title: Democratic Party of Turkmenistan

text: The DPT was created following the dissolution of the Soviet Union as a successor party to the Communist Party of Turkmenistan. The internal structure of the old party was effectively unchanged in the transition, as was the old guard. The DPT has faced limited and sporadic challenges from alternative political parties in the past but have never faced a significant challenge during an election because of the often repressive nature of politics in the country. Opposition parties are usually crushed before they make any significant grounds in public opinion. This has been the case even after the formal legalization of opposition parties in 2010.


title: Democratic Party of Turkmenistan

text: Due to the lack of opposition parties to contest for government, the DPT controls most, if not all, industries of significant revenue directly. Central planning is a key element of party policy and serves as the basis of functionality for government services. The party's ideology of "Turkmen nationalism" was theorized by former party leader Saparmurat Niyazov for the purpose of an authoritarian state ideology in Turkmenistan.


title: Democratic Party of Turkmenistan

text: Turkmenistan elects on the national level a head of state - the president - and a legislature. Elections in Turkmenistan have been widely criticized for being completely fraudulent and attempting to give an appearance of legitimacy to what is in reality a dictatorship.


title: Democratic Party of Turkmenistan

text: The Assembly is a 125-member legislative body officially led by the President of Turkmenistan. The DPT, not unlike every other facet of political life in Turkmenistan, holds a majority of seats, with accusations that the "multi-party system" established in the early 2010s only consists of parties loyal to the DPT. The last election for the assembly was held in 2018.


title: Cornershop

text: Cornershop are a British indie rock band best known for their single "Brimful of Asha", originally released in 1997 and, in a remixed version, topping the UK chart in 1998. The band was formed in 1991 by Wolverhampton-born Tjinder Singh (singer, songwriter, and guitar), his brother Avtar Singh (bass guitar, vocals), David Chambers (drums) and Ben Ayres (guitar, keyboards, and tamboura), the first three having previously been members of Preston-based band General Havoc, who released one single (the "Fast Jaspal EP") in 1991. The band name originated from a stereotype referring to British Asians often owning corner shops. Their music is a fusion of Indian music, indie rock, alternative and electronic dance music.


title: Cornershop

text: Tjinder Singh formed the General Havoc whilst a student at Lancashire Polytechnic in Preston, in 1987. He relocated to Leicester, where his brother and sister lived, and formed Cornershop in 1991 along with his brother Avtar, and Chambers and Ayres, while working as a barman at Leicester's Magazine pub, also a popular local music venue. The band played their first gig at Leicester's "O'Jays" venue.


title: Cornershop

text: In the early 1990s, when singer Morrissey was being vilified by the UK music press after accusations of racism, the band were invited to comment and the "Melody Maker" ran a story featuring the band burning a picture of the singer outside the offices of EMI.


title: Cornershop

text: Their debut release, the "In The Days of Ford Cortina EP", was pressed on "curry-coloured vinyl" and contained a blend of Indian-tinged noise pop. The sound mellowed somewhat with the release of debut album "Hold On It Hurts" in 1994, described by "Trouser Press" as "a politically charged popfest, ten tracks of noisy delights that meld incisive social commentary with a firm hold on British post-punk." The album impressed David Byrne sufficiently for him to sign the band to his Luaka Bop label. Although David Chambers left the band in 1994, replaced by Nick Simms, the band re-emerged in 1995 with the "6 a.m. Jullandar Shere" single and the album "Woman's Gotta Have It", also touring the United States including some dates on the Lollapalooza tour. The band also toured Europe with Beck, Stereolab and Oasis.


title: Cornershop

text: The band released their critically acclaimed album "When I Was Born for the 7th Time" in September 1997. The album featured collaborations with Allen Ginsberg, Paula Frazer, Justin Warfield and a Yoko Ono- and Paul McCartney-approved cover of "Norwegian Wood" recorded in the Punjabi language. The album was produced by Tjinder Singh and Dan the Automator. Rolling Stone called it one of the essential recordings of the 1990s. The album was ranked No. 1 on Spin's list of 'Top 20 Albums of the Year' (1998)


title: Cornershop

text: The track "Brimful of Asha" topped the legendary Festive 50 rundown of John Peel's tracks of the year in 1997.


title: Cornershop

text: Norman Cook (a.k.a. Fatboy Slim) loved the track and remixed the song, which became hugely popular and captured the attention of the world. The song was a tribute to the prolific Indian playback singer, Asha Bhosle, and Tjinder's musical influences such as Trojan Records and vinyl culture in general.


title: Cornershop

text: In 2000 Ayres and Singh released a disco inspired album "Disco and the Halfway to Discontent" as part of their side-project, Clinton. This album inspired the launch of the London-based clubnight called Buttoned Down Disco, which took its name from the third track on the album.


title: Cornershop

text: Their next official Cornershop release was the 2002 album, "Handcream for a Generation", which featured Noel Gallagher on guitar.


title: Cornershop

text: According to their official website, Cornershop have been making a film about London's independent music industry since 2003. In 2004 the band released the track 'Topknot' featuring the vocals of Bubbley Kaur on Rough Trade Records. In February 2006, some four years after their last album, they released another single "Wop the Groove" featuring guest vocals from Happy Mondays backing singer Rowetta.


title: Cornershop

text: In 2008, their song "Candyman" was featured in the Nike advertisement for the LeBron James VI shoe, called the Six "Chalk" commercial.


title: Cornershop

text: Cornershop released an album "Judy Sucks a Lemon for Breakfast" in July 2009, preceded by the single "The Roll-Off Characteristics (Of History in the Making)" in May on their own record label called Ample Play.


title: Cornershop

text: An album "Cornershop and the Double 'O' Groove Of", a collaboration with Punjabi folk singer Bubbley Kaur, was released in March 2011 to critical acclaim in the UK. The band also set up the Singhles Club Club, a subscription service featuring a series of musically diverse collaborations and exclusive digital artwork.


title: Cornershop

text: The band's eighth album "Urban Turban" was released on 14 May 2012 and the ninth album "Hold On It's Easy" was released on 2 February 2015. In July 2015 they released a single "Pinpoint" with Welsh singer Angharad Van Rijswijk aka Accü


title: Cornershop

text: In 2017 they gave an instrumental track called 'Demon is a Monster' to the anti-Brexit podcast 'Remainiacs' to use as a theme tune. The track was then released digitally. Cornershop were fiercely anti-Brexit. In March 2020, they released a new album, "England Is a Garden" to generally positive reviews. The first official video from the album accompanying the track 'St Marie under Canon' was released in February 2020.


title: Junction box

text: An electrical junction box (also known as a "jbox") is an enclosure housing electrical connections. Junction boxes protect the electrical connections from the weather, as well as protecting people from accidental electric shocks.


title: Junction box

text: A small metal or plastic junction box may form part of an electrical conduit or thermoplastic-sheathed cable (TPS) wiring system in a building. If designed for surface mounting, it is used mostly in ceilings, under floors or concealed behind an access panel—particularly in domestic or commercial buildings. An appropriate type (such as that shown in the gallery) may be buried in the plaster of a wall (although full concealment is no longer allowed by modern codes and standards) or cast into concrete—with only the cover visible.


title: Junction box

text: A similar, usually wall mounted, container used mainly to accommodate switches, sockets and the associated connecting wiring is called a pattress.


title: Junction box

text: The term junction box may also be used for a larger item, such as a piece of street furniture. In the UK, such items are often called a cabinet. See Enclosure (electrical).


title: Junction box

text: Junction boxes form an integral part of a circuit protection system where circuit integrity has to be provided, as for emergency lighting or emergency power lines, or the wiring between a nuclear reactor and a control room. In such an installation, the fireproofing around the incoming or outgoing cables must also be extended to cover the junction box to prevent short circuits inside the box during an accidental fire.


title: Web beacon

text: A web beacon is a technique used on web pages and email to unobtrusively (usually invisibly) allow checking that a user has accessed some content. Web beacons are typically used by third parties to monitor the activity of users at a website for the purpose of web analytics or page tagging. They can also be used for email tracking. When implemented using JavaScript, they may be called JavaScript tags.


title: Web beacon

text: Using such beacons, companies and organizations can track the online behaviour of web users. At first, the companies doing such tracking were mainly advertisers or web analytics companies; later social media sites also started to use such tracking techniques, for instance through the use of buttons that act as tracking beacons.


title: Web beacon

text: In 2017, W3C published a candidate specification for an interface that web developers can use to create web beacons.


title: Web beacon

text: A web beacon is any of several techniques used to track who is visiting a web page. They can also be used to see if an email was read or forwarded or if a web page was copied to another website.


title: Web beacon

text: The first web beacons were small digital image files that were embedded in a web page or email. The image could be as small as a single pixel (a "tracking pixel") and could have the same colour as the background, or be completely transparent. When a user opens the page or email where such an image is embedded, they might not see the image, but their web browser or email reader automatically downloads the image, requiring the user's computer to send a request to the host company's server, where the source image is stored. This request provides identifying information about the computer, allowing the host to keep track of the user.


title: Web beacon

text: This basic technique has been developed further so that many types of elements can be used as beacons. Currently, these can include visible elements such as graphics, banners, or buttons, but also non-pictorial HTML elements such as the frame, style, script, input link, embed, object, etc., of an email or web page.


title: Web beacon

text: The identifying information provided by the user's computer typically includes its IP address, the time the request was made, the type of web browser or email reader that made the request, and the existence of cookies previously sent by the host server. The host server can store all of this information, and associate it with a session identifier or tracking token that uniquely marks the interaction.


title: Web beacon

text: Once a company can identify a particular user, the company can then track that user's behavior across multiple interactions with different websites or web servers. As an example, consider a company that owns a network of websites. This company could store all of its "images" on one particular server, but store "the other contents" of its web pages on a variety of other servers. For instance, each server could be specific to a given website, and could even be located in a different city. But the company could use web beacons requesting data from its one image server to count and recognize individual users who visit different websites. Rather than gathering statistics and managing cookies for each server independently, the company can analyze all this data together, and track the behavior of individual users across all the different websites, assembling a profile of each user as they navigate through these different environments.


title: Web beacon

text: Web beacons embedded in emails have greater privacy implications than beacons embedded in web pages. Through the use of an embedded beacon, the sender of an email – or even a third party – can record the same sort of information as an advertiser on a website, namely the time that the email was read, the IP address of the computer that was used to read the email (or the IP address of the proxy server that the reader went through), the type of software used to read the email, and the existence of any cookies previously sent. In this way, the sender – or a third party – can gather detailed information about when and where each particular recipient reads their email. Every subsequent time the email message is displayed, the same information can be sent again to the sender or third party.


title: Web beacon

text: "Return-receipt-to" (RRT) email headers can also trigger sending of information and these may be seen as another form of a web beacon.


title: Web beacon

text: Web beacons are used by email marketers, spammers, and phishers to verify that an email is read. Using this system, they can send similar emails to a large number of addresses and then check which ones are valid. Valid in this case means that the address is actually in use, that the email has made it past spam filters, and that the content of the email is actually viewed.


title: Web beacon

text: To some extent, this kind of email tracking can be prevented by configuring the email reader software to avoid accessing remote images.


title: Web beacon

text: One way to neutralize such email tracking is to disconnect from the Internet after downloading email but before reading the downloaded messages. (Note that this assumes one is using an email reader that resides on one's own computer and downloads the emails from the email server to one's own computer.) In that case, messages containing beacons will not be able to trigger requests to the beacons' host servers, and the tracking will be prevented. But one would then have to delete any messages suspected of containing beacons or risk having the beacons activate again once the computer is reconnected to the Internet.


title: Web beacon

text: The Beacon API (application programming interface) is a candidate recommendation of the World Wide Web Consortium, the standards organization for the web. It is a standardized API that allows to send data back to server without harming user experience.


title: Web beacon

text: Use of the Beacon API allows tracking without interfering with or delaying navigation away from the site, and is invisible to the end-user. Support for the Beacon API was introduced into Mozilla's Firefox browser in February 2014 and in Google's Chrome browser in November 2014.


title: The bush

text: "The bush" is a term mostly used in the English vernacular of Australia and New Zealand where it is largely synonymous with "backwoods" or "hinterland", referring to a natural undeveloped area. The fauna and flora contained within this area must be indigenous to the region, although exotic species will often also be present.


title: The bush

text: The Australian and New Zealand usage of the word "bush" for "forest" or scrubland, probably comes from the Dutch word "bos/bosch" ("forest"), used by early Dutch settlers in South Africa, where it came to signify uncultivated country among Afrikaners. Many English-speaking early European settlers to South Africa later migrated to Australia or New Zealand and brought the term with them. Today, in South Africa Fynbos tends to refer to the heath vegetation of the Western Cape and Eastern Cape.


title: The bush

text: It is also widely used in Canada to refer to the large, forested portion of the country. The same usage applies in the US state of Alaska.


title: The bush

text: provided resources for the survival skills, mainly with bush tucker and the spiritual healing of bush medicine. From 1788 onwards, land grants began to develop along with permanent human settlements near vast tracts of bush.


title: The bush

text: In the period of British colonial rule in Australia, the bushrangers were originally escaped convicts and used the bush as a sanctuary to hide from authorities. The era of bushranging came to an end in 1880 when they disappeared completely, with the concluding execution of Ned Kelly.


title: The bush

text: The concept of "the bush" has become iconic in Australia. In reference to the landscape, "bush" refers to any sparsely-inhabited region, regardless of vegetation. "The bush" in this sense was something that was uniquely Australian and very different from the green European landscapes familiar to many new immigrants. The term "Outback" is also used, but usually in association with the more arid inland areas of Australia. "The bush" also refers to any populated region outside of the major metropolitan areas, including mining and agricultural areas. Consequently, it is not unusual to have a mining town in the desert such as Port Hedland (Pop. 14,000) referred to as "the bush" within the media.


title: The bush

text: Bush poets such as Henry Lawson (1867-1922) and Banjo Paterson (1864-1942) revered the bush as a source of national ideals, as did contemporaneous painters in the Heidelberg School like Tom Roberts (1856–1931), Arthur Streeton (1867–1943) and Frederick McCubbin (1855–1917). Romanticising the bush in this way was a big step forward for Australians in their steps towards self-identity. The legacy is a folklore rich in the spirit of the bush.


title: The bush

text: Australians affix the term "bush" to any number of other entities or activities to describe their rural, country or folk nature, e.g. "Bush cricket", "Bush music", "Bush doof".


title: The bush

text: In New Zealand, "Bush" primarily refers to areas of native trees rather than exotic forests, however, the word is also used in the Australian sense of anywhere outside urban areas, encompassing grasslands as well as forests.


title: The bush

text: Areas with bush (i.e. native forest) are found in both the North Island and the South Island, some of it bordering towns and cities, but the majority of bush is found in large national parks. Examples of predominantly bush clad areas are Whanganui National Park, on Taranaki volcano, on which the bush extends in a uniformly circular shape to the surrounding farmland, and Fiordland in the South Island. Much of Stewart Island/Rakiura is bush-covered. In the North Island, the largest areas of bush cover the main ranges stretching north-northeast from Wellington towards East Cape, notably including the Urewera Ranges, and the catchment of the Whanganui River. Significant stands remain in Northland and the ranges running south from the Coromandel Peninsula towards Ruapehu, and isolated remnants cap various volcanoes in Taranaki, the Waikato, the Bay of Plenty and the Hauraki Gulf.


title: The bush

text: In South Africa, the term () has specific connotations of rural areas which are not open veldt. Generally, it refers to areas in the north of the country that would be called savanna. "Going to The Bush" ("Bos toe Gaan") often refers to going to a game park or game reserve. Areas most commonly referred to as The Bush are the Mpumalanga and Limpopo Lowveld, The Limpopo River Valley, northern KwaZulu-Natal or any other similar area of wilderness.


title: The bush

text: The Bush in Alaska is generally described as any community not "on the road system", making it accessible only by more elaborate transportation. Usage is similar in Canada; it is called "la brousse" or colloquially "le bois" in Canadian French. In Canada, "the bush" refers to large expanses of forest and swampland which sprawl undeveloped, as well as any forested area.


title: The bush

text: The term "to go bush" has several similar meanings all connected with the supposed wildness of the bush. It can mean to revert to a feral nature (or to "go native"), and it can also mean to deliberately leave normal surroundings and live rough, with connotations of cutting off communication with the outside world – often as a means of evading capture or questioning by the police. The term "bushwhacker" is used in Australia and New Zealand to mean someone who spends his or her time in the bush.


title: The bush

text: The verb "to bushwhack" has two meanings. One is to cut through heavy brush and other vegetation to pass through tangled country: "We had to do quite a bit of bushwhacking today to clear the new trail." The other meaning is to hide in such areas and then attack unsuspecting passers-by: "We were bushwhacked by the bandits as we passed through their territory and they took all of our money and supplies."


title: The bush

text: The Bushwhackers were also a New Zealand professional wrestling tag team that was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame class of 2015.


title: The bush

text: In New Zealand, "The Bush" is a nickname for the Wairarapa Bush provincial rugby team. The team was formed by an amalgamation of two earlier teams, Wairarapa and Bush. The latter team had represented an area on the boundaries of the Wairarapa and Hawke's Bay which was in former times known as "Bush" due to its dense vegetation cover.


title: The bush

text: In the United States, minor league baseball, which is typically played in smaller cities, is sometimes derisively called ""bush league baseball"".


title: The bush

text: In Australia,"Sydney or the bush" equates with such terms as "Hollywood or bust" to mean staking total success or failure on one high-risk event. This usage appears in several "Peanuts" cartoons, causing Charlie Brown much confusion.


title: Pat Cipollone

text: Pasquale Anthony "Pat" Cipollone (born May 6, 1966) is an American attorney who served as White House Counsel for President Donald Trump.


title: Pat Cipollone

text: Cipollone's father was an Italian immigrant and factory worker; his mother was a homemaker. He spent most of his childhood in the Bronx. The family moved to Northern Kentucky, where he graduated from Covington Catholic High School in 1984. He graduated as class valedictorian from Fordham University in 1988, with a Bachelor of Arts in economics and political philosophy. He enrolled at the University of Chicago Law School, where he was managing editor of the "University of Chicago Law Review", earning a Juris Doctor in 1991.


title: Pat Cipollone

text: Cipollone was a law clerk for Judge Danny Boggs of the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit (Cincinnati, Ohio) from 1991–1992, and served as an assistant to Attorney General William P. Barr from 1992–1993.


title: Pat Cipollone

text: He was a partner at the law firm Kirkland & Ellis, and prior to taking over as White House Counsel was a partner at Stein, Mitchell, Cipollone, Beato & Missner, where he practiced commercial litigation. His clients included President Donald Trump, Radio Ingraham LLC, and Sony Entertainment.


title: Pat Cipollone

text: As of July 2022, Cipollone was a named partner of the Los Angeles law firm Ellis George Cipollone O'Brien Annaguey LLP d/b/a Ellis George Cipollone.


title: Pat Cipollone

text: Cipollone was named White House Counsel by President Donald Trump in October 2018. He succeeded Don McGahn who left office on October 17, 2018. Emmet Flood served as counsel until Cipollone's background security check was completed. Cipollone officially assumed the role on December 10, 2018.


title: Pat Cipollone

text: In his role as White House Counsel, Cipollone was the public face of the White House response to the impeachment inquiry into Donald Trump. In October 2019, he signed an eight-page letter to Democratic House leaders stating that the White House would not cooperate in any way with the inquiry. He laid out a broad view of executive authority and said that Democrats' actions violate "the Constitution, the rule of law, and every past precedent". This letter has been cited as evidence for the charge that President Trump was obstructing the House's impeachment inquiry.


title: Pat Cipollone

text: In December 2019, Cipollone wrote two letters in response to an invitation from Jerry Nadler, chair of the House Judiciary Committee, for the White House or Trump himself to participate in its hearings. He said the White House and Trump would not participate because the planned hearings do not "provide the president with any semblance of a fair process" and the inquiry is "completely baseless".


title: Pat Cipollone

text: On January 14, 2020, Cipollone was named to the team of attorneys representing President Donald Trump in the impeachment hearing case.


title: Pat Cipollone

text: On January 31, 2020, it was reported that Cipollone was present at a May 2019 White House meeting where President Trump directed his national security adviser John Bolton to "extract damaging information on Democrats from Ukrainian officials."


title: Pat Cipollone

text: In January 2021, Cipollone was present at a White House meeting where he reportedly argued against a proposal to replace acting attorney general Jeffrey A. Rosen with Jeffrey Clark, the acting head of the Justice Department's Civil Division. Clark, unlike Rosen, was willing to pursue Trump's claims of election fraud and help Trump overturn the 2020 election results. Specifically, Clark wanted to send a letter to Georgia state legislators urging them to void Biden's win in their state, and Cipollone strongly objected to this. One official later said, "Pat pretty much saved Rosen's job that day."


title: Pat Cipollone

text: While Trump pursued schemes to stay in power that led to the January 6, 2021 attack on the U.S. Capitol, Cipollone and members of his team threatened to resign on principle. On March 31, 2022, Jared Kushner told the House select committee investigating the January 6 attack that he had been aware of Cipollone's objections but that he had dismissed and ignored them as mere "whining". The tape of Kushner's interview was revealed at the committee's first public hearing on June 9, 2022.


title: Pat Cipollone

text: Cipollone’s comments and actions during his final days as Trump's White House Counsel have played a key role in the January 6 committee hearings, specifically the committee's sixth hearing.


title: Pat Cipollone

text: On June 28, 2022 former Trump White House aide Cassidy Hutchinson testified that Cipollone discussed potential criminal legal exposure for Trump's planned rally on January 6. "Pat was concerned it would look like we were obstructing justice or obstructing the Electoral College count", she testified, "that it would look like we were obstructing what was happening on Capitol Hill." Obstructing an official proceeding is a felony under U.S. law, and as part of a dispute with John Eastman, U.S. District Judge David O. Carter ruled with the committee, stating "the Court finds it more likely than not that President Trump corruptly attempted to obstruct the Joint Session of Congress."


title: Pat Cipollone

text: "We had conversations about potentially obstructing justice or defrauding the electoral count", Hutchinson testified about discussions with Cipollone. Carter's ruling also cited "conspiracy to defraud the United States", by circumventing the Electoral Count Act.


title: Pat Cipollone

text: Hutchinson testified to being present for dramatic conversations between Cipollone and White House Chief of Staff Mark Meadows on January 6, with Hutchinson quoting Cipollone as saying "Mark, something needs to be done or people are going to die and the blood is going to be on your f'ing hands." Hutchinson quoted Cipollone as saying, "Mark, we need to do something more. They're literally calling for the vice president to be f'ing hung", with Meadows responding "you heard [the president], Pat. He thinks Mike deserves it. He doesn't think they're doing anything wrong."


title: Pat Cipollone

text: Committee Vice Chair Liz Cheney repeatedly called for Cipollone to testify before the committee, saying a week before Hutchinson's testimony “our evidence shows that Pat Cipollone and his office tried to do what was right" and spoke for the committee stating "we think the American people deserve to hear from Mr. Cipollone personally. He should appear before this committee." Cipollone's distant predecessor as White House Counsel, John Dean, a former Republican who had served in the Nixon administration during the Watergate scandal, called on Cipollone to follow his example and testify about Trump to Congress. Cipollone was issued a public subpoena to testify before the committee the day after Hutchinson's testimony. Cipollone complied with the subpoena, meeting with the committee for a videotaped deposition on July 8.


title: Pat Cipollone

text: On August 2, 2022, Cipollone was subpoenaed by the Justice Department as part of its investigation into the January 6 United States Capitol attack.


title: Pat Cipollone

text: Cipollone is a Roman Catholic, a founding member of the National Catholic Prayer Breakfast and a board member of the Catholic Information Center. Conservative commentator Laura Ingraham credited Cipollone with helping her convert to Catholicism in 2002. He has ten children. One of Cipollone’s daughters worked as a booker for "The Ingraham Angle".


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: Christian Karl Gerhartsreiter (born February 21, 1961) is a German convicted murderer and impostor. Born in West Germany, he is currently serving a prison sentence in the U.S. state of California. After moving to the U.S. in his late teens, Gerhartsreiter lived under a succession of aliases while variously claiming to be an actor, a director, an art collector, a physicist, a ship's captain, a negotiator of international debt agreements, and an English aristocrat.


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: In 1995, while assuming the identity of Clark Rockefeller, claiming to be part of the noted Rockefeller family, Gerhartsreiter married a successful businesswoman named Sandra Boss; they had a daughter together. Gerhartsreiter lived well solely on his wife's income. However, she became dissatisfied with his secretive, controlling behavior and sought a divorce. Inquiries on her behalf revealed that he had fabricated his name and his family background. The couple divorced and Gerhartsreiter agreed to accept limited access to his daughter on supervised visits. Gerhartsreiter was arrested on August 2, 2008, six days after he abducted his daughter while she was on a visit. He was subsequently convicted of the custodial kidnapping of his daughter.


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: In addition to Clark Rockefeller, Gerhartsreiter's aliases include Christopher Kenneth Gerhart, Christopher Chichester, Christopher C. Crowe and Charles "Chip" Smith. Gerhartsreiter's true identity was revealed after author Edward Savio – with whom Gerhartsreiter briefly lived upon arriving in the U.S. – contacted the FBI during the manhunt after seeing a photo of "Clark Rockefeller" on the news. Police had been seeking Gerhartsreiter as a suspect in the 1985 disappearance of a married couple, Jonathan and Linda Sohus, in California. He was convicted in 2013 of Jonathan Sohus's murder and is serving 27 years to life in a California prison.


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: Christian Gerhartsreiter was born to Simon and Irmgard Gerhartsreiter on February 21, 1961, in Siegsdorf, Bavaria, West Germany; his parents gave his birthdate as February 21, 1961, while Christian himself has claimed to have been born on February 29, 1960. He has a brother, Alexander Gerhartsreiter. After being arrested by Boston police in 2007, Gerhartsreiter claimed that his mother was Ann Carter, an American child actress of the 1940s, and claimed that she had died. Carter was in fact still alive and denied this claim in August 2007.


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: In 1978, Gerhartsreiter met an American couple, Elmer and Jean Kelln, who were traveling in West Germany. He later used their names to obtain permission to enter the U.S., falsely declaring that the Kellns had invited him to stay with them in California. After entering the country in New York City, Gerhartsreiter went to Berlin, Connecticut, where he found the family of author Edward Savio, telling them that he was from a wealthy family in West Germany. The family allowed Gerhartsreiter to live with them, and in 1979 he was accepted as a foreign exchange student at Berlin High School. Eventually he wore out his welcome with the Savios and was told to leave.


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: Gerhartsreiter decided to move to California to pursue a career in acting. By the time he reached Milwaukee, Wisconsin, he had started calling himself "Christopher Kenneth Gerhart." While there, he enrolled in a class at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee. Deciding that he wanted to become a U.S. citizen, he married 22-year-old Amy Jersild Duhnke in 1981 in Madison, Wisconsin, in order to obtain a green card. To persuade Duhnke to marry him, Gerhartsreiter falsely claimed that if he had gone back to West Germany, he would have to go into the military and be sent to fight in the Cold War on the Russian front line. The day after the wedding, Gerhartsreiter left his wife and headed for California. Duhnke filed for divorce in 1992.


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: Using the alias "Christopher Chichester," Gerhartsreiter lived in the guesthouse of Didi Sohus in the upscale community of San Marino, California. He was initially identified as a person of interest by police in the 1985 disappearance and death of Didi's son, Jonathan Sohus, and his wife Linda. Gerhartsreiter reportedly told people that the couple had traveled to Europe. Their family reportedly received a postcard sent from France, though its authenticity has been questioned. In late 1988, Gerhartsreiter was pulled over in Greenwich, Connecticut, while driving a pickup truck that had belonged to Jonathan Sohus, but he left the area before police could interview him. At that point, police had no proof that Jonathan and Linda Sohus were dead, nor that they had left California voluntarily.


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: In May 1994, bones believed to belong to Jonathan Sohus were found buried in the backyard of the couple's former property. Sohus's family members said the bones matched his general description. Since Sohus had been adopted, there was no way to compare his DNA against that of biological family members and arrive at a conclusive identity. Forensic evidence showed that the victim had been struck in the head two times with a rounded, blunt object and then stabbed six times; his body had been cut into three parts. The bones were not conclusively determined to belong to Sohus until 2010.


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: After settling in Greenwich, Gerhartsreiter assumed the identity of "Christopher C. Crowe" and claimed to be a television producer from Los Angeles who worked on the 1980s revival of "Alfred Hitchcock Presents". His alias matched the name of one of the producers for the series.


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: Gerhartsreiter was hired by the brokerage firm S.N. Phelps and Company to work with the firm's computers, but was fired when it was discovered that the social security number he had given them belonged to serial killer David Berkowitz. He was also fired from his employment by Nikko Securities Ltd. as a sales manager of corporate bonds. Gerhartsreiter briefly worked for Kidder, Peabody & Co., but quit his job and abandoned the Christopher Crowe persona when he discovered that police were looking for him in connection with the Sohus disappearances.


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: In 1995, using the name "James Frederick Mills Clark Rockefeller," Gerhartsreiter married Sandra Boss, a high-earning McKinsey senior executive. They were married in a Quaker ceremony that had no legal status. Boss later testified that Gerhartsreiter was charming and that she believed the stories he told her at the beginning of their relationship. Later, however, he became emotionally abusive, and there was a "lot of anger and yelling" in their household. Although Boss earned all of the household income, she testified that Gerhartsreiter held complete control of the family's finances and other aspects of her day-to-day life. The couple had a daughter, born in 2001.


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: Gerhartsreiter went to great lengths to conceal his true identity from his wife. He repeatedly told Boss to file her tax return as a single person. Later in their marriage, when McKinsey required that a certified public accountant do her taxes, Gerhartsreiter found an accountant for her. After their divorce, Boss learned that he had told their accountant he was her brother so that the accountant would continue filing single tax returns for her.


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: Gerhartsreiter lived with his wife and daughter in Cornish, New Hampshire, where he used his supposed family ties to the Rockefeller family to bolster his reputation, telling friends and neighbors that he was a wealthy Yale graduate who owned a business in Canada. Using the Clark Rockefeller persona, he had gained membership to Boston's Algonquin Club, where he spent a great deal of time. He resigned as one of the club's directors in April 2008.


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: In 2006, Boss hired a private investigator and discovered that Gerhartsreiter was not who he claimed to be, though she did not learn his real name at that time. After divorcing him, Boss legally changed the name of their daughter and accused him of lying about his relation to the Rockefeller family; members of the family came forward to deny any relation to Gerhartsreiter.


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: Boss would later testify at Gerhartsreiter's trial that he had agreed to give her custody of their daughter following the divorce and to supervised visits three times a year in return for an $800,000 settlement, two cars, her engagement ring, and a dress that he had given her. Boss moved with their child to London following the divorce.


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: During a July 27, 2008, supervised visitation, Gerhartsreiter, his daughter, and a social worker were in Boston's Back Bay neighborhood on a walk to the Boston Common. Approached by a sport utility vehicle, Gerhartsreiter pushed aside the social worker, grabbed his daughter, jumped into the vehicle, and sped away. The social worker held onto the vehicle and was dragged a short distance before falling free. Later that night, a warrant charged Gerhartsreiter with custodial kidnapping, assault and battery, and assault with a deadly weapon — the sport utility vehicle.


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: On August 2, 2008, after a week-long search, Gerhartsreiter was found in Baltimore, Maryland, where he had recently purchased an apartment for about $450,000 under the name Charles "Chip" Smith. With the help of the owner of a local marina, where Gerhartsreiter had apparently kept a catamaran, FBI agents were able to lure him out of the apartment with a telephone call telling him the boat was taking on water. He was arrested as he left the apartment on the kidnapping and assault charges. The child was found unharmed inside the apartment.


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: On August 15, 2008, the FBI, the Massachusetts State Police, the Boston Police Department, and the Suffolk County District Attorney announced that Clark Rockefeller had been positively identified as Christian Karl Gerhartsreiter. He was conclusively identified by means of forensic examinations conducted by the FBI Laboratory in Quantico, Virginia. When Gerhartsreiter was arrested, his fingerprint impressions were taken by FBI agents in Baltimore and by Boston Police when he was returned to Massachusetts. Those fingerprints were compared to latent fingerprints lifted from a variety of sources. They matched a latent print lifted from a wine glass in Boston collected at the time of the search for Gerhartsreiter and his daughter earlier in the month. Those fingerprints also matched a latent print developed from a document in Gerhartsreiter's immigration file from the early 1980s. Although there were no fingerprint cards or inked impressions in the immigration file, the FBI Laboratory was able to develop latent print impressions from a document in that file, which had been provided by ICE. Through fingerprint analysis, the FBI confirmed Gerhartsreiter's identity.


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: On September 3, 2008, Gerhartsreiter was charged with furnishing a false name to a law enforcement officer following an arrest. His lawyers later argued that he did not do this for dishonest purposes. On October 2, at a hearing requested by defense attorney Stephen Hrones, bail was revoked. Hrones had requested the hearing in order to seek a reduction from the $50 million cash bail under which the defendant had previously been held. Instead, the judge ordered the defendant to be held without bail. On February 13, 2009, Gerhartsreiter's attorneys filed notice that they intended to deploy an insanity defense.


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: During the trial, conducted in Boston in mid-2009, Gerhartsreiter's defense team told jurors that he believed his daughter had communicated with him telepathically from London, where she and her mother moved after the divorce, begging him to rescue her. Two expert witnesses for the defense testified that they have diagnosed Gerhartsreiter with delusional disorder, grandiose type, and narcissistic personality disorder. One of the defense experts, Dr. Keith Ablow, testified that Gerhartsreiter told him that his father had been emotionally abusive during his childhood. Dr. James Chu, a psychiatrist for the prosecution, testified that he had diagnosed Gerhartsreiter with a "'mixed personality disorder,' with narcissistic and anti-social traits" but felt that Gerhartsreiter had exaggerated his symptoms of mental illness and was capable of knowing right from wrong. He noted the defendant had allegedly meticulously planned the details of the abduction well in advance. Gerhartsreiter did not take the witness stand.


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: Closing arguments concluded on June 8, 2009. On June 12, the jury convicted Gerhartsreiter of the kidnapping of his daughter as well as one count of assault and battery with a dangerous weapon, for ordering his getaway driver to pull away even while his daughter's social worker was hanging onto the vehicle. He was acquitted of a second assault charge as well as for giving a false name to police. The judge sentenced him to four to five years in state prison on the kidnapping count and a concurrent two to three years on the assault charge.


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: News reports indicated that a grand jury was to be convened in the spring of 2009 to examine the evidence in the Sohus case. Judge Frank Gaziano, who presided over Gerhartsreiter's parental kidnapping trial, had barred prosecutors from presenting evidence about the Sohus case to avoid prejudicing jurors against the defendant.


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: On March 15, 2011, Los Angeles County prosecutors charged Gerhartsreiter with the murder of Jonathan Sohus. The murder trial was held in March and April 2013, and ended with Gerhartsreiter being convicted of first-degree murder on April 10, 2013. The verdict included an enhancement for use of a deadly weapon to bludgeon Sohus to death. Evidence in the case was largely circumstantial, but jurors were most swayed by two plastic book bags found buried with Sohus's remains: one from the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, where Gerhartsreiter attended classes between 1979 and 1982, and one from the University of Southern California, where Gerhartsreiter audited film classes. Jurors also heard evidence that Gerhartsreiter was in possession of Sohus's pickup truck following the murder.


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: On August 15, 2013, Gerhartsreiter was given the maximum sentence of 27 years to life with credit for one year served after finishing his sentence in Massachusetts. After he was convicted, Gerhartsreiter fired his lawyers and represented himself during the sentencing phase. He maintained his innocence during the sentencing hearing and said, "I want to assert my innocence and that I firmly believe that the victim's wife killed the victim, but be that as it may, once again, I did not commit the crime of which I stand accused." His sentence was reduced on appeal in 2015, to 26 years to life. With good time credits, he will be eligible for parole in December 2029, when he will be 68 years old; a parole hearing is currently scheduled for November 2028.


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: Gerhartsreiter was initially transferred to North Kern State Prison in September 2013 before being transferred to Ironwood State Prison in March 2014. His appeal was denied on October 23, 2015, and again on January 20, 2016, thus exhausting state appeals. He still has federal appeals pending. In December 2016, he was transferred to San Quentin State Prison.


title: Christian Gerhartsreiter

text: The case of Christian Gerhartsreiter has been covered extensively in various media forms since Gerhartsreiter's arrest and exposure.


title: The Phil Donahue Show

text: The Phil Donahue Show, also known as Donahue, is an American television talk show hosted by Phil Donahue that ran for 26 years on national television. Its run was preceded by three years of local broadcast on WLWD in Dayton, Ohio, and it was broadcast nationwide between 1970 and 1996.


title: The Phil Donahue Show

text: In 1967, Phil Donahue left his positions as news reporter and interviewer at WHIO radio and television in Dayton to go into the stations' sales department. He found he did not like it and took an on-air news position at another Dayton TV station, WLWD (now WDTN).


title: The Phil Donahue Show

text: The station’s weekday variety, music and chat program, "The Johnny Gilbert Show", ended suddenly, when Gilbert left on short notice for a hosting job in New York City. WLWD named Donahue to replace Gilbert, keeping the live format and studio audience. But Donahue decided to take the show in a new direction. He focused on one guest or topic for the entire hour and invited the audience to ask questions. On November 6, 1967, Donahue hosted his first guest, atheist Madalyn Murray O'Hair. Though he would later call her message of atheism "very important", he also stated she was rather unpleasant and that, off-camera, she mocked him for being Roman Catholic.On May 19, 1973, Donahue's guest was Dr. Cody Sweet who brought the subject of body language to the US nationally syndicate television audience for the first time.


title: The Phil Donahue Show

text: Initially, the program was shown only on four stations owned by the Crosley Broadcasting Corporation (which would later take the name of its parent Avco Company): Dayton, Cincinnati, Columbus, and Indianapolis. With the show's ratings success in those cities, on September 14, 1970, "The Donahue Show" entered nationwide syndication. When the Avco Company divested their broadcasting properties in 1976, Multimedia Inc. assumed production and syndication of the program, which was now known as simply "Donahue". Donahue relocated the show's home base to Chicago in 1974, first using the studios of independent station WGN-TV on the city's north side. Multimedia ended its relationship with WGN in 1982, a move designed to protect syndication exclusivity in markets outside Chicago (WGN was expanding nationally via cable television at the time), and "Donahue" moved downtown to CBS-owned WBBM-TV.


title: The Phil Donahue Show

text: In 1984, "Donahue" introduced many viewers to hip-hop culture, as a program featured breakdancing for the first time on national television, accompanied by a performance from the hip hop group UTFO. In 1985, Donahue left Chicago for New York City and began recording in Studio 8-G at 30 Rockefeller Plaza, the home of his New York affiliate WNBC-TV. Prior to the move, a month-long series of commercials heralded the move, and NBC's late-night talk host David Letterman would use portions of his national program counting down the days to Donahue's move with a huge calendar in his studio.


title: The Phil Donahue Show

text: One of the most discussed incidents in "Donahue"s history came on January 21, 1985, soon after the show moved to New York. On this day's program, seven members of the audience appeared to faint during the broadcast, which was seen live in New York. Donahue, fearing the fainting was caused by both anxiety at being on television and an overheated studio, eventually cleared the studio of audience members and then resumed the show. It turned out the fainting "spell" was cooked up by media hoaxer Alan Abel in what Abel said was a protest against what he termed as poor-quality television.


title: The Phil Donahue Show

text: "Donahue" was also broadcast in the United Kingdom on the ITV Night Time line up in the late 1980s and early '90s, where it became cult viewing. After its success, Donahue made several shows in Britain featuring some well-known celebrities from the country as guests, recorded mostly in London but notably one programme recorded in Manchester, which had several members of the cast from the American sitcom "Cheers" and the Manchester-based soap opera "Coronation Street". Thames Television also broadcast a number of episodes during daytime for the London area only.


title: The Phil Donahue Show

text: It was also broadcast in Australia, first on WIN-4 in Wollongong and then nationwide on the Seven Network.


title: The Phil Donahue Show

text: In 1992, Donahue celebrated the 25th anniversary of his long-running television program with an NBC special produced at the Ed Sullivan Theater in New York, in which he was lauded by his talk-show peers. However, in many corners, he was seen as having been surpassed both by Oprah Winfrey, whose hugely successful national show was based in Donahue's former Chicago home base; and Sally Jessy Raphael, whose talk show was distributed by Donahue's syndicator, Multimedia.


title: The Phil Donahue Show

text: The talk show field became increasingly saturated as the 1990s progressed. Many of these shows took an increasingly tabloid bent. Donahue shied away from this trend, continuing to take a "high-road" approach. These factors led to a marked decline in ratings. The show also lost support after Donahue expressed his feelings regarding the first Gulf War. Towards the end of summer 1995, New York's WNBC-TV ceased airing the show after airing it since 1977. Weeks later, ABC-owned KGO-TV in San Francisco also dropped "Donahue" after carrying it for several years and also WPVI in Philadelphia also dropped Donahue around the same time.


title: The Phil Donahue Show

text: "Donahue" was also ousted from its Rockefeller Plaza home, and relocated to new studios in Manhattan. "Donahue" was unable to resurface on another station in the nation's largest and eighth-largest markets, and its ratings never recovered. Many other stations either began dropping "Donahue" or moving it to late-night and early morning time slots, causing a further loss of viewers.


title: The Phil Donahue Show

text: After 29 years, (26 of which in syndication) and nearly 7,000 shows, the final episode aired on September 13, 1996.


title: The Phil Donahue Show

text: In 2002, "Donahue" was ranked 29th on "TV Guide" magazine's list of the 50 greatest television shows of all-time.


title: Center for American Progress

text: The Center for American Progress (CAP) is a public policy research and advocacy organization which presents a liberal viewpoint on economic and social issues. It has its headquarters in Washington, D.C.


title: Center for American Progress

text: The president and chief executive officer of CAP is Patrick Gaspard, a former diplomat and labor leader, who served most recently as the president of the Open Society Foundations. Gaspard succeeded Neera Tanden, who was appointed special advisor to President Joe Biden in May 2021. Tanden previously worked for the Obama and Clinton administrations and for Hillary Clinton's campaigns. The first president and CEO was John Podesta, who has served as White House Chief of Staff to U.S. President Bill Clinton and as the chairman of the 2016 presidential campaign of Hillary Clinton. Podesta remained with the organization as chairman of the board until he joined the Obama White House staff in December 2013. Tom Daschle is the current chairman.


title: Center for American Progress

text: The Center for American Progress has a youth-engagement organization, Generation Progress, and a sister advocacy organization, the Center for American Progress Action Fund (CAPAF).


title: Center for American Progress

text: The Center for American Progress was created in 2003 as a Democratic alternative to conservative think tanks such as the Heritage Foundation and the American Enterprise Institute (AEI).


title: Center for American Progress

text: Citing Podesta's influence in the formation of the Obama Administration, Michael Scherer in a November 2008 article in "Time" stated that "not since the Heritage Foundation helped guide Ronald Reagan's transition in 1981 has a single outside group held so much sway". In 2011, the "Washington Post's" Jason Horowitz described the Center for American Progress as "Washington’s leading liberal think tank," and "an incessant advocate for a broad progressive agenda and as such, a sharp thorn in President Obama’s left side." Sarah Rosen Wartell, a co-founder and former executive vice-president of the CAP, was later named president of the Urban Institute


title: Center for American Progress

text: "ThinkProgress", active during the years 2005–2019, was an American progressive news website affiliated with the Center for American Progress but with editorial independence. In September 2019, 'ThinkProgress" was shut down when CAP was unable to find a publisher willing to take it over. The news site was then "folded into CAP's online presence" to "focus on analysis from CAP scholars and CAP Action staff."


title: Center for American Progress

text: Generation Progress was launched in February 2005 as "the youth arm of the Center for American Progress". According to the organization, Generation Progress partners with over a million millennials.


title: Center for American Progress

text: Formerly known simply as the American Progress Action Fund, the Center for American Progress Action Fund (CAP Action) is a "sister advocacy organization" and is organizationally and financially separate from CAP, although they share many staff and a physical address. "Politico" wrote in April 2011 that it "openly runs political advocacy campaigns, and plays a central role in the Democratic Party’s infrastructure, and the new reporting staff down the hall isn’t exactly walled off from that message machine, nor does it necessarily keep its distance from liberal groups organizing advocacy campaigns targeting conservatives". Whereas CAP is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit, CAP Action is a 501(c)(4), allowing it to devote more funds to lobbying. In 2003, George Soros promised to financially support the organization by donating up to $3 million. CAP Action is headed by Neera Tanden.


title: Center for American Progress

text: The Washington Center for Equitable Growth, also known simply as "Equitable Growth", is a research and grantmaking organization founded in 2013 and "housed at the Center for American Progress". Equitable Growth funds academic research in economics and other social sciences, with a particular interest in government's role in the distribution of economic growth and the role of public perceptions of fairness in shaping government policy.


title: Center for American Progress

text: "Science Progress" was an internet publication about progressive science and technology policy. "Science Progress" was a project of the Center for American Progress. Its mission was "to improve the understanding of science among policymakers and other thought leaders and to develop exciting, progressive ideas about innovation in science and technology for the United States in the 21st Century." It began publication on 4 October 2007, the fiftieth anniversary of the launch of Sputnik 1. Content on the web site included news, in-depth essays, and text- and audio-based interviews. The "Science Progress" staff included Editor-In-Chief Jonathan D. Moreno.


title: Center for American Progress

text: In July 2018, the Center for American Progress recruited former Obama staffer and National Council on Disability executive director Rebecca Cokley to lead its new project focused on disability rights advocacy. Senator Tammy Duckworth spoke at the first event announcing creation of the new project, which is housed within CAP's Poverty to Prosperity Program. The Disability Justice Initiative became the first such project at a mainstream public policy advocacy organization not already focused on disability.


title: Center for American Progress

text: In 2017, the center opposed Bernie Sanders' single-payer health plan. Critics said that this was because of funding from the health care industry, such as the Blue Cross Blue Shield Association, the Health Care Service Corporation and America's Health Insurance Plans, who would be eliminated under Sanders' plan. In 2018, the center proposed an alternative to single payer that would offer patients and employers a choice between government coverage and private insurance.


title: Center for American Progress

text: In October 2016, the "Intercept" reported that United Arab Emirates Ambassador to the US Yousef Al Otaiba praised "a CAP report released [in October 2016] that advocates for continued cooperation with Gulf states like Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates."


title: Center for American Progress

text: In January 2019, two CAP staffers were fired after an investigation concerning the leaking of an internal email exchange involving discussions over the phrasing of CAP's response to the murder of "The Washington Post" contributing columnist Jamal Khashoggi. CAP released a statement noting that while they conducted an investigation into the leaks, this was not the cause for the firings.


title: Center for American Progress

text: Some open government groups, such as the Sunlight Foundation and the Campaign Legal Center, criticized the center's failure to disclose its contributors, particularly because it was so influential to the Obama administration. CAP's website states that corporate donors are not allowed to remain anonymous. Nathan Robinson, writing in 2018 for "Current Affairs" wrote that CAP "continues to conceal the identities of many of its largest donors." He also criticized CAP for receiving "shady donations" and for a grant of $200,000 to the American Enterprise Institute in 2018.


title: Center for American Progress

text: CAP was criticized in 2012 by several Jewish organizations after its employees, Zaid Jilani and Ali Gharib, "publicly used language that could be construed as anti-Israel or even anti-Semitic". Bloggers associated with CAP published several posts using phrases such as "apartheid" and "Israel-firsters", which the American Jewish Committee described as "hateful" and called on CAP to disassociate themselves from these statements. The latter phrase, "Israel-firsters", which was used in reference to US supporters of Israel, was also criticized by the Anti-Defamation League and described as anti-semitic, including by Faiz Shakir, then the vice president of CAP. Officials at CAP said the “inappropriate” language came only in personal tweets—not on CAP's website or its ThinkProgress blog. The Tweets were deleted, and the authors apologized.


title: Center for American Progress

text: In 2015, however, other writers criticized CAP for what they saw as censorship of reasonable comments critical of Israeli settlements in the occupied West Bank and other policies. Based on leaked emails, columnist Glenn Greenwald, for example, wrote that CAP had deleted references to Israeli settlement policies in reports by their staffers.


title: Center for American Progress

text: Greenwald and others also criticized CAP for hosting a meeting with Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, while Netanyahu was hostile to the Obama Administration. Greenwald described CAP's positions as "servitude to AIPAC and pandering to Netanyahu." Eighteen organizations and over one hundred academics signed an open letter, circulated by Jewish Voice for Peace and the Arab American Institute, against the meeting. 26,300 people signed a petition opposing the meeting.


title: Center for American Progress

text: After the release by WikiLeaks of hacked Podesta emails, the Center for American Progress was criticized for emails sent between John Halpin, a Senior Fellow at the Center for American Progress, and Jennifer Palmieri, a Hillary Clinton campaign team member. "The Washington Post" characterized the comments as "joking"; Kellyanne Conway and others called them anti-Catholic attacks.


title: Center for American Progress

text: In April 2018, "BuzzFeed News" reported that female employees of CAP had complained of sexual harassment by CAP employee Benton Strong to human resources and management. Two anonymous employees alleged retaliation for reporting Strong's behavior, one of them including her allegations in an exit memo when leaving CAP. However, CAP maintains that no retaliation took place and an internal investigation concluded the same. In response to the first complaint, Strong received a warning from CAP management. After the second complaint, he was suspended for three days without pay. He was already resigning to take up a position elsewhere, and these three days coincided with the final three days of his employment with CAP.


title: Center for American Progress

text: After the publication of the "BuzzFeed" story, CAP president Neera Tanden unintentionally used the first name of one of the anonymous women during an all-staff meeting to address their handling of the sexual harassment allegations.


title: Center for American Progress

text: In February 2020, "The New York Times" reported that the center had removed reporting of New York City police surveillance of Muslim communities from a 2015 report, allegedly out of deference to Michael Bloomberg, who had given the center grants worth $1.5 million. Yasmine Taeb, an author of the report, said that they were instructed to remove the chapter or make dramatic revisions, alleging this was "because of how it was going to be perceived by Mayor Bloomberg." CAP officials disputed her account, characterizing the changes as editorial decisions: detailed discussion of NYC policing was off-topic because the report had been "commissioned to examine right-wing groups targeting Muslims with explicit bigotry and conspiracy theories." Bloomberg told "The New York Times" reporters he was unaware of any such dispute at CAP; in 2017, he contributed an additional $400,000.


title: Center for American Progress

text: The Center for American Progress is a 501(c)(3) organization under U.S. Internal Revenue Code. In 2014, CAP received $45 million from a variety of sources, including individuals, foundations, labor unions, and corporations. From 2003 to 2007, CAP received about $15 million in grants from 58 foundations. Major individual donors include George Soros, Peter Lewis, Steve Bing, and Herb and Marion Sandler. The center receives undisclosed sums from corporate donors. In December 2013, the organization released a list of its corporate donors, which include Walmart, CitiGroup, Wells Fargo, defense contractor Northrop Grumman, America's Health Insurance Plans, and Eli Lilly and Company.


title: Center for American Progress

text: In 2015, CAP released a partial list of its donors, which included 28 anonymous donors accounting for at least $5 million in contributions. Named donors included the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Embassy of the United Arab Emirates, which each gave between $500,000 and $999,999. CAP's top donors include Walmart and Citigroup, each of which have given between $100,000 and $499,000. Other large CAP donors include Goldman Sachs, Bank of America, Google, Time Warner, and Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America.


title: Gross register tonnage

text: Gross register tonnage (GRT, grt, g.r.t., gt) or gross registered tonnage, is a ship's total internal volume expressed in "register tons", each of which is equal to . Replaced by Gross Tonnage (GT), gross register tonnage uses the total permanently enclosed capacity of the vessel as its basis for volume. Typically this is used for dockage fees, canal transit fees, and similar purposes where it is appropriate to charge based on the size of the entire vessel. Internationally, "GRT" may be abbreviated as BRT for the German ""Bruttoregistertonne"".


title: Gross register tonnage

text: Net register tonnage subtracts the volume of spaces not available for carrying cargo, such as engine rooms, fuel tanks and crew quarters, from gross register tonnage.


title: Gross register tonnage

text: Gross register tonnage is not a measure of the ship's weight or displacement and should not be confused with terms such as deadweight tonnage or displacement.


title: Gross register tonnage

text: Gross register tonnage was defined by the Moorsom Commission in 1854. Gross and net register tonnages were replaced by "gross tonnage" and "net tonnage", respectively, when the International Maritime Organization (IMO) adopted The International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships on 23 June 1969. The new tonnage regulations entered into force for all new ships on 18 July 1982, but existing vessels were given a migration period of 12 years to ensure that ships were given reasonable economic safeguards, since port and other dues are charged according to ship's tonnage.


title: Gross register tonnage

text: Since 18 July 1994 the gross and net tonnages, dimensionless indices calculated from the total moulded volume of the ship and its cargo spaces by mathematical formulae, have been the only official measures of the ship's tonnage. However, the gross and net register tonnages are still widely used in describing older ships.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: St. Elizabeths Hospital is a psychiatric hospital in Southeast, Washington, D.C. operated by the District of Columbia Department of Behavioral Health. It opened in 1855 under the name Government Hospital for the Insane, the first federally operated psychiatric hospital in the United States. Housing over 8,000 patients at its peak in the 1950s, the hospital had a fully functioning medical-surgical unit, a school of nursing, accredited internships and psychiatric residencies. Its campus was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1990.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: Since 2010, the hospital's functions have been limited to the portion of the east campus operated by the District of Columbia Department of Mental Health. The remainder of the east campus is slated for redevelopment by the District of Columbia. The West Campus was transferred to the United States Department of Homeland Security for its headquarters and its subsidiary agencies. St. Elizabeths Hospital campus also has the joint tenant of the Douglas A. Munro Coast Guard Headquarters Building with hundreds of Coast Guard personnel.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: The campus grounds contain the Saint Elizabeths Hospital East and West Cemeteries. Burials were performed on the West campus beginning in 1856. Approximately 450 graves of Civil War veterans and an unknown number of civilians are buried on the West campus. In 1873, the three-quarter-acre West Campus burying ground was deemed full, and a new cemetery was opened on the East Campus. Approximately 2,050 military and 3,000 civilian interments occurred on the nine-acre cemetery on the East Campus over the next 120 years.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: The hospital was under the control of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services until 1987. At that time, ownership of its east wing was transferred by the federal government to the District of Columbia.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: St. Elizabeths Hospital was founded in August 1852 when the United States Congress appropriated $100,000 for the construction of a hospital in Washington, D.C., to provide care for indigent residents of the District of Columbia and members of the U.S. Army and Navy with brain illnesses.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: In the 1830s, local residents, including Dr. Thomas Miller, a medical doctor and president of the D.C. Board of Health, had begun petitioning Congress for a facility to care for people with brain diseases in the City of Washington. Dorothea Dix (1802–1887) served as a pioneering advocate for people living with mental illnesses and she helped convince legislators of the need for the hospital. In 1852 she wrote the legislation that established the hospital. Dix, who was on friendly terms with U.S. President Millard Fillmore, was asked to assist the Interior Secretary in getting the hospital started. Her recommendation resulted in the appointment of Dr. Charles H. Nichols as the hospital's first superintendent. After his appointment in the fall of 1852, Nichols and Dix began formulating a plan for the hospital's design and operation. They set out to find an appropriate location, based upon guidelines created by Thomas Story Kirkbride. His 1854 manual recommended specifics such as site, ventilation, number of patients, and the need for a rural location proximate to a city. He also recommended that the location have good soil for farming and gardens for the patients. Large facilities were self-supporting and some of the work was considered good for patients to engage in.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: Dr. Nichols oversaw the design and building of St. Elizabeths, which began in 1853. The hospital was constructed in three phases. The west wing was built first, followed by the east wing and finally the center portion of the building, which housed the administrative operations as well as the superintendent's residential quarters. All three sections of the hospital were operated under one roof, in keeping with Kirkbride's design. Two other buildings, the West Lodge (1856–98) for men and the East Lodge for women, were built to house and care for African-American patients, as the city was effectively racially segregated.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: Soon after the hospital opened to patients in January 1855, it became known officially as the Government Hospital for the Insane. During the Civil War, the West Lodge, originally built for male African-American patients, was used as a general hospital by the U.S. Navy. The unfinished east wing of the main building was used by the U.S. Army as a general hospital for sick and wounded soldiers. The Army hospital officially took the name of St. Elizabeth's Army Medical Hospital to differentiate it from the psychiatric hospital in the west wing of the same building. The name St. Elizabeth's was derived from the colonial-era name for the tract of land on which the hospital was built.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: After the Civil War and the closing of the Army's hospital, the St. Elizabeth's name was used unofficially and intermittently until 1916. Congress passed legislation changing the name from the Government Hospital for the Insane to St. Elizabeths Hospital, inexplicably omitting the possessive apostrophe. It also transferred the hospital to be administered by the United States Department of Interior.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: In the late 19th century the hospital temporarily housed animals that were brought back from expeditions for the Smithsonian Institution. There were no other federal facilities for such purpose, as the National Zoo had not been built.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: In the 1940s to 1950s, St Elizabeths was using electro-shock in an effort to treat mental illness. In this period, it applied electro-shock and other treatments in an attempt to convert homosexual individuals to heterosexual, in the mistaken belief that they were suffering from mental illness. St. Elizabeths is considered one of the more notorious institutions of repression of the LGBTQ community.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: By 1940, St. Elizabeths Hospital was transferred to the Federal Security Agency (later the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare) as a U.S. Public Health Service Hospital. At its peak, the St. Elizabeths campus housed 8,000 patients annually and employed 4,000 people.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: Beginning in the 1950s, however, large institutions such as St. Elizabeths were being criticized for hindering the treatment of patients and for outright abuses of some patients. The 1963 Community Mental Health Act, led to deinstitutionalization. The act provided for local outpatient facilities and drug therapy as a more effective means of allowing patients to live near-normal lives. The first community-based center for mental health was established at St. Elizabeths in 1969. The patient population of St. Elizabeths steadily declined as alternatives were sought for treatment. Unfortunately the act was never fully funded, states did not provide sufficient funds for community centers, and there has been a widespread failure to provide treatment for the mentally ill. They make up a large proportion of homeless, an increasing problem in many cities, as well as a high proportion of people held in jails and prisons. Lacking stable lives, many get caught up in the justice system through drugs and crime.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: After several decades in decline, the federal government decided that the large campus could no longer be adequately maintained. In 1987, Congress transferred hospital functions on the eastern campus from the United States Department of Health and Human Services to the District of Columbia government, by the St. Elizabeths Hospital and District of Columbia Mental Health Services Act of 1984. The federal government retained ownership of the West Campus. By 2002, all remaining patients on the Federal west campus were transferred to other facilities.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: By 1996, only 850 patients remained at the hospital on the east campus. The District of Columbia struggled with the poor conditions from years of neglect and inadequate funding: equipment and medicine shortages occurred frequently, and the heating system was broken for weeks at a time. Although the hospital continues to operate, it does so on a far smaller scale than it once did. As of January 31, 2009, the current patient census was 404 in-patients.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: In the early 21st century, approximately half of St. Elizabeths' patients are civilly committed to the hospital for treatment. The other half are forensic (criminal) patients. Forensic patients are those who are adjudicated to be criminally insane (not guilty by reason of insanity) or considered incompetent to stand trial. Civil patients are those who are admitted owing to an acute need for psychiatric care. Civil patients can be voluntarily or involuntarily committed for treatment.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: In the early 2000s, the Department of Justice had undertaken an investigation of the hospital because of allegations that patient rights were being violated. In 2007, the U.S. Department of Justice and the District of Columbia reached a settlement over these allegations. DOJ instituted oversight of needed changes. On August 28, 2014, the Department of Justice found that St. Elizabeths had "significantly improved the care and treatment of persons confined to Saint Elizabeths Hospital" and asked a federal court to dismiss the injunction. In January 2015, DC Auditors dismissed the settlement agreement and officially ended oversight of St. Elizabeths Hospital.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: A new civil and forensic hospital was built on the East Campus by the District of Columbia Department of Mental Health and opened in the spring of 2010, housing approximately 297 patients. Until the new hospital opened, civil patients were cared for in various buildings on the East Campus. Forensic patients were housed in the John Howard Pavilion. In the new facility, civil and forensic patients live in separate units of the same building. The new hospital also houses a library, an auditorium, multiple computer laboratories, and a small museum in the lobby.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: By the early 21st century the District of Columbia had made plans to redevelop St. Elizabeths East Campus for mixed-use and residential rental property. The first step was construction of an arena for minor league sports. Other buildings on the East Campus are to be renovated for residential and associated retail uses, starting in 2018. On September 22, 2018, St. Elizabeths East Entertainment and Sports Arena opened on campus. It is home to the Washington Mystics of the WBNA and Capital City Go-Go. It also serves as the practice facility for the Washington Wizards of the NBA.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: After the 1987 separation of the campuses, the D.C. government and its consultants proposed several commercial redevelopment projects for the West Campus, including relocating the University of the District of Columbia to the campus or developing office and retail space. However, the tremendous cost of bringing existing facilities up to code (estimated at $50–$100 million) kept developers away.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: Given little private interest in the site, the federal government sought alternatives within agency needs. Control of the western campus—home of the oldest building on the campus, the Center Building—was transferred from HHS to the General Services Administration in 2004. GSA improved security around the campus, shored up roofs, and covered windows with plywood in an attempt to secure the buildings and preserve the campus until a tenant could be found.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: On March 20, 2007, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) announced that it establish a new facility on the West Campus. It planned to spend approximately $4.1 billion for renovations and adaptive reuse of buildings, in order to relocate its headquarters and most of its Washington-based offices to a new facility on the site. The United States Coast Guard was scheduled to be the first agency on the site in 2010. DHS had operations housed in dozens of buildings in the Washington, D.C., area, as several elements of the agency had been independent before its formation. Consolidation of employees from at least 60 facilities to St. Elizabeths was expected to result in a savings of $64 million per year in rental costs. DHS also hoped to improve employee morale and unity within the relatively new agency by having a central location from which to operate.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: The plans to locate DHS to St. Elizabeths were strongly criticized. Historic preservation experts argued that the consolidation plans would result in destruction of dozens of historic buildings on the campus and urged consideration of other alternatives. Community activists expressed concern that the planned high-security facility would be cut off from the surrounding community. They had hoped for agencies with employees who might support neighborhood businesses and shopping, settle in residential areas, and help revitalize the economically depressed area.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: The government's plans proceeded. A ceremonial groundbreaking for the DHS consolidated headquarters took place at St. Elizabeths on September 11, 2009. The event was attended by Senator Joseph Lieberman (D-CT), DHS Secretary Janet Napolitano, D.C. Delegate Eleanor Holmes Norton, DC Mayor Adrian Fenty, and acting GSA administrator Paul Prouty.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: The relocated U.S. Coast Guard Headquarters Building was projected to open in May 2013, and a ceremony was held in July 2013 at the site. The U.S. Coast Guard Headquarters Building and several former hospital buildings (Atkins Hall, cafeteria) had been rehabilitated to support the new offices.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: By 2015, construction began in Center Building. Initially, this building has been slated for renovation, but internal structures (floors and ceilings) appeared to be beyond repair. The entire Center Building was renovated by removing old internal structures and building new structures to replace them, while retaining the historic facades. Between March and April 2019, Department's Headquarters components moved to Center Building.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: By April 2020, because of the surge in the COVID-19 pandemic and illness among staff, the DHS National Operations Center relocated to Mount Weather in an effort to reduce or prevent infections of critical personnel.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: Well-known patients of St. Elizabeths have included would-be presidential assassins Richard Lawrence (who attempted to kill Andrew Jackson) and John Hinckley Jr., who shot Ronald Reagan. Hinckley was released in 2016, subject to a number of restrictions. The court lifted all restrictions in 2022. Charles J. Guiteau, who assassinated President James Garfield, was held here until he was executed.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: Notable residents from civil commitments were Mary Fuller, a stage and silent film actress and early star; William Chester Minor, who made major contributions to the "Oxford English Dictionary" while committed to an asylum in Great Britain; American poet Ezra Pound, a fascist collaborator during World War II; and Frances Wieser, a scientific illustrator. James Swann, a late 20th-century serial killer in the Washington, DC area, has been a forensic patient since 1994.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: According to reporter Kelly Patricia O'Meara, St. Elizabeths is believed to have treated more than 125,000 patients; an exact number is not known because of poor record keeping and the division of responsibilities among different agencies over the years. Additionally, thousands of patients appear to have been buried in unmarked graves across the campus. Records for individuals buried in the graves have been lost. She has suggested that some bodies may have been cremated in the incinerator on-site. The General Services Administration, current owner of the property, considered using ground-penetrating radar to attempt to locate unmarked graves, but has yet to do so.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: More than 15,000 known autopsies were performed at St. Elizabeths from 1884 through 1982. A collection of over 1,400 brains preserved in formaldehyde, 5,000 photographs of brains, and 100,000 slides of brain tissue was maintained by the hospital until the collection was transferred to a museum in 1986, according to O'Meara. In addition to mental health patients buried on the campus, several hundred American Civil War soldiers are interred at St. Elizabeths.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: Several important therapeutic techniques were pioneered at St. Elizabeths, and it served as a model for later institutions. It was the first to use hydrotherapy, Freudian psychoanalytic techniques, dance therapy and psychodrama, for instance. Walter Freeman, onetime laboratory director, was inspired by St. Elizabeths to pioneer the transorbital lobotomy. It was used to treat epilepsy and some psychiatric conditions.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: During American involvement in World War II, the Office of Strategic Services (OSS, predecessor to the CIA) used facilities and staff at St. Elizabeths hospital to test "truth serums". OSS tested a mescaline and scopolamine cocktail as a truth drug on two volunteers at St. Elizabeths Hospital, but found the combination unsuccessful. Separate tests of THC as a truth serum were equally unsuccessful.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: In 1963 Dr. Luther D. Robinson, the first African-American superintendent of St. Elizabeths, founded the mental health program for the deaf. Throughout his career he was a leading authority on treating deaf patients with brain disorders.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: The campus of St. Elizabeths is located on bluffs overlooking the confluence of the Potomac and Anacostia rivers in the southeast quadrant of Washington, D.C. It is divided by Martin Luther King Jr. Avenue between the east campus (now owned by the D.C. government) and the west campus (owned by the federal government). It has many important historic buildings, foremost among them the Center Building, designed according to the principles of the Kirkbride Plan by Thomas U. Walter (1804–87). He is notable as the primary architect of the expansion of the U.S. Capitol that was begun in 1851.


title: St. Elizabeths Hospital

text: Much of St. Elizabeths' campus had fallen into disuse by the early 21st century and was in serious disrepair. The number of patients had steadily declined since the mid-20th century as community alternatives were sought for large mental institutions. In 2002 the National Trust for Historic Preservation ranked the hospital complex as one of the nation's "11 Most Endangered Places". Access to many areas of the campus, including what was then the abandoned western campus (which houses the Center Building), was restricted before 2010. A variety of proposals were made on how to use and/or redevelop the site. Now it is restricted because of the nature of the tenant agencies in the Department of Homeland Security.


title: Scope (computer science)

text: In computer programming, the scope of a name binding (an association of a name to an entity, such as a variable) is the part of a program where the name binding is valid; that is, where the name can be used to refer to the entity. In other parts of the program, the name may refer to a different entity (it may have a different binding), or to nothing at all (it may be unbound). Scope helps prevent name collisions by allowing the same name to refer to different objects – as long as the names have separate scopes. The scope of a name binding is also known as the visibility of an entity, particularly in older or more technical literature—this is from the perspective of the referenced entity, not the referencing name.


title: Scope (computer science)

text: The term "scope" is also used to refer to the set of "all" name bindings that are valid within a part of a program or at a given point in a program, which is more correctly referred to as "context" or "environment".


title: Scope (computer science)

text: Strictly speaking and in practice for most programming languages, "part of a program" refers to a portion of source code (area of text), and is known as lexical scope. In some languages, however, "part of a program" refers to a portion of run time (time period during execution), and is known as dynamic scope. Both of these terms are somewhat misleading—they misuse technical terms, as discussed in the definition—but the distinction itself is accurate and precise, and these are the standard respective terms. Lexical scope is the main focus of this article, with dynamic scope understood by contrast with lexical scope.


title: Scope (computer science)

text: In most cases, name resolution based on lexical scope is relatively straightforward to use and to implement, as in use one can read backwards in the source code to determine to which entity a name refers, and in implementation one can maintain a list of names and contexts when compiling or interpreting a program. Difficulties arise in name masking, forward declarations, and hoisting, while considerably subtler ones arise with non-local variables, particularly in closures.


title: Scope (computer science)

text: The strict definition of the (lexical) "scope" of a name (identifier) is unambiguous: lexical scope is "the portion of source code in which a binding of a name with an entity applies". This is virtually unchanged from its 1960 definition in the specification of ALGOL 60. Representative language specifications follow:


title: Scope (computer science)

text: Most commonly "scope" refers to when a given name can refer to a given variable—when a declaration has effect—but can also apply to other entities, such as functions, types, classes, labels, constants, and enumerations.


title: Scope (computer science)

text: A fundamental distinction in scope is what "part of a program" means. In languages with lexical scope (also called static scope), name resolution depends on the location in the source code and the "lexical context" (also called "static context"), which is defined by where the named variable or function is defined. In contrast, in languages with dynamic scope the name resolution depends upon the program state when the name is encountered which is determined by the "execution context" (also called "runtime context", "calling context" or "dynamic context"). In practice, with lexical scope a name is resolved by searching the local lexical context, then if that fails, by searching the outer lexical context, and so on; whereas with dynamic scope, a name is resolved by searching the local execution context, then if that fails, by searching the outer execution context, and so on, progressing up the call stack.


title: Scope (computer science)

text: Most modern languages use lexical scope for variables and functions, though dynamic scope is used in some languages, notably some dialects of Lisp, some "scripting" languages, and some template languages. Perl 5 offers both lexical and dynamic scope. Even in lexically scoped languages, scope for closures can be confusing to the uninitiated, as these depend on the lexical context where the closure is defined, not where it is called.


title: Scope (computer science)

text: Lexical resolution can be determined at compile time, and is also known as "early binding", while dynamic resolution can in general only be determined at run time, and thus is known as "late binding".


title: Scope (computer science)

text: In object-oriented programming, dynamic dispatch selects an object method at runtime, though whether the actual name binding is done at compile time or run time depends on the language. De facto dynamic scope is common in macro languages, which do not directly do name resolution, but instead expand in place.


title: Scope (computer science)

text: Some programming frameworks like AngularJS use the term "scope" to mean something entirely different than how it is used in this article. In those frameworks the scope is just an object of the programming language that they use (JavaScript in case of AngularJS) that is used in certain ways by the framework to emulate dynamic scope in a language that uses lexical scope for its variables. Those AngularJS scopes can themselves be in context or not in context (using the usual meaning of the term) in any given part of the program, following the usual rules of variable scope of the language like any other object, and using their own inheritance and transclusion rules. In the context of AngularJS, sometimes the term "$scope" (with a dollar sign) is used to avoid confusion, but using the dollar sign in variable names is often discouraged by the style guides.


title: Scope (computer science)

text: Scope is an important component of name resolution, which is in turn fundamental to language semantics. Name resolution (including scope) varies between programming languages, and within a programming language, varies by type of entity; the rules for scope are called scope rules (or scoping rules). Together with namespaces, scope rules are crucial in modular programming, so a change in one part of the program does not break an unrelated part.


title: Scope (computer science)

text: When discussing scope, there are three basic concepts: "scope," "extent," and "context." "Scope" and "context" in particular are frequently confused: scope is a property of a name binding, while context is a property of a part of a program, that is either a portion of source code ("lexical context" or "static context") or a portion of run time ("execution context," "runtime context," "calling context" or "dynamic context"). Execution context consists of lexical context (at the current execution point) plus additional runtime state such as the call stack. Strictly speaking, during execution a program enters and exits various name bindings' scopes, and at a point in execution name bindings are "in context" or "not in context", hence name bindings "come into context" or "go out of context" as the program execution enters or exits the scope. However, in practice usage is much looser.


title: Scope (computer science)

text: Scope is a source-code level concept, and a property of name bindings, particularly variable or function name bindings—names in the source code are references to entities in the program—and is part of the behavior of a compiler or interpreter of a language. As such, issues of scope are similar to pointers, which are a type of reference used in programs more generally. Using the value of a variable when the name is in context but the variable is uninitialized is analogous to dereferencing (accessing the value of) a wild pointer, as it is undefined. However, as variables are not destroyed until they go out of context, the analog of a dangling pointer does not exist.


title: Scope (computer science)

text: For entities such as variables, scope is a subset of lifetime (also known as extent)—a name can only refer to a variable that exists (possibly with undefined value), but variables that exist are not necessarily visible: a variable may exist but be inaccessible (the value is stored but not referred to within a given context), or accessible but not via the given name, in which case it is not in context (the program is "out of the scope of the name"). In other cases "lifetime" is irrelevant—a label (named position in the source code) has lifetime identical with the program (for statically compiled languages), but may be in context or not at a given point in the program, and likewise for static variables—a static global variable is in context for the entire program, while a static local variable is only in context within a function or other local context, but both have lifetime of the entire run of the program.


title: Scope (computer science)

text: Determining which entity a name refers to is known as name resolution or name binding (particularly in object-oriented programming), and varies between languages. Given a name, the language (properly, the compiler or interpreter) checks all entities that are in context for matches; in case of ambiguity (two entities with the same name, such as a global and local variable with the same name), the name resolution rules are used to distinguish them. Most frequently, name resolution relies on an "inner-to-outer context" rule, such as the Python LEGB (Local, Enclosing, Global, Built-in) rule: names implicitly resolves to the narrowest relevant context. In some cases name resolution can be explicitly specified, such as by the codice_1 and codice_2 keywords in Python; in other cases the default rules cannot be overridden.


title: Scope (computer science)

text: When two identical names are in context at the same time, referring to different entities, one says that "name masking" is occurring, where the higher-priority name (usually innermost) is "masking" the lower-priority name. At the level of variables, this is known as variable shadowing. Due to the potential for logic errors from masking, some languages disallow or discourage masking, raising an error or warning at compile time or run time.


title: Scope (computer science)

text: Various programming languages have various different scope rules for different kinds of declarations and names. Such scope rules have a large effect on language semantics and, consequently, on the behavior and correctness of programs. In languages like C++, accessing an unbound variable does not have well-defined semantics and may result in undefined behavior, similar to referring to a dangling pointer; and declarations or names used outside their scope will generate syntax errors.


title: Scope (computer science)

text: Scopes are frequently tied to other language constructs and determined implicitly, but many languages also offer constructs specifically for controlling scope.


title: Scope (computer science)

text: Scope can vary from as little as a single expression to as much as the entire program, with many possible gradations in between. The simplest scope rule is global scope—all entities are visible throughout the entire program. The most basic modular scope rule is two-level scope, with a global scope anywhere in the program, and local scope within a function. More sophisticated modular programming allows a separate module scope, where names are visible within the module (private to the module) but not visible outside it. Within a function, some languages, such as C, allow block scope to restrict scope to a subset of a function; others, notably functional languages, allow expression scope, to restrict scope to a single expression. Other scopes include file scope (notably in C) which behaves similarly to module scope, and block scope outside of functions (notably in Perl).