and released through Interscope Records. "Mutant Brain" was featured in the Spike Jonze-directed short film, "Kenzo World, A New Fragrance", for the French brand Kenzo.


title: Sam Spiegel (musician)

text: This music went on to win gold for the Use of Original Music in Film Craft at the Cannes Lions, as well as winning the Best Music category at the AICP One Show and Best Use of Original Music by a Music House at the Guild of Music Supervisors Awards.


title: Sam Spiegel (musician)

text: In 2020, Spiegel changed his name to Sam I and released his first solo album, Random Shit From The Internet Era. The album was a critical success and featured notable talent including Sia, Busta Rhymes, CeeLo Green, Anderson .Paak, Doja Cat, RZA and many more.


title: Sam Spiegel (musician)

text: In addition, Sam has been working frequently with artist Jean Paul Goude in creating music for Jean Paul's work with Chanel, Lacoste, Kenzo X H&M, Roger Vivier, and Pompidou.


title: Sam Spiegel (musician)

text: Sam continues to release his own music, produce for other artists while directing and growing Squeak E. Clean Studios.


title: Sam Spiegel (musician)

text: 2015 saw Sam take on directing. His self funded music video for the final N.A.S.A. song, "Jihad Love Squad" was shot in India and directed and produced by Spiegel himself. Following the release of the "Jihad Love Squad" video, Sam signed to Hey Wonderful, a division of RSA Films, as a director. This led to Sam directing two National Geographic short films as well as CNN's first live commercial, which aired at 11:35 Eastern on New Year's Eve, 2017, during CNN's NYE Countdown and received nearly 3.3 million live viewers. Sam has continued his passion for directing into the 2018 year, with an Instagram interview campaign shot in May 2018 for Pride Month featuring LGBTQ advocates and their role models. In September Sam also conceptualized, directed and wrote "Wu-Tang in Space Eating Impossible Sliders" a branded content mini web series starring Wu-Tang Clan flying through space and postulating on the universe. The series highlighted the new partnership between Impossible Foods and White Castle.


title: Sam Spiegel (musician)

text: On August 18, 2010, the Standard New York Hotel was the setting for a harmonically synchronized light and sound show produced by Spiegel. The Target Kaleidoscopic Fashion Spectacular featured a fashion show on the street level, while inside the hotel, 66 dancers performed choreography synchronized with fast-paced lighting patterns set to Spiegel's music score in 150 different rooms, using the glass walls of the hotel to display a multi-floor show, highlighting that year's fall styles.


title: Sam Spiegel (musician)

text: Spiegel was pivotal to the project as he not only created the score but brought together many of the other contributing artists as well. The show featured the creative direction of Mother New York, the directors at LEGS, lighting choreographers at Bionic League (who have worked with Daft Punk and Kanye West), and the dance choreographer Sir Ryan Heffington.


title: Sam Spiegel (musician)

text: Spiegel was the music director for Kanye West's critically acclaimed 2008 world Glow in the Dark Tour.


title: Sam Spiegel (musician)

text: Spiegel also worked on a "psycho-opera", entitled "Stop The Virgens", spearheaded by his good friend, and front woman of the Yeah Yeah Yeahs, Karen O. The show is self-described as "an assault on the tragic joys of youth." The opera premiered at St. Ann's Warehouse in Brooklyn, New York, on October 12, 2011, and hosted eight performances, concluding on October 22, 2011. It was produced by The Creators Project and directed by Adam Rapp. The opera served as a live version of the songs from an album that Spiegel produced and wrote with Karen O. Spiegel, along with the guitarist from the Yeah Yeah Yeahs, Nick Zinner, served as musical directors. Also contributing to the "original live xperience" were musicians Money Mark, Brian Chase, Jack Lawrence and Patrick Keeler of the Greenhornes/Racanteours. Also credited for his work with the sound design of the project was Andrés Velásquez.


title: Sam Spiegel (musician)

text: in 2017, Spiegel music directed and composed all of the original music for Opening Ceremony's "Changers' a Dance Story" directed by Spike Jonze, starring Lakeith Stanfield and Mia Wasikowska.


title: Primitive accumulation of capital

text: In Marxian economics and preceding theories, the problem of primitive accumulation (also called previous accumulation, original accumulation) of capital concerns the origin of capital, and therefore of how class distinctions between possessors and non-possessors came to be.


title: Primitive accumulation of capital

text: Adam Smith's account of primitive-original accumulation depicted a peaceful process, in which some workers laboured more diligently than others and gradually built up wealth, eventually leaving the less diligent workers to accept living wages for their labour. Karl Marx rejected this account as "childish" for its omission of the role of violence, war, enslavement and colonialism in the historical accumulation of land and wealth. Marxist scholar David Harvey explains Marx's primitive accumulation as a process which principally "entailed taking land, say, enclosing it, and expelling a resident population to create a landless proletariat, and then releasing the land into the privatised mainstream of capital accumulation".


title: Primitive accumulation of capital

text: The concept was initially referred to in various different ways, and the expression of an "accumulation" at the origin of capitalism began to appear with Adam Smith. Smith, writing "The Wealth of Nations" in his native English, spoke of a "previous" accumulation; Karl Marx, writing "Das Kapital" in German, reprised Smith's expression, by translating it to German as ("original, initial"); Marx's translators, in turn, rendered it into English as "primitive". James Steuart, with his 1767 work, is considered by some scholars as the greatest classical theorist of primitive accumulation.


title: Primitive accumulation of capital

text: In disinterring the origins of capital, Marx felt the need to dispel what he felt were religious myths and fairy-tales about the origins of capitalism. Marx wrote:


title: Primitive accumulation of capital

text: What must be explained is how the capitalist relations of production are historically established; in other words, how it comes about that means of production become privately owned and traded, and how capitalists can find workers on the labour market ready and willing to work for them, because they have no other means of livelihood (also referred to as the "reserve army of labour".)


title: Primitive accumulation of capital

text: At the same time as local obstacles to investment in manufactures are being overcome, and a unified national market is developing with a nationalist ideology, Marx sees a strong impulse to business development coming from world trade:


title: Primitive accumulation of capital

text: According to Marx, the purpose of primitive accumulation is to "privatize" the means of production, so that the exploiting owner class can profit from the surplus labour of those who, lacking other means, must work for them.


title: Primitive accumulation of capital

text: Marx says that primitive accumulation means the expropriation of the direct producers, and more specifically "the dissolution of private property "based on the labour of its owner"... Self-earned private property, that is based, so to say, on the fusing together of the isolated, independent labouring-individual with the conditions of his labour, is supplanted by capitalistic private property, which rests on "exploitation of the nominally free labour of others", i.e., on wage-labour (emphasis added).


title: Primitive accumulation of capital

text: In the last chapter of "Capital, Volume I", Marx described the social conditions he thought necessary for capitalism with a comment about Edward Gibbon Wakefield's theory of colonization:


title: Primitive accumulation of capital

text: This is indicative of Marx's more general fascination with settler colonialism, and his interest in how "free" lands—or, more accurately, lands seized from indigenous people—could disrupt capitalist social relations.


title: Primitive accumulation of capital

text: "Orthodox" Marxists see primitive accumulation as a process beginning in the late Middle Ages and finishing with the rise of capitalist industry, situated entirely within the transition from the feudal mode of production to the capitalist mode of production. However, this can be seen as a misrepresentation of both Marx's ideas and historical reality, since feudal-type economies persist in various parts of the world, even in the 21st century.


title: Primitive accumulation of capital

text: Marx's description of primitive accumulation may also be seen as a "special" case of the "general" principle of capitalist market expansion. In part, trade grows incrementally, but often the establishment of capitalist relations of production involves force and violence; transforming property relations means that assets previously owned by some people are no longer owned by them, but by other people, and making people part with their assets in this way involves coercion. This is an ongoing process of expropriation, proletarianization and urbanization.


title: Primitive accumulation of capital

text: In his preface to "Das Kapital Vol. 1", Marx compares the situations of England and Germany and points out that less developed countries "also" face a process of primitive accumulation. Marx comments that "if, however, the German reader shrugs his shoulders at the condition of the English industrial and agricultural labourers, or in optimist fashion comforts himself with the thought that in Germany things are not nearly so bad, I must plainly tell him, " (the tale is told of you!)".


title: Primitive accumulation of capital

text: Marx was referring here to the expansion of the capitalist mode of production (not the expansion of "world trade"), through "expropriation" processes. He continues, "Intrinsically, it is not a question of the higher or lower degree of development of the social antagonism that results from the natural laws of capitalist production. It is a question of these laws themselves, of these tendencies working with iron necessity towards inevitable results. The country that is more developed industrially only shows, to the less developed, the image of its own future."


title: Primitive accumulation of capital

text: David Harvey expands the concept of "primitive accumulation" to create a new concept, "accumulation by dispossession", in his 2003 book, "The New Imperialism". Like Mandel, Harvey claims that the word "primitive" leads to a misunderstanding of the history of capitalism: that the original, "primitive" phase of capitalism is somehow a transitory phase that need not be repeated once commenced. Instead, Harvey maintains that primitive accumulation ("accumulation by dispossession") is a continuing process within the process of capital accumulation on a world scale. Because the central Marxian notion of crisis via "over-accumulation" is assumed to be a constant factor in the process of capital accumulation, the process of "accumulation by dispossession" acts as a possible safety valve that may temporarily ease the crisis. This is achieved by simply lowering the prices of consumer commodities (thus pushing up the propensity for general consumption), which in turn is made possible by the considerable reduction in the price of production inputs. Should the magnitude of the reduction in the price of inputs outweigh the reduction in the price of consumer goods, it can be said that the rate of profit will, for the time being, increase. Thus:


title: Primitive accumulation of capital

text: Harvey's theoretical extension encompasses more recent economic dimensions such as intellectual property rights, privatization, and predation and exploitation of nature and folk lore.


title: Primitive accumulation of capital

text: Privatization of public services puts enormous profit into capitalists' hands. If it belonged to the public sector, this profit would not exist. In this sense, the profit is created by dispossession of peoples or nations. Destructive industrial use of the environment is similar because the environment "naturally" belongs to everyone, or to no one: factually, it "belongs" to whoever lives there.


title: Primitive accumulation of capital

text: Multinational pharmaceutical companies collect information about how herb or other natural medicine is used among natives in less-developed country, do some R&D to find the material that make those natural medicines effective, and patent the findings. By doing so, multinational pharmaceutical companies can now sell the medicine to the natives who are the original source of the knowledge that made production of medicine possible. That is, dispossession of folklore (knowledge, wisdom, practice) through intellectual property rights.


title: Primitive accumulation of capital

text: David Harvey also argues that accumulation by dispossession is a temporal or partial solution to over-accumulation. Because accumulation by dispossession makes raw materials cheaper, the profit rate can at least temporarily go up.


title: Primitive accumulation of capital

text: Harvey's interpretation has been criticized by Brass, who disputes the view that what is described as present-day primitive accumulation, or accumulation by dispossession, entails proletarianization. Because the latter is equated by Harvey with the separation of the direct producer (mostly smallholders) from the means of production (land), Harvey assumes this results in the formation of a workforce that is free. By contrast, Brass points out that in many instances the process of depeasantization leads to workers who are unfree, because they are unable personally to commodify or recommodify their labour-power, by selling it to the highest bidder.


title: Primitive accumulation of capital

text: The economist Joseph Schumpeter disagreed with the Marxian explanation of the origin of capital, because Schumpeter did not believe in exploitation. In liberal economic theory, the market returns to all people the exact value they have provided it; capitalists are just people who are very adept at saving and whose contributions are especially magnificent, and they do not take anything away from other people or the environment. Liberals believe that capitalism has no internal flaws or contradictions; only external threats. To liberals, the idea of the necessity of violent primitive accumulation to capital is particularly incendiary. Schumpeter wrote rather testily:


title: Primitive accumulation of capital

text: Schumpeter argued that imperialism was not a necessary jump-start for capitalism, nor is it needed to bolster capitalism, because imperialism pre-existed capitalism. Schumpeter believed that, whatever the empirical evidence, capitalist world trade could in principle expand peacefully. Where imperialism occurrs, Schumpeter asserted, it has nothing to do with the intrinsic nature of capitalism itself, or of capitalist market expansion. The distinction between Schumpeter and Marx here is subtle. Marx claimed that capitalism requires violence and imperialism—first, to kick-start capitalism with a pile of booty and to dispossess a population to induce them to enter into capitalist relations as workers, and then to surmount the otherwise-fatal contradictions generated within capitalist relations over time. Schumpeter's view was that imperialism is an atavistic impulse pursued by a state, independent of the interests of the economic ruling class.


title: Primitive accumulation of capital

text: Rivera Vicencio, E. (2018) ‘Conformation of the primitive accumulation and capitalist spirit. Theory of corporate governmentality’, Int. J.Critical Accounting, Vol. 10, No. 5, pp.394–425. https://www.inderscienceonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1504/IJCA.2018.096783


title: Overhead press

text: The overhead press is an upper-body weight training exercise in which the trainee presses a weight overhead while seated or standing. It is mainly used to develop the anterior deltoid muscles of the shoulder. The standing version was once a component of the sport of Olympic weightlifting as part of the clean and press movement, but was removed in 1972 due to difficulties in judging proper technique.


title: Overhead press

text: The lift is set up by taking either a barbell, a pair of dumbbells or kettlebells, and holding them at shoulder level. The weight is then pressed overhead. While the exercise can be performed standing or seated, standing recruits more muscles as more balancing is required in order to support the lift. Other variations of the exercise include the push press, a similar movement that involves an additional dipping motion in the legs to increase momentum. An overhead press may also be performed unilaterally, with the lift being performed one handed; or in an alternating fashion with both hands holding a dumbbell or kettlebell, and then pressing with one arm and then the other.


title: Guards Division

text: The Guards Division is an administrative unit of the British Army responsible for the training and administration of the regiments of Foot Guards and the London Guards reserve battalion. The Guards Division is responsible for providing two battalions for public duties to London District (plus three incremental companies); although the guards are most associated with ceremony, they are nevertheless operational infantry battalions, and as such perform all the various roles of infantry.


title: Guards Division

text: The Guards Division was established by redesignation of the Brigade of Guards in 1968. The headquarters was established at Wellington Barracks in London.


title: Guards Division

text: The cuts made to the infantry under Options for Change included three battalions of Guards. However, rather than disbanding them, the 2nd Battalions of each of the first three regiments were placed in "suspended animation" – although they would not be active, they would still be listed on the Army Roll, and could be reactivated should they be needed. In order to maintain the traditions of each battalion, and to keep custody of the colours, three companies were kept active, one to represent each battalion:


title: Guards Division

text: These three units were based permanently at Chelsea Barracks in London on public duties until Chelsea Barracks was sold off by the army. They represent the suspended battalions at significant events, such as Trooping the Colour, and receive the battalion's new colours whenever they are presented. As such, each company is an independent unit of their regiment, separate from the operational battalions. In 2022, two further public duties companies were formed following the conversion of 1st Battalion, Irish Guards to the Security Force Assistance role. The two new companies, No 9 Company and No 12 Company, have been formed to represent the Irish Guards' 2nd Battalion, which was placed in suspended animation in 1947.


title: Guards Division

text: The five regiments of foot guards are most often seen in full dress uniform, comprising navy trousers, scarlet tunic and bearskin cap. From a distance they appear identical, but there are ways to distinguish between the regiments:


title: Guards Division

text: 6 Platoon, B Company, 3rd Battalion, Parachute Regiment is manned by volunteers from the Guards Division and Household Cavalry


title: Guards Division

text: Although no longer directly associated with the Guards, G Squadron 22 SAS was formed in 1966 following the performance of the Guards Independent Parachute Company under Major LGS Head in support of SAS Operations in Borneo.


title: Monks Mound

text: Monks Mound is the largest Pre-Columbian earthwork in the Americas and the largest pyramid north of Mesoamerica. The beginning of its construction dates from 900–955 CE. Located at the Cahokia Mounds UNESCO World Heritage Site near Collinsville, Illinois, the mound size was calculated in 1988 as about 100 feet (30 m) high, 955 feet (291 m) long including the access ramp at the southern end, and 775 feet (236 m) wide. This makes Monks Mound roughly the same size at its base as the Great Pyramid of Giza (13.1 acres / 5.3 hectares). The perimeter of its base is larger than the Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan. As a platform mound, the earthwork supported a wooden structure on the summit.


title: Monks Mound

text: Unlike Egyptian pyramids which were built of stone, the platform mound was constructed almost entirely of layers of basket-transported soil and clay. Because of this construction and its flattened top, over the years, it has retained rainwater within the structure. This has caused slumping, the avalanche-like sliding of large sections of the sides at the highest part of the mound. Its designed dimensions would have been significantly smaller than its present extent, but recent excavations have revealed that slumping was a problem even while the mound was being made.


title: Monks Mound

text: Construction of Monks Mound by the Mississippian culture began about 900–950 CE, on a site that had already been occupied by buildings. The original concept seems to have been a much smaller mound, now buried deep within the northern end of the present structure. At the northern end of the summit plateau, as finally completed around 1100 CE, is an area raised slightly higher still, on which was placed a building over long, the largest in the entire Cahokia Mounds urban zone. Botanical remains from Monks Mound suggest it was built much more quickly than previously thought, perhaps on the order of several consecutive decades, providing an alternative view of its construction history. Deep excavations in 2007 confirmed findings from earlier test borings, that several types of earth and clay from different sources had been used successively. Study of various sites suggests that the stability of the mound was improved by the incorporation of bulwarks, some made of clay, others of sods from the Mississippi flood-plain, which permitted steeper slopes than the use of earth alone. The structure rises in four terraces to a height of with a rectangular base covering nearly and containing 22 million cubic feet of adobe, carried basket by basket to the site.


title: Monks Mound

text: The most recent section of the mound, added some time before 1200 CE, is the lower terrace at the south end, which was added after the northern end had reached its full height. It may partly have been intended to help minimize the slumping which by then was already under way. Today, the western half of the summit plateau is significantly lower than the eastern; this is the result of massive slumping, beginning about 1200 CE. This also caused the west end of the big building to collapse. It may have led to the abandonment of the mound's high status, following which various wooden buildings were erected on the south terrace, and garbage was dumped at the foot of the mound. By about 1300, the urban society at Cahokia Mounds was in serious decline. When the eastern side of the mound started to suffer serious slumping, it was not repaired.


title: Monks Mound

text: There is no evidence of significant Native American settlement in the Cahokia Mounds urban area for hundreds of years after about 1400 CE. In 1735, French missionaries built a chapel at the west end of the south terrace of the mound. The River L'Abbe Mission served a small Illiniwek community, until they were forced to abandon the area by rival tribes about 1752. In 1776, during the American Revolutionary War, a trading post called the Cantine was established next to the mound (by then known as the Great Nobb). It lasted only until 1784.


title: Monks Mound

text: In the early 19th century, the land was claimed by people of French descent, and Nicholas Jarrot had a deed for most of it. He donated some to a small group of French Trappist monks, who settled on one of the smaller mounds from 1809. They took advantage of the big mound's terraces to grow produce, which was elevated above the danger of flooding: wheat on the upper levels, garden produce on the south terrace. During their short stay in the area, which lasted until 1813, Henry Brackenridge visited the site and published the first detailed description of the largest mound. He named it Monks Mound.


title: Monks Mound

text: In 1831 T. Amos Hill bought the plot including the Mound. He built a house on the upper terrace, and sank a well. This work revealed various archaeological remains, including human bones.


title: Monks Mound

text: Thomas I. Ramey, who bought the site in 1864, began an era of more responsible ownership, and encouraged archaeological investigation. Many artifacts were found at or near the surface. Ramey had a tunnel made nearly into the north face of the mound, but it revealed nothing of historic interest. By this time, people were beginning to consider the mound more within its context. A survey made for local dentist Dr. John R. Patrick in the 1880s marked the beginning of modern understanding of the Cahokia site as a whole, and its relationship to other sites in the area.


title: Monks Mound

text: Many archaeological investigations of the mound have taken place since then. One of the biggest began in the 1960s, when Nelson Reed, a local businessman and historian of native cultures, obtained permission to conduct excavations. He was trying to locate the high-status building (temple or palace) presumed to have stood at the peak of Monks Mound. By drilling cores at various points on the mound, his team revealed the various stages of its construction from the 10th to 12th centuries CE. Remains of a fairly recent house (presumably Hill's) were found, but no temple.


title: Monks Mound

text: In 1970 Reed returned to work at the mound, and adopted a new strategy: scraping away the topsoil from several patches with a backhoe, to a depth of around . This quickly revealed various features, including what appeared to be the outline of the temple. Further backhoe work in 1971 confirmed the shape of the presumed temple at over long, the largest building found at Cahokia. This technique was opposed by professional archaeologists because it destroyed several hundred years of stratification over most of the mound's summit, which was the evidence by which they could place and evaluate artifacts and construction. Reed's backhoe excavations revealed other significant features, such as a hole which seemed to have been the socket for a post about three feet (one metre) in diameter. The dramatic finds encouraged the Governor of Illinois to budget for an expansion of the Cahokia Mounds State Park.


title: Monks Mound

text: From the time the original urban society collapsed, the great mound became overgrown with trees, the roots of which helped stabilize its steep slopes. In the 20th century, researchers removed the trees in the course of work at the mound and park preparation. Reduction of groundwater levels in the Mississippi floodplain during the 1950s caused the mound to dry out, damaging the clay layers within. When heavy rainfall occurred, it caused new slumping, starting about 1956. The increasingly violent weather of recent decades has exacerbated the problem. In 1984-5 there were several slumps, and the state government brought in surplus soil to make repairs to the major scar on the eastern side. A decade later, there was further slumping on the western side, so irregular that repair was impractical. Drains were installed to reduce the effects of heavy rain. It was during this process that workers discovered a mass of stone deep within the mound.


title: Monks Mound

text: The repairs of the 1980s and 1990s were only partly successful. In 2004-5 more serious slumping episodes occurred. These demonstrated that adding new earth to repair the major slump on the east side had been a mistake. Experts decided to take a new approach. In 2007, backhoes were used to dig out the entire mass of earth from this slump and another at the northwest corner, to a level beyond the internal slippage zone. Engineers created a series of anti-slip "steps" across the exposed face before the original earth (minus the imported repair material) was replaced at its original level. To avoid introducing water deep into the mound's interior, the work was carried out in high summer, and as quickly as possible. In parallel with the repair work, teams of archaeologists studied the evidence that was being revealed. The eastern sliding zone penetrated more deeply within the mound than originally estimated, and the excavation had to be very large- 50 feet (16 m) wide, to a height of 65 feet (20 m) above the mound base. This heightened concerns about a conflict between conservation and archaeology.


title: Grammy Hall of Fame

text: The Grammy Hall of Fame is a hall of fame to honor musical recordings of lasting qualitative or historical significance. Inductees are selected annually by a special member committee of eminent and knowledgeable professionals from all branches of the recording arts. It is compiled by The Recording Academy in the United States, and was established in 1973. Recordings (singles and albums) in all genres are eligible for selection, and must be over 25 years old to be considered. Additions to the list are chosen annually by a committee of recording arts professionals.


title: Demographics of Macau

text: This article is about the demographic features of the population of Macau, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.


title: Demographics of Macau

text: Macau's population is 95% Chinese, primarily Cantonese and some Hakka, both from nearby Guangdong Province. The majority of the remainder are of Portuguese or mixed Chinese-Portuguese ancestry. Some Japanese, including descendants of Japanese Catholics who were expelled by shōguns, also live in Macau.


title: Demographics of Macau

text: The official languages are Portuguese and Cantonese Chinese. The residents commonly (85.7%) speak Cantonese, Mandarin is spoken by 3.2% at home, about 40% are able to communicate in standard Mandarin. English and Portuguese are spoken as a first language by 1.5% and 0.6% respectively, while English is widely taught as a second language. The other popular topolect is Hokkien (Min Nan), spoken by a small percentage of the population. The creole Macanese language ("Patuá" or "Macaista Chapado") is almost extinct.


title: Demographics of Macau

text: The following are information on ethnicity and nationalities based on data from the Statistics and Census Service.


title: Demographics of Macau

text: Immigration is an essential component of the population. Results of the 2011 Population Census indicated that 326,376 (59.1% of the total population) were born outside Macau, an increase of 3.0 percentage points over the last ten years. Analysed by place of birth, 255,186 (46.2%) were born in Mainland China, down by 1.2 percentage points from 2001. 226,127 (40.9%) were born in Macau, 19,355 (3.5%) in Hong Kong and 1,835 (0.3%) in Portugal. There were more persons born in other countries or territories as the number of non-resident workers increased. Among them, 14,544 were born in the Philippines, 7,199 in Vietnam and 6,269 in Indonesia, altogether taking up 5.1% of the total population. 1,942 were born in Europe other than Portugal, 2,252 in Americas, 959 in Africa and 672 in Oceania. Analysed by age group, 85.2% of the youth population (aged 0–14) were born in Macau, and 62.9% of those aged 35 and above were born in Mainland China.


title: Demographics of Macau

text: Analysed by nationality, 509,788 (92.3% of the total population) were of Chinese nationality, down by 2.9 percentage points from the 2001 Census; meanwhile, only 0.9% was of Portuguese nationality, a decrease of 1.1 percentage points. These figures can be misleading, because more than a 100,000 people in Macau are holders of a Portuguese passport, making them in effect Portuguese citizens. Over the last ten years, diversity of the various components of the population is enhanced as economic development has drawn people to invest, work or study in Macau; consequently, 37,695 (6.8%) were of other nationalities, up by 4.0 percentage points, with 2.7% being Filipinos.


title: Demographics of Macau

text: Macau is a Chinese community and those of Chinese ethnicity totaled 510,383, an increase of 94,030 over the past ten years; however, its proportion to the total population decreased by 3.3 percentage points to 92.4%. Those of wholly or partly Portuguese ethnicity totaled 8,106, up slightly by 333 compared with 2001; its proportion to the total decreased by 0.3 percentage point to 1.5%.


title: Dragons in Greek mythology

text: Dragons play a significant role in Greek mythology. Though the Greek "drakōn" often differs from the modern Western conception of a dragon, it is both the etymological origin of the modern term and the source of many surviving Indo-European myths and legends about dragons.


title: Dragons in Greek mythology

text: The word dragon derives from the Greek "δράκων" (drakōn) and its Latin cognate "draco". Ancient Greeks applied the term to large, constricting snakes. The Greek "drakōn" was far more associated with poisonous spit or breath than the modern Western dragon, though fiery breath is still attested in a few myths. There is also the "drakaina", the specifically female form or "she-dragon." The "drakaina" is occasionally treated differently from the more common masculine or gender-neutral "drakōn", often surviving by mating with a hero or being the ancestress of an important lineage.


title: Dragons in Greek mythology

text: Daniel Ogden speaks of three ways to explain the origins of Greek dragon myths: as "vertical" evolution from (reconstructed) Proto-Indo-European mythology, as "horizontal" adaptation from Ancient Near Eastern mythology, or as sitting within "the cloud of international folktale". Regarding theories of horizontal transmission, Ogden argues that they carry "an unspoken assumption that prior to such a transfer the Greeks' own myth-world was a "tabula rasa"", which he calls absurd; only Typhon's Near Eastern origins are, in his view, plausible.


title: Dragons in Greek mythology

text: Typhon was the most fearsome monster of Greek mythology. Typhon was the last son of Gaia. He is usually envisioned as humanoid from the waist up, serpentine below, almost the size of a mountain. With his mate Echidna he would father many monsters. Later he would attempt to overthrow Zeus for the title of ruler of the cosmos. Zeus would hurl an enormous rock on him to beat him.


title: Dragons in Greek mythology

text: Ladon was the serpent-like drakon (dragon, a word more commonly used) that twined round the tree in the Garden of the Hesperides and guarded the golden apples. Ladon was also said to have as many as one hundred heads. He was overcome and possibly slain by Heracles. After a few years, the Argonauts passed by the same spot, on their chthonic return journey from Colchis at the opposite end of the world, and heard the lament of "shining" Aigle, one of the Hesperides, and viewed the still-twitching Ladon ("Argonautica", book iv). The creature is associated with the constellation Draco.


title: Dragons in Greek mythology

text: Ladon was given several parentages, each of which placed him at an archaic level in Greek myth: the offspring of "Ceto, joined in love with Phorcys" (Hesiod, "Theogony" 333) or of Typhon, who was himself serpent-like from the waist down, and Echidna ("Bibliotheke" 2.113; Hyginus, Preface to "Fabulae") or of Gaia herself, or in her Olympian manifestation, Hera: "The Dragon which guarded the golden apples was the brother of the Nemean lion" asserted Ptolemy Hephaestion (recorded in his New History V, lost but epitomized in Photius, "Myriobiblion" 190).


title: Dragons in Greek mythology

text: The Lernaean Hydra was a dragon-like water serpent with fatally venomous breath, blood and fangs, a daughter of Typhon and Echidna. The creature was said to have anywhere between five and 100 heads, although most sources put the number somewhere between seven and nine. For each head cut off, one or two more grew back in its place. It had an immortal head which would remain alive after it was cut off. Some accounts claim that the immortal head was made of gold. It lived in a swamp near Lerna and frequently terrorized the townsfolk until it was slain by Heracles, who cut the heads off, with the help of his nephew Iolaus, who then singed the oozing stump with a blazing firebrand to prevent any new heads from growing, as the second of his Twelve Labors. Hera sent a giant crab to distract Heracles, but he simply crushed it under his foot. Hera then placed it in the heavens as the constellation Cancer. After slaying the serpent, Heracles buried the immortal head under a rock and dipped his arrows in the creature's blood to make them fatal to his enemies. In one version, the poisoned arrows would eventually prove to be the undoing of his centaur tutor Chiron, who was placed in the heavens as the constellation Centaurus. In another version, he would never be able to use these arrows because of his fear of the poison spreading through the land and poisoning the water and crops.


title: Dragons in Greek mythology

text: In Greek mythology Python was the earth-dragon of Delphi, always represented in the vase-paintings and by sculptors as a serpent. Various myths represented Python as being either male or female (a drakaina). Python was the chthonic enemy of Apollo, who slew it and remade its former home his own oracle, the most famous in Greece. In some myths the dragon was called Delphyne. Delphyne was often pictured as being half girl and half snake.


title: Dragons in Greek mythology

text: There are various versions of Python's birth and death at the hands of Apollo. In the earliest, the Homeric Hymn to Apollo, little detail is given about Apollo's combat with the serpent or its parentage. The version related by Hyginus holds that when Zeus lay with the goddess Leto, and she was to deliver Artemis and Apollo, Hera sent Python to pursue her throughout the lands, so that she could not be delivered wherever the sun shone. Thus when the infant was grown he pursued the python, making his way straight for Mount Parnassus where the serpent dwelled, and chased it to the oracle of Gaia at Delphi, and dared to penetrate the sacred precinct and kill it with his arrows beside the rock cleft where the priestess sat on her tripod. The priestess of the oracle at Delphi became known as the Pythia, after the place-name Pytho, which was named after the rotting (πύθειν) of the serpent's corpse after it was slain.


title: Dragons in Greek mythology

text: Known as "Drakôn Kolkhikos", (, , "Dragon of Colchis") this immense serpent, a child of Typhon and Echidna, guarded the Golden Fleece at Colchis. It was said to never sleep, rest, or lower its vigilance. According to Ovid's "Metamorphoses", the monster had a crest and three tongues. When Jason went to retrieve the Fleece, the witch Medea put the dragon to sleep with her magic and drugs, or perhaps Orpheus lulled it to sleep with his lyre. Afterwards, Medea herself had dragons pull her chariot.


title: Dragons in Greek mythology

text: The Ismenian Serpent, of the spring of Ismene at Thebes, Greece, was slain by the hero Cadmus. It was the offspring of Ares, who later turned the hero into a serpent.


title: Dragons in Greek mythology

text: According to Apollodorus, the sun god Helios had a chariot, drawn by "winged dragons", which he gave to his granddaughter Medea.


title: Dragons in Greek mythology

text: When Heracles was traveling through Scythia with the cattle of Geryon, she stole some of the herd when the hero was sleeping. When Heracles woke he searched for them, visiting every part of the country, and he came to the land called the Hylaea (), and there he found in a cave the creature, which was the queen of that country. She insisted the hero mate with her before she would return them. He did so and through her became the ancestor of an ancient line of Scythian kings.


title: Dragons in Greek mythology

text: A dragon that was thrown at Athena during the Gigantomachy. She threw it into the sky where it became the constellation Draco.


title: House of Munsö

text: The House of Munsö (), also called the House of Björn Ironside (Swedish: ), the House of Uppsala (Swedish: ) or simply the Old dynasty (Swedish: ), is the earliest reliably attested royal dynasty of Sweden, ruling during the Viking Age. None of the names suggested for the dynasty are universally accepted and most are problematic; the name "House of Munsö" derives from a questionable and speculative theory that they would have ruled from the island of Munsö and the name "House of Björn Ironside" derives from the supposed founder of the dynasty, Björn Ironside, who is often seen as a legendary, rather than historical, figure.


title: House of Munsö

text: A long and elaborate sequence of kings of the Munsö dynasty can be found in 12th and 13th century Icelandic sagas, but the sagas are overwhelmingly considered unreliable, with the kings that appear in them seen as legendary figures. The sequence of kings in the sagas is contradicted by more contemporary German sources such as the 9th century writings of Rimbert and the 11th century work of Adam of Bremen.


title: House of Munsö

text: Due to a lack of preserved sources, little concrete information is known of Swedish kings during the Viking Age. Although long and elaborate king lists are provided by Icelandic sagas, sometimes contradictory mixtures of myths and poetry, and poems, these works (including texts such as "Ynglinga saga", "Hervarar saga", "Ynglingatal" and "Langfeðgatal") are not considered reliable sources by modern scholars. Critically, a majority of them were written in the 12th to 13th century, centuries after the kings they described are supposed to have lived; what is genuine history and what is myth and legend is impossible to determine and everything contained in them must as such be regarded as legendary, if not fictional. The 12th and 13th centuries was a time when royal power was being consolidated in Norway, Denmark and Sweden and as such, king lists may have been created out of a political and social needs (i.e. justifying the rule of a royal dynasty), rather than a desire to tell genuine history. Many of Sweden's legendary kings would have preceded the Viking Age, but historical evidence of early geopolitics in Scandinavia suggests that larger political structures, kingdoms such as medieval Sweden, Norway and Denmark, did not form until the late Viking Age. The centralization of power under one monarch is believed to have resulted from, or at the very least have been connected to, Viking expansion, with petty kings increasing their power through aggressive military ventures directed both to foreign lands (i.e. Viking raids) and against their neighbors.


title: House of Munsö

text: In his 12th-century work "Gesta Danorum", Danish author Saxo Grammaticus wrote that the Swedish kings of the Viking Age were part of the dynasty of the Ynglings, a possibly entirely invented line of ancient Scandinavian kings supposedly descended from Odin, but this does not accord with the Icelandic sagas, which hold that the Ynglings were driven from Sweden in the middle of the 7th century and replaced by other dynasties. There is no preserved contemporary name for the Viking Age dynasty, and there exists no universally accepted name for them in modern historiography. The name "House of Munsö" () derives from a questionable and speculative theory that the kings of the 9th century transferred their royal seat of power from Uppsala (an important early political center in Sweden) to the island of Munsö in the lake Mälaren. The supportive evidence for this theory; a large burial mound on Munsö and a contemporary account by German missionary Rimbert giving the impression that the Swedish king had his seat near the island-settlement of Birka, is quite thin. Since the name "House of Munsö" arguably takes a stand in favor of this theory, it is commonly avoided in modern Swedish scholarship. The name "House of Uppsala" () derives from the fact that the Icelandic sagas often designate legendary Swedish rulers as kings "in Uppsala", and is similarly problematic. The dynasty is thus sometimes simply designated as "the Old dynasty" (), a more neutral designation. The rarely used name "House of Björn Ironside" () comes from the dynasty supposedly descending from the legendary Viking Björn Ironside according to the later Icelandic sagas. The big burial mound at Munsö was attributed, without evidence, to Björn Ironside by 18th-century historians, an identification that is not accepted by historians today.


title: House of Munsö

text: The line of Munsö dynasty kings presented by the Icelandic sagas is not accepted by modern historians, the legendary kings (including the supposed founder of the dynasty, Björn Ironside) typically not being recognized as actual historical figures. The four kings of the dynasty whose existence is corroborated by multiple sources, and who are thus generally accepted as real historical kings of Sweden and recognized as such by the modern Swedish monarchy are Eric the Victorious, Olof Skötkonung, Anund Jacob and Emund the Old. The answer to the question regarding who was Sweden's first king depends on what is meant with "Sweden"; the earliest king reliably known to have ruled both Svealand and Götaland, the core territories of the country, was Olof Skötkonung, who is also listed first in most medieval Swedish king lists.


title: House of Munsö

text: The Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks has in some versions an addition which gives a regnal list of Sweden following the death of Ingjald Illråde, the last king of the Yngling dynasty. Sweden was first ruled by Ivar Vidfamne, then Harald Wartooth and his son Eysteinn Beli, before Björn Ironside conquered Sweden. He founded the House of Munsö, and the saga then follows his descendants until Philip of Sweden.


title: House of Munsö

text: Rimbert, who travelled with the bishop Ansgar to Sweden as a missionary in the 9th century, wrote about several kings in "Vita Ansgari". As Rimbert was a contemporary to the kings he writes about, the Vita is seen as a believable source. Adam of Bremen alludes to the kings mentioned by Rimbert and expands the list of kings to cover the following centuries. However, the distance in time is greater, and he is thus seen as a weaker source for the time before Eric the Victorious. Though no genealogical information is provided by either which confidently connects the kings they mention with Eric the Victorious and his descendants, they are typically assumed to have been part of the same royal dynasty. Attempts have been made to harmonize Rimbert's and Adam of Bremen's kings with the kings mentioned in the sagas (whose existence is otherwise seen as contradicted by their writings), but due to a lack of documented evidence, such attempts have to be considered unreliable and unverifiable.


title: House of Munsö

text: There are also a few kings mentioned in various sources, but which are inconsitenstly placed in the regnal list, or not at all. These include:


title: 1982–83 European Cup

text: The 1982–83 season of the European Cup football club tournament was won for the first time by Hamburg, who beat Juventus 1–0 in the final at Athens' Olympic Stadium.


title: 1982–83 European Cup

text: It was the first time since 1976 that the trophy did not go to a club from England. Aston Villa, the defending champions, were eliminated by Juventus in the quarter-finals. Liverpool, the other English side in the tournament, were defeated by Polish champions Widzew Lodz, also in the quarter-finals.


title: Kuznetsov NK-12

text: The Kuznetsov NK-12 is a Soviet turboprop engine of the 1950s, designed by the Kuznetsov design bureau. The NK-12 drives two large four-bladed contra-rotating propellers, diameter (NK-12MA), and diameter (NK-12MV). It is the most powerful turboprop engine to enter service.


title: Kuznetsov NK-12

text: The design that eventually became the NK-12 turboprop was developed after World War II by a team of Soviet scientists and deported German engineers under Ferdinand Brandner, who had worked for Junkers previously; the design bureau was headed by chief engineer Nikolai D. Kuznetsov. Thus, the NK-12 design evolved from late-war German turboprop studies. This started with the postwar development of the wartime Jumo 022 turboprop design that was designed to develop , weighing . The effort continued with a , weighing , completed by 1947. Evolution to the TV-12 engine required extensive use of new Soviet-developed alloys and was completed in 1951.


title: Kuznetsov NK-12

text: The NK-12 is the most powerful turboprop engine to enter service, ahead of the Europrop TP400 (in 2005). Another engine of similar size, the Pratt & Whitney T57 with and jet thrust, ran 3,100 hours before being cancelled in 1957. The NK-12 powers the Tupolev Tu-95 bomber and its derivatives such as the Tu-142 maritime patrol aircraft and the Tupolev Tu-114 airliner (with NK-12MV), which still holds the title of the world's fastest propeller-driven aircraft despite being retired from service in 1991. It also powered the Antonov An-22 Antei (with NK-12MA), the world's largest aircraft at the time, and several types of amphibious assault craft, such as the A-90 Orlyonok "Ekranoplan".


title: Kuznetsov NK-12

text: The engine has a 14-stage axial-flow compressor, producing pressure ratios between 9:1 and 13:1 depending on altitude, with variable inlet guide vanes and blow-off valves for engine operability. The combustion system used is a cannular-type: each flame tube is centrally mounted on a downstream injector that ends in an annular secondary region. The contra-rotating propellers and compressor are driven by the five-stage axial turbine. Mass flow is 65 kg (143 lb) per second.


title: Gross-Rosen concentration camp

text: Gross-Rosen was a network of Nazi concentration camps built and operated by Nazi Germany during World War II. The main camp was located in the German village of Gross-Rosen, now the modern-day Rogoźnica in Lower Silesian Voivodeship, Poland; directly on the rail-line between the towns of Jawor (Jauer) and Strzegom (Striegau). Its prisoners were mostly Jews, Poles and Soviet citizens.


title: Gross-Rosen concentration camp

text: At its peak activity in 1944, the Gross-Rosen complex had up to 100 subcamps located in eastern Germany and in German-occupied Czechoslovakia and Poland. The population of all Gross-Rosen camps at that time accounted for 11% of the total number of inmates incarcerated in the Nazi concentration camp system.


title: Gross-Rosen concentration camp

text: KZ Gross-Rosen was set up in the summer of 1940 as a satellite camp of the Sachsenhausen concentration camp from Oranienburg. Initially, the slave labour was carried out in a huge stone quarry owned by the "SS-Deutsche Erd- und Steinwerke GmbH" (SS German Earth and Stone Works). In the fall of 1940 the use of labour in Upper Silesia was taken over by the new Organization Schmelt formed on the orders of Heinrich Himmler. It was named after its leader "SS-Oberführer" Albrecht Schmelt. The company was put in charge of employment from the camps with Jews intended to work for food only.


title: Gross-Rosen concentration camp

text: The Gross-Rosen location close to occupied Poland was of considerable advantage. Prisoners were put to work in the construction of a system of subcamps for expelees from the annexed territories. Gross Rosen became an independent camp on 1 May 1941. As the complex grew, the majority of inmates were put to work in the new Nazi enterprises attached to these subcamps.


title: Gross-Rosen concentration camp

text: In October 1941 the SS transferred about 3,000 Soviet POWs to Gross-Rosen for execution by shooting. Gross-Rosen was known for its brutal treatment of the so-called "Nacht und Nebel" prisoners vanishing without a trace from targeted communities. Most died in the granite quarry. The brutal treatment of the political and Jewish prisoners was not only in the hands of guards and German criminal prisoners brought in by the "SS", but to a lesser extent also fuelled by the German administration of the stone quarry responsible for starvation rations and denial of medical help. In 1942, for political prisoners, the average survival time-span was less than two months.


title: Gross-Rosen concentration camp

text: Due to a change of policy in August 1942, prisoners were likely to survive longer because they were needed as slave workers in German war industries. Among the companies that benefited from the slave labour of the concentration camp inmates were German electronics manufacturers such as Blaupunkt, Siemens, as well as Krupp, IG Farben, and Daimler-Benz, among others. Some prisoners who were not able to work but not yet dying were sent to the Dachau concentration camp in so-called "invalid" transports.


title: Gross-Rosen concentration camp

text: The largest population of inmates, however, were Jews, initially from the Dachau and Sachsenhausen camps, and later from Buchenwald. During the camp's existence, the Jewish inmate population came mainly from Poland and Hungary; others were from Belgium, France, Netherlands, Greece, Yugoslavia, Slovakia, and Italy.


title: Gross-Rosen concentration camp

text: Following the unsuccessful Polish Warsaw Uprising of 1944, the Germans deported 3,000 Poles from the Dulag 121 camp in Pruszków, where they were initially imprisoned, to Gross-Rosen. Those Poles were mainly people of 20 to 40 years of age.


title: Gross-Rosen concentration camp

text: At its peak activity in 1944, the Gross-Rosen complex had up to 100 subcamps, located in eastern Germany and German-occupied Czechoslovakia and Poland. In its final stage, the population of the Gross-Rosen camps accounted for 11% of the total inmates in Nazi concentration camps at that time. A total of 125,000 inmates of various nationalities passed through the complex during its existence, of whom an estimated 40,000 died on site, on death marches and in evacuation transports. The camp was liberated on 14 February 1945 by the Red Army. A total of over 500 female camp guards were trained and served in the Gross-Rosen complex. Female SS staffed the women's subcamps of Brünnlitz, Graeben, Gruenberg, Gruschwitz Neusalz, Hundsfeld, Kratzau II, Oberaltstadt, Reichenbach, and Schlesiersee Schanzenbau.


title: Gross-Rosen concentration camp

text: The Gabersdorf labour camp had been part of a network of forced labor camps for Jewish prisoners that had operated under Organization Schmelt since 1941. The spinning mill where the female Jewish prisoners worked had been "Aryanized" in 1939 by a Vienna-based company called Vereinigte Textilwerke K. H. Barthel & Co. The prisoners also worked in factories operated by the companies Aloys Haase and J. A. Kluge und Etrich. By 18 March 1944 Gabersdorf had become a subcamp of Gross-Rosen.


title: Gross-Rosen concentration camp

text: One subcamp of Gross-Rosen was the Brünnlitz labor camp, situated in the Czechoslovakian town of Brněnec, where Jews rescued by Oskar Schindler were interned.


title: Gross-Rosen concentration camp

text: The Brieg subcamp, located near the village of Pampitz, had originally been the location of a Jewish forced labor camp until August 1944, when the Jewish prisoners were replaced by the first transport of prisoners from the Gross-Rosen main camp. The camp was mostly staffed by soldiers from the "Luftwaffe" and a few SS members. Most of the prisoners were Polish, with smaller numbers of Russian and Czech prisoners. Most of the Poles had been evacuated from the Pawiak prison in Warsaw; others had been arrested within the territory controlled by the Reich or had been transported from Kraków and Radom.


title: Gross-Rosen concentration camp

text: Brieg's camp kitchen was run by Czech prisoners. The three daily meals included 1 pint of "mehlzupa" (a soup made from water and meal), 150 grams of bread, 1 quart of soup made with rutabaga, beets, cabbage, kale or sometimes nettles, 1 pint of black "coffee" and a spoonful of molasses. Sometimes "hard workers" called "zulaga" would be rewarded with a piece of blood sausage or raw horsemeat sausage, jam and margarine. Prisoners also received 1 cup of Knorr soup per week.


title: Gross-Rosen concentration camp

text: During the Gross-Rosen initial period of operation as a formal subcamp of Sachsenhausen, the following two "SS" "Lagerführer" officers served as the camp commandants, the "SS-Untersturmführer" Anton Thumann, and "SS-Untersturmführer" Georg Güßregen. From May 1941 until liberation, the following officials served as commandants of a fully independent concentration camp at Gross-Rosen:


title: Gross-Rosen concentration camp

text: On 12 August 1948 the trial of three Gross Rosen camp officials, Johannes Hassebroek, Helmut Eschner and Eduard Drazdauskas, began before a Soviet Military Court. On 7 October 1948 all were found guilty of war crimes. Eschner and Drazdauskas were sentenced to life imprisonment and Hassebroek was sentenced to death, but this was later commuted also to life imprisonment.


title: Gross-Rosen concentration camp

text: The most far-reaching expansion of the Gross-Rosen system of labour camps took place in 1944 due to accelerated demand for support behind the advancing front. The character and purpose of new camps shifted toward defense infrastructure. In some cities, as in Wrocław (Breslau) camps were established in every other district. It is estimated that their total number reached 100 at that point according to list of their official destinations. The biggest sub-camps included "AL Fünfteichen" in Jelcz-Laskowice, four camps in Wrocław, "Dyhernfurth" in Brzeg Dolny, "Landeshut" in Kamienna Góra, and the entire Project Riese along the Owl Mountains.


title: Kian Lawley

text: Kian Robert Lawley (born September 2, 1995 in Sioux City, Iowa) is an American YouTuber, influencer and actor.


title: Kian Lawley

text: Lawley launched his personal YouTube channel, superkian13, in 2010. Lawley has also been a part of collaborative YouTube channels, including "Our2ndLife". Lawley shares the YouTube channel "KianAndJc" with fellow YouTuber JC Caylen.


title: Kian Lawley

text: Lawley's first role in a feature film was in the 2015 film "The Chosen." Lawley went on to feature in the films "Shovel Buddies" (2016), "Boo! A Madea Halloween" (2016), "Boo 2! A Madea Halloween" (2017), "Before I Fall" (2017) for which he won a Teen Choice Award, and "Monster Party" (2018). In 2017, Lawley worked with Caylen on their show "H8TERS" and starred in the Daytime Emmy Award winning first season of "Zac & Mia". In 2018, footage of Lawley resurfaced in which he used racial slurs, leading to his role in "The Hate U Give" being recast, and to him being dropped by his talent agency, CAA.


title: Kian Lawley

text: Kian Lawley was born on September 2, 1995, in Sioux City, Iowa. He has Polish, Irish and German heritage. At a young age, his family moved to San Clemente, California.


title: Kian Lawley

text: Lawley launched his first channel in 2010, under the name Superkian13. Lawley also had a collaborative channel with Sam Pottorff in 2011, named KianSam13. In 2012, Lawley started a collaborative channel "Our2ndLife" (commonly known as O2L) along with JC Caylen, Ricky Dillon, Trevi Moran, Connor Franta, and Sam Pottorff. The channel grew to over 2.8 million subscribers and in 2014 the group headlined a 19-city tour but they later separated in December 2014. Lawley and Caylen launched their collaborative channel KianAndJc in January 2015. At the 2015 Teen Choice Awards, Lawley won the award for Choice YouTuber. Lawley and Caylen have taken a shift on their channel with more significant productions. In July 2019, they premiered their new "Big Brother"-style series "The Reality House" which features a group of YouTubers in a house competing to win $25,000. The series did extremely well, gaining over 25 million views collectively across all ten episodes and a second season began filming in November 2019. The second season premiered in January 2020 and included more elaborate challenges and an increased prize of $50,000. The second season was also a success online with the first two seasons gaining nearly a million views per episode. A third season is pending.


title: Kian Lawley

text: Lawley's first starring role was in the 2015 film "The Chosen" in which he played a 19 year old who must contend with a demon to save his niece. In 2016, he co-starred with Bella Thorne in the comedy "Shovel Buddies". In March 2016, the film was selected and premiered at SXSW Festival. In an interview about the film Lawley said "I don’t plan to ditch to YouTube, I plan to do both [acting and YouTube]". Lawley also played "Bean Boy" in the 2016 Tyler Perry comedy "Boo! A Madea Halloween."


title: Kian Lawley

text: In 2017, Lawley and JC Caylen starred in and executive produced their show "H8TERS", a comedy about internet celebrities, haters and millennial culture. That year, Lawley appeared alongside Zoey Deutch, Halston Sage, and Logan Miller in the film "Before I Fall", for which he won the award for Choice Movie Actor: Drama at the 2017 Teen Choice Awards. In 2017 he also starred in the series "Zac & Mia", a show that follows the lives of two ordinary teenagers undergoing cancer treatment. The show was nominated for six Daytime Emmy Awards and won two: Outstanding Lead Actress in a Digital Daytime Drama Series and Outstanding Writing in a Digital Drama Series. In 2017, AwesomenessTV renewed "Zac & Mia" for a second season. In 2018, Lawley received a nomination for the Best Actor In A Digital Drama Daytime Emmy Award for his performance in "Zac & Mia".


title: Kian Lawley

text: On February 5, 2018, it was announced that Lawley had been fired from "The Hate U Give" due to a resurfaced video showing Lawley using racially offensive slurs. His scenes as Chris, the main character's boyfriend, were reshot with "Riverdale" star KJ Apa. Lawley released an apology on Twitter, stating, "I am deeply sorry to those that were effected ["sic"] by my choice of language. I respect Fox's decision to recast this role for "The Hate U Give" as it is an important story, and it would not be appropriate for me to be involved considering the actions of my past. I understand the impact and I have grown a lot and learned since then." He was subsequently dropped by his talent agency CAA.


title: GeForce 256

text: The GeForce 256 is the original release in Nvidia's "GeForce" product-line. Announced on August 31, 1999 and released on October 11, 1999, the GeForce 256 improves on its predecessor (RIVA TNT2) by increasing the number of fixed pixel pipelines, offloading host geometry calculations to a hardware transform and lighting (T&L) engine, and adding hardware motion compensation for MPEG-2 video. It offered a notably large leap in 3D PC gaming performance and was the first fully Direct3D 7-compliant 3D accelerator.


title: GeForce 256

text: The chip was manufactured by TSMC using its 220 nm CMOS process. There are two versions of the GeForce 256 the SDR version released in October 1999 and the DDR version released in mid-December 1999 each with a different type of SDRAM memory. The SDR version uses SDR SDRAM memory from Samsung Electronics, while the later DDR version uses DDR SDRAM memory from Hyundai Electronics (now SK Hynix).


title: GeForce 256

text: GeForce 256 was marketed as "the world's first 'GPU', or Graphics Processing Unit", a term Nvidia defined at the time as "a single-chip processor with integrated transform, lighting, triangle setup/clipping, and rendering engines that is capable of processing a minimum of 10 million polygons per second".


title: GeForce 256

text: The "256" in its name stems from the "256-bit QuadPipe Rendering Engine", a term describing the four 64-bit pixel pipelines of the NV10 chip. In single-textured games NV10 could put out 4 pixels per cycle, while a two-textured scenario would limit this to 2 multitextured pixels per cycle, as the chip still had only one TMU per pipeline, just as TNT2. In terms of rendering features, GeForce 256 also added support for cube environment mapping and dot-product (Dot3) bump mapping.


title: GeForce 256

text: The integration of the transform and lighting hardware into the GPU itself set the GeForce 256 apart from older 3D accelerators that relied on the CPU to perform these calculations (also known as software transform and lighting). This reduction of 3D graphics solution complexity brought the cost of such hardware to a new low and made it accessible to cheap consumer graphics cards instead of being limited to the previous expensive professionally oriented niche designed for computer-aided design (CAD). NV10's T&L engine also allowed Nvidia to enter the CAD market with dedicated cards for the first time, with a product called Quadro. The Quadro line uses the same silicon chips as the GeForce cards, but has different driver support and certifications tailored to the unique requirements of CAD applications.


title: GeForce 256

text: Compared to previous high-end 3D game accelerators, such as 3dfx Voodoo3 3500 and Nvidia RIVA TNT2 Ultra, GeForce provided up to a 50% or greater improvement in frame rate in some games (ones specifically written to take advantage of the hardware T&L) when coupled with a very-low-budget CPU. The later release and widespread adoption of GeForce 2 MX/4 MX cards with the same feature set meant unusually long support for the GeForce 256, until approximately 2006, in games such as or Half-Life 2, the latter of which featured a Direct3D 7 path, targeting the fixed-function pipeline of these GPUs.


title: GeForce 256

text: Without broad application support at the time, critics pointed out that the T&L technology had little real-world value. Initially, it was only somewhat beneficial in certain situations in a few OpenGL-based 3D first-person shooters, most notably "Quake III Arena". Benchmarks using low-budget CPUs like the Celeron 300A would give favourable results for the GeForce 256, but benchmarks done with some CPUs such as the Pentium II 300 would give better results with some older graphics cards like the 3dfx Voodoo 2. 3dfx and other competing graphics-card companies pointed out that a fast CPU could more than make up for the lack of a T&L unit. Software support for hardware T&L was not commonplace until several years after the release of the first GeForce. Early drivers were buggy and slow, while 3dfx cards enjoyed efficient, high-speed, mature Glide API and/or MiniGL support for the majority of games. Only after the GeForce 256 was replaced by the GeForce 2, and ATI's T&L-equipped Radeon was also on the market, did hardware T&L become a widely utilized feature in games.


title: GeForce 256

text: The GeForce 256 was also quite expensive for the time and didn't offer tangible advantages over competitors' products outside of 3D acceleration. For example, its GUI and video playback acceleration were not significantly better than that offered by competition or even older Nvidia products. Additionally, some GeForce cards were plagued with poor analog signal circuitry, which caused display output to be blurry.


title: GeForce 256

text: As CPUs became faster, the GeForce 256 demonstrated that the disadvantage of hardware T&L is that, if a CPU is fast enough, it can perform T&L functions faster than the GPU, thus making the GPU a hindrance to rendering performance. This changed the way the graphics market functioned, encouraging shorter graphics-card lifetimes and placing less emphasis on the CPU for gaming.


title: GeForce 256

text: The GeForce 256 introduced motion compensation as a functional unit of the NV10 chip, this first-generation unit would be succeeded by Nvidia's HDVP (High-Definition Video Processor) in GeForce 2 GTS.


title: Aktau

text: Aktau ( , ) is a city in Kazakhstan, located on the eastern shore of the Caspian Sea. Its current name means "white mountain" in Kazakh, which may be due to its cliffs that overlook the Caspian. From 1964 to 1991, the city was known as Shevchenko. Its former name was given due to the eponymous Ukrainian poet's period of exile in the area. It is located on the Mangyshlak Peninsula and is the capital of the Mangystau Region.


title: Aktau

text: Aktau is known for its unique block address system. Almost no streets in Aktau have names; instead, addresses generally consist of three numbers: the district number (also known as micro-region/micro-district/block), the building number, and the apartment number. This is because Aktau was originally planned as a camp for the workers of the oil industry.


title: Aktau

text: The territory of what is now Aktau was once inhabited by ancient tribes of Scythians. Archeological finds in the area include old settlements and utensils. The current territory of Mangystau hosted a spur route of the northern silk road, which resulted in the founding of several Sufi shrines in Aktau's vicinity. However, the area had very little population prior to Soviet times and no cities of any relevancy, almost certainly due to the scarcity of fresh water.


title: Aktau

text: In 1958, uranium prospectors settled the site of modern Aktau, naming the settlement Melovoye after the bay on which it stood. After the development of the uranium deposits was started, the settlement was closed and renamed Guryev-20. In 1963, its closed status was lifted, town status was granted, and the name was changed to Aktau. However, in 1964 it was given yet another name, Shevchenko, to honor the Ukrainian poet Taras Shevchenko who spent 1850–1857 in political exile in Novopetrovskoye, about to the northwest. This Ukrainian name for the city may have been granted due to the large number of Ukrainian workers who settled in the city. Their descendants are often easily identifiable to this day with many having surnames ending in '-enko'. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union and Kazakhstan gaining independence, the name Aktau was restored in 1991, but the city's airport still retains SCO as its IATA code.


title: Aktau

text: The Mosque of Chahbagota's most surprising is that Islam has prohibited the depiction of humans or portions of their bodies but the portrayal of man's palm is represented at the walls of this mosque with lotus flowers.


title: Aktau

text: Aktau was once the site of a nuclear power station. The BN-350 FBR went online in 1973, and was shut down in 1999. The long-term plans of the Government of Kazakhstan include the construction of a new nuclear power station to be built near the site. In addition to producing plutonium, BN-350 was used to provide power and for desalination to supply fresh water to the city. The current station is not considered powerful enough to supply the fresh water and energy needed at this time, and blackouts are a common occurrence.


title: Aktau

text: Kazakhstan has been increasing the importance of Aktau's port with its changes in international export policy. It has been attempting to halt the transit of grain through the Black Sea and instead use routes over the Caspian or via Turkmenistan. Aktau's port has been expanded (completion achieved summer 2015) to accommodate ever larger quantities and more diverse types of cargo. The intent is for cargo to transit by ship over the Caspian Sea and then by rail through Azerbaijan and Georgia for delivery in Turkey and beyond. This new route was made possible by the opening of a railway connecting Georgia and Turkey in 2014.


title: Aktau

text: There is also a railway station Mangystau, about 12 km away from Aktau's city center. Trip from Aktau to Astana will take around 2 days, to Almaty around 3 days.


title: Aktau

text: Aktau experiences a cold desert climate (Köppen "BWk"), with warm to hot dry summers and cold winters, with a mean January temperature of , and a mean July temperature of . It is notable that most of the city of Aktau lies below sea level in the Caspian Depression and is proximate to the lowest point in Kazakhstan and the former Soviet Union at Karagiye.


title: Aktau

text: The beach season lasts from May to September, with an average sea temperature of . Aktau has both rocky hills and sandy beaches along the seashore. There are several modern resorts on the coast to the south of the city. The beaches of the Caspian shore are popular in the summer, due to the hot climate of the season. Tourists come mainly from other parts of Kazakhstan. The city has a variety of local hotels and western chains of Renaissance and Holiday Inn.


title: Aktau

text: In 2021, it was announced that three rare species of palms with resistance to freezing are being grown as part of an experiment in the Aktau region. The experiment is being performed by the Mangyshlak Experimental Botanical Garden in Aktau city.


title: Aktau

text: The main attraction in the city remains the Caspian Sea with its long side walks and beaches. Other sights include:


title: Aktau

text: Aktau is the home of football club FC Caspiy. The club's home ground is Zhastar Stadium which has a capacity of 5,000. In 2019, they finished 2nd place in the Kazakhstan First Division and gained outright promotion to the Kazakhstan Premier League, the top division of football in Kazakhstan.


title: Aktau

text: In 1967 the people of Aktau erected a time capsule to send a message to future generations of the Mangyshlak Peninsula, including names of people who helped to build the town in the desert. The letter was put in a metallic cylinder in a triangular marble urn. It was opened in November 2017. The capsule is located in District 2, opposite the 'Kazakhstan Trade Center.'


title: Aktau

text: A ceremony to open the capsule was arranged and people traveled from far and wide to attend. This was subsequently postponed and then cancelled when it became known that capsule was, in fact, missing. Previously the capsule had been buried in another part of the town but building works in that location caused it to be relocated to the District 2 location. The capsule did not make the move. An official from the time of the creation of the capsule who had been involved in the drafting of a message to be included within the capsule was able to remember word for word the message that was written which by all accounts contained a theme of hope for the future.


title: Aktau

text: Major industry of the city remains hydrocarbon production as one of the biggest producing regions of the country.


title: Aktau

text: In addition to its strategic location as the main seaport, Aktau attracted the biggest players of the oil service industry:


title: Aktau

text: On September 11, 2007, President Nursultan Nazarbayev started the "Aktau city" project in order to develop tourism and attract investment. A totally new city was to have been built to the north-west of the current city with 4 million square meters of new residential and business buildings. The architecture style would have been derived from UAE's construction experience under the patronage of Sheikh Abdullah ibn Zaid Al Nahayan. In August 2013, the project was called off.


title: Rune Factory 4

text: Features common to previous games in the "Rune Factory" series, including farming, dungeon exploring, and marriage, return in "Rune Factory 4".


title: Rune Factory 4

text: Crafting is one of the main features in the series, with which all equipment used by the main character is created. From shoes to many types of weapons, crafting materials of various stats to form new equipment is the key to character progression - more so than the traditional leveling up feature that most RPGs rely on.


title: Rune Factory 4

text: "Rune Factory 4" adds the ability to make "Orders". As the prince or princess of Selphia, these Orders can range from requesting a town event (such as a harvest festival) to pushing back a storm from wiping out your crops.


title: Rune Factory 4

text: The game begins by offering the player two lines of dialogue, and the choice between the two determines their character's gender. It is revealed that the character is traveling by airship to the town of Selphia to meet and deliver a gift to its 'god'. The airship, however, is invaded by rogue soldiers and a fight ensues. During the fight the character is hit in the head and it is later revealed that they developed amnesia, as has been the case with all previous "Rune Factory" mobile installments. The player is thrown out of the airship and lands in the town of Selphia, where they are mistaken for a member of royalty who was supposed to be showing up soon to help run the town. Although this is quickly revealed not to be the case, the actual prince, named Arthur, who was due to arrive, is happy to let the player take over his job. From there on out you are to attract tourists, gain trust from the villagers in Selphia, and work around the town to unlock features needed to carry on with the slice of life aspects of the game. At the same time, you will find a mysterious force at work in the nearby dungeons that is in need of investigation, with some monsters turning into humans upon their defeat. You may also date a bachelor or bachelorette, get married, and have one child. There are six bachelors and six bachelorettes, each have their own charming points and back stories which you will learn through series of events before marriage. You can equip other villagers, even your child, with battle gear and have maximum two person to fight alongside you. Characters from "Rune Factory 2" and "3", Barrett and Raven, appear as cameos and can be recruited into a players party for dungeon exploration.


title: Rune Factory 4

text: Rune Factory 4 features many characters residing in Selphia. If playing as the male protagonist, the player can choose to marry one of the following female characters:


title: Rune Factory 4

text: If playing as the female protagonist, the player can choose to marry one of the following male characters:


title: Rune Factory 4

text: Producer Yoshifumi Hashimoto said that the main theme is "passionate love, sweet marriage". This led him to greatly expand the types of dating events and their dramatic nature, and creating scenarios where players can go adventuring with their families. This was done to create a world that is not purely combat or farming driven, but gives players a choice. Another focus of development was to make farming, though repetitive by nature, a satisfying experience for a player. Drawing inspiration from games such as Pikmin, where Captain Olimar would pull Pikmin from the ground with a pop, and DokiDoki Panic, he decided to make the game's framerate run at 60 so that character responses to controller input would be felt immediately. It was announced in January 2013 that publisher Xseed Games would be localizing the game for North American audiences; they had previously localized "Rune Factory Frontier" for the Wii.


title: Rune Factory 4

text: On September 12, Xseed Games announced that the game would have a release date for the North American audiences, which was announced to be October 1, 2013. Xseed would later release the game in Europe and Australia via the 3DS eShop on December 11, 2014. An enhanced version of the game for the Nintendo Switch, titled "Rune Factory 4 Special", was released in Japan on July 25, 2019, in North America on February 25, 2020, and in Europe and Australia on February 28, 2020. This release features a new opening theme, another difficulty option, and uses Live2D technology for the additional Newlywed mode. This version of the game was also released for the PlayStation 4, Xbox One and Microsoft Windows on December 7, 2021.


title: Rune Factory 4

text: Japanese sales exceeded 150,000 copies, becoming the best selling game in the "Rune Factory" series, eclipsing "", which had the top sales prior. Profits were well above expectation for game publisher Marvelous AQL. Due to the game's success, the game caused an upward revision of profits by 106.7% for the second financial quarter of 2012.


title: Division insignia of the United States Army

text: Shoulder sleeve insignia (SSI) are cloth emblems worn on the shoulders of US Army uniforms to identify the primary headquarters to which a soldier is assigned. The SSI of some army divisions have become known in popular culture.


text: Note: several insignia are of World War II formations. Note: US infantry divisions were not formed under the following numbers:"53"; "54"; "56"; "57"; "58"; "60"; "64";"67";"68".


title: Pinky ring

text: A pinky ring is a ring worn on the little finger of either hand, which is also called the "fifth finger".


title: Pinky ring

text: A variety of pinky rings are awarded to graduating engineering students in North America, generally intended to serve as a reminder of the significance and impact of their chosen profession. In Canada, these include the Iron Ring, made of either crudely worked iron or stainless steel and worn on the dominant hand, presented to engineering students during the Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer, and the silver, but otherwise similar Earth Ring, associated with the geologists and geophysicists of the Association of Professional Engineers and Geoscientists of Alberta. In the United States, the Engineer's Ring, awarded by the Order of the Engineer, is similar to the Canadian Iron Ring.


title: Pinky ring

text: Human ecology and home economics graduates also receive a pinky ring symbolizing their profession. The Human Ecology Ring was first instigated by a group of young graduates at Macdonald College, Quebec, in 1968.


title: Pinky ring

text: At times, pinky rings have been worn with the intent to convey a message or indicate affiliation. During the Victorian era, both single men and women uninterested in pursuing marriage could wear a ring on the little finger of their left hand.


title: Pinky ring

text: Especially in the United States, pinky rings also developed an association with criminal activity. Grifters were thought to wear such rings, sometimes to provide their associates with a source of funding for their funeral expenses in case of their death, as were made men in the American Mafia. Movies such as "Little Caesar" and "The Godfather" contributed to the association of this style of jewellery with organized crime.


title: Pinky ring

text: The more modern use of the pinky ring has weakened its traditional historic symbolism. In the early 20th century, these rings were popular in Parisian fashion, especially among the youth. In the United States, such rings have become a "fundamental of American style", in some way due to its symbolic past.


title: Pinky ring

text: Pliny the Elder noted, according to the 1938 Loeb Classical Library translation by Harris Rackham, "Some people put all their rings on their little finger only, while others wear only one ring even on that finger, and use it to seal up their signet ring, which is kept stored away as a rarity not deserving the insult of common use, and is brought out from its cabinet as from a sanctuary; thus even wearing a single ring on the little finger may advertise the possession of a costlier piece of apparatus put away in store."


title: Pinky ring

text: Some British men wear a signet ring on the little finger of the left hand, which is considered to be the correct place for it.


title: Pinky ring

text: In common with many American families, in homage to the British tradition, President Franklin D. Roosevelt wore a signet ring handed down to him by his father James, and which was inherited by FDR's son James Roosevelt. All three generations wore the signet on top of their wedding bands, on their left pinkies.


title: Pinky ring

text: FDR's pinky signet was noted and admired by Sir Winston Churchill (who wore his own gold signet on a different finger).


title: Pinky ring

text: Wedding bands (always a gift from wife to husband) were usually worn by Western men in the Victorian age on the left hand pinky finger, although few British men wore wedding rings until World War II. Because of masculine limitations, men were encouraged to wear a second ring if they desired, but it was to be worn on top of the wedding band so as to keep both rings confined to one finger. It appears the custom for men to wear their two rings on the left pinky was purely British and German; in America, men either followed the British tradition or wore no ring at all until much later.


title: Pinky ring

text: The use of the left-hand pinky finger as the wedding ring and royal signet or initial ring of the British Royal Family is an ironclad tradition dating back to the sons of Queen Victoria, who favored pinky rings in imitation of their mother as well as following German custom.


title: Arema F.C.

text: Arema Football Club is an Indonesian professional football club based in Malang, East Java. The club competes in the Liga 1, the top flight of Indonesian Football. They are considered one of the best and most successful football clubs in the country, and dons the nickname ("The Mad Lions" in Javanese).


title: Arema F.C.

text: The name Arema refers to a legendary figure in Malang folklore called Kebo Arema who was a knight in King Kertanegara of Singhasari's court when the latter ruled the kingdom in the 13th century. The kingdom's name relates to the contemporary Singosari district of Malang Regency, located a few miles north of Malang city. According to the folklore song of Panji Wijayakrama, Kebo Arema quashed a revolt by Kelana Bhayangkara until all the rebels were crushed like leaves eaten by caterpillars. In the ancient book of Negarakertagama, Kebo Arema also was cited as the one who ended the Cayaraja rebellion. Kebo Arema also led expansionary campaigns for Kertanegara. Together with Mahisa Anengah, Kebo Arema conquered the Pamalayu Kingdom on Sumatra island centered in what is now known as Jambi province in order to have access to the Malacca Strait. The heroism of Kebo Arema is little known because history books focus on the achievements of Kertanegara as the most prominent Singhasari king.


title: Arema F.C.

text: The name Arema reappeared in Malang around the 1980s. While it is unclear that the revival had anything to do with Kebo Arema, the name became popular among the youth in Malang who had developed a subculture. Arema is an acronym of Arek Malang, which means Youths of Malang. The Arema subculture has distinct identities, symbols and even languages that differentiates it from the main culture in the East Java province. It is often seen as a cultural challenge to the youth culture in the provincial capital of Surabaya. The Arek Malang proponents built their reputation and existence through rock music and local sports. Aside from boxing, football is the sport that strongly identifies with Arek Malang, especially the lower-income masses who find it as a platform for their expression.


title: Arema F.C.

text: Arema was established during the peak of the development of this subculture on 11 August 1987 and with a goal of developing a professional football club in Malang. At that time, the existing Malang club, Persema Malang, depended on government budget and was a federation of smaller clubs in Malang. A professional Malang club was the brainchild of Indonesian Army Brigadier General Acub Zaenal, who was active in the PSSI, the football association of Indonesia, and administered the country's first professional football competition Galatama, and Dirk Sutrisno, the founder of the Armada'86 football club in Malang who wanted to upgrade his team. The original name was Aremada, a combination of Armada and Arema, before becoming Arema'86. However, financial difficulties delayed the official incorporation of the Arema Football Club, until Acub Zaenal rescued the cause and paved way for Arema's participation in Galatama.


title: Arema F.C.

text: Because of its establishment was during the horoscope period of Leo, Arema chose the symbol of the lion, or "singo" (in Javanese language), which also constitutes the front part of the Singhasari or Singosari kingdom's name.


title: Arema F.C.

text: At the beginning of Arema's Galatama participation, the guerrilla-style search for professional-quality players took place one month before Arema was officially established. Arema tried to convince players of existing clubs to join, including Maryanto from Persema, Kusnadi Kamaludin from Armada, Mahdi Haris from Arseto, Jamrawi and Yohanes Geohera from Mitra Surabaya and goalkeeper Dony Latuperisa who was then undergoing PSSI suspension. A former Indonesian national team coach, Sinyo Aliandoe, also agreed to join. For their first accommodation, Arema players used military barracks provided by the Indonesian air force, which runs Malang's Abdul Rachman Saleh Airport. The airbase's grass field was also used as a training ground.


title: Arema F.C.

text: Arema faced numerous financial issues until Acub Zaenal became its stable financier and protector. Arema's Galatama achievements were initially erratic, although it never inhabited the bottom of the table. In almost every Galatama season, Arema never could stay long at the top. Nevertheless, Arema won the 1992 Galatama competition. At that time, the players included Indonesia national football team regulars Aji Santoso, Mecky Tata, Singgih Pitono and Jamrawi. Ever since, Arema has been considered part of the elite group of clubs in Indonesia with fanatical supporters, especially those who embody the youth sub-culture in Malang.


title: Arema F.C.

text: During the Liga Indonesia (abbreviated as Ligina) years from 1994 to 2007, Arema entered the advanced round seven times, including six times in the top 8 (1999–2000, 2001, 2002, 2005, 2006, and 2007). Despite its stable achievements, Arema was never free from financial problems. Almost every season, this ordeal haunted the club, leading to frequent organizational changes. In 2003, Arema experienced severe financial difficulties, which affected the team's performance. This led to the management of Arema being handed over to the cigarette manufacturing company Bentoel Group, which runs a factory near Malang, in the middle of the 2003 season. However, Arema still could not escape relegation to the Ligina's second-tier. That said, Bentoel financing helped Arema to bounce back and win promotion in 2004. After its return to the top league, Arema won the Copa Indonesia, the annual knockout tournament for football clubs, consecutively in 2005 and 2006. Arema's U-18 team also won the Soeratin Cup, the country's main youth tournament, in 2007. In 2006 and 2007, Arema and its coach Benny Dollo received awards from Tabloid Bola, Indonesia's leading sports publication, as the best team and best coach, respectively.


title: Arema F.C.

text: After another conflict in Indonesia's football league administration, the first Indonesia Super League competition, the 2008–09 edition, came about with Arema disappointingly finishing at 10th. Two months after the competition was over, on 3 August 2009 at Hotel Santika Malang, Bentoel Group sold Arema to a group of people, including fans, concerned about the club's performance and future. The release was also a by-product of the sale of majority shares owned by Bentoel Group in the Bentoel cigarette operations to multinational British American Tobacco (BAT) that had no intent to finance a local football club in Indonesia. Before that, there was a discourse of merging Arema with Persema Malang, but supporters objected this plan. In the 2009–10 season of ISL, Arema, which was coached by Dutchman Robert Alberts, won the title. Arema had a knack of coming back stronger after taking a hit, which endears it to its loyal band of supporters who accompany the team wherever they go.


title: Arema F.C.

text: Indonesian football experienced its worst spell of management after Arema's 2010 victory with a schism within the country's football management. PSSI in 2011 endorsed a newly founded league to rebrand the ISL and launched the Liga Prima Indonesia (Indonesia Premier League/IPL) as its direct replacement. However, ISL administrators rebelled against this move and continued the ISL series. Arema was also divided into two separate entities, Arema Indonesia in IPL and Arema Indonesia (later became Arema F.C.) in ISL. In 2012, Bakrie Group bought Arema after selling their ISL club Pelita Jaya (which was renamed to Pelita Bandung Raya after the selling) because of regulations that did not allow a company to own two clubs in the same league. It thwrated two clubs (Pelita Jaya and Arema) being mergered.


title: Arema F.C.

text: Arema Indonesia's founders claimed they had been given permission from Lucky Acub Zaenal, the son of Acub Zaenal, the co-founder of Arema Indonesia football club. Meanwhile, the Aremania fanclub rejected this, leading to the formation of Arema Cronus, which eventually became Arema FC.


title: Arema F.C.

text: The dualism ended in 2014 with the PSSI taking over the rebellious group that held onto the ISL series. FIFA also intervened and punished Indonesia for its poor management, leading to a competition vacuum in 2015. During the break, the Arema factions merged and agreed to use the name Arema Cronus for the resumption of the ISL in 2016. Prior to the 2017 season, the club changed its name again from Arema Cronus to Arema Football Club amid fan protests.


title: Arema F.C.

text: In the first Liga 1 season in 2017, Arema appointed Aji Santoso as head coach and introduced the "Pandawa 5", which consists of five club legends who are appointed as coaching staffs. However, this concept did not last long, because in the middle of the season, head coach Aji Santoso resigned because Arema stumbled in the middle of the standings. Joko Susilo, who became the successing head coach brought Arema to finish in 9th place with 49 points. Arema's management also maintained Susilo who, is familiarly called as Gethuk, to become the head coach in the 2018 Liga 1 season. Several assistant coaches were given the trust to assist him.


title: Arema F.C.

text: In the 2018 Liga 1 season, Arema performed poorly at the start of the season, with only one win from the first 6 matches of the season, leading to the sacking of head coach Joko Susilo. Milan Petrović was appointed as Arema's head coach who previously served as assistant coach. After the change of head coaches, Arema's performance began to improve by finishing in 6th position after being in the relegation zone at the start of the season.


title: Arema F.C.

text: In the 2019 Liga 1 season, Milomir Šešlija was appointed as the new head coach, who had led the team at 2016 Indonesia Soccer Championship A. Unfortunately, the performance of Singo Edan's squad in the season was good at the beginning, but continued to decline at the end of the competition. At the end of the 2019 Liga 1 season, Arema occupied the 9th position in the final standings.