title: Root nodule

text: Effective nodulation takes place approximately four weeks after crop planting, with the size, and shape of the nodules dependent on the crop. Crops such as soybeans, or peanuts will have larger nodules than forage legumes such as red clover, or alfalfa, since their nitrogen needs are higher. The number of nodules, and their internal color, will indicate the status of nitrogen fixation in the plant.


title: Root nodule

text: Nodulation is controlled by a variety of processes, both external (heat, acidic soils, drought, nitrate) and internal (autoregulation of nodulation, ethylene). Autoregulation of nodulation controls nodule numbers per plant through a systemic process involving the leaf. Leaf tissue senses the early nodulation events in the root through an unknown chemical signal, then restricts further nodule development in newly developing root tissue. The Leucine rich repeat (LRR) receptor kinases (NARK in soybean ("Glycine max"); HAR1 in "Lotus japonicus", SUNN in "Medicago truncatula") are essential for autoregulation of nodulation (AON). Mutation leading to loss of function in these AON receptor kinases leads to supernodulation or hypernodulation. Often root growth abnormalities accompany the loss of AON receptor kinase activity, suggesting that nodule growth and root development are functionally linked. Investigations into the mechanisms of nodule formation showed that the ENOD40 gene, coding for a 12–13 amino acid protein [41], is up-regulated during nodule formation [3].


title: Root nodule

text: Root nodules apparently have evolved three times within the Fabaceae but are rare outside that family. The propensity of these plants to develop root nodules seems to relate to their root structure. In particular, a tendency to develop lateral roots in response to abscisic acid may enable the later evolution of root nodules.


title: Root nodule

text: Some fungi produce nodular structures known as tuberculate ectomycorrhizae on the roots of their plant hosts. "Suillus tomentosus", for example, produces these structures with its plant host lodgepole pine ("Pinus contorta" var. "latifolia"). These structures have in turn been shown to host nitrogen fixing bacteria which contribute a significant amount of nitrogen and allow the pines to colonize nutrient-poor sites.


title: Line graph

text: In the mathematical discipline of graph theory, the line graph of an undirected graph is another graph that represents the adjacencies between edges of . is constructed in the following way: for each edge in , make a vertex in ; for every two edges in that have a vertex in common, make an edge between their corresponding vertices in .


title: Line graph

text: The name line graph comes from a paper by although both and used the construction before this. Other terms used for the line graph include the covering graph, the derivative, the edge-to-vertex dual, the conjugate, the representative graph, and the θ-obrazom, as well as the edge graph, the interchange graph, the adjoint graph, and the derived graph.


title: Line graph

text: Various extensions of the concept of a line graph have been studied, including line graphs of line graphs, line graphs of multigraphs, line graphs of hypergraphs, and line graphs of weighted graphs.


title: Line graph

text: That is, it is the intersection graph of the edges of , representing each edge by the set of its two endpoints.


title: Line graph

text: The following figures show a graph (left, with blue vertices) and its line graph (right, with green vertices). Each vertex of the line graph is shown labeled with the pair of endpoints of the corresponding edge in the original graph. For instance, the green vertex on the right labeled 1,3 corresponds to the edge on the left between the blue vertices 1 and 3. Green vertex 1,3 is adjacent to three other green vertices: 1,4 and 1,2 (corresponding to edges sharing the endpoint 1 in the blue graph) and 4,3 (corresponding to an edge sharing the endpoint 3 in the blue graph).


title: Line graph

text: Properties of a graph that depend only on adjacency between edges may be translated into equivalent properties in that depend on adjacency between vertices. For instance, a matching in is a set of edges no two of which are adjacent, and corresponds to a set of vertices in no two of which are adjacent, that is, an independent set.


title: Line graph

text: If the line graphs of two connected graphs are isomorphic, then the underlying graphs are isomorphic, except in the case of the triangle graph and the claw , which have isomorphic line graphs but are not themselves isomorphic.


title: Line graph

text: As well as and , there are some other exceptional small graphs with the property that their line graph has a higher degree of symmetry than the graph itself. For instance, the diamond graph (two triangles sharing an edge) has four graph automorphisms but its line graph has eight. In the illustration of the diamond graph shown, rotating the graph by 90 degrees is not a symmetry of the graph, but is a symmetry of its line graph. However, all such exceptional cases have at most four vertices. A strengthened version of the Whitney isomorphism theorem states that, for connected graphs with more than four vertices, there is a one-to-one correspondence between isomorphisms of the graphs and isomorphisms of their line graphs.


title: Line graph

text: Analogues of the Whitney isomorphism theorem have been proven for the line graphs of multigraphs, but are more complicated in this case.


title: Line graph

text: The line graph of the complete graph is also known as the triangular graph, the Johnson graph , or the complement of the Kneser graph . Triangular graphs are characterized by their spectra, except for . They may also be characterized (again with the exception of ) as the strongly regular graphs with parameters . The three strongly regular graphs with the same parameters and spectrum as are the Chang graphs, which may be obtained by graph switching from .


title: Line graph

text: The line graph of a bipartite graph is perfect (see Kőnig's theorem), but need not be bipartite as the example of the claw graph shows. The line graphs of bipartite graphs form one of the key building blocks of perfect graphs, used in the proof of the strong perfect graph theorem. A special case of these graphs are the rook's graphs, line graphs of complete bipartite graphs. Like the line graphs of complete graphs, they can be characterized with one exception by their numbers of vertices, numbers of edges, and number of shared neighbors for adjacent and non-adjacent points. The one exceptional case is , which shares its parameters with the Shrikhande graph. When both sides of the bipartition have the same number of vertices, these graphs are again strongly regular.


title: Line graph

text: More generally, a graph is said to be a line perfect graph if is a perfect graph. The line perfect graphs are exactly the graphs that do not contain a simple cycle of odd length greater than three. Equivalently, a graph is line perfect if and only if each of its biconnected components is either bipartite or of the form (the tetrahedron) or (a book of one or more triangles all sharing a common edge). Every line perfect graph is itself perfect.


title: Line graph

text: All line graphs are claw-free graphs, graphs without an induced subgraph in the form of a three-leaf tree. As with claw-free graphs more generally, every connected line graph with an even number of edges has a perfect matching; equivalently, this means that if the underlying graph has an even number of edges, its edges can be partitioned into two-edge paths.


title: Line graph

text: The line graphs of trees are exactly the claw-free block graphs. These graphs have been used to solve a problem in extremal graph theory, of constructing a graph with a given number of edges and vertices whose largest tree induced as a subgraph is as small as possible.


title: Line graph

text: All eigenvalues of the adjacency matrix of a line graph are at least −2. The reason for this is that can be written as formula_1, where is the signless incidence matrix of the pre-line graph and is the identity. In particular, is the Gramian matrix of a system of vectors: all graphs with this property have been called generalized line graphs.


title: Line graph

text: For an arbitrary graph , and an arbitrary vertex in , the set of edges incident to corresponds to a clique in the line graph . The cliques formed in this way partition the edges of . Each vertex of belongs to exactly two of them (the two cliques corresponding to the two endpoints of the corresponding edge in ).


title: Line graph

text: The existence of such a partition into cliques can be used to characterize the line graphs: A graph is the line graph of some other graph or multigraph if and only if it is possible to find a collection of cliques in (allowing some of the cliques to be single vertices) that partition the edges of , such that each vertex of belongs to exactly two of the cliques. It is the line graph of a graph (rather than a multigraph) if this set of cliques satisfies the additional condition that no two vertices of are both in the same two cliques. Given such a family of cliques, the underlying graph for which is the line graph can be recovered by making one vertex in for each clique, and an edge in for each vertex in with its endpoints being the two cliques containing the vertex in . By the strong version of Whitney's isomorphism theorem, if the underlying graph has more than four vertices, there can be only one partition of this type.


title: Line graph

text: In this example, the edges going upward, to the left, and to the right from the central degree-four vertex do not have any cliques in common. Therefore, any partition of the graph's edges into cliques would have to have at least one clique for each of these three edges, and these three cliques would all intersect in that central vertex, violating the requirement that each vertex appear in exactly two cliques. Thus, the graph shown is not a line graph.


title: Line graph

text: Another characterization of line graphs was proven in (and reported earlier without proof by ). He showed that there are nine minimal graphs that are not line graphs, such that any graph that is not a line graph has one of these nine graphs as an induced subgraph. That is, a graph is a line graph if and only if no subset of its vertices induces one of these nine graphs. In the example above, the four topmost vertices induce a claw (that is, a complete bipartite graph ), shown on the top left of the illustration of forbidden subgraphs. Therefore, by Beineke's characterization, this example cannot be a line graph. For graphs with minimum degree at least 5, only the six subgraphs in the left and right columns of the figure are needed in the characterization.


title: Line graph

text: and described linear time algorithms for recognizing line graphs and reconstructing their original graphs. generalized these methods to directed graphs. described an efficient data structure for maintaining a dynamic graph, subject to vertex insertions and deletions, and maintaining a representation of the input as a line graph (when it exists) in time proportional to the number of changed edges at each step.


title: Line graph

text: The algorithms of and are based on characterizations of line graphs involving odd triangles (triangles in the line graph with the property that there exists another vertex adjacent to an odd number of triangle vertices). However, the algorithm of uses only Whitney's isomorphism theorem. It is complicated by the need to recognize deletions that cause the remaining graph to become a line graph, but when specialized to the static recognition problem only insertions need to be performed, and the algorithm performs the following steps:


title: Line graph

text: Each step either takes constant time, or involves finding a vertex cover of constant size within a graph whose size is proportional to the number of neighbors of . Thus, the total time for the whole algorithm is proportional to the sum of the numbers of neighbors of all vertices, which (by the handshaking lemma) is proportional to the number of input edges.


title: Line graph

text: They show that, when is a finite connected graph, only four behaviors are possible for this sequence:


title: Line graph

text: For connected graphs that are not paths, all sufficiently high numbers of iteration of the line graph operation produce graphs that are Hamiltonian.


title: Line graph

text: When a planar graph has maximum vertex degree three, its line graph is planar, and every planar embedding of can be extended to an embedding of . However, there exist planar graphs with higher degree whose line graphs are nonplanar. These include, for example, the 5-star , the gem graph formed by adding two non-crossing diagonals within a regular pentagon, and all convex polyhedra with a vertex of degree four or more.


title: Line graph

text: An alternative construction, the medial graph, coincides with the line graph for planar graphs with maximum degree three, but is always planar. It has the same vertices as the line graph, but potentially fewer edges: two vertices of the medial graph are adjacent if and only if the corresponding two edges are consecutive on some face of the planar embedding. The medial graph of the dual graph of a plane graph is the same as the medial graph of the original plane graph.


title: Line graph

text: For regular polyhedra or simple polyhedra, the medial graph operation can be represented geometrically by the operation of cutting off each vertex of the polyhedron by a plane through the midpoints of all its incident edges. This operation is known variously as the second truncation, degenerate truncation, or rectification.


title: Line graph

text: The total graph of a graph has as its vertices the elements (vertices or edges) of , and has an edge between two elements whenever they are either incident or adjacent. The total graph may also be obtained by subdividing each edge of and then taking the square of the subdivided graph.


title: Line graph

text: The concept of the line graph of may naturally be extended to the case where is a multigraph. In this case, the characterizations of these graphs can be simplified: the characterization in terms of clique partitions no longer needs to prevent two vertices from belonging to the same to cliques, and the characterization by forbidden graphs has seven forbidden graphs instead of nine.


title: Line graph

text: However, for multigraphs, there are larger numbers of pairs of non-isomorphic graphs that have the same line graphs. For instance a complete bipartite graph has the same line graph as the dipole graph and Shannon multigraph with the same number of edges. Nevertheless, analogues to Whitney's isomorphism theorem can still be derived in this case.


title: Line graph

text: It is also possible to generalize line graphs to directed graphs. If is a directed graph, its directed line graph or line digraph has one vertex for each edge of . Two vertices representing directed edges from to and from to in are connected by an edge from to in the line digraph when . That is, each edge in the line digraph of represents a length-two directed path in . The de Bruijn graphs may be formed by repeating this process of forming directed line graphs, starting from a complete directed graph.


title: Line graph

text: In a line graph , each vertex of degree in the original graph creates edges in the line graph. For many types of analysis this means high-degree nodes in are over-represented in the line graph . For instance, consider a random walk on the vertices of the original graph . This will pass along some edge with some frequency . On the other hand, this edge is mapped to a unique vertex, say , in the line graph . If we now perform the same type of random walk on the vertices of the line graph, the frequency with which is visited can be completely different from "f". If our edge in was connected to nodes of degree , it will be traversed more frequently in the line graph . Put another way, the Whitney graph isomorphism theorem guarantees that the line graph almost always encodes the topology of the original graph faithfully but it does not guarantee that dynamics on these two graphs have a simple relationship. One solution is to construct a weighted line graph, that is, a line graph with weighted edges. There are several natural ways to do this. For instance if edges and in the graph are incident at a vertex with degree , then in the line graph the edge connecting the two vertices and can be given weight . In this way every edge in (provided neither end is connected to a vertex of degree 1) will have strength 2 in the line graph corresponding to the two ends that the edge has in . It is straightforward to extend this definition of a weighted line graph to cases where the original graph was directed or even weighted. The principle in all cases is to ensure the line graph reflects the dynamics as well as the topology of the original graph .


title: Line graph

text: The edges of a hypergraph may form an arbitrary family of sets, so the line graph of a hypergraph is the same as the intersection graph of the sets from the family.


title: Line graph

text: The disjointness graph of , denoted , is constructed in the following way: for each edge in , make a vertex in ; for every two edges in that do "not" have a vertex in common, make an edge between their corresponding vertices in . In other words, is the complement graph of . A clique in corresponds to an independent set in , and vice versa.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: Hungarian irredentism or Greater Hungary () are irredentist political ideas concerning redemption of territories of the historical Kingdom of Hungary. Targeting at least to regain control over Hungarian-populated areas in Hungary's neighbouring countries. Hungarian historiography uses the term "Historic Hungary" (). "Whole Hungary" () is also commonly used by supporters of this ideology.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: The Treaty of Trianon defined the current borders of Hungary and, compared against the claims of the pre-war Kingdom, post-Trianon Hungary had approximately 72% less land stake and about two-thirds fewer inhabitants, almost 5 million of these being of Hungarian ethnicity. However, only 54% of the inhabitants of the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary were Hungarians before World War I. Following the treaty's instatement, Hungarian leaders became inclined towards revoking some of its terms. This political aim gained greater attention and was a serious national concern up through the Second World War.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: Irredentism in the 1930s led Hungary to form an alliance with Hitler's Nazi Germany. Eva S. Balogh states: "Hungary's participation in World War II resulted from a desire to revise the Treaty of Trianon so as to recover territories lost after World War I. This was the basis for Hungary's interwar foreign policy."


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: Hungary, supported by the Axis Powers, was successful temporarily in gaining some regions of the former Kingdom by the First Vienna Award in 1938 (southern Czechoslovakia with mainly Hungarians) and the Second Vienna Award in 1940 (Northern Transylvania with an ethnically mixed population), and through military campaign gained regions of Carpathian Ruthenia in 1939 and (ethnically mixed) Bačka, Baranja, Međimurje, and Prekmurje in 1941 (Hungarian occupation of Yugoslav territories). Following the close of World War II, the borders of Hungary as defined by the Treaty of Trianon were restored, except for three Hungarian villages that were transferred to Czechoslovakia. These villages are today administratively a part of Bratislava.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: The independent Kingdom of Hungary was established in 1000 AD, and remained a regional power in Central Europe until Ottoman Empire conquered its central part in 1526 following the Battle of Mohács. In 1541 the territory of the former Kingdom of Hungary was divided into three portions: in the west and north, Habsburg Kingdom of Hungary retained its existence under Habsburg rule; the Ottomans controlled the south-central parts of former Kingdom of Hungary; while in the east, the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom (later the Principality of Transylvania) was formed as a semi-independent entity under Ottoman suzerainty. After the Ottoman conquest in the Kingdom of Hungary, the ethnic structure of the kingdom started to become more multi-ethnic because of immigration to the sparsely populated areas. Between 1683 and 1717, the Habsburg monarchy conquered all the Ottoman territories that were part of the Kingdom of Hungary before 1526, and incorporated some of these areas into the Habsburg Kingdom of Hungary.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: After a suppressed uprising in 1848–1849, the Kingdom of Hungary and its diet were dissolved, and territory of the Kingdom of Hungary was divided into 5 districts, which were Pest & Ofen, Ödenburg, Preßburg, Kaschau and Großwardein, directly controlled from Vienna while Croatia, Slavonia, and the Voivodeship of Serbia and Banat of Temeschwar were separated from the Kingdom of Hungary between 1849 and 1860. This new centralized rule, however, failed to provide stability, and in the wake of military defeats the Austrian Empire was transformed into Austria-Hungary with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, by which Kingdom of Hungary became one of two constituent entities of the new dual monarchy with self-rule in its internal affairs.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: A considerable number of the figures who are today considered important in Hungarian culture were born in what are today parts of Romania, Slovakia, Poland, Ukraine, and Austria ("see List of Hungarians who were born outside present-day Hungary"). Names of Hungarian dishes, common surnames, proverbs, sayings, folk songs etc. also refer to these rich cultural ties. After 1867, the non-Hungarian ethnic groups were subject to assimilation and Magyarization.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: Among the most notable policies was the promotion of the Hungarian language as the country's official language (replacing Latin and German); however, this was often at the expense of West Slavic languages and the Romanian language. The new government of autonomous Kingdom of Hungary took the stance that Kingdom of Hungary should be a Hungarian nation state, and that all other peoples living in the Kingdom of Hungary—Germans, Jews, Romanians, Slovaks, Poles, Ruthenes and other ethnicities—should be assimilated. (The Croats were to some extent an exception to this, as they had a fair degree of self-government within Croatia-Slavonia, a dependent kingdom within the Kingdom of Hungary.)


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: The peace treaties signed after the First World War redefined the national borders of Europe. The dissolution of Austria-Hungary, after its defeat in the First World War, gave an opportunity for the subject nationalities of the old Monarchy to all form their own nation states (however, most of the resulting states nevertheless became multi-ethnic states comprising several nationalities). The Treaty of Trianon of 1920 defined borders for the new Hungarian state: in the north, the Slovak and Ruthene areas, including Hungarian majority areas became part of the new state of Czechoslovakia. Transylvania and most of the Banat became part of Romania, while Croatia-Slavonia and the other southern areas became part of the new state of Yugoslavia.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: The arguments of Hungarian irredentists for their goal were: the presence of Hungarian majority areas in the neighboring countries, perceived historical traditions of the Kingdom of Hungary, or the perceived geographical unity and economic symbiosis of the region within the Carpathian Basin, although some Hungarian irredentists preferred to regain only ethnically Hungarian majority areas surrounding Hungary.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: Post-Trianon Hungary had about half of the population of the former Kingdom. The population of the territories of the Kingdom of Hungary that were not assigned to the post-Trianon Hungary had, in total, non-Hungarian majority, although they included a sizable proportion of ethnic Hungarians and Hungarian majority areas. According to Károly Kocsis and Eszter Kocsis-Hodosi, the ethnic composition (by their native language) in 1910 (note: three-quarters of the Jewish population stated Hungarian as their mother tongue, and the rest, German, in the absence of Yiddish as an option):


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: Trianon thus defined Hungary's new borders in a way that made ethnic Hungarians the overwhelmingly absolute majority in the country. Almost 3 million ethnic Hungarians remained outside the borders of post-Trianon Hungary. A considerable number of non-Hungarian nationalities remained within the new borders of Hungary, the largest of which were Germans (Schwabs) with 550,062 people (6.9%). Also, the number of Hungarian Jews remained within the new borders was 473,310 (5.9% of the total population), compared with 911,227 (5.0%), in 1910.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: After the Treaty of Trianon, a political concept known as Hungarian Irredentism became popular in Hungary. The Treaty of Trianon was an injury for the Hungarian people and Hungarian nationalists have created an ideology with the political goal of the restoration of borders of historical pre-Trianon Kingdom of Hungary.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: The justification for this aim usually followed the fact that two-thirds of the country's area was taken by the neighboring countries with approximately 3 million Hungarians living in these territories. Several municipalities that had purely ethnic Hungarian population were excluded from post-Trianon Hungary, which had borders designed to cut most economic regions (Szeged, Pécs, Debrecen etc.) in half, and keep railways on the other side. Moreover, five of the pre-war kingdom's ten largest cities were drawn into other countries.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: All interwar governments of Hungary were obsessed with recovering at least the Magyar-populated territories outside Hungary. In 1934, Gyula Gömbös, on the request of Benito Mussolini, presented the territories which he wished to reannex peacefully.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: Hungary's government allied itself with Nazi Germany during World War II in exchange for assurances that Greater Hungary's borders would be restored. This goal was partially achieved when Hungary reannexed territories from Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Yugoslavia at the outset of the war. These annexations were affirmed under the Munich Agreement (1938), two Vienna Awards (1938 and 1940), and aggression against Yugoslavia (1941), the latter achieved one week after the German army had already invaded Yugoslavia.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: The percentage of Hungarian speakers was 84% in southern Czechoslovakia and 15% in the Sub-Carpathian Rus.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: In Northern Transylvania, the Romanian census from 1930 counted 38% Hungarians and 49% Romanians, while the Hungarian census from 1941 counted 53.5% Hungarians and 39.1% Romanians.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: Ferenc Szálasi, leader of Hungary from 16 October 1944 envisioned the creation a "Carpathian-Danubian" federation where nationalism is region based ("connationalism") and other peoples are willing to join independently. He excluded the Jews who were not "rooted in" the Carpathian Basin, so they had to be relocated into a Jewish state, but not killed ("asemitism") according to him. Szálasi called his ideology Hungarism.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: The Yugoslav territory occupied by Hungary (including Bačka, Baranja, Međimurje and Prekmurje) had approximately one million inhabitants, including 543,000 Yugoslavs (Serbs, Croats and Slovenes), 301,000 Hungarians, 197,000 Germans, 40,000 Slovaks, 15,000 Rusyns, and 15,000 Jews. In Bačka region only, the 1931 census put the percentage of the speakers of Hungarian at 34.2%, while one of interpretations of later Hungarian census from 1941 states that, 45,4% or 47,2% declared themselves to be Hungarian native speakers or ethnic Hungarians (this interpretation is provided by authors Károly Kocsis and Eszter Kocsisné Hodosi. The 1941 census, however, did not recorded ethnicity of the people, but only mother/native tongue ). Population of entire Bačka numbered 789,705 inhabitants in 1941. This means that from the beginning of the occupation, the number of Hungarian speakers in Bačka increased by 48,550, while the number of Serbian speakers decreased by 75,166.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: The establishment of Hungarian rule met with insurgency on part of the non-Hungarian population in some places and retaliation of the Hungarian forces was labelled war crimes such as Ip and Treznea massacres in Northern Transylvania (directed against Romanians) or Bačka, where Hungarian military between 1941 and 1944 deported or killed 19,573 civilians, mainly Serbs and Jews, but also Hungarians who did not collaborate with the new authorities. About 56,000 people were also expelled from Bačka.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: The Jewish population of Hungary and the areas it occupied were partly diminished as part of the Holocaust. Tens of thousands of Romanians fled from Hungarian-ruled Northern Transylvania, and vice versa. After the war the areas were returned to neighboring countries and Hungary's territory was slightly further reduced by ceding three villages south of Bratislava to Slovakia. Some Hungarians were killed both in Yugoslavia by Yugoslav partisans (the exact number of ethnic Hungarians killed by Yugoslav partisans is not clearly established and estimates range from 4,000 to 40,000; 20,000 is often regarded as most probable), and in Transylvania by the Maniu Guard towards the end of World War II.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: During the Communist era, Marxist–Leninist ideology and Stalin's theory on nationalities considered nationalism to be a malady of a bourgeois capitalism. In Hungary, the minorities' question disappeared from the political agenda. Communist hegemony guaranteed a facade of inter-ethnic peace while failing to secure a lasting accommodation of minority interests in unitary states.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: The fall of Communism aroused the expectations of Hungarian minorities in neighboring countries and left Hungary unprepared to deal with the issue. Hungarian politicians campaigned to formalize the rights of Hungarian minorities in neighboring countries, thus causing anxiety in the region. They secured agreements on the necessity for guaranteeing collective rights and formed new Hungarian minority organizations to promote cultural rights and political participation. In Romania, Slovakia, and Yugoslavia (now Serbia), former Communists secured popular legitimacy by accommodating nationalist tendencies that were hostile to minority rights.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: The latest controversy caused by the government of Viktor Orbán is when Hungary took the presidency over the EU in 2011 when the "historical timeline" features was presented – among other cultural, historical and scientific symbols or images of Hungary - an 1848 map of Greater Hungary, when Budapest ruled over large swathes of its neighbors.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: In May 2020 Prime Minister Orban created some waves in neighbouring nations with a historical map of Hungary the restoration of Greater Hungary.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: Under great pressure from the EU and NATO, Hungary signed a bilateral state treaty with Slovakia on Good Neighborly Relations and Friendly Cooperation in March 1995, aimed at resolving disputes concerning borders and minority rights. Its vague language, though, allows rival interpretations. One cause of conflict was the COE's Recommendation 1201 which stipulates the creation of autonomous self-government based on ethnic principles in areas where ethnic minorities represent a majority of the population.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: The Hungarian Prime Minister insisted that the treaty protected the Hungarian minority as a "community". Slovakia accepted the 1201 Recommendation in the treaty, but denounced the concept of collective rights of minorities and political autonomy as "unacceptable and destabilizing". Slovakia finally ratified the treaty in March 1996 after the government attached a unilateral declaration that the accord would not provide for collective autonomy for Hungarians. The Hungarian government therefore refused to recognize the validity of the declaration.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: After World War II, a Hungarian Autonomous Region was created in Transylvania, which encompassed most of the land inhabited by the Székelys. This region lasted until 1964 when the administrative reform divided Romania into the current counties. From 1947 until the 1989 Romanian Revolution and the death of Nicolae Ceaușescu, a systematic Romanianization of Hungarians took place, with several discriminatory provisions, denying them their cultural identity. This tendency started to abate after 1989, the question of Székely autonomy remains a sensitive issue.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: On 16 September 1996, after five years of negotiations, Hungary and Romania also signed a bilateral treaty, which had been stalled over the nature and extent of minority protection that Bucharest should grant to Hungarian citizens. Hungary dropped its demands for autonomy for ethnic minorities; in exchange, Romania accepted a reference to Recommendation 1201 in the treaty, but with a joint interpretive declaration that guarantees individual rights, but excludes collective rights and territorial autonomy based on ethnic criteria. These concessions were made in large measure because both countries recognized the need to improve good neighborly relations as a prerequisite for NATO membership.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: These parties are advocating the establishment of the territorial autonomy for Hungarians in the northern part of Vojvodina, which would include the municipalities with Hungarian majority (See Hungarian Regional Autonomy for details).


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: In 2018, the Hungarian Cultural Federation in Transcarpathia (KMKSZ) requested to establish a separate Hungarian constituency by referring to Article 18 of the current Law "On Elections of People's Deputies", which states that electoral districts must be formed, including taking into account the residence of national minorities. Such a constituency, which is often called Pritysyansky (from the name of the Tisza River, along which the Hungarian minority lives along the Transcarpathia), already existed in the parliamentary elections in Ukraine in 1998 and virtually retained its limits in the 2002 elections, granting presence for the representants of the Hungarian minority in the Verkhovna Rada.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: The issue restarted during the election campaign of the presidential elections in Ukraine in the spring of 2019. László Brenzovics, the head of KMKSZ filed a lawsuit against the Central Election Commission of Ukraine for refusing to create the so-called Pritysyansky constituency – a separate constituency on the territory of 4 districts of Transcarpathia along the Tisza River, where the ethnic Hungarians are compact, allegedly for the purpose of electing their representative in the Verkhovna Rada. Preparing for the fact that the court is likely to support the legitimate refusal of the CEC, the Hungarians began to act at the level of the local councils of Transcarpathia.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: On May 17, at a regular session of the Beregovo City Council, chairman of the largest pro-Hungarian faction of the Hungarian Democratic Federation in Ukraine (UDMSZ), Karolina Darcsi, – accused for anti-Ukrainian stance – planned to read the appeal of deputies to the CEC to create the Pritysyansky Hungarian constituency in Transcarpathia. However, in the absence of a quorum, the session of the city council never took place.


title: Hungarian irredentism

text: The 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine revived interest among Hungarian nationalists for annexing parts of Ukraine.


title: Drammen

text: Drammen () is a city and municipality in Viken, Norway. The port and river city of Drammen is centrally located in the south-eastern and most populated part of Norway. Drammen municipality also includes smaller towns and villages such as Konnerud, Svelvik, Mjøndalen and Skoger.


title: Drammen

text: Drammen is located west of the Oslofjord and is situated approximately 44 km South-west of Oslo. There are more than 101 000 inhabitants in the municipality, but the city is the regional capital of an area with 82 000 inhabitants. Drammen and the surrounding communities are growing more than ever before. The city makes good use of the river and inland waterway called Drammensfjord, both for recreation, activities and housing.


title: Drammen

text: The Old Norse form of the city's name was "Drafn", and this was originally the name of the inner part of Drammensfjord. The fjord is, however, probably named after the river Drammenselva (Norse "Drǫfn"), and this again is derived from "drǫfn" f 'wave'.


title: Drammen

text: The coat-of-arms is from modern times. They were granted on 17 November 1960. The arms has a silver-colored column on top a silver-colored bedrock crossed with a silver-colored key and sword against a blue background. It is based upon the old seal dating from 1723 for Bragernes, one of the central parts of Drammen. The motto for Bragernes (in Latin) was "In Fide Et Justitia Fortitudo" (), and the items in the seal are referring to this: key = faith, sword = justice, column on rocks = strength.


title: Drammen

text: On January 1, 2020, the municipalities of Svelvik, Nedre Eiker and Drammen merged to form «The New Drammen Municipality». The new municipality, which is now called Drammen, is located in Viken County and is Norway's seventh largest with over 100,000 residents. The main seat of the Greater Municipality is located in the city of Drammen.


title: Drammen

text: Drammen city had a population of 82.875 inhabitants in 2021, but serves as a regional centre for an area that had a population of 110.236 inhabitants in 2021. The city is the country's record champion in environment and urban development, 21 prices since 2003 with 16 national and 5 international.


title: Drammen

text: After the merger of the municipalities Drammen, Nedre Eiker and Svelvik in 2020, the municipality was then divided into ten municipal regions:


title: Drammen

text: Rock carvings at Åskollen and Austad are 6000 to 7000 years old, and are the first signs of human activity in the area. The largest rock carving at Åskollen depicts a moose.


title: Drammen

text: Drammen originally consisted of three small seaports: Bragernes (on the northern side of the Drammenselva river) and Strømsø and Tangen (both on the southern side of the river). For trade purposes, small seaports were placed under market towns. Despite their geographical proximity, Bragernes was placed under Christiania and Strømsø under Tønsberg. For this reason, cooperation between the adjacent seaport towns was almost impossible.


title: Drammen

text: In 1662, a merger was proposed to unite Strømsø and Bragernes to form a market town with the name Frederiksstrøm. The proposal was rejected by Frederick III of Denmark. Bragernes received limited market town rights in 1715, and merged with Strømsø to gain status as a single city on 19 June 1811.


title: Drammen

text: Its geographical location made the city favorable for seafaring, shipbuilding, log driving, timber trade. During the 19th century, paper and pulp industries were developed. Large parts of the city were ruined in the great fire of 12–13 July 1866, which led to the reconstruction of the city centre, including the characteristic town square and Bragernes church. The Drammen Line ("Drammenbanen" ) opened in 1872 providing rail service between Drammen and Oslo.


title: Drammen

text: In 1909, Drammen got the first trolleybus system in Scandinavia, the Drammen trolleybus. The lines ran until 1967. For many years the centre of Drammen suffered from heavy traffic. In 1970, Drammen Bridge with two lanes on European route E18 was built (expanded to four lanes in 2006) and in 1999 the opening of the Bragernes tunnel ("Bragernestunnelen") diverted additional traffic away from the centre of the city.


title: Drammen

text: In recent years, the city centre has seen the introduction of new housing, shopping facilities, restaurants, cafes and bars, as well as a public pathway along the Drammenselva river.


title: Drammen

text: In 2011, Drammen observed its 200th anniversary with many citywide jubilee celebrations. Drammen's district heating system was upgraded to use water-sourced heat pumps, drawing on local fjord water, to support population growth in the city.


title: Drammen

text: Drammen is one of the larger cities in Norway, and lies about from the capital of Norway, Oslo. The city centre lies at the end of a valley, on both sides of the Drammenselva river, and where the river meets the Drammensfjord. The Holmen island in Drammen is also the main harbor for car and fruit import in Norway.


title: Drammen

text: The Drammen region is part of the metropolitan region around Oslo and the country's fifth largest urban area, it extends far beyond the municipal boundaries; into the municipalities of Lier, Asker, Øvre Eiker and Holmestrand. The total population of the settlement is 110,236 inhabitants as of 1 January 2021.


title: Drammen

text: Drammen has a humid continental climate (Dfb). Located at a sheltered location at the head of a narrow fjord branch of innermost Oslofjord, Drammen is among the warmest cities in Scandinavia in summer. The warmest month on record was July 2018 with mean , average daily high and 11 days with highs at or above . The all-time high was recorded August 3, 1982, and is a tie with the national high for the month. The September record high is the national record. The all-time low was recorded in January 1987, which is the coldest month on record with mean and average daily low . In more recent years, December 2010 was almost as cold. The average date for first overnight freeze (low below ) in autumn is 13 October (1981-2010 average). The Drammen-Berskog weather station has been operating since 2004. An earlier weather station named Drammen-Marienlyst (3 m) operated from 1966 to 2003.


title: Drammen

text: Percentage Immigrants and Norwegian-born with immigrant parents in Drammen is 28 per cent, of which 25 per cent are Norwegian-born with immigrant parents.


title: Drammen

text: Aass Brewery is the oldest surviving brewery in Norway, and has won acclaim for both its beer and its well-conserved building. Founded in 1834, the brewery's primary products are soft drinks, beer and aquavit.


title: Drammen

text: The Drammen Museum of Art and Cultural History includes Marienlyst, a manor house from ca. 1770, museum building from 1930 with the museum's administration, permanent exhibitions and collections, and Lyche pavilion from 1990 with the gallery, temporary exhibitions and museum café, Halling yard, with 5 old buildings, the oldest from 1760s. The museum also includes the two largest preserved like farms in Drammen, Gulskogen Manor and Austad farm.


title: Drammen

text: The "Drammen Spiral" is a road tunnel that allows access to the Skansen Ridge, above the town. It opened in 1961 on the site of a former quarry.


title: Drammen

text: Drammen Theater in Bragernes was built in 1869 and was designed by architect Emil Victor Langlet. The theater was the first modern theater in the country. It was designed in a complex Renaissance style with symmetrical facades and round arched windows. After Drammen Theater suffered total destruction by fire in December 1993, a new theater was rebuilt on the model of the original house. It was finished during February 1997.


title: Drammen

text: Drammensbadet is a public swimming and training facility located in Marienlyst, Drammen. It was one of the largest in Norway when it opened 1 September 2008. They have five indoor and four outdoor pools.


title: Mark Hateley

text: Mark Wayne Hateley (born 7 November 1961) is an English former professional footballer who played as a striker. He started his career with Coventry City F.C. in the First Division of English football. A spell followed at English Second Division club Portsmouth, where he ended the 1983–84 season as the club's top goalscorer. He then moved to Italian club A.C. Milan, where he suffered several injuries (requiring four operations); however, he did score the winning goal against city rivals Inter Milan in 1984. In 1987, Hateley signed for French club Monaco, winning Ligue 1 in his first season at the Monegasque club. In 1990, he signed for Scottish Premier Division club Rangers. In his five-year spell in Glasgow, he was a part of a title-winning squad in every season, and he attained personal success in the 1993–94 season, as he was voted both the SFWA Footballer of the Year and the SPFA Players' Player of the Year, as well as the league's top goalscorer with 22 goals. He briefly rejoined the club in 1997, as there were no available forwards for the Old Firm match, but was sent off on his second debut. In 1999, Hateley was named as part of Rangers' greatest-ever team, and in 2003 he was inducted to Rangers' Hall of Fame.


title: Mark Hateley

text: From 1984 to 1992, Hateley made 32 appearances for the English national team, scoring nine goals. He was a member of the squads for the 1986 FIFA World Cup and UEFA Euro 1988.


title: Mark Hateley

text: Hateley was born in Derby on 7 November 1961. His father, Tony, was also a professional footballer who played as a striker for such clubs as Notts County, Aston Villa, Coventry City and Chelsea.


title: Mark Hateley

text: Hateley trained with Nottingham Forest whilst still at school; however, he was rejected by then-manager Brian Clough, who did not believe he was sufficiently talented. Upon leaving school, he joined Coventry City and started his career in professional football, playing over 90 games in the First Division before moving to Portsmouth in the Second Division in the summer of 1983. He scored 22 league goals for them in the 1983–84 season.


title: Mark Hateley

text: On 28 June 1984, he was transferred to A.C. Milan for £1 million. He scored a decisive and historic match-winning goal in a 2–1 win against Inter in the Milan Derby on 28 October 1984, beating out former Milan defender Fulvio Collovati with a header; this was the first time Milan had beaten Inter in the Derby in six years. Ayrton Senna lived in the apartment below him, and Boris Becker lived next door, during part of his time in Milan. Senna played five-a-side football with Hateley.


title: Mark Hateley

text: Arsène Wenger then brought him to AS Monaco, his first signing for the club, in 1987 and he was part of the team which won the French Division 1 title in 1987–88.


title: Mark Hateley

text: After three years at Monaco, a 28-year-old Hateley returned to Britain in a £1 million move to Rangers on 19 July 1990, taking an 80% reduction compared to his pay at Milan. Manager Graeme Souness had attempted to bring him to Ibrox three years earlier from Milan. Hateley became a key part of the Rangers side, and was voted player of the year by the Scottish Football Writers in 1993–94. He scored 112 goals for the "Gers" in all competitions, including two that clinched the championship on the final day in 1991 and one in each of the narrow Scottish Cup final victories in 1992 and 1993. Rangers were league champions in every season that Hateley played for them (scoring 85 Scottish Premier Division goals in the process), as they went on a run of nine successive titles, which lasted from 1989 until 1997.


title: Mark Hateley

text: As for Hateley's renowned strike partnership at Rangers with Ally McCoist, Hateley said: "Alistair was the perfect partner for me. As a finisher, he was an unbelievable goal scorer. He linked with me. All the goal scorer does is he looks at the leader of the line and makes sure he's offset, fifteen yards away. It was a great partnership" In 1992–93, Rangers scored 97 goals. McCoist won the European Golden Boot, with 49 of them, and Hateley scored 29.


title: Mark Hateley

text: After making 218 appearances for Rangers, he moved to Queens Park Rangers in November 1995, for a fee of £1.5 million. He had just recovered from having concurrent operations on his knee and ankle. Hateley said in 2021: "My dad always said to never make a decision when injured, or in ill-health, because invariably it will be the wrong decision, an emotional decision. I knew after literally ten days that it was the wrong move."


title: Mark Hateley

text: In early 1997, with Rangers trying to win their ninth title in a row and with a long injury list, manager Walter Smith desperately needed a striker, and re-signed Hateley for £300,000 to play in the vital game against Rangers' biggest rivals Celtic. Rangers won the game 1–0, but Hateley was sent off for headbutting Stewart Kerr. He played four times in his second spell at Rangers, scoring once, and transferred to Hull City in July 1997, where he fulfilled the role of player-manager. Hateley managed Hull from the summer of 1997 until November 1998.


title: Mark Hateley

text: Hateley ended his playing career with Ross County in September 1999, playing two games for them. "It was a great time. I really did enjoy myself up there. It was a logistic nightmare for me, because I was staying down in Derby and going through a divorce. I was having to fly from East Midlands into Glasgow and then I had twenty minutes to make a connection to get up there, and I could never make it."


title: Mark Hateley

text: On 2 June 1984, Hateley was capped for England at senior level for the first time in a 2–0 friendly defeat to the USSR. In his next game, eight days later, he scored in a 2–0 victory over Brazil, to date England's only away victory against Brazil. By the end of 1984, he had been capped six times by England and scored three goals. He played a significant role in England's successful qualifying campaign for the 1986 World Cup, scoring important goals against Finland and Northern Ireland. However England started slowly in the tournament itself and after two disappointing results (a defeat against Portugal and a draw against Morocco), Hateley was among players dropped, being replaced by Peter Beardsley. England won their next match against Poland and Hateley thereafter fell out of favour. He made the last of his 32 appearances in a 2–2 friendly draw with Czechoslovakia in 1992.


title: Mark Hateley

text: A traditional target man, Hateley was a physical centre-forward who was known in particular for his strength in the air and ability to score goals with his head.


title: Mark Hateley

text: Hateley has four children: Emma, Lucy, Faye and Tom. Tom, who was born in Monaco during father's spell at AS Monaco, is also a footballer. He is once divorced.


title: Mark Hateley

text: Paul Gascoigne lived with Hateley for two weeks after signing for Rangers in July 1995 for a club-record £4.3 million.


title: Mohamed Ramadan (actor and singer)

text: Mohamed Ramadan (; born 23 May 1988), better known as Mohamed Ramadan, is an Egyptian actor, singer, rapper, dancer and producer.


title: Mohamed Ramadan (actor and singer)

text: Mohamed Ramadan began acting during school. He has received the award for greatest nationwide talent three times consecutively – an unprecedented achievement. He started his career with small roles in TV series like "The Cindrella", until he had his big break in Yousry Nasrallah's "Ehky Ya Sharazad" (Tell me, Shahrazad). He then went on to star in films produced by the Egyptian producers Mohamed and Ahmed El Sobky, which made him one of the most valuable actors in the Middle East. Mohamed Ramadan is perhaps the only Egyptian actor to have been praised by the performer Omar Sharif, who stated that he had chosen Mohamed to perpetuate his acting legacy.


title: Mohamed Ramadan (actor and singer)

text: Ramadan collaborated with French singer and rapper Gims in the song "Ya Habibi". In 2020, his Youtube channel was one of the most-viewed in the Middle East.


title: Mohamed Ramadan (actor and singer)

text: Mohamed Ramadan has been also very successful in commercial sponsorships and advertising promotions in Egypt and the Arab World including the telecommunication company Etisalat Misr and 4G with associated music releases like "ElTop". The promotions are under the slogan "Aqwa Cart fi Masr" (meaning "the strongest card in Egypt").


title: Mohamed Ramadan (actor and singer)

text: In October 2019, Ramadan posted a video of himself in a co-pilot's seat during a private flight run by Smart Aviation Company to Saudi Arabia, which led to a life-time ban on the pilot, Ashraf Abu Al-Yusr, due to violations against the Egyptian civil aviation law. In June 2021, the Egyptian Public Prosecution froze all bank accounts of Ramadan, as he had to pay £E6m in compensation to the family of the pilot Abu Al-Yusr, who had died earlier that year.


title: Mohamed Ramadan (actor and singer)

text: On November 21, 2020, the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs shared a photo of Ramadan with Arab-Israeli footballer Dia Saba and Israeli singer Omer Adam in a rooftop party in Dubai. which sparked condemnation by Arabs on social media accusing Ramadan of being a Zionist. The incident came months after Israel signed normalization deals with the United Arab Emirates and Bahrain. Egyptian–Israeli relations have remained chilled since signing the peace treaty in 1979. The Union of Artistic Syndicates suspended his membership for the same reason. A soap opera featuring Ramadan was also reportedly cancelled. By mid-December that year, he was exempt from any suspension or penalties related to the issue.


title: Mohamed Ramadan (actor and singer)

text: In August 2022, Ramadan received backlash after he posted a photo of him with his arm around an Israeli fan on his TikTok account. The photo was widely shared on social media and became the subject of articles in Egyptian newspapers including "Al-Masry Al-Youm". The photo was described as "a stamp of approval for normalization with Israel". Ramadan did not address the condemnations.


title: Mohamed Ramadan (actor and singer)

text: Ramadan has married twice. He has a daughter named Haneen from his first marriage. Then he married Nesreen El Sayed Abd El Fattah, with whom he has two children: Ali and Kenz.


title: Albert Gallo

text: Albert "Kid Blast" Gallo, Jr. (born June 6, 1930) is a New York mobster of the Genovese crime family.


title: Albert Gallo

text: Albert Gallo was born on June 6, 1930, in Red Hook, Brooklyn. His parents were Albert (Umberto) and Mary Gallo (née Nunziata). His two older brothers were Lawrence "Larry" Gallo and Joe "Crazy Joey" Gallo.


title: Albert Gallo

text: A bootlegger during Prohibition, Albert Sr. did not discourage his three sons from becoming criminals. Albert Gallo joined his brothers Larry and Joey in a gang that controlled President street South Brooklyn.


title: Albert Gallo

text: At one point, Albert Gallo lived in the Greenwood section of Brooklyn. In the late 1970s, Gallo told the media that he owned a furniture company. It is unknown if Gallo is married or has a family.


title: Albert Gallo

text: The three Gallo brothers became affiliated with capo Harry Fontana's crew in the Profaci crime family, then headed by boss Joseph Profaci.


title: Albert Gallo

text: In 1957, Profaci allegedly asked Joe Gallo and his crew to murder Albert Anastasia, the boss of the Gambino crime family. On October 25, 1957, Anastasia was murdered by two disguised men in the barber shop of a Manhattan hotel. It is unknown if Albert Gallo participated in the Anastasia killing. Some say it was Colombo mobster Carmine Persico, who participated in the shooting of Anastasia.


title: Albert Gallo

text: Eventually, Larry and Joey both became inducted members of the Profaci family. However, Albert never achieved this status in the family. Although Joey was the most explosive and strong-willed of the brothers, Larry was the organized thoughtful one who actually ran the crew. Younger brother Albert tended to stay in the background.


title: Albert Gallo

text: By the end of the 1950s, the Gallo brothers had become very dissatisfied with Profaci's leadership. Profaci was maintaining a lavish lifestyle by severely taxing everyone else in his crime family. In 1959, Profaci ordered the Gallos to murder fellow crew member Frank Abbatemarco, who ran lucrative bookmaking and loan sharking operations. Abbatemarco owed Profaci $50,000 in unpaid tribute and refused to pay it out of protest. On November 4, 1959, Abbatemarco was shot inside a tavern in the Carroll Gardens section of Brooklyn. Some accounts state that Albert, his brothers and Joseph "Joe Jelly" Gioelli killed Abbatemarco. Other reports say that Joey Gallo refused the assignment on behalf of the crew. After Abbatemarco's murder, Profaci took his rackets, leaving nothing for the Gallo crew.


title: Albert Gallo

text: Albert and the Gallo crew now turned against Profaci. In February 1961, the Gallos kidnapped underboss Joseph Magliocco and capos Frank Profaci, John Scimone and Joseph Colombo. Profaci was a target also, but he managed to escape capture. To obtain their release, Profaci negotiated an agreement with the Gallos.


title: Albert Gallo

text: However, after the hostage were released, Profaci reneged on the agreement and went after the Gallo crew.


title: Albert Gallo

text: On August 20, 1961, Scimone, now a Profaci loyalist, lured Larry Gallo into meeting him at a lounge, where several men, including Persico, tried to kill him. This was the start of the First Colombo War.


title: Albert Gallo

text: On December 21, 1961, Joey Gallo was sentenced seven to fourteen years in prison, but the conflict continued. In June 1962, Profaci died of cancer and the family leadership passed to Magliocco.


title: Albert Gallo

text: On January 29, 1962, Albert Gallo and six other crew members rescued six small children from an apartment filled with smoke by a mattress fire. None of the children or mobsters were injured.


title: Albert Gallo

text: In 1963, with the conviction of two more Gallo crew members, both sides accepted a peace agreement brokered by Patriarca crime family boss Raymond L.S. Patriarca. The first war was over, with the Profaci crime family becoming the Colombo crime family.


title: Albert Gallo

text: On January 8, 1965, Albert and Larry Gallo, along with 13 other crew members, pleaded guilty to misdemeanor assault and were sentenced to six months in prison.


title: Albert Gallo

text: In 1966, New York City's Youth Board requested that Albert Gallo and his brothers help them lower racial tensions between white and African-American youths in the East New York and Flatbush sections of Brooklyn. At one meeting with white youths, Albert Gallo sent a teenager sprawling for using a racial epithet. Brooklyn District Attorney Aaron Koota protested the use of the Gallo brothers, but New York Mayor John V. Lindsay defended the Youth Board's actions.


title: Albert Gallo

text: On October 24, 1967, Albert Gallo was indicted on charges related to a ticket cashing racket at Roosevelt Raceway in Westbury, New York.


title: Albert Gallo

text: In 1971, Joe Gallo was released from prison. Later that year, boss Joseph Colombo was shot and paralyzed. Former Gallo crew member Carmine Persico now took control of the family through a series of front bosses. Convinced that the Gallos had tried to kill Colombo, the Colombo leadership went after Joey Gallo.


title: Albert Gallo

text: On April 7, 1972, gunmen murdered Joey Gallo in Umberto's Clam House in Manhattan's Little Italy, starting the Second Colombo War. John "Mooney" Cutrone, a made man and close confidant of both Larry and Joey, was seen as Joey's logical successor. However, to maintain harmony in the crew, Cutrone supported Albert for capo. The untested and less experienced Albert now became boss of the Gallo crew.


title: Albert Gallo

text: In August 1972, Albert Gallo learned that several members of the Colombo leadership, including Alphonse Persico (Carmine Persico's brother) and Gennaro Langella would be meeting at the Neapolitan Noodle restaurant on the Upper East Side of Manhattan. The Gallo crew hired a hitman from Las Vegas to ambush and murder the Colombo leaders. However, at the restaurant, the confused hitman shot four innocent meat wholesalers instead of the mobsters. Two of his victims died. In the following months, an uneasy truce prevailed between the Colombos and the Gallos.


title: Albert Gallo

text: In 1974, the truce was shattered when Cutrone and his followers defected back to the Colombo family. Cutrone, Gerry Basciano, Sammy Zahralbam, and other Gallo members had become dissatisfied with their lack of income under Albert's leadership.


title: Albert Gallo

text: Almost immediately, violence broke out between the Gallo and Cutrone factions. Gallo loyalist James Geritano wiretapped Basciano's phone, allowing them to plan an ambush. On July 1, 1974, Basciano and Zahralbam were shot and wounded on a Brooklyn sidewalk, but escaped serious injury. On August 1974, the Cutrone faction shot and killed Gallo loyalist Stevie Cirillo while he was playing craps at a charity benefit in a Brooklyn synagogue. On September 11, 1974, a sniper shot and seriously wounded Gallo loyalist Frank "Punchy" Illiano, Albert's lieutenant, near the Gallo headquarters on President street.


title: Albert Gallo

text: In the autumn of 1974, the Mafia Commission intervened in the Gallo/Cutrone conflict. The family bosses believed that the violence was interfering with business and bringing public attention to their activities. The Commission negotiated an agreement under which Albert and his followers would join the crew of Vincent Gigante, then a powerful capo in the Genovese Family. Cutrone and his rebels would remain with the Colombo Family. Losing members, running out of money and virtually besieged in their President Street headquarters, the Gallo crew had no other choice. The Second Colombo War was over.


title: Albert Gallo

text: In February 1976, the peace agreement was violated when a sniper fired two gunshots into the Gallo headquarters, slightly wounding crew member Steven Boriello. Now part of Genovese family, Albert immediately filed a formal protest to the Colombo leadership. The Colombo bosses responded by summoning Cutrone and Basciano to a "sitdown" to explain their actions. Neither man attended the meeting; they also ignored attempts by the Colombo leadership.


title: Albert Gallo

text: At this point, the mob families lost patience with Cutrone and Basciano. On June 16, 1976, a gunman shot and killed Basciano while he was eating at a luncheonette. Cutrone went into hiding, but the Colombos convinced him that Basciano's death ended the problem. On October 5, 1976, a gunman shot and killed Cutrone while he was eating breakfast at a diner. Revealingly, the Colombo family did not show any signs of displeasure at the killing of Cutrone, a made man.


title: Albert Gallo

text: With all threats now extinguished, Gallo peacefully rose through the ranks of the Genovese family, most likely being officially inducted into the New York Mafia in 1976, when the books were open once again after roughly 20 years.


title: Albert Gallo

text: Gallo is still listed as an acting captain. He is, however, retired, remaining a highly respected elder statesman.


title: Blackwater river

text: A blackwater river is a type of river with a slow-moving channel flowing through forested swamps or wetlands. As vegetation decays, tannins leach into the water, making a transparent, acidic water that is darkly stained, resembling black tea. Most major blackwater rivers are in the Amazon Basin and the Southern United States. The term is used in fluvial studies, geology, geography, ecology, and biology. Not all dark rivers are blackwater in that technical sense. Some rivers in temperate regions, which drain or flow through areas of dark black loam, are simply black due to the color of the soil; these rivers are "black mud rivers". There are also black mud estuaries.


title: Blackwater river

text: Blackwater rivers are lower in nutrients than whitewater rivers and have ionic concentrations higher than rainwater. The unique conditions lead to flora and fauna that differ from both whitewater and clearwater rivers. The classification of Amazonian rivers into black, clear, and whitewater was first proposed by Alfred Russel Wallace in 1853 based on water colour, but the types were more clearly defined by chemistry and physics by from the 1950s to the 1980s. Although many Amazonian rivers fall clearly into one of these categories, others show a mix of characteristics and may vary depending on season and flood levels.


title: Blackwater river

text: Black and white waters differ significantly in their ionic composition, as shown in Table 1. Black waters are more acidic, resulting in an aluminum concentration greater than that of the more neutral white waters. The major difference is the concentrations of sodium, magnesium, calcium, and potassium; these are very low in black waters. This has ecological implications. Some animals need more calcium than is available in blackwaters, so for example, snails, which need much calcium to build shells, are not abundant in blackwaters. The lack of dissolved ions in black waters results in a low conductivity, similar to that of rainwater.


title: Blackwater river

text: Black and white waters differ in their planktonic fauna and flora. Tables 2 and 3 compare the number of planktonic animals caught in black and white water localities only a few meters apart. The black water was not as extreme an example as the Rio Negro system. However, it can be seen that the black water held greater numbers of rotifers but fewer crustaceans and mites. These crustaceans are important foods for larval fish. The zones where the two waters mix are attractive to ostracods and young fish. These mixing zones tend to have many animals. The abundance is shown in Table3, which compares animals in of water.


title: Blackwater river

text: Blackwater rivers resemble clearwater rivers in having a low conductivity and relatively low levels of dissolved solids, but clearwater rivers have water that often only is somewhat acidic (typical pH ~6.5) and very clear with a greenish color. The main Amazonian clearwater rivers have their source in the Brazilian Plateau (such as Tapajós, Tocantins, Xingu and some right tributaries of the Madeira), but some originate in the Guiana Shield (such as Nhamundá, Paru, and Araguari).


title: Blackwater river

text: Other rivers in Australia may experience infrequent 'blackwater events' associated with flood waters connecting to forested floodplains and these events may be associated with hypoxic waters [low oxygen]. Examples include the Murray River, Edward River, Wakool River and Murrumbidgee River.


title: House of Bismarck

text: The House of Bismarck is a German noble family that rose to prominence in the 19th century, largely through the achievements of the statesman Otto von Bismarck. He was granted a hereditary comital title in 1865, the hereditary title of Prince of Bismarck in 1871, and the non-hereditary title of Duke of Lauenburg in 1890. Several of Otto von Bismarck's descendants, notably his elder son Herbert, Prince of Bismarck, were also politicians.


title: House of Bismarck

text: The family has its roots in the Altmark region, descending from Herebord von Bismarck (d. 1280), the first verifiable holder of the name, mentioned about 1270 as an official ("Schultheiß") at the city of Stendal in the Margraviate of Brandenburg. His descent from the nearby small town of Bismark is conceivable though not ascertained. Herebord was head of the Dressmakers' Guild.


title: House of Bismarck

text: During the following two generations, the family seems to have gained knightly status. Herebord's great-grandson, Nicolaus (Klaus) von Bismarck, mentioned in 1328 and 1377, was a councillor and a loyal supporter of the Wittelsbach margrave Louis I, over which he fell out with the revolting Stendal citizens and was compensated with the manor and estate of Burgstall in 1345. Also parts of this estate were the villages Briest and Döbbelin which later became the seats of two family branches. By a 1562 agreement with the Hohenzollern margraves, the Bismarcks swapped Burgstall with Schönhausen and Fischbeck, located east of the Elbe river and formerly part of the Archbishopric of Magdeburg, which also had been under Hohenzollern rule since 1513, as well as the secularized former abbey of Krevese. Thus two lines emerged: The Bismarcks of "Schönhausen" and those of "Crevese". Both lines split into two branches in the early 18th century, with two new manor houses built at Schönhausen. The Crevese branch was further divided into Crevese-Briest and Döbbelin. The manor of Briest had been newly built in 1624, that of Döbbelin in 1736. The estate of Krevese was sold in 1819, the estate of Schönhausen II in 1830. Notable members of the Crevese-Briest branch of the family were Levin Friedrich von Bismarck (1703-1774) and his son August Wilhelm von Bismarck (1750–1783), both Prussian ministers (of Justice and Finances) under Frederick the Great; Georg von Bismarck, a German general during World War II, also belonged to that branch.


title: House of Bismarck

text: In 1815, the Prussian "Junker" family's most notable member, Otto von Bismarck, was born in the manor Schönhausen I. Prime Minister of Prussia since 1862, he gained the comital title ("Graf") of Bismarck-Schönhausen in 1865 and the hereditary princely status of a "Fürst von Bismarck" after the Franco-Prussian War in 1871, followed by the Proclamation of the German Empire on 18 January 1871. He served as Germany's first chancellor until 1890. In 1871, he was granted the Sachsenwald forest near Hamburg for his achievements, namely for the Unification of Germany. He took up his residence at Friedrichsruh Castle in the Sachsenwald. Today the forest area amounts to about 6,000 hectares, of which about a half is still owned by the House of Bismarck. The manor house at Friedrichsruh was destroyed in an RAF raid in 1945 and rebuilt after World War II. Prince Otto's other estates, his birth manor Schönhausen I, the manor of Schönhausen II, which he had received as a grant from the German nation in 1885, as well as the estate of Varzin (today Warcino, Poland) in Farther Pomerania, were expropriated in 1945 as a result of the communists' seizure of power in East Germany and the expulsion of the Germans from Prussian provinces annexed by Poland. A number of other branches of the family also lost their ancestral possessions in this way, among them the branches of Briest and Döbbelin as well as the Counts von Bismarck-Bohlen at Karlsburg, who had been raised to the rank of counts in 1818. The estates of Briest and Döbbelin have both been bought back by two respective family branches after the German reunification of 1990.


title: House of Bismarck

text: Otto's elder son Herbert, Prince von Bismarck, served his father as Secretary for Foreign Affairs between 1886 and 1890 and the younger son, Count Wilhelm von Bismarck-Schönhausen, as a member of the Reichstag and president of the Regency of the Province of Hanover. Both resigned their posts after their father was dismissed as Chancellor of Germany in 1890. Wilhelm subsequently accepted an appointment as Governor of East Prussia in 1894. Herbert's elder son Otto Christian Archibald, Prince von Bismarck (1897–1975), became a diplomat and later a member of the Bundestag, while the younger son, Gottfried (1901–1949), was a member of the Reichstag. The present prince, Carl-Eduard von Bismarck (b. 1961), is also a former member of the Bundestag.


title: House of Bismarck

text: Two ships of the German Imperial Navy ("Kaiserliche Marine"), as well as a battleship from the World War II era, were named after Otto von Bismarck. Also named in his honour were the Bismarck Sea and Bismarck Archipelago (both near the former German colony of New Guinea), as well as several places in the United States, among them Bismarck, North Dakota, the state's capital.


title: Domain controller

text: A domain controller (DC) is a server computer that responds to security authentication requests within a computer network domain. It is a network server that is responsible for allowing host access to domain resources. It authenticates users, stores user account information and enforces security policy for a domain. It is most commonly implemented in Microsoft Windows environments (see Domain controller (Windows)), where it is the centerpiece of the Windows Active Directory service. However, non-Windows domain controllers can be established via identity management software such as Samba and Red Hat FreeIPA.


title: Domain controller

text: The software and operating system used to run a domain controller usually consists of several key components shared across platforms. This includes the operating system (usually Windows Server or Linux), an LDAP service (Red Hat Directory Server, etc.), a network time service (ntpd, chrony, etc.), and a computer network authentication protocol (usually Kerberos). Other components, such as a public key infrastructure (Active Directory Certificate Services, DogTag, OpenSSL) service and Domain Name System (Windows DNS or BIND) may also be included on the same server or on another domain-joined server.


title: Domain controller

text: Domain controllers are typically deployed as a cluster to ensure high-availability and maximize reliability. In a Windows environment, one domain controller serves as the Primary Domain Controller (PDC) and all other servers promoted to domain controller status in the domain server as a Backup Domain Controller (BDC). In Unix-based environments, one machine serves as the master domain controller and others serve as replica domain controllers, periodically replicating database information from the main domain controller and storing it in a read-only format.


title: Messerschmitt Me 323 Gigant

text: The Messerschmitt Me 323 "Gigant" ("Giant") was a German military transport aircraft of World War II. It was a powered variant of the Me 321 military glider and was the largest land-based transport aircraft to fly during the war. A total of 213 were made, 15 being converted from the Me 321.


title: Messerschmitt Me 323 Gigant

text: The Me 323 was the result of a 1940 German requirement for a large assault glider in preparation for Operation Sea Lion, the projected invasion of Great Britain. The DFS 230 light glider had already proven its worth in the Battle of Fort Eben-Emael in Belgium (the first ever assault by gliderborne troops), and would later be used successfully in the invasion of Crete in 1941.


title: Messerschmitt Me 323 Gigant

text: However, in order to mount an invasion across the English Channel, the Germans would need to be able to airlift vehicles and other heavy equipment as part of an initial assault wave. Although Operation Sea Lion was cancelled, the requirement for a heavy air transport capability still existed, with the focus shifting to the forthcoming Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union.


title: Messerschmitt Me 323 Gigant

text: On 18 October 1940, Junkers and Messerschmitt were given just 14 days to submit a proposal for a large transport glider. The emphasis was still very much on the assault role: the ambitious requirement was to be able to carry either an 88 mm gun and its half-track tractor, or a Panzer IV medium tank. The Junkers Ju 322 "Mammut" reached prototype form but was eventually scrapped due to difficulties in procuring the necessary high-grade timber for its all-wood construction and, as was discovered during the "Mammuts only test flight, an unacceptably high degree of instability inherent in the design. The proposed Messerschmitt aircraft was originally designated Me 261w—partly borrowing the designation of the long-range Messerschmitt Me 261—then changed to Me 263 (later re-used for Messerschmitt's improved rocket fighter design), and eventually became the Me 321"'. Although the Me 321 saw considerable service on the Eastern Front as a transport, it was never used for its intended role as an assault glider.


title: Messerschmitt Me 323 Gigant

text: Early in 1941, as a result of feedback from Transport Command pilots in Russia, the decision was taken to produce a motorized variant of the Me 321, to be designated Me 323. It was decided to use French Gnome et Rhône GR14N radial engines rated at 1,180 PS (1,164 hp, 868 kW) for take-off as used in the Bloch MB.175 aircraft. This would reduce the burden on Germany's strained industry.


title: Messerschmitt Me 323 Gigant

text: Initial tests were conducted with four Gnome engines attached to a strengthened Me 321 wing, giving modest speed of – slower than the Ju 52 transport aircraft. A fixed undercarriage was fitted, with four small wheels in a bogie at the front of the aircraft and six larger wheels in two lines of three at each side of the fuselage, partly covered by an aerodynamic fairing. The rear wheels were fitted with pneumatic brakes that could stop the aircraft within .


title: Messerschmitt Me 323 Gigant

text: The four-engined Me 323C was considered a stepping-stone to the six-engined D series. It still required the five-engined Heinkel He 111Z "Zwilling" or the highly dangerous "vic-style" "Troika-Schlepp" formation of three Messerschmitt Bf 110 heavy fighters and underwing-mounted Walter HWK 109-500 "Starthilfe" rocket assisted takeoff units to get airborne when fully loaded, but it could return to base under its own power when empty. This was little better than the Me 321, so the V2 prototype became the first to have six engines and flew for the first time in early 1942, becoming the prototype for the D series aircraft.


title: Messerschmitt Me 323 Gigant

text: To reduce torque, the aircraft was fitted with three counterclockwise rotation engines on the port wing and three clockwise rotation engines on the starboard wing, as seen looking forward from behind each engine - resulting in the props rotating "away" from each other at the tops of their arcs.


title: Messerschmitt Me 323 Gigant

text: Like the Me 321, the Me 323 had massive, semi-cantilever, high-mounted wings which were braced from the fuselage out to the middle of the wing. To reduce weight and save aluminium, much of the wing was made of plywood and fabric, while the fuselage was of metal tube construction with wooden spars and covered with doped fabric, with heavy bracing in the floor to support the payload.


title: Messerschmitt Me 323 Gigant

text: The "D" series had a crew of five: two pilots, two flight engineers and a radio operator. Two gunners could also be carried. The flight engineers occupied two small cabins, one in each wing between the inboard and centre engines. The engineers were intended to monitor engine synchronisation and allow the pilot to fly without worrying about engine status, although the pilot could override the engineers' decisions on engine and propeller control.


title: Messerschmitt Me 323 Gigant

text: Maximum payload was around 12 tonnes, although at that weight the Walter HWK 109-500 "Starthilfe" rocket assisted takeoff units used on the Me 321 were required for take-off. These were mounted beneath the wings outboard of the engines, with the wings having underside fittings to take up to a total of four units. The cargo hold was long, wide and high. Typical loads were one 15 cm sFH 18 heavy field howitzer (5.5 ton) accompanied by its Sd.Kfz. 7 half-track artillery tractor vehicle (11 ton), two 3.6 tonne (4 ton) trucks, 8,700 loaves of bread, an 88 mm "Flak" gun and accessories, 52 drums of fuel (252 L/45 US gal), 130 men, or 60 stretchers.


title: Messerschmitt Me 323 Gigant

text: Some Me 321s were converted to Me 323s, but most were built as six-engine aircraft from the beginning. Early models were fitted with wooden two-blade propellers, while later versions had metal, three-blade variable-pitch versions.


title: Messerschmitt Me 323 Gigant

text: The Me 323 had a maximum speed of only at sea level. It was armed with five 13 mm (.51 in) MG 131 machine guns firing from a dorsal position behind the wings and from the fuselage. They were manned by the extra gunners, radio operator and engineers.


title: Messerschmitt Me 323 Gigant

text: By September 1942, Me 323s were being delivered for use in the Tunisian campaign. They entered service in the Mediterranean theatre in November 1942. High losses among Axis shipping required a huge airlift of equipment across the Mediterranean to keep Rommel's Afrika Korps supplied.


title: Messerschmitt Me 323 Gigant

text: On 22 April 1943, a formation of 27 fully loaded Me 323s was being escorted across the Sicilian Straits by Messerschmitt Bf 109s of Jagdgeschwader 27 when it was intercepted by seven squadrons — Supermarine Spitfires (No. 1 Squadron SAAF) and Curtiss P-40 Kittyhawks (No. 7 South African Wing). Of the 27 transports, 16 or 17 were shot down. Three or four P-40s were shot down by the escorts.


title: Messerschmitt Me 323 Gigant

text: A total of 198 Me 323s were built before production ceased in April 1944. There were several production versions, beginning with the D-1. Later D- and E- versions differed in the choice of power plant and in defensive armament, with improvements in structural strength, total cargo load and fuel capacity also being implemented. Nonetheless, the Me 323 remained underpowered. A proposal to install six BMW 801 radials did not occur. The Me 323 was also a short-range aircraft, with a typical range (loaded) of 1,000–1,200 km (620–750 mi). Despite this, the limited numbers of Me 323s in service were an asset to the Germans, and saw extensive use.


title: Messerschmitt Me 323 Gigant

text: No complete aircraft survives, but the "Luftwaffenmuseum der Bundeswehr" (Air Force Museum of the German Federal Armed Forces) in Berlin has a Me 323 main wing spar in its collection.


title: Messerschmitt Me 323 Gigant

text: A ruined but complete wreck was found in 2012, in the sea near La Maddalena, an island near Sardinia, Italy. The aircraft lies in around of water, around from the coast. It was shot down by a British Bristol Beaufighter long-range fighter on 26 July 1943, while flying from Sardinia to Pistoia in Italy.


title: Ramsey theory

text: Ramsey theory, named after the British mathematician and philosopher Frank P. Ramsey, is a branch of mathematics that focuses on the appearance of order in a substructure given a structure of a known size. Problems in Ramsey theory typically ask a question of the form: "how big must some structure be to guarantee that a particular property holds?" More specifically, Ron Graham described Ramsey theory as a "branch of combinatorics".


title: Ramsey theory

text: is then cut into pieces. How big must the original structure be in order to ensure that at least one of the pieces has a given interesting property? This idea can be defined as partition regularity.


title: Ramsey theory

text: For example, consider a complete graph of order "n"; that is, there are "n" vertices and each vertex is connected to every other vertex by an edge. A complete graph of order 3 is called a triangle. Now colour each edge either red or blue. How large must "n" be in order to ensure that there is either a blue triangle or a red triangle? It turns out that the answer is 6. See the article on Ramsey's theorem for a rigorous proof.


title: Ramsey theory

text: Another way to express this result is as follows: at any party with at least six people, there are three people who are all either mutual acquaintances (each one knows the other two) or mutual strangers (none of them knows either of the other two). See theorem on friends and strangers.


title: Ramsey theory

text: This also is a special case of Ramsey's theorem, which says that for any given integer "c", any given integers "n"...,"n", there is a number, "R"("n"...,"n"), such that if the edges of a complete graph of order "R"("n"...,"n") are coloured with "c" different colours, then for some "i" between 1 and "c", it must contain a complete subgraph of order "n" whose edges are all colour "i". The special case above has "c" = 2 and "n" = "n" = 3.


title: Ramsey theory

text: A theorem similar to van der Waerden's theorem is "Schur's theorem": for any given "c" there is a number "N" such that if the numbers 1, 2, ..., "N" are coloured with "c" different colours, then there must be a pair of integers "x", "y" such that "x", "y", and "x"+"y" are all the same colour. Many generalizations of this theorem exist, including Rado's theorem, Rado–Folkman–Sanders theorem, Hindman's theorem, and the Milliken–Taylor theorem. A classic reference for these and many other results in Ramsey theory is Graham, Rothschild, Spencer and Solymosi, updated and expanded in 2015 to its first new edition in 25 years.


title: Ramsey theory

text: Results in Ramsey theory typically have two primary characteristics. Firstly, they are unconstructive: they may show that some structure exists, but they give no process for finding this structure (other than brute-force search). For instance, the pigeonhole principle is of this form. Secondly, while Ramsey theory results do say that sufficiently large objects must necessarily contain a given structure, often the proof of these results requires these objects to be enormously large – bounds that grow exponentially, or even as fast as the Ackermann function are not uncommon. In some small niche cases, upper and lower bounds are improved, but not in general. In many cases these bounds are artifacts of the proof, and it is not known whether they can be substantially improved. In other cases it is known that any bound must be extraordinarily large, sometimes even greater than any primitive recursive function; see the Paris–Harrington theorem for an example. Graham's number, one of the largest numbers ever used in serious mathematical proof, is an upper bound for a problem related to Ramsey theory. Another large example is the Boolean Pythagorean triples problem.


title: Ramsey theory

text: Theorems in Ramsey theory are generally one of the following two types. Many such theorems, which are modeled after Ramsey's theorem itself, assert that in every partition of a large structured object, one of the classes necessarily contains its own structured object, but gives no information about which class this is. In other cases, the reason behind a "Ramsey-type" result is that the largest partition class always contains the desired substructure. The results of this latter kind are called either "density results" or "Turán-type result", after Turán's theorem. Notable examples include Szemerédi's theorem, which is such a strengthening of van der Waerden's theorem, and the density version of the Hales-Jewett theorem.


title: Girl in the Shed: The Kidnapping of Abby Hernandez

text: Girl In The Shed: The Kidnapping Of Abby Hernandez is a Lifetime television network film that aired as part of its "Ripped from the Headlines" feature films and starring Lindsay Navarro, Ben Savage, and Erica Durance. It is based on the true story of the Kidnapping of Abby Hernandez at the hands of Nathaniel Kibby. The film premiered on Lifetime on February 26, 2022.


text: When she was 14 and days away from her 15th birthday, Abby Hernandez accepts a ride from a stranger while on her way home from school. This mistake results in her being kidnapped and held captive by Nathaniel Kibby. For 9 months, Nathaniel keeps her locked in a storage container located on his property and repeatedly abuses her. Abby carefully thinks of a plan to gain the trust of her abductor in order to survive and make it back home.


text: Meanwhile, her mother Zenya goes to the police to try to find Abby. When the police are unable to help her, Zenya takes action for her own search of Abby and struggles to keep up the hope of reuniting with her daughter.


title: Baker Street

text: Baker Street is a street in the Marylebone district of the City of Westminster in London. It is named after builder William Baker, who laid out the street in the 18th century. The street is most famous for its connection to the fictional detective Sherlock Holmes, who lived at a fictional 221B Baker Street address on the north of the street. The area was originally high class residential, but now is mainly occupied by commercial premises.


title: Baker Street

text: Baker Street is a busy thoroughfare, lying in postcode areas NW1/W1 and forming part of the A41. It used to run south from Regent's Park, the junction with Park Road, parallel to Gloucester Place, meeting Marylebone Road, Portman Square and Wigmore Street. In 2019, the until-then one-way street was changed to accommodate lanes running in both directions.


title: Baker Street

text: At the junction with Wigmore Street, Baker Street turns into Orchard Street, which ends when it meets with Oxford Street. After Portman Square the road continues as Orchard Street.


title: Baker Street

text: The crossroads of Baker Street and Marylebone Road was historically known as "Marylebone Circus", which is still its unofficial name.


title: Baker Street

text: In 1835, the first wax museum of Madame Tussauds was opened on Baker Street. The museum moved, just around the corner, to Marylebone Road in 1884.


title: Baker Street

text: Thomas Charles Druce ran the Baker Street Bazaar (which would become Druce & Co. furniture manufacturers) until his death in 1864, and was later subject of the Druce Portland Case.


title: Baker Street

text: Residents of the prestigious mansion block, Chiltern Court on the Regent's Park end of Baker Street include the novelists Arnold Bennett and H. G. Wells who are commemorated with a blue plaque.


title: Baker Street

text: In 1940 the headquarters of the Special Operations Executive moved to 64 Baker Street, they were often called the "Baker Street Irregulars" after Sherlock Holmes' gang of street urchins of the same name.


title: Baker Street

text: For many years the head office of Marks & Spencer, formerly the United Kingdom's largest retailer, was at "Michael House" (named in parallel with the group's "St Michael" brand), 55 Baker Street, until the company relocated to the Paddington Basin in 2004. This was one of the best known corporate buildings in the United Kingdom, and has since been redeveloped as a modern office complex by London & Regional Properties to a design by Make Architects and Expedition Engineering.


title: Baker Street

text: A London County Council blue plaque commemorates Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger who lived at 120 Baker Street from 1803 to 1804. British singer Dusty Springfield lived on Baker Street in the 1960s.


title: Baker Street

text: The street is served by the London Underground by Baker Street tube station, one of the world's oldest surviving underground stations. Next door is Transport for London's lost property office.


title: Euler's critical load

text: Euler's critical load is the compressive load at which a slender column will suddenly bend or buckle. It is given by the formula:


title: Euler's critical load

text: This formula was derived in 1757 by the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler. The column will remain straight for loads less than the critical load. The "critical load" is the greatest load that will not cause lateral deflection (buckling). For loads greater than the critical load, the column will deflect laterally. The critical load puts the column in a state of unstable equilibrium. A load beyond the critical load causes the column to fail by buckling. As the load is increased beyond the critical load the lateral deflections increase, until it may fail in other modes such as yielding of the material. Loading of columns beyond the critical load are not addressed in this article.


title: Euler's critical load

text: Around 1900, J. B. Johnson showed that at low slenderness ratios an alternative formula should be used.


title: Euler's critical load

text: For slender columns, the critical buckling stress is usually lower than the yield stress. In contrast, a stocky column can have a critical buckling stress higher than the yield, i.e. it yields prior to buckling.


title: Euler's critical load

text: Firstly, we will put attention to the fact there are no reactions in the hinged ends, so we also have no shear force in any cross-section of the column. The reason for no reactions can be obtained from symmetry (so the reactions should be in the same direction) and from moment equilibrium (so the reactions should be in opposite directions).


title: Euler's critical load

text: Using the free body diagram in the right side of figure 3, and making a summation of moments about point :


title: Euler's critical load

text: According to Euler–Bernoulli beam theory, the deflection of a beam is related with its bending moment by:


title: Euler's critical load

text: The general solutions of this equation is: formula_20, where formula_21 and formula_22 are constants to be determined by boundary conditions, which are:


title: Euler's critical load

text: and depending upon the value of formula_32, different buckling modes are produced as shown in figure 4. The load and mode for n=0 is the nonbuckled mode.


title: Euler's critical load

text: Theoretically, any buckling mode is possible, but in the case of a slowly applied load only the first modal shape is likely to be produced.


title: Euler's critical load

text: For a column with axial load only, the lateral load formula_36 vanishes and substituting formula_18, we get:


title: Euler's critical load

text: The four constants formula_40 are determined by the boundary conditions (end constraints) on formula_41, at each end. There are three cases:


title: Euler's critical load

text: For each combination of these boundary conditions, an eigenvalue problem is obtained. Solving those, we get the values of Euler's critical load for each one of the cases presented in Figure 2.


title: Hyundai Staria

text: The Hyundai Staria () is a 5-door van and minivan manufactured by Hyundai since 2021. It was introduced as the successor to the Starex, ditching the rear-wheel-drive layout from the Starex to a front-wheel-drive-based platform shared with other large Hyundai and Kia vehicles. The name "Staria" was coined by combining the word "star" with "ria". It is currently marketed in South Korea, South Africa, Southeast Asia, Australasia, Middle East, and several European countries.


title: Hyundai Staria

text: Interior and exterior images of the Staria were released on 18 March 2021. Following the automaker’s new design theme “Inside Out,” the vehicle is said to feature the look of a spaceship and a wide-open cabin.


title: Hyundai Staria

text: The model achieved a maximum height of the cabin up to by raising the total height by and lowering the ground clearance by compared to its predecessor, the Starex. Hyundai designers also introduced a low beltline to create larger side windows, which is called "wide panoramic windows". Top Gear magazine noted that the Staria was very spacious but that this came at the expense of it "scraping the roof in car parks because it’s so bleeding tall". The Drive noted that its increased size relative to its predecessor made it harder to park in tight spaces, such as those found in multi-storey car parks, even with the assistance of cameras.


title: Hyundai Staria

text: The Staria comes in two versions, a standard model and a high-end variant which is known as the Staria Lounge or Staria Premium in several markets. A cargo version is also offered in several regions.


title: Hyundai Staria

text: The standard model offers various trim levels including Tourer and Cargo. The front features a horizontal daytime running lights and headlamps and a radiator grille that has the same color with the car body. The vehicle has a large panoramic window and low beltline for a higher visibility. Inside, a 10.25-inch front display screen and the HVAC system controller are housed while a color LCD cluster is positioned at the top of the dashboard.


title: Hyundai Staria

text: The Staria in Thailand was launched on 9 July 2021, it comes in 11-seater variant and imported from South Korea.


title: Hyundai Staria

text: The Staria for Australian market was launched on 5 August 2021, replacing the iMax. It is available in three grades: Standard, Elite, and the top-range Highlander. Available in both petrol V6 and diesel engines, the petrol variants are available with front-wheel drive, while diesel variants comes with all-wheel drive. The blind van version called the Staria Load was launched in Australia on 20 September 2021, replacing the iLoad.


title: Hyundai Staria

text: In Malaysia, the Staria Premium was launched on 27 October 2021 in 7-seater guise. The standard Staria was launched on 5 October 2022 in three grades: the entry-level Lite, the mid-grade Plus and the top-spec Max. Unlike other international markets, the Malaysian market Staria only comes with 10-seater as opposed to the 11-seater offered in International markets.


title: Hyundai Staria

text: The Staria was also launched in the Philippines in July 2022. It is offered in Cargo, Commuter, GLS+ and Premium grades, all offered with the 2.2-litre diesel engine.


title: Hyundai Staria

text: The Staria Lounge or Staria Premium is an upscale version of the Staria, which is available in 7-seater and 9-seater models. The front end feature a redesigned mesh-patterned radiator grille, full LED headlamps and turn signals. Other design features include 18-inch alloy wheels, front and rear bumper garnishes and side mirrors. The rear part is equipped with an LED rear combination lamp. The interior features a 64-color ambient mood light. The 7-seater has "premium relaxation seats" while the 9-seater has "swiveling seats". It was released on 9 August 2021. It is the sole version of the Staria in some markets, including Indonesia, Malaysia, and several European markets.