title: Hairdresser

text: The first appearance of the word "hairdresser" is in 17th century Europe, and hairdressing was considered a profession. Hair fashion of the period suggested that wealthy women wear large, complex and heavily adorned hairstyles, which would be maintained by their personal maids and other people, who would spend hours dressing the woman's hair. A wealthy man's hair would often be maintained by a valet. It was in France where men began styling women's hair for the first time, and many of the notable hairdressers of the time were men, a trend that would continue into contemporary times. The first famous male hairdresser was Champagne, who was born in Southern France. Upon moving to Paris, he opened his own hair salon and dressed the hair of wealthy Parisian women until his death in 1658.


title: Hairdresser

text: Women's hair grew taller in style during the 17th century, popularized by the hairdresser Madame Martin. The hairstyle, "the tower," was the trend with wealthy English and American women, who relied on hairdressers to style their hair as tall as possible. Tall piles of curls were pomaded, powdered and decorated with ribbons, flowers, lace, feathers and jewelry. The profession of hairdressing was launched as a genuine profession when Legros de Rumigny was declared the first official hairdresser of the French court. In 1765 de Rumigny published his book "Art de la Coiffure des Dames", which discussed hairdressing and included pictures of hairstyles designed by him. The book was a best seller amongst Frenchwomen, and four years later de Rumigny opened a school for hairdressers: Academie de Coiffure. At the school he taught men and women to cut hair and create his special hair designs.


title: Hairdresser

text: By 1777, approximately 1,200 hairdressers were working in Paris. During this time, barbers formed unions, and demanded that hairdressers do the same. Wigmakers also demanded that hairdressers cease taking away from their trade, and hairdressers responded that their roles were not the same, hairdressing was a service, and wigmakers made and sold a product. de Rumigny died in 1770 and other hairdressers gained in popularity, specifically three Frenchmen: Frederic, Larseueur, and Léonard. Leonard and Larseueur were the stylists for Marie Antoinette. Leonard was her favorite, and developed many hairstyles that became fashion trends within wealthy Parisian circles, including the "loge d'opera", which towered five feet over the wearer's head. During the French Revolution he escaped the country hours before he was to be arrested, alongside the king, queen, and other clients. Léonard emigrated to Russia, where he worked as the premier hairdresser for Russian nobility.


title: Hairdresser

text: Parisian hairdressers continued to develop influential styles during the early 19th century. Wealthy French women would have their favorite hairdressers style their hair from within their own homes, a trend seen in wealthy international communities. Hairdressing was primarily a service affordable only to those wealthy enough to hire professionals or to pay for servants to care for their hair. In the United States, Marie Laveau was one of the most famous hairdressers of the period. Laveau, located in New Orleans, began working as a hairdresser in the early 1820s, maintaining the hair of wealthy women of the city. She was a voodoo practitioner, called the "Voodoo Queen of New Orleans," and she used her connections to wealthy women to support her religious practice. She provided "help" to women who needed it for money, gifts and other favors.


title: Hairdresser

text: French hairdresser Marcel Grateau developed the "Marcel wave" in the late part of the century. His wave required the use of a special hot hair iron and needed to be done by an experienced hairdresser. Fashionable women asked to have their hair "marceled." During this period, hairdressers began opening salons in cities and towns, led by Martha Matilda Harper, who developed one of the first retail chains of hair salons, the Harper Method.


title: Hairdresser

text: Beauty salons became popularized during the 20th century, alongside men's barbershops. These spaces served as social spaces, allowing women to socialize while having their hair done and other services such as facials. Wealthy women still had hairdressers visit their home, but, the majority of women visited salons for services, including high-end salons such as Elizabeth Arden's Red Door Salon.


title: Hairdresser

text: Major advancements in hairdressing tools took place during this period. Electricity led to the development of permanent wave machines and hair dryers. These tools allowed hairdressers to promote visits to their salons, over limited service in-home visits. New coloring processes were developed, including those by Eugène Schueller in Paris, which allowed hairdressers to perform complicated styling techniques. After World War I, the bob cut and the shingle bob became popular, alongside other short haircuts. In the 1930s complicated styles came back into fashion, alongside the return of the Marcel wave. Hairdressing was one of the few acceptable professions during this time for women, alongside teaching, nursing and clerical work.


title: Hairdresser

text: Some hairstylists specialize in particular services, such as colorists, who specialize in coloring hair.


title: Hairdresser

text: Occupationally, hairdressing is expected to grow faster than the average for all other occupations, at 20%. A state license is required for hairdressers to practice, with qualifications varying from state to state. Generally a person interested in hairdressing must have a high school diploma or GED, be at least 16 years of age, and have graduated from a state-licensed barber or cosmetology school. Full-time programs often last 9 months or more, leading to an associate degree. After students graduate from a program, they take a state licensing exam, which often consists of a written test, and a practical test of styling or an oral exam. Hairdressers must pay for licenses, and occasionally licenses must be renewed. Some states allow hairdressers to work without obtaining a new license, while others require a new license. About 44% of hairdressers are self-employed, often putting in 40-hour work weeks, and even longer among the self-employed. In 2008, 29% of hairstylists worked part-time, and 14% had variable schedules. As of 2008, people working as hairdressers totaled about 630,700, with a projected increase to 757,700 by 2018.


title: Hairdresser

text: Like many occupations, hairdressing is associated with potential health hazards stemming from the products workers use on the job as well as the environment they work in. Exposure risks are highly variable throughout the profession due to differences in the physical workspace, such as use of proper ventilation, as well as individual exposures to various chemicals throughout one’s career. Hairdressers encounter a variety of chemicals on the job due to handling products such as shampoos, conditioners, sprays, chemical straighteners, permanent curling agents, bleaching agents, and dyes. While the U.S. Food and Drug Administration does hold certain guidelines over cosmetic products, such as proper labeling and provisions against adulteration, the FDA does not require approval of products prior to being sold to the public. This leaves opportunity for variations in product formulation, which can make occupational exposure evaluation challenging. However, there are certain chemicals that are commonly found in products used in hair salons and have been the subject of various occupational hazard studies.


title: Hairdresser

text: Formaldehyde is a chemical used in various industries and has been classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer or IARC as “carcinogenic to humans”. The presence of formaldehyde and methylene glycol, a formaldehyde derivative, have been found in hair smoothing products, such as the Brazilian Blowout. The liquid product is applied to the hair, which is then dried using a blow dryer. Simulation studies as well as observational studies of working salons have shown formaldehyde levels in the air that meet and exceed occupational exposure limits. Variations in observed levels are a function of ventilation used in the workplace as well as the levels of formaldehyde, and its derivatives, in the product itself.


title: Hairdresser

text: Aromatic amines are a broad class of compounds containing an amine group attached to an aromatic ring. IARC has categorized most aromatic amines as known carcinogens. Their use spans several industries including use in pesticides, medications, and industrial dyes. Aromatic amines have also been found in oxidative (permanent) hair dyes; however due to their potential for carcinogenicity, they were removed from most hair dye formulations and their use was completely banned in the European Union.


title: Hairdresser

text: Phthalates are a class of compounds that are esters of phthalic acid. Their main use has been as plasticizers, additives to plastic products to change certain physical characteristics. They have also been widely used in cosmetic products as preservatives, including shampoos and hair sprays. Phthalates have been implicated as endocrine disrupting chemicals, compounds that mimic the body’s own hormones and can lead to dysregulation of the reproductive and neurologic systems as well as changes in metabolism and cell proliferation.


title: Hairdresser

text: Most hairdressers are women of childbearing age, which lends to additional considerations for potential workplace exposures and the risks they may pose. There have been studies linking mothers who are hairdressers with adverse birthing outcomes such as low birth weight, preterm delivery, perinatal death, and neonates who are small for gestational age. However, these studies failed to show a well-defined association between individual risk factors and adverse birthing outcomes. Other studies have also indicated a correlation between professional hairdressing and menstrual dysfunction as well as subfertility. However, subsequent studies did not show similar correlations. Due to such inconsistencies, further research is required.


title: Hairdresser

text: The International Agency for Research on Cancer or IARC, has categorized occupational exposures of hairdressers and barbers to chemical agents found in the workplace as “"probably carcinogenic to humans"” or category 2A in their classification system. This is due in part to the presence of chemical compounds historically found in in hair products that have exhibited mutagenic and carcinogenic effects in animal and in vitro studies. However, the same consistent effects have yet to be fully determined in humans. There have been studies showing a link between occupational exposure to hair dyes and increased risk of bladder in male hairdressers but not females. Other malignancies such as ovarian, breast and lung cancers have also been studied in hairdressers, but the outcomes of these studies were either inconclusive due to potential confounding or did not exhibit an increase in risk.


title: Hairdresser

text: Volatile organic compounds have been shown to be the largest inhalation exposure in hair salons, with the greatest concentrations occurring while mixing hair dyes and with use of hair sprays. Other notable respiratory exposures included ethanol, ammonia, and formaldehyde. The concentration of exposure was generally found to be a function of the presence or absence of ventilation in the area in which they were working. Studies have exhibited an increased rate of respiratory symptoms experienced such as cough, wheezing, rhinitis, and shortness of breath among hairdressers when compared to other groups. Decreased lung function levels on spirometry have also been demonstrated in hairdressers when compared to unexposed reference groups.


title: Hairdresser

text: Contact dermatitis is a common dermatological diagnosis affecting hairdressers. Allergen sensitization has been considered the main cause for most cases of contact dermatitis in hairdressers, as products such as hair dyes and bleaches, as well as permanent curling agents contain chemicals that are known sensitizers. Hairdressers also spend a significant amount of time engaging in wet work with their hands being directly immersed in water or by handling of wet hair and tools. Overtime, this type of work has also been implicated in increased rate of irritant dermatitis among hairdressers due to damage of the skins natural protective barrier


title: Young Turks (song)

text: "Young Turks" is a song by Rod Stewart that first appeared in 1981 on his album "Tonight I'm Yours". The track presented Stewart backed by a new synthpop and new wave sound, in part influenced by acts like Devo. The term "young Turk", which originates from the early 20th-century secular nationalist reform party of the same name, is slang for a rebellious youth who acts contrary to what is deemed normal by society. The actual phrase "young Turks" is in fact never heard in the song, the chorus instead centering on the phrase "young hearts, be free, tonight", leading to the song frequently being misidentified as ""Young Hearts"" or ""Young Hearts Be Free"".


title: Young Turks (song)

text: The music for the song was composed by Carmine Appice, Duane Hitchings, and Kevin Savigar, with lyrics written by Stewart. The song, which was released as the first US single (second in the UK) from "Tonight I’m Yours", was produced with synthesizers and a hi-hat played over a drum machine. On the "Billboard" Hot 100, "Young Turks" debuted at No. 61 on 17 October 1981 and peaked at No. 5 on 19 December 1981 – 9 January 1982. The song peaked at No. 11 on the UK Singles Chart and also was a Top 5 hit in Australia, Belgium, Israel (No. 1) and Canada. Released a few months after MTV went on the air, it was the first video containing breakdancing to be played by that station.


title: Young Turks (song)

text: The video, directed by Russell Mulcahy and choreographed by Kenny Ortega, was filmed in the central downtown area of Los Angeles in the summer of 1981. The runaway couple ("Billy", played by Dale Pauley, and "Patti", played by Elizabeth Daily) mentioned in the song is juxtaposed by a group of dancers who seemingly intermix with them throughout the video. About 14 seconds after the start of the video, Billy emerges from one floor above the now long abandoned Licha's Santa Fe Grill, in reality at the northwest corner of 7th and Santa Fe Streets in Los Angeles, and descends a ladder before dropping the last few feet down to the street. A little more than one-third of the way through the song, Billy and Patti are shoved toward the entrance of the Hotel Hayward, in reality at the west corner of 6th and Spring Streets, again in Los Angeles, between a mile and a half and two miles to the northwest. The dancers eventually end up in a railway yard just to the east of the grill, to where the couple has returned and Rod Stewart is singing the last half of the song.


title: Young Turks (song)

text: Stewart's videotaped rooftop performance of the song in Los Angeles (different from the aforementioned music video) appeared about one-third of the way through Dick Clark's three-hour "American Bandstand" 30th Anniversary Special Episode on 30 October 1981.


title: Skilyr Hicks

text: Skilyr Leigh Hicks (1998 – December 6, 2021) was an American singer-songwriter. She appeared on "America's Got Talent" season 8 in 2013, after which she released her debut album "Brand New Day". She died on December 6, 2021 at the age of 23.


title: Skilyr Hicks

text: Hicks learned to play the guitar in 2011. By her appearance on "America's Got Talent" at age 14 in 2013, she had written 20 original songs and performed in more than 100 shows. On "American's Got Talent," she sang "Brand New Day", an original song she had written for her late father. The clip of her singing went viral. She was eliminated in the second round of eliminations. After the show, she released her nine-track album "Brand New Day". Later that year, she appeared on the album "The 12 Bands of Christmas: Vol. 10", singing "Snowflakes in the South".


title: Skilyr Hicks

text: On her YouTube channel, Hicks released covers of Christina Aguilera's version of the song "Say Something" and Bob Dylan's "Make You Feel My Love".


title: Skilyr Hicks

text: Hicks attended North Augusta High School in North Augusta, South Carolina. In April 2015, Hicks went missing after school and her mother posted on Facebook asking for the public's help. Hicks was found that same day. She went missing again in May 2021 with police asking for the public's help in trying to locate her. The police stated Hicks struggled with mental health issues at that time. She was located five days later.


title: Skilyr Hicks

text: Hicks had been in trouble with the law on multiple occasions. In 2017, she was arrested and jailed for assaulting three family members while drunk. She spent more than 10 days in jail for the assaults. In November 2018, she was arrested for underage drinking and then failed to appear in court on multiple occasions.


title: Borneo elephant

text: The Borneo elephant, also called the Bornean elephant or the Borneo pygmy elephant, is a subspecies of Asian elephant "(Elephas maximus)" that inhabits northeastern Borneo, in Indonesia and Malaysia. Its origin remains the subject of debate. A definitive subspecific classification as Elephas maximus borneensis awaits a detailed range-wide morphometric and genetic study. Since 1986, the Asian elephant has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List as the population has declined by at least 50% over the last three generations, estimated to be 60–75 years. It is pre-eminently threatened by loss, degradation and fragmentation of habitat.


title: Borneo elephant

text: The Sultan of Sulu was thought to have introduced captive elephants to Borneo in the 18th century, which were released into the jungle. Comparison of the Borneo elephant population to putative source populations in DNA analysis indicates that the Borneo elephants more likely derived from Sundaic stock and are indigenous to Borneo, rather than having been introduced by humans. The genetic divergence of Borneo elephants warrants their recognition as a separate evolutionarily significant unit.


title: Borneo elephant

text: In general, Asian elephants are smaller than African elephants and have the highest body point on the head. The tip of their trunk has one finger-like process. Their back is convex or level.


title: Borneo elephant

text: It has become commonplace to refer to the Borneo elephant as a 'pygmy' subspecies, although adult elephants of Sabah of both genders are similar in height to their counterparts in Peninsular Malaysia. Five measurements of the skull of a fully adult female elephant from Gomantong Forest Reserve were slightly smaller (72–90%) than comparable dimensions averaged for two Sumatran skulls. Few available measurements show that they are of similar size to other populations of the Sunda subregion.


title: Borneo elephant

text: Morphological measurements of fifteen captive elephants from Peninsular Malaysia and of six elephants from Sabah were taken between April 2005 and January 2006, and repeated three times for each elephant and averaged. There was no significant difference in any of the characters between the two captive populations.


title: Borneo elephant

text: They are also remarkably tame and passive, another reason some scientists think they descended from a domestic collection.


title: Borneo elephant

text: Elephants are confined to the northern and northeastern parts of Borneo. In the 1980s, there were two distinct populations: One lived in Sabah, ranging over the Tabin Wildlife Reserve and adjacent mostly logged dipterocarp forest on steep terrain; the other inhabited the hilly interior at about altitude in dipterocarp forest, which was largely undisturbed at the time and only logged at its periphery. In Kalimantan, their range is restricted to a small contiguous area of the upper Sembakung River in the east.


title: Borneo elephant

text: The range of wild elephants in Sabah and Kalimantan seems to have expanded very little in the past 100 years despite access to suitable habitat elsewhere on Borneo. Borneo's soil tends to be young, leached, and infertile, and there is speculation that the distribution of wild elephants on the island may be limited by the occurrence of natural mineral sources.


title: Borneo elephant

text: In 1992, the estimated elephant population size in Sabah ranged from 500–2,000 individuals, based on survey work conducted in the Tabin Wildlife Reserve, in Lower Kinabatangan District and in the Deramakot Forest Reserve. An elephant population census was conducted in Sabah between July 2007 and December 2008, counting dung piles along 216 line transects in five main elephant managed ranges, covering a total distance of . Results of this survey suggest an elephant population of 1,184–3,652 individuals inhabiting the ranges of Tabin, Lower Kinabatangan, North Kinabatangan, Ulu Kalumpang Forest Reserve and the central forest of Sabah. The elephant density and population size varied throughout the five key ranges affected by (i) conversion of lowland forest, (ii) fragmentation of habitat, and (iii) existing land use activities such as logging. The upper catchment of Ulu Segama Forest Reserve had the highest density of elephants with 3.69 elephants per . Only the unprotected central forest area supported an elephant population of more than 1,000 individuals.


title: Borneo elephant

text: In 2005, five female elephants were fitted with tracking devices to study their home range and movement patterns in Sabah. Results suggest that elephant herds occupied a minimum home range from in non-fragmented forest, while in fragmented forest habitat, the annual home range for elephants is estimated to be around .


title: Borneo elephant

text: The pre-eminent threats to the Asian elephant today are habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation, which are driven by an expanding human population, and lead in turn to increasing conflicts between humans and elephants when elephants eat or trample crops. Hundreds of people and elephants are killed annually as a result of such conflicts.


title: Borneo elephant

text: Expanding human development disrupts their migration routes, depletes their food sources, and destroys their habitat.


title: Borneo elephant

text: The population of elephants in Kalimantan continues to dwindle as a result of damage to protected forests. As of April 2012 an estimated 20–80 elephants range near 22 villages in the Sebuku subdistrict of Nunukan district in North Kalimantan.


title: Borneo elephant

text: "Elephas maximus" is listed on CITES Appendix I. The genetic distinctiveness of Borneo elephants makes them one of the highest priority populations for Asian elephant conservation.


title: Borneo elephant

text: In Malaysia, the Borneo elephants are protected under schedule II of the Wildlife Conservation Enactment. Any person found guilty of hunting elephants is liable on conviction to a fine of $RM 50,000 or five years imprisonment or both.


title: Borneo elephant

text: The Oregon Zoo in Portland has the only Borneo elephant in the United States, a rescued female by the name of Chendra, who was found orphaned, alone, hungry, and injured in the wild after her herd was crop-raided in a palm oil plantation.


title: Borneo elephant

text: It has not been resolved whether Borneo elephants are indigenous or have descended from captive elephants presented to the Sultan of Sulu in 1750 by the East India Company and later set free in northern Borneo.


title: Borneo elephant

text: In the 19th century, a zoological exploration established that wild elephants occurred naturally in a restricted region of northeastern Borneo. The status and taxonomic distinctiveness of the Borneo elephants has been controversial since then. In 1940, Frederick Nutter Chasen considered Bornean elephants as descendants of an introduced stock, and placed them in the subspecies "Elephas maximus indicus". Reginald Innes Pocock having studied specimens in the British Museum of Natural History disagreed in 1943, and placed all Sundaic elephants in the subspecies "Elephas maximus sumatrensis". In 1950, Paules Edward Pieris Deraniyagala described a subspecies "Elephas maximus borneensis", taking as his type an illustration in the National Geographical Magazine.


title: Borneo elephant

text: In 2003, the debate was re-opened by a suggestion that the introduced Sulu elephants and the northeastern Borneo population might have descended from the now-extinct Javan elephant, which was named "Elephas maximus sondaicus" by Deraniyagala. This hypothesis is based on missing archaeological evidence of long-term elephant habitation in Borneo, a corroboration in folklore and that elephants have not colonized the entire island of Borneo.


title: Borneo elephant

text: In 2003, Mitochondrial DNA analysis and microsatellite data indicated that the extant population is derived from Sundaic stock, but has undergone independent local evolution for some 300,000 years since a postulated Pleistocene colonization, and possibly became isolated from other Asian elephant populations when land bridges that linked Borneo with the other Sunda Islands and the Asian mainland disappeared after the Last Glacial Maximum 18,000 years ago.


title: Borneo elephant

text: Elephants were appropriate gifts from one ruler to another, or to a person of high standing, and it was customary to transport them by sea. In about 1395, the Raja of Java gave two elephants to the ruler Raja Baginda of Sulu. These animals were reputedly the founders of a feral population at the western end of Borneo. When in 1521 the remnants of Ferdinand Magellan’s circumnavigation of the Earth reached Brunei, the chronicler of the voyage recounted that the delegation from the flagship "Victoria" was conveyed to and from the ruler's palace on elephants caparisoned in silk. This custom had been discontinued by the time later visitors arrived in Brunei in the 1770s, who reported wild-living elephant herds that were hunted by local people after harvest. Despite the early records of royal elephants in Brunei and Banjarmasin, there was no tradition of capturing and taming local wild elephants in Borneo.


title: Borneo elephant

text: The arrival of elephants in the northern Kalimantan region of Borneo coincides with the rule of the Sultans of Sulu over Sabah. The Sultanate of Sulu enjoyed peaceful ties with the Hindu Empire of Java. As a token of appreciation, the rulers of Java sent their elephants to Sulu, much as they had sent Javan elephants to the Sultanate of Maguindanao, which also partly gives the reason why skeletal remains of small elephants are found in Mindanao, south Philippines. The Sultan of Sulu and his family shipped some of their prized Javan elephants to northeast Borneo due to lack of land and for the elephants to help in hauling logs out of the forest to create fast and long ships. When this lease was signed, most of these timid and largely domesticated small elephants under the employ of Sulu's shipbuilders and traders were released into the forests so they could live deep inside the jungle away from any feuding sultan who might use them for war. This single act of releasing the pachyderms to the wild made the Bolkiah family of Sulu and their allies the savior of what remaining elephants are left, old locals attest.


title: Char Aznable

text: , born and also gone by the name , is a fictional character from the "Gundam" franchise. He is originally one of the main antagonists in "Mobile Suit Gundam" working for the Principality of Zeon, named after his late father Zeon Zum Deikun, with the honorary title of during Gundam's One Year War. Despite having opposed Earth Federation soldier Amuro Ray several times, in the sequel "Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam" he becomes , an Anti-Earth Union Group (AEUG) pilot fighting alongside the series' main characters against the elitist Titans. In his final appearance in "Char's Counterattack", he assumes leadership of the Neo Zeon movement, and becomes the titular antagonist of the film.


title: Char Aznable

text: Char became one of Gundam's most iconic characters, often overshadowing Amuro's popularity. He also appeared as the most popular male anime character in "Animage"s Anime Grand Prix poll as well as in several other polls highlighting his popularity in the Gundam franchise. His role in the original has often been praised alongside his rivalry with Amuro.


title: Char Aznable

text: Char Aznable was based on historic fighter-pilot Manfred von Richthofen who shared a similar nickname, "Red Baron". As a result, many of Char's actions were similar to Richtofen's during World War I since Tomino wanted to illustrate the chaos produced by wars in "Gundam". Amuro was introduced as an ordinary man in contrast to his rival the "Red Comet". This made Amuro hard to write as he was meant to oppose Char whom Tomino found more interesting. Furuya had fun in his work as during recordings of the series, he befriended Char's voice Actor, Shuichi Ikeda. However, he was not close to Tomino. Originally, Tomino did not want to include Amuro in "Zeta Gundam" and when trying to kill him, he failed to do it. As a result, he decided to put Amuro on a friendly relationship with Char. Furuya said that while Amuro also had popularity, he could not surpass his rival, Char, a common trait he sometimes find common in anime where there are rivalries.


title: Char Aznable

text: Born Casval Rem Deikun, he is the elder brother of Artesia Som Deikun and son of Zeon Zum Deikun, a dignitary who spoke out for peace between spacenoids and earthlings and founded the Zeon Republic. As revealed in "", Casval and his sister were sent to Earth following their father's supposed heart attack when Deikun's deputy Degwin Sodo Zabi orchestrates his own family's rise to power. Casval spent his remaining childhood years raised by Don Teabolo Mass under the alias of Édouard Mass before he and his sister flee to the Texas Colony after an attempt on their lives that killed their provider Jimba Ral, who revealed the Zabi family assassinated Deikun. It was there that Casval becomes Char Aznable after switching identities with a youth whose near-identical appearance to him resulted in his death by Kycilia Zabi's men.


title: Char Aznable

text: Taking advantage of his falsified death, Char enrolls in the Zeon Military Academy where he befriends Garma Zabi while wearing sunglasses to hide his eye color. Following the Zeon Republic's transition to the Principality of Zeon and its relations to the Federation deteriorating, paranoia begins to set when Federation increases their troop strength in Side 3 with fear it may be an occupation force. Char uses this to incites Garma to lead the other Academy students to storm the Federation base and subdue the stationed troops, resulting his expulsion from the Academy. Char travels to Earth and works at the construction site of Federation headquarters in Jaburo until returning to Side 3 when hostility breaks out between Zeon and the Federation, joining the Zeon mobile suit assault forces under the command of Admiral Dozle Zabi where he gradually made a name for himself as not only as a mobile suit pilot, but also as a tactician and a commanding officer.


title: Char Aznable

text: But despite his high position and esteem, Char is secretly plotting revenge against the Zabi family and first makes his move by luring Garma's fleet within the firing range of the Federation's "White Base". Prior to Garma's death at the hands of the "White Base", Char says to him, "Garma, blame this on the misfortune of your birth." Later in the war, Char begins a bitter rivalry with Federation pilot Amuro Ray, and he develops a relationship with Lalah Sune, a Newtype girl he saved from a brothel. Char also develops into a Newtype himself, and forms psychic bonds with both Amuro and Lalah. Char's abilities and natural charisma allow him to inspire and manipulate. Lalah is killed in battle, taking a blow meant for Char; this results in a bitter hatred between Char and Amuro.


title: Char Aznable

text: During the war, Char draws on Zeon's philosophy to form his identity. The Zeon Principality is largely an authoritarian state that values independence from the Earth and later the destruction of Earth's inhabitants. With his devotion to free all of those who are "trapped by gravity's pull" he is able to face the most deadly outcomes with dignity and leadership.


title: Char Aznable

text: In the Battle of A Baoa Qu, Char and Amuro's bitter rivalry reaches the level that they engage in a gunfight and then a sword fight after both lose their mobile suits. In the duel, Char realizes he has been distracted by his rivalry with Amuro, and refocuses on his true enemy - the Zabi family. An ensuing explosion knocks them apart, and Char rushes to save his sister. After being told by a dying Zeon soldier that Kycilia Zabi, the last surviving Zabi, is about to leave, he finds Kycilia's departing ship and kills her. He then disappears amidst the explosion and is logically presumed dead.


title: Char Aznable

text: Still presumed dead, Char reappears 8 years later in "Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam". Having left Axis Zeon, Char returns to the Earth Sphere in September 0084 and infiltrates the Earth Federation Forces ranking with the alias "Quattro Bajeena". Almost immediately, he finds himself involved in conflicts against the Earth Federation's newly formed Titan Task Force, fighting and shooting down two enemy warships within hours of acquiring his new identity. After meeting the Federation politician Commodore Blex Forer, Char joins a group of former Earth Federation Forces soldiers and eventually becomes a leading member of the Anti-Earth Union Group.


title: Char Aznable

text: This time, rather than serving as the rival of the new protagonist, Kamille Bidan, Char serves as Kamille's mentor in the war against the Earth Federation's oppressive Titans organization. In Zeta Gundam, Char becomes an ally of his former adversaries in Mobile Suit Gundam: Amuro Ray, Hayato Kobayashi and Bright Noa. He serves under Bright Noa as leader of AEUG mobile suit forces.


title: Char Aznable

text: During this period, Char loses faith in himself as a decision maker. It seems to be his greatest fear, as he normally displays none in regard to war. When assuming the identity of Quattro he willingly places himself under the command of his former enemies. He has discovered that there can be compromise in the future of Earth's population and the colonies. In the course of "Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam" even Bright Noa, who lost crew to Char's attacks on the White Base, urges him to drop the Quattro facade and become a leader to the Spacenoids, or those raised in space colonies. "Mobile Suit Zeta Gundam" portrays Char's image as a hero who is always willing to stand up and fight for the freedom of spacenoids. His political speech in front of Federation Assembly in Dakar, which is broadcast throughout Earth and Space, is one of the most important events in the U.C. Gundam timeline. It seals Char's total commitment toward space colonization and migration of humanity to space.


title: Char Aznable

text: Despite AEUG's victory in the Gryps Conflict against the Titans, Char is defeated in the final battle by Haman Karn, leader of the Axis Zeon (later Neo Zeon) faction and assumed dead. However, as the final credits roll, Char's damaged mobile suit floats by with its cockpit hatch open.


title: Char Aznable

text: Char returns in the movie "", set five years later, as the leader of a new Neo Zeon faction. He intends to create a nuclear winter by dropping the massive asteroid base Axis on the Earth, hence forcing a complete migration into space, which he believes will make all of humanity evolve into Newtypes. Only one thing stands in his way: the Federation's Londo Bell task force, and their top ace pilot, his old archrival Amuro Ray.


title: Char Aznable

text: In the second Neo Zeon movement, both Char and Amuro pilot mobile suits equipped with an advanced psycommu system known as psycoframe. Char authorized Anaheim Electronics to pass the psycoframe technology to the development team responsible for Amuro's Nu Gundam, effectively planning a fair showdown between them in advance. After Char's mobile suit is destroyed by Amuro in the duel, Amuro captures Char's escape pod, and against Char's taunting, attempts to push the asteroid Axis away from Earth. The intense willpower of Amuro and all the pilots assisting him causes Nu Gundam's psycoframes to resonate and overload, resulting in a spectacular aurora with Axis pushed out of Earth's orbit. Both Amuro and Char disappear without a trace in the incident. There is no concrete evidence about them being deceased in the movie although Nanai Miguel did claim that Char's life force was fading away, as Amuro intercepted Axis and cries for Char when Axis is finally pushed back. The fates of either character were never revealed in the film, though the novelization of "Mobile Suit Gundam: Char's Counterattack" confirms both as KIA. The follow-up "Gundam Unicorn" also supports this idea. However, in the official Universal Century timeline for the animated series, it lists Amuro Ray and Char Aznable as MIA.


title: Char Aznable

text: According to the manga "Mobile Suit Gundam The Origin", young Casval and his sister Artesia escape to Earth shortly after their father's death with the help of family friend Jimba Ral (father of Ramba Ral). They spend several years living a luxurious life under the guardianship of the aristocratic Don Teabolo Mass, who names them Edward and Sayla, and treats them like his own children. During this time, Jimba Ral constantly reminds Casval of the Zabi Family's betrayal of his father. After narrowly escaping an attempt on their lives (in which Jimba Ral dies), they flee to the Texas Colony.


title: Char Aznable

text: They live for a time in a house set up by Texas Colony's chief manager Roger Aznable, still under Teabolo Mass's care. They meet Roger's son Char and discover that he and Casval are nearly identical, except Casval's eyes are blue while Char's are brown. Eventually Char is taken in by Gihren Zabi's propaganda, and against his father's wishes sets off for officer training school. Casval decides to accompany him under the guise of looking out for his friend. Kycilia Zabi finds out that Casval is headed back to Side 3, and without consulting Gihren, orders Casval's death. Both near-identical boys are booked to leave on the same flight, but an antique pistol and fake explosives are found in Char's bag. Not wanting to miss the entrance exam, Char accepts Casval's suggestion to swap clothes in the restroom. Char boards the ship under the name Edward Mass, while Casval, under the name Char Aznable is detained overnight. Shortly after departure, the ship explodes and kills everyone aboard (no doubt the work of Kycilia's henchmen). Edward Mass is listed among the dead and Casval takes on the name Char, enters the Zeon Military Academy and begins wearing sunglasses to hide his eye color (as it wouldn't match any of the real Char's IDs).


title: Char Aznable

text: After entering the Academy, Char excels in his training and befriends Garma Zabi. As relations between the Zeon Republic (which has been renamed the Principality of Zeon) and the Federation deteriorate, the Federation increases their troop strength in Side 3. There is widespread fear that this troop increase is in fact an invasion and occupation force. On the eve of troop increase, Casval incites Garma to lead other students in the Academy to storm the Federation base and subdue the stationed troops. For this action Casval is stripped of his rank and expelled from the Academy. He travels to Earth and works at the construction site of Federation headquarters in Jaburo. After hostility breaks out between Zeon and the Federation, he returns to Side 3 and joins the Zeon mobile suit assault forces under the command of Admiral Dozle Zabi. He displays superior fighting abilities during the Battle of Loum, single-handedly destroying five Federation "Magellan"-class battleships by pushing his red-painted Zaku to fly at a breakneck speed, which earned him the nickname "Red Comet". He was promoted an exceptional two ranks to Lieutenant Commander.


title: Char Aznable

text: At the end of the One Year War, Char goes to Axis and his experience there is partly depicted in the manga "Char's Deleted Affair", where he heroically protects Axis in two major battles against the Earth Federation. He stays there until the end of U.C. 0082, when he gets back to Side 3 for a special mission to protect Haman Karn's inspection journey of Side 3. When they arrive at Zum City in U.C. 0083, he gets an invitation by George Miguel (Brother of Nanai) to join a paramilitary spacenoid organization within the Earth Federation Force.


title: Char Aznable

text: However, upon hearing of Maharaja Karn's fatal illness in late May 0083, Char and Haman both decide to return to Axis. Once they do, they're intercepted by the pro-war Axis faction that wishes to restart the conflict with the Earth Federation, led by one Colonel Enzo. A civil war breaks out, with Char and Haman eventually overcoming Enzo's forces. Unfortunately, Mahajara Karn - Haman's father and the true political leader of Axis' - dies just shortly before the battle ends, and Haman now finds herself in charge of both Axis and Mineva. Tension between Char and Haman over the future of Axis and Zeon lead Char to finally leave the asteroid permanently with over 600 other soldiers on October 29, 0083.


title: Char Aznable

text: In this 2017 live-action adaptation of the same-named manga and anime, Char makes a cameo appearance, arriving at Gengai's lab and repair shop to pick up his Zaku (2 Commander type), much to the astonishment of manga-obsessed swordsman Gintoki. In this movie, which is packed to the gills with pop culture references, Char is played by actor and singer Seiji Rokkaku.


title: Char Aznable

text: Char favors speed-orientated offensive battle tactics and hates to get hit, even when piloting an I-Field generator equipped unit and beam attacks have minimal to no effect. He favors red mobile suits, including his red MS-06S Zaku II, Z'Gok, RMS-009 Rick Dias, and MSN-04 Sazabi (in the Char's Counterattack novel - MSN-04-2 Nightingale).


title: Char Aznable

text: The name "Char Aznable" was inspired by Armenian-French singer and songwriter and a character named Charkin in an earlier robot anime "Reideen" (ライディーン)


title: Char Aznable

text: Char Aznable is not only a character, but has become a brand name. Char, along with five other notable mecha and pilots from the various Gundam series, were recognized in the second set of "Anime Heroes and Heroines" stamps, released in Japan in 2005. Char Aznable has routinely placed in the top 10 lists of popular characters in both Gundam-specific and general-oriented fan magazines in Japan, such as "Gundam Ace" and "Animage", typically ranking higher than the main character and his rival, Amuro Ray. In "Gundam Ace", Char is consistently in the top 3 of the list, and held the number 1 spot for long periods of time, despite the fact that "Gundam Ace" tallies votes for Char's alter-ego Quattro Bajeena separately. In fact, Quattro also consistently ranks in the top 10. In both Gunpla and Figure magazines it is almost guaranteed to see Char's custom red mobile suit. He has also been voted as the second most popular male character from the 1980s by "Newtype" readers. During January from 2007, Oricon made a poll in which they asked Japanese fans from manga and anime which characters from any series they would most like to see in spinoff series. He won the men's poll while ranked second in the overall. In a NHK poll from 2018 he was voted as the best "Gundam" character. In an Anime!Anime! poll, Amuro and Quattro were voted as one of the best anime rivals turned into allies. The term Char Clone is used to describe characters in the Gundam franchise that have many similar traits to Char, (red, yellow, and black color scheme, a mask concealing their identity, a rivalry with the main character) such as Zechs Merquise from Gundam Wing or Mr. Bushido from Gundam 00. More blatantly, Full Frontal, the main antagonist of "Mobile Suit Gundam Unicorn," is an artificial human created with the remnants of Char's soul after the events of "Char's Counterattack."


title: Char Aznable

text: On the Japanese bulletin board 2channel, the Gundam forums are named "Char custom" (シャア専用), and the anonymous placeholder for the name is changed to "3 times more than the usual anonymous" (通常の名無しさんの３倍), a reference to the "3 times faster than the usual Zaku" line from the original series. "Char Custom" refers to Char's tendency to highly customized standard Mobile Suits to his exact specifications and generally making the said units far more potent than normal. This usually involves the character coloring his suits red, which led some people to go as far as to label anything red "Char-custom", and to make vague references to the "3 times more potent" line in the original Gundam series (e.g. A red pencil might write 3 times faster, or is 3 times more likely to break). This pinkish-red colour is actually not the idea of the director, but only because the excess pinkish red colour ink the animation company has at the time. It is, however, stated in the game "Gireh's Greed" that the colour is actually only the colour of an unpainted Zaku due to the grudge from him being the top graduate from military school.


title: Char Aznable

text: Bandai has capitalized on the character's popularity by licensing out the name to various products. There has been a Char-custom laptop, Char-custom Nintendo Gamecube, and a Char-custom motorbike helmet. All these products have a red satin finish, and have the goldleaf Zeon insignia or the emblem of Char's Neo Zeon emblazoned on them. A Char-custom Game Boy Advance SP was also created in Japan (with many sources claiming its battery will last 3 times as long as the normal GBA, or even that it will crash 3 times as much). On July 25, 2006, GE Consumer Finance released a Char Custom credit card, which receives three times as many bonus points per 1000 yen spent compared to their other Gundam-related credit cards . Japanese cell phone company Soft Bank released a special Char Custom cell phone in late 2007, with a very large red Zaku head which serves as the charger base. Char related apparel and accessories span a wide range, from the ubiquitous Quattro sunglasses to Char lighters, neckties, wristbands, caps, wallets and a wide range of T-shirts. The creator of Char Aznable, Yoshiyuki Tomino, does not like the idea of making money this way. He feels that by sticking the term "Char's Custom" to the products culturally suggests the quality of the product is superior to other brands. However, most of them are only coloured red and are basically the same as the products on which they are based; ironically, some of these "Char Custom" products are even of lower quality than the baseline products. Creator Yoshiyuki Tomino believes that "having satisfaction in such products just because they are popular and can earn money is a sin, since it cannot teach a correct social sense to the newer generation".


title: Char Aznable

text: In a planned spaceflight for 2006, Soyuz TMA-9, a Japanese internet investor named Daisuke Enomoto had asked to dress up as Char Aznable. However, medical restrictions prevented him from participating in the flight. Toyota also formed a new branch called Zeonic Toyota planning to issue a series of special cars, the first one being Char Aznable special Auris.


title: Char Aznable

text: Although his duel with Amuro in the film was considered the highlight of the film, Allen Divers from Anime News Network criticized how unfulfilled was their rivalry. THEM Anime Reviews' Carlo Ross saw Char in the film as the "true star" believing him to overshadow Amuro. On the other hand, J. Doyle Wallis criticized their rivalry in the film considering it a "rehash" of the events of the television series.


title: Hillman Imp

text: The Hillman Imp is a small economy car that was made by the Rootes Group and its successor Chrysler Europe from 1963 until 1976. Revealed on 3 May 1963, after much advance publicity, it was the first British mass-produced car with the engine block and cylinder head cast in aluminium.


title: Hillman Imp

text: Being a direct competitor to the BMC's Mini, it used a space-saving rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout to allow as much luggage and passenger capacity as possible in both the rear and the front of the car. It used a unique opening rear hatch to allow luggage to be put into the back seat rest.


title: Hillman Imp

text: It was the first mass-produced British car with the engine in the back and the first to use a diaphragm spring clutch. The baulk-ring synchromesh unit for the transaxle compensated for the speeds of gear and shaft before engagement, from which the Mini had suffered during its early production years.


title: Hillman Imp

text: It incorporated many design features which were uncommon in cars until the late 1970s, such as a folding rear bench seat, automatic choke and gauges for temperature, voltage and oil pressure.


title: Hillman Imp

text: This unorthodox small/light car was designed for the Rootes Group by Michael Parkes (who later became a Formula One driver) and Tim Fry. It was manufactured at the purpose-built Linwood plant in Scotland. As well as the Hillman marque, there was a series of variations, including an estate car (the Husky), a van and a coupé.


title: Hillman Imp

text: Between August 12 and 14, 1964, a Sunbeam Imp sports sedan (ZT-86-20) completed the First American Rodding Magazine sanctioned endurance run and broke a world record in the process, previously set by Erwin George “Cannonball” Baker in 1933, driving from New York City, to Los Angeles, California, covering 3,011 miles in 48 hours, 9 minutes, 54 seconds at an average speed of 63.7 mph.


title: Hillman Imp

text: The Imp gained a reputation as a successful rally car when Rosemary Smith won the Tulip Rally in 1965. That led the Rootes Group to produce a special rally conversion of the Imp under both the Hillman and Singer marques, known as the Imp "Rallye". In 1966, after winning the Coupe des Dames, Smith was disqualified under a controversial ruling regarding the headlamps of her Imp. The Imp was also successful in touring car racing when Bill McGovern won the British Saloon Car Championship in 1970, 1971 and 1972.


title: Hillman Imp

text: Considered ahead of its time, the Imp nevertheless suffered from reliability problems, which harmed its reputation and led to the Rootes Group being taken over by Chrysler Europe in 1967. The Imp continued in production until 1976, selling just under half a million units in 13 years.


title: Hillman Imp

text: Known internally within the Rootes Groups as the "APEX" project, the Imp came about because of the fuel shortage caused by the Suez Crisis in 1956. Petrol was rationed in the UK, sales of the heavy cars for which Rootes was known had dramatically slumped, and there was a huge market for small economical cars with low fuel usage. The BMC's Mini had already taken advantage of the opportunity, with production starting in 1959. Although the project officially began in 1955, the market for small cars was soon recognised and it was evident that the project would evolve into Rootes' first small, economical car.


title: Hillman Imp

text: Seeing an opportunity, Mike Parkes and Tim Fry offered to design the car: "Well, Mike Parkes and I were very good friends. So we went to the director of engineering, B. B. Winter, and said to him we could design you just the car we want. And he said: 'Alright, get on with it then!'". The early stages of development presented "The Slug", which had clear similarities to a bubble car. However, the Rootes design board were not satisfied with this approach, and ordered the design team to press forward. That led to the next stage of the Slug, which appeared more utilitarian with appropriate styling.


title: Hillman Imp

text: Extensive road testing was carried out in Norway in winter conditions, East Africa in the height of summer and in Arctic conditions in Canada by a small team led by Ken Sharpe (Chief Development Engineer, Ryton) sources [Henshaw, page 32] [Mowat-Brown, page 22]


title: Hillman Imp

text: Rootes did previously look at building a small car twice, even if both ultimately contributed little to the development of the Imp. The first being the 1938-1939 Little Jim prototype, which featured a conventional front-engined rear-wheel drive layout equipped with a 750cc water-cooled engine followed later by the post-war rear-engined 1949 Little Jimmy prototype by Craig Miller that would make use of a Volkswagen-based twin-cylinder engine.


title: Hillman Imp

text: It was originally envisaged by Rootes the 742cc Coventry Climax FWMA based engine would be available in three sizes, 800cc, 875cc and 998cc. However it was not to be as through a combination of engineering production costs, Apex’s increased weight and size, together with experimental dry-liner 998cc engines being unreliable, resulted in only the 875cc engine being standardized at the cost of imposing a constraint on the Imp as a one-capacity car that competitors like the Mini did not experience. One alternative solution considered before being dropped was to develop a new taller block giving the engine a longer stroke whilst retaining the 875cc engine's dry-liners, however this would have been an expensive procedure and would have only been worth the investment had the Imp been a success. A few long-stroke engines were built and evaluated, the work not completely going to waste as they would go on many years later to be bored out up to 1150cc and used to great in effect in competition by the likes of Paul Emery, Andy Dawson, Ian Carter and others.


title: Hillman Imp

text: The later 998cc engines in the Rallye Imps meanwhile would on the other hand make use of expensive wet-lines and were not really intended for road use, rather only for competition and further tuning. It was later discovered the largest reliable limit the 875cc engine would tolerate was 948cc, however in the absence of more development neither the 948cc engine nor the envisaged 928cc engine were used, the latter originally being proposed as early as the mid-1960s for a projected Mark III Imp that became a victim of Chrysler’s cost-cutting before it reappeared years later in the Chrysler Sunbeam.


title: Hillman Imp

text: The Hillman Imp was officially announced on 2 May 1963, when HRH Duke of Edinburgh was invited to open the factory in Linwood. After the opening, he then drove a silver Imp to Glasgow Airport. One of the first Imps produced is currently on display at the Glasgow Museum of Transport. Another early example from 1963 is at the National Motor Museum, Beaulieu, with the registration 1400 SC.


title: Hillman Imp

text: Before and after its announcement, the Imp garnered significant attention from the motoring press. In 1962, the Small Car & Mini Owner magazine published an article titled "Enter the AJAX!", particularly noting the all-aluminium water-cooled rear engine. The same year, the "Daily Express" published an article titled "It's the new 'baby'", calling it "the first baby car ever built by the Rootes Group". In June 1963, the "Motor Sport" magazine commented on the press' reaction to the Imp who strongly favoured the Imp in terms of its engine, gearbox and competitive price; at launch, the standard model cost £508 1s 3d, while the deluxe version was £532 4s 7d.


title: Hillman Imp

text: The name "Imp" was originally the name of an engine produced by Ailsa Craig Ltd., a manufacturer of marine engines. In 1962 the company was acquired by Warsop Fram Group, and all of Ailsa Craig Ltd's assets were up for sale. The Warsop Fram Group traded the Imp name to the Rootes Group in exchange for a new Humber Super Snipe motor car. The namesake was to emphasize its small-size, and to help it sell as the obvious competitor for the Mini.


title: Hillman Imp

text: The water-cooled four-cylinder power unit was based on the Coventry Climax FWMA fire pump engine, featuring an all-aluminium alloy overhead camshaft, combined with a full-syncromesh aluminium transaxle. This combination was very advanced at the time. Sir Alec Issigonis, designer of the BMC's Mini, had recently described the fitting of synchromesh on all forward gears as "impossible". Besides the engine's unique design, it was canted at a 45° angle to keep the center of gravity low and optimise road-holding.


title: Hillman Imp

text: As reported in tests such as The Practical Car and Driver, rear-engined cars generally suffer from oversteer handling characteristics to some extent, and to counteract that as much as possible, the Imp has a semi-trailing arm independent rear suspension system. The relatively costly and sophisticated solution, atypical for small-car design at the time, was insisted upon by its designers after lengthy testing of a Chevrolet Corvair with swing axles. To attain balanced handling, the Imp actually used swing axle geometry at the front, but that initially led to too much understeer, and the camber was later reduced by lowering the pivot points.


title: Hillman Imp

text: Gradually increasing in popularity in the UK, Mark I sales in 1963 were estimated at 33,000, and increased to 50,142 in 1964. However, Imp sales decreased in 1965 to 42,663. Reliability problems had quickly surfaced, mainly due to poor cooling of the rear engine, and the public image of the car was becoming negative. That was extremely worrying for the Rootes Group who were trying to compete with the Mini, production of which totalled 1,190,000 during the 1960s.


title: Hillman Imp

text: The Mark I was introduced as a 2-door saloon, which appeared in two models; the Basic and De Luxe. In October 1964, a luxury edition was introduced, known as the Singer Chamois.


title: Hillman Imp

text: Following the initial problems that affected the Mark I, the Rootes Group decided to re-introduce the Imp with significant changes both mechanically and cosmetically.


title: Hillman Imp

text: The Mk I Imps had a pneumatic throttle linkage and an automatic choke, both of which were replaced by more conventional items on the Mk II. The Mk II also had improved front suspension geometry, and several trim and detail changes. Although the car was constantly improved over its production life, there was no single change as significant as those in 1965. Among the changes were an added water pump, cylinder head with larger ports and valves, and 'Mark II' emblems on the side of the doors.


title: Hillman Imp

text: The Imp was never officially badged nor referred to as the "Mark III". However, changes were made to the range when the Rootes Group was fully acquired by Chrysler Europe, and so that version is sometimes referred to as the "Chrysler Imp".


title: Hillman Imp

text: After Rootes Group's acquisition by Chrysler in 1968, the entire range was revised, except for the Stiletto. The instrument panel and steering wheel were redesigned. The large speedometer previously positioned behind the steering wheel was replaced by a horizontal row of four circular dials/displays of varying detail and complexity, according to the model involved. The right-hand dial, the speedometer, was now to one side of the driver's normal sightline, while one multi-functional stalk on the right side of the steering column replaced the two control stalks that had been directly behind the steering wheel, one on each side. The earlier Imp had been praised for the good ergonomic quality of its dash-board/fascia, and its replacement reflected similar trends in other new and modified UK vehicles at a time of "production rationalization". The more modern arrangement on the Imp was seen by some as a missed opportunity.


title: Hillman Imp

text: Over the life of the car, Rootes (and later Chrysler UK) produced four body styles. The original saloon was introduced in May 1963 and ran through to the end of production in 1976. It has an opening rear window, making it effectively a hatchback. The opening rear window is intended to make it easier to load the small luggage area behind the fold-down rear seat. The fold-down nature of the rear seat was itself unusual in small car design at the time, being more often associated with larger upmarket estate cars. In 1965 a van badged as the "Commer Imp" was introduced. A coupe, the Imp Californian, was introduced in 1967 at the same time as the van's pressings were used to create an estate car, badged "Hillman Husky". Several estate car prototypes using the saloon body with extended rooflines were tried, but never offered to the public. Instead, buyers choosing the estate had to settle for a van-derived car with somewhat unusual styling. Both the van and estate ceased production in 1970.


title: Hillman Imp

text: In an attempt to interest a wider public when sales figures fell well short of the intended 100,000 cars per annum, several badge-engineered derivatives, such as the luxury Singer Chamois (launched October 1964), and the Sunbeam Sport (launched October 1966), with a more powerful twin-carburettor engine, were offered with varying degrees of success. For marketing reasons the Singer variants were sold as Sunbeams in many export markets, even before May 1970 when the Singer marque was discontinued altogether by Chrysler UK. In some markets, such as France, the "Sunbeam" name was used on all British Rootes products, including the Imp and the Husky.


title: Hillman Imp

text: The coupe bodyshell is similar to the standard body but features a more shallow-raked windscreen and rear window which, unlike that on the standard bodied cars, can not be opened. The attempt at a more sporty design did not translate into better acceleration or top speed figures and the aerodynamics of the standard saloon are actually slightly better. The new body style made its first appearance at the Paris Motor Show in October 1967, with the introduction of the sporting Sunbeam Stiletto. The coupe body had also appeared, with less powerful engines, in the Hillman Imp Californian announced in January 1967 and the more luxurious Singer Chamois coupe.


title: Hillman Imp

text: The Imp was a massive and expensive leap of faith for Rootes. The company did not have recent experience building small cars, even though it started off as a car builder by offering the then small Hillman Minx back in 1931. However, the Minx had since grown larger and was well established as a medium-size family car by the time the Imp was introduced. For the Imp, Rootes pioneered the use of an aluminium engine in a mass-production car. This process proved to be more complicated than simply substituting an aluminium design for a familiar and well-understood cast-iron design. Rootes had to build a new, computerised assembly plant on the outskirts of Paisley, in Linwood, in which to assemble the Imp. The UK Government Regional Assistance policy provided financial grants to the Rootes Group to bring approximately 6,000 jobs to the area. Linwood had become an area of significant unemployment because of redundancies in the declining shipbuilding industry on the nearby River Clyde. The investment also included an advanced die-casting plant to manufacture the aluminium engine casings, and a stake in a brand new Pressed Steel Company motor pressings works, which manufactured all the new car's body panels. The location of the plant led to significant logistical issues for the manufacturing process. Linwood was over away from Rootes' main factory at Ryton-on-Dunsmore, but the engine castings made in Linwood had to be sent to Ryton to be machined and assembled, then sent back up to be put on the cars — a round trip. This was addressed by a complex schedule of trains shifting completed cars and raw castings south, and trains loaded with engine- gearbox assemblies and many other Ryton-sourced goods running north. To aid with balancing the logistical costs of this operation, body pressings for the Hillman Avenger were also made at Linwood, but transported south to Ryton on the component trains. This schedule remained in operation for the duration of Linwood Imp production.


title: Hillman Imp

text: The local West of Scotland workforce, recruited mainly from the shipbuilding industry, did not bring the distinct skills necessary for motor vehicle assembly, and Imp build quality and reliability suffered accordingly. However, industrial relations were also an issue in production. Industrial disputes and strike action became a regular occurrence, as was the case in many parts of British industry in the 1960s and 1970s.


title: Hillman Imp

text: Initially, the Imp was seen by Rootes as a potential second car for families with the means to acquire one. In this incarnation, it was a somewhat revolutionary, high-quality small car, with some above average features. Later the concept evolved into a kind of ultra-economy car with some cheaply and poorly executed, design features as a utilitarian vehicle, like some of the Eastern European marques of the time like Škoda, and later Lada, which were relatively low-cost economy cars, popular with British consumers. At one point the basic Hillman Imp was the cheapest new car on the British market, which increased low sales figures for a time.


title: Hillman Imp

text: The initial problems damaged the Imp's reputation and popularity trailed off, with half of all production being from the first three years. It still sold thanks to its competitive price, distinctive styling, and cheap running costs, but sales never lived up to expectations for what had become a very competent small car. Another problem that contributed to the reputation for poor reliability was the lack of understanding of the maintenance needs of alloy engines by owners and the motor trade in the 1960s. Regular failures of the Giubo couplings also occurred. It was overshadowed in popularity by the Mini.


title: Hillman Imp

text: The company's huge investment in both the Imp and the Linwood production plant was to be a significant part of the demise of the Rootes Group. The Imp's commercial failure added to the major losses suffered by Rootes, although the main reasons for these losses were unresolved industrial unrest and the effects of the link with the Chrysler Corporation of the USA. The link was initiated by Lord (William) Rootes in 1964 as a partnership, but he died in October of that year and by 1967 the company had been acquired by Chrysler, to become part of Chrysler Europe. A year later, ahead of the 1968 London Motor Show, the recommended retail prices of most Imp models were reduced for the domestic market by more than four per cent, despite the general price inflation affecting the UK. Chrysler stewardship was blamed by some for the demise of the Imp in March 1976, after fewer than 441,000 had been built, but the entire Chrysler Europe operation was not a success and two years later it became part of Peugeot. The Imp was one of Britain's longest-running production cars with a 13-year run, despite lower sales in its later years. Its place in the Chrysler UK range was taken the following year by the Chrysler Sunbeam, a three-door hatchback based on the Avenger rear-wheel drive underpinnings. Both cars continued to be produced at the Linwood plant until it closed in 1981, after just 18 years in use.


title: Hillman Imp

text: The Ryton assembly plant continued in operation until December 2006, when production of the Peugeot 206 was switched to Slovakia.


title: Hillman Imp

text: The Imp used a derivative of the Climax FWMA engine whereas the Lotus cars used an FWMC engine which had an entirely different cylinder head.


title: Hillman Imp

text: Unassembled cars were exported for assembly in Australia, Costa Rica, Ireland, Malaysia, Malta, New Zealand, Philippines, Portugal, South Africa, Uruguay, and Venezuela. New Zealand cars were assembled as Hillmans by Chrysler/Hillman importer Todd Motors for several years from about 1964. The model returned, this time as a four-headlamp Sunbeam with the newer dashboard. Production of the Imp stopped in 1970 because Todd Motors required the Imp assembly line to build the Hillman Avenger. Todd Motors only had two final assembly lines at Petone, so the Avenger and the Hunter shared one line and the larger Chrysler Valiant was built on the other.


title: Hillman Imp

text: Imps were assembled by Rootes Australia in their Port Melbourne factory from 1964. The following models were produced:


title: Hillman Imp

text: The engine proved flexible and very easy to tune. It was an overhead camshaft design, which permitted better air flow than a standard OHV engine. As with all engine heads, it could also be flowed and ported to allow better airflow at high engine speeds. Useful improvements in power could be gained by replacing the standard silencer (muffler) with one that impeded the exhaust gas flow less and with better carburettors. However, in adapting the design to suit modern mass-production methods, Rootes had left the engine more fragile than the Coventry Climax model from which it had been derived.


title: Hillman Imp

text: The Imp enjoyed modest success in both club and international rallying. Rootes introduced a homologation special called the Rally Imp in 1964. It featured many modifications over the standard model, the most important of which was an engine enlarged to 998 cc. Notable successes for this model include the 1965 Tulip Rally in which the works Imps of Rosemary Smith and "Tiny" Lewis finished first and second overall.


title: Hillman Imp

text: Imps were also successful racing cars. The privateer team of George Bevan dominated the British Saloon Car Championship (later known as the British Touring Car Championship) in the early 1970s. Driven by Bill McGovern, the Bevan Sunbeam Imp won the championship in 1970, 1971 and 1972 with limited factory support.


title: Hillman Imp

text: In UK club racing the Imp variants became highly successful in the under 1000 cc Special Saloon category. Notable exponents of the Imp in racing include Ian Forrest, Harry Simpson, Ricky Gauld, John Homewood, Roger Nathan, Gerry Birrell, Ray Payne and Chris Barter. To this day Imps still compete on historic rallies in the UK, with the Vokes' car often making it onto the podium in the HRCR Clubmans Rally Championship.


title: Hillman Imp

text: The Imp was also successfully raced and rallied in other parts of the world, notably Asia, where drivers including Andrew Bryson and Pardaman Singh regularly won saloon car categories into the 1980s.


title: Hillman Imp

text: The 998 cc Imp engine was also used in three-wheeled racing sidecars in the 1970s and 1980s. Exhaust systems were naturally constructed on a one-off basis. The engines often sporting the Twin Weber twin-choke setup. A number of sidecar crews raced Imp-equipped outfits at the Isle of Man TT races, best placement being Roy Hanks in eleventh place in the 1976 TT 1000cc Sidecar. Imp-engined outfits are still regularly championed in classic racing.


title: Hillman Imp

text: Andy Chesman won the 1972 World Hydroplane championship using an Imp engine. He bought Imp specialist company Greetham Engineering and designed a wedge head to increase the 998 cc engine to 125 bhp with twin 40DCOE Weber carburetors. He also fitted a spacer on top of the wet block to accommodate longer cylinder liners, increasing capacity to 1220 cc. At the BP-sponsored Windermere records week in October 1972, he raised the R1 Class water speed record to . He was killed in 1998 in a power-boat accident, still holding the record.


title: Anthony Mann

text: Anthony Mann (born Emil Anton Bundsmann; June 30, 1906 – April 29, 1967) was an American film director and stage actor.


title: Anthony Mann

text: Mann initially started as a theatre actor appearing in numerous stage productions. In 1937, he moved to Hollywood where he worked as a talent scout and casting director. He then became an assistant director, most notably working for Preston Sturges. His directorial debut was "Dr. Broadway" (1942). He directed several feature films for numerous production companies, including RKO Pictures, Eagle-Lion Films, Universal Pictures, and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. His first major success was "T-Men" (1947), garnering notable recognition for producing several films in the "film noir" genre through modest budgets and short shooting schedules. As a director, he often collaborated with cinematographer John Alton.


title: Anthony Mann

text: During the 1950s, Mann shifted to directing Western films starring several major stars of the era, including James Stewart. He directed Stewart in eight films such as "Winchester '73" (1950), "The Naked Spur" (1953), and "The Man from Laramie" (1955). While successful in the United States, these films became appreciated and studied among French film critics, several of whom would become influential with the French New Wave. In 1955, Jacques Rivette hailed Mann as "one of the four great directors of postwar Hollywood". The other three were Nicholas Ray, Richard Brooks, and Robert Aldrich.


title: Anthony Mann

text: By the 1960s, Mann turned to large-scale filmmaking, directing the medieval epic "El Cid" (1961), starring Charlton Heston and Sophia Loren, and "The Fall of the Roman Empire" (1964). Both films were produced by Samuel Bronston. Mann then directed the war film "The Heroes of Telemark" (1965) and the spy thriller "A Dandy in Aspic" (1968). In 1967, Mann died from a heart attack in Berlin before he had finished the latter film; its star Laurence Harvey completed the film albeit uncredited.


title: Anthony Mann

text: Mann was born Emil Anton Bundsmann in San Diego, California. His father, Emile Theodore Bundsmann, an academic, was born in the village of Rosice, Chrudim, Bohemia to a Sudeten-German Catholic family. His mother, Bertha Weichselbaum, a drama teacher, was an American of Bavarian Jewish descent. At the time of his birth, Mann's parents were members of the Theosophical Society community of Lomaland in San Diego County.


title: Anthony Mann

text: When Mann was three, his parents moved to his father's native country Austria to seek treatment for his father's ill health, leaving Mann behind in Lomaland. Mann's mother did not return for him until he was fourteen, and only then at the urging of a cousin who had paid him a visit and was worried about his treatment and situation at Lomaland. In 1917, Mann's family relocated to New York where he developed a penchant for acting. This was reinforced with Mann's participation in the Young Men's Hebrew Association. He continued to act in school productions, studying at East Orange Grammar and Newark's Central High School. At the latter school, he portrayed the title role in "Alcestis"; one of his friends and classmates was future Hollywood studio executive Dore Schary. After his father's death in 1923, Mann dropped out during his senior year to help with the family's finances.


title: Anthony Mann

text: Back in New York, Mann took a job as a night watchman for Westinghouse Electric, which enabled him to look for stage work during the day. Within a few months, Mann was working full-time at the Triangle Theater in Greenwich Village. Using the name "Anton Bundsmann", he appeared as an actor in "The Dybbuk" (1925) with an English translation by Henry Alsberg, "The Little Clay Cart" (1926), and "The Squall" (1926) by Jean Bart. Towards the end of the decade, Mann appeared in the Broadway productions of "The Blue Peter" and "Uncle Vanya" (1929).


title: Anthony Mann

text: In 1930, Mann joined the Theatre Guild, as a production manager and eventually as a director. Nevertheless, he continued to act, appearing in "The Streets of New York, or Poverty is No Crime" (1931), and "The Bride the Sun Shines On" (1933) portraying the "Duke of Calcavalle". In 1933, Mann directed a stage adaptation of Christopher Morley's "Thunder on the Left", which was performed at the Maxine Elliott's Theatre. In a theatre review for "The New York Times", Brooks Atkinson dismissed the play, writing "its medley of realism and fantasy grows less intelligible scene by scene, and some of the acting is disenchantingly profane." He later directed "Cherokee Night" (1936), "So Proudly We Hail" (1936), and "The Big Blow" (1938). He worked for various stock companies, and in 1934, he established his own, which later became Long Island's Red Barn Playhouse.


title: Anthony Mann

text: In 1937, Mann began working for Selznick International Pictures as a talent scout and casting director. He also directed screen tests for a number of films, including "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer" (1938), "Intermezzo" (1939), "Gone with the Wind" (1939), and "Rebecca" (1940). One of the unknown actresses he tested was Jennifer Jones. After a few months at Selznick, Mann moved to Paramount Pictures to serve as an assistant director for several film directors, most particularly for Preston Sturges on "Sullivan's Travels" (1941). Mann recalled, "[Preston] let me go through the entire production, watching him direct – and I directed a little. I'd stage a scene and he'd tell me how lousy it was. Then I watched the editing and I was able gradually to build up knowledge. Preston insisted I make a film as soon as possible." He served three years in the position.


title: Anthony Mann

text: Meanwhile, Mann did notable, but mostly lost, work as a director for NBC's experimental television station W2XBS from 1939 to 1940. This included condensations of the hit Western play "The Missouri Legend" and the melodrama "The Streets of New York". A five-minute silent clip of the latter show survives in the Museum of Television and Radio, including noted actors Norman Lloyd and George Coulouris.


title: Anthony Mann

text: Through the efforts of his friend MacDonald Carey, Mann made his directorial debut with "Dr. Broadway" (1942) at Paramount, which starred Carey. Decades later, Mann remembered he was told to complete shooting the film in eighteen days. Upon its release, Herman Schoenfeld of "Variety" was dismissive of the film writing, "The dialog could have just as well have been written in baby talk, and Anton Mann's direction just wasn't. The photography is spotty and the production looks inexpensive. Acting is weak, only Edward Ciannelli as the killer who gets killed, turning in an adequate job." "Harrison's Reports" was more complimentary, stating the film was a "fairly good program entertainment" with "colorful characters, human interest, fast action, and situations that hold one in suspense."


title: Anthony Mann

text: His follow-up film was "Moonlight in Havana" (1943) at Universal Pictures. The film featured Allan Jones and Jane Frazee. In August 1944, it was reported Mann might return to Broadway to direct "Mirror for Children". After nine months without directing a feature film, Mann went to Republic Pictures where he directed "Nobody's Darling" (1944) and "My Best Gal" (1944).


title: Anthony Mann

text: He next directed "Strangers in the Night" (1944). The film tells of Hilda Blake (Helene Thimig) who creates an imaginary "daughter" for Sgt. Johnny Meadows (William Terry) who is injured in the South Pacific. After being discharged and returning to the U.S., Meadows searches for the imaginary woman. He is informed of the truth by Dr. Leslie Ross (Virginia Grey), who is later murdered by Blake; in turn, Blake plans to murder Meadows. The film was notable for its noirish mise-en-scène and psychological depth that appeared in Mann's latter films. Mann then directed "The Great Flamarion" (1945), starring Erich von Stroheim and Mary Beth Hughes. During principal photography, Mann clashed with von Stroheim, describing him at length as "difficult. He was a personality, not really an actor ...He drove me mad. He was a genius. I'm not a genius: I'm a worker."


title: Anthony Mann

text: Mann moved to RKO to direct "Two O'Clock Courage" (1945), itself a remake of the 1936 film "Two in the Dark", with Tom Conway and Ann Rutherford in the leading roles. That same year, he also directed "Sing Your Way Home". Mann returned to Republic Pictures for "Strange Impersonation" (1946). He did "The Bamboo Blonde" (1946) at RKO.


title: Anthony Mann

text: By 1946, Mann had signed with Eagle-Lion Films, a fledgling studio founded by Arthur B. Krim and Robert Benjamin. There, he directed "Railroaded!" (1947). According to Mann, the film was shot in ten days. A film review in "Variety" noted the film was "an old-type, blood-and-thunder gangster meller that's better than its no-name cast would indicate," and particular praised Mann for directing "with real acumen in developing maximum of suspense." That same year, "T-Men" (1947) was released. According to Elmer Lincoln Irey, the film originated from a rejected offer to dramatize the U.S. Treasury's investigation of Al Capone on tax evasion charges. Instead, Irey brought forward three cases related to the investigation. Initially budgeted at $400,000, "T-Men" was shot within three weeks from July 31 to August 23, with four days of reshoots in September. For the film, Mann specifically requested cinematographer John Alton, who was loaned out from Republic for the job, marking "T-Men" as their first collaboration. During its release, the film earned $2.5 million worldwide.


title: Anthony Mann

text: He went back to RKO for "Desperate" (1947), which he also co-wrote with Dorothy Atlas. A review in "Variety" positively wrote it was "a ripsnorting gangster meller, with enough gunplay, bumping off of characters and grim brutality to smack of pre-code days"; Mann's direction was noted as "being done skillfully". Mann returned to Eagle-Lion to direct "Raw Deal" (1948), reteaming with screenwriter John C. Higgins and actor Dennis O'Keefe. The film received positive notices from several publications, though it had been panned by Bosley Crowther from "The New York Times".


title: Anthony Mann

text: Mann's success with "Desperate" and "T-Men" made Mann Eagle-Lion's most valuable director. In February 1948, Mann was hired to direct a dramatization of the storming of the Bastille, with Richard Basehart to portray an aide to General Lafayette. With Walter Wanger preoccupied with "Joan of Arc" (1948), he handed off supervisory duties to production designer William Cameron Menzies. Principal photography lasted 29 days, from August to September 1948, and cost $850,000. Reteaming with Alton, he and Mann developed a low-cost noir style, using low lighting levels and omnipresent shadows on minimal decor, high-angled camera shots, and rear projection for wide crowd shots. The resulting film was titled "Reign of Terror" (1949). After filming had begun, Mann was brought in to direct several scenes for "He Walked by Night" (1948), which also starred Basehart. Mann again collaborated with Higgins and Alton on the film. However, Alfred L. Werker was given the official director's credit.


title: Anthony Mann

text: While researching on "T-Men" (1947), Higgins and Mann had came across the topic of Border Patrol agents along the Mexico–United States border. "Border Incident" (1949) was initially developed at Eagle-Lion, but in December 1948, MGM's Dore Schary purchased the script for $50,000 and hired Mann to direct the film. Schary had also signed Mann onto a multi-picture contract with the studio. Beforehand, in July 1947, Mann and Francis Rosenwald had written a script for "Follow Me Quietly" (1949) that was first purchased by Jack Wrather Productions for Allied Artists. Don Castle was attached to star. Months later, in December, RKO announced it had purchased the script from Wrather and assigned Martin Rackin to write a new script.


title: Anthony Mann

text: The 1950s marked a notable turn in Mann's career, in which he directed a total of ten Western films throughout the decade (three of which were released in 1950). After "Border Incident" (1949), Mann was approached by Nicholas Nayfack, who asked him: "How would you like to direct a Western? I've a scenario here that seems interesting." He was handed the script for "Devil's Doorway" (1950), deeming it "the best script I had ever read." The film starred Robert Taylor, portraying a Shoshone native who faces prejudice after returning home in Medicine Bow, Wyoming following his decorated service in the American Civil War. Principal photography began on August 15, 1949 and lasted until mid-October. MGM initially withheld the film because of its topical subject, but released the film after Delmer Daves' "Broken Arrow" (1950), which starred James Stewart, had become successful. When released, the film was neither a critical or commercial success.


title: Anthony Mann

text: He followed this with a Western at Universal, starring James Stewart, "Winchester '73" (1950). The film was originally set to be directed by Fritz Lang, but he felt Stewart was unsuitable for the lead role and dropped out. When Stewart had seen a rough cut of "Devil's Doorway" (1950), he suggested Mann as a replacement. Mann readily accepted, but threw out the script calling Borden Chase for a rewrite. Principal photography began on February 14, 1950 in Tucson, Arizona for a thirty-day shooting schedule. The film was a commercial success, earning $2.25 million in distributor rentals becoming Universal Pictures' second-most successful film of 1950.


title: Anthony Mann

text: At the invitation of Hal Wallis, Mann directed the Western "The Furies" (1950) at Paramount starring Barbara Stanwyck and Walter Huston. Also released in summer 1950, the film grossed $1.55 million in distributor rentals in the United States and Canada. Mann reflected, "It had marvellous characters, interesting notices, but it failed because nobody in it cared about anything—they were all rudderless, rootless, and haters." In the fall of 1950, Mann was sent to Cinecittà to do second-unit work on "Quo Vadis" (1951). There, Mann worked 24 nights, filming the burning of Rome sequence with assistant cinematographer William V. Skall.


title: Anthony Mann

text: "Side Street" (1950) was the final "film noir" that Mann directed. The film starred Farley Granger and Cathy O'Donnell, reteaming after "They Live by Night" (1948). He next directed a period thriller with Dick Powell, "The Tall Target" (1952).


title: Anthony Mann

text: After the success of "Winchester '73" (1950), Universal Pictures wanted another collaboration between Mann and Stewart. After a recommendation from one friend, Stewart proposed adapting the novel "Bend of the River" by Bill Gulick to Universal. The studio agreed and purchased the film rights. The actor and director made a contemporary adventure film, "Thunder Bay" (1953) at Universal. Feeling dissatisfied with the final film, Mann stated, "We tried but it was all too fabricated and the story was weak. We were never able to lick it ...It didn't get terribly good notices but of course it made a profit." Mann fulfilled his contract with MGM, when he and Stewart re-teamed for "The Naked Spur" (1953).


title: Anthony Mann

text: Mann and Stewart had their biggest success with "The Glenn Miller Story" (1954). During its release, the film earned $7 million in distributor rentals in the United States and Canada. That same year, he filmed "The Far Country" with Walter Brennan. The film would be Mann's last collaboration with Borden Chase. Mann went to Columbia Pictures to direct a Western film "The Last Frontier" (1955) with Victor Mature.


title: Anthony Mann

text: Mann and Stewart paired for one more non-Western film, "Strategic Air Command" (1955). Stewart had served with the U.S. Air Force and pushed for a cinematic portrayal. With the cooperation of the Air Force, Mann agreed to direct the film, wanting to film the Convair B-36 and Boeing B-47 in action as the human characters, in his words, "were papier-mâché". During its release, the film earned $6.5 million at the box office. Mann's last collaboration with Stewart was "The Man from Laramie" (1955) at Columbia Pictures. The film was the favorite of Stewart's among their collaborative films. In 1956, Stewart and Mann were to reunite on "Night Passage" (1957). Before filming was set to begin on September 4, Mann withdrew from the project. Contemporary accounts reported that Mann withdrew because he had not yet finished editing "Men in War" (1957). However, latter accounts state Mann had developed creative differences with Chase over the script, which Mann considered to be weak. Mann asked to be replaced, and James Neilson was brought in to direct. Stewart and Mann never collaborated on another project again.


title: Anthony Mann

text: Mann directed a musical starring Mario Lanza titled "Serenade" (1956). On set, he met and worked with actress Sara Montiel, who became his second wife. In August 1957, Mann announced he had acquired the film rights to Lion Feuchtwanger's novel "This is the Hour", which told a fictionalized account of painter Francisco Goya. Montiel was set to portray Maria Teresa de Cayetana, Duchess of Alba. By February 1958, Mann had abandoned the project as a rival film titled "The Naked Maja" (1958) was in production. He then purchased the film rights to John McPartland's then-recently published novel "Ripe Fruit", with Montiel set to star. However, the project failed to materialize.


title: Anthony Mann

text: Mann directed a Western starring Henry Fonda and Anthony Perkins titled "The Tin Star" (1957). Mann teamed with Philip Yordan to produce two movies starring Robert Ryan and Aldo Ray; the first being "Men in War" (1957) was about the Korean War. The film was the first of three Mann had directed for United Artists. His second project was a film adaptation of Erskine Caldwell's then-controversial novel "God's Little Acre". Mann and producer Sidney Harmon had intended to film in Augusta, Georgia, but the novel's controversial subject matter heightened resistance from city leaders and local farmers. As a result, the production was denied permission to film in the state. In October 1957, they eventually selected Stockton, California. On both films, Yordan was given the official screenwriter credit, but Ben Maddow stated he had written both screenplays.


title: Anthony Mann

text: Mann later directed Gary Cooper in a Western, "Man of the West" (1958) for United Artists. Filming began on February 10, 1958, and ended later that same year. When it was released, Howard Thompson of "The New York Times" wrote the film was "good, lean, tough little Western" that was "[w]ell-acted and beautifully photographed in color and Cinema-Scope". Elsewhere, Jean-Luc Godard, then a critic for "Cahiers du Cinéma", gave the film a raving review when it was released in France.


title: Anthony Mann

text: Mann was hired by Universal Pictures to direct "Spartacus" (1960), much to the disagreement of Kirk Douglas who felt Mann "seemed scared of the scope of the picture". Filming started on January 27, 1959 in Death Valley, California for the mine sequence. As filming continued, Douglas felt Mann had lost control of the film, writing in particular: "He let Peter Ustinov direct his own scenes by taking every suggestion Peter made. The suggestions were good—for Peter, but not necessarily for the film." With the studio's approval, Douglas was permitted to fire Mann. According to Douglas's account, Mann graciously exited the production on February 17, to which Douglas promised he "owe[d]" a film to him. A day later, Stanley Kubrick was hired to direct. Shortly after, Mann went to MGM to direct Glenn Ford in a remake of "Cimarron" (1960). During production, Mann had filmed on location for twelve days, but the shoot had experienced troublesome storms. In response, studio executives at MGM decided to relocate the production indoors. Mann disagreed, remarking the production had become "an economic disaster and a fiasco and the whole project was destroyed." Mann left the production, and was replaced by Charles Walters.


title: Anthony Mann

text: In July 1960, Mann was hired to direct "El Cid" (1961) for Samuel Bronston. The film starred Charlton Heston and Sophia Loren. In November 1960, before filming was to begin, Loren was displeased with her dialogue in the script, and requested for blacklisted screenwriter Ben Barzman to rewrite it. On an airplane trip to Rome, Mann retrieved Barzman and handed him the latest shooting script, to which Barzman agreed to rewrite from scratch. Filming began on November 14, 1960 and lasted until April 1961. Released in December 1961, "El Cid" was released to considerable acclaim from film critics, and earned $12 million in box office rentals from the United States and Canada.


title: Anthony Mann

text: Mann next directed "The Fall of the Roman Empire" (1964). The project's genesis began when Mann, who had recently finished filming "El Cid" (1961), had spotted an Oxford concise edition of Edward Gibbon's six-volume series "The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" near the front window at the Hatchards bookshop. Mann then read the book, and after a flight trip to Madrid, he pitched a film adaptation of the book to Bronston, to which the producer agreed. The film was intended to reunite Heston and Loren, but Heston departed the project to star in "55 Days at Peking" (1963), another Bronston production. His role was subsequently assumed by Stephen Boyd. Filming began on January 14, 1963 and wrapped in July 1963. Released in March 1964, the film earned $1.9 million in box office rentals in the United States and Canada, against an estimated production budget of $16 million. That same year, in July, Mann served as the head of the jury at the 14th Berlin International Film Festival.


title: Anthony Mann

text: In March 1963, Mann and producer S. Benjamin Fisz had reportedly begun development on "The Unknown Battle", a historic re-telling of Norwegian resistance soldier Knut Haukelid's sabotage mission to prevent Nazi Germany from developing an atomic bomb during World War II. Barzman had been hired to write the script, with Allied Artists as a distributor. By February 1964, Boyd and Elke Sommer had been hired to portray the leading roles. However, in July, Kirk Douglas was hired to portray the lead role. In his memoir, Douglas accepted the role after receiving an unexpected phone call from Mann, fulfilling his earlier promise that he "owed" him a film. The film was then re-titled "The Heroes of Telemark" (1965).


title: Anthony Mann

text: In October 1966, Mann was announced to direct and produce the spy thriller "A Dandy in Aspic" (1968) for Columbia Pictures. By December, filming was set to begin in February 1967 where it would film on location in Austria, Germany, and London.


title: Anthony Mann

text: In 1936, Mann married Mildred Kenyon, who worked as a clerk at a Macy's department store in New York City. The marriage produced two children, Anthony (b. 1938) and Nina (b. 1944). The couple divorced in 1956. A year later, Mann married actress Sara Montiel, who had starred in "Serenade" (1956). In 1963, the marriage was annulled in Madrid. His third marriage was to Anna Kuzko, a ballerina formerly with Sadler's Wells, who had one son named Nicholas.


title: Anthony Mann

text: On April 29, 1967, Mann died from a heart attack in his hotel room in Berlin. At the time of his death, he had spent the last two weeks filming "A Dandy in Aspic". The film was completed by the film's star Laurence Harvey. For his contribution to the motion picture industry, Anthony Mann has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6229 Hollywood Boulevard.


title: Julian Alps

text: The Julian Alps (, , , ) are a mountain range of the Southern Limestone Alps that stretch from northeastern Italy to Slovenia, where they rise to 2,864 m at Mount Triglav, the highest peak in Slovenia. A large part of the Julian Alps is included in Triglav National Park. The second highest peak of the range, the 2,755 m high Jôf di Montasio, lies in Italy.


title: Julian Alps

text: The Julian Alps cover an estimated 4,400 km (of which 1,542 km lies in Italy). They are located between the Sava Valley and Canale Valley. They are divided into the Eastern and Western Julian Alps.


title: Julian Alps

text: The Julian Alps were known in antiquity as "Alpe Iulia", and also attested as "Alpes Juliana" AD 670, "Alpis Julia" 734, and "Alpes Iulias" in 1090. Like the municipium of "Forum Julii" (now Cividale del Friuli) at the foot of the mountains, the range was named after Julius Caesar of the Julian clan, perhaps due to a road built by Julius Caesar and completed by Augustus.


title: Julian Alps

text: There are many peaks in the Eastern Julian Alps over 2,000 m high, and they are mainly parts of ridges. The most prominent peaks are visible by their height and size. There are high plateaus on the eastern border, such as Pokljuka, Mežakla, and Jelovica.


title: Julian Alps

text: The Western Julian Alps cover a much smaller area, and are located mainly in Italy. Only the Kanin group lies in part in Slovenia.


title: Richard Arkwright

text: Sir Richard Arkwright (23 December 1732 – 3 August 1792) was an English inventor and a leading entrepreneur during the early Industrial Revolution. He is credited as the driving force behind the development of the spinning frame, known as the water frame after it was adapted to use water power; and he patented a rotary carding engine to convert raw cotton to 'cotton lap' prior to spinning. He was the first to develop factories housing both mechanised carding and spinning operations.


title: Richard Arkwright

text: Arkwright's achievement was to combine power, machinery, semi-skilled labour and the new raw material of cotton to create mass-produced yarn. His organisational skills earned him the accolade "father of the modern industrial factory system," notably through the methods developed in his mill at Cromford, Derbyshire (now preserved as part of the Derwent Valley Mills World Heritage Site).


title: Richard Arkwright

text: Richard Arkwright was born in Preston, Lancashire, England on 23 December 1732, the youngest of seven surviving children. His father, Thomas, was a tailor and a Preston Guild burgess. Richard's parents, Sarah and Thomas, could not afford to send him to school and instead arranged for him to be taught to read and write by his cousin Ellen. He was apprenticed to a Mr Nicholson, a barber at the nearby town of Kirkham, and began his working life as a barber and wig-maker, setting up a shop at Churchgate in Bolton in the early 1760s. It was here that he invented a waterproof dye for use on the fashionable periwigs of the time, the income from which later funded his prototype cotton machinery.