title: Immigration to Brazil

text: In 1850, Brazil declared the end of the slave trade. This had different impacts on the different regions of Brazil. At the time, the region of São Paulo was undergoing a process of economic boom, linked to the expansion of the cultivation of coffee, and consequently needed increased amounts of labour. Other regions, notedly the Northeast, on the contrary, faced economic retraction, and were, consequently, able to dispense workforce. This entailed the replacement of the international slave trade by an internal or interprovincial slave trade, in which Northeastern slaves were sold in large numbers to the Southeast.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: This temporarily solved the workforce problem in São Paulo and other coffee plantation areas. However, by 1870 the paulista elite came to realise that the Northeastern slaveholders were in fact being able to obtain financial compensation for their slaves, or, in practice, an "abolition with compensation". Fears of a situation comparable to the United States, with the division of the country into free provinces and slave provinces arose. Consequently, paulista politicians began to seek measures against the interprovincial traffic, at a time when, anyway, the price of Northeastern slaves was getting higher and higher, due to their increasing scarcity.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: By the beginning of the 1870s, the alternative of the interprovincial trade was exhausted, while the demand for workforce in the coffee plantations continued to expand. Thus the paulista oligarchy sought to attract new workers from abroad, by passing provincial legislation and pressing the Imperial government to organise immigration.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: From 1904 to 1930, 2,142,781 immigrants came to Brazil—making an annual average of 79,000 people. In consequence of the Prinetti Decree of 1902, that forbade subsidised emigration to Brazil, Italian immigration had, at this stage, a drastic reduction: their average annual entries from 1887 to 1903 was 58,000. In this period they were only 19,000 annually. The Portuguese constituted 38% of entries, followed by Spaniards with 22%. From 1914 to 1918, due to World War I, the entry of immigrants of all nationalities decreased. After the War, the immigration of people of "other nationalities" redressed faster than that of Portuguese, Spaniards, and Italians. Part of this category was composed of immigrants from Poland, Russia, Lithuania, Moldova and Romania, who immigrated probably by political issues, and part by Syrian and Lebanese peoples. Both subgroups included a number of Jewish immigrants, who arrived in the 1920s.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: From 1931 to 1963, 1,106,404 immigrants entered Brazil. The participation of the Japanese increased. From 1932 to 1935 immigrants from Japan constituted 30% of total admissions. Prior to this yearly Japanese immigrants were numerically limited to no more than 5% of the current Japanese population.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: Immigrants continued working in coffee plantations. By 1934, over 40% of the coffee production in São Paulo was produced by the 14.5 percent foreign population of the state, showing their entrepreneurial spirit and ambition. In fact, 19th century immigrants usually exhibited a formal and informal education and training that was better than that of native Brazilians. The country benefitted from their arrival not only because of their workforce, but also because of the skills and knowledge they shared. Spillover effects led to increased levels of human capital, with the effect being most prominent in regions with the highest numbers of immigrants.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: With the radicalization of the political situation in Europe, the end of the demographic crisis, the decadence of coffee culture, the Revolution of 1930 and the consequent rise of a nationalist government, immigration to Brazil was significantly reduced. The focus shifted to culturally assimilating immigrants and "whitening" the population. From 1931 to 1963, 1,106,404 immigrants entered Brazil. The annual arrival of immigrants fell to 33,500. The Portuguese remained the most significant group, with 39.35%, The participation of the Japanese continued to increase, becoming the second most important group, with 12.79%. Particularly from 1932 to 1935 immigrants from Japan constituted 30% of total admissions.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: Immigration also became a more urban phenomenon; most immigrants came for the cities, and even the descendants of the immigrants of the previous periods were moving intensely from the countryside. In the 1950s, Brazil started a program of immigration to provide workers for Brazilian industries. In São Paulo, for example, between 1957 and 1961, more than 30% of the Spanish, over 50% of the Italian and 70% of the Greek immigrants were brought to work in factories.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: During the 1970s Brazil received about 32,000 Lebanese immigrants escaping the civil war, as well as smaller numbers of Palestinians and Syrians. Between 1974 and 1980 Brazil also received almost 500 Portuguese settler families fleeing Angola or Mozambique as well as some 1,000 exiles from Portugal proper, many of them serving officers of the Portuguese Military or Police, fleeing post-Carnation Revolution Portugal because of their association with the former regime.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: During the 1990s Brazil received small numbers of immigrants from the former republics of Yugoslavia, from Afghanistan and West Coast of Africa (mostly Angolans). Recent immigration is mainly constituted by Chinese and Koreans and, in a smaller degree, by Argentines and other Latin American immigrants.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: Because of political issues, people from Bolivia immigrate to Brazil. The majority of the Bolivians come from cities such as La Paz, Sucre, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, and Cochabamba. Usually they enter Brazil through Cuiabá, in Mato Grosso, or San Mathias, in Bolivia, which borders Caceres, Mato Grosso and Corumbá, in Mato Grosso do Sul.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: Between 1,200 and 1,500 Bolivian immigrants come to Brazil every month looking for a job. Most of them work in the illegal textile industry in the Greater São Paulo. There are an estimated 200,000 Bolivians living in the Greater São Paulo, the majority of which are undocumented immigrants.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: To increase profits, some U.S. farmers change what they grow. But some farmers in the American Midwest are changing where they grow. The Midwest is the traditional center of American agriculture. In Brazil, undeveloped land can cost two hundred forty dollars a hectare, or less. That is a little more than one-tenth the cost of land in the Midwest. Some of the farmers see low-cost land in Brazil as a way to expand their operations. And it may serve other purposes. It may help keep farming in the family, by letting other family members have their own farm. Crops like soybeans and cotton grow well in Brazil's climate. The South American country has grown into a major agricultural exporter. It is the largest exporter of soybeans in the world. In the last five years, millions of hectares have been newly planted in Brazil. Growth has been especially high in Central States with grassland known as "cerrado". It usually gets rain in summer and is dry in winter.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: In 2009, the country was home to 3,982,000 foreign born people, that represents 2.36% of the Brazilian population. The major work visas concessions were granted for citizens of the United States and the United Kingdom.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: In July 2019, President Jair Bolsonaro regulated the right of residence of Cuban doctors who participated in the Mais Médicos do Brasil program, or More Doctors. To be allowed to stay in Brazil for two years, the candidate must submit an application to the Federal Police of Brazil. Thereafter, immigrants can apply to live in the country indefinitely with permanent residence, submitting another application within ninety days prior to the end of the two-year residence period. Physicians requesting the right of residence must present several documents, such as identity or passport, as well as police records from the Brazilian states and countries where they resided, and finally, proof of participation in the Mais Médicos initiative, immigration documents and photos.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: In 2020, Brazil approved 24,880 processes for requesting recognition of refugee status. The largest refugee ancestries were Venezuelan (24,030), Syrian (479), Cuban (114), Iraqi (35), and Afghan (28).


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: Due to the Venezuelan refugee crisis, in 2020, Venezuelans are the largest immigrant group living in Brazil. Due to the Argentine monetary crisis and 2020–2021 Argentinian protests, in 2020, Argentines are the fifth largest immigrant group in Brazil and within a few months it should surpass the number of U.S. citizens living in Brazil, making Argentines the fourth largest immigrant group living in Brazil. Factors such as territorial proximity, immigration agreements, linguistic similarity between Portuguese and Spanish, and economic growth in Brazil, facilitate this movement to the neighboring Portuguese-speaking country.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: In 2022, Brazilian president Jair Bolsonaro said the country will allow Ukrainians to move to Brazil through a humanitarian visa, the fastest way to guarantee Ukrainians permanent residency in Brazil. Brazilian president Jair Bolsonaro added the country will do whatever is possible to receive Ukrainians in Brazil, in the best possible way. Brazil was the first country in the world to take the initiative.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: Permanent visas may be granted to individuals intending to establish residence in Brazil. Permanent Visas apply to:


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: Nine countries in South America can enter Brazilian territory using only their identity document, that is, a passport is not necessary for entry, although some may use the passport if they want to. It is a measure of reciprocity for citizens of both countries, in order to facilitate those who work across the border, facilitate those who need to study across the border and facilitate commercial tourism.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: In 2009, nationals from signatory States of the Mercosur Residence Agreement, which include eight countries, such as Argentina, Uruguay, Chile, etc., may establish temporary residence in Brazil:


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: In 2019, in his first year of government, the president Jair Bolsonaro, announced the end of the tourist visa requirement to the United States, Canada, Australia and Japan.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: A foreigner with a permanent resident visa has nearly all of the same rights as a Brazilian citizen, such as access to health and education services in Brazil, in addition to being able to open a business, bank account, obtain a driver's license, among others. The permanent resident cannot vote or be elected to political office, and can only exercise these two rights after Brazilian naturalization.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: Article 5. Everyone is equal before the law, with no distinction whatsoever, guaranteeing to Brazilians and foreigners residing in the country the inviolability of the rights to life, liberty, equality, security and property.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: No Brazilian shall be extradited, except for a naturalized Brazilian for a common crime committed prior to naturalization, or proven involvement in unlawful traffic in narcotics and similar drugs, as provided by law. No foreigner shall be extradited for a political or ideological offense.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: a) those born in the Federative Republic of Brazil, even though of foreign parents, provided that they are not in the service of their country;


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: b) those born abroad of a Brazilian father or mother, so long as either is in the service of the Federative Republic of Brazil;


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: c) those born abroad of a Brazilian father or mother, so long as they are registered at a proper Brazilian governmental office, or come to reside


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: in the Federative Republic of Brazil and opt for Brazilian nationality at any time after reaching the age of majority;


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: a) those who, as set forth by law, acquire Brazilian nationality, it being the only requirement for persons originating from Portuguese-speaking countries the residence for 1 (one) uninterrupted year and good moral repute;


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: b) foreigners of any nationality, resident in the Federative Republic of Brazil for over 15 (fifteen) uninterrupted years and without criminal conviction, provided that they apply for the Brazilian nationality.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: Paragraph 1. The rights inherent to Brazilians shall be attributed to Portuguese citizens with permanent residence in Brazil, if there is reciprocity in favour of Brazilians, except in the cases stated in this Constitution.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: Paragraph 2. The law may not establish any distinction between born and naturalized Brazilians, except in the cases stated in this Constitution.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: I - Whose naturalization has been cancelled by judicial decision because of activity harmful to the national interest;


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: III - continuous residence in the territory for a minimum period of 4 (four) years immediately preceding the application for naturalization;


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: VII - no complaint, indictment in Brazil or abroad for a felony that is threatened in minimum sentence of imprisonment, abstractly considered, more than 1 (one) year;


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: Article 113.The period of residence prescribed in Article 112, item III, may be reduced if the naturalizing fill any of the following conditions:


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: III - have provided or can provide relevant services to Brazil, in the opinion of the Minister of Justice of Brazil;


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: V - to be owner in Brazil, real estate, whose value is equal to at least a thousand times the greatest value of reference, or be provided with industrial funds of equal value, or hold quota shares or amount of paid-in least identical in commercial or civil society, aimed principally and permanently, the operation of industrial or agricultural activities.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: Sole Paragraph. The residence will be at least 1 (one) year, in cases of items I, II, and III; 2 (two) years in Item IV; and 3 (three) years in Item V.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: Since the 1980s, the Brazilian government has offered amnesty to foreigners in irregular situations in four different campaigns, benefiting tens of thousands of foreigners living in Brazil. The latest campaign began in July 2009 by presidential decree, and though it officially ended at the close of 2009, some cases are still pending. In 2009, 41,816 foreigners received amnesty through the 2009 amnesty program. Though the large majority of immigrants live in São Paulo, other cases were based largely in Rio de Janeiro and Paraná. The breakdown by country/continent is the following: 16,881 Bolivians, 5,492 Chinese, 4,642 Peruvians, 4,135 Paraguayans, 2,700 Africans (including North Africa), 2,390 Europeans, 1,129 Koreans, 469 Argentines, 274 U.S. citizens, 186 Cubans.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: While foreigners who received amnesty obtained the right to work and access health and education services, they are unable to vote or run for public office. They may opt to apply for citizenship after a probation period of residency to obtain these rights. Officially, amnesty intends to cut down on illegal activity and human rights violations, particularly with Bolivians in São Paulo. But it seems to fit in with the Lula administration's international policies, including ramped up diplomacy and establishing ties with other nations, but also establishing itself as a competitor with developed countries. By showing that it is a center for immigrants in the Western Hemisphere, particularly in South America, and more importantly, that it is supposedly a benevolent and welcoming country for immigrants, it helps Brazil's international public image.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: Those who would benefit from the amnesty, following publication of the law in the Brazilian Official Gazette in July 2009, have up to 180 days after the time of their temporary residence permit (valid for 2 years) to apply. They must also aver their clean criminal record or submit a recent, official document of good conduct from the originating country. During these two years, they must not exceed 90 consecutive days spent abroad. Ninety days prior to the expiration of the temporary residence permit, they must aver their self-sufficiency in Brazil. If they can prove they are eligible for a permanent residence permit. Only ten years after receiving a permanent residence permit may be eligible for naturalization to be Brazilian.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: Immigration has been a very important demographic factor in the formation, structure and history of the population in Brazil, influencing culture, economy, education, racial issues, etc. Brazil has received the third largest number of immigrants in the Western Hemisphere, after the United States.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: In the 100 years from 1872 to 1972 at least 5.3 million immigrants came to Brazil, of whom 31% were Portuguese, 30% Italian, 13% Spanish, 5% Japanese, 4% German and 16% of other unspecified nationalities.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: In 1897, São Paulo had twice as many Italians as Brazilians in the city. In 1893, 55% of the city's population was composed by immigrants and in 1901 more than 80% of the children were born to a foreign-born parent. According to the 1920 census, 35% of São Paulo's inhabitants were foreign born, compared to 36% in New York City. São Paulo's multicultural population could be compared to any major American, Canadian or Australian city. About 75% of the immigrants were Latin Europeans, particularly from three major sources: Italy, Portugal and Spain. The rest came from different parts of Europe, the Middle East and Japan. Some areas of the city remained almost exclusively settled by Italians until the arrival of waves of migrants from other parts of Brazil, particularly from the Northeast, starting in the late 1920s.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: According to historian Samuel H. Lowrie, in the early 20th century the society of São Paulo was divided in three classes:


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: According to Lowrie, the fact that Brazil already had a long history of racial mixture and that most of the immigrants in São Paulo came from Latin European countries, reduced the cases of racism and mutual intolerance. However, the Brazilian high class was more intolerant, with most of them marrying other members of the elite. In some cases, to marry an immigrant was accepted if the person had achieved fortune or had some prestige. Lowrie reports that as much as 40% of the São Paulo high-class society mixed with an immigrant within the next three generations.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: While in São Paulo the Italians predominated, in Rio de Janeiro the Portuguese remained as the main group. In 1929, as many as 272,338 Portuguese immigrants were recorded in the Federal District of Brazil (nowadays the city of Rio de Janeiro), more Portuguese born people than any other city in the world, except for Lisbon (which had 591,939 inhabitants in 1930).


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: In the South of Brazil, there were three main groups of immigrants: Germans, Italians and Slavs (mainly Poles and Ukrainians). The Germans had been settling Rio Grande do Sul since 1824. The first settlers came from Holstein, Hamburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern and Hannover. Later, people from Hunsrück and Rhineland-Palatinate predominated. There were also people from Pomerania, Westphalia and Württemberg. These immigrants were attracted to work as small farmers in the region of São Leopoldo. As a result of the great internal migration of people in Rio Grande do Sul, Germans and second generation descendants started to move to other areas of the province.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: A similar process has occurred in Santa Catarina, with initially two main destinations for German immigrants (Blumenau, created in 1850, and Joinville in 1851) and then the immigrants or their descendants moved to other areas. Arriving in larger numbers than Germans, in the 1870s, groups of Italians started settling northeast Rio Grande do Sul. Similar to Germans, they were also attracted to develop small familiar farming production. In Paraná, on the other hand, the main group of immigrants was composed of Eastern Europeans, particularly Poles.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: In southern Brazil, the immigrants settled in "colônias" (colonies), which were rural areas, composed of many small farms, settled by the families. Some of these colonies had a great development and gave birth to major Brazilian cities, such as the former German community of Joinville (600,000 inhabitants—the largest city of the state of Santa Catarina) or the former Italian community of Caxias do Sul (500,000 inhabitants—the second largest city of Rio Grande do Sul). Other colonies did not have a great development and remained small and agrarian. In these places, it is possible to feel more intensely the impact of the immigration, as many of these towns are still predominantly settled by a single ethnic group.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: Brazilian demographers have long discussed the demographical impact of the wave of emigration in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. According to Judicael Clevelário, most studies about the impact of immigration have followed Giorgio Mortara's conclusions in the 1940s and 1950s. Mortara concluded that only about 15% of the demographic growth of Brazil, from 1840 and 1940 was due to immigration, and that the population of immigrant origin was of 16% of the total population of Brazil.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: However, according to Clevelário, Mortara failed to properly take into account the full endogenous growth of the population of immigrant origin, due to the predominantly rural settlement of the immigrants (rural regions tend to have higher natal rates than cities). Clevelário, then, besides extending the calculations up to 1980, remade them, reaching somewhat different conclusions.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: One of the problems of calculating the impact of immigration in Brazilian demography is that the return rates of immigrants are unknown. Clevelário, thence, supposed four different hypothesis concerning the return rates. The first, that he deems unrealistic high, is that 50% of the immigrants to Brazil returned to their countries of origin. The second is based on the work of Arthur Neiva, who supposes the return rate for Brazil was higher than that of the United States (30%) but lower than that of Argentina (47%). The third hypothesis is taken from Mortara, who postulates a rate of 20% for the 19th century, 35% for the first two decades of the 20th century, and 25% for 1920 on. Although Mortara himself considered this hypothesis underestimated, Clevelário thinks it is closest to reality. The last hypothesis, also admittedly unrealistic is that of a 0% rate of return, which is known to be false.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: Clevelário's conclusions are as following: considering hypothesis 1 (unrealistically high), the Population of Immigrant Origin in 1980 would be of 14,730,710 people, or 12.38% of the total population. Considering hypothesis 2 (based on Neiva), it would be of 17,609,052 people, or 14.60% of the total population. Considering hypothesis 3 (based on Mortara, and considered most realistic), it would be of 22,088,829 people, or 18.56% of the total population. Considering hypothesis 4 (no return at all), the Population of Immigrant origin would be of 29,348,423 people, or 24.66% of the total population. Clevelário believes the most probable number to be close to 18%, higher than Mortara's previous estimate of 1947.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: According to the Census of 1872, there were 9,930,478 people in Brazil, of which 3,787,289 (38.14%) Whites, 3,380,172 (34.04%) Pardos, 1.954.452 (19.68%) Blacks, and 386,955 (3.90%) Caboclos. The White population grew faster than the non-White population due to the subsidized immigration of Europeans in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. By 1890, the non-White population was reduced to 47% and the Amerindian to 9%. During this period, most immigrants came from Italy (58.49%) followed by Portugal with 20%.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: The disproportionally fast growth of the White population, due to mass immigration, lasted up to 1940, when its proportion in the Brazilian population peaked at 63.5%. During the 1900–1940 period, Italian immigration was greatly reduced, due to the Prinetti decree, forbidding subsidized emigration to Brazil in 1902, then to the Italian war effort of 1915–1918. Thence, for the period of 1904–1940, Portuguese immigration became the main drive of immigration to Brazil, with 36.52% of the arrivals, compared to 14.99% of Italians.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: The Brazilian Censuses do not ask questions about "ethnic origin", so there are no systematically comparable data about the impact of immigration. Varied entities, mainly embassies of foreign countries in Brazil and commercial associations that promote bilateral commerce between Brazil and other countries, make claims about the figures of "descendants of immigrants" in Brazil, but none links to any actual survey. Also, if they are extrapolations of actual data on the number of immigrants, the calculations are not explained anywhere.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: On the other hand, in 1998, the IBGE, within its preparation for the 2000 Census, experimentally introduced a question about "origem" (origin/ancestry) in its "Pesquisa Mensal de Emprego" (Monthly Employment Research), to test the viability of introducing that variable in the Census (the IBGE ended by deciding against the inclusion of questions about it in the Census). This research interviewed about 90,000 people in six metropolitan regions (São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Porto Alegre, Belo Horizonte, Salvador, and Recife). To this day, it remains the only actual published survey about the immigrant origin of Brazilians.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: Notice that the total is higher than 100% because of multiple answers. It is easy to see that the results of this research are widely incompatible with the claims made by embassies and commercial associations:


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: The embassy figures are also hardly compatible with the known data for immigration. Here is how they compare:


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: The embassy figures for "Arab Brazilians" imply an impossible rate of childbirth. The process of inflation of the "Arab Brazilian" population is described by John Tofik Karam: "Maintaining a privileged presence in business and political circles, Middle Easterners have overestimated themselves as a way to strengthen their place in the Brazilian nation."


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: Among the groups listed in the table, German immigrants arrived quite early in Brazil, starting in the 1820s. By 1883, 23.86% of them had already arrived. Italian immigrants only started to arrive in the 1870s, coming in enormous numbers until 1902, when Italian immigration declined sharply. By 1903, 70.33% of them had already arrived. Spaniards started arriving about the same time as the Italians, but came in more steady pace, which means that, in average, they represent a more recent immigration. Arabs only started to arrive in considerable numbers about 1890, making them the second most recent immigration, after the Japanese, who started to arrive in 1908. Evidently, the older the immigration, higher should be the descendant/immigrant relation—but, as the table shows, the embassy figures would place the Arab descendant/immigrant relation first—and, in fact, more than three times higher than that of the Germans.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: When the number of immigrants is compared to the findings of the July 1998 PME, the results are different:


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: Here the correct order is reestablished, except for the Arabs appearing with a lower descendant/immigrant rate than the Japanese. This, however, is probably due to the concentration of Nikkeis in São Paulo, as opposed to a less concentrated distribution of "Arab Brazilians", who are present in considerable numbers in regions not counted by the PMEs—notably the Northern Region, the West of Paraná State, and Southern Rio Grande do Sul.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: Nowadays, it's possible to find millions of descendants of Italians, from the southeastern state of Minas Gerais to the southernmost state of Rio Grande do Sul, with the majority living in the state of São Paulo (15.9 million) and the highest percentage in the southeastern state of Espírito Santo (60–75%). Small southern Brazilian towns, such as Nova Veneza, have as much as 95% of their population of Italian descent.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: As happened with several other countries in the Americas, such as the United States, which received immigration from many countries, Brazil quickly became a melting pot of races and nationalities, but being peculiar in the sense of having the highest degree of intermarriage in the world.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: Thousands of White Americans from the Southern United States (including relatives of former president Jimmy Carter), known as Confederados, fled to Brazil after the American Civil War, where they founded two cities, Americana and Santa Bárbara d'Oeste.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: In this century has grown a recent trend of co-official languages in cities populated by immigrants (such as Italian and German) or indigenous in the north, both with support from the Ministry of Tourism, as was recently established in Santa Maria de Jetibá, Pomerode and Vila Pavão, where German also has co-official status.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: The first municipality to adopt a co-official language in Brazil was São Gabriel da Cachoeira, in 2002. Since then, other municipalities attempt to co-officialise other languages.


title: Immigration to Brazil

text: The states of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul have Talian officially approved as a heritage language in these states, and Espírito Santo has the East Pomeranian dialect, along with the German language, such as cultural heritage state.


title: Dungan language

text: Dungan ( or ) is a Sinitic language spoken primarily in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan by the Dungan people, an ethnic group related to the Hui people of China. Although it is derived from the Central Plains Mandarin of Gansu and Shaanxi, it is written in Cyrillic (or Xiao'erjing) and contains loanwords and archaisms not found in other modern varieties of Mandarin.


title: Dungan language

text: The Dungan people of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan (with smaller groups living in other post-Soviet states) are the descendants of several groups of the Hui people that migrated to the region in the 1870s and the 1880s after the defeat of the Dungan revolt in Northwestern China. The Hui of Northwestern China (often referred to as "Dungans" or "Tungani" by the 19th-century western writers as well as by members of Turkic nationalities in China and Central Asia) would normally speak the same Mandarin dialect as the Han people in the same area (or in the area from which the particular Hui community had been resettled). At the same time, due to their unique history, their speech would be rich in Islamic or Islam-influenced terminology, based on loanwords from Arabic, Persian and Turkic languages, as well as translations of them into Chinese. The Hui traders in the bazaars would be able to use Arabic or Persian numbers when talking between themselves, to keep their communications secret from Han bystanders. While not constituting a separate language, these words, phrases and turns of speech, known as "Huihui hua" (, "Hui speech"), served as markers of group identity. As early 20th century travellers in Northwestern China would note, "the Mohammedan Chinese have to some extent a vocabulary and always a style and manner of speech, all their own".


title: Dungan language

text: As the Dungans in the Russian Empire — and even more so in the Soviet Union — were isolated from China, their language experienced significant influence from the Russian and the Turkic languages of their neighbors.


title: Dungan language

text: In the Soviet Union, a written standard of the Dungan language was developed, based on a dialect of the Gansu Province, rather than the Beijing base of Standard Chinese. The language was used in the schools in Dungan villages. In the Soviet time there were several school textbooks published for studying the Dungan language, a three volume Russian–Dungan dictionary (14,000 words), the Dungan–Russian dictionary, linguistics monographs on the language and books in Dungan. The first Dungan-language newspaper was established in 1932; it continues publication today in weekly form.


title: Dungan language

text: When Dru C. Gladney, who had spent some years working with the Hui people in China, met with Dungans in Almaty in 1988, he described the experience as speaking "in a hybrid Gansu dialect that combined Turkish and Russian lexical items".


title: Dungan language

text: There is a varying degree of mutual intelligibility between Dungan and various Mandarin dialects. Central Plains Mandarin varieties are understood by Dungans. On the other hand, Dungan speakers like Iasyr Shivaza and others have reported that people who speak the Beijing Mandarin dialect can understand Dungan, but Dungans could not understand the Beijing Mandarin.


title: Dungan language

text: Dungan is spoken primarily in Kyrgyzstan, with speakers in Russia, Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan as well. The Dungan ethnic group are the descendants of refugees from China who migrated west into Central Asia.


title: Dungan language

text: According to the Soviet census statistics from 1970 to 1989, the Dungan maintained the use of their ethnic language much more successfully than other minority ethnic groups in Central Asia; however, in the post-Soviet period, the proportion of Dungans speaking the Dungan language as their native language appears to have fallen sharply.


title: Dungan language

text: Chinese varieties usually have different classifiers for different types of nouns, with northern varieties tending to have fewer classifiers than southern ones. () is the only classifier found in the Dungan language, though not the only measure word.


title: Dungan language

text: In basic structure and vocabulary, the Dungan language is not very different from Mandarin Chinese, specifically a variety of Zhongyuan Mandarin (not Lan-Yin Mandarin) spoken in the southern part of the province of Gansu and the western part of the valley of Guanzhong in the province of Shaanxi. Like other Chinese varieties, Dungan is tonal. There are two main dialects, one with 4 tones and the other, considered standard, with 3 tones in the final position in phonetic words and 4 tones in the nonfinal position.


title: Dungan language

text: Vowel constructs that can be used as independent syllable without consonants are shown in parenthesis. There are rhotacised vowels, as well as some syllables only seen in loan words from Russian, Arabic, Kyrgyz, etc., in addition to the above table.


title: Dungan language

text: The basilects of Gansu/Shaanxi Mandarin and Dungan are largely mutually intelligible; Chinese journalists conversant in one of those Mandarin dialects report that they can make themselves understood when communicating with Dungan speakers. However, even at the level of basic vocabulary, Dungan contains many words not present in modern Mandarin dialects, such as Arabic and Persian loanwords, as well as archaic Qing dynasty-era Chinese vocabulary. Furthermore, the acrolects of Dungan and Gansu/Shaanxi Mandarin have diverged significantly due to time and cultural influences. During the 20th century, translators and intellectuals introduced many neologisms and calques into the Chinese language, especially for political and technical concepts. However, the Dungan, cut off from the mainstream of Chinese discourse by orthographic barriers, instead borrowed words for those same concepts from Russian, with which they came into contact through government and higher education. As a result of these borrowings, the equivalent standard Chinese terms are not widely known or understood among the Dungan.


title: Dungan language

text: The modern Dungan language is the only spoken Chinese that is written in the Cyrillic alphabet, as they lived under Soviet rule. It is a Russian-based alphabet plus five special letters: Ә, Җ, Ң, Ү and Ў. As such, it differs somewhat from the Palladius System that is normally used in Russia to write Chinese in Cyrillic.


title: Dungan language

text: Dungan is unique in that it is one of the few varieties of Chinese that is not normally written using Chinese characters. Though it may be seen written in Chinese characters, this writing system is now considered obsolete, much like the Arabic-script Xiao’erjing. Originally, the Dungan, who were Muslim descendants of the Hui, wrote their language in an Arabic-based alphabet known as Xiao'erjing. The Soviet Union banned all Arabic scripts in the late 1920s, which led to a Latin orthography based on Yañalif. The Latin orthography lasted until 1940, when the Soviet government promulgated the current Cyrillic-based system. Xiao'erjing is now virtually extinct in Dungan society, but it remains in limited use by some Hui communities in China.


title: Dungan language

text: The writing system is based on the standard 3-tone dialect. Tone marks or numbering do not appear in general-purpose writing, but are specified in dictionaries, even for loanwords. The tones are specified using the soft sign, hard sign, or none.


title: Dungan language

text: A number of books in Dungan language, including textbooks, Dungan-Russian and Russian-Dungan dictionaries, a Dungan etymological dictionary, collections of folk tales, original and translated fiction and poetry have been published in Kyrgyzstan. Usual print runs were no more than a few hundred copies. A newspaper in Dungan has been published as well.


title: Dungan language

text: Works of the Dungan poet Yasir Shiwaza have been translated into Russian, Standard Chinese and a number of other languages, with print runs in some of them been much higher than in the original Dungan. English translations of some of them, along with the original Dungan text, are available in the book by S. Rimsky-Korsakoff (1991).


title: Heinkel He 280

text: The Heinkel He 280 was the first turbojet-powered fighter aircraft in the world. It was inspired by Ernst Heinkel's emphasis on research into high-speed flight and built on the company's experience with the He 178 jet prototype. A combination of technical and political factors led to it being passed over in favor of the Messerschmitt Me 262. Only nine were built and none reached operational status.


title: Heinkel He 280

text: The Heinkel company began the He 280 project on its own initiative after the He 178 had failed to interest the "Reichsluftfahrtministerium (R.L.M.)" (the German Reich Aviation Ministry ). The head designer was Robert Lusser, who began the project under the designation He 180 in late 1939. It had a typical Heinkel fighter fuselage, semi-elliptical wings and a dihedralled tailplane with twin fins and rudders. It had a tricycle undercarriage with very little ground clearance. This arrangement was considered too frail for the grass or dirt airfields of the era; however, the tricycle layout eventually gained acceptance. The He 280 was equipped with a compressed-air powered ejection seat, the first aircraft to carry one and the first aircraft to successfully employ one in an emergency.


title: Heinkel He 280

text: The first prototype was completed in the summer of 1940, but the HeS 8 intended to power it was running into difficulties. On 22 September 1940, while work on the engine continued, the first prototype started glide tests with ballasted pods hung in place of its engines, towed behind a He 111. It was another six months before Fritz Schäfer flew the second prototype under its own power, on 30 March 1941. On 5 April 1941, Paul Bader made an exhibition flight to Ernst Udet, General-Ingenieur Lucht, Reidenbach, Eisenlohr and others. Yet, the RLM eventually favored development of the Me 262, though Heinkel was given Hirth Motoren for continued turbine development.


title: Heinkel He 280

text: One benefit of the He 280 which did impress the political leadership was the fact that the jet engines could burn kerosene, which requires much less expense and refining than the high-octane fuel used by piston-engine aircraft. However, government funding was lacking at the critical stage of initial development.


title: Heinkel He 280

text: Over the next year, progress was slow due to the ongoing engine problems. A second engine design, the HeS 30 was also under development, both as an interesting engine in its own right and as a potential replacement for the HeS 8. In the meantime, alternative powerplants were considered, including the Argus As 014 pulsejet that powered the V-1 flying bomb. It was proposed that up to eight be used.


title: Heinkel He 280

text: By the end of 1943, however, the third prototype was fitted with refined versions of the HeS 8 engine and was ready for its next demonstration. On 22 December, a mock dogfight was staged for RLM officials in which the He 280 was matched against an Fw 190, in which the jet demonstrated its vastly superior speed, completing four laps of an oval course before the Fw 190 could complete three. Finally, at this point the RLM became interested and placed an order for 20 pre-production test aircraft, to be followed by 300 production machines.


title: Heinkel He 280

text: Engine problems continued to plague the project. In 1942, the RLM had ordered Heinkel to abandon the HeS 8 and HeS 30 to focus all development on a follow-on engine, the HeS 011, a more advanced and problematic design. Meanwhile, the first He 280 prototype was re-equipped with pulsejets and towed aloft to test them. Bad weather caused the aircraft to ice up, and before the jets could be tested pilot Helmut Schenk became the first person to put an ejection seat to use. The seat worked perfectly, but the aircraft was lost and never found.


title: Heinkel He 280

text: With the HeS 011 not expected for some time, Heinkel selected the rival BMW 003. However, this engine also had problems and delays. The second He 280 prototype was re-engined with Junkers Jumo 004s while the next three airframes were earmarked for the BMW motor, which was ultimately unavailable. The Jumo engines were much larger and heavier than the HeS 8 that the aircraft had been designed for, and while it flew well enough on its first powered flights from 16 March 1943, it was clear that this engine was unsuitable. The aircraft was slower and generally less efficient than the Me 262.


title: Heinkel He 280

text: Less than two weeks later, on 27 March, Erhard Milch cancelled the project. The Jumo 004-powered Me 262 appeared to have most of the qualities of the He 280, but was better matched to its engine. Heinkel was ordered to abandon the He 280 and focus attention on bomber development and construction, something he remained bitter about until his death.


title: Yankee Candle

text: The Yankee Candle Company (referred to simply as Yankee Candle) is an American manufacturer and retailer of scented candles, candleholders, accessories, and dinnerware. Its products are sold by thousands of gift shops nationwide, through catalogs, and online, and in nearly 50 countries around the world. The company operates just over 260 small-box format stores, located in malls across 43 U.S. states and Ontario, and is the largest candle manufacturer in the United States. The company is headquartered in South Deerfield, Massachusetts.


title: Yankee Candle

text: The Jarden Corporation agreed to buy Yankee Candle for $1.75 billion in the fall of 2013. In 2015, Newell Rubbermaid announced that it would acquire Jarden for over $15 billion of cash and stock.


title: Yankee Candle

text: Yankee Candle Company was started in South Hadley, Massachusetts when Michael Kittredge, originally from Holyoke, Massachusetts, created his first scented candle, "Christmas 1969", from melted crayons as a gift for his mother. Neighbors began expressing interest in buying his creations, and Kittredge began producing them in larger quantities. The company itself was founded with help from Donald MacIver and Susan Obremski, who were high school friends with Kittredge. MacIver helped fund the start-up business with earnings from his part-time job. Candle production grew considerably after Obremski's father devised a "heated room", which enabled cost-saving liquid wax deliveries at the first factory site in Holyoke. Obremski's invention of a turntable taper wheel allowed production to double, while at the same time decreasing the need for more labor hours. In 1975, she managed the first Yankee Candle Shop located where the Village Commons in South Hadley now stands.


title: Yankee Candle

text: After a cancer scare in 1993, Kittredge started handing the company over to a friend and employee. In 1998, he sold the company to New York-based private equity company Forstmann Little for $500 million. Forstmann took the company public in 1999, and in 2001, hired Craig Rydin as a CEO. Rydin launched a major advertising campaign and the line was picked up by mass retailers Linens-N-Things and Bed, Bath and Beyond, pushing sales to their highest levels yet. Kittredge remained the company's chairman emeritus.


title: Yankee Candle

text: During the summer of 2006, Yankee Candle purchased Illuminations, a Petaluma, California-based, multi-channel retailer of high quality candles and home accessories. Although the two companies were similar, the names were separated, with Illuminations being aimed at a different demographic. The Illuminations brand and web store were phased out in early 2009.


title: Yankee Candle

text: On February 6, 2007, the company was acquired by the private equity group of Madison Dearborn Partners LLC for approximately $1.6 billion.


title: Yankee Candle

text: The founder, Michael Kittredge, in a return to high quality manufacturing created Kringle Candle, with his son Michael (Mike).


title: Yankee Candle

text: In October 2012 Yankee Candle Europe launched their Consumer Direct website offering their products direct to consumers.


title: Yankee Candle

text: In 2013, Jarden acquired Yankee Candle. A further merger in 2016 saw Jarden purchased by Newell Rubbermaid and combined into the new company Newell Brands.


title: Yankee Candle

text: In 2017 Newell Brands acquired Smith Mountain Industries, makers of the Woodwick brand of candles. Woodwick candles are now a premium brand sold by Yankee Candle. The candles have a wooden wick that crackles when burned, and use a blend of paraffin and soy wax to reduce spatter and residue.


title: Yankee Candle

text: Yankee Candle's flagship store, which opened in 1982, is located in South Deerfield, Massachusetts. It features all available Yankee Candles as well as kitchen and home accessories, New England crafts, gifts and collectibles, a toy shop, picnic grounds and a "Bavarian Christmas Village" filled with decorated Christmas trees and a toy train that runs through to Santa's Workshop, where animated elves and an 'assembly line' for wooden vehicles surround Santa Claus's desk. Visitors can dip their own candles in a specially equipped area, make wax molds of their hands, or create their own unique candle. There is also a candle making museum and a Hillside Pizza cafe on site. The store was a beautiful place for a child to visit, where they could make their own candles, choose their own scents to mix and match.


title: Yankee Candle

text: A second flagship store was opened in Williamsburg, Virginia, in 2005. At , it was a popular tourist destination. The Williamsburg store closed for good in April 2021.


title: Yankee Candle

text: Yankee Candle Company markets an array of products, including candles of various scents and sizes, scented wax tarts, candle accessories, votive candles (samplers), votive candle holders, tart warmers, jar toppers (for use with the Housewarmer line of candles), reed diffusers, Electric Home Fragrance units (scented wall plug-ins), car scents, room sprays, Good Air products and more. They also periodically release a range of limited edition candles such as 'Chocolate Layer Cake'.


title: Yankee Candle

text: Since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, social media users observed a correlation between increases in reported COVID-19 cases and negative reviews of Yankee Candle products. Individuals scraping review data of both scented and unscented candles on Amazon.com found an increase in negative reviews for scented candles, with the proportion of reviews complaining of a lack of aroma also growing. In comparison, unscented candles did not exhibit this pattern.


title: Yankee Candle

text: As one of the symptoms of COVID-19 is loss of smell, this suggests that the increase in positive cases is causing more consumers to be unable to smell their scented candles. This correlation has been called the "Yankee Candle Index".


title: Louise Mandrell

text: Thelma Louise Mandrell (born July 13, 1954) is an American country music singer. She is the younger sister of fellow country singer Barbara Mandrell, and older sister of actress Irlene Mandrell. Louise had a successful singing career in country music from the 1970s, with a string of hits during the 1980s.


title: Louise Mandrell

text: Thelma Louise Mandrell was born in 1954, to Mary Ellen (née McGill; born 1931) and Irby Matthew Mandrell (October 11, 1924 – March 5, 2009) in Corpus Christi, Texas, United States. She is the second of three daughters. Sister Barbara is five and a half years older; sister Irlene is one and a half years younger. Her mother, Mary, was a homemaker and musician hailing from rural Wayne County, Illinois. Her father Irby was a World War II naval veteran and Texas police officer from Garland County, Arkansas. Irby Mandrell was an accomplished musician and entrepreneur as well. He used his impeccable social skills and knowledge of the music industry to manage all three of his daughters' careers for over three decades.


title: Louise Mandrell

text: Although Louise Mandrell never developed the scale of fan base or the worldwide recognition that her older sister Barbara gained in country music, she is still credited as one of country music's more successful female vocalists of the 1980s. With their parents coming from a musical background, Barbara started off working as a singer, and playing the steel guitar and other instruments, and toured with Patsy Cline in the early 1960s. Mandrell learned to play the guitar and bass. Soon, their parents founded the Mandrell Family Band, which toured the United States and Asia.


title: Louise Mandrell

text: Barbara's professional recognition in country music in the early 1970s with hits like "Treat Him Right", "Show Me" and "The Midnight Oil" gave Louise opportunities at success. She started performing in Barbara's band The DoRites in 1969. Her first time in the studio was on the recording "Always Wanting You", a no. 1 hit for Haggard in 1975. In 1978, she signed with Epic Records.


title: Louise Mandrell

text: Mandrell released her first single in 1978, called "Put It On Me", which appeared in the "Billboard" country music singles chart. In 1979, she released her next single, a cover version of "Everlasting Love", another minor country hit. She started singing duets with her husband R.C. Bannon, such as "I Thought You'd Never Ask," which entered the top 50, and a cover of the number 1 song by Peaches & Herb, "Reunited", which went to number 13, her first significant hit. In 1980, following two more solo efforts that did not see the same success, she joined sisters Barbara and Irlene on the TV variety show "Barbara Mandrell and the Mandrell Sisters". This show showcased not only her singing, but her multi-instrumental and comedy talents as well. In 1981, she signed with RCA Records. In 1982, Mandrell had two top 40 hits, as well as the top 20 hit "Some of My Best Friends Are Old Songs".


title: Louise Mandrell

text: 1983 turned out to be her most successful year. She entered the top 15 with "Runaway Heart," and had the two top 10 hits "Save Me" (originally recorded by Northern Irish singer Clodagh Rodgers) and "Too Hot to Sleep". In 1984, Mandrell had two other Top 40 hits, "Goodbye Heartache" and "I'm Not Through Loving You Yet," and in 1985 the song "I Wanna Say Yes" entered the top 5.


title: Louise Mandrell

text: Mandrell's last studio album "Dreamin"' was released in 1987, with the single "I Wanna Hear It from Your Lips" and having her last top 40 hit with the single "Do I Have To Say Goodbye". Her last charted single came in 1988, a cover of the song "As Long As We Got Each Other", a duet with Eric Carmen.


title: Louise Mandrell

text: RCA dropped Mandrell in 1988. During the 1990s, she released the videos and songs "Jean Paul" and "Down Home Christmas".


title: Louise Mandrell

text: She was the unanimous choice of 50 Tennessee city managers -- the first time the city manager's association has so honored anyone. Miss Mandrell accepted 50 inscribed crimson hearts from the managers and in return entertained them with a few tunes. She also was named 1981's 'Yellow Rose of Texas' by the Texas state legislature, another first


title: Louise Mandrell

text: Her marriage to Ronald Shaw on July 1, 1971, ended in divorce in 1973. She subsequently married Gary Lamar Buck of the country music group The Four Guys on July 23, 1975. They divorced in 1978.


title: Louise Mandrell

text: In 1978, Mandrell met R.C. Bannon. They married on February 26, 1979. He co-wrote songs for Barbara. "One of a Kind Pair of Fools" is a 1983 single written by Bannon and John Bettis and recorded by Barbara Mandrell. "Only One Love in My Life," written by R.C. Bannon and John Bettis, was Ronnie Milsap's 10th number 1.


title: Louise Mandrell

text: Mandrell and Bannon adopted Nicole Mandrell Shipley in 1986. The couple divorced in 1991 and she married, for a fourth time, to John Haywood on July 16, 1993.


title: Louise Mandrell

text: After leaving RCA Records, Mandrell continued to perform. In 1991, TNN began re-airing "Barbara Mandrell and the Mandrell Sisters".


title: Louise Mandrell

text: From 1992 to 1994, she headlined at the 4,000 seat Grand Palace Theatre in Branson, Missouri along with Kenny Rogers. On occasion, she shared the stage with Barbara, Sawyer Brown, Roger Miller, Waylon Jennings, and several other well-known country and pop music entertainers at The Grand Palace.


title: Louise Mandrell

text: On September 12, 1997, Mandrell opened her own 1,400-seat theater, "The Louise Mandrell Theater" in Pigeon Forge, Tennessee, in the heart of the Smoky Mountains in Tennessee, alongside other theaters such as Lee Greenwood's. Mandrell appeared in every performance there and encompassed numerous musical styles, including country, jazz, and big band. It was considered the most attended (non-dinner) show in the Smoky Mountains. The Triumphant Quartet, formerly known as the "Integrity Quartet", was the in-house Southern gospel group and back-up singers for Louise. The Louise Mandrell Theater had its last performance, to a sold-out house, on December 31, 2005. Mandrell sold the theater afterwards and it has changed hands twice since. The theater is now home to the "Smoky Mountain Opry."


title: Louise Mandrell

text: In 1983, Mandrell co-wrote "The Mandrell Family Album" with writer Ace Collins. Later, they produced a series of children's books.


title: Louise Mandrell

text: In 2012, she performed the title role of "Calamity Jane" at Roger Rocka's Dinner Theatre in Fresno, California through September 16, 2012. Mandrell reprised her role from July until September 15, 2019.


title: Louise Mandrell

text: Mandrell continues to perform at selected special occasions and corporate events. In December 2007, she performed in Washington, D.C., with the National Army band.


title: Louise Mandrell

text: Over the Christmas and New Year 2008–2009, Mandrell performed at the Opryland Hotel in Nashville for one month. The multi-instrumental dinner show was entitled "Joy to the World". Mandrell also announced her intention to create a new show in 2010, "The Gift".


title: Louise Mandrell

text: In 2009, she signed with Strouadavarious Records and announced her intention to release an album of country classics and a Christmas-themed album.


title: Louise Mandrell

text: During 2011 and 2012, Mandrell joined Lee Greenwood on selected tour dates, including a six-week Branson run at the Welk Resort Theatre from September 12 – October 22.


title: Louise Mandrell

text: Mandrell's final Christmas show at Gaylord Opryland titled "Louise Mandrell's Christmas Dinner Party" took place November 18 – December 25, 2011.


title: Louise Mandrell

text: After 30 years, she released "Playing Favorites", her 11th studio album of country standards on October 4, 2019.


title: Louise Mandrell

text: Mandrell appeared on the Opry's country classic show in Nashville. The last time she performed on that stage was 50 years ago. the show was broadcast live on the radio program, Opry Country Classics at the Ryman Auditorium, October 3, 2019. She is scheduled to perform on the Grand Ole Opry live from the Ryman on November 30, 2019.


title: Louise Mandrell

text: 2022 Louise and Irlene join the special Opry show on 7/30/2022 for the 50th year membership of sister Barbara Mandrell as a Opry member. Louise once again took to the Opry stage in the Country classics segment 10/13/2022.


title: Louise Mandrell

text: Mandrell was the spokesperson for Sanderson Farms' Miss Goldy's Chicken for 20 years, RC Cola in the early 80's and White Rain in the mid-1980s. 2021-22 Louise, along with Jimmy Fortune, (of the Statler bros) filmed a series of infomercials for TIME LIFE. These can be seen randomly on different networks through out the country and online (Youtube).


title: Louise Mandrell

text: In 2007 Pam Tillis (country singer) released a song called "Band in the window" in the song she references Louise Mandrell. ("her name is Louise but not Mandrell, she has 80's hair and fringe")


title: Louise Mandrell

text: 2019 Canadian country artist Lisa Brokop released a video titled "who's gonna fill their heels" also references the Mandrell sisters.


title: Sabrina Lloyd

text: Sabrina Anne Lloyd (born November 20, 1970) is an American retired film and television actress. She is known for portraying Wade Welles in the science fiction series "Sliders", Natalie Hurley in the ABC sitcom "Sports Night" and Kelly in "Father Hood" (1993).


title: Sabrina Lloyd

text: Sabrina Lloyd was born in Fairfax County, Virginia, and raised in Mount Dora, Florida. She is the daughter of Judy Lloyd, who managed a title insurance company in Lake Mary. At age 12, she began her acting career in the role of Pepper in a Mount Dora production of "Annie".


title: Sabrina Lloyd

text: When she was in the 10th grade she participated in a student exchange program that allowed her to spend a year in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. While there, she was a full-time student at Pine Rivers High School. She graduated from Lake Mary High School in 1989.


title: Sabrina Lloyd

text: Returning to the United States, Lloyd continued to perform in local theater such as the Baystreet Players in Eustis and the Ice House Theater in Mount Dora, appearing in productions of "Grease", "Crimes of the Heart", and "The Wizard of Oz". Lloyd moved to New York when she was 18 to pursue a film career. Her earliest work there was in industrial training films and TV commercials, including one for Eastpak backpacks. She made a guest appearance on an episode of "Law & Order" called "Intolerance". She signed with a new talent agent and started getting more roles in TV and film.


title: Sabrina Lloyd

text: Her first important role in feature films was in "Chain of Desire", and this was followed by her first starring role in "Father Hood" with Patrick Swayze. She appeared in the 1993 music video for the song "Iris" by The Breeders. Lloyd also made appearances on television, starring in the TV movies "The Coming Out of Heidi Leiter", an episode of "" and "Love Off Limits".


title: Sabrina Lloyd

text: In 1995, Lloyd played Wade Welles, one of the original four characters in the sci-fi TV show "Sliders". In 1997, the show was picked up by the Sci Fi Channel, but Lloyd's contract was not renewed. She quickly landed a co-starring role as senior associate producer Natalie Hurley in the ABC sitcom "Sports Night".


title: Sabrina Lloyd

text: In 2005, she starred as Terry Lake on the television show "Numb3rs", but she left after the first season. In 2008, Lloyd was the lead actress in the independent film "Universal Signs".


title: Sabrina Lloyd

text: Outside of her acting career, she writes and records original music with her guitar. She has two cats named Lucy and Theodore and was a vegetarian for six years during the 1990s. In 2010, Lloyd studied creative writing at Columbia University.


title: Sabrina Lloyd

text: In April 1997, Lloyd married Ross Smith. They lived in Uganda for two years (2009–2010), and adopted a little girl while living there. They moved to Italy and lived in Rome for four years, where they had a son, and subsequently relocated to Vancouver Island. Lloyd is retired from acting.


title: Randolph McCoy

text: Randolph "Randall" or "Ole Ran'l" McCoy (October 30, 1825 – March 28, 1914) was the patriarch of the McCoy clan involved in the infamous American Hatfield–McCoy feud. He was born the fourth of thirteen children to Daniel McCoy (1790–1885) and Margaret Taylor McCoy (1800–1868) and lived mostly on the Kentucky side of Tug Fork, a tributary of the Big Sandy River.


title: Randolph McCoy

text: During the almost thirty-year feud with the Hatfield clan under their patriarch Devil Anse Hatfield, Randolph would lose five of his children to the violence.


title: Randolph McCoy

text: Randolph McCoy (1825–1914) married his first cousin, Sarah "Sally" McCoy (1829 – c. 1890), daughter of Samuel McCoy (1782–1855) and Elizabeth Davis, on December 9, 1849, in Pike County, Kentucky. They were of Scottish descent and had 17 children together. Their children were:


title: Randolph McCoy

text: Their most prominent child was Roseanna McCoy, most known for her relationship with Johnse Hatfield, with whom she had a daughter, Sarah Elizabeth (named for her Grandmother and Great-Grandmother). Johnse Hatfield later married Nancy McCoy, a cousin of Roseanna.


title: Randolph McCoy

text: Samuel McCoy (1782–1855) and Daniel McCoy (1790–1885) were sons of "Old" William McCoy (April 1751 – 1822) and according to 111 Y-DNA results, likely nephews of Richard McCoy (abt. 1752 – 1792) of New River area, Montgomery County, Virginia.


title: Randolph McCoy

text: As noted above, Samuel McCoy's daughter Sarah "Sally" McCoy (1829–1890) married Randolph McCoy (1825–1914), son of her uncle Daniel McCoy.


title: Randolph McCoy

text: The 3 Burress women were daughters of Micajah Burress (1775–1850) and a Rachel McCoy, who married on 15 October 1795 in Montgomery County, Virginia. This Rachel was either the daughter of Richard McCoy (abt. 1752 – 1792) and Susanna Moore (1755–1830) of New River area, Montgomery County, Virginia, or she was another Rachel McCoy. Another daughter of Richard McCoy and Susanna Moore, Nancy McCoy (b. abt. 1782), married Thomas Jefferson McColley (1780–1842) in Montgomery County, Virginia on 7 June 1803. "Old" William McCoy's daughter Nancy has erroneously been linked as married to Thomas Jefferson McColley. It is believed William Harmon McCoy, son of Richard McCoy and brother of Nancy McCoy (m. Thomas Jefferson McColley) is the "William" that signed Nancy's marriage bond since her father Richard, predeceased her marriage to McColley. The fact that "Old" William's daughter Nancy McCoy (b. abt. 1784-d. bef. 1823) married Thomas McColley is disproven is documented in the 1842 Will of Thomas Jefferson McColley who lists his "living" wife Nancy. Nancy McCoy, daughter of "Old" William died in 1823.


title: Randolph McCoy

text: Richard McCoy and Susanna Moore of New River area, Virginia, also had a son William Harmon McCoy (1780–1855). Richard's son William was the first of known record to have the name "Harmon" which subsequently was given to 2 of "Old" William's grandsons: Asa Harmon McCoy (1809–1884), son of Samuel McCoy and to Asa Harmon McCoy (1828–1865), son of Daniel – both Samuel and Daniel were sons of "Old" William McCoy.


title: Randolph McCoy

text: Perry Cline and wife Elizabeth Riffe were parents of Sarah Ann Cline (1785–1865) born in Montgomery County, Virginia, and Jacob "Rich Jake" Cline (1790–1858), also born in Montgomery County, Virginia. Sarah Cline alleged that she had a child out of wedlock in 1803 with George H. McCoy (1784–1870), son of Richard McCoy and Susanna Moore of New River area Montgomery County, Virginia. George H. McCoy married Martha "Patsy" A. Kirk about 1805.


title: Randolph McCoy

text: During the American Civil War, the feud leaders from both families were staunchly pro-Confederate, and Randolph himself served in the 45th Virginia Infantry Battalion Confederate Army during the opening years of the war and was a POW from 1863 to 1865. He later returned to Kentucky. However, Randolph's younger brother, Asa Harmon McCoy, enlisted in the Union Army as "Asa H McCay" in Co E of the 45th Kentucky Infantry USA. He was discharged from the Union Army on December 24, 1864, after suffering a broken leg, and returned home. Soon after his return, Jim Vance, uncle of Devil Anse Hatfield, and a member of the "Logan Wildcats" militia put Asa Harmon on notice that they (the Wildcats) would soon be paying him, "a visit." Asa Harmon McCoy tried to escape by hiding out in a local cave, but was tracked to his hideout and killed. No charges were ever filed but it was widely known that Vance and members of Hatfield's Wildcats were directly responsible for his death.


title: Randolph McCoy

text: In the late 1870s, Devil Anse Hatfield was involved in a land dispute with Randolph McCoy's cousin, Perry Cline, over a 5,000-acre tract of land that both held title to. Hatfield eventually brought a civil suit against Cline. Hatfield won in what was seen by the McCoys as a Hatfield-friendly court.


title: Randolph McCoy

text: In the fall of 1878, Randolph "Randall" McCoy brought charges against Floyd Hatfield for stealing one of his hogs. This allegation was a very serious offense at the time, as hogs were extremely valuable to the farming economy. Due to the statements made by Bill Staton, who was related to both families, the case was decided in favor of the Hatfields. The ruling further inflamed the feud, as Randolph McCoy viewed the outcome as unfair. Later, brothers Sam and Paris McCoy were accused, tried, and acquitted of the death of Staton when the judge ruled Staton's death an act of self-defense by the McCoy brothers.


title: Randolph McCoy

text: Randall's daughter Roseanna McCoy romanced "Johnse" Hatfield and later became pregnant with Johnse's child. Upon learning of the affair, Randolph became extremely upset and disowned her. Roseanna, unwanted by both families, moved in with her uncle Uriah and "Aunt Betty" Elizabeth (Rutherford) McCoy. Johnse later married Roseanna's cousin, Nancy McCoy. Roseanna's baby died before her first birthday and the abandoned Roseanna died at the age of 29.


title: Randolph McCoy

text: The peak of the feuding occurred when three of Randolph's sons (Roseanna's brothers) killed Ellison Hatfield, brother of Devil Anse, on election day in 1882. Devil Anse retaliated for the killing of his brother by executing, without trial, Tolbert (b. 1854), Pharmer (b. 1863) and Randolph Jr. (b. 1864), three sons of Randolph McCoy near present-day Matewan, West Virginia.


title: Randolph McCoy

text: On January 1, 1888, "Cap" Hatfield and Jim Vance led several members of the Hatfield family to attack the McCoy cabin. Randolph's house was burned to the ground and numerous family members were slain by the Hatfields, including two of Randolph's children. His son Calvin was killed in the shootout as was his daughter, Alifair, who was shot to death as she tried to flee the burning house. Randolph's wife Sally was badly injured when she attempted to comfort Alifair, suffering several broken ribs and skull fractures. She survived the beating but was disabled for the rest of her life. With his house burning, Randolph and his remaining family members were able to escape to the woods; unfortunately, his children, unprepared for the elements, suffered frostbite. He moved his family to Pikeville, Kentucky, where he lived out the remainder of his life in bitterness and grieving. He operated a ferry in Pikeville for some time, and the home he lived in still stands at the intersection of Main Street and Scott Avenue. By the end of the feud, he had lost seven of his children and his wife.


title: Randolph McCoy

text: Shortly after the New Year's massacre, Kentucky deputy Frank Phillips and a posse of McCoys chased down Jim Vance and Cap Hatfield, killing Vance. Phillips' posse rounded up nine Hatfield family members and supporters and hauled them off to jail.


title: Randolph McCoy

text: Randolph McCoy died at the age of 88 after he was severely burned from a cooking fire. He is buried in the Dils Cemetery in Pikeville, next to his wife who died in the 1890s.


title: Randolph McCoy

text: In 1888, Wall Hatfield and eight others were arrested by a posse led by Frank Phillips and brought to Kentucky to stand trial for the murder of Alifair McCoy, who was killed during the New Year's Massacre.


title: Randolph McCoy

text: The feuding and warfare brought in political leaders of Kentucky and West Virginia. The governor of West Virginia, E. Willis Wilson, accused Kentucky of violating the extradition process and appealed the matter to the Supreme Court of the United States. Kentucky Governor Simon Bolivar Buckner sent his Adjutant General to Pike County to investigate the situation. In May 1889, the Supreme Court decided against West Virginia "(Mahon v. Justice)"; the nine Hatfields would be tried in Pikeville. Private detectives hunted down many Hatfields, though Devil Anse was never tried nor jailed. In 1890, Ellison Mounts was executed in Kentucky for his part in the McCoy killings. He was one of the men captured along with Mahon. The feud started to wind down with Mounts' execution.


title: Randolph McCoy

text: On June 14, 2003, the McCoy cousins partnered with Reo Hatfield of Waynesboro, Virginia, to author an official truce between the families. The idea was symbolic: to show that Americans could bury their differences and unite in times of crisis.


title: The Lost Room

text: The Lost Room is a 2006 science fiction television miniseries that aired on the Syfy Channel in the United States. The series revolves around the titular room and some of the everyday items from that room which possess unusual powers. The show's protagonist, Joe Miller, is searching for these objects to rescue his daughter, Anna, who has disappeared inside the Room. Once a typical room at a 1960s motel along U.S. Route 66, the Lost Room has existed outside of normal time and space since 1961, when what is referred to only as "the Event" took place.


title: The Lost Room

text: The Room is the now nonexistent Room 10 at the abandoned Sunshine Motel outside Gallup, New Mexico. At 1:20:44 p.m. on May 4, 1961, something happened at the site of the Room that erased it and all its contents. This is referred to as "the Event" or "the Incident", and is thought to be the reason for the unusual properties of the Room and the Objects from within it. At the time of the Event, the motel was in serviceable condition, but after the event nobody remembers that a tenth room ever existed. One of the Objects, the undeveloped Polaroid picture, allows a person to view the tenth room as it was at the time of the Event by standing at its now vacant location at the Sunshine Motel ruins.


title: The Lost Room

text: The Room can be accessed only by the person who has the Key. The Key will open any hinged door with a pin tumbler lock anywhere in the world, turning that door into a portal accessing the Room regardless of where it would normally open into. As Joe Miller sees on the surveillance tape, when a door is opened using the key, it appears closed if viewed from the other side of that door. When exiting the Room, its door opens not necessarily to the original place of entry, but to any room the holder of the Key has in mind, or to a random room if the user does not focus. To reach a specific room the user must have a clear picture of the room's door and the area around it. The "Lost" Room thus serves as a means of instant travel between similar doors anywhere on Earth. Hinged doors with types of locks other than a tumbler lock or with no lock at all, sliding doors and rotating doors cannot be used to access the Room. The door used does not have to be installed in a wall and can be a smaller prop door or a freestanding doorway; the only important elements are the lock and that it be a hinged door.


title: The Lost Room

text: Any time the door is closed with the key outside the room, the Room "resets": everything that is not an Object disappears, including people. Multiple people can enter the room at once, but they must exit the room when the Key does. When the Room resets, any Objects in the Room will return to their original position at the time of the Event. A benefit of this is that an Object enclosed within something else, such as a safe, may be retrieved by leaving it inside and resetting the room. This can also be used to distinguish real Objects from fakes, since fakes will disappear.


title: The Lost Room

text: Objects, when outside the Room, possess special powers and are indestructible. When inside the Room, Objects lose their special properties and can be destroyed. According to the Occupant, a new Object will take the destroyed Object's place, a phenomenon he refers to as the Law of Conservation of Objects. The Occupant states that there are many Rooms, and so any non-Object left in the Room is not erased, but exists in a different instance of the Room. The reset, in turn, represents a confluence of these Rooms, allowing the Occupant (the only Object with consciousness) to retrieve things lost during a reset, provided he has a clear idea of what he wishes to retrieve.


title: The Lost Room

text: The Event is a shorthand term given to the moment in time that the Lost Room was created. It occurred at 1:20:44 p.m. on May 4, 1961, and erased the room and all of its contents from history. The reason behind this and the ultimate purpose of the Objects is unknown, though two primary hypotheses have been postulated. Even the man occupying the room at the time of the event doesn't seem to know what happened, so the truth remains a mystery. Both hypotheses essentially lead to the same conclusion, but attribute the event to different causes.


title: The Lost Room

text: One faction, the Order of the Reunification, operates under the belief that the Objects are pieces of God's mind or body, and that reuniting them will allow them to communicate with God. More extreme versions of this view hold that reuniting the Objects will turn one into God or at least give that person God-like powers. Martin Ruber purports that the Occupant confirmed this particular theory for him in a vision, making him the self-proclaimed "Prophet of the Objects", but his near-death state from dehydration and heat exhaustion at the time casts doubt on his claims. Additionally, the Occupant himself shows no knowledge of the circumstances behind the event. The Deck of Cards, which gives one who is exposed to it a vision of the events during the Collectors' failed attempt to use the objects on Room 9 of the hotel, may be the source of their beliefs, as it is used in their rituals.


title: The Lost Room

text: Another (though not necessarily contradictory) view of the phenomenon suggests that reality was somehow shattered at the location of the Room, thus separating it and everything in it from time and giving its contents metaphysical abilities. Should the items be collected and returned to the room by an individual, that person would then have complete control over reality. This theory works under the assumption that the one gathering the objects has the knowledge to utilize them properly. Since the Objects are just considered tools, they would do no good if the user were unaware of their paranormal functions.


title: The Lost Room

text: The Objects are powerful artifacts and consist of roughly 100 everyday items one would expect to find in an occupied motel room in the 1960s. They are indestructible (except when inside the Room) and possess various other-worldly powers when taken outside the Lost Room, but do not work within the Room itself. According to the Occupant (Eddie McCleister), when an object is destroyed within the room, another object takes its place. Whether the new object takes the former's properties partially or totally is unknown. Various characters repeatedly put forth the opinion that, over time, Objects lead to something akin to bad karma or bad luck for their owners. All of the items (including the occupant) attract one another, wanting to come together. The Occupant states that the objects are aware of each other, constantly sending out pings to each other and that for a living mind this is torture; the Occupant was eventually found when a search of the recorded history of other Objects revealed a small circular area where the Objects had never been detected, representing the area where the Occupant had resided for years.


title: The Lost Room

text: Many Object-seekers have organized themselves into groups, known as "cabals". Wars between cabals are mentioned in the series. There are at least three cabals:


title: The Lost Room

text: The miniseries is presented as six "one-hour" (44 minute) episodes, rather than as three "two-hour" episodes as originally broadcast. These are named "The Key", "The Clock", "The Comb", "The Box", "The Eye", and "The Occupant". The DVD also includes an 18-minute-long making-of featurette, "Inside "The Lost Room"", with comments from the writers and actors.


title: The Lost Room

text: "The Lost Room" received mixed reviews, scoring 58 out of 100 on Metacritic. Positive reviews included Mike Duffy of the "Detroit Free Press" who called it "a terrific, six-hour miniseries, beautifully written and sharply directed." David Hinckley of the "New York Daily News" called it "a very complex metaphysical mystery, the enjoyment of which comes, in no small part, from the surprises that spill out as it slowly unfurls." Negative reviews came from Matt Roush of "TV Guide", calling it "an especially silly descent into incoherence."


title: The Lost Room

text: The miniseries received two Emmy Award nominations, for Outstanding Main Title Design and Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Miniseries or a Movie. It was nominated for Best Presentation on Television at the 33rd Saturn Awards. Writers Laura Harkcom, Christopher Leone, and Paul Workman were nominated for a 2008 Writers Guild of America Award.


title: The Lost Room

text: In July 2010, the series' creators announced at the 2010 San Diego Comic-Con International that Red 5 Comics will be publishing a sequel, in comic book form, to "The Lost Room". Publication was expected in late summer or early autumn 2011. The January 2012 update from Red 5 states that although production of the comic has "slowed" due to the creators being pulled into other projects, Red 5 Comics is still "100% committed to completing this comic". As of April 2013, the project has been put on hold indefinitely.


title: Parthiv Patel

text: Parthiv Ajay Patel (born 9 March 1985) is a former Indian professional cricketer, wicketkeeper-batsman, and was a member of the Indian national cricket team. He is a left-handed batsman and played for Gujarat in domestic cricket. Having lost a finger at the age of 9, he initially found it hard to keep wickets, but after enough practice, he was used to it. When Parthiv played for the Indian team in 2002, he became the youngest wicket-keeper to represent a country in Tests. With the emergence of MS Dhoni as wicketkeeper-batsman, Parthiv Patel's chance of becoming the first choice keeper for India faded away.


title: Parthiv Patel

text: In December 2020, Patel announced his retirement from all forms of cricket. After his retirement, Patel joined Mumbai Indians as a Talent Scout.


title: Parthiv Patel

text: Patel led the Gujarat side in the 2016–17 Ranji Trophy. Beating Odisha and Jharkhand in the quarterfinal and semifinal, the team reached the final for only the second time. In the final in January, they met defending champions Mumbai in Indore. Patel scored 90 in the first inning and 143 in the second and helped beat Gujarat to win its first Trophy. Patel's 143 was the highest in a successful chase in a Ranji Trophy final. The win also made Gujarat the first team and Patel the first captain to have won all three major domestic titles.


title: Parthiv Patel

text: In July 2018, he was named as the captain for India Green for the 2018–19 Duleep Trophy. In October 2019, he was named as the captain of India B for the 2019–20 Deodhar Trophy.


title: Parthiv Patel

text: Patel was auctioned in the inaugural Indian Premier League (IPL) to Chennai Super Kings. He used to be a regular in the team and opened with the former Australian opener Matthew Hayden. He did not keep wicket as the Indian wicketkeeper as captain MS Dhoni was in the team. For the fourth season, he was signed by Kochi Tuskers Kerala. On 16 May, it was announced that Parthiv will be leading the Kochi Tuskers Kerala for the rest of the 2011 Indian Premier League. As a result of the termination of Kochi Tuskers franchise, Parthiv along with the other players from the franchise was once again auctioned for the 2012 Indian Premier League season. He was picked by Deccan Chargers for $1m


title: Parthiv Patel

text: During the 2012 IPL Trading Window. Parthiv was picked up by Sunrisers Hyderabad in 2013 and by Royal Challenger Bangalore in 2014. Patel was signed by Mumbai Indians for the 2015 IPL as an opening batsmen.


title: Parthiv Patel

text: Parthiv debuted in the year 2002 against England at Trent Bridge at 17 years and 153 days to become Test Cricket's youngest wicketkeeper. He had replaced the injured Ajay Ratra and eclipsed the record previously held by Pakistan's Hanif Mohammed (17 years and 300 days). He played out an hour in the match while batting and hence saved India from defeat. However, with the emergence of Dhoni and poor wicketkeeping, he was sidelined for a few matches in 2004.


title: Parthiv Patel

text: On 23 November 2016, Parthiv Patel was called up as a replacement for the regular wicket-keeper Wriddhiman Saha who had a thigh strain, for the third Test (at Mohali) of the India-England home series. He played his first Test in eight years, having missed 83 Test matches between appearances.


title: Parthiv Patel

text: Patel made his ODI debut against New Zealand in January 2003. He was selected in the Indian squad for the 2003 Cricket World Cup but did not play any games, with Rahul Dravid being used as a makeshift wicket-keeper to allow the use of an extra batsman or bowler. With this policy in place, Patel only made intermittent appearances in ODIs, usually when Dravid was injured or being rested (in full or from wicket-keeping duties). He played 13 ODIs in a two-year span, and during an interrupted career managed only an average of 14.66 and a top-score of 28 and was dropped thereafter. Parthiv returned to the Indian team in 2010 in the 4th and 5th Odi vs New Zealand. He celebrated this moment by hitting two back to back half centuries. Later on he was called up for replacing injured Sachin Tendulkar in India tour South Africa .


title: Parthiv Patel

text: With wicket-keeper captain MS Dhoni rested for the tour along with several seniors such as Sachin Tendulkar, Zaheer Khan, he was entrusted with the job of wicket-keeping in the tour along with Wriddhiman Saha. In the lone T20I match played in the tour, he made his T20I debut at the Queen's Park Oval at Port-of-Spain. He opened the batting along with another left-handed debutante Shikhar Dhawan and made a 26 from 20 balls. In the second ODI against West Indies he scored 56 not out.


title: Parthiv Patel

text: With wicket-keeper Wriddhiman Saha injured, Parthiv was called to test team duty for the third test in Mohali. He proved the selectors' decision was right with two good innings including an unbeaten 67 runs from 54 balls in the second innings which led India to victory.


title: Parthiv Patel

text: Parthiv Patel, along with Robin Singh and Rohan Gavaskar played their first T20 match in 2005. This was the early phase of t20 format. But the first Indian cricketer to play a t20 match was Dinesh Mongia. He played his debut match in July 2004.


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: In general relativity, a geodesic generalizes the notion of a "straight line" to curved spacetime. Importantly, the world line of a particle free from all external, non-gravitational forces is a particular type of geodesic. In other words, a freely moving or falling particle always moves along a geodesic.


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: In general relativity, gravity can be regarded as not a force but a consequence of a curved spacetime geometry where the source of curvature is the stress–energy tensor (representing matter, for instance). Thus, for example, the path of a planet orbiting a star is the projection of a geodesic of the curved four-dimensional (4-D) spacetime geometry around the star onto three-dimensional (3-D) space.


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: where "s" is a scalar parameter of motion (e.g. the proper time), and formula_2 are Christoffel symbols (sometimes called the affine connection coefficients or Levi-Civita connection coefficients) symmetric in the two lower indices. Greek indices may take the values: 0, 1, 2, 3 and the summation convention is used for repeated indices formula_3 and formula_4. The quantity on the left-hand-side of this equation is the acceleration of a particle, so this equation is analogous to Newton's laws of motion, which likewise provide formulae for the acceleration of a particle. The Christoffel symbols are functions of the four spacetime coordinates and so are independent of the velocity or acceleration or other characteristics of a test particle whose motion is described by the geodesic equation.


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: So far the geodesic equation of motion has been written in terms of a scalar parameter "s". It can alternatively be written in terms of the time coordinate, formula_5 (here we have used the triple bar to signify a definition). The geodesic equation of motion then becomes:


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: This formulation of the geodesic equation of motion can be useful for computer calculations and to compare General Relativity with Newtonian Gravity. It is straightforward to derive this form of the geodesic equation of motion from the form which uses proper time as a parameter using the chain rule. Notice that both sides of this last equation vanish when the mu index is set to zero. If the particle's velocity is small enough, then the geodesic equation reduces to this:


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: Here the Latin index "n" takes the values [1,2,3]. This equation simply means that all test particles at a particular place and time will have the same acceleration, which is a well-known feature of Newtonian gravity. For example, everything floating around in the International Space Station will undergo roughly the same acceleration due to gravity.


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: Physicist Steven Weinberg has presented a derivation of the geodesic equation of motion directly from the equivalence principle. The first step in such a derivation is to suppose that a free falling particle does not accelerate in the neighborhood of a point-event with respect to a freely falling coordinate system (formula_8). Setting formula_9, we have the following equation that is locally applicable in free fall:


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: We have already said that the left-hand-side of this last equation must vanish because of the Equivalence Principle. Therefore:


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: Notice that, if we had used the proper time “s” as the parameter of motion, instead of using the locally inertial time coordinate “T”, then our derivation of the geodesic equation of motion would be complete. In any event, let us continue by applying the one-dimensional chain rule:


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: As before, we can set formula_5. Then the first derivative of "x" with respect to "t" is one and the second derivative is zero. Replacing "λ" with zero gives:


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: The geodesic equation of motion can alternatively be derived using the concept of parallel transport.


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: We can (and this is the most common technique) derive the geodesic equation via the action principle. Consider the case of trying to find a geodesic between two timelike-separated events.


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: where formula_24 is the line element. There is a negative sign inside the square root because the curve must be timelike. To get the geodesic equation we must vary this action. To do this let us parameterize this action with respect to a parameter formula_25. Doing this we get:


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: We can now go ahead and vary this action with respect to the curve formula_27. By the principle of least action we get:


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: Integrating by-parts the last term and dropping the total derivative (which equals to zero at the boundaries) we get that:


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: Albert Einstein believed that the geodesic equation of motion can be derived from the field equations for empty space, i.e. from the fact that the Ricci curvature vanishes. He wrote:


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: It has been shown that this law of motion — generalized to the case of arbitrarily large gravitating masses — can be derived from the field equations of empty space alone. According to this derivation the law of motion is implied by the condition that the field be singular nowhere outside its generating mass points.


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: One of the imperfections of the original relativistic theory of gravitation was that as a field theory it was not complete; it introduced the independent postulate that the law of motion of a particle is given by the equation of the geodesic.


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: A complete field theory knows only fields and not the concepts of particle and motion. For these must not exist independently from the field but are to be treated as part of it.


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: Both physicists and philosophers have often repeated the assertion that the geodesic equation can be obtained from the field equations to describe the motion of a gravitational singularity, but this claim remains disputed. According to David Malament, “Though the geodesic principle can be recovered as theorem in general relativity, it is not a consequence of Einstein’s equation (or the conservation principle) alone. Other assumptions are needed to derive the theorems in question.” Less controversial is the notion that the field equations determine the motion of a fluid or dust, as distinguished from the motion of a point-singularity.


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: In deriving the geodesic equation from the equivalence principle, it was assumed that particles in a local inertial coordinate system are not accelerating. However, in real life, the particles may be charged, and therefore may be accelerating locally in accordance with the Lorentz force. That is:


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: These last three equations can be used as the starting point for the derivation of an equation of motion in General Relativity, instead of assuming that acceleration is zero in free fall. Because the Minkowski tensor is involved here, it becomes necessary to introduce something called the "metric tensor" in General Relativity. The metric tensor "g" is symmetric, and locally reduces to the Minkowski tensor in free fall. The resulting equation of motion is as follows:


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: This last equation signifies that the particle is moving along a timelike geodesic; massless particles like the photon instead follow null geodesics (replace −1 with zero on the right-hand side of the last equation). It is important that the last two equations are consistent with each other, when the latter is differentiated with respect to proper time, and the following formula for the Christoffel symbols ensures that consistency:


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: This last equation does not involve the electromagnetic fields, and it is applicable even in the limit as the electromagnetic fields vanish. The letter "g" with superscripts refers to the inverse of the metric tensor. In General Relativity, indices of tensors are lowered and raised by contraction with the metric tensor or its inverse, respectively.


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: A geodesic between two events can also be described as the curve joining those two events which has a stationary interval (4-dimensional "length"). "Stationary" here is used in the sense in which that term is used in the calculus of variations, namely, that the interval along the curve varies minimally among curves that are nearby to the geodesic.


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: In Minkowski space there is only one geodesic that connects any given pair of events, and for a time-like geodesic, this is the curve with the longest proper time between the two events. In curved spacetime, it is possible for a pair of widely separated events to have more than one time-like geodesic between them. In such instances, the proper times along several geodesics will not in general be the same. For some geodesics in such instances, it is possible for a curve that connects the two events and is nearby to the geodesic to have either a longer or a shorter proper time than the geodesic.


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: For a space-like geodesic through two events, there are always nearby curves which go through the two events that have either a longer or a shorter proper length than the geodesic, even in Minkowski space. In Minkowski space, the geodesic will be a straight line. Any curve that differs from the geodesic purely spatially ("i.e." does not change the time coordinate) in any inertial frame of reference will have a longer proper length than the geodesic, but a curve that differs from the geodesic purely temporally ("i.e." does not change the space coordinates) in such a frame of reference will have a shorter proper length.


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: Substituting the expression of "f" into the Euler–Lagrange equation (which makes the value of the integral "l" stationary), gives


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: If the parameter "s" is chosen to be affine, then the right side of the above equation vanishes (because formula_65 is constant). Finally, we have the geodesic equation


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: The geodesic equation can be alternatively derived from the autoparallel transport of curves. The derivation is based on the lectures given by Frederic P. Schuller at the We-Heraeus International Winter School on Gravity & Light.


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: Let formula_67 be a smooth manifold with connection and formula_68 be a curve on the manifold. The curve is said to be autoparallely transported if and only if formula_69.


title: Geodesics in general relativity

text: Using how the connection acts on functions (formula_74) and expanding the second term with the help of the connection coefficient functions:


title: Union County, New Jersey

text: Union County is a county in the northern part of the U.S. state of New Jersey. As of the 2020 U.S. census, the county's population was 575,345, making it the seventh-most populous of New Jersey's 21 counties. Its county seat is Elizabeth.


title: Union County, New Jersey

text: In 2015, the county had a per capita personal income of $60,089, the seventh-highest in New Jersey and ranked 152nd of 3,113 counties in the United States. The Bureau of Economic Analysis ranked the county as having the 119th-highest per capita income of all 3,113 counties in the United States (and the eighth-highest in New Jersey) in 2009. A study by Forbes.com determined that Union County pays the second-highest property taxes of all U.S. counties, based on 2007 data.


title: Union County, New Jersey

text: With a population density of 4,955 people per square mile (water excluded), Union County was the 15th-most densely populated county in the United States as of the 2010 Census, and third-densest in New Jersey, behind Hudson County (ranked 6th nationwide at 9,754 per square mile) and Essex County (ranked 11th at 6,126). The county is located in the North Jersey region.