title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On August 19, 2010, the band was announced as support for Stick to Your Guns' North American tour with fellow supporting acts As Blood Runs Black, For the Fallen Dreams and Close Your Eyes beginning on October 1 in Arizona and ending on the 31st in California.


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On September 28, 2010, the band was announced as support for Oceano's "Contagion Across the Nation Tour" with fellow supporting acts Chelsea Grin, In the Midst of Lions and "Monsters" beginning on November 5 in Michigan and ending on the 27th in Illinois.


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On May 6, 2011, the band was announced as part of the 2011 "All Stars Tour" along with Emmure, Alesana, Iwrestledabearonce, blessthefall, For Today, In This Moment, Born of Osiris, The Ghost Inside, After the Burial, For All Those Sleeping, Memphis May Fire, Motionless in White, Chelsea Grin and Sleeping With Sirens.


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On July 14, 2011, the band announced that their next album, "Outlawed", was set for an August 16 release through Artery Recordings and Razor & Tie. On July 25, 2011 the band revealed the track listing for "Outlawed" and released the first single from the album, "Payback", for streaming. On August 4, the band released the second single "Smokeout", followed by a music video for "Smokeout" on August 17.


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On August 8, 2011, the band was announced as part of the lineup for Alesana and Dance Gavin Dance's "Rock Yourself to Sleep" headlining tour with fellow supporting acts A Skylit Drive, I Set My Friends on Fire and A Loss for Words. On August 31, 2011 the band was announced as support for the "Monster Energy Outbreak Tour 2012" being headlined by Asking Alexandria, and including fellow supporting acts As I Lay Dying, Suicide Silence and Memphis May Fire.


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On September 18, 2011, the band was announced as support for We Came As Romans' "Take a Picture, It Will Last Longer" tour beginning on November 22 and finishing on December 9, with fellow supporting acts Falling in Reverse, Sleeping With Sirens and For All I Am.


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On October 17, 2011, Attila released their first music video from the album, "Payback". Attila released a lyric video for their song "Another Round" on July 9, 2012, and another lyric video for their song "Nasty Mouth" on October 2, 2012. On October 30, 2012, Attila released a new single, "Party with the Devil", and a re-recorded version of the song "Soda in the Water Cup" from the album "Soundtrack to a Party".


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On December 12, 2011, the band was announced as part of the lineup for the New England Metal and Hardcore fest 2012 taking place on April 20–22 at the Palladium in Worcester, Massachusetts. On December 22, 2011 the band was announced as part of Chelsea Grin's six-week tour, the "Sick Tour", along with fellow supporting acts For the Fallen Dreams, Chunk! No, Captain Chunk!, Vanna, Volumes and The Crimson Armada.


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On March 24, 2012, the band's vocalist, Fronzak, was denied entry for the second time into Canada because of a felony on his record. Fronzak released a statement concerning the incident, saying he could apply for reconsideration in two years.


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On June 6, 2012, the band announced that bassist, Chris Comrie had parted ways with the band. The band released a statement, describing the departure as a personal choice made by Comrie and that they were still on good terms. On September 8, 2012 the band announced that they acquired former For the Fallen Dreams' guitarist Kalan Blehm as their new bassist.


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On September 13, 2012, the band announced their "Party With the Devil" headlining tour with supporting acts Make Me Famous, Issues, Ice Nine Kills, and Adestria, beginning on October 26 in Florida and ending on November 15 in Washington.


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On January 4, 2013, Attila was announced to play at the Warped Tour 2013 from June 16 to July 11, 2013.


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On February 3, 2013, it was announced that the band had finished writing their follow-up to "Outlawed" and had entered the studio. The band stated that the album would be the "heaviest" and "craziest" album they had ever made. On February 25, 2013, the band uploaded their own "Harlem Shake" video.


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On April 20, 2013, Attila released the first single from the album, "Middle Fingers Up", and revealed that the new album, titled "About That Life", would be released on June 25, 2013. On May 24, 2013, Attila teamed up with Spotify and Revolver and released the title track from the record, "About That Life".


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On August 1, 2013, the band announced the "About That Life" headlining tour with supporting acts Upon a Burning Body, The Plot in You and Fit for a King. On December 11, 2013, it was announced that frontman, Chris Fronzak would be heading into the studio the next month to begin recording his forthcoming hip hop album. Later that night on Fuse's "Warped Roadies" it was announced that Attila would be playing Warped Tour 2014, with fellow announcements Tear Out the Heart, Mayday Parade, the Protomen and Plague Vendor.


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On December 13, 2013, the band announced "The New King's Tour" with supporting acts I See Stars, Capture the Crown, Ice Nine Kills, Myka, Relocate, and ARTISANS, beginning on January 31, 2014. On December 18, 2013 the band was announced as support for A Day to Remember's "Self Help Festival" on March 22, 2014 in San Bernardino, California.


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On July 22, 2014, the band introduced Machine Gun Kelly at the APMAs where he performed the song "See My Tears" with the Cleveland Contemporary Youth Orchestra.


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On August 18, 2014, the band was announced to headline the Monster Outbreak Tour 2014 with supporting acts Crown the Empire, Like Moths to Flames and Sworn In. The tour was scheduled to kick off on November 14 in Fort Lauderdale and end on December 14 in Massachusetts. On September 5, they were announced as support for Black Veil Brides' UK tour with fellow supporting act Fearless Vampire Killers, beginning on October 3 in Cardiff, UK and ending on October 17 in Leeds, UK.


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On October 6, 2014, the band unveiled their new album, "Guilty Pleasure", which was to be released on November 24. Fronzak described the album as the heaviest they had written. On October 20, 2014 the band released the first single from the album, "Proving Grounds".


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On October 22, "Alternative Press" reported that guitarist Nate Salameh had left the band. When asked about the decision, Salameh said that he wanted to focus on living a drug and alcohol-free life.


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On November 8, 2014, the band released the album second single, "Horsepig", with Fronzak stating that it was "one of my favorite songs I've ever written lyrically." The band played a 26-date tour in support of the album, "The Guilty Pleasure Tour", which kicked off in Lauderdale, Florida on November 11 and ended on December 14 in Boston, Massachusetts.


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: Burying the proverbial hatchet with Falling in Reverse frontman Ronnie Radke, Fronzak and the rest of Attila announced a co-headlining tour with Falling in Reverse called the Supervillains Tour with support from Metro Station and Assuming We Survive. The tour was played at the tail end of 2015.


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On June 24, 2016, Attila announced that they had signed to SharpTone Records, a new label co-founded by Nuclear Blast CEO Markus Staiger and Shawn Keith. "We are REALLY excited to announce that we have officially signed to SharpTone!" shared Attila frontman Fronzak. "We are at an amazing point in our career and we know that these guys have the power that we need to take things to the next level."


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On January 1, 2017, Sean Heenan announced that he was leaving the band. The band later issued a statement of their own regarding his departure, citing that the reasons revolved around feeling like it was "time to make a change to improve our rhythm section."


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On March 22, 2017, it was revealed Attila would be playing the 2017 Vans Warped Tour. On October 31, 2017, Attila released their single "Three 6" onto YouTube.


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On February 13, 2018, Attila announced that they are an unsigned band after their year run with SharpTone Records.


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On July 7, 2018, a new web-single "Pizza" was released. The music video for the single was uploaded to the band's YouTube channel on July 12.


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On May 29, 2020, Attila released a new song titled "Cancelled". and the next month drummer Bryan McClure was fired from the band following several rape and sexual misconduct allegations.


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On March 18, 2021, Attila released a new song titled "Clarity" as the lead single from their upcoming ninth studio album "Closure".


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: Attila's musical style has been described as metalcore, deathcore, nu metalcore, rap metal, and nu metal.


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On September 15, 2014, Blehm announced his instrumental side project, Frozen Forest, and released "Blue Eyes", the third song following the releases of "Dreamer" and "Work".


title: Attila (metalcore band)

text: On December 15, 2020, it has been announced a project called Emerald Royce that involves Chris Linck and former Issues and Woe, Is Me frontman, Tyler Carter.


title: Marcos Rodríguez Pantoja

text: Marcos Rodríguez Pantoja (born 7 June 1946, in Añora, Spain) is a noted feral child. He was sold to a hermitic goatherder at seven and after the goatherder's death, he lived alone with the wolves in the Sierra Morena. At 19, he was returned to civilization, but had difficulty adjusting. Gabriel Janer Manila went on to write a PhD thesis about his case, which was titled "He jugado con lobos" (English title "I Have Played with Wolves").


title: Marcos Rodríguez Pantoja

text: He later became the subject of the film "Entrelobos" (English title "Among Wolves"), in which he appears briefly.


title: Marcos Rodríguez Pantoja

text: In March 2018 he gave an interview in which he said he was disappointed in human nature and wished he could return to the mountains and leave society.


title: Marcos Rodríguez Pantoja

text: Marcos was born in Añora, Spain, in the province of Cordoba. He emigrated with his parents to Madrid, where his mother died giving birth to her eighth child, who died shortly thereafter when Marcos was three years old. His father then married another woman who already had a child from a previous marriage. His stepmother subjected him to cruel abuse while she was in charge. In the 1950s they settled in Fuencaliente, Ciudad Real, in the Sierra Morena, where they dedicated themselves to the manufacture of coal.


title: Marcos Rodríguez Pantoja

text: By 1954, Marcos had spent all of his young life being abused. That year, aged seven, he was sold or delivered to a local landowner who put him under the care of a goat shepherd. The child was to serve as future replacement for shepherd, but was abandoned to nature after his death. In 1965, the Civil Guard found him after eleven years living in complete isolation from human beings and with the sole company of the wolves. The Civil Guard moved him to Fuencaliente by force, bound and gagged, as he howled and bit like a wolf. The police never brought charges against the father, who was still alive at the time, and when he recognized his son, he only reproached him for having lost his jacket.


title: Marcos Rodríguez Pantoja

text: Nuns employed at a nearby hospital along with a priest taught him, again, the use of speech, how to dress, walk upright, and eat with cutlery. He was admitted to the Hospital de Convalecientes of the Vallejo Foundation in Madrid, until he was reintroduced as an adult to life in society. He was sent to Mallorca where he lived in a hostel paying with his work.


title: Marcos Rodríguez Pantoja

text: He did military service and dedicated himself to work as a pastor and in the hospitality industry. His wife took advantage of him financially very often through scamming and deception, as he suffered by having limited financial and cultural sense given the many years he spent in complete isolation. After unstable living arrangements in Fuengirola, Málaga, where for a time he even lived in a cave, he moved to a village in the interior of Orense, Rante. There he was welcomed by Manuel Barandela Losada, a retired police officer. Marcos called him the "jefe" and considered him to be family until his death.


title: Marcos Rodríguez Pantoja

text: Currently, Marcos is sponsored by a Dutch family, being frequently invited by city councils, associations and diverse organizations to give talks and narrate his experience. In addition, he has been interviewed in numerous television programs.


title: Marcos Rodríguez Pantoja

text: The study of the case was carried out by the anthropologist and writer Gabriel Janer Manila, who between November 1975 and April 1976, interviewed with Marcos Rodríguez in order to study the educational measures necessary for their integration. The anthropologist stated that the causes of Marcos' abandonment were not fortuitous, but deliberate and the result of a socio-economic context of extreme poverty. The researcher also stressed that Marcos' survival was possible thanks to the basic skills acquired in the previous phase of his abandonment, as well as his extraordinary natural intelligence. During his isolation the child learned the noises of the animals with which he lived and used them to communicate with them, while little by little he abandoned human language.


title: Marcos Rodríguez Pantoja

text: Once he was again immersed in a social environment, after his rescue by the Civil Guard, he made a slow readaptation to human customs (food, clothing, language, etc.), still manifesting in adulthood preference for life in the field and animals (with which he has a special understanding) and developed some animosity for the noise and smell of cities, considering that life between humans is worse than life with animals. He considers that the hardships he suffered once he was reintroduced into society could have been alleviated in large part if the State had intervened in time.


title: Indigenous People of Biafra

text: The Indigenous People of Biafra (IPOB) is a nationalist separatist group in Nigeria that aims to restore the Republic of Biafra, a country which seceded from Nigeria prior to the Nigerian Civil War (1967-1970) and later rejoined Nigeria after its defeat by the Nigerian military. Since 2021, IPOB and other Biafran separatist groups have been fighting a low-level guerilla conflict in southeastern Nigeria against the Nigerian government. The group was founded in 2012 by Nnamdi Kanu, a British Nigerian political activist known for his advocacy of the contemporary Biafran independence movement. It was deemed a terrorist organization by the Nigerian government in 2017 under the Nigerian Terrorism Act. As of May 2022, the United Kingdom started denying asylum to members of IPOB who engaged in human rights abuses, though the U.K. government clarified that IPOB had not been designated as a terrorist organisation.


title: Indigenous People of Biafra

text: IPOB has criticized the Nigerian federal government for poor investment, political alienation, inequitable resource distribution, ethnic marginalization, and heavy military presence, extrajudicial killings in the South-Eastern, South-Central and parts of North-Central regions of the country. The organization rose to prominence in the mid-2010s and is now the largest Biafran independence organization by membership. In recent years, it has gained significant media attention for becoming a frequent target of political crackdowns by the Nigerian government. It also has numerous sites and communication channels serving as the only trusted social apparatus educating and inculcating first hand information and news to its members.


title: Indigenous People of Biafra

text: Biafra had previously existed as an Independent multi-ethnic Republic consisting of the Igbo, Ijaw, Efik and Ibibio peoples to name a few and was declared by Lieutenant Colonel Odumegwu Ojukwu for three years, 1967 through 1970. The federal government fought hard to preserve the Federal Republic of Nigeria, and did not like the idea of an independent state of Biafra. The result of tensions between Biafra and the federal government resulted in the Nigerian civil war that went on for three years. There were an estimated one to 3.5 million deaths that were heavily civilian casualties caused by starvation and death on the side of Biafra. In 1970, the Biafran forces surrendered through the armistice brokered by the defunct OAU.


title: Indigenous People of Biafra

text: The leader of the Indigenous People of Biafra is Nnamdi Kanu who is a dual British and Nigerian citizen. He created IPOB after he initially gained fame from his broadcasts on Radio Biafra, which was established in 2009. This was a radio station from London that broadcast messages that called for "freedom of Biafrans" and criticised corruption in the government of Nigeria. Radio Biafra catalyzed Kanu's rise to the public scene, as he was previously an unknown figure. Kanu was arrested by the Nigerian security forces on 19 October 2015, on charges of "sedition, ethnic incitement and treasonable felony."


title: Indigenous People of Biafra

text: There have been many other pro-Biafran groups that have come into existence. The Movement for the Actualization of the Sovereign State of Biafra (MASSOB) began gaining attention in the early 2000s, along with the Biafra Zionist Movement (BZM) which rose to the spotlight in 2012. The Indigenous People of Biafra (IPOB) emerged in 2012 as well after these other groups.


title: Indigenous People of Biafra

text: IPOB emerged to continue the movement that had been championed by MASSOB. MASSOB was formed in 1999 by its national leader Ralph Uwazuruike. However, the organization was severely weakened due to alleged state repression and disagreement within the group about leadership. MASSOB accused Uwazuruike of associating himself with "mainstream Nigerian politics" instead of furthering the cause of Biafra. These conflicts contributed to the formation of another faction named BZM. BZM leader Benjamin Igwe Onwuka and many members of the group were arrested for treason by the Nigerian government at a rally that took place on 5 November 2012 in the region of Enugu. BZM's activities were scaled down because of arrests and trials of many lead members of the organization. Both of these pro-Biafran groups set up the rise of IPOB which continues championing the same causes.


title: Indigenous People of Biafra

text: There has been recent peaceful protest in the country regarding IPOB. The organizations leader and a prominent activist named Nnamdi Kanu has been arrested by Nigeria's Department of State Services on 19 October 2015. In response to his arrest there has been a group of pro-Biafran protesters who have been leading marches in eastern parts of Nigeria to push for his release. His arrest has pushed IPOB supporters into gaining further traction, as their mobilization grew. There have been many protesters and police clashes; on 2 December 2015, nine protesters and two policemen were killed at a protest in Onitsha, Anambra state. Since that date, there have been several protesters who have been reportedly killed by policemen in Aba, Onitsha, Enugu and Umuhahia. The cause in rising protests are attributed to the claimed political disenfranchisement among the Igbo people and much trauma that continues as an effect of the Nigerian civil war.


title: Indigenous People of Biafra

text: IPOB supporters have cited historical events such as the 2016 election of President Donald Trump, and Britain's vote to exit the European Union as proof of international support for "self-determination." According to many sources, Donald Trump's victory provides hope for the IPOB group in their ability to secede from Nigeria. Trump's political interests are in line with supporting Biafra, because of oil pursuits. U.S. oil company outputs in Nigeria have been cut by militants in the Niger Delta who have been continually attacking pipelines. Therefore, IPOB figures contend that it is within the United States' economic interest to support the Biafran secessionist movement due to agitations in the region. However, as of yet Trump has made no public statement in support of Biafran self-determination.


title: Indigenous People of Biafra

text: The pro-Biafran protesters are calling for the immediate release of Nnamdi Kanu and other Biafran activists that have been jailed. Most importantly they want an independence referendum to have a date set by the government. The editor of pro-Biafran media outlet 'Voice of Biafra' Nnabuike Nnadede stated that the Igbo people suffer from a lack of resources and investment from the Nigerian government. The main reason for their protests are because they want the opportunity to vote for independence.


title: Indigenous People of Biafra

text: The Federal High Court in Abuja has labelled the IPOB as a terrorist organization on 18 September 2017. The IPOB have fought against this proscription, and sought to reverse the court's decision in 2018. However, their attempt has ultimately been unsuccessful, and they continue to be declared as terrorist organization under Nigeria's Terrorism Act.


title: Indigenous People of Biafra

text: According to sources, the Nigerian State has utilized violent and excessive police force in order to silence pro-Biafran movements. This police violence has been ongoing from 2014, first targeting MASSOB and IPOB after its formation. In 2008, MASSOB claimed that 2,020 of their members had been massacred and extrajudicially killed by the state. Amnesty International released a report detailing that countless IPOB protesters were killed between the 29th through 30 May 2016 during a governmental operation wanting to prevent IPOB members marching from Nkpor motor park to a rally. The Nigerian army claims that they were acting in self-defense, and that the death count lies at five instead of fifty. These killings have not been investigated by Nigeria, despite urgings from Amnesty International.


title: Indigenous People of Biafra

text: Human rights organizations have been keeping records of extrajudicial killings in Biafra. They claim that from August 2015 through February 2016, 170 unarmed civilians were killed and that 400 were arrested, charged or detained without a proper trial.


title: Indigenous People of Biafra

text: The leader of IPOB, Nnamdi Kanu has failed to appear in court since April 25, 2017 to answer to the charges against him by the federal government. He had previously been detained without trial for over a year and was arraigned on November 8, 2016, for charges of criminal conspiracy, membership of an illegal organization and intimidation. He was granted bail after several public agitations including World Igbo Summit Group in April 2017 because of health concerns that the judge said needed better medical attention that couldn't be provided by the prison. However, he was barred from granting interviews, meeting in groups larger than ten individuals, organizing and attending rallies or social functions. Kanu disappeared after September 2017 after a premeditated attack on his home village, Umuahia by the combined forces of the Airforce and Army. Through a Radio Biafra broadcast he explains that his disappearance is because President Muhammdu Buhari sent the military to execute him in his home. The military denies the occurrence of this raid, despite an obvious video footage of the gruesome attack. There has been speculation that Kanu had fled to Israel for safety, after a Facebook livestream video depicted an individual resembling Kanu praying at the Western Wall in Jerusalem. The Israeli foreign ministry stated that Israel cannot confirm this allegation as they do not have any evidence of Kanu in the country. Now, the court has revoked the bail of Kanu and the trial judge Binta Nyako has ordered the immediate arrest of Kanu and stated that his treasonable felony will proceed despite his absence. On June 29, 2021, the Nigerian government announced that Nnamdi Kanu had been rearrested. He was subsequently charged to court again and remanded in the custody of the department of state services.


title: Indigenous People of Biafra

text: In August 2020, the department of state services (DSS) were accused by IPOB of killing 21 of his members and arresting 47 members across different locations. The DSS claims two of its officers were killed by IPOB members. Both sides accused each other of firing the first shot and that the attack was unprovoked. Casualties cannot be independently verified. Following the incident, IPOB vowed to retaliate and called on its members to start practicing self-defense.


title: Indigenous People of Biafra

text: On December 12, 2020, Kanu announced the formation of the Eastern Security Network (ESN), a regional security force, which he said it purpose is to flush out bandits and illegal forest occupants that always clash with farmers in Biafra land. The Nigerian Army deployed to locate ESN camps two weeks later. On January 22, Nigerian soldiers invaded Orlu to search for ESN operatives. Eight buildings were burnt and one person was killed in the ensuing events. Security forces re-invaded the area three days later, clashing with the ESN and killing at least five people before being repulsed by the ESN. Four Nigerian soldiers were killed in the fighting. The Nigerian Army withdrew, and in the following days, Nigerian Air Force planes and helicopters deployed to search for ESN operatives in and around Orlu. Before the Nigerian Army could launch another attack, Kanu ordered the ESN to cease fire and withdraw from Orlu, ending the crisis.


title: Indigenous People of Biafra

text: Shortly after the Orlu Crisis, IPOB gave all the governors of southeast Nigeria 14 days to ban open grazing, threatening to deploy the ESN to enforce a ban if the authorities did not do so.


title: Indigenous People of Biafra

text: On April 9, 2021, IPOB formally allied itself with the Ambazonia Governing Council (AGovC) and the Ambazonia Defence Forces. The alliance was denounced by the Interim Government of Ambazonia as well as by other Biafran separatist groups.


title: Indigenous People of Biafra

text: According to a BBC News Pidgin report, the Nigerian Army raided the IPOB headquarters seizing weapons in a joint operation with State Services and IRT operatives (Nigerian Army Police Intelligence Response Team). Government officials described it as a success.


title: Indigenous People of Biafra

text: In course of the insurgency, IPOB militants have been accused of committing war crimes such as murdering civilians, including children. One of the most notable attacks were the May 2022 Anambra State killings.


title: Soghomon Tehlirian

text: Soghomon Tehlirian (; April 2, 1896 – May 23, 1960) was an Armenian revolutionary and soldier who assassinated Talaat Pasha, the former Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire, in Berlin on March 15, 1921. He was entrusted to carry out the assassination after having earlier killed Harutian Mgrditichian, who had worked for the Ottoman secret police and helped compile the list of Armenian intellectuals who were deported on April 24, 1915.


title: Soghomon Tehlirian

text: Talaat's assassination was a part of Operation Nemesis, a revenge plan by the Armenian Revolutionary Federation against members of the Ottoman Imperial Government responsible for the Armenian genocide during World War I. Talaat Pasha had been convicted and sentenced to death "in absentia" in the Turkish courts-martial of 1919–20, and was viewed as the main orchestrator of the genocide. After a two-day trial Tehlirian was found not guilty by a German court, and freed.


title: Soghomon Tehlirian

text: Soghomon Tehlirian was born on April 2, 1896 in the village of (Բագառիճ), in the Erzurum vilayet of the Ottoman Empire. He was raised in Erzincan.


title: Soghomon Tehlirian

text: Tehlirian's father left for Serbia to secure the family's planned move to the country. After his return in 1905, he was arrested and sentenced to six months imprisonment. During this time, the Tehlirian family moved from Nerkin Bagarij to Erzinjan. Tehlirian received his initial education at the Protestant elementary school in Erzinjan. After graduation at the Getronagan (Central) Lyceum of Constantinople, he went to study engineering in Serbia and had plans to continue his education in Germany.


title: Soghomon Tehlirian

text: He was in Valjevo, Serbia, in June 1914. In the fall of that year, Tehlirian made his way to Russia and joined the army to serve in a volunteer unit on the Caucasus Front against the Turks.


title: Soghomon Tehlirian

text: According to "History's Great Untold Stories: Larger than Life Characters & Dramatic Events that Changed the World", In June 1915, the Ottoman local police ordered the deportation of all the Armenians in Erzinjan. Tehlirian's mother, three sisters, his sister's husband, his two brothers, and a two-year-old niece were deported. All told, Tehlirian lost 85 family members to the Armenian Genocide.


title: Soghomon Tehlirian

text: In 2016 Tehlirian's son, who spoke to "The Independent" but did not reveal his name, stated that Tehlirian's mother and Vasken, his older brother, died in the genocide – the latter was studying medicine and living in Beirut – but that Tehlirian did not have a sister, that his father was fighting in the war in Russia, and that his other two brothers were in Serbia.


title: Soghomon Tehlirian

text: After the war, Tehlirian went to Constantinople, where he assassinated Harutian Mgrditichian, who had worked for the Ottoman secret police and helped compile the list of Armenian intellectuals who were deported on April 24, 1915. Meanwhile, Operation Nemesis was being set up to assassinate leaders responsible for the Armenian genocide and Tehlirian's killing of Mgrditichian convinced Nemesis operatives to entrust him with the assassination of Talat Pasha. In mid-1920, the Nemesis organization paid for Tehlirian to travel to the United States, where Garo briefed him that the death sentences pronounced against the major perpetrators had not been carried out, and that the killers continued their anti-Armenian activities from exile. That fall, the Turkish nationalist movement invaded Armenia. Tehlirian received the photographs of seven leading CUP leaders, whose whereabouts Nemesis was tracking, and departed for Europe, going first to Paris. In Geneva, he obtained a visa to go to Berlin as a mechanical engineering student, leaving on December 2.


title: Soghomon Tehlirian

text: Tehlirian's main target was Talaat Pasha, who was a member of the military triumvirate known as the "Three Pashas" who controlled the Ottoman Empire. He was the former Minister of the Interior and Grand Vizier (an office equivalent to that of a prime minister), and was noted for his prominent role in the Armenian Genocide. As soon as he found Talaat Pasha's address on 4 Hardenbergstraße, in Berlin's Charlottenburg district, Tehlirian rented an apartment near his house so that he could study his everyday routine.


title: Soghomon Tehlirian

text: Tehlirian shadowed Talaat as he left his house on Hardenbergstraße on the morning of March 15, 1921. He crossed the street to view him from the opposite sidewalk, then crossed it once more to walk past him to confirm his identity. He then turned around and pointed his gun to shoot him in the nape of the neck. Talaat was felled with a single 9mm parabellum round from a Luger P08 pistol. The assassination took place in broad daylight and led to the German police immediately arresting Tehlirian, who had been told by his handlers, Armen Garo and Shahan Natalie, not to run from the crime scene.


title: Soghomon Tehlirian

text: Tehlirian was tried for murder, but was eventually acquitted by the twelve-man jury. His trial was highly publicized at the time, taking place shortly after the establishment of the Weimar Republic, with Tehlirian being represented by three German defense attorneys, including Dr. Theodor Niemeyer, professor of law at Kiel University. Priest and Armenian Genocide survivor Grigoris Balakian, German activist Johannes Lepsius, and German Army general Otto Liman von Sanders, who had been a field marshal in the Ottoman Army during the war, were among several of the prominent individuals called as witnesses to the trial.


title: Soghomon Tehlirian

text: The trial examined not only Tehlirian's actions but also Tehlirian's conviction that Talaat was the main author of the Armenian deportation and mass killings. The defense attorneys made no attempt to deny the fact that Tehlirian had killed a man, and instead focused on the influence of the Armenian Genocide on Tehlirian's mental state. Tehlirian claimed during the trial that he had been present in Erzincan in 1915 and had been deported along with his family and personally witnessed their murder. When asked by the judge if he felt any sort of guilt, Tehlirian remarked, "I do not consider myself guilty because my conscience is clear…I have killed a man. But I am not a murderer."


title: Soghomon Tehlirian

text: During his trial, Tehlirian claimed that while he was in Germany, he saw his mother in his dreams who scorned her son for seeing Talaat Pasha and not having taken revenge yet. During the trial, Tehlirian's dream was described as follows:


title: Soghomon Tehlirian

text: German reactions to the verdict were mixed, being generally favorable among those who were sympathetic to Armenians or universal human rights. Journalist Emil Ludwig wrote, "Only when a society of nations has organized itself as the protector of international order will no Armenian killer remain unpunished, because no Turkish Pasha has the right to send a nation into the desert".


title: Soghomon Tehlirian

text: After the assassination, Tehlirian moved to Cleveland in the United States. He then moved to Marseille and then Yugoslavia and eventually married Anahit Tatikian who was also from Erzincan. She was 15 when they first met in 1917.


title: Soghomon Tehlirian

text: During his days in Serbia, Tehlirian was a member of the shooting club and was considered a skilled marksman. The couple moved to Belgrade and lived there until 1950, when they moved first to Casablanca, then to Paris, and finally to San Francisco. There he worked as a postal clerk, and he lived under the name Saro Melikian.


title: Soghomon Tehlirian

text: Tehlirian died in 1960 of a cerebral hemorrhage, and is buried at the Ararat Cemetery in Fresno, California. Tehlirian's monument-grave is an obelisk with a gold-plated eagle slaying a snake on top. It is reported that the original artist of the monument was quoted as saying that the eagle was "the arm of justice of the Armenian people extending their wrath onto Talaat Pasha," who was symbolized by the snake. The monument itself is centered in the middle of the cemetery with a walkway made of red brick surrounded by cypress trees.


title: Soghomon Tehlirian

text: His trial for murder influenced Polish-Jewish lawyer Raphael Lemkin, who later reflected on the trial, "Tehlirian acted as the self-appointed legal officer for the conscience of mankind. But can a man appoint himself to mete out justice? Will not passion sway such a type of justice and rather make a travesty of it?" As a result, Lemkin was inspired to campaign for a law allowing genocide to be prosecuted under universal jurisdiction, reasoning that state sovereignty "cannot be conceived as the right to kill millions of innocent people". Historian Hans-Lukas Kieser states "Assassination perpetuated the sick relationship of a victim in quest of revenge with a perpetrator entrenched in defiant denial, instead of humble courage for the truth and redress."


title: Soghomon Tehlirian

text: Political theorist Hannah Arendt, in her 1963 book "Eichmann in Jerusalem", compares Tehlirian to Sholem Schwarzbard, who assassinated Ukrainian statesman Symon Petliura in Paris in 1925 for what Schwarzbard believed to be Petlyura's culpability in the anti-Jewish pogroms in Ukraine. Arendt suggests that each man "insisted on being tried", in order "to show the world through court procedure what crimes against his people had been committed and gone unpunished."


title: Soghomon Tehlirian

text: Several statues of Tehlirian have been erected in Armenia. His first statue in Armenia was inaugurated in 1990 in the village of Mastara.


title: Soghomon Tehlirian

text: The song Գինի լից, "Gini lits" ("Pour the wine") is a well-known revolutionary song, which commemorates and glorifies the assassination of Talaat by Tehlirian. It has been recorded in a variety of versions and is known by heart by many Armenians. The version by Sahak Sahakyan also has a music video. The first stanza of the song goes:


title: Naqsh-e Rostam

text: Naqsh-e Rostam (lit. mural of Rostam, ) is an ancient archeological site and necropolis located about 12 km northwest of Persepolis, in Fars Province, Iran. A collection of ancient Iranian rock reliefs are cut into the face of the mountain and the mountain contains the final resting place of four Achaemenid kings, notably king Darius the Great and his son, Xerxes. This site is of great significance to the history of Iran and to Iranians, as it contains various archeological sites carved into the rock wall through time for more than a millennium from the Elamites and Achaemenids to Sassanians. It lies a few hundred meters from Naqsh-e Rajab, with a further four Sassanid rock reliefs, three celebrating kings and one a high priest.


title: Naqsh-e Rostam

text: Naqsh-e Rostam is the necropolis of the Achaemenid dynasty ( 550–330 BC), with four large tombs cut high into the cliff face. These have mainly architectural decoration, but the facades include large panels over the doorways, each very similar in content, with figures of the king being invested by a god, above a zone with rows of smaller figures bearing tribute, with soldiers and officials. The three classes of figures are sharply differentiated in size. The entrance to each tomb is at the center of each cross, which opens onto a small chamber, where the king lay in a sarcophagus.


title: Naqsh-e Rostam

text: Well below the Achaemenid tombs, near ground level, are rock reliefs with large figures of Sassanian kings, some meeting gods, others in combat. The most famous shows the Sassanian king Shapur I on horseback, with the Roman Emperor Valerian bowing to him in submission, and Philip the Arab (an earlier emperor who paid Shapur tribute) holding Shapur's horse, while the dead Emperor Gordian III, killed in battle, lies beneath it (other identifications have been suggested). This commemorates the Battle of Edessa in AD 260, when Valerian became the only Roman Emperor who was captured as a prisoner of war, a lasting humiliation for the Romans. The placing of these reliefs clearly suggests the Sassanid intention to link themselves with the glories of the earlier Achaemenid Empire.


title: Naqsh-e Rostam

text: The oldest relief at Naqsh-e Rostam dates back to c. 1000BC. Though it is severely damaged, it depicts a faint image of a man with unusual headgear, and is thought to be Elamite in origin. The depiction is part of a larger mural, most of which was removed at the command of Bahram II. The man with the unusual cap gives the site its name, "Naqsh-e Rostam" ("Rustam Relief" or "Relief of Rustam"), because the relief was locally believed to be a depiction of the mythical hero Rustam.


title: Naqsh-e Rostam

text: Four tombs belonging to Achaemenid kings are carved out of the rock face at a considerable height above the ground. The tombs are sometimes known as the "Persian crosses", after the shape of the facades of the tombs. The entrance to each tomb is at the center of each cross, which opens onto a small chamber, where the king lay in a sarcophagus. The horizontal beam of each of the tomb's facades is believed to be a replica of a Persepolitan entrance.


title: Naqsh-e Rostam

text: One of the tombs is explicitly identified, by an accompanying inscription (“parsa parsahya puthra ariya ariyachitra”, meaning, “a Parsi, the son of a Parsi, an Aryan, of Aryan family), as the tomb of Darius I ("c." 522-486 BC). The other three tombs are believed to be those of Xerxes I ("c." 486-465 BC), Artaxerxes I ("c." 465-424 BC), and Darius II ("c." 423-404 BC) respectively. The order of the tombs in Naqsh-e Rostam follows (left to right): Darius II, Artaxerxes I, Darius I, Xerxes I. The matching of the other kings to tombs is somewhat speculative; the relief figures are not intended as individualized portraits.


title: Naqsh-e Rostam

text: A fifth unfinished one might be that of Artaxerxes III, who reigned at the longest two years, but is more likely that of Darius III ("c." 336-330 BC), the last king of the Achaemenid Dynasts. The tombs were looted following the conquest of the Achaemenid Empire by Alexander the Great.


title: Naqsh-e Rostam

text: An inscription by Darius I, from 490 BCE, generally referred to as the "DNa inscription" in scholarly works, appears in the top left corner of the facade of his tomb. It mentions the conquests of Darius I and his various achievements during his life. Its exact date is not known, but it can be assumed to be from the last decade of his reign. Like several other inscriptions by Darius, the territories controlled by the Achaemenid Empire are specifically listed, which formed the largest empire during antiquity. The extant of his empire encompassed Macedon and Thrace in Europe, Egypt in North Africa, Babylon and Assyria in Mesopotamia, the steppes of Eurasia, Bactria in Central Asia, up to Gandhara and the Indus in the Indian Subcontinent which were annexed during the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley.


title: Naqsh-e Rostam

text: Ka'ba-ye Zartosht (meaning the "Cube of Zoroaster") is a 5th-century B.C Achaemenid square tower. The structure is a copy of a sister building at Pasargadae, the "Prison of Solomon" ("Zendān-e Solaymān"). It was built either by Darius I (r. 521–486 BCE) when he moved to Persepolis, by Artaxerxes II (r. 404–358 BCE) or Artaxerxes III (r. 358–338 BCE). The building at Pasargadae is a few decades older. There are four inscriptions in three languages from the Sasanian period on the lower exterior walls. They are considered among the most important inscriptions from this period.


title: Naqsh-e Rostam

text: Seven over-life sized rock reliefs at Naqsh-e Rostam depict monarchs of the Sassanid period. Their approximate dates range from AD 225 to 310, and they show subjects including investiture scenes and battles.


title: Naqsh-e Rostam

text: The founder of the Sassanid Empire is seen being handed the ring of kingship by Ohrmazd. In the inscription, which also bears the oldest attested use of the term "Iran", Ardashir admits to betraying his pledge to Artabanus V (the Persians having been a vassal state of the Arsacid Parthians), but legitimizes his action on the grounds that Ohrmazd had wanted him to do so.


title: Naqsh-e Rostam

text: The word ērān is first attested in the inscriptions that accompany the investiture relief of Ardashir I (r. 224–242) at Naqsh-e Rostam. In this bilingual inscription, the king calls himself "Ardashir, king of kings of the Iranians" (Middle Persian: ardašīr šāhān šāh ī ērān; Parthian: ardašīr šāhān šāh ī aryān).


title: Naqsh-e Rostam

text: The most famous of the Sassanid rock reliefs, and depicts the victory of Shapur I over two Roman emperors, Valerian and Philip the Arab. Behind the king stands "Kirtir", the "mūbadān mūbad" ('high priest'), the most powerful of the Zoroastrian Magi during the history of Iran. A more elaborate version of this rock relief is at Bishapur.


title: Naqsh-e Rostam

text: In an inscription, Shapur I claims possession of the territory of the Kushans (Kūšān šahr) as far as "Purushapura" (Peshawar), suggesting he controlled Bactria and areas as far as the Hindu-Kush or even south of it:


title: Naqsh-e Rostam

text: On each side of the king, who is depicted with an oversized sword, figures face the king. On the left, stand five figures, perhaps members of the king's family (three having diadems, suggesting they were royalty). On the right, stand three courtiers, one of which may be Kartir. This relief is to the immediate right of the investiture inscription of Ardashir, and partially replaces the much older relief that gives the name of Naqsh-e Rostam.


title: Naqsh-e Rostam

text: The first equestrian relief, located immediately below the fourth tomb (perhaps that of Darius II), depicts the king battling a mounted Roman enemy.


title: Naqsh-e Rostam

text: The second equestrian relief, located immediately below the tomb of Darius I, is divided into two registers, an upper and a lower one. In the upper register, the king appears to be forcing a Roman enemy, probably Roman emperor Carus from his horse. In the lower register, the king is again battling a mounted enemy wearing a headgear shaped as an animal’s head, thought to be the vanquished Indo-Sassanian ruler Hormizd I Kushanshah. Both reliefs depict a dead enemy under the hooves of the king's horse.


title: Naqsh-e Rostam

text: In this relief, the king is depicted as receiving the ring of kingship from a female figure that is frequently assumed to be the divinity Aredvi Sura Anahita. However, the king is not depicted in a pose that would be expected in the presence of a divinity, and it is hence likely that the woman is a relative, perhaps Queen Shapurdukhtak of Sakastan.


title: Naqsh-e Rostam

text: This relief is below tomb 3 (perhaps that of Artaxerxes I) and depicts Hormizd forcing an enemy (perhaps Papak of Armenia) from his horse. Immediately above the relief and below the tomb is a badly damaged relief of what appears to be Shapur II ("c." 309–379) accompanied by courtiers.


title: Naqsh-e Rostam

text: In 1923, the German archaeologist Ernst Herzfeld made casts of the inscriptions on the tomb of Darius I. Since 1946, these casts have been held in the archives of the Freer Gallery of Art and the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, in Washington, DC.


title: Naqsh-e Rostam

text: Naqsh-e Rostam was excavated for several seasons between 1936 and 1939 by a team from the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, led by Erich Schmidt.


title: Circular segment

text: In geometry, a circular segment (symbol: ⌓), also known as a disk segment, is a region of a disk which is "cut off" from the rest of the disk by a secant or a chord. More formally, a circular segment is a region of two-dimensional space that is bounded by a circular arc (of less than π radians by convention) and by the circular chord connecting the endpoints of the arc.


title: Circular segment

text: Let "R" be the radius of the arc which forms part of the perimeter of the segment, "θ" the central angle subtending the arc in radians, "c" the chord length, "s" the arc length, "h" the sagitta (height) of the segment, "d" the apothem of the segment, and "a" the area of the segment.


title: Circular segment

text: Usually, chord length and height are given or measured, and sometimes the arc length as part of the perimeter, and the unknowns are area and sometimes arc length. These can't be calculated simply from chord length and height, so two intermediate quantities, the radius and central angle are usually calculated first.


title: Circular segment

text: The area "a" of the circular segment is equal to the area of the circular sector minus the area of the triangular portion (using the double angle formula to get an equation in terms of formula_8):


title: Circular segment

text: Unfortunately, formula_11 is a transcendental function of formula_12 and formula_13 so no algebraic formula in terms of these can be stated. But what can be stated is that as the central angle gets smaller (or alternately the radius gets larger), the area "a" rapidly and asymptotically approaches formula_14. If formula_15, formula_16 is a substantially good approximation.


title: Circular segment

text: As the central angle approaches π, the area of the segment is converging to the area of a semicircle, formula_17, so a good approximation is a delta offset from the latter area:


title: Circular segment

text: As an example, the area is one quarter the circle when "θ" ~ 2.31 radians (132.3°) corresponding to a height of ~59.6% and a chord length of ~183% of the radius.


title: Circular segment

text: The area formula can be used in calculating the volume of a partially-filled cylindrical tank laying horizontally.


title: Circular segment

text: In the design of windows or doors with rounded tops, "c" and "h" may be the only known values and can be used to calculate "R" for the draftsman's compass setting.


title: Circular segment

text: One can reconstruct the full dimensions of a complete circular object from fragments by measuring the arc length and the chord length of the fragment.


title: Circular segment

text: To check hole positions on a circular pattern. Especially useful for quality checking on machined products.


title: Roy Chiu

text: Roy Chiu (; born 14 October 1981) is a Taiwanese actor, singer and racing driver. He earned two Golden Horse Award for Best Leading Actor nominations for his performances in "Dear Ex" (2018) and "Man in Love" (2021) and also received two Taipei Film Award for Best Actor for these two performances.


title: Hi-C

text: Hi-C is a fruit juice–flavored drink made by the Minute Maid division of The Coca-Cola Company. It was created by Niles Foster in 1946 and released in 1947. The sole original flavor was orange.


title: Hi-C

text: Niles Foster, a former bakery and bottling plant owner, created Hi-C in 1946. It took Foster over a year to develop the ideal formula for Hi-C orange drink, containing orange juice concentrate, peel oil and orange essences, sugar, water, citric acid and ascorbic acid (vitamin C). The name "Hi-C" referred to its high vitamin content. Hot-packed in enamel-lined 56-ounce (1.66 L) cans, the product needed no refrigeration before opening. After test marketing in 1947, Hi-C orange drink was introduced in 1948 with a massive promotional effort, spending thousands of dollars weekly per market on promotions. Foster entered into an agreement with Clinton Foods, Inc., to produce and market Hi-C, with Foster managing the Hi-C business.


title: Hi-C

text: Originally marketed in the southern United States, Hi-C was introduced into the Los Angeles and San Francisco markets in 1949. As markets for Hi-C were expanded nationwide, so were the contract operations, strategically located near major market areas. The multi-plant system facilitated quick product shipping, minimizing out-of-date merchandise problems. New flavors of Hi-C fruit drinks were developed as an outgrowth of the contract packer system. Grape, the second flavor introduced, evolved naturally from the fact that the Geneva, Ohio, co-packer was also processing fresh grapes. Apple and cherry drinks were introduced as a result of the fresh fruit processing operations at the Paw Paw, Michigan, co-packer plant. The contract packing concept is still used today by the Coca-Cola Foods Division. As the Hi-C business continued to grow, it attracted the attention of the Minute Maid Corporation, and in 1954 Clinton Foods, Inc., sold its Florida holdings, including Hi-C fruit drinks, to Minute Maid. Niles Foster left the Minute Maid Corporation shortly after the Hi-C brand was purchased. George Roberts, assistant sales manager for Niles Foster when Hi-C was introduced, stayed on, first as National Sales Manager for Hi-C, then later as Director of Contract Packer Operations for the Houston, Texas, based Coca-Cola Foods Division, ensuring the successful marketing, promotion, and distribution of Hi-C. The Hi-C business continued to expand with new flavors (orange-pineapple, pineapple-grapefruit, Florida Punch, peach) and innovative marketing techniques. By 1958, Hi-C fruit drinks had become an American supermarket staple, available in every grocery store nationwide.


title: Hi-C

text: Hi-C is currently sold in drink boxes, soda fountains, and drink mix form. There are other flavors at Coca-Cola Freestyle. There were soft frozen versions of Flashin' Fruit Punch and Orange Lavaburst made by J & J Snack Foods and could be found in stores like Dollar Tree. At one point in time, Brach's made fruit snacks and orange slices under the Hi-C name. Subsequent growth of the Hi-C product line included globalization to selected markets worldwide.


title: Hi-C

text: The Hi-C products used to be the color implied by their flavor, but in 2000, Hi-C in juice boxes was re-introduced as a yellowish clear beverage that would not stain clothing. Thus, flavors like Shoutin' Orange Tangergreen lost their distinctive colors. The soda fountain versions of Fruit Punch, Poppin' Pink Lemonade and Orange Lavaburst, however, still retain their red, pink and orange colors, respectively. There also is a "light" version of Flashin' Fruit Punch that exists for soda fountains. In 2013, the size of the juice boxes was slightly reduced from 6.75 fl oz (200 mL) to 6 fl oz. Starting in 2017, a new logo for the brand has been rolled out. In early 2019, new packaging was released for the drink boxes, and the calories and sugar have been reduced in half by using a new sweetener. In 2020, Jel Sert started producing Hi-C in drink mix form.


title: Hi-C

text: Ecto Cooler was a product tie-in with the cartoon series "The Real Ghostbusters", based on the 1984 live-action film, "Ghostbusters". It was a rebranded version of an earlier drink from Hi-C called Citrus Cooler, which had been on shelves as early as 1965 and continued to be sold until the rebranding to Ecto Cooler. Hi-C struck a deal in 1987 to promote the series by developing a drink. Expected to last only as long as the series, the drink was successful beyond expectations and continued after the series' 1991 cancellation to be produced for more than a decade. The Ecto Cooler box featured The Real Ghostbusters character Slimer, as did the commercials.


title: Hi-C

text: Slimer left the box sometime around 1997, but Minute Maid discontinued the product in 2001, at which point it was renamed Shoutin' Orange Tangergreen. Slimer was replaced on the packaging by a similar-looking blob of lips. The product was still noted as "ecto cooler" on many store receipts. In 2006, Shoutin' Orange Tangergreen was renamed Crazy Citrus Cooler. In 2007, Crazy Citrus Cooler was discontinued.


title: Hi-C

text: In April 2016, Coca-Cola announced that Ecto Cooler will return for a limited time, starting May 30, as part of a promotion with the rebooted "Ghostbusters". A company spokeswoman said the new drink will have its original sweeteners simplified to just high fructose corn syrup, and other ingredients reduced so it "maintains the correct amount of tartness". Ecto Cooler was re-released on May 30, 2016. The color of the drink was green, the same as the original drink. When chilled, the drink's can changed from a dark green color to bright slime green. Ecto Cooler was met with major backlash from fans due to the limited availability of the drink. The limited edition can version of the drink was only available online at four sites including Amazon.com and H.E.B. Neither could keep it in stock due to the overwhelming demand. For Amazon, stock was limited by region, making it much harder to purchase. The juice box version was even harder to find as it was shipped to only a handful of smaller grocery stores. A representative for the drink on the product's Facebook page informed fans that they needed to demand that their local store carry the product. By the end of the first week after going on sale, the drink was still very hard to find and was appearing on websites such as eBay for over $100 for a 12-pack. On Amazon, however, the drink was one of the most sold items. Physical Walmart stores as well as regional store Meijer carried them in stock.


title: Hi-C

text: In October 2016, the Ecto Cooler Facebook page announced that the drink would be again discontinued at the end of the year with a post saying "My eyes are welling up with green tears as I write this: #EctoCooler will be laid to rest at the end of this year #RIPEcto". Fans were urged to stockpile the drink while they still can; however, response to this news from fans was overwhelmingly negative considering the drink was never mass-produced or easy to find in stores during its May to December run. With the November 2021 release of "", a direct sequel to the original franchise, Ecto Cooler received an even more limited reissue. The 2021 reissue was not available for retail purchase, at all; the only way to acquire it was to win it by responding to official Hi-C and Ghostbusters-related social media posts or by buying it on the secondary market, where prices for a single 12-ounce bottle almost immediately reached the $200-$500 range.


title: Hi-C

text: On February 15, 2022 Ghostbusters news published an article stating that The Juicy Juice Tangerine Orange was a close approximation of the classic Ecto Cooler.


title: Hi-C

text: In April 2017, headlines were made when McDonald's restaurants announced they were discontinuing Hi-C Orange Lavaburst from their beverage menu and replacing it with the carbonated Sprite TropicBerry flavor soda and Fanta as part of a new promotional deal with Coca-Cola. Social media was flooded with the comments of unhappy customers. The unhappy customers were rallied by a Twitter user, @ryanbeam, and his petition on Change.org which was spread through the Twitter account @Orange_HiC. In February 2021, McDonald's announced that Hi-C Orange Lavaburst will officially be returning to their menu by summer 2021.


title: Hi-C

text: The Hi-C Ecto Cooler drink appears in of the Adult Swim series "Rick and Morty", and Episode 5 of the Disney+ series "Loki". In the FX series "The Bear" season 1 episode "Dogs", Carmen makes a homemade version for a children's party- which is accidentally contaminated with Xanax.


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: Fifth Dimension is the third album by the American rock band the Byrds and was released in July 1966 on Columbia Records. Most of the album was recorded following the February 1966 departure of the band's principal songwriter Gene Clark. In an attempt to compensate for Clark's absence, guitarists Jim McGuinn and David Crosby increased their songwriting output. In spite of this, the loss of Clark resulted in an album with four cover versions and an instrumental, which critics have described as "wildly uneven" and "awkward and scattered". However, it was the first Byrds album not to include any songs written by Bob Dylan, whose material had previously been a mainstay of the band's repertoire.


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: The album peaked at number 24 on the "Billboard" Top LPs chart and reached number 27 on the UK Albums Chart. Two preceding singles, "Eight Miles High" and "5D (Fifth Dimension)", were included on the album, with the former just missing the Top 10 of the "Billboard" singles chart. Additionally, a third single taken from the album, "Mr. Spaceman", managed to reach the U.S. Top 40. Upon release, "Fifth Dimension" was widely regarded as the band's most experimental album to date and is today considered by critics to be influential in originating the musical genre of psychedelic rock.


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: On December 22, 1965, shortly after the release of their second album "Turn! Turn! Turn!", the Byrds entered RCA Studios in Los Angeles to record "Eight Miles High" and "Why", two new songs that they had recently composed. Both songs represented a creative leap forward for the band and were instrumental in developing the musical styles of psychedelic rock and raga rock. However, the band ran into trouble with their record company, Columbia Records, who refused to release either song because they had not been recorded at a Columbia-owned studio. As a result, the band were forced to re-record both songs in their entirety at Columbia Studios, Hollywood, and it was these re-recordings that would see release on the "Eight Miles High" single and the "Fifth Dimension" album.


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: The re-recordings of "Eight Miles High" and "Why" were produced by Allen Stanton, Columbia's West Coast Vice President, who had recently been assigned to the band following the Byrds' decision to dispense with their previous producer, Terry Melcher. Melcher had guided the Byrds through the recording of their first two folk rock albums, which had included the international hit singles "Mr. Tambourine Man" and "Turn! Turn! Turn!", both of which had reached number 1 in the U.S. charts. However, during sessions for the "Turn! Turn! Turn!" album, Melcher had found himself in conflict with the band's manager, Jim Dickson, who had aspirations to produce the Byrds himself. Within a month of the band's second album being released, Dickson—with the full support of the Byrds—approached Columbia and insisted that Melcher be replaced. However, any hopes that Dickson had of being allowed to produce the band himself were dashed when the record label chose Allen Stanton as the Byrds new producer. This decision was the result of Columbia studio regulations specifying that only an in-house Columbia employee could produce records by the label's acts. Stanton would work as the Byrds' producer for the duration of the "Fifth Dimension" recording sessions, but would leave Columbia for A&M Records shortly after the release of the album.


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: Following the re-recording of "Eight Miles High" in January 1966, and just prior to its release as a single in March of that year, the band's principal songwriter, Gene Clark, left the band. At the time, the official story regarding Clark's departure was that his fear of flying was preventing him from fulfilling his obligations with the group. However, it has become known in the years since then that there were other stress related factors at work, as well as resentment within the band that his songwriting income had made him the wealthiest member of the Byrds. While the song "Eight Miles High" still featured the full participation of Clark, the remaining ten tracks on the "Fifth Dimension" album were recorded after he had left the band.


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: The best known song on the album is the hit single "Eight Miles High", an early excursion into psychedelic rock. Musically, the song was a fusion of John Coltrane-influenced guitar playing—courtesy of lead guitarist Jim McGuinn—and raga-based musical structure and vocals, inspired by the Indian classical music of Ravi Shankar. Written mostly by Clark in November 1965, while the Byrds were on tour in the U.S., the song was pivotal in transmuting folk rock into the new musical forms of psychedelia and raga rock. Regardless of its innovative qualities, however, many radio stations in the U.S. banned the record, believing the title to be a reference to recreational drug use. Although the song's lyrics actually pertained to the approximate cruising altitude of commercial airliners, and the group's first visit to London during their 1965 English tour, both Clark and rhythm guitarist David Crosby later admitted that the song was at least partly inspired by their own drug use.


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: The album also included the McGuinn-penned songs "5D (Fifth Dimension)" and "Mr. Spaceman", with the latter being an early foray into country rock and a semi-serious meditation on the existence of alien life. In spite of its tongue-in-cheek lyrics, both McGuinn and Crosby were serious about the possibility of communicating with extraterrestrial lifeforms via the medium of radio broadcast. McGuinn in particular felt that if the song was played on radio there was a possibility that extraterrestrials might intercept the broadcasts and make contact. However, in later years McGuinn realized that this would've been impossible since AM radio waves disperse too rapidly in space.


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: "5D (Fifth Dimension)", on the other hand, was an abstract attempt to explain Einstein's theory of relativity, which was misconstrued by many as being a song about an LSD trip. In particular, "Variety" magazine targeted "5D (Fifth Dimension)" shortly after its release as a single, claiming that it was one of a recent spate of pop songs to include veiled drug references in its lyrics. This resulted in some radio stations in America refusing to play the song. The organ arrangement on "5D (Fifth Dimension)" was played by Van Dyke Parks.


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: McGuinn also penned the album's closing track, "2-4-2 Fox Trot (The Lear Jet Song)", which was an attempt to create an aural approximation of a flight in a Lear Jet. The song was inspired by the band's friendship with jet manufacturer John Lear and the title is a reference to the registration number of Lear's own personal jet, which was N242FT. The song makes extensive use of aviation sound effects, including an in-cockpit recitation of a pilot's pre-takeoff checklist and the sound of a jet engine starting up. While the song can be regarded as another of the Byrds' quirky album closers, like "Oh! Susannah" and "We'll Meet Again" from their previous albums, Crosby and McGuinn actually took the song very seriously, arguing that it was an innovative attempt at incorporating mechanical sounds into a pop song format.


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: One of Crosby's songwriting contributions to the album, "What's Happening?!?!", began his penchant for writing abstract songs asking irresoluble questions—a trend that has continued throughout his career with Crosby, Stills & Nash and as a solo artist. During a 1966 interview, Crosby admitted that it was a strange song, noting, "It asks questions of what's going on here and who does it all belong to and why is it all going on. I just ask the questions because I really don't know the answers." Like "Eight Miles High", the song exhibits the strong influence of Indian classical music, with its droning guitar and melody. "What's Happening?!?!" is also notable for being the first song written solely by Crosby to appear on a Byrds' record.


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: Crosby and McGuinn also collaborated on the jazzy "I See You", which represented another example of abstract lyrics coupled with raga-influenced, psychedelic guitar solos. Author Johnny Rogan has commented that "I See You" was indicative of the Byrds' move away from the darkly-romantic songs of Clark towards material that examined psychological states. The album also includes the instrumental "Captain Soul", a song credited to all four band members that grew out of an in-studio jam of Lee Dorsey's "Get Out of My Life, Woman", and which features Clark playing harmonica.


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: The cover versions on "Fifth Dimension" include the Billy Roberts' song "Hey Joe (Where You Gonna Go)", which would enjoy a brief vogue during 1966, with notable versions of the song being recorded by Love, the Leaves, and the Jimi Hendrix Experience. The song was introduced to the Byrds by Crosby, who also sang lead vocals on their recording of it. Crosby, along with his friend Dino Valenti, had been instrumental in popularizing the song within the larger Los Angeles music community. Consequently, the guitarist had been wanting to record the song with the Byrds almost since the band had first formed in 1964, but the other members of the group had been unenthusiastic. During 1966, several other L.A. based bands enjoyed success with "Hey Joe", leaving Crosby angered by his bandmates' lack of faith in the song. Finally the other members of the Byrds acquiesced and allowed Crosby the chance to record the song during sessions for "Fifth Dimension".


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: Another cover version on the album, "I Come and Stand at Every Door", has been called the most macabre song in the Byrds' oeuvre by biographer Johnny Rogan. The song's lyrics, which were adapted from a poem by Nâzım Hikmet, recount the story of a seven-year-old child who was killed in the atomic bombing of Hiroshima. The song describes how the child's spirit now walks the earth in search of peace in the nuclear age.


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: The two traditional folk songs included on the album, "John Riley" and "Wild Mountain Thyme", were both introduced to the band by McGuinn, who had learned them via recordings made by Joan Baez and Pete Seeger respectively. Writing for the AllMusic website, critic Richie Unterberger regarded both "John Riley" and "Wild Mountain Thyme" as "immaculate folk rock", praising the arrangements.


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: "Fifth Dimension" was released on July 18, 1966 in the United States (catalogue item CL 2549 in mono, CS 9349 in stereo) and September 22, 1966 in the UK (catalogue item BPG 62783 in mono, SBPG 62783 in stereo). It peaked at number 24 on the "Billboard" Top LPs chart, during a chart stay of 28 weeks, and reached number 27 in the United Kingdom. The album's front cover featured a photograph taken by the graphic design company Horn/Griner and also featured the first appearance of the Byrds' colorful psychedelic mosaic logo.


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: The preceding "Eight Miles High" single was released on March 14, 1966 in the U.S., and April 29, 1966 in the UK, reaching number 14 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and number 24 on the UK Singles Chart. A second single, "5D (Fifth Dimension)", was released on June 13, 1966 in America and July 29, 1966 in the UK, peaking at number 44 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, but failing to chart in the UK. A third single taken from the album, "Mr. Spaceman", was issued on September 6, 1966 and reached number 36 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, but it too failed to chart in the UK.


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: Upon its release, contemporary critical reaction to "Fifth Dimension" was somewhat tepid, although "Hit Parader" described it as "the third and best album from the Byrds". The "Hit Parader" review also made reference to the recent controversy surrounding the album's two preceding singles by suggesting, "If your friendly neighborhood radio station banned 'Eight Miles High' and '5D' you can listen to them here and discover that there's nothing suggestive about them. The only danger in this album is that it might addict you to groovy music."


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: Journalist Jon Landau, writing in "Crawdaddy!", was less complimentary about the album and cited the departure of Gene Clark as a contributing factor in its artistic failure. Landau concluded by saying that the album "cannot be considered up to the standards set by the Byrds' first two and basically demonstrates that they should be thinking in terms of replacing Gene Clark instead of just trying to carry on without him." In the UK, "Disc" magazine was also critical, bemoaning a lack of energy in the album's contents and commenting: "Here then are those Byrds with the fresh eager exciting music sounding like tired and disillusioned old men looking back on the happy days. This is a sad sound indeed."


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: In more recent years, Richie Unterberger, writing for the AllMusic website, has described "Fifth Dimension" as "wildly uneven", noting that the album's short-comings prevent it "from attaining truly classic status". Despite its inconsistency, "Fifth Dimension" is today regarded as a highly influential, albeit transitional, album that is musically more experimental than the band's previous recorded output. A reviewer for "Entertainment Weekly" wrote in 1996 that "time hasn't enhanced the group's forays into psychedelia", yet the album contains "enough keepers to make you forgive their occasional tendency to fly into walls". That same year, the "NME" described it as "faultless" and a work that "heralds a newly psychedelic Byrds hung up on the archetypal acid-fixation with the unknown".


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: Barney Hoskyns of "Mojo" magazine was less impressed and deemed "Fifth Dimension" to be a "breakthrough" work, but also one that "can't quite decide what sort of album it is". Hoskins elaborated: "Torn between the past and the future, it picks randomly from a smorgasbord of country rock ('Mr. Spaceman'), garage punk ('Hey Joe'), instrumental R&B ('Captain Soul'), folk standards ('Wild Mountain Thyme', the lovely 'John Riley'), and rallying calls to the emerging hippy youth ('What's Happening?!?!'). 'Patchy' isn't close to describing it." In 2004, "Rolling Stone" called it "the Byrds' most underrated album" and especially admired "Eight Miles High" as "the band's highest of highs, blending Coltrane-influenced 12-string squiggles with eerie harmonies for a truly hypnotic sound".


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: Author Christopher Hjort has commented that "Fifth Dimension" can be seen as a testament to the rapidity with which pop music was evolving during the mid-1960s. Like its predecessor, "Turn! Turn! Turn!", the album was made under trying circumstances, with the band scrambling to compensate for the loss of their main songwriter in the wake of Clark's departure. This resulted in an uneven album that included a total of four cover versions and an instrumental. However, "Fifth Dimension" actually contained fewer covers than either of their Clark-era albums, as well as an absence of songs by Bob Dylan, whose material, along with Clark's, had dominated earlier Byrds releases.


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: In his 2003 book "Eight Miles High: Folk-Rock's Flight from Haight-Ashbury to Woodstock", Unterberger regards the album as a pivotal moment in establishing the Byrds' status within the emerging counterculture. The author goes on to say that the album is a continuation of their folk rock sound, but clearly establishes the break away from "folk-rock into folk-rock-psychedelia". He also notes the album's influence on the Byrds' contemporaries.


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: The album was included in Robert Dimery's book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die". It was voted number 290 in Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums 3rd Edition (2000). In 2003, David Keenan included "Fifth Dimension" in his "The Best Albums Ever...Honest" from the Scottish "Sunday Herald".


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: "Fifth Dimension" was remastered at 20-bit resolution and partially remixed as part of the Columbia/Legacy Byrds series. It was reissued in an expanded form on April 30, 1996, with six bonus tracks, including the RCA versions of "Why" and "Eight Miles High". The final track on the CD extends to include a hidden promotional radio interview with McGuinn and Crosby, dating from 1966. The interview is open-ended and formatted with gaps between the group's answers, whereby a disc jockey could insert himself asking scripted questions, giving the illusion that the Byrds were being interviewed in person.


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: On April 26, 2005, Sundazed Records issued a compilation of outtakes from the "Fifth Dimension" recording sessions, titled "Another Dimension".


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: Adapted from "So You Want To Be A Rock 'n' Roll Star: The Byrds Day-By-Day (1965-1973)" and the compact disc liner notes.


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: "Fifth Dimension" was one of four Byrds albums that were remixed as part of their re-release on Columbia/Legacy. However, unlike "Mr. Tambourine Man" and "Turn! Turn! Turn!", which were remixed extensively, only a third of "Fifth Dimension" was remixed, although it is unknown exactly which tracks received this treatment. The reason for these remixes was explained by Bob Irwin (who produced these re-issues for compact disc) during an interview:


title: Fifth Dimension (album)

text: Many fans enjoy the partially remixed album because it is very close to the original mix in most cases and offers noticeably better sound quality.


title: Non-rebreather mask

text: A non-rebreather mask (NRB, non-rebreather, non-rebreather facemask, etc.) is a device used in medicine to assist in the delivery of oxygen therapy. A NRB requires that the patient can breathe unassisted, but unlike a low-flow nasal cannula, the NRB allows for the delivery of higher concentrations of oxygen. An ideal non-rebreather mask does not permit air from the surrounding environment to be inhaled, hence an event of a source gas failure (i.e. the oxygen cylinder being drained completely) is life-threatening.


title: Non-rebreather mask

text: The non-rebreather mask covers both the nose and mouth of the patient and attaches with the use of an elastic cord around the patient's head. The NRB has an attached reservoir bag, typically one liter, that connects to an external oxygen tank or bulk oxygen supply system. Before an NRB is placed on the patient, the reservoir bag is inflated to greater than two-thirds full of oxygen, at a rate of 15 liters per minute (lpm). Approximately ¹⁄₃ of the air from the reservoir is depleted as the patient inhales, and it is then replaced by the flow from the O supply. If the bag becomes completely deflated, the patient will no longer have a source of air to breathe.


title: Non-rebreather mask

text: Exhaled air is directed through a one-way valve in the mask, which prevents the inhalation of room air and the re-inhalation of exhaled air. The valve, along with a sufficient seal around the patient's nose and mouth, allows for the administration of high concentrations of oxygen, approximately 60% - 90% O. Many textbooks report higher oxygen concentrations, however formal studies reporting these levels are not referenced to research. The patient must partially deflate the reservoir bag during inspiration or the high oxygen concentration will not be achieved, and the mask will provide only the flow rate setting on the flowmeter.


title: Non-rebreather mask

text: Ideally, a non-rebreather mask would not permit air from the surrounding environment to be inhaled. However, due to safety concerns regarding anti-suffocation protection in the event of a source gas failure (i.e. the oxygen cylinder being drained completely), one of the two one-way valves is normally removed, allowing inhalation of outside air to a significant degree. However, as almost all non-rebreathing masks are disposable, and manufactured in one adult size, most (from decades of clinical observation) do not provide a good seal with an individual patient's face, thus permitting the inflow of large amounts of ambient air (most air follows the path of least resistance), and diluting the oxygen provided. Hence, very few patients receive anything close to 100% oxygen. Very high flows (> = 30 LPM) from the oxygen flowmeter are required to partially overcome room air dilution. Further, the larger the patient's inspiratory flow rate, the greater the dilution from air. Very little effort is required by most patients, to inspire at flow rates in excess of 50 LPM (easily seen in the pulmonary function lab with routine spirometric testing).


title: Non-rebreather mask

text: Partial rebreather masks are designed to capture the first 150ml of the exhaled breath into the reservoir bag for inhalation during the subsequent breath. This portion of the breath was initially delivered at the end of inhalation and was therefore delivered to the "deadspace" anatomy where gas exchange did not occur. Therefore, there would be no depletion of oxygen nor gain of carbon dioxide during the rebreathing component.


title: Non-rebreather mask

text: The non-rebreather mask is utilized for patients with physical trauma, chronic airway limitation, cluster headache, smoke inhalation, and carbon monoxide poisoning, or any other patients who require high-concentration oxygen, but do not require breathing assistance. Patients uncomfortable with having a mask on their face, such as those with claustrophobia, or patients with injuries to the mouth are more likely to benefit from a nasal cannula, or passive ("blow-by") oxygen. Patients who are unable to breathe on their own would require invasive or noninvasive mechanical ventilation.


title: History of the socialist movement in the United States

text: The history of the socialist movement in the United States spans a variety of tendencies, including anarchists, communists, democratic socialists, Marxists, Marxist–Leninists, Trotskyists and utopian socialists. It began with utopian communities in the early 19th century such as the Shakers, the activist visionary Josiah Warren and intentional communities inspired by Charles Fourier. Labor activists, usually British, German, or Jewish immigrants, founded the Socialist Labor Party of America in 1877. The Socialist Party of America was established in 1901. By that time, anarchism also rose to prominence around the country. Socialists of different tendencies were involved in early American labor organizations and struggles. These reached a high point in the Haymarket massacre in Chicago, which founded the International Workers' Day as the main labour holiday around the world, Labor Day and making the eight-hour day a worldwide objective by workers organizations and socialist parties worldwide.


text: Under Socialist Party of America presidential candidate Eugene V. Debs, socialist opposition to World War I was widespread, leading to the governmental repression collectively known as the First Red Scare. The Socialist Party declined in the 1920s, but the party nonetheless often ran Norman Thomas for president. In the 1930s, the Communist Party USA took importance in labor and racial struggles while it suffered a split which converged in the Trotskyist Socialist Workers Party. In the 1950s, socialism was affected by McCarthyism and in the 1960s it was revived by the general radicalization brought by the New Left and other social struggles and revolts. In the 1960s, Michael Harrington and other socialists were called to assist the Kennedy administration and then the Johnson administration's War on Poverty and Great Society while socialists also played important roles in the civil rights movement.


text: Unlike in Western Europe, Australia, and New Zealand, a major socialist party has never materialized in the United States and the socialist movement in the United States was relatively weak in comparison. In the United States, socialism can be stigmatized because it is commonly associated with authoritarian socialism, the Soviet Union and other authoritarian Marxist-Leninist regimes. Writing for "The Economist", Samuel Jackson argued that "socialism" has been used as a pejorative term, without any clear definition, by conservatives and right-libertarians to taint liberal and progressive policies, proposals and public figures. The term "socialization" has been mistakenly used to refer to any state or government-operated industry or service (the proper term for such being either "municipalization" or "nationalization"). The term has also been used to mean any tax-funded programs, whether privately run or government run. The term "socialism" has been used to argue against economic interventionism, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, Medicare, the New Deal, Social Security and universal single-payer health care, among others.


text: Milwaukee has had several socialist mayors such as Emil Seidel, Daniel Hoan and Frank Zeidler whilst Socialist Party presidential candidate Eugene V. Debs won nearly one million votes in the 1920 presidential election. Self-declared democratic socialist Bernie Sanders won 13 million votes in the 2016 Democratic Party presidential primary, gaining considerable popular support, particularly among the younger generation and the working class. One 2021 poll reported 41% of American adults had a positive view of socialism and 57% had a positive view of capitalism.


text: Utopian socialism was the first American socialist movement. Utopians attempted to develop model socialist societies to demonstrate the virtues of their brand of beliefs. Most utopian socialist ideas originated in Europe, but the United States was most often the site for the experiments themselves. Many utopian experiments occurred in the 19th century as part of this movement, including Brook Farm, the New Harmony, the Shakers, the Amana Colonies, the Oneida Community, The Icarians, Bishop Hill Commune, Aurora, Oregon and Bethel, Missouri.


text: Robert Owen, a wealthy Welsh industrialist, turned to social reform and socialism and in 1825 founded a communitarian colony called New Harmony in southwestern Indiana. The group fell apart in 1829, mostly due to conflict between utopian ideologues and non-ideological pioneers. In 1841, transcendentalist utopians founded Brook Farm, a community based on Frenchman Charles Fourier's brand of socialism. Nathaniel Hawthorne was a member of this short-lived community, and Ralph Waldo Emerson had declined invitations to join. The group had trouble reaching financial stability and many members left as their leader George Ripley turned more and more to Fourier's doctrine. All hope for its survival was lost when the expensive, Fourier-inspired main building burnt down while under construction. The community dissolved in 1847.


text: Fourierists also attempted to establish a community in Monmouth County, New Jersey. The North American Phalanx community built a Phalanstère—Fourier's concept of a communal-living structure—out of two farmhouses and an addition that linked the two. The community lasted from 1844 to 1856, when a fire destroyed the community's flour and saw-mills and several workshops. The community had already begun to decline after an ideological schism in 1853. French socialist Étienne Cabet, frustrated in Europe, sought to use his Icarian movement to replace capitalist production with workers cooperatives. He became the most popular socialist advocate of his day, with a special appeal to English artisans were being undercut by factories. In the 1840s, Cabet led groups of emigrants to found utopian communities in Texas and Illinois. However, his work was undercut by his many feuds with his own followers.


text: Utopian socialism reached the national level fictionally in Edward Bellamy's 1888 novel "Looking Backward", a utopian depiction of a socialist United States in the year 2000. The book sold millions of copies and became one of the best-selling American books of the nineteenth century. By one estimation, only "Uncle Tom's Cabin" surpassed it in sales. The book sparked a following of Bellamy Clubs and influenced socialist and labor leaders, including Eugene V. Debs. Likewise, Upton Sinclair's masterpiece "The Jungle" was first published in the socialist newspaper "Appeal to Reason", criticizing capitalism as being oppressive and exploitative to meatpacking workers in the industrial food system. The book is still widely referred to today as one of the most influential works of literature in modern history.


text: Josiah Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist and the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, "The Peaceful Revolutionist", was the first anarchist periodical published. Warren, a follower of Robert Owen, joined Owen's community at New Harmony, Indiana. He coined the phrase "Cost the limit of price," with "cost" here referring not to monetary price paid but the labor one exerted to produce an item. Therefore, "[h]e proposed a system to pay people with certificates indicating how many hours of work they did. They could exchange the notes at local time stores for goods that took the same amount of time to produce." He put his theories to the test by establishing an experimental "labor for labor store" called the Cincinnati Time Store where trade was facilitated by notes backed by a promise to perform labor. The store proved successful and operated for three years, after which it was closed so that Warren could pursue establishing colonies based on mutualism. These included "Utopia" and "Modern Times." Warren said that Stephen Pearl Andrews' "The Science of Society", published in 1852, was the most lucid and complete exposition of Warren's own theories. For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster: "It is apparent ... that Proudhonian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah Warren and Stephen Pearl Andrews ... William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form."


text: German Marxist immigrants who arrived in the United States after the 1848 revolutions in Europe brought socialist ideas with them. Joseph Weydemeyer, a German colleague of Karl Marx who sought refuge in New York in 1851 following the 1848 revolutions, established the first Marxist journal in the United States, "Die Revolution", but It folded after two issues. In 1852, he established the "Proletarierbund", which would become the American Workers' League, the first Marxist organization in the United States, but it too proved short-lived, having failed to attract a native English-speaking membership. In 1866, William H. Sylvis formed the National Labor Union (NLU). Frederich Albert Sorge, a German who had found refuge in New York following the 1848 revolutions, took Local No. 5 of the NLU into the First International as Section One in the United States. By 1872, there were 22 sections, which held a convention in New York. The General Council of the International moved to New York with Sorge as General Secretary, but following internal conflict it dissolved in 1876.


text: A larger wave of German immigrants followed in the 1870s and 1880s, including social democratic followers of Ferdinand Lasalle. Lasalle regarded state aid through political action as the road to revolution and opposed trade unionism, which he saw as futile, believing that according to the iron law of wages employers would only pay subsistence wages. The Lasalleans formed the Social Democratic Party of North America in 1874 and both Marxists and Lasalleans formed the Workingmen's Party of the United States in 1876. When the Lasalleans gained control in 1877, they changed the name to the Socialist Labor Party of America (SLP). However, many socialists abandoned political action altogether and moved to trade unionism. Two former socialists, Adolph Strasser and Samuel Gompers, formed the American Federation of Labor (AFL) in 1886.


text: The Socialist Labor Party (SLP) was officially founded in 1876 at a convention in Newark, New Jersey. The party was made up overwhelmingly of German immigrants, who had brought Marxist ideals with them to North America. So strong was the heritage that the official party language was German for the first three years. In its nascent years, the party encompassed a broad range of various socialist philosophies, with differing concepts of how to achieve their goals. Nevertheless, there was a militia—the Lehr und Wehr Verein—affiliated to the party. When the SLP reorganised as a Marxist party in 1890, its philosophy solidified and its influence quickly grew and by around the start of the 20th century the SLP was the foremost American socialist party.


text: Bringing to light the resemblance of the American party's politics to those of Lassalle, Daniel De Leon emerged as an early leader of the Socialist Labor Party. He also adamantly supported unions, but criticized the collective bargaining movement within the United States at the time, favoring a slightly different approach. The resulting disagreement between De Leon's supporters and detractors within the party led to an early schism. De Leon's opponents, led by Morris Hillquit, left the Socialist Labor Party in 1901 as they fused with Eugene V. Debs's Social Democratic Party and formed the Socialist Party of America.


text: As a leader within the socialist movement, Debs' movement quickly gained national recognition as a charismatic orator. He was often inflammatory and controversial, but also strikingly modest and inspiring. He once said: "I am not a Labor Leader; I do not want you to follow me or anyone else. [...] You must use your heads as well as your hands, and get yourself out of your present condition." Debs lent a great and powerful air to the revolution with his speaking: "There was almost a religious fervor to the movement, as in the eloquence of Debs."


text: The Socialist movement became coherent and energized under Debs. It included "scores of former Populists, militant miners, and blacklisted railroad workers, who were ... inspired by occasional visits from national figures like Eugene V. Debs."


text: The first socialist to hold public office in the United States was Fred C. Haack, the owner of a shoe store in Sheboygan, Wisconsin. Haack was elected to the city council in 1897 as a member of the Populist Party, but soon became a socialist following the organization of Social Democrats in Sheboygan. He was re-elected alderman in 1898 on the Socialist ticket, along with August L. Mohr, a local baseball manager. Haack served on the city council for sixteen years, advocating for the building of schools and public ownership of utilities. He was recognized as the first socialist officeholder in the United States at the 1932 national Socialist Party convention held in Milwaukee.


text: One of the first general strikes in the United States, the 1877 St. Louis general strike grew out of the Great Railroad Strike of 1877. The general strike was largely organized by the Knights of Labor and the Marxist-leaning Workingmen's Party, the main radical political party of the era. When the railroad strike reached East St. Louis, Illinois in July 1877, the St. Louis Workingman's Party led a group of approximately 500 people across the river in an act of solidarity with the nearly 1,000 workers on strike.


text: The Socialist Party formed strong alliances with a number of labor organizations because of their similar goals. In an attempt to rebel against the abuses of corporations, workers had found a solution—or so they thought—in a technique of collective bargaining. By banding together into "unions" and by refusing to work, or "striking," workers would halt production at a plant or in a mine, forcing management to meet their demands. From Daniel De Leon's early proposal to organize unions with a socialist purpose, the two movements became closely tied. They shared as one major ideal the spirit of collectivism—both in the socialist platform and in the idea of collective bargaining.


text: The most prominent American unions of the time included the American Federation of Labor, the Knights of Labor and the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW). In 1869, Uriah S. Stephens founded the Noble and Holy Order of the Knights of Labor, employing secrecy and fostering a semireligious aura to "create a sense of solidarity." The Knights comprised in essence "one big union of all workers." In 1886, a convention of delegates from twenty separate unions formed the American Federation of Labor, with Samuel Gompers as its head. It peaked at 4 million members. In 1905, the IWW (or "Wobblies") formed along the same lines as the Knights to become one big union. The IWW found early supporters in De Leon and in Debs.


text: The socialist movement was able to gain strength from its ties to labor. "The [economic] panic of 1907, as well as the growing strength of the Socialists, Wobblies, and trade unions, sped up the process of reform." However, corporations sought to protect their profits and took steps against unions and strikers. They hired strikebreakers and pressured government to call in the state militias when workers refused to do their jobs. A number of strikes collapsed into violent confrontations.


text: In May 1886, the Knights of Labor were demonstrating in the Haymarket Square in Chicago, demanding an eight-hour day in all trades. When police arrived, an unknown person threw a bomb into the crowd, killing one person and injuring several others. "In a trial marked by prejudice and hysteria," a court sentenced seven anarchists, six of them German-speaking, to death—with no evidence linking them to the bomb.


text: Strikes also took place that same month (May 1886) in other cities, including in Milwaukee, where seven people died when Wisconsin Governor Jeremiah M. Rusk ordered state militia troops to fire upon thousands of striking workers who had marched to the Milwaukee Iron Works Rolling Mill in Bay View on Milwaukee's south side.


text: In early 1894, a dispute broke out between George Pullman and his employees. Debs, then leader of the American Railway Union, organized a strike. United States Attorney General Olney and President Grover Cleveland took the matter to court and were granted several injunctions preventing railroad workers from "interfering with interstate commerce and the mails." The judiciary of the time denied the legitimacy of strikers. Said one judge, "[neither] the weapon of the insurrectionist, nor the inflamed tongue of him who incites fire and sword is the instrument to bring about reforms." This was the first sign of a clash between the government and socialist ideals.


text: In 1914, one of the most bitter labor conflicts in American history took place at a mining colony in Colorado called Ludlow. After workers went on strike in September 1913 with grievances ranging from requests for an eight-hour day to allegations of subjugation, Colorado governor Elias Ammons called in the National Guard in October 1913. That winter, Guardsmen made 172 arrests.


text: The strikers began to fight back, killing four mine guards and firing into a separate camp where strikebreakers lived. When the body of a strikebreaker was found nearby, the National Guard's General Chase ordered the tent colony destroyed in retaliation.