title: McLaren MCL35

text: The MCL35 represented a substantial development over its predecessor, the MCL34, featuring a new design that increased aerodynamic efficiency and was better optimized for Renault engines. The MCL35 made its début at the 2020 Austrian Grand Prix after the start of the season was delayed by the COVID-19 pandemic. It was driven by Carlos Sainz Jr. and Lando Norris. McLaren finished in third place in the World Constructors' Championship for the first time since and achieved podiums at the Austrian and Italian Grands Prix, while also claiming three fastest laps and setting a track record at the Red Bull Ring.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: In 2021, the MCL35M was driven by Norris and Daniel Ricciardo. The updated car made its competitive début at the first race of the season, the 2021 Bahrain Grand Prix, and set two fastest laps, one pole position, and scored five podiums in total. The car took McLaren's first win since 2012 and first one-two finish since at the Italian Grand Prix. McLaren finished fourth in the Constructors' Championship, losing third place to Ferrari.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: James Key was recruited from Scuderia Toro Rosso in 2019 to replace the outgoing Tim Goss, and was the MCL35's lead designer. In October 2019 team principal Andreas Seidl stated very little of the MCL34 would be carried over to the MCL35, with the aim of reducing the overall pace deficit to the leading teams which at that point was still over a second. Lando Norris stated that one of the team's major areas of focus was to improve the MCL35's cornering capability.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: Compared to the MCL34, the MCL35 design had a greater emphasis on the outwash effect – moving air around the tyre rather than over it – and a higher rear rake. The front wing also had increased outboard loading in order to maximize downforce. The MCL35 featured a thinner nose and a more complex bargeboard, with more space between the front axle and the sidepods to better meet the cooling requirements of the Renault engine. The car utilized a much slimmer sidepod profile, with re-designed brake ducts to increase cooling ability over its predecessor. Key explained that the suspension geometry of the MCL35 had been redesigned to incorporate developments the team had not been able to implement on the MCL34, which included the repositioning of both the upper and lower wishbone elements to influence airflow over the bargeboards and floor.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: The success of both the MCL35 and the MCL35M have been in part credited to a change in design process from their predecessors, which emphasised the car as a whole and its performance relative to its competitors rather than the performance of individual components.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: The MCL35 and its livery were originally unveiled in February 2020, featuring the McLaren corporate colour of papaya and blue. Prior to the first race of the season in Austria, McLaren revealed the addition of a rainbow graphic on the sidepod and halo in recognition of Formula One's "#WeRaceAsOne" campaign. The changes were interpreted by some as representing the LGBT+ rainbow flag, but McLaren stated the rainbow represented their support for diversity in general and provided recognition for essential workers rather than for any specific cause.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: In contrast to the MCL34 and its glossy paintwork, the MCL35 was the first McLaren car to be wrapped with vinyl rather than painted, featuring a matte finish and greater use of black in order to lower the weight of the car and reduce the time required to prepare bodywork.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: Aside from minor upgrades, 2020-specification cars were meant to be kept largely unchanged for the 2021 season in order to limit the financial strain on teams that would be incurred by developing a new car under the already fragile financial conditions imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic. Since McLaren had already signed a contract to use Mercedes engines in 2021, they received special permission – subject to FIA inspection – to modify their chassis to accommodate the new engine. This requirement led directly to Formula One's adoption of a token-based system for 2021 vehicle development. Despite switching engines, McLaren did not switch gearboxes and continued to design and manufacture their own.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: Key stated in November 2020 that the planning for the switch had gone smoothly, with the MCL35M to feature "a couple of changes to architecture [made] necessary by the shape of the engine compared to this year's. But it's not fundamentally different." However, Key also stated that the aerodynamic potential of the car could not be maximized due to the FIA's token system, leading McLaren to implement most chassis upgrades and some aerodynamic changes before the switch in the 2020 season. In a post-season statement, Key said that knowing the team would be restricted for development in 2021 "changed our approach when it came to developments this [2020] season."


title: McLaren MCL35

text: Prior to the beginning of the 2020 season, the team publicly established their aim to defend their status as 'best of the rest' – fourth place in the Constructors' Championship behind the then-leading trio of Mercedes, Ferrari and Red Bull – and close the gap to those respective teams. In pre-season testing however, Racing Point, whose car strongly resembled the 2019 Mercedes car, was very quick compared to the other midfield teams and caused McLaren to be less than optimistic about their chances to secure fourth place. Despite this, Sainz said that he was "shocked in a good way" by the MCL35's performance compared to its predecessor, and the team said they were happy with the car's pace. Key would later say that "we didn't really show our pace in winter testing."


title: McLaren MCL35

text: After McLaren's withdrawal from the Australian Grand Prix and the race's subsequent cancellation, the season was heavily disrupted by the COVID-19 pandemic and the calendar was reorganized which delayed the car's début for several months. Prior the opening round, Renault stated that they would not provide any upgrades to the E-Tech 20 engine. Therefore, the MCL35 used the same specification engine for the entire 2020 season.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: McLaren used a new floor, diffuser, and brake ducts at the Austrian Grand Prix as well as a tweaked front wing. Sainz qualified eighth, while Norris qualified fourth and was promoted to third after a penalty was given to Lewis Hamilton, achieving McLaren's best grid start since the 2016 Austrian Grand Prix. After Norris lost positions in the opening laps to Hamilton and Alex Albon, both McLarens ran comfortably in the top ten for the remainder of the race. In the closing laps, Hamilton collided with Albon and was given a five-second penalty. On the final lap, Norris (then in fifth) overtook Sergio Pérez and set his first fastest lap to finish within five seconds of Hamilton, achieving his first Formula One podium. Sainz finished fifth after also overtaking Pérez. This was McLaren's second podium in three races after the 2019 Brazilian Grand Prix, in contrast to their previous gap of 118 races. The result placed McLaren second in the World Constructors' Championship (WCC) behind Mercedes, with Norris third and Sainz fifth in the World Drivers' Championship (WDC). In an article on strategy calls published in 2021, the team said the result was possible because of the "flawless" double-stacked pit stop allowing Norris to be in position to capitalize on Hamilton's penalty.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: McLaren used a new chin spoiler design during the Styrian Grand Prix. Sainz qualified third, the best outright qualifying position for McLaren since . Norris qualified sixth but was demoted to ninth due to a penalty from practice. Norris finished fifth after overtaking both Racing Point drivers on the final lap, while Sainz finished ninth and set the fastest lap and a new track record in the process, a record which still stands 2022 Austrian Grand Prix. Sainz fell to seventh in the WDC.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: McLaren used a new engine cover and T-wing design during the Hungarian Grand Prix. Norris qualified eighth and Sainz ninth. Both drivers lost positions changing tyres on lap four, being held up by traffic in the pit lane. Norris fnished thirteenth. Sainz finished tenth and was promoted to ninth after Haas driver Kevin Magnussen received a penalty. Norris fell to fourth and Sainz to ninth in the WDC, while the team was overtaken by Red Bull in the WCC.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: At the British Grand Prix, McLaren removed the T-wing and reverted their engine cover design to the pre-Hungarian version, while using a new front wing, rear wing, and floor design. Norris and Sainz qualified fifth and seventh respectively, and by the closing laps ran seventh and fourth before a puncture for Sainz dropped him to fourteenth. He was promoted to thirteenth after Alfa Romeo driver Antonio Giovinazzi was penalized, while Norris finished fifth. Sainz fell to tenth in the WDC.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: The following week at the 70th Anniversary Grand Prix, Norris qualified tenth and Sainz thirteenth, the latter being the first time a McLaren had failed to reach the final part of qualifying (Q3) in 2020. Sainz later said that the team had discovered an overheating issue in third practice, and in order to be able to complete the race the car had to undergo bodywork changes that compromised his qualifying pace. During the race, Sainz's pitstop was compromised by a wheel gun malfunction. Both drivers referenced tyre management as their main challenge, and Norris and Sainz finished ninth and thirteenth respectively. McLaren was overtaken by two points by Ferrari in the WCC and left the round in fourth place. Norris fell to fifth in the WDC and Sainz fell to eleventh.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: At the Spanish Grand Prix, Sainz's MCL35 continued to have cooling problems and he was given a new chassis. When this failed to solve the problem, the power unit on his car was replaced; McLaren later stated the issue was unrelated to the chassis. This was the first power unit change for an MCL35 and successfully fixed the issue. Sainz and Norris qualified seventh and eighth respectively, but were concerned about the impact of high temperatures during the race. Despite this, Sainz finished sixth and Norris tenth, meaning they respectively improved to ninth and fell to seventh in the WDC. Having scored 62 points already in the WCC, the team matched their 2018 total in six races.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: McLaren installed a new rear wing and rear brake duct at the Belgian Grand Prix, as well as a new bargeboard. During practice, the team tested a new floor and diffuser compliant with regulations. After qualifying, Sainz, who had qualified seventh, expressed concern at the possibility of a wet race, saying that the car was set up for lower downforce and that McLaren would be "in trouble" should it rain during the Grand Prix. He did not start because his Renault power unit had failed and destroyed the right exhaust bank before the race, resulting in the first non-finish for McLaren in 2020. Norris, who had qualified tenth, climbed three places to finish seventh. He improved to sixth in the WDC, and Sainz again fell to eleventh. McLaren recovered third place from Racing Point in the WCC.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: The MCL35 was equipped with low downforce front and rear wings for the Italian Grand Prix. Norris missed the majority of the second practice session due to a sensor issue. The Italian Grand Prix was also the beginning of an FIA ban on qualifying engine modes. Sainz qualified third and Norris sixth. Both drivers overtook others on the first lap to end the first lap second and third respectively, and held position until the first safety car of the race. After yellow and red flags caused by incidents for Magnussen and Leclerc, Sainz restarted the race seventh and Norris eighth. Norris finished fourth while Sainz attempted to catch race leader Pierre Gasly, reducing the gap to 0.415 seconds by the final lap. This was Sainz's second career podium and McLaren's second podium of the season. Seidl stated that McLaren had been the second-quickest team behind Mercedes and that the team would have finished second and third had the race been less chaotic. Sainz credited the red flag for his second place, saying that without the tyre change advantage it gave to those ahead of him after the safety car he would have been able to claim first. AlphaTauri team principal Franz Tost later said that Gasly's advantage through the second sector which allowed him to hold off Sainz was down to the AlphaTauri team's decision to run a higher downforce on their AT01. Norris also claimed that the red flag and the advantage it gave to Stroll was the reason he could not reclaim third place. The race resulted in McLaren's best finish since , and increased their lead for third place in the WCC, while Norris took fifth and Sainz ninth in the WDC. In an article on strategy published in 2021, McLaren said the team "could have won [...] had we not pitted under the Safety Car and instead changed tyres when the race was brought to temporary halt by a red flag" but Director of Sporting and Strategy Randy Singh said the team "made the right call" at the time.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: During the first practice session of the Tuscan Grand Prix, McLaren tested a new nose intended to be raced later in the season for it to be applied to the 2021 chassis. After the second practice session, Sainz commented that the car lacked rear stability, but its "performance can improve considerably" with the right changes. He qualified ninth and Norris eleventh, the first time in 2020 the latter had not made it to Q3. Both drivers said that the MCL35 was highly sensitive to wind, particularly tailwinds, but were happy with the performance of the car compared to the practice sessions. During the race, Stroll collided with Sainz on the opening lap causing him to spin. Sainz was then hit by Sebastian Vettel who could not take evasive action, but unlike Vettel, Sainz's car was undamaged. After the safety car restart Sainz was involved in an accordion effect crash with Antonio Giovinazzi's Alfa Romeo, the Williams of Nicholas Latifi, and Magnussen which triggered the first red flag of the race. Sainz became the first McLaren race retirement of the 2020 season; Norris finished the race sixth and took fourth in the WDC as his teammate fell to eleventh. At the conclusion of this race McLaren had scored in excess of 100 points in nine Grands Prix, much quicker than the 16 races it took in 2019. After the race Piers Thynne, McLaren's production director, stated that the team had "lost significant parts" in the race.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: At the Russian Grand Prix, McLaren ran the MCL35 with a new front wing, and continued to test the new nose design introduced at the previous race. Sainz returned to the chassis he had used up until the Spanish Grand Prix after the restart incident at the Tuscan Grand Prix. He and Norris qualified sixth and eighth respectively. When questioned about his drop from third in practice three to sixth in qualifying, Sainz explained that the team had again had issues with the MCL35's wind sensitivity. Seidl also stated that the new nose was "not a step forward really" but that the team was "quite restricted at the moment, with the number of parts" after the incident at the previous race and an accident Sainz had in practice; the new nose would form part of a future upgrade package introduced at the following race. Both McLarens had poor starts from the dirty side of the grid. At turn two, Sainz ran off the track and "misjudged [his] entry speed around the bollard" trying to re-join the track, colliding with the wall and retiring from the race. Norris was forced to run over debris from Sainz's car, causing a steering issue that compromised his performance for the rest of the race. Norris pitted during the safety car period, but his hard tyres did not last the entire race distance as hoped; forcing him to pit again and dropping him out of the points. McLaren stated this was done since Norris was already likely to drop out of the points on the ageing tyres, and was thus intended to take the fastest lap point away from other teams. This was McLaren's first pointless race since the 2019 Mexican Grand Prix, ending a 12 race point-scoring streak and was the team's only pointless race in 2020.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: McLaren announced ahead of the Eifel Grand Prix that the rest of the aerodynamic upgrade would be installed on the car at that race. It was later clarified only Sainz would run the new package, a decision made because the cancellation of practice one and two limited opportunities to compare the old and new packages. Norris qualified eighth and Sainz, who said he was unhappy with the upgrade package, tenth. McLaren credited Sainz's difficulties to the cancellation of the first two practice sessions, saying the package had not been properly set up for the track. Despite installing a new power unit overnight, Norris ran in third place before an issue arose with his Renault power unit and dropped several positions until he was forced to retire, triggering a safety car. Sainz finished fifth. McLaren lost third in the WCC to Racing Point, and Norris fell to sixth in the WDC.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: The team continued to develop the new aerodynamics package at the Portuguese Grand Prix. The team opted to run the MCL35 with the new nose box, delaying the rest of the package to future races. Despite further issues with wind sensitivity in qualifying, Sainz qualified seventh and Norris eighth. Both McLarens gained places on the opening lap, with Sainz taking the lead from laps two through to five and Norris moving up to fourth. This early advantage was partially attributed to the speed at which the MCL35 brought the soft tyres into the operating window. However, both McLarens began to lose positions as the medium tyre came into its operating window and the drag reduction system was enabled. Stroll attempted to overtake Norris in to turn one, but turned in on him on the apex of the corner, causing damage to both cars and dropping Norris to second-last after pitting. Sainz struggled with tyre graining but finished sixth, with Norris finishing thirteenth. Sainz improved to tenth and Norris fell to seventh in the WDC.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: Norris and Sainz qualified ninth and tenth respectively at the Emilia Romagna Grand Prix. Sainz finished seventh and Norris eighth, with Sainz saying the evasive action required after Albon spun in front of him prevented him from attacking during the final laps. McLaren drew level with Racing Point in the WCC, but both were overtaken by Renault. Sainz improved to eighth in the WDC. Seidl said that the team's race was limited by their qualifying position, while Norris said that the team still had competitive pace but were on a run of bad luck.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: Several components on the MCL35 were redesigned to account for the high-load nature of the Turkish Grand Prix. Sainz suffered an issue with his power unit's electronics in the first practice session, triggering a virtual safety car and causing him to miss most of the session. Norris and Sainz originally qualified eleventh and thirteenth respectively. However, Norris was given a five-place grid penalty for breaking yellow flag conditions, with stewards stating "Car 4 was not attempting to set a quick lap time, due to the changing track conditions he nevertheless did so and thereby breached the referenced regulations." Sainz was given a three-place grid penalty for impeding Pérez, which Sainz said was due to the weather conditions. Recovering to fifth in the race, he took seventh in the championship from his teammate who finished eighth and set the fastest lap of the race. The result meant that the team exceeded their 2019 total of 145 points over 21 races, having scored 149 points in 14 races.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: McLaren spent a portion of practice at the Bahrain Grand Prix continuing tests with their 2021 floor and diffuser. Norris stated he was lacking confidence with the car, saying "I didn't feel the most confident throughout today [...] Just because it's quite tricky with the wind, even though it's not very windy." During the second part of qualifying (Q2), Sainz's rear axle locked as his rear brakes failed, ending his qualifying session early and limiting his choice of tyre compounds for the race. Norris qualified ninth and Sainz fifteenth. Norris finished fourth in the race and Sainz fifth, allowing the Norris to reclaim seventh in the WDC from his teammate. The result combined with the retirement of both Racing Point cars meant McLaren re-took third in the WCC by 17 points.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: Sainz predicted ahead of the Sakhir Grand Prix that choosing the correct setup – particularly downforce levels – would be challenging because of the circuit's lengthy straights. McLaren ultimately ran the MCL35 with a lower downforce aerodynamics kit, featuring a "spoon-shaped" rear wing. During the second practice session, Sainz experienced an issue with his gearbox that interrupted his running. Norris damaged the floor of his MCL35 on a kerb and then experienced power issues. Both drivers expressed surprise at their apparent loss of pace from the previous week. Sainz qualified eighth, which he said was "the maximum our car could do", while Norris qualified fifteenth which he attributed to poor out-lap timing and an error. Norris was required to start nineteenth after replacing his internal combustion engine and turbocharger, exceeding his component limits. In the race, Sainz had a good start and was in third by the end of the first lap, and briefly challenged Valtteri Bottas of Mercedes for second place. However, shortly after Sainz's second pitstop, a safety car gave rivals who passed him after his pitstop a tyre advantage. At the restart, Sainz overtook Bottas to take fourth place. Norris recovered to finish tenth after being passed by George Russell's Mercedes on the last lap, and said that he lacked the pace to challenge for higher positions, which he attributed to the MCL35's struggle with dirty air. McLaren dropped to fourth in the WCC after Racing Point finished first and third, while Sainz took seventh and Albon overtook Norris for eighth in the WDC.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: Norris qualified fourth and Sainz sixth for the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix. Norris said he was surprised by the small difference between himself and polesitter Verstappen, which was only 0.251 seconds, calling it his best lap of the year. Norris finished fifth and Sainz sixth, scoring enough points to take third place in the WCC, McLaren's best finish since the season. Sainz took sixth in the WDC, while Norris finished the season ninth. The team later called the race "quite possibly our smoothest" of the year in terms of strategy.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: McLaren did not participate in the post-season young drivers' test, making the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix the final outing for the MCL35.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: Although taking third in the WCC, the MCL35 was rarely the third fastest car on pure pace and was usually outperformed by the Racing Point RP20 and often the Renault R.S.20. Lawrence Barretto summarised the car as "lack[ing] downforce, lack[ing] low speed balance and [not] a fan of a tailwind", but also said that "the overall package was better, with a key strength lying in the high-speed corners", and pointed to Sainz's opening lap performance in Portugal as evidence of the MCL35's capability in cold conditions. McLaren later labelled the car's wind sensitivity "the MCL35's Achilles' heel." Overall, the majority of McLaren's retirements in 2020 where not due to the chassis or driver error; usually retirements were due to incidents caused by other drivers or issues with the Renault E-Tech 20 engine.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: Journalist David Tremayne described the MCL35 as "a consistent points scorer", a characteristic that enabled McLaren to remain competitive in seeking third place in the Constructors' Championship. Barretto made a similar assessment, saying that the MCL35 allowed its drivers "to get the very best out of it more consistently – something Renault or Racing Point could not replicate."


title: McLaren MCL35

text: In a reflection on the 2020 season, McLaren Sporting Director Andrea Stella said that the car's performance early in the season allowed the team to be "very competitive and at the front of the midfield" but this advantage was not retained over the second half of the season. Key said "Certain tracks and conditions, particularly in the latter part of the season, have not played to our strengths." Comparing the MCL35 to the MCL34, Key said the team had been "only around 50% successful in addressing the [MCL34's] weak spots" but "there's nothing fundamental about the car that is preventing us doing that [improving the car]. It's predominantly aero-related, with some set-up aspects."


title: McLaren MCL35

text: Due to the restrictions imposed by the FIA's token system for 2021 development, most of the aerodynamic changes for the MCL35M were introduced in the 2020 season. McLaren "substantially re-engineer[ed] some areas" of the MCL35 to adapt to 2021 regulations that reduce the overall downforce of the car, while the switch to the Mercedes power unit necessitated the redesign of hydraulics, cooling, electronics, pipework for air and fluids, and control boxes. These changes were driven by the different layout of the M12 over the , since the Mercedes engine's turbine and compressor are in different locations: the E-Tech 20 had both the turbine and compressor at the rear of the engine, while the M12 places the compressor at the front and turbine at the rear to allow for a larger and more efficient power unit. The MCL35M also saw the introduction of a new gearbox, which McLaren continued to develop independently. This new gearbox necessitated the extension of the car's wheelbase. Key described the MCL35M as "akin to a new car".


title: McLaren MCL35

text: Key identified two target areas for improvement with the MCL35M: low-speed cornering performance and wind sensitivity, two areas in which the MCL35 struggled. Production Director Piers Thynne said that "The number of new parts on the MCL35M is about the same as when we built the MCL35," meaning "essentially, we've been building a new car." However, gearbox internals were not changed, nor were some suspension components as these were allowed to be carried over from 2020 outside of the 2021 budget cap. The rear end of the chassis and the gearbox housing were changed significantly, hence McLaren was the only team required to re-homologate their chassis due to the changes in car architecture. The MCL35M passed FIA crash tests in December 2020. The air intake of the MCL35M was significantly changed from the MCL35's, becoming a more conventional design similar to that seen on the Mercedes vehicles. The sidepods also adopted a more sloping design in order to dump air onto the floor and into the diffuser to create more downforce and counter the effects of the 2021 technical regulations which were intended to reduce downforce.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: The MCL35M's diffuser was a point of discussion during pre-season testing, since the car appeared to have diffuser strakes significantly longer than permitted under the 2021 rules. By attaching the inboard strakes to the floor of the car, the team could effectively run a larger diffuser. Key said he was surprised no other team had implemented the workaround, but characterized it as part of a larger aerodynamic concept and did not expect it to be copied or a continuing point of controversy. In a review of 2021 development, journalists and technical analysts Mark Hughes and Giorgio Piola called McLaren's diffuser the "most original" innovation of the season.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: McLaren elected not to include any Mercedes branding on the 2021 livery, in contrast to the MCL35 which featured Renault branding. Other than the removal of the "#WeRaceAsOne" graphic on the MCL35 halo (but the retention of the sidepod graphic) the MCL35M livery remained largely the same.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: For the Monaco Grand Prix, McLaren received special permission from the FIA and Formula One to run the MCL35M with a one-off Gulf livery (a light blue livery with an orange stripe, featured by many Gulf Oil-sponsored teams). The branding was also applied to driver overalls and team uniforms, and both drivers used matching helmet designs for the Grand Prix. The team ran a second one-off livery at the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix in partnership with Vuse, featuring the work of local artist Rabab Tantawy. Both liveries, but particularly the Gulf colours, had a positive reception amongst fans. The McLaren MCL36 featured a new colour scheme inspired by the success of the Gulf livery.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: After the conclusion of the 2020 season, Seidl said he did not believe McLaren could compete with Mercedes and Red Bull (who finished first and second in the 2020 WCC) in the 2021 season, and that the team would instead work to reduce their pace deficit over multiple seasons. Brown said that the more competitive midfield meant McLaren "could find ourselves closer to Mercedes [...] but slipping to fifth in the Championship". When questioned on the possibility of McLaren challenging for podiums more regularly in the 2021 season, Norris said "that's too much" and that "The Mercedes engine and back-end is a good step forward but it won't sort everything out. We won't be able to just get podiums in every race."


title: McLaren MCL35

text: Hywel Thomas, managing director of Mercedes Powertrains, said they "have got some issues with the power units" mainly due to the restricted dynamometer use, but was confident these issues would be resolved by the start of the season. He announced that Mercedes would not deliver any upgrades to their 2021 engine, meaning the MCL35M used the same specification engine for the entire season. Key said that McLaren had not encountered these issues in its own dyno testing.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: The MCL35M had its first shakedown on 16 February 2021 in a filming day at Silverstone Circuit. McLaren was generally quick in pre-season testing (held at the Bahrain International Circuit), setting several fastest laps without any major reliability issues. Norris said the test had "gone well" and that the team was "maybe a little more confident than we were last year."


title: McLaren MCL35

text: Both drivers appeared quick in practice for the Bahrain Grand Prix, but said they were dissatisfied with the MCL35M's handling and balance, and expected the team would be slower than Mercedes and Red Bull and closer to the rest of the field when it came to qualifying and the race. Ricciardo and Norris qualified sixth and seventh respectively. In the race, Norris overtook Ricciardo and Leclerc in the opening laps and held position to finish fourth. Ricciardo struggled with tyre temperature and finished seventh. Ricciardo's lack of pace was later attributed to damage to his car's floor after he was hit by Gasly in the opening laps. The result left McLaren third in the WCC after Red Bull and ahead of Ferrari, with Norris fourth and Ricciardo seventh in the WDC.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: Ricciardo qualified sixth and Norris seventh for the Emilia Romagna Grand Prix, a result Norris was disappointed with given his final qualifying lap would have been third quickest had it not been struck for a track limits violation. In the wet race, team orders were used to allow Norris to pass Ricciardo early in the race after the latter continued to struggle with pace. Norris finished third after losing second place to Hamilton after an extended battle in the closing laps, while Ricciardo finished the race sixth. McLaren remained third in the WCC, with Norris moving up to third in the WDC and Ricciardo remaining seventh. Seidl later said the team was pleased neither MCL35M chassis had sustained notable damage in the first two races, which would help ensure McLaren remained within their cost cap for the season.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: Norris and Ricciardo qualified seventh and sixteenth, respectively, for the Portuguese Grand Prix. Ricciardo's elimination in the first qualifying stage (Q1) was the first for a McLaren since the 2019 Brazilian Grand Prix. In the race, Norris finished fifth and Ricciardo recovered to ninth, meaning McLaren remained the only team to have had both drivers score points in every race of the season.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: McLaren ran the MCL35M with a T-wing and introduced a new front wing and floor for the Spanish Grand Prix. The new front wing was optimized to suit a higher-downforce configuration, while McLaren became the eighth team to implement a Z-shaped floor cut-out. The overall effect of the upgrades was to reduce the pitch sensitivity of the car. Ricciardo qualified seventh and stated he felt more confident in the MCL35M with the upgrade package. Norris qualified ninth, a result he was disappointed with after he was impeded by Haas driver Nikita Mazepin in Q1 and had to use an extra set of soft tyres, limiting the running he could do in Q3. The issue was compounded by floor damage Norris incurred after running wide in turns eight and nine in his first Q3 lap. Ricciardo finished the race sixth and Norris eighth, a result Seidl said he was happy with given the difficulty of overtaking on the circuit. In the WDC, Norris lost third place to Bottas.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: The MCL35M featured a one-off Gulf livery for the Monaco Grand Prix (see ). Norris qualified for the race fifth, but Ricciardo was eliminated in Q2 and was classified twelfth. Ricciardo described the MCL35M as having a much narrower operating window than other cars he had driven, which was contributing to his struggles. In the race, Norris defended his position from Pérez to finish third after Leclerc did not start and Bottas retired. Ricciardo lost places on the race start before eventually being lapped by Norris and finishing twelfth. This was the first time a McLaren had been classified outside the top ten since the 2020 Portuguese Grand Prix, and ended McLaren's streak of both drivers scoring points at every race in 2021. Norris regained third in the WDC, while Ricciardo fell to eighth.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: In a qualifying session interrupted with many yellow and red flags, Norris qualified sixth and Ricciardo thirteenth for the Azerbaijan Grand Prix, with the latter's qualifying ending after colliding with the barriers. Norris was awarded a three-place grid penalty for violating red flag procedures and started the race ninth. Norris had a poor start and fell to twelfth, but both drivers avoided the incidents occurring on track and worked their way up to fifth and ninth. Norris lost third place in the WDC to race winner Pérez, while Ricciardo fell to tenth. The team lost third place in the WCC to Ferrari.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: Major McLaren Group shareholder Mansour Ojjeh died shortly before the 2021 French Grand Prix, and his name was featureed on the side of the cars as a tribute. The MCL35M featured a new rear wing endplate for the race with horizontal louvres rather than vertical strakes to better control turbulence at the rear of the car. The upgrade package also included a new, slimmer engine cover, and introduced 'horns' (fins mounted at the front of the car, just ahead of the halo) to redirect airflow over the top of the car. Norris qualified for the race eighth, and after falling to tenth after a poor start finished fifth; Ricciardo qualified tenth and finished sixth. McLaren reclaimed third place in the WCC as Ferrari struggled with tyre degradation on their car, while Ricciardo moved up to ninth in the WDC.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: At the Styrian Grand Prix, Norris qualified fourth but was promoted to third due to a penalty issued to Bottas, while Ricciardo qualified thirteenth. Norris allowed Pérez and Bottas to pass him in the opening laps, as McLaren did not believe the MCL35M had the pace to maintain position ahead of the Red Bull and Mercedes cars, and finished fifth. Ricciardo made up four places on the race start until he suffered a power unit issue and fell to twelfth. Although the issue was fixed, Ricciardo finished thirteenth.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: The car featured a new floor and additional guide vanes near the Z-shape cutout for the Austrian Grand Prix, and the cut-out's area was reduced. Norris qualified second for the race, 0.048 seconds off polesitter Verstappen's time and out-qualifying both works Mercedes cars – the first time a McLaren had qualified on the front row since , and Norris' career-best qualifying result. Ricciardo qualified thirteenth. Norris held position for the first 20 laps, and in doing so attracted a five-second penalty for forcing Pérez to run wide. The penalty was served on-track at Norris' scheduled pit stop, and he recovered to overtake Hamilton for third place on lap 52 and finished on the podium for the third time in the 2021 season. Both Seidl and Norris said they believed the team would have been able to challenge for second place had they not been awarded a penalty. Ricciardo finished seventh, and improved to eighth in the WDC.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: Norris qualified sixth and Ricciardo seventh for the first trial of sprint qualifying at the British Grand Prix. Both drivers improved by one place to start the race fifth and sixth. Norris overtook Bottas on the race start and inherited third place after Verstappen and Hamilton collided, with the former crashing out of the race. He finished the race fourth but was disappointed after a slow pit stop allowed Bottas to recover his position. Ricciardo moved up to and finished fifth, defending his position from Sainz after both completed their scheduled pit stops. Norris moved up to third place in the WDC. After the race, Norris suggested that the Ferrari SF21 was a faster car than the MCL35M, and singled out the SF21's tyre management and high-temperature performance over the McLaren.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: McLaren delivered their final major upgrade to the MCL35M at the Hungarian Grand Prix in order to focus on the car's successor; the package featured revised bargeboards. Norris qualified sixth for the race and Ricciardo eleventh. Both drivers had good starts: Norris had made his way up to third place by the first corner, but was hit from behind by Bottas and then collided with Verstappen. Simultaneously, Stroll collided with Leclerc who was forced into Ricciardo. Both MCL35Ms suffered heavy damage, and Norris retired during the red flag, becoming the first McLaren retirement since the 2020 Eifel Grand Prix and ending his fifteen race point-scoring streak. Ricciardo's damage was estimated to cost him approximately 0.8 seconds per lap. He finished the race twelfth and was promoted to eleventh after Vettel's disqualification, making the Hungarian Grand Prix the team's first pointless race in seventeen Grands Prix. Ferrari drew level with McLaren on points in the WCC, and took third place after the count-back. Ricciardo lost eighth in the WDC. After the Grand Prix, McLaren remained at the track for two days to take part in a test session for Pirelli's 2022 tyre prototypes. Both Ricciardo and Norris drove a mule car based on the MCL35M during the test, which focused on the soft compound tyres.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: New brake ducts were introduced to the MCL35M at the Belgian Grand Prix. The car performed well in a wet qualifying session, with Ricciardo qualifying for the race fourth, his best with the team. Norris set the fastest times in Q1 and Q2, but lost control of his car at Eau Rouge and crashed heavily, ending his qualifying session and damaging his gearbox. After penalties for Bottas from the previous race and for Norris's gearbox change were applied, he started the race fifteenth. Heavy rain prevented the race from starting, with three laps completed under safety car conditions before the Grand Prix was abandoned and results drawn from the end of the first lap. Thus, Ricciardo was classified fourth and Norris fourteenth. Half points were awarded, allowing McLaren to take third place from Ferrari.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: Ricciardo qualified tenth for the Dutch Grand Prix, while Norris was eliminated in Q2 after missing his final qualifying attempt due to red flags, the first time he failed to make Q3 in 2021. He started the race thirteenth. Ricciardo's car suffered a clutch malfunction at the start, costing him places on the first lap. Both drivers struggled for pace, with Norris finishing tenth and Ricciardo eleventh. Norris fell from third to fourth and Ricciardo from eighth to ninth in the WDC, and the team again lost third place to Ferrari in the WCC.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: The MCL35M featured a low downforce set up for the Italian Grand Prix, with modified front and rear wings. Norris qualified fourth and Ricciardo fifth for the second sprint of the season. During sprint qualifying, Ricciardo moved up to third, and both drivers were promoted a place after provisional polesitter Bottas took an engine penalty. During the race, Ricciardo overtook Verstappen into the first corner, while Norris defended from Hamilton behind. After the first round of pit stops, Verstappen and Hamilton collided, leaving the McLarens free to challenge for the win. Norris was instructed in the closing stages not to challenge Ricciardo's position. Ricciardo set the fastest lap on the final lap, leading Norris to the finish to claim McLaren's first one-two finish since the 2010 Canadian Grand Prix and first win since the 2012 Brazilian Grand Prix. Ricciardo regained eighth in the WDC, while McLaren reclaimed third place in the WCC. The MCL35M was the only car to achieve a 1–2 finish in the 2021 season.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: Ricciardo suffered a power unit malfunction during practice for the Russian Grand Prix which necessitated a change to an older engine. The car was run with a high downforce aerodynamic kit. Norris qualified on pole for the first time in his career, while Ricciardo started fifth. Although he lost first place to Sainz on the opening lap, Norris regained the lead and led the race. With nine laps to go, Hamilton unsuccessfully began to attack for first place. Although the race had been dry up to this point, it began to rain lightly with six laps remaining. With four laps left, McLaren recommended Norris switch from hard slicks to intermediate rain tyres, which Norris refused, a decision he later said "was right at the time for the conditions at the time" but ultimately "cost us everything" as he slid off track and down to seventh place by the time he pitted. Seidl, Norris, and Hamilton all said the result was ultimately not a reflection of the MCL35M's pace and potential at the track, and Norris set the fastest lap of the race. Ricciardo, however, switched to intermediates earlier and finished fourth.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: McLaren used a high-downforce package and a double T-wing for the Turkish Grand Prix, for which Norris qualified eighth and Ricciardo sixteenth. Both were promoted a place on the grid by engine penalties for other drivers, but Norris said the MCL35M was "not easy to drive" at the circuit while Ricciardo said he was not "on top of it today". McLaren decided to replace several engine components on Ricciardo's car, triggering the team's first component penalty of the season and sending him to the back of the grid. Norris finished seventh and Ricciardo thirteenth.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: Ricciardo qualified seventh and Norris eighth for the United States Grand Prix, with both being promoted a place due to another engine penalty for Bottas. Both drivers said they were surprised to be out-qualified by the two Ferrari drivers. Ricciardo finished the race fifth, and said he was satisfied given the superior pace of the Ferraris. Norris finished eighth and called his performance "disappointing", losing fourth place in the WDC.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: The car was fit with a high-downforce rear wing and T-wing for the Mexico City Grand Prix. Ricciardo's running in practice was limited by a gearbox issue. Ricciardo qualified seventh, with McLaren using Norris to provide a tow since his car was fitted with multiple new power unit elements requiring Norris to start from the back of the grid. As a result, Norris started eighteenth. Ricciardo had a strong start and ran alongside polesitter Bottas into turn one, but the two collided and dropped to the back of the field. Ricciardo finished twelfth after managing damage on his MCL35M, and Norris made up positions to finish tenth. McLaren lost third place in the WCC to Ferrari.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: Norris and Ricciardo qualified eighth and ninth respectively for the third and final sprint race of the season at the São Paulo Grand Prix, but were both promoted a place by Hamilton's disqualification. Norris improved to sixth, while Ricciardo fell to eleventh. Norris was promoted a place on the grid due to a power unit penalty for Hamilton. At the race start, Norris made contact with Sainz and suffered a tyre puncture that dropped him to last place. He finished tenth, while Ricciardo retired due to a power unit failure.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: For the inaugural Qatar Grand Prix, Norris qualified sixth (and was promoted to fourth after grid penalties were applied) and Ricciardo qualified fourteenth. During the race, Norris ran in fourth until he suffered a tyre puncture, and finished ninth. Ricciardo finished twelfth while suffering from a system error affecting fuel usage on his MCL35M. Seidl said that the triple-header of Mexico, São Paulo, and Qatar had been disappointing given the team believed the car remained competitive with Ferrari's SF21.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: Norris qualified seventh and Ricciardo eleventh for the first Saudi Arabian Grand Prix, with the latter suffering floor damage. Seidl said that the team was underperforming relative to expectations because corners at the Jeddah Corniche Circuit were primarily medium-speed rather than high-speed as had been predicted. During the race, Norris pitted before the first red flag and therefore lost positions to all drivers who had not yet pitted by the restart. He restarted in fourteenth and finished tenth. Ricciardo was in the opposite situation and finished fifth. Norris lost fifth place in the WDC and fell to sixth.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: The MCL35M featured a one-off Vuse livery for the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix (see ). Norris qualified third for the race and Ricciardo qualified tenth. Norris had a poor start and lost two positions, maintaining fifth place until he suffered a slow puncture and gearbox issues; he finished seventh. Ricciardo finished twelfth, losing positions under the virtual safety car. Norris finished sixth in the WDC and Ricciardo eighth, and McLaren finished fourth in the WCC. With a new generation of cars being introduced in 2022, the race was the final entry for the MCL35M.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: McLaren participated in the post-season Pirelli test after the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix at Yas Marina Circuit. Unlike the in-season test, the tyres used were the final compounds. Ricciardo and Norris drove mule cars based on the MCL35M to test the 2022 compounds. Pato O'Ward, an Arrow McLaren SP driver in the IndyCar series, tested the regular MCL35M.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: Like the MCL35, the MCL35M was termed an "all-rounder" early in the season, and was closer to the cars of Mercedes and Red Bull than its predecessors.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: Ricciardo's struggles with the car were attributed to the "strange" level of overlap in the braking and cornering phases, particularly in slow corners. As such, the MCL35M tended to perform better in high-speed corners, but struggled with low-speed cornering. McLaren themselves called the car's mid-corner performance "its Achilles' heel". The car had good straight line speed and effective power deployment, and Sainz (who drove for Ferrari in 2021) called it one of the most difficult cars to overtake. Conversely, the car's main competitor, the Ferrari SF21, excelled at cornering, especially at low speeds.


title: McLaren MCL35

text: The MCL35M continued to be used in 2022 for private tests as part of McLaren's Testing of Previous Cars program. FIA Formula 2 Championship driver and Red Bull Junior Team member Jehan Daruvala tested the car over two days at Silverstone Circuit prior to the British Grand Prix, completing 130 laps. A second test at Algarve International Circuit was held in July: IndyCar driver Colton Herta completed 162 laps over two days, and McLaren simulator driver Will Stevens teted for one. 2021 IndyCar Series champion Álex Palou and O'Ward tested the MCL35M at Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya during September 2022, together completing a total of 267 laps. O'Ward and Palou again tested the car at the Red Bull Ring in October 2022, together completing 171 laps over two days. In November 2022, the car was used in a private two-day test at Circuit Paul Ricard for Oscar Piastri, who McLaren signed to replace Ricciardo in . Piastri had a second test in November at Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya, completing 150 laps.


title: Short range air defense

text: Short range air defense (SHORAD) is a group of anti-aircraft weapons and tactics that have to do with defense against low-altitude air threats, primarily helicopters and low-flying aircraft such as the A-10 or Sukhoi Su-25. SHORAD and its complements, HIMAD (High to Medium Air Defense) and THAAD (Terminal High Altitude Area Defense) divide air defense of the battlespace into domes of responsibility based on altitude and defensive weapon ranges.


title: Short range air defense

text: The Canadian Forces Land Force Command used the Air Defense Anti-Tank System (ADATS) based on the M113A2 prior to its retirement from service in 2012. ADATS is a completely self-contained system in an unmanned turret with FLIR (Forward-Looking Infrared) and TV sensors, laser rangefinder and designator, a search radar. Composed of eight missiles, the ADATS can find and hit multiple threats in few seconds.


title: Short range air defense

text: Also in the Canadian Army, the Coyote Reconnaissance Vehicle and LAV III hold anti aircraft turrets that are capable of destroying attacking aircraft. They have a range of 2400 meters. After the withdrawal of the ADATS, Rheinmetall Canada made the AMADS (Advanced Man-portable Air Defense System) which serves as the short range air defense trainer for the Canadian army.


title: Short range air defense

text: India started testing indigenous VSHORAD (India) system. Multiple tests were conducted successfully. The missile uses dual thrust motors and is meant to take out low flying targets.


title: Short range air defense

text: In the United States Army, Avenger air defense artillery battalions will be assigned to a theater or corps, and may attach air defense platoons to a brigade combat team or maneuver battalion. SHORAD units are based upon a mounted platform, the AN/TWQ-1 Avenger, which utilizes eight FIM-92 Stinger missiles coupled with a FLIR, laser range finder, and a M3P .50 caliber machine gun for close-in defense.


title: Short range air defense

text: The Army also ordered Stryker SHORAD platform, equipped with four Stinger and two AGM-114L Longbow Hellfire missiles, 30 mm M230 chain gun, 7.62 M240 machine gun, and a 360-degree search radar system. First vehicles were delivered in 2021, and a total of 144 vehicles will be deployed by 2025.


title: Short range air defense

text: In the United States Marine Corps, there are only two existing Low Altitude Air Defense (LAAD) Battalions : 2d Low Altitude Air Defense Battalion and 3d Low Altitude Air Defense Battalion.


title: Short range air defense

text: The Norwegian Army ordered "Mobile Ground Based Air Defence System" based on NASAMS 3, which includes air-mobile Humvee launchers capable of firing AIM-9X Sidewinder missiles and tracked launchers for IRIS-T SLS missiles.


title: Short range air defense

text: The Swedish Army ordered LVRBS 98 systems based on a BvS 10 All Terrain Armoured Vehicle equipped with four IRIS-T SLS missiles.


title: Hank Stram

text: Henry Louis Stram (; January 3, 1923 – July 4, 2005) was an American football coach. He is best known for his 15-year tenure with the Dallas Texans / Kansas City Chiefs of the American Football League (AFL) and National Football League (NFL).


title: Hank Stram

text: Stram won three AFL championships, more than any other coach in the league's history. He then won Super Bowl IV with the Chiefs. He also coached the most victories (87), had the most post-season games (7) and the best post-season record in the AFL (5–2). Stram is largely responsible for the introduction of Gatorade to the NFL due to his close association with Ray Graves, coach at the University of Florida during Gatorade's development and infancy. Stram never had an offensive coordinator, defensive coordinator, or special teams coach during his career with the Texans and Chiefs.


title: Hank Stram

text: Stram was born in Chicago on January 3, 1923. His Polish-born father, Henry Wilczek, wrestled professionally under the name Stram and the family name was changed accordingly. He later grew up in Gary, Indiana, and graduated from Lew Wallace High School class of 1941. (The football stadium press box was renamed in his honor.) He earned seven letters playing football and baseball and joined the Sigma Chi fraternity at Purdue in the 1940s, playing in 1942 and again in 1946 and 1947. Stram served in the United States Army Air Forces during World War II, interrupting his university career.


title: Hank Stram

text: He was an assistant football coach for the Boilermakers from 1948 to 1955 and the head baseball coach from 1951 to 1955. In 1996, Stram and Len Dawson were inducted into the Purdue Athletic Hall of Fame. After coaching at Purdue, Stram was an assistant at Notre Dame, Southern Methodist University, and Miami. Stram was Miami's backfield coach and credited with installing the multiple offense that helped lead the team to a 6–4 record in 1959.


title: Hank Stram

text: In 1959, Lamar Hunt recruited Stram to coach his Dallas Texans in the new AFL, which commenced play in 1960. Hunt had previously been a bench player at SMU when Stram had been coaching there and the Texans' position had been turned down by Bud Wilkinson and Tom Landry, then an assistant at the New York Giants. The Texans played their first game in the new AFL in September 1960 and proved to be successful from the beginning.


title: Hank Stram

text: In 1962, the Texans won the AFL Western Division and the AFL championship. The Texans won the championship against the Houston Oilers 20-17 in what was the longest professional football championship game ever played. Tommy Brooker kicked a field goal at 17:54 of overtime to win the game for the Texans and stop the Oilers from winning their third straight title.


title: Hank Stram

text: The Dallas Texans became the Kansas City Chiefs in 1963 and continued their success. In 1966, they won the AFL title again on the back of one of the best defensive teams in the history of professional football featuring three hall of famers and eight all star players. The Chiefs defeated the Buffalo Bills 31–7 in Buffalo. The Chiefs played the Green Bay Packers in Super Bowl I with the Packers winning 35–10. To overcome the Chiefs' defense, Packers' coach Vince Lombardi used a short passing game which proved successful, with quarterback Bart Starr becoming the first Super Bowl MVP.


title: Hank Stram

text: In a 1968 game against the Oakland Raiders in Kansas City, the Chiefs entered the game without a healthy wide receiver ready to play. Stram went in to pro football's past and resurrected the T formation. The Chiefs won the game 24-10 running the ball 60 times for over 300 yards while passing only three times for 16 yards.


title: Hank Stram

text: The Kansas City Chiefs won the AFL championship again in 1969. In Super Bowl IV, his ingenious innovations, the "moving pocket" and the "triple-stack defense", dominated the Minnesota Vikings on both sides of the ball. In the Super Bowl, Stram became the first professional football coach to wear a microphone. Stram's recorded comments from that game have become classics: ""Just keep matriculatin' the ball down the field, boys."", ""How could all six of you miss that play?"" ""65 Toss Power Trap"", ""Kassulke was running around there like it was a Chinese fire drill"", and his assessment of the Vikings' ineffectual play: ""You can't do that in OUR league!"". In the clip where he asks a referee ""How could all six of you miss that play?"" the referee's response leads the confused Stram to mutter, ""No. What?"" The Super Bowl victory was the second straight by a team from the AFL and added credibility to the newer league, which would complete a planned merger with the NFL the following season.


title: Hank Stram

text: In 1971, the Chiefs won the AFC Western Division championship. The Miami Dolphins defeated the Chiefs on Christmas Day 1971. The teams played the longest game in the history of professional football. After that, the Chiefs did not enjoy the same success, resulting in Stram leaving the franchise. Stram's tenure in Kansas City ended with a 35–15 loss at home to the same Viking team the Chiefs defeated in Super Bowl IV.


title: Hank Stram

text: Following a 5-9 finish in the 1974 season, which was at the time the worst record in franchise history, Stram was fired.


title: Hank Stram

text: Stram became the head coach of the New Orleans Saints in 1976, but posted losing records in his two seasons, 4–10 and 3–11. Hampering Stram's efforts to rebuild the typically struggling Saints was a severe elbow injury to quarterback Archie Manning, who missed the entire 1976 season and parts of the 1977 campaign. Stram also had to deal with continuous discipline problems caused by his leading rusher, Chuck Muncie, who was in the early stages of a cocaine addiction which would lead to his trade in 1980 from New Orleans to the San Diego Chargers.


title: Hank Stram

text: Perhaps the biggest highlight of his New Orleans tenure was a 27–17 win over his former team, the Kansas City Chiefs, at Arrowhead Stadium in 1976, Stram's first victory with the Saints. The 1977 campaign culminated in an historic home loss to the previously winless Tampa Bay Buccaneers who were riding a 26-game losing streak over two seasons. Stram took the loss hard, burning the game film. He was fired after the final game of the season.


title: Hank Stram

text: Stram was an innovator, a shrewd judge of talent, and an excellent teacher. He helped develop Hall of Famers Len Dawson, Bobby Bell, Buck Buchanan, Curley Culp, Willie Lanier, Jan Stenerud, Emmitt Thomas, and Johnny Robinson, and others like Ed Budde and Otis Taylor. He was also the first coach in professional football to use Gatorade on his sidelines and run both the I formation and two-tight end offense, still used in professional football today. On defense, the Chiefs employed a triple-stack defense, hiding the three linebackers behind defensive linemen.


title: Hank Stram

text: He was considered a motivational genius, and his emphasis on the Chiefs' wearing of a patch commemorating the AFL in Super Bowl IV was one of his typical ploys, extracting maximum effort from players who had been derided by proponents of the NFL. Stram was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2003, nine years "after" Bud Grant, the man whose team he had convincingly defeated in Super Bowl IV, had been enshrined. At the Hall of Fame ceremonies, Stram was so weakened by the effects of diabetes that Len Dawson pushed his former coach onto the stage in a wheelchair. Stram's induction speech was then played from a previously recorded videotape.


title: Hank Stram

text: Following his retirement from coaching, Stram enjoyed a long and successful career as a color commentator on CBS' television and radio broadcasts of NFL games. Stram began broadcasting games for CBS in 1975, originally calling games with Frank Glieber. After a brief hiatus so he could return to coaching, Stram returned to call games with Gary Bender in 1978. His other broadcast partners were Jack Buck, Vin Scully, Curt Gowdy, Dick Stockton, Tim Brant, Steve Zabriskie, Jim Henderson, Sean McDonough, and Jim Nantz, along with various others. From 1979 through 1989 he also called the Tampa Bay Buccaneers' preseason football games for WTOG-TV in Tampa, Florida.


title: Hank Stram

text: As a broadcaster, Stram is best remembered for his near-20-year stint (beginning in 1978 and lasting through the 1995 season) with Jack Buck on CBS Radio broadcasts of "Monday Night Football" games. Stram's key broadcasting trademark was his habit of predicting the next play before it happened.


title: Hank Stram

text: On January 10, 1982, Stram, along with Vin Scully, called the famous between the San Francisco 49ers and the Dallas Cowboys. The game in question was immortalized by Dwight Clark's touchdown catch which elevated the 49ers into their first Super Bowl appearance (the first of four during the 1980s).


title: Hank Stram

text: During a 1988 broadcasting trip to Indianapolis for a Chicago Bears–Colts game, Stram collapsed with a severely blocked aortic valve and underwent open heart surgery. He was hospitalized in Indianapolis for a week and later resumed his career with CBS.


title: Hank Stram

text: He remained a part of CBS' television broadcast team until 1993. His last game as a broadcaster was Super Bowl XXX for CBS Radio in 1996.


title: Hank Stram

text: Stram married Phyllis Marie Pesha in 1953 and they stayed together as husband and wife until his death due to complications from diabetes in 2005. They had six children, four sons and two daughters, including actor Henry Stram.


title: Hank Stram

text: Stram made a guest appearance as himself on the TV show "Coach". In the episode, Stram was attending a coaching convention with fellow coaches Barry Switzer and George Allen. Hayden Fox, the fictional protagonist of the show, also attended the conference.


title: Hank Stram

text: Hank Stram retired to New Orleans, Louisiana, where he built a home in the town of Covington. He died at St. Tammany Parish hospital in Covington, from complications due to diabetes, on July 4, 2005.


title: Rapsody

text: Marlanna Evans (born January 21, 1983), better known by her stage name Rapsody, is an American rapper. Her second album, "Laila's Wisdom" (2017), which was critically acclaimed, received two Grammy Award nominations for Best Rap Album and Best Rap Song. Rapsody released her third studio album, "Eve" on August 23, 2019 to critical acclaim from music critics.


title: Rapsody

text: Rapsody began her career at North Carolina State University, where she joined hip hop collective H2O and its spinoff group Kooley High, despite not having rapped before. The group met producer 9th Wonder in 2004, who was impressed by one of Rapsody's verses, and she would go on to make her recording debut on 9th Wonder's sophomore album, "The Dream Merchant Vol. 2" which released on October 9, 2007, in which she free styled over 9th's re-chopping of old samples he already used for other artists.


title: Rapsody

text: She launched her solo career in 2008 after signing with 9th Wonder's It's A Wonderful World Music Group. Her first significant career breakthrough came with the release of her mixtape "Return of the B-Girl" on December 7, 2010. "Return of the B-Girl" marked her first work with hip-hop producer, DJ Premier, and featured guests such as Mac Miller and Big Daddy Kane. She continued to build acclaim with the release of her next mixtape, "Thank H.E.R. Now" which showcased her storytelling abilities as she drew from personal life experiences and featured her work with a variety of critically acclaimed acts such as Marsha Ambrosius, Estelle, Raekwon, Jean Grae, Murs, and Big K.R.I.T.


title: Rapsody

text: Her next project, "For Everything" was released on November 15, 2011 and showcased her work with both newly acclaimed and established acts such as Kendrick Lamar and Freeway and a number of the tracks were featured in XXL magazine's "Bangers" section. In May 2011, Rapsody joined Mac Miller on his Incredibly Dope Tour for 15 dates. In late 2011, she toured with Phonte and 9th Wonder as a part of the Phonte & 9th Wonder Tour.


title: Rapsody

text: Rapsody signed to Jay-Z's record label Roc Nation in July 2016, and her debut for the label, "Laila's Wisdom", was released on September 22, 2017. The album received two Grammy Award nominations for Best Rap Album and Best Rap Song.


title: Rapsody

text: Rapsody's third studio album, "Eve", was released on August 23, 2019 to critical acclaim from music critics.


title: Rapsody

text: Rapsody is known for her intricate rhyme patterns, metaphors, and wordplay. She cites Jay-Z, Mos Def, Lauryn Hill and MC Lyte as the biggest influences on her music. Her production is primarily handled by The Soul Council, the team of in-house producers at It's A Wonderful World Music Group comprising E. Jones, Ka$h Don't Make Beats, AMP, Eric G., Nottz and Khrysis. Rapsody's philosophy is "Culture Over Everything," referring to the culture of hip-hop music. She describes this phrase in an interview with Vibe Magazine where she says, "To me, it’s about culture more so than money or anything. I make music for the people of the culture we’re in; that comes first. If you touch the people first, the rest just falls into place. That’s what it means to me, just preserving and respecting the culture."


title: Rapsody

text: In her younger years, she watched the MTV show "Yo! MTV Raps" and considered MC Lyte as one of her early influences and later stated Lauryn Hill as an all-time favorite. She grew up in the small town of Snow Hill in North Carolina. Rapsody wasn't exposed to much hip hop and would listen to what her older cousins would play in the car. She would later develop her love for hip hop when she entered college.


title: Rapsody

text: In 2019, Rapsody played for the "Home" roster during the NBA All-Star Celebrity Game at the Bojangles' Coliseum in Charlotte, North Carolina. The roster was made up of celebrities with Carolina roots. Her team won the game and she had one assist in the game while playing around 12 minutes.


title: Volcanic crater lake

text: A volcanic crater lake is a lake in a crater that was formed by explosive activity or a collapse during a volcanic eruption.


title: Volcanic crater lake

text: Lakes in calderas fill large craters formed by the collapse of a volcano during an eruption. Lakes in maars fill medium-sized craters where an eruption deposited debris around a vent.


title: Volcanic crater lake

text: Crater lakes form as the created depression, within the crater rim, is filled by water. The water may come from precipitation, groundwater circulation (often hydrothermal fluids in the case of volcanic craters) or melted ice. Its level rises until an equilibrium is reached between the rates of incoming and outgoing water. Sources of water loss singly or together may include evaporation, subsurface seepage, and, in places, surface leakage or overflow when the lake level reaches the lowest point on its rim. At such a saddle location, the upper portion of the lake is contained only by its adjacent natural volcanic dam; continued leakage through or surface outflow across the dam can erode its included material, thus lowering lake level until a new equilibrium of water flow, erosion, and rock resistance is established. If the volcanic dam portion erodes rapidly or fails catastrophically, the occurrence produces a breakout or outburst flood. With changes in environmental conditions over time, the occurrence of such floods is common to all natural dam types.


title: Volcanic crater lake

text: A well-known crater lake, which bears the same name as the geological feature, is Crater Lake in Oregon. It is located in the caldera of Mount Mazama. It is the deepest lake in the United States with a depth of . Crater Lake is fed solely by falling rain and snow, with no inflow or outflow at the surface, and hence is one of the clearest lakes in the world.


title: Volcanic crater lake

text: The highest volcano in the world, 6,893-m (22,615-ft) Ojos del Salado in Chile, has a permanent crater lake about in diameter at an elevation of on its eastern side. This is most likely the highest lake of any kind in the world.


title: Volcanic crater lake

text: Due to their unstable environments, some crater lakes exist only intermittently. Caldera lakes in contrast can be quite large and long-lasting. For instance, Lake Toba (Indonesia) formed after its eruption around 75,000 years ago. At around by in extent and deep at its deepest point, Lake Toba is the largest crater lake in the world.


title: Volcanic crater lake

text: While many crater lakes are picturesque, they can also be deadly. Gas discharges from Lake Nyos in (Cameroon) suffocated 1,800 people in 1986, and crater lakes such as Mount Ruapehu's (New Zealand) often contribute to destructive lahars.


title: Volcanic crater lake

text: Certain bodies of water, although their formation is directly related to volcanic activity, are not usually referred to as crater lakes, including:


title: Interrogation (TV series)

text: Interrogation is an American true crime drama television series, created by Anders Weidemann and John Mankiewicz, that premiered on CBS All Access on February 6, 2020. In November 2020, the series was canceled after one season. The season was inspired by the Bruce Lisker conviction for the murder of his mother, when he was age 17.


title: Interrogation (TV series)

text: "Interrogation" is described as "an original concept based on a true story that spanned more than 30 years, in which a young man was charged and convicted of brutally murdering his mother. Each episode is structured around an interrogation taken directly from the real police case files, with the goal of turning the viewer into a detective. The first nine episodes of the series are available to watch in any order, and the conclusive season finale was released later." All ten episodes have been released.


title: Interrogation (TV series)

text: The series premiered in the US in CBS All Access on February 6, 2020. In Germany, The series started airing on Fox on June 11, 2020.


title: Interrogation (TV series)

text: On November 12, 2018, it was announced that CBS All Access had given the production a straight-to-series order for first season consisting of ten episodes. The series was created by Anders Weidemann and John Mankiewicz who were also expected to executive produce alongside Henrik Bastin and Melissa Aouate. Production companies involved with the series were slated to consist of Fabrik Entertainment and CBS Television Studios. While the series is based on a real-life criminal case, CBS All Access was not revealing the case in question at the time of the announcement. Furthermore, at that point, scripts for the series featured the real names of the people involved in the case, and it had not been decided yet whether they would be changed. At the time the events originally occurred, the case did not make national news but was reportedly well known to people living in the area where it happened. On December 12, 2019, key art was released, revealing a February 6, 2020 premiere date. In February 2020, it was reported that the show was based on the case of Bruce Lisker. On November 4, 2020, CBS All Access canceled the series after one season.


title: Interrogation (TV series)

text: In January 2019, it was announced that Peter Sarsgaard and David Strathairn had been cast in starring roles. On February 7, 2019, it was reported that Kodi Smit-McPhee had joined the main cast. On March 11, 2019, it was announced that Frank Whaley had been cast in a recurring role. On March 28, 2019, it was reported that Pat Healy, Melinda McGraw, and Michael Harney has been cast in recurring roles. On April 3, 2019, it was announced that Ebon Moss-Bachrach had been cast in a recurring capacity. On April 8, 2019, it was reported that Vincent D'Onofrio had been cast in a recurring role. On May 8, 2019, it was announced that Vinessa Antoine had joined the cast in a recurring capacity.


title: Interrogation (TV series)

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 57% approval rating for the series with an average rating of 6.21/10, based on 14 reviews. The website's critical consensus states, "Interrogation's "interactive" qualities are interesting, but ultimately get in the way of what could be a satisfying dramatic experience." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 54 out of 100, based on 8 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Murders of Haile Kifer and Nicholas Brady

text: The murders of Haile Kifer and Nicholas Brady occurred on Thanksgiving Day of 2012, when Haile Kifer, 18, and her cousin, Nicholas Brady, 17, broke into the home of 64 year-old Byron David Smith in Little Falls, Minnesota, in the United States. Smith shot the teens separately and 10 minutes apart as they entered the basement where he was, later stating to police he was worried about them being armed. After already shooting them once, he repeatedly taunted them while they were injured as he shot them both in an execution-style until they were dead. He did not report that he had killed Kifer and Brady until the day after the murders, keeping their corpses in his closet. On April 29, 2014, he was found guilty of two counts of premeditated first-degree murder. He was sentenced to life in prison without the possibility of parole.


text: The case sparked debate over the "castle doctrine", which allows homeowners to defend their homes with lethal force. The prosecution alleged that Smith's actions and a recording he made himself while the incidents were unfolding showed premeditation (lying in wait) and that he used excessive force after having neutralized the threat. He was convicted by a jury after three hours of deliberation and sentenced to life in prison.


text: Smith (born June 11, 1948) was retired from the U.S. State Department. He was never married and lived alone. His brother described him as a retired security engineering officer.


text: Smith claimed at trial that prior to the murders he had been burgled at least half a dozen times over the preceding few months. He had only reported one previous burglary to police, and investigators only found evidence of two previous burglaries (one of which occurred in his detached garage and of which he appeared to have no knowledge when it was brought up by police). Among the items stolen were four thousand dollars in cash, his father's POW watch, coins from a collection, and a chainsaw. Smith began routinely wearing a holster with a loaded gun inside his home, as well as stashing bottles of water and granola bars in his basement. Smith installed a security system to protect himself.


text: On November 22, 2012, Smith drove his vehicle down the road, parking it in front of a neighbor's home. About an hour later, Kifer and Brady broke into Smith's home. Video surveillance captured the teens casing the property prior to the break-in.


text: By his own account to police, Smith had been visiting neighbors when he saw Kifer, whom he suspected was responsible for the burglaries, driving past his home. He commented that he needed to get ready for her and went back to his home. Upon entering his home, Smith turned on a recording device he owned. He removed the light bulbs from the ceiling lights and positioned himself in a chair that was obscured from view. He heard the window upstairs break and Brady climb in (captured on audio). Smith then waited in silence for 12 minutes, until Brady began to descend into the basement. Smith shot Brady twice on the stairs, and once in the head after he fell to the bottom of the stairs. Smith then made taunting remarks to Brady's body, wrapped it in a tarp and dragged him into another room. He went upstairs, and 10–15 minutes later, he ran back down into the basement, reloaded his weapon and took up his previous position in the obscured chair. Minutes later, Kifer entered the home and could be heard calling her cousin's name. As she made her way down the stairs, Smith shot her. Wounded, she fell down the stairs, and Smith can be heard on the recording sarcastically saying "Oh, sorry about that," followed by Kifer saying "Oh my God" very quickly; Smith shoots her again, multiple times in the torso, in the midst of which she screams "Oh my God!", and once next to her left eye. He repeatedly called her derogatory names and then dragged her into the other room, tossing her body on top of her cousin's, and shot her one final time under the chin, murdering her. Audio and video of the events were recorded by Smith's security system.


text: The deaths were not immediately reported to police. Smith waited until the next day to notify police of the shootings, claiming he did not want to bother the police on Thanksgiving. Morrison County Sheriff Michel Wetzel has acknowledged that Brady and Kifer were there to burgle Smith's residence. Brady's sister claimed Brady stole drugs from her home on August 28, a case that was still under investigation at the time of Brady's killing. Evidence recovered from the car driven by Brady was linked to a burglary of the residence of a retired teacher the night before he and Kifer were killed by Smith.


text: Smith's statements to police describe delivering the "coups mortel" () to the heads of both teens after he had shot them on the stairs and they lay wounded on the basement floor. In his statement, Smith said that Kifer had let out a short laugh after she fell down the stairs, saying "If you're trying to shoot somebody and they laugh at you, you go again." The audiotape did not record Kifer laughing; instead, she cries "Oh, my God!" very rapidly in fear. In police interviews Smith acknowledged "firing more shots than I needed to" and that he fired "a good clean finishing shot" into Kifer's head.


text: Legal analysts have stated that the initial shootings most likely would have been justified under Minnesota's laws, but that the subsequent shots were not justified once any threat had been removed. Sheriff Wetzel said that "The law doesn't permit you to execute somebody once a threat is gone." Hamline University School of Law professor Joseph Olson said, "I think the first shot is justified. After the person is no longer a threat because they're seriously wounded, the application of self-defense is over."


text: In addition to his home surveillance system, Smith also recorded at least 6 hours of audio on a digital recorder in the basement of the residence. Prior to the break-in, he is heard saying "In your left eye." and "I realize I don't have an appointment but I would like to see one of the lawyers here." The prosecution noted that Kifer was later shot in the left eye by Smith and allege that the other statement is a rehearsal of what he would say after the shooting—an indication that he knew he would soon need an attorney.


text: Following the shootings, Smith made a number of statements, including: "I am not a bleeding heart liberal. I felt like I was cleaning up a mess – not like spilled food, not like vomit, not even like... not even like diarrhea – the worst mess possible. And I was stuck with it... in some tiny little respect. I was doing my civic duty. If the law enforcement system couldn't handle it, I had to do it. I had to do it. The law system couldn't handle her and it fell into my lap and she dropped her problem in my lap... and she threw her own problem in my face. And I had to clean it up." Smith's recorded statements, the evidence indicating he had planned the shootings, along with the excessive number of shots fired, led to Smith being charged with second degree murder. Smith was initially charged with two counts of second degree murder; however, in April 2013, he was indicted on two counts of first degree murder. Bail was later set at , which Smith posted.


text: Hamline law professor emeritus Joseph Daly commented that the laws surrounding the case were dividing the Little Falls community. "In some states, somebody breaks into your home you are allowed to shoot them dead. Period," said Daly. He pointed out other states, such as Florida, have a "stand your ground" law, but Minnesota has what's known as a reasonable person doctrine. "If a reasonable person would see if you are in fear of great bodily harm or death. That's our statute. It comes down to, what would a reasonable person see in this situation for Mr. Smith?" said Daly, arguing that summary execution is reasonable.


text: On April 21, 2014, Smith's jury trial commenced in Morrison County. Smith was represented by attorneys Steven J. Meshbesher and Adam T. Johnson. On April 29, 2014, Smith was found guilty on two counts of first-degree murder with premeditation and on two counts of second-degree murder after three hours of jury deliberations. He was immediately sentenced to life in prison without the possibility of parole. The audio recordings were named by the jurors as the biggest influence on their decision. "That was the most damning piece of evidence in my mind," Wes Hatlestad, one of 12 jurors, said following the trial. "That audio recording of the actual killings and the audio recording of Mr. Smith's interview immediately after his arrest ... pretty much convinced me that we were dealing with a deranged individual."


text: Following his conviction and sentence of life imprisonment, Smith appealed to the Minnesota Supreme Court. On March 9, 2016, the Minnesota Supreme Court affirmed Smith's conviction and sentence. In November 2018, Smith's attorneys filed a federal appeal, citing a brief closure of the trial to the public as grounds for Smith's conviction to be set aside, which, if granted, would necessitate a new trial. The federal district court denied relief, and the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit affirmed. On November 20, 2020, Smith's lawyers filed a petition for writ of "certiorari" in the United States Supreme Court, which was denied on March 22, 2021.


text: Under Minnesota state statute, "[R]easonable force may be used upon or toward the person of another without the other's consent when the following circumstances exist or the actor reasonably believes them to exist...when used by any person in lawful possession of real or personal property...in resisting...unlawful interference with such property...


text: Another state statute states: "The intentional taking of the life of another is not authorized...except when necessary in resisting or preventing an offense which the actor reasonably believes exposes the actor or another to great bodily harm or death, or preventing the commission of a felony in the actor's place of abode."


text: According to another state statute: "In criminal trials, the court shall decide questions of law, except in cases of criminal defamation, and the jury shall decide questions of fact."


title: Capela dos Ossos

text: The Capela dos Ossos (English: Chapel of Bones) is one of the best-known monuments in Évora, Portugal. It is a small interior chapel located next to the entrance of the Church of St. Francis. The Chapel gets its name because the interior walls are covered and decorated with human skulls and bones.


title: Capela dos Ossos

text: The Capela dos Ossos was built by Franciscan monks. An estimated 5,000 corpses were exhumed to decorate the walls of the chapel. The bones, which came from ordinary people who were buried in Évora's medieval cemeteries, were arranged by the Franciscans in a variety of patterns.


title: Capela dos Ossos

text: The chapel is formed by three spans long and wide. Light enters through three small openings on the left. Its walls and eight pillars are decorated in carefully arranged bones and skulls held together by cement. The ceiling is made of white painted brick and is painted with death motifs. The number of skeletons of friars was calculated to be about 5,000, coming from the cemeteries that were situated inside several dozen churches. Some of these skulls have been scribbled with graffiti. Two desiccated corpses, one of which is a child, are in glass display cases. And at the roof of chapel, the phrase ""Melior est die mortis die nativitatis" (Better is the day of death than the day of birth)" (Ecclesiastes, 7, 1) from Vulgate is written.


title: Capela dos Ossos

text: Inside the Capela dos Ossos a poem about the need to reflect on one's existence hangs in an old wooden frame on one of the pillars. It is attributed to Fr. António da Ascenção Teles, parish priest of the village of São Pedro (wherein the Church of Saint Francis with its Capela dos Ossos was erected) from 1845 to 1848.


title: Just So Stories

text: Just So Stories for Little Children is a 1902 collection of origin stories by the British author Rudyard Kipling. Considered a classic of children's literature, the book is among Kipling's best known works.


title: Just So Stories

text: Kipling began working on the book by telling the first three chapters as bedtime stories to his daughter Josephine. These had to be told "just so" (exactly in the words she was used to) or she would complain. The stories illustrate how animals acquired their distinctive features, such as how the leopard got his spots. For the book, Kipling illustrated the stories himself.


title: Just So Stories

text: The stories have appeared in a variety of adaptations including a musical and animated films. Evolutionary biologists have noted that what Kipling did in fiction in a Lamarckian way, they have done in reality, providing Darwinian explanations for the evolutionary development of animal features.


title: Just So Stories

text: The stories, first published in 1902, are origin stories, fantastic accounts of how various features of animals came to be. A forerunner of these stories is Kipling's "How Fear Came", in "The Second Jungle Book" (1895). In it, Mowgli hears the story of how the tiger got his stripes.


title: Just So Stories

text: The "Just So Stories" began as bedtime stories told by Kipling to his daughter "Effie" (Josephine, Kipling's firstborn); when the first three were published in a children's magazine, a year before her death, Kipling explained: "in the evening there were stories meant to put Effie to sleep, and you were not allowed to alter those by one single little word. They had to be told just so; or Effie would wake up and put back the missing sentence. So at last they came to be like charms, all three of them – the whale tale, the camel tale, and the rhinoceros tale."


title: Just So Stories

text: Nine of the thirteen "Just So Stories" tell how particular animals were modified from their original forms to their current forms by the acts of human beings or magical beings. For example, the Whale has a tiny throat because he swallowed a "mariner", who tied a raft inside to block the whale from swallowing other men. The Camel has a hump given to him by a "djinn" as punishment for the camel's refusing to work (the hump allows the camel to work longer between times of eating). The Leopard's spots were painted by an Ethiopian (after the Ethiopian painted himself black). The Kangaroo gets its powerful hind legs, long tail and hopping gait after being chased all day by a dingo, sent by a minor god responding to the Kangaroo's request to be made different from all other animals.


title: Just So Stories

text: Kipling illustrated the original editions of the "Just So Stories." Later illustrators of the book include Joseph M. Gleeson.


title: Just So Stories

text: As well as appearing in a collection, the individual stories have also been published as separate books: often in large-format, illustrated editions for younger children.


title: Just So Stories

text: Adaptations of "Just So Stories" have been made in forms such as cartoons, including several in the Soviet Union in the 1930s, and musicals, including one in 1984 by Anthony Drewe and George Stiles.


title: Just So Stories

text: H. W. Boynton, writing in "The Atlantic" in 1903, commented that only a century earlier children had had to be content with the Bible, "Pilgrim's Progress", "Paradise Lost", and "Foxe's Book of Martyrs". But in his day "A much pleasanter bill of fare is being provided for them". Boynton argued that with "Just So Stories", Kipling did for "very little children" what "The Jungle Book" had done for older ones. He described the book as "artfully artless, in its themes, in its repetitions, in its habitual limitation, and occasional abeyance, of adult humor. It strikes a child as the kind of yarn his father or uncle might have spun if he had just happened to think of it; and it has, like all good fairy-business, a sound core of philosophy".


title: Just So Stories

text: Sue Walsh observed in 2007 that critics have rigidly categorised "Just So Stories" as "Children's Literature", and have in consequence given it scant literary attention. In her view, if critics mention the book at all, they talk about what kind of reading is good for children and what they are capable of understanding. The stories are discussed, she argues, by critics such as Elliott Gose "in terms of ideas about the child’s pleasure (conceived of in sensual terms divorced of intellectual understanding) in the oral aspects of the text which are said to prompt an ‘active Participation’ which seems largely to be understood in terms of the ‘oral savouring’ of repetition".


title: Just So Stories

text: The molecular biologist Walter M. Fitch remarked in 2012 (published posthumously) that the stories, while "delightful", are "very Lamarckian", giving the example of the stretching of the elephant's snout in a tug-of-war, as the acquired trait (a long trunk) is inherited by all the elephant's descendants.


title: Just So Stories

text: Lewis I. Held's 2014 account of evolutionary developmental biology ("evo-devo"), "How the Snake Lost its Legs: Curious Tales from the Frontier of Evo-Devo", noted that while Kipling's "Just So Stories" "offered fabulous tales about how the leopard got its spots, how the elephant got its trunk, and so forth [and] remains one of the most popular children's books of all time", fables "are poor substitutes for real understanding." Held aimed "to blend Darwin's rigor with Kipling's whimsy", naming the many "Curious Tales" such as "How the Duck Got its Bill" in his book in the style of "Just So Stories", and observing that truth could be stranger than fiction.


title: Just So Stories

text: Sean B. Carroll's 2005 book "Endless Forms Most Beautiful" has been called a new "Just So Stories", one that explains the "spots, stripes, and bumps" that had attracted Kipling's attention in his children's stories. A reviewer in "BioScience" suggested that "Kipling would be riveted."


title: Kingdom of Essex

text: The Kingdom of the East Saxons (; ), referred to as the Kingdom of Essex , was one of the seven traditional kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy. It was founded in the 6th century and covered the territory later occupied by the counties of Essex, Middlesex, much of Hertfordshire and (for a short while) west Kent. The last king of Essex was Sigered of Essex, who in 825 ceded the kingdom to Ecgberht, King of Wessex.


title: Kingdom of Essex

text: The Kingdom of Essex was bounded to the north by the River Stour and the Kingdom of East Anglia, to the south by the River Thames and Kent, to the east lay the North Sea and to the west Mercia. The territory included the remains of two provincial Roman capitals, Colchester and London.


title: Kingdom of Essex

text: The kingdom included the Middle Saxon Province, which included the area of the later county of Middlesex, and most if not all of Hertfordshire Although the province is only ever recorded as a part of the East Saxon kingdom, charter evidence shows that it was not part of their core territory. In the core area they granted charters freely, but further west they did so while also making reference to their Mercian overlords. At times, Essex was ruled jointly by co-Kings, and it thought that the Middle Saxon Province is likely to have been the domain of one of these co-kings. The links to Essex between Middlesex and parts of Hertfordshire were long reflected in the Diocese of London, re-established in 604 as the East Saxon see, and its boundaries continued to be based on the Kingdom of Essex until the nineteenth century.


title: Kingdom of Essex

text: The East Saxons also had intermittent control of Surrey. For a brief period in the 8th century, the Kingdom of Essex controlled west Kent.


title: Kingdom of Essex

text: The modern English county of Essex maintains the historic northern and the southern borders, but only covers the territory east of the River Lea, the other parts being lost to neighbouring Mercia during the 8th century.


title: Kingdom of Essex

text: Although the kingdom of Essex was one of the kingdoms of the Heptarchy, its history is not well documented. It produced relatively few Anglo-Saxon charters and no version of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle"; in fact the only mention in the chronicle concerns Bishop Mellitus. As a result, the kingdom is regarded as comparatively obscure. For most of the kingdom's existence, the Essex king was subservient to an overlord – variously the kings of Kent, East Anglia or Mercia.


title: Kingdom of Essex

text: Saxon occupation of land that was to form the kingdom had begun by the early 5th century at Mucking and other locations. A large proportion of these original settlers came from Old Saxony. According to British legend (see ) the territory known later as Essex was ceded by the Celtic Britons to the Saxons following the infamous Treason of the Long Knives, which occurred during the reign of High King Vortigern. Della Hooke relates the territory ruled by the kings of Essex to the pre-Roman territory of the Trinovantes. Studies suggest a pattern of typically peaceful co-existence, with the structure of the Romano-British landscape being maintained, and with the Saxon settlers believed to have been in the minority.


title: Kingdom of Essex

text: The kingdom of Essex grew by the absorption of smaller subkingdoms or Saxon tribal groups. There are a number of suggestions for the location of these subkingdoms including:


title: Kingdom of Essex

text: Essex emerged as a single kingdom during the 6th century. The dates, names and achievements of the Essex kings, like those of most early rulers in the Heptarchy, remain conjectural. The historical identification of the kings of Essex, including the evidence and a reconstructed genealogy are discussed extensively by Yorke. The dynasty claimed descent from Woden via Seaxnēat. A genealogy of the Essex royal house was prepared in Wessex in the 9th century. Unfortunately, the surviving copy is somewhat mutilated. At times during the history of the kingdom several sub-kings within Essex appear to have been able to rule simultaneously. They may have exercised authority over different parts of the kingdom. The first recorded king, according to the East Saxon King List, was Æscwine of Essex, to which a date of 527 is given for the start of his reign, although there are some difficulties with the date of his reign, and Sledd of Essex is listed as the founder of the Essex royal house by other sources. The kings of Essex are notable for their S-nomenclature, nearly all their names begin with the letter S.


title: Kingdom of Essex

text: The Essex kings issued coins that echoed those issued by Cunobeline simultaneously asserting a link to the first century rulers while emphasising independence from Mercia.


title: Kingdom of Essex

text: Christianity is thought to have flourished among the Trinovantes in the 4th century (late Roman period); indications include the remains of a probable church at Colchester, dating from some time after 320 AD, shortly after the Constantine the Great granted freedom of worship to Christians in 313 AD. Other archaeological evidence includes a chi rho symbol etched on a tile at a site in Wickford, and a gold ring inscribed with a chi rho monogram found at Brentwood. It is not clear to what extent, if any, Christianity persisted by the time of the pagan East Saxon kings in the sixth century.


title: Kingdom of Essex

text: The earliest English record of the kingdom dates to Bede's , which noted the arrival of Bishop (later Saint) Mellitus in London in 604. Æthelberht (King of Kent and overlord of southern England according to Bede) was in a position to exercise some authority in Essex shortly after 604, when his intervention helped in the conversion of King Saebert of Essex (son of Sledd), his nephew, to Christianity. It was Æthelberht, and not Sæberht, who built and endowed St. Paul's in London, where St. Paul's Cathedral now stands. Bede describes Æthelberht as Sæberht's overlord. After the death of Saebert in AD 616, Mellitus was driven out and the kingdom reverted to paganism. This may have been the result of opposition to Kentish influence in Essex affairs rather than being specifically anti-Christian.


title: Kingdom of Essex

text: The kingdom reconverted to Christianity under Sigeberht II the Good following a mission by St Cedd who established monasteries at "Tilaburg" (probably East Tilbury, but possibly West Tilbury) and "Ithancester" (almost certainly Bradwell-on-Sea). A royal tomb at Prittlewell was discovered and excavated in 2003. Finds included gold foil crosses, suggesting the occupant was Christian. If the occupant was a king, it was probably either Saebert or Sigeberht (murdered AD 653). It is, however, also possible that the occupant was not royal, but simply a wealthy and powerful individual whose identity has gone unrecorded.


title: Kingdom of Essex

text: Essex reverted to Paganism again in 660 with the ascension of the Pagan King Swithelm of Essex. He converted in 662, but died in 664. He was succeeded by his two sons, Sigehere and Sæbbi. A plague the same year caused Sigehere and his people to recant their Christianity and Essex reverted to Paganism a third time. This rebellion was suppressed by Wulfhere of Mercia who established himself as overlord. Bede describes Sigehere and Sæbbi as "rulers […] under Wulfhere, king of the Mercians". Wulfhere sent Jaruman, the bishop of Lichfield, to reconvert the East Saxons.