title: .416 Rigby

text: Prior to the invention of cordite, rifles used gunpowder (black powder) as a propellant. Due to the slow burn characteristics of black powder, it did not produce high pressures and therefore did not produce high velocities required to take large, thick-skinned game such as Cape buffalo, rhino, and elephant. The development of smokeless powder revolutionized the rifle. One version of this smokeless powder, cordite, allowed higher pressures to be developed, thereby increasing the velocity and performance of rifle cartridges. The higher velocities produced by cordite allowed the use of smaller diameter projectiles which penetrated big game much more reliably.


title: .416 Rigby

text: The next improvement was the development of the Gewehr 98 rifle by Paul Mauser. Paul Mauser did not invent the bolt-action rifle but rather he refined the design, allowing controlled round feeding, a stripper clip for fast loading, and a strong action with the ability to withstand high pressures generated by the new smokeless powders. The rifle design would go on to become the most common and successful rifle design in the history of firearms. During World War II most Axis and Allied nations, with the exception of the Americans (M1 Garand), British (Lee–Enfield), and the Russians (Mosin–Nagant) used rifles based on the Mauser 98 action. Today this is still the most popular rifle design and is used by Heym, Holland & Holland, Mauser, Rigby, Westley Richards, Winchester, and several other gunmakers. The Mauser 98 action provided the consumers and gun makers an inexpensive alternative to the double- and single-shot rifles which until that time predominated the dangerous-game hunting scene.


title: .416 Rigby

text: At the turn of the 20th century, four major British rifle manufacturers, Holland & Holland, John Rigby & Co., W.J. Jeffery & Co, and Westley Richards designed cartridges which could operate in the Magnum Mauser 98 action and could offer big-bore nitro express ballistics and performance in a magazine rifle which was what the British called their bolt-action rifles. The result was the introduction of medium-bore big-game cartridges .375 H&H Magnum, .416 Rigby, .404 Jeffery, and .425 Westley Richards. The performance of these cartridges on game matched the performance of the big-bore Nitro Express cartridges. The performance of these cartridges was due to the sectional density (greater than ) and higher velocity (~).


title: .416 Rigby

text: The first .416 Rigby rifles used the Magnum Mauser 98 Square Bridge No. 5 action. The large bolt face and the length of the Magnum Mauser 98 No. 5 action was easily adapted for use with the .416 Rigby cartridge. As the Magnum Mauser 98 action became scarcer after World War II, .416 Rigby rifles were built on Enfield P-17 and the BRNO actions. Both the Enfield P-17 and the BRNO actions are in turn based on the Magnum Mauser 98 rifle.


title: .416 Rigby

text: After World War II, with the dwindling of areas to hunt dangerous game animals, interest in the .416 Rigby cartridge and most big-bore Nitro Express cartridges began to wane. By the 1970s, with the demise of the British ammunition supplier Kynoch as an entity, the supply of .416 Rigby ammunition was dwindling, and many hunters, including Selby, set aside their .416 Rigby rifles, taking up the more popular .375 H&H Magnum, .458 Winchester Magnum, and .458 Lott.


title: .416 Rigby

text: Between 1912 and the beginning of World War II, John Rigby & Co. produced 169 .416 Rigby rifles and 180 between 1939 and 1984. Between 1984, when Paul Roberts took over the John Rigby & Co., and 1997, when the company was purchased by Geoff Miller's investment group, 184 more rifles were produced. It was not until Bill Ruger of Sturm, Ruger & Co. began offering the Ruger Model 77 RSM Magnum Mk II in 1991 that the cartridge finally took off. Ruger produced approximately 1,000 rifles between 1991 and 2001, dramatically boosting the number of .416 Rigby rifles in circulation.


title: .416 Rigby

text: With renewed interest in dangerous-game hunting in Africa, the demand for big-game cartridges increased. Major ammunition manufacturers like Norma, Federal, and Hornady began producing .416 Rigby ammunition to meet the new demand. The Kynoch brand name was licensed by Eley to Kynamco, a British ammunition manufacturer, based in Suffolk, England, which continues to manufacture .416 Rigby ammunition under the Kynoch brand name.


title: .416 Rigby

text: The .416 Rigby cartridge case is one of the most voluminous case and was originally designed to utilize cordite strands as a propellant. The large case allowed the .416 Rigby to operate at moderate pressures, yet turn in a good performance with regard to velocity and energy. The .416 Rigby was intended for use in Africa and India. As cordite was susceptible to high chamber-pressure variations dependent on ambient temperature, the relatively moderate pressure loading of the .416 Rigby provided a safety margin against dangerously high pressure levels when used in tropical regions.


title: .416 Rigby

text: The .416 Rigby's dimensions and specifications are governed by C.I.P. The C.I.P. mandates a 6-groove barrel with a bore diameter of and a groove diameter of with each groove being wide and a twist rate of . Commencement of rifling is to begin at . Maximum average pressure given by C.I.P. is for this cartridge.


title: .416 Rigby

text: SAAMI have listed the .416 Rigby, and there are no discrepancies between SAAMI and C.I.P. regarding the case and chamber dimension specifications for the .416 Rigby cartridge. Maximum average pressure given by SAAMI is . Most ammunition manufacturers in the US are offering the .416 Rigby for hunting Dangerous Game and the cartridge is becoming popular once again.


title: .416 Rigby

text: The original ammunition for the .416 Rigby used cordite as a propellant, firing a full metal jacket or soft-point round nose bullet weighing at generating . The current standard using smokeless powder is a bullet at , generating . This is the standard to which Federal, Hornady, Nosler, and Winchester load their ammunition. In its original configuration, the .416 Rigby compares favorably with its close counterparts of the era: the .404 Jeffery, and .425 Westley Richards. The .416 Rigby loaded with the bullet at as the Hornady's DGS and DGX ammunition are, has an MPBR of . The cartridge is capable of producing over of energy at a range of . In comparison, the typical .458 Winchester Magnum firing a bullet at manages to stay above the just past the mark.


title: .416 Rigby

text: Since the late 1980s, several .416 cartridges have come to the market. Among these, the .416 Remington Magnum, the .416 Ruger, and the .416 Weatherby Magnum have garnered the most attention of the firearms press. Both the Remington and Ruger cartridges were designed to fire a bullet at over to emulate the performance level of .416 Rigby. When loaded to their respective maximum average pressure level, both the Rigby and Remington cartridges are capable of driving the bullet at over . However, the Rigby cartridge is loaded to the relatively low maximum allowable pressure of while the Remington cartridge has a stipulated maximum average pressure of . The case capacity of the .416 Remington Magnum is about 82% to that of the .416 Rigby. The larger case of the .416 Rigby allows the cartridge to generate the same velocity and energy as that of the .416 Remington Magnum but does so at far lower pressure levels. Unlike the Remington and Rigby cartridges, the .416 Ruger, due to its case having even less capacity than the Remington, operates at near its peak allowable pressure to emulate the performance of the Rigby and Remington cartridges' factory ammunition. The .416 Weatherby Magnum, which uses a case of similar size as the Rigby, is capable of launching the same bullet at .


title: .416 Rigby

text: When designed in 1911, the .416 Rigby was intended for use against dangerous game in Africa and India. The original bullet has a sectional density of .338 and at a velocity of generated . The energy generated by the cartridge was on par with that of .450 Nitro Express which, until the ban on the caliber in India and the Sudan in the early 1900s, had been the standard of measure for dangerous game rifles. The .416 Rigby would go on to become one of the most successful dangerous game cartridges designed for a magazine rifle.


title: .416 Rigby

text: Jack O'Connor used a .416 Rigby on his African safari and successfully took elephant and lion with it. Professional hunters such as John Taylor, David Enderly Blunt and Harry Selby used the cartridge extensively for the hunting and culling of elephants and Cape buffalo. John Hunter provided a testimonial to John Rigby & Company stating "You will be pleased to know that the rifle which accounted for all the rogue lions on my last hunting expedition was the .416 Bore Magazine Rifle you supplied me with. I cannot speak too highly of it. Its stopping power was extraordinary, and the fact that all the lions, rhino, buffalo, etc., were shot at comparatively short range, and no other rifle to back me up, speaks volumes for the accuracy and efficiency of your rifle." Today the .416 Rigby is favored by professional hunters and safari guides in Africa.


title: .416 Rigby

text: While considered overpowered for the big cats, the .416 is regularly used for the hunting of these felines. In African nations which have enforced a ban on the use of sub rifle cartridge for dangerous game, the .416 Rigby can be considered for the hunting of lion or leopard. Prior to the ban on hunting in India, the .416 Rigby was successfully used to hunt dangerous game there which included the Bengal tiger, Indian rhino, and elephant.


title: .416 Rigby

text: The .416 Rigby cartridge case is of a unique design in that it had no prior cartridge case acting as a parent cartridge during its development. Due to the volume of the case, the .416 Rigby case has gone on to act as a parent cartridge to several modern cartridges and provide the inspiration to many others. The .378 Weatherby Magnum family of cartridges which include the .30-378, .338-378, .378, .416 and the .460 Weatherby Magnums use a case similar to the .416 Rigby albeit with a belt added to the case design.


title: .416 Rigby

text: The .300 Lapua Magnum cartridge was designed by Lapua of Finland using the .338 Lapua Magnum case which in turn was based on the .416 Rigby. Lapua does not manufacture ammunition for the cartridge and it should be considered a wildcat cartridge.


title: .416 Rigby

text: The .338 Lapua Magnum cartridge is a redesign by Lapua of a prior designed by Research Armament Industries (RAI) and Brass Extrusion Labs Ltd. (BELL) known as the .338/416. The Lapua uses a modified .416 case shortened and necked down to accept a bullet. The cartridge is capable of firing a bullet at .


title: .416 Rigby

text: The .450 Dakota was designed by Don Allen of Dakota Arms. It is virtually identical to the .450 Rigby which it predates by a few years. The cartridge is based on the .416 Rigby necked up to . The .450 Dakota fires a bullet at .


title: .416 Rigby

text: The .450 Rigby was designed by Paul Roberts of John Rigby & Company. The cartridge was designed to fire a bullet at .


title: .416 Rigby

text: The .510 Whisper is a subsonic rifle cartridge developed by SSK Industries for use in suppressed rifles, with the noise similar to that of a .22 Short. It fires a .51-caliber bullet weighing at roughly .


title: The Heart Is Deceitful Above All Things

text: The Heart Is Deceitful Above All Things is a 2004 drama film co-written and directed by Asia Argento and starring Argento, Jimmy Bennett, Dylan Sprouse and Cole Sprouse (with Bennett and the Sprouse brothers sharing the role as Jeremiah). The screenplay by Argento and Alessandro Magania is based on JT LeRoy's novel of the same name. The film received a limited release in North America on March 10, 2006, shortly after Laura Albert was revealed to be the actual author of the JT LeRoy books.


title: The Heart Is Deceitful Above All Things

text: The film concerns a tattered relationship between Sarah, a drug addict, and her young son, Jeremiah. Their life together is marked by Sarah's substance abuse. The title is taken from Jeremiah 17:9.


title: The Heart Is Deceitful Above All Things

text: Sarah (Asia Argento) is the young mother of Jeremiah who has him move back in with her after spending his early years with a stable foster family. Their life soon becomes hectic with Sarah not only giving her young son drugs, but also giving him a chaotic life on the road.


title: The Heart Is Deceitful Above All Things

text: Sarah becomes involved with a series of men who treat her and seven-year-old Jeremiah (Jimmy Bennett), poorly, and she uses them as an excuse to abandon her son. She disappears to Atlantic City with her boyfriend, Emerson (Jeremy Renner), and then deserts him; Emerson returns to their home and rapes Jeremiah. After a trip to the hospital, Jeremiah's grandmother (Ornella Muti) takes him to a West Virginian radical Christian cult led by his grandfather (Peter Fonda). After he has been three years with the cult, Sarah returns to reclaim the 11-year-old Jeremiah (Dylan and Cole Sprouse).


title: The Heart Is Deceitful Above All Things

text: Sarah's current lover, Kenny (Matt Schulze), a truck driver, eventually abandons them at a truck stop while Sarah is soliciting. Sarah realizes that if she is going to keep her men, she cannot say Jeremiah is her son. She persuades Jeremiah to cross-dress so that he can act as her "little sister"; and Jeremiah's cross-dressing evolves to include his mother's seduction techniques. After dressing up as a "baby doll" version of Sarah which consisted of her makeup, her white nightgown and her red high heel pumps, Jeremiah seduces Jackson (Marilyn Manson), his mother's latest man, who initially tries to rebuff the boy's advances, but then gives in. Sarah is furious with Jackson for giving in to the boy's advances and also with Jeremiah for ruining her panties with drops of blood on them. She then takes Jeremiah and leaves.


title: The Heart Is Deceitful Above All Things

text: Later, they are in a house where the basement houses a methamphetamine laboratory, which later blows up with Sarah's latest boyfriend inside. After fleeing, and while detoxing from methamphetamine, Sarah is convinced that everyone is after them and that only certain foods are edible (mainly chips and sugary soda). She convinces Jeremiah that if they eat anything but these foods, they will be poisoned which leads them to a failed attempt to shoplift at a grocery store; afterwards, Jeremiah finds and eats a hamburger from a dumpster. His mother, in a state of "meth psychosis", is convinced the food he ate was poison, and makes him drink ipecac in order to make him better and rid him of any "poisons".


title: The Heart Is Deceitful Above All Things

text: Jeremiah wakes up in the hospital with his grandmother beside him. She tells him that Sarah is in the psychiatric ward. Later that night, Sarah collects Jeremiah from his hospital room, and rather than have him go back to the cult, she clutches his hand, and they walk off into the world in their hospital gowns. The final scene is of Sarah and Jeremiah driving away.


title: The Heart Is Deceitful Above All Things

text: Although the soundtrack to the film was never commercially released, here is a list of different songs featured in the film, along with the scenes they are played in.


title: The Heart Is Deceitful Above All Things

text: "The Heart Is Deceitful Above All Things" received mixed to negative reviews from critics. Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports a 40% rating based on 50 reviews. The site's consensus states: "The film aims to shock, but there is no higher reason for the parade of sordid images except to be 'cool'." On Metacritic, the film has a 27 out of 100 rating based on 22 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews".


title: The Heart Is Deceitful Above All Things

text: Bennett portraying the son of her character in this film was referenced in the later 2018 allegations that Argento sexually assaulted him when he was 17 years old.


The 1990 United States House of Representatives elections was an election for the United States House of Representatives in 1990 which occurred in the middle of President George H. W. Bush's term. As in most midterm elections, the President's Republican Party lost seats to the Democratic Party, slightly increasing the Democratic majority in the chamber. It was a rare instance, however, in which both major parties lost votes to third parties such as the Libertarian Party as well as independent candidates.


title: Indian (2001 film)

text: Indian is a 2001 Indian Hindi-language action thriller film directed by N. Maharajan and produced by Dharmendra. It stars Sunny Deol, and also features Shilpa Shetty, Danny Denzongpa, Raj Babbar, Mukesh Rishi and Rahul Dev in other roles. The film is a remake of the Director's own Tamil film "Vallarasu" and was released on 26 October 2001 with excellent box office reports, grossing a domestic nett of 18.0 million on its opening day. Made on a budget of 150 million, it was successful at the box office, earning over 540 million worldwide. The film tells the story of a strong, brave policeman who is falsely blamed for the mysterious murder of his father-in-law. It was the fourth highest-grossing Hindi film of the year in India with a nett gross of 280 million.


title: Indian (2001 film)

text: Raj Shekhar Azad, an honest DCP whose sole intention is to wipe out corruption, emerged unflinching patriotism from his name to aim. But for every such patriot, there is an equally motivated terrorist. Waseem Khan, a dreaded terrorist is aided by Raj's father-in-law and corrupt DGP Surya Pratap Singh, many police officers and influential industrialist Shankar Singhania. Raj's path is laden with hurdles, but he leaves no stone unturned, within the realm of law, to wage a war against the evil doers.


title: Indian (2001 film)

text: Raj arrests Waseem and is entrusted with his interrogation. Waseem is placed in a special cell but still arranges riots in the city from within the confines of prison. Raj figures out that Surya is Waseem's accomplice. He kills Surya and performs his last rites then as his son-in-law. His wife, Anjali, is unaware of the incident and Surya's misdeeds.


title: Indian (2001 film)

text: The website "Online Bangalore" described the movie as "patriotic" and described the movie as having stunts that are "vibrant and will surely appeal to the Indian masses". However they also criticised it for being overly-long, unoriginal, excessively serious, and lacking in romance. Khalid Mohammed of the "Times of India" described the film in an October 2001 as a "messy bang-a-bang movie".


title: Indian (2001 film)

text: The making of a sequel, to be called "Indian 2", and to star Sunny Deol and to be directed by Maharajan was announced in 2018.


title: Blister beetle

text: Blister beetles are beetles of the family Meloidae, so called for their defensive secretion of a blistering agent, cantharidin. About 7,500 species are known worldwide. Many are conspicuous and some are aposematically colored, announcing their toxicity to would-be predators.


title: Blister beetle

text: Blister beetles are hypermetamorphic, going through several larval stages, the first of which is typically a mobile triungulin. The larvae are insectivorous, mainly attacking bees, though a few feed on grasshopper eggs. While sometimes considered parasitoids, in general, the meloid larva apparently consumes the immature host along with its provisions, and can often survive on the provisions alone; thus it is not an obligatory parasitoid, but rather a facultative parasitoid, or simply a kleptoparasite. The adults sometimes feed on flowers and leaves of plants of such diverse families as the Amaranthaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae, and Solanaceae.


title: Blister beetle

text: Cantharidin, a poisonous chemical that causes blistering of the skin, is secreted as a defensive agent. It is used medically to remove warts and is collected for this purpose from species of the genera "Mylabris" and "Lytta", especially "Lytta vesicatoria", better known as "Spanish fly".


title: Blister beetle

text: Cantharidin is the principal irritant in "Spanish fly", a folk medicine prepared from dried beetles in the family Meloidae.


title: Blister beetle

text: The largest genus, "Epicauta", contains many species toxic to horses. A few beetles consumed in a single feeding of alfalfa hay may be lethal. In semiarid areas of the western United States, modern harvesting techniques may contribute to cantharidin content in harvested forage. The practice of hay conditioning, crushing the stalks to promote drying, also crushes any beetles present and causes the release of cantharidin into the fodder. Blister beetles are attracted to alfalfa and weeds during bloom. Reducing weeds and timing harvests before and after bloom are sound management practices. Using equipment without hay conditioners may reduce beetle mortality and allow them to escape before baling.


title: Blister beetle

text: The family is thought to have begun diversifying during the Early Cretaceous. The oldest fossil of the group is a larva (triangulin) found phoretic on a schizopterid bug from the mid Cretaceous Burmese amber, dated to around 99 million years ago.


title: Mothership (Led Zeppelin album)

text: Mothership is a compilation album by English rock band Led Zeppelin, released by Atlantic Records and Rhino Entertainment on 12 November 2007 in the United Kingdom, and 13 November 2007 in the United States. It was released on the same day that Led Zeppelin's entire catalogue became available in digital stores, including the iTunes Store. The cover was designed by artist Shepard Fairey.


title: Mothership (Led Zeppelin album)

text: The songs included were chosen by the surviving members of Led Zeppelin, Robert Plant, Jimmy Page and John Paul Jones, and represent the band's eight studio albums. In addition to a two-disc set, the album is also available in both "deluxe" and "collector's" editions with a DVD featuring varied live content from the previously released "Led Zeppelin DVD" (2003). A 4-LP vinyl package was also released on 26 August 2008. On 6 November 2015, the album was reissued using the audio from the band's 2014–15 remaster campaign.


title: Mothership (Led Zeppelin album)

text: The album debuted at #4 in the UK Albums Chart, with 58,000 units sold, and debuted at #1 on the Official New Zealand Albums Chart and stayed there for several weeks. The album also debuted at #7 on the US "Billboard" 200 chart, selling about 136,000 copies in its first week. The album has sold over 2.1 million copies in the U.S and over 4.5 million copies worldwide, leading to it being certified 2× Platinum by the RIAA.


title: Khan Tengri

text: Khan Tengri is a mountain of the Tian Shan mountain range. It is on the China—Kyrgyzstan—Kazakhstan tripoint, east of lake Issyk Kul. Its geologic elevation is , but its glacial icecap rises to . For this reason, in mountaineering circles, including for the Soviet Snow Leopard award criteria, it is considered a 7,000-metre peak.


title: Khan Tengri

text: Khan Tengri is the second-highest mountain in the Tian Shan, surpassed only by Jengish Chokusu (means "Victory peak", formerly known as Peak Pobeda) (7,439 m). Khan Tengri is the highest point in Kazakhstan and the third-highest peak in Kyrgyzstan, after Jengish Chokusu (7,439  m) and Avicenna Peak (7,134 m). It is also the world's most northern 7,000-metre peak, notable because peaks of high latitude have a shorter climbing season, generally more severe weather and thinner air.


title: Khan Tengri

text: The name "Khan Tengri" literally means "King Heaven" in Kazakh or "King Sky" in Mongolian and possibly references the deity Tengri that both exist in Pagan Tengrism and Central Asian Buddhism. In some other local languages, it is known as "Khan Tangiri Shyngy", "Kan-Too Chokusu", "Pik Khan-Tengry", and "Hantengri Feng". (, , Han Táńiri, حان تأڭئرئ; Han-Teñiri, حان-تەڭىرى; ; , Xiao'erjing: هًا تٍْ قْ لِ فعْ). Local residents named the mountain Khan-Tengri for the unique beauty of snow giants.


title: Khan Tengri

text: Khan Tengri is a massive marble pyramid, covered in snow and ice. At sunset the marble glows red, giving it the name "blood mountain" in Kazakh and Kyrgyz (; ). Located just across the South Engilchek (or Inylchek) glacier, 16 km north of Jengish Chokusu, Khan Tengri was originally thought to be the highest peak in the Tian Shan because of its dramatic, steep shape, compared to the massive bulk of Jengish Chokusu. This perception was probably also due to Khan Tengri's visibility across the plains of southern Kazakhstan while Jengish Chokusu remains out of view of civilization. Khan Tengri is the highest peak in the rugged Tengri Tag subrange, also known as the Mustag, that also contains Chapaev Peak () and Gorky Peak (). Anatoli Boukreev considered Khan Tengri perhaps the world's most beautiful peak because of its geometric ridges and its symmetry.


title: Khan Tengri

text: Although it is almost 430 m (1,500 ft) lower than its neighbor, Khan Tengri was believed to be the highest peak in the range until Jengish Chokusu was surveyed in 1943 and determined to be higher.


title: Khan Tengri

text: Peter Semenov was the first European to see the Tengri Tag and its peak, the colossal Khan Tengri (in 1857).


title: Khan Tengri

text: The first ascent of the peak was made in 1931 by ’s Ukrainian team through a route from the south (Kyrgyzstan side), then along the west ridge. M. Kuzmin's team made the first ascent from the north (Kazakhstan side) in 1964. Khan Tengri is one of five peaks that a Soviet mountaineer needed to scale to earn the prestigious Snow Leopard award.


title: Khan Tengri

text: A team from Kazakhstan made the first winter ascent of Khan Tengri on February 7, 1992; the team included Valery Khrichtchatyi, Viktor Dedi, Yuri Moiseyev, Valdimir Suviga, Aleksandr Savin, Igor Putintsev and Malik Ismetov.


title: Khan Tengri

text: Austrian mountaineer and expedition leader Toni Dürnberger died while descending after having climbed Khan Tengri on 17 August 1992.


title: Khan Tengri

text: In 2004, more than a dozen mountaineers were killed in a large avalanche on the Pogrebetsky route, the most popular route on the mountain.


title: Glenville High School

text: Glenville High School is a public high school in the Glenville area on the East Side of Cleveland, Ohio. The school is part of the Cleveland Metropolitan School District. The school originally resided at the former Oliver Wendell Holmes school (then The Doan Building) which formerly sat on the northeast corner of E. 105th and St. Clair then later moved to Parkwood and Everton in October 1904 as population grew. The current building was built in 1964 and is located at E. 113th and St. Clair.


title: Glenville High School

text: The Village of Glenville was incorporated in 1870, and was annexed by the City of Cleveland in 1904. Glenville was known for its farmlands, glens of trees and summer leisuring for the wealthy during its early years. Having been initially settled by northern European immigrants, by the end of the World War I, the demographic began to shift with an influx of Jews. By the Great Depression, the Glenville neighborhood had become the epicenter of Cleveland's Jewish population, with the high school reflecting the change.


title: Glenville High School

text: Glenville's population remained in flux, with the demographic changing considerably since World War II. By the 1950s, the neighborhood was predominantly African-American, with the school's enrollment reflecting the shift accordingly.


title: Glenville High School

text: Jerry Siegel (October 17, 1914 – January 28, 1996) and Joe Shuster (July 10, 1914 - July 30, 1992), co-creators of the DC Comics character Superman, both attended Glenville, with Siegel working for the weekly student newspaper, "The Torch" in which he published the Tarzan parody, "Goober the Mighty". Siegel and Shuster together also published what may have been the first SF fanzine, "Cosmic Stories". Superman has since gone on to become one of the most recognized fictional characters of modern times.


title: Glenville High School

text: The school's athletic teams are called the Tarblooders. The school is most notable for its football team and track teams, both coached by Ted Ginn Sr. During the 2006 college football season, Glenville had seven of its graduates on the Ohio State Buckeyes football roster alone. Several of those players were also members of the track and field team, which won five consecutive Ohio High School State Championships.


title: Glenville High School

text: In November 2009, Glenville's football team beat regional powerhouse Massillon to become the first Cleveland Public school to advance to the State Final in OHSAA Playoff history.


title: Glenville High School

text: In 2022, Glenville won their first OHSAA football state championship, becoming the first Cleveland Public school to win a state championship.


title: Glenville High School

text: "Bullet" Bobby Ware was inducted into the OHIO ASSOCIATION OF TRACK & CROSS COUNTRY COACHES HALL OF FAME in 2002. Robert Ware, is arguably the greatest sprinter ever to attend the storied Cleveland Glenville High School where he won multiple State Meet Titles in relays, 100 and 220 yard dashes. His record-setting teams also won three championships in the 880 yard relay and three State Meet Titles in the same years of 1966, 1967, and 1968. Robert participated at Cuyahoga Community College and Western Kentucky University. Robert ran in the 1972 Olympic Trials. He also competed with the Philadelphia Pioneer Track Club when he ran the fastest time in the world as a member of the 400 meter relay in 1972.


title: Davide Sorrenti

text: Davide Sorrenti (July 9, 1976 – February 4, 1997) was an Italian fashion photographer, son of photographer and advertiser Francesca Sorrenti, and brother of Mario Sorrenti (born 1971) and Vanina Sorrenti (born 1973), also fashion photographers.


title: Davide Sorrenti

text: Davide Sorrenti was born 1976 in Naples, Italy, in a family of talented photographers (unofficially they have become known as "the Corleones" of fashion photography); his mother Francesca Sorrenti, renowned fashion photographer, as well as his five-year older brother Mario; and his sister Vanina, (after his death) also proved to be a talented photographer.


title: Davide Sorrenti

text: The Sorrentis moved to New York in the early 1980s, partly because Davide Sorrenti had thalassemia (or "Cooley's anemia", a hereditary form of anemia), and needed regular blood transfusions and medical care; a burden that is believed to at least partially have caused him to take comfort in drugs. The disease made him look several years younger than his real age. His brother Mario documented his sufferings one of many nights, published in the book "The machine"; referring to the drug infusion pump that Davide was hooked up to.


title: Davide Sorrenti

text: Growing up in a cultivated environment, Sorrenti painted, played golf and liked opera, but he soon also became a "prep-school gangster"; private-school students living a wannabee gangster's life, with shoplifting, credit-card scams and drug dealing as a way of gaining status. He also started the crew SKE while attending Bayard Rustin High School for the Humanities, with fellow skateboarders and graffiti artists (Davide's tag was "Argue"); with whom he formed a rap group called "the Mosaics", because of their wide mix of ethnicities; and started the streetwear label Danücht.


title: Davide Sorrenti

text: Sorrenti began documenting his friends in their everyday actions at the age of 18, developing his own distinctive personal style and sense of fashion. Around age 19, his darkly glamorous photos appeared in magazines like "Interview", "Detour", and "Ray Gun". With his talent, charm, and juvenile good looks, he quickly became New York's fashion Wunderkind, boosting the "heroin chic"-trend with young skinny waif-models appearing as drug addicts.


title: Davide Sorrenti

text: Inspired by the real-life subjects of the photojournalism of Larry Clark in the 1960s and Nan Goldin in the 1970s, photographers like Juergen Teller, Craig McDean, David Sims and Terry Richardson reacted against the “phony and over-retouched” aesthetics of 1980s glamour, introducing what they thought was a more truthful approach to reality in the early 1990s. Having started as an underground trend, the approach soon went mainstream when more commercial photographers started copying the style, and with the long running campaign of Calvin Klein featuring models like Kate Moss and Vincent Gallo.


title: Davide Sorrenti

text: Davide's career started almost as soon as he learned how to handle a camera in 1994. His mother Francesca recalls that every day was a photo shoot for Davide. He documented everything he and his friends did, making them feel that something big was about to happen. In a series of snapshots published in "Interview" 1996, his friends from SKE are portrayed hanging out in a run-down apartment, watching TV and smoking pot. His photos also got published in magazines like Detour, Surface, Ray Gun and i-D, all of them proponents of heroin chic, and shot campaign photos for the Japanese fashion companies Hysteric Glamour and Matsuda.


title: Davide Sorrenti

text: Davide's girlfriend at the time, fashion model Jaime (a.k.a. James) King, had been the subject of a cover story in The New York Times Magazine, where she admitted getting involved in drugs when she started modeling at age 14. One of Davide's photos shows a young, skinny Jamie lying on a bed, with torn clothes surrounded with photos of famous drug casualties like Kurt Cobain, Sid Vicious, and Jerry Garcia of Grateful Dead.


title: Davide Sorrenti

text: On February 4, 1997, Davide died of a kidney ailment, possibly because he had not received a blood transfusion in the last few months before his death, although autopsies were incomplete.


title: Davide Sorrenti

text: As a reaction to her son's death, Francesca Sorrenti started a campaign against the glamourization of drug addiction and underage models, demanding magazine editors to take responsibility. “Heroin chic isn't what we're projecting. It's what we are. Our business has become heroin chic. Someone taking pictures of that magnitude has to have experienced hard drugs”, Ms. Sorrenti stated in The New York Times.


title: Davide Sorrenti

text: Matt Jones, photographer and son of i-D editor Terry Jones, said of his friend Davide: “I guess he did slightly see the glamorous side. He also saw the real side of it. And he glamorized it himself, which is the sad thing. It was a whole circle. He glamorized it, and got caught up in it a bit.”


title: Davide Sorrenti

text: In May 1997, U.S. President Bill Clinton denounced the American fashion industry for cynically abusing teenagers and helping spread heroin usage to a new and younger group of people. “Some fashion leaders are admitting flat-out that images projected in fashion photos in the last few years have made heroin addiction seem glamorous and sexy and cool," President Clinton stated. “And as some of the people in those images start to die now, it's become obvious that is not true. The glorification of heroin is not creative, it's destructive. It's not beautiful, it is ugly. And this is not about art, it's about life and death. And glorifying death is not good for any society."


title: Davide Sorrenti

text: Davide Sorrenti's death caused the fashion industry to declare heroin chic improper and passé, and by summer 1997 a new healthy look was introduced on its magazine spreads. Jaime King went to rehabilitation the following year for her addictions to heroin and alcohol.


title: Davide Sorrenti

text: In November 2018 filmmaker Charles Curran released a documentary film called "See Know Evil" on the life, work and death of David Sorrenti. "[The] film is partly about telling the story of his life, partly about trying to present a balanced reappraisal of his work." David's work is intertwined with his friends and youthful exploits.


title: Davide Sorrenti

text: November 2019 Francesca Sorrenti, David's mother, released Davide Sorrenti ArgueSKE 1994–1997, a retrospective of his work.


title: ARINC 429

text: ARINC 429, "Mark33 Digital Information Transfer System (DITS)," is also known as the Aeronautical Radio INC. (ARINC) technical standard for the predominant avionics data bus used on most higher-end commercial and transport aircraft. It defines the physical and electrical interfaces of a two-wire data bus and a data protocol to support an aircraft's avionics local area network.


title: ARINC 429

text: ARINC 429 is a data transfer standard for aircraft avionics. It uses a self-clocking, self-synchronizing data bus protocol (Tx and Rx are on separate ports). The physical connection wires are twisted pairs carrying balanced differential signaling. Data words are 32 bits in length and most messages consist of a single data word. Messages are transmitted at either 12.5 or 100 kbit/s to other system elements that are monitoring the bus messages. The transmitter constantly transmits either 32-bit data words or the NULL state (0 Volts). A single wire pair is limited to one transmitter and no more than 20 receivers. The protocol allows for self-clocking at the receiver end, thus eliminating the need to transmit clocking data. ARINC 429 is an alternative to MIL-STD-1553.


title: ARINC 429

text: The ARINC 429 unit of transmission is a fixed-length 32-bit frame, which the standard refers to as a 'word'. The bits within an ARINC 429 word are serially identified from Bit Number 1 to Bit Number 32 or simply Bit 1 to Bit 32. The fields and data structures of the ARINC 429 word are defined in terms of this numbering.


title: ARINC 429

text: While it is common to illustrate serial protocol frames progressing in time from right to left, a reversed ordering is commonly practiced within the ARINC standard. Even though ARINC 429 word transmission begins with Bit 1 and ends with Bit 32, it is common to diagram and describe ARINC 429 words in the order from Bit 32 to Bit 1.


title: ARINC 429

text: In simplest terms, while the transmission order of bits (from the first transmitted bit to the last transmitted bit) for a 32-bit frame is conventionally diagrammed as


title: ARINC 429

text: Generally, when the ARINC 429 word format is illustrated with Bit 32 to the left, the numeric representations in the data field are read with the most significant bit on the left. However, in this particular bit order presentation, the Label field reads with its most significant bit on the right. Like CAN Protocol Identifier Fields, ARINC 429 "label fields" are transmitted most significant bit first. However, like UART Protocol, Binary-coded decimal numbers and binary numbers in the ARINC 429 "data fields" are generally transmitted least significant bit first.


title: ARINC 429

text: The suppliers that use this representation have in effect renumbered the bits in the Label field, converting the standard's MSB 1 bit numbering for that field to LSB 1 bit numbering. This renumbering highlights the relative reversal of "bit endianness" between the Label representation and numeric data representations as defined within the ARINC 429 standard. Of note is how the "87654321" bit numbering is similar to the "76543210" bit numbering common in digital equipment; but reversed from the "12345678" bit numbering defined for the ARINC 429 Label field.


title: ARINC 429

text: This notional reversal also reflects historical implementation details. ARINC 429 transceivers have been implemented with 32-bit shift registers. Parallel access to that shift register is often octet-oriented. As such, the bit order of the octet access is the bit order of the accessing device, which is usually LSB 0; and serial transmission is arranged such that the least significant bit of each octet is transmitted first. So, in common practice, the accessing device wrote or read a "reversed label" (for example, to transmit a Label 213 [or 8B] the bit-reversed value D1 is written to the Label octet). Newer or "enhanced" transceivers may be configured to reverse the Label field bit order "in hardware."


title: ARINC 429

text: The image below exemplifies many of the concepts explained in the adjacent sections. In this image the Label (260) appears in red, the Data in blue-green and the Parity bit in navy blue.


title: ARINC 429

text: Label guidelines are provided as part of the ARINC 429 specification, for various equipment types. Each aircraft will contain a number of different systems, such as flight management computers, inertial reference systems, air data computers, radar altimeters, radios, and GPS sensors. For each type of equipment, a set of standard parameters is defined, which is common across all manufacturers and models. For example, any air data computer will provide the barometric altitude of the aircraft as label 203. This allows some degree of interchangeability of parts, as all air data computers behave, for the most part, in the same way. There are only a limited number of labels, though, and so label 203 may have some completely different meaning if sent by a GPS sensor, for example. Very commonly needed aircraft parameters, however, use the same label regardless of source. Also, as with any specification, each manufacturer has slight differences from the formal specification, such as by providing extra data above and beyond the specification, leaving out some data recommended by the specification, or other various changes.


title: ARINC 429

text: Avionics systems must meet environmental requirements, usually stated as RTCA DO-160 environmental categories. ARINC 429 employs several physical, electrical, and protocol techniques to minimize electromagnetic interference with on-board radios and other equipment, for example via other transmission cables.


title: ARINC 429

text: Its cabling is a shielded 70 Ω twisted-pair. ARINC signalling defines a 10 Vp differential between the Data A and Data B levels within the bipolar transmission (i.e. 5 V on Data A and -5 V on Data B would constitute a valid driving signal), and the specification defines acceptable voltage rise and fall times.


title: ARINC 429

text: ARINC 429's data encoding uses a complementary differential bipolar return-to-zero (BPRZ) transmission waveform, further reducing EMI emissions from the cable itself.


title: ARINC 429

text: When developing and/or troubleshooting the ARINC 429 bus, examination of hardware signals can be very important to find problems. A protocol analyzer is useful to collect, analyze, decode and store signals.


title: Octobass

text: The octobass is an extremely large and rare bowed string instrument that was first built around 1850 in Paris by the French luthier Jean-Baptiste Vuillaume (1798–1875). It has three strings and is essentially a larger version of the double bass – the specimen in the collection of the Musée de la Musique in Paris measures in length, whereas a full-size double bass is generally approximately in length.


title: Octobass

text: Because of the extreme fingerboard length and string thickness, the musician plays it using a system of levers and pedals. The levers serve to engage metal clamps that are positioned above the neck at specific positions. These clamps act as fretting devices when the performer presses the levers. It has never been produced on a large scale or used much by composers (though Hector Berlioz wrote favorably about the instrument and proposed its widespread adoption).


title: Octobass

text: The only known work from the 19th century that specifically calls for the octobass is Charles Gounod's . In this work, the octobass only appears in the "Benedictus" and the "Agnus Dei" and is specified to be tuned B, E, and B. It typically plays one octave below the double bass.


title: Octobass

text: In addition to the Paris instrument, octobasses exist in the collections of the Musical Instrument Museum in Phoenix, Arizona, and the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna. In October 2016, the Quebec company Canimex donated an octobass to the Montreal Symphony Orchestra, which is now the only orchestra in the world to own one. This instrument was made by the luthier Jean-Jacques Pagès of Mirecourt, France, in 2010.


title: Octobass

text: According to Berlioz, the three open strings were tuned C, G, and C. This tuning gave it a low range one octave below the cello and equal to the modern double bass with low C extension. However, at the time when the octobass was invented, the double bass lacked this extension and could descend only to E or G. The mechanism enabled each string to chromatically cover the range of a perfect fifth and gave the instrument a high range to G. The instrument at the Musée de la Musique in Paris, which uses period-accurate gut strings, is tuned thus (though on at least some recordings the overall tuning is a half-step flat).


title: Octobass

text: The instrument at the Musical Instrument Museum in Phoenix, which uses modern wound metal strings, is tuned C, G, D. This tuning gives it a low range two octaves below the cello and one octave below the modern double bass with low C extension. Berlioz specifically noted this tuning in his orchestration treatise, but considered it erroneous. As on the Paris instrument, the mechanism allows each string to cover a perfect fifth, giving it a high range to A. The fundamental frequencies of the lowest notes in this tuning lie below 20 Hz—the commonly-stated lower bound of human hearing range—but these notes are nevertheless audible due to the overtones they produce. (An organ's 32′ stop also exceeds the supposed 20 Hz limit.)


title: Octobass

text: The Montreal Symphony Orchestra octobass uses gut strings, is tuned A, E, B and has a high range to F.


title: Strawberry Shortcake (2003 TV series)

text: Strawberry Shortcake is an American direct-to-video animated series produced by DIC Entertainment Corporation and American Greetings based on the franchise of the same name that debuted in March 2003. The series consists of 45 episodes, plus one short and one movie. Part of the series was broadcast on television including by CBS, HBO, and HBO Family, and in broadcast syndication. None of the voice actors from the 1980s "Strawberry Shortcake" animated specials returned to reprise their roles, with producers instead opting for younger and lesser known voice actors.


title: Strawberry Shortcake (2003 TV series)

text: To coincide with the series' reboot in 2009, the 2003 series was succeeded by "Strawberry Shortcake's Berry Bitty Adventures" in 2010.


title: Strawberry Shortcake (2003 TV series)

text: 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment began releasing the series direct-to-video in the United States beginning in March 2003. The first few episodes were released on both DVD and VHS, and bundled with certain toys; later episodes are DVD-only. They are also available on VideoCD through various fourth party licensees in South-East Asia and in certain other markets. The first four videos contain only one story but run for twice the length of subsequent episodes.


title: Strawberry Shortcake (2003 TV series)

text: From Season 2 onwards, the DVDs and VHS's are presented as "compilations" in which Strawberry recounts the featured adventures using her "remembering book" or for Season 4, showcases the featured stories as simple flashbacks.


title: Strawberry Shortcake (2003 TV series)

text: In the United States, although promoted as a Direct-to-Video series, the series did air on television as well.


title: Strawberry Shortcake (2003 TV series)

text: In September 2006, shortened Season 1 and Season 2 episodes aired on Mondays within the Program B slot (which mainly aired on The CW affiliates) of the DIC Kids Network Syndicated block. It would then gain a slot on the KEWLopolis block on CBS in September 2007, with the addition of Season 3 episodes. Season 4 has never aired on television in the United States and remains exclusively on DVD and digital download.


title: Strawberry Shortcake (2003 TV series)

text: In international markets, DIC pre-sold the series to GMTV in the United Kingdom and Fox Kids Europe in some European territories in 2004. In 2008, DIC pre-sold the series to more broadcasters including M6, Canal J and Tiji in France, Tiny Pop in the United Kingdom, K-T.V. in South Africa, KiKa in Germany, Austria, Luxembourg and German-speaking Switzerland, and Mediaset in Italy. Season 1 episodes are broadcast as two parts instead of being shortened, doubling the episode count to eight. In Canada, the series aired on Treehouse TV.


title: Strawberry Shortcake (2003 TV series)

text: From Season 2 onwards, the episodes are presented individually on the TV broadcasts rather than being compilations, although this depended on the broadcaster (e.g., Disney Channel Asia aired the first four episodes as two-parters).


title: Strawberry Shortcake (2003 TV series)

text: Some networks, like GMTV and Minimax in CEE aired Season 1 uninterrupted as one, full-length part akin to the DVD releases, while Season 2 onwards are broadcast exactly like on the DVDs with the compilation format.


title: Strawberry Shortcake (2003 TV series)

text: A five-minute Strawberry Shortcake short, "Growing Better All the Time", is available exclusively in the "Care Bears: Daydreams" DVD (released October 14, 2003) as a bonus feature. Numerous scenes from the short were used in the 2000s (decade) series' second opening sequence, and the song from the short was released on the "Strawberry Jams" CD.


title: Strawberry Shortcake (2003 TV series)

text: Apart from that, a Public Service Announcement for the ASPCA was produced and aired in the US. The PSA features Strawberry Shortcake talking about the basics of pet ownership.


title: Andreja Pejić

text: Andreja Pejić (; formerly Andrej Pejić, born 28 August 1991) is an Australian model and actress. Since coming out as a trans woman in 2013, she has become one of the most recognisable transgender models in the world.


title: Andreja Pejić

text: Pejić was born in Tuzla, Yugoslavia (now part of Bosnia and Herzegovina), and has one older brother, Igor. Her mother, Jadranka Savić, is a Serb, and her father, Vlado Pejić, is a Bosnian Croat. The couple divorced shortly after Pejić's birth. During the Bosnian War, Pejić and Igor fled to Serbia with their mother and grandmother, settling in a refugee camp near Belgrade. After the refugee camp, the family settled in the Vojska village near Svilajnac.


title: Andreja Pejić

text: Following the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, Pejić's mother felt unsafe and decided to initiate the process of emigration to Australia. In 2000, the family moved to Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, as political refugees when she was eight years old.


title: Andreja Pejić

text: While attending high school at University High, Pejić was described as being "academically brilliant".


title: Andreja Pejić

text: Pejić was scouted as a model just before her 17th birthday while working at McDonald's, though she has also said in an interview that she was scouted at a swimming pool while still in high school in Melbourne.


title: Andreja Pejić

text: Pejić was initially notable for modelling both masculine and feminine clothing. In the Paris fashion shows of January 2011, Pejić walked both the men's and women's shows for Jean-Paul Gaultier and the men's shows for Marc Jacobs. In May 2011, her magazine cover for the New York-based magazine "Dossier Journal"in which Pejić, with long blond locks in curlers, is pictured taking off a white shirt was ruled too risqué by US bookstores Barnes & Noble and Borders, which covered the image with an opaque sleeve. Concerns were expressed that customers would read Pejić, who at the time was presenting as gender fluid, as a topless woman.


title: Andreja Pejić

text: At the Stylenite in July 2011, Pejić appeared on the catwalk both in masculine and feminine clothes from Michalsky. The following year, she modeled bridal creations by Spanish designer Rosa Clara at Barcelona's Bridal Week 2013.


title: Andreja Pejić

text: Pejić ranked number 18 on Models.com's Top 50 Models list in 2011, was named one of "Out"s Most Compelling People, and was ranked number 98 in "FHM" magazine's 100 Sexiest Women in the World 2011, an award that was criticised for its hostile tone to transgender individuals, especially transgender women; the magazine referred to Pejić as a "thing", commenting, "Pass the sick bucket." "FHM" subsequently removed the copy accompanying Pejić's entry and posted an apology.


title: Andreja Pejić

text: Pejić has appeared on the covers of international editions of "Elle", "Marie Claire", "Harper's Bazaar", "L'Officiel", "Fashion" and "GQ". Andreja has also appeared in editorials for fashion publications including "Vogue", "Elle", "I-D", "Dazed and Confused", "Love", "Allure", "Purple" and "Numéro".


title: Andreja Pejić

text: On 6 August 2012, Pejić appeared as a guest judge on "Britain & Ireland's Next Top Model". The following year, Pejić appeared alongside Iselin Steiro, Saskia de Brauw, Tilda Swinton and David Bowie in the video for Bowie's 2013 single "The Stars (Are Out Tonight)". In late 2013, she made her acting debut playing Radu the Beautiful in the short-lived Turkish television series "Fatih", which is based on the life of Mehmed the Conqueror.


title: Andreja Pejić

text: Pejić became the first openly transgender model profiled by "Vogue", in its May 2015 issue, and also became the first-ever trans woman to sign a cosmetics contract. In 2016, Pejić was awarded "Best International Female Model" by "GQ" Portugal and the following year she made history by becoming the first transgender woman to appear on the cover of "GQ". Pejić made her major film debut in the 2018 crime thriller film "The Girl in the Spider's Web".


title: Andreja Pejić

text: In late 2013, Pejić underwent sex reassignment surgery. In September 2014, Pejić announced plans on the Kickstarter crowdfunding platform to create a film about her reassignment surgery and life as a woman. Pejić started off with a projected goal of $40,000, ultimately exceeding the target funding goal. Pejić had previously dated "Are You the One?" cast member Remy Duran.


title: Dirty Harry (character)

text: Inspector Harold Francis Callahan (born August 3, 1928), nicknamed Dirty Harry, is a fictional character and protagonist of the "Dirty Harry" film series, which consists of "Dirty Harry" (1971), "Magnum Force" (1973), "The Enforcer" (1976), "Sudden Impact" (1983), and "The Dead Pool" (1988). Callahan is portrayed by Clint Eastwood in each film.


title: Dirty Harry (character)

text: From his debut, Callahan became the template for a new kind of film cop: an antihero who does not hesitate to cross professional boundaries in pursuit of his own vision of justice, especially when the law is poorly served by an inept, incompetent bureaucracy.


title: Dirty Harry (character)

text: All of the "Dirty Harry" films feature Callahan killing criminals, mostly in gunfights. Phrases he utters in armed stand-offs, "Go ahead, make my day" and "[...] you've got to ask yourself one question: 'Do I feel lucky?' Well, do ya, punk?" have become iconic. As the 1971 film was criticized for carrying "authoritarian" undertones, the sequels attempted to be more balanced by pitting Harry against villains from a broader ideological spectrum, notably in 1973's "Magnum Force", in which Harry is shown fighting vigilantism after it goes too far.


title: Dirty Harry (character)

text: Callahan is an Inspector with the San Francisco Police Department, usually with the Homicide Division, although for disciplinary or political reasons he is occasionally transferred to other less prominent units, such as the Personnel Division (in "The Enforcer") or Stakeout (in "Magnum Force") or just sent out of town on mundane research assignments (in "Sudden Impact"). Callahan's primary concern is protecting and avenging the victims of violent crime. Though proficient at apprehending criminals, his methods are often unconventional; while some claim that he is prepared to ignore the law and professional and ethical boundaries, regarding them as needless red tape hampering justice, his methods are usually within the law – he takes advantage of situations that justify his use of deadly force.


title: Dirty Harry (character)

text: When a group of men holding hostages in a liquor store in "The Enforcer" demand a getaway car, Callahan delivers one by driving the car through the store's plate glass window and then shooting the robbers. Rather than following the rules of the police department, Callahan inserts himself into the scene of the event at a time when the imminent use of deadly force by the criminals justifies his use of deadly force against the criminals.


title: Dirty Harry (character)

text: Conversely, in "Sudden Impact" when he finds out that Jennifer Spencer (Sondra Locke), the person responsible for a series of murders in San Francisco and São Paulo, was a rape victim killing her unpunished rapists, he lets her go free, indicating that he feels her retribution was justified. In "The Dead Pool", Callahan shoots a fleeing and unarmed Mafia assassin in the back and kills the villain in the end with a harpoon knowing that the man's pistol is out of ammunition.


title: Dirty Harry (character)

text: Callahan goes a step further in "Dirty Harry", in which he shoots serial killer Charles "Scorpio" Davis after Davis surrenders and put his hands in the air. Determined to know the location of a 14-year-old girl that Davis has kidnapped and buried alive, Callahan then presses his foot onto Davis' leg wound, ignoring Davis's pleas for a doctor and a lawyer until Davis gives up the location of the kidnapped girl. Callahan is later informed by the District Attorney that because Callahan kicked in the door of Davis's residence without a warrant, and because Davis's confession of the girl's location was made under the duress of torture, the evidence against him is inadmissible, and Davis has been released without charges filed against him. Callahan explains his outlook to the mayor, who asks how Callahan ascertains that a man he had shot was intending to commit rape; the inspector responds, "When a naked man is chasing a woman through an alley with a butcher knife and a hard-on, I figure he isn't out collecting for the Red Cross."


title: Dirty Harry (character)

text: While his partners and many other officers respect and admire Callahan, others see him as unfit to serve on the police force. He often clashes with superiors who dislike his methods, and judges and prosecutors are wary of handling his cases because of frequent violations of the Fourth Amendment and other irregularities. A police commissioner admits that Callahan's "unconventional methods ... get results", but adds that his successes are "more costly to the city and this department in terms of publicity and physical destruction than most other men's failures". (The publicity makes him well known; in "Sudden Impact", the police chief of another city calls him "the famous Harry Callahan", and by "The Dead Pool" he is so well known that the department wants to transfer him to Public Relations, even while he destroys three police cars in one month and causes a TV station to sue the department.) Callahan is often reprimanded, suspended, and demoted to minor units. At the start of "Magnum Force" Lt. Briggs transfers him to Stakeout. In "The Enforcer", Captain McKay assigns him to Personnel. In "Sudden Impact" he is threatened with a transfer to Traffic and being fired, in "The Enforcer" he begins a 180-day suspension imposed by McKay, and in "The Dead Pool" he is only allowed to stay off desk duty with a new partner. According to film critic Roger Ebert, "it would take an hour in each of these movies to explain why he's not in jail".


title: Dirty Harry (character)

text: The films routinely depict Callahan as being a skilled marksman and strong hand-to-hand combatant, killing at least one man with his bare hands. He is a multiple winner of the SFPD's pistol championship. In the five films, Callahan is shown killing a combined total of 43 criminals, mostly with his trademark revolver, a Smith & Wesson Model 29 .44 Magnum, which he describes as "the most powerful handgun in the world". He refuses to join the secret police death squad in "Magnum Force", as he prefers the present system, despite its flaws, to the vigilante alternative. In his fight against criminals, however, including the fellow officers on the death squad, Callahan is relentless and shows no hesitation if he has to use ultimate force.


title: Dirty Harry (character)

text: In "Dirty Harry", several explanations are suggested for his nickname. When his partner Chico Gonzalez asks about the nickname's origins, Frank DiGiorgio says, facetiously, that "that's one thing about our Harry; [he] doesn't play any favorites. Harry hates everybody: limeys, micks, hebes, fat dagos, niggers, honkies, chinks - you name it." After being called to talk down a jumper, Callahan claims he is known as "Dirty Harry" because he is assigned to "every dirty job that comes along". When Harry is ordered to deliver ransom money to Scorpio, Gonzalez opines "no wonder they call him Dirty Harry; [he] always gets the shit end of the stick". In "Dirty Harry", Gonzalez humorously suggests that Callahan's nickname may have an alternate origin given that he twice ends up peeking through a naked woman's window and later follows a suspect into a strip club.


title: Dirty Harry (character)

text: The films reveal little about Callahan's personal background. In the first film, Callahan tells Chico Gonzalez's wife that his wife was killed by a drunk driver. She appears in "Magnum Force" in an old photograph which Harry turns around. The doctor tending to him after the first film's bank robbery intimates that "us Potrero Hill boys gotta stick together". The first film's novelization explains that Callahan grew up in this neighborhood and describes a hostile relationship between the police and the residents. Callahan recalls once throwing a brick at a police officer, who picked it up and threw it back. The following sequels show that Harry lives within the city limits in a small studio apartment on Jackson Street in the Nob Hill area, so unfamiliar with his neighbors that they refer to him only as "the cop who lives upstairs". Also Harry Callahan served in the Marines and, possibly, he is a Korean war veteran. In "Magnum Force" Harry's friend Charlie McCoy says "We should have done our 20 in the Marines", indicating that they served (or could/should have served) together in the armed forces. In "The Dead Pool", a coffee mug on Harry's desk at the police station bears the United States Marine Corps seal and in "The Enforcer" it is clear he has already been checked out on the LAWS rocket, a USMC weapon.


title: Dirty Harry (character)

text: His hobbies appear to consist of target shooting and playing pool (which we see him doing in "The Enforcer"). He appears to subsist on a diet of hot dogs, hamburgers and strong black coffee which he takes without sugar and is so unchanging that he simply orders 'The usual' from the staff of his regular eateries (in "The Dead Pool" he samples his girlfriend's unknown dessert but does not have one himself). He drinks beer, and on one occasion apple juice, and both runs and weightlifts in the gym. In "Sudden Impact" he acquires a pet bulldog called 'Meathead' but there is no sign of him in "The Dead Pool".


title: Dirty Harry (character)

text: Callahan uses different pairs of sunglasses throughout the series. His sunglasses in "Magnum Force" are the Ray-Ban Balorama. In "The Enforcer", he uses Ray-Ban B&L Aviator Style A. In "Sudden Impact", he wears Gargoyles ANSI sunglasses.


title: Dirty Harry (character)

text: When Al Quan becomes Callahan's partner in "The Dead Pool", the inspector respects Quan's experience but does not want to work with anyone because, he says, "most of my partners end up in the hospital or dead"; he also warns Quan to "get a bulletproof vest", which ends up saving Quan in an explosion. It is a recurring theme in the "Dirty Harry" films that Callahan has a high turnover of partners; most are killed or wounded while working with him. In "Dirty Harry", he mentions two unseen partners named Fanducci and Dietrich; Dietrich is in the hospital having been shot, while Fanducci is dead (in "The Enforcer", reference is made to the fact that Fanducci was killed in 1968). His partner in "Dirty Harry", Chico Gonzalez, survives being shot by Scorpio and later retires (in "Magnum Force", Harry remarks that Gonzalez became a college teacher after leaving the police force). His partner in "Magnum Force", Earlington "Early" Smith is killed by a bomb planted in his mailbox. In "The Enforcer", Kate Moore is killed by terrorists while saving Callahan's life. She had previously mentioned Fanducci and Smith's names to Harry, to demonstrate that she is aware of the risks of being his partner. Occasional Callahan partner Frank DiGiorgio is also killed, albeit whilst working with another officer. Of all Callahan's partners seen on screen, Quan and Gonzalez are the only two to survive. Gonzalez saves Callahan's life by shooting at Scorpio right before Scorpio was about to shoot Callahan. Callahan's partner in "Sudden Impact" played by Albert Popwell also played a bank robber in "Dirty Harry", a community activist in "The Enforcer", and a pimp in "Magnum Force".


title: Dirty Harry (character)

text: Another theme explored in several movies is Callahan being assigned a partner he would instinctively resent being paired with: Gonzalez because he is a rookie college graduate, and Moore because she is a woman in total lack of field experience. However, they eventually earn his respect and both go on to save Harry's life.


title: Dirty Harry (character)

text: In "Dirty Harry" we learn that Callahan's unnamed wife has recently died, her picture still on display in his apartment. In "Magnum Force" he begins a relationship with Sunny, an Asian woman who is one of his neighbors and asks to go to bed with him on their first meeting. In "Sudden Impact" he establishes a sexual relationship with vigilante Jennifer Spencer although it is uncertain if this goes any further, with Spencer commenting 'Neither of us want to be alone tonight'. "The Dead Pool" implies a romantic relationship with news reporter Samantha Walker, and the film ends with her and Callahan walking away together.


title: Dirty Harry (character)

text: Callahan is considered a film icon, so much so that his nickname, "Dirty Harry", has entered the lexicon as slang for ruthless police officers. Harry Callahan was voted number 23 by "Empire" Magazine on their list of "The 100 Greatest Movie Characters". Callahan was voted the 17th greatest movie hero on "100 Years... 100 Heroes and Villains". He was also named one of "The 20 All Time Coolest Heroes in Pop Culture" by "Entertainment Weekly". He was also ranked 42nd by "Premiere" magazine on their list of the "100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time". The character also received recognition from the American Film Institute. Callahan's trademark weapon, the Smith & Wesson Model 29 .44 Magnum revolver, was named the second greatest movie weapon of all time, behind the lightsaber from "Star Wars".


title: Dirty Harry (character)

text: On AFI's "100 Years... 100 Movie Quotes", two of Dirty Harry's famous lines ranked 6th and 51st, respectively:


title: Dirty Harry (character)

text: The former phrase was borrowed by US President Ronald Reagan in a March 1985 speech to the American Business Conference. Promising to veto any proposed tax rises, he challenged those who wanted them to: "Go ahead, make my day." It has also given its name to a law in Colorado, the Make My Day Law, which protects homeowners who use lethal force against intruders.


title: Real estate investing

text: Real estate investing involves the purchase, management and sale or rental of real estate for profit. Someone who actively or passively invests in real estate is called a real estate entrepreneur or a real estate investor. Some investors actively develop, improve or renovate properties to make more money from them.


title: Real estate investing

text: During the 1980s, real estate investment funds became increasingly involved in international real estate developed. This shift led to real estate becoming a global asset class. Investing in real estate in foreign countries often requires specialized knowledge of the real estate market in that country. As international real estate investment became increasingly common in the early 21st century, the availability and quality of information regarding international real estate markets increased.


title: Real estate investing

text: Real estate is one of the primary areas of investment in China, where an estimated 70% of household wealth is invested in real estate.


title: Real estate investing

text: Real estate is divided into several broad categories, including residential property, commercial property and industrial property.


title: Real estate investing

text: Real estate markets in most countries are not as organized or efficient as markets for other, more liquid investment instruments. Individual properties are unique to themselves and not directly interchangeable, which makes evaluating investments less certain. Unlike other investments, real estate is fixed in a specific location and derives much of its value from that location. Industrial real estate With residential real estate, the perceived safety of a neighbourhood and the number of services or amenities nearby can increase the value of a property. For this reason, the economic and social situation in an area is often a major factor in determining the value of its real estate.


title: Real estate investing

text: Property valuation is often the preliminary step taken during a real estate investment. Information asymmetry is commonplace in real estate markets, where one party may have more accurate information regarding the actual value of the property. Real estate investors typically use a variety of real estate appraisal techniques to determine the value of properties prior to purchase. This typically includes gathering documents and information about the property, inspecting the physical property, and comparing it to the market value of similar properties. A common method of valuing real estate is by dividing its net operating income by its capitalization rate, or CAP rate.


title: Real estate investing

text: Numerous national and international real estate appraisal associations exist for the purpose of standardizing property valuation. Some of the larger of these include the Appraisal Institute, the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors and the International Valuation Standards Council.


title: Real estate investing

text: Investment properties are often purchased from a variety of sources, including market listings, real estate agents or brokers, banks, government entities such as Fannie Mae, public auctions, sales by owners, and real estate investment trusts.


title: Real estate investing

text: Real estate assets are typically expensive, and investors will generally not pay the entire amount of the purchase price of a property in cash. Usually, a large portion of the purchase price will be financed using some sort of financial instrument or debt, such as a mortgage loan collateralized by the property itself. The amount of the purchase price financed by debt is referred to as leverage. The amount financed by the investor's own capital, through cash or other asset transfers, is referred to as equity. The ratio of leverage to total appraised value (often referred to as "LTV", or loan to value for a conventional mortgage) is one mathematical measure of the risk an investor is taking by using leverage to finance the purchase of a property. Investors usually seek to decrease their equity requirements and increase their leverage, so that their return on investment is maximized. Lenders and other financial institutions usually have minimum equity requirements for real estate investments they are being asked to finance, typically on the order of 20% of appraised value. Investors seeking low equity requirements may explore alternate financing arrangements as part of the purchase of a property (for instance, seller financing, seller subordination, private equity sources, etc.)


title: Real estate investing

text: If the property requires substantial repair, traditional lenders like banks will often not lend on a property and the investor may be required to borrow from a private lender utilizing a short term bridge loan like a hard money loan from a Hard money lender. Hard money loans are usually short-term loans where the lender charges a much higher interest rate because of the higher risk nature of the loan. Hard money loans are typically at a much lower loan-to-value ratio than conventional mortgages.


title: Real estate investing

text: Some real estate investment organizations, such as real estate investment trusts (REITs) and some pension funds and hedge funds, have large enough capital reserves and investment strategies to allow 100% equity in the properties that they purchase. This minimizes the risk which comes from leverage but also limits potential ROI.


title: Real estate investing

text: By leveraging the purchase of an investment property, the required periodic payments to service the debt create an ongoing (and sometimes large) negative cash flow beginning from the time of purchase. This is sometimes referred to as the carry cost or "carry" of the investment. To be successful, real estate investors must manage their cash flows to create enough positive income from the property to at least offset the carry costs.


title: Real estate investing

text: With the signing of the JOBS Act in April 2012 by President Obama there was an easing on investment solicitations. A newer method of raising equity in smaller amounts is through real estate crowdfunding which can pool accredited and/or non-accredited investors together in a special purpose vehicle for all or part of the equity capital needed for the acquisition. Fundrise was the first company to crowdfund a real estate investment in the United States.


title: Real estate investing

text: Real estate properties may generate revenue through a number of means, including net operating income, tax shelter offsets, equity build-up, and capital appreciation.


title: Real estate investing

text: Net operating income is the sum of all profits from rents and other sources of ordinary income generated by a property, minus the sum of ongoing expenses, such as maintenance, utilities, fees, taxes, and other expenses. Rent is one of the main sources of revenue in commercial real estate investment. Tenants pay an agreed upon sum to landlords in exchange for the use of real property, and may also pay a portion of upkeep or operating expenses on the property.


title: Real estate investing

text: Tax shelter offsets occur in one of three ways: depreciation (which may sometimes be accelerated), tax credits, and carryover losses which reduce tax liability charged against income from other sources for a period of 27.5 years. Some tax shelter benefits can be transferable, depending on the laws governing tax liability in the jurisdiction where the property is located. These can be sold to others for a cash return or other benefits.


title: Real estate investing

text: Equity build-up is the increase in the investor's equity ratio as the portion of debt service payments devoted to principal accrue over time. Equity build-up counts as positive cash flow from the asset where the debt service payment is made out of income from the property, rather than from independent income sources.


title: Real estate investing

text: Capital appreciation is the increase in the market value of the asset over time, realized as a cash flow when the property is sold. Capital appreciation can be very unpredictable unless it is part of a development and improvement strategy. The purchase of a property for which the majority of the projected cash flows are expected from capital appreciation (prices going up) rather than other sources is considered speculation rather than investment.


title: Real estate investing

text: One source of investment returns is AirBNB rental arbitrage. This is the process that focuses on buying properties or leveraging other peoples properties by sub-leasing and then renting them out on websites such as AirBNB. There are pros and cons to this investment type. You have to find properties in high destination areas to ensure that you will have enough bookings to cover the recurring costs and initial investment. There is potential to make a much larger return when compared to simply renting out a property for a long term stays. However, there is much more upkeep and much more potential for damage and unwanted costs when doing short-term rentals due to the large amount of different people using the home constantly.


title: Real estate investing

text: Some individuals and companies focus their investment strategy on purchasing properties that are in some stage of foreclosure. A property is considered in pre-foreclosure when the homeowner has defaulted on their mortgage loan. Formal foreclosure processes vary by state and may be judicial or non-judicial, which affects the length of time the property is in the pre-foreclosure phase. Once the formal foreclosure processes are underway, these properties can be purchased at a public sale, usually called a foreclosure auction or sheriff's sale. If the property does not sell at the public auction, then ownership of the property is returned to the lender. Properties at this phase are called Real Estate Owned, or REOs.


title: Real estate investing

text: Once a property is sold at the foreclosure auction or as an REO, the lender may keep the proceeds to satisfy their mortgage and any legal costs that they incurred minus the costs of the sale and any outstanding tax obligations.


title: Real estate investing

text: The foreclosing bank or lending institution has the right to continue to honor tenant leases (if there are tenants in the property) during the REO phase but usually, the bank wants the property vacant in order to sell it more easily.


title: Real estate investing

text: Buy, rehab, rent, refinance (BRRR) is a real estate investment strategy, used by real estate investors who have experience renovating or rehabbing properties to "flip" houses.


title: Presbyter

text: Presbyter () is an honorific title for Christian clergy. The word derives from the Greek "presbyteros," which means elder or senior, although many in the Christian antiquity would understand "presbyteros" to refer to the bishop functioning as overseer. The word Presbyter is also mentioned in the New Testament.


title: Presbyter

text: In modern Catholic and Orthodox usage, "presbyter" is distinct from "bishop" and synonymous with "priest". In predominant Protestant usage, "presbyter" does not refer to a member of a distinctive priesthood called "priests," but rather to a minister, pastor, or elder.


title: Presbyter

text: The word "presbyter" etymologically derives from Greek "πρεσβύτερος" ("presbyteros"), the comparative form of "πρέσβυς" ("presbys"), "old man". However, while the English word priest has presbyter as the etymological origin, the distinctive Greek word (Greek ἱερεύς "hiereus") for "priest" is never used for presbyteros/episkopos in the New Testament, except as being part of the general priesthood of all believers, with the first Christians making a distinction between sacerdotal Jewish and pagan priests and New Testament presbyters.


title: Presbyter

text: The earliest organization of the Church in Jerusalem was according to most scholars similar to that of Jewish synagogues, but it had a council or college of ordained presbyters ( "elders"). In Acts 11:30 and , we see a collegiate system of government in Jerusalem though headed by James, according to tradition the first bishop of the city. In , the Apostle Paul ordains presbyters in the churches he founded.


title: Presbyter

text: The term presbyter was often not yet clearly distinguished from the term overseer (ἐπίσκοποι "episkopoi", later exclusively used as meaning bishop), as in , Titus 1:5–7 and 1 Peter 5:1. The earliest writings of the Apostolic Fathers, the Didache and the First Epistle of Clement for example, show the church used two terms for local church offices—presbyters (seen by many as an interchangeable term with episcopos or overseer) and deacon.


title: Presbyter

text: In Timothy and Titus in the New Testament a more clearly defined episcopate can be seen. We are told that Paul had left Timothy in Ephesus and Titus in Crete to oversee the local church ( and ). Paul commands them to ordain presbyters/bishops and to exercise general oversight, telling Titus to "rebuke with all authority" ().


title: Presbyter

text: Early sources are not clear, but various groups of Christian communities would have had a group or college of presbyter-overseers functioning as leaders of the local churches. Eventually, the head or "monarchic" bishop came to rule more clearly, and all local churches would eventually follow the example of the other churches and structure themselves after the model of the others with the one bishop in clearer charge, though the role of the body of priests remained important.


title: Presbyter

text: From the 2nd century, it is certain that the offices of bishop and presbyter were clearly distinguished, the bishop was understood as the president of the council of presbyters, and so the bishop was distinguished both in honor and in prerogative from the presbyters, who were seen as deriving their authority by means of delegation from the bishop. Each Episcopal see had its own bishop and his presence was necessary to consecrate any gathering of the church.


title: Presbyter

text: Eventually, as Christendom grew, individual congregations were no longer directly served by a bishop. The bishop in a large city (the Metropolitan bishop) would appoint a priest to pastor the flock in each congregation, acting as his delegate.


title: Presbyter

text: A Catholic explanation suggests that the delegates were bishops in the actual sense of the term but that they neither possessed fixed sees nor had a special title. Since they were essentially itinerant, they confided the fixed necessary functions relating to the daily life of the community to the care of some of the better-educated and highly respected converts.


title: Presbyter

text: Along with this was the title "priest" being distinctively ascribed to presbyters/bishops. Writer Greg Dues, author of "Catholic Customs & Traditions", claims that "Priesthood as we know it in the Catholic church was unheard of during the first generation of Christianity, because at that time priesthood was still associated with animal sacrifices in both the Jewish and pagan religions." "When the Eucharist came to be regarded as a sacrifice [after Rome's theology], the role of the bishop took on a priestly dimension. By the third century bishops were considered priests. Presbyters or elders sometimes substituted for the bishop at the Eucharist. By the end of the third century people all over were using the title 'priest' (hierus in Greek and sacerdos in Latin) for whoever presided at the Eucharist."


title: Presbyter

text: With the legalization of Christianity and the threat of paganism dwindling from the passage of time, the use of the word priest was adopted from presbyter; as they felt there was no longer a chance of their faith being confused with the ideas, philosophies and culture of the Roman religion.


title: Presbyter

text: The Roman Catholic Church, the Orthodox Church, the non-Chalcedonian churches, and similar groups typically refer to presbyters in English as priests ("priest" is etymologically derived from the Greek "presbyteros" via the Latin "presbyter"). Collectively, however, their "college" is referred to as the "presbyterium", "presbytery", or "presbyterate".


title: Presbyter

text: This usage is seen by most Protestant Christians as stripping the laity of its priestly status, while those who use the term defend its usage by saying that, while they do believe in the "priesthood" (Greek ἱερεύς "hiereus" – a different word altogether, used in Rev 1:6, 1 Pet 2:9) of all believers, they do not believe in the "eldership" of all believers. This is generally true of United Methodists, who ordain elders as clergy (pastors) while affirming the priesthood of all believers. The Methodist Church of Great Britain has formally referred to its presbyters as such (rather than the common title of 'minister') since 1990, from when it was possible to be ordained as a Methodist deacon, which is also an order of Methodist ministry. The evangelical (or ultra low-church) Anglican Diocese of Sydney has abolished the use of the word "priest" for those ordained as such. They are now referred to as "presbyters". Presbyterians sometimes refer to their ruling elders and teaching elders (ministers) as presbyters.


title: Presbyter

text: The website of the International Standard Version of the Bible, a Protestant translation, responds to a criticism of its use of "elder" over "priest " by stating the following:


title: Allahabad Pillar

text: The Allahabad pillar is a "stambha", containing one of the pillar edicts of Ashoka, possibly erected by Ashoka, emperor of the Maurya dynasty, who reigned in the 3rd century BCE, or it may have prior origins. While it is one of the few extant pillars that carry Ashokan edicts, it is particularly notable for containing later inscriptions attributed to the Gupta emperor Samudragupta (4th century CE). Also engraved on the stone are inscriptions by the Mughal emperor Jahangir, from the 17th century.


title: Allahabad Pillar

text: According to some scholars, the pillar was moved from its original location and installed within Akbar's Allahabad Fort in Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh by Emperor Akbar himself, but this theory is disputed by other scholars who point out the absence of any confirmatory evidence that the pillar was moved, and pre-Mughal inscriptions that indicate that it was already present in its current location. As the fort is now occupied by the Indian Army, the public are only allowed limited access to the premises and special permission is required to view the pillar.


title: Allahabad Pillar

text: The Allahabad Pillar is a single shaft of polished sandstone standing high. It has a lower diameter of and an upper diameter of . The customary lotiform bell-shaped capital seen in the other Ashoka Pillars is lost, as is whichever statue mounted it. However the abacus, adorned by a "graceful scroll of alternate lotus and honeysuckle" that the statue must have rested upon, was found nearby. Cunningham believed that the capital must have been mounted by a single lion. The abacus is almost identical to the one found on the pillar at Sankasya suggesting proximate erection dates.


title: Allahabad Pillar

text: According to the theory proposed by 19th-century archaeologists, and supported by Indian scholars such as Upinder Singh, the Allahabad pillar came from somewhere else, probably Kaushambi. The Ashokan inscriptions suggest that the pillar was first erected at Kaushambi, an ancient town some 30 miles (50 kilometers) west of its current location which was then the capital of the kingdom of Vatsa. It was moved to Allahabad much later when the region came under Muslim rule. The presence of another broken pillar at Kaushambi near the ruins of the Ghoshitarama monastery has led some to believe that the Allahabad Pillar might have been one of a pair, not unlike the ones discovered at Rampurva.


title: Allahabad Pillar

text: The pillar has been taken down and re-erected a number of times since the 13th century. It was once re-erected during the time of Jahangir in 1605, albeit crowned by a globe surmounted by a cone, and was later sketched by the Jesuit missionary, Joseph Tiefenthaler, in the mid-18th century. General Kyd pulled the pillar down in 1798. In 1838, Captain Edward Smith "of the Engineers" set up the pillar once again, this time with a new lion capital of his own design. Cunningham criticized this effort at restoration as "a signal failure" as he thought the statue was "small and recumbent". He summed up the design with the following remark,


title: Allahabad Pillar

text: An alternate theory proposed by Krishnaswamy and Ghosh in 1935 states that the Allahabad pillar was never moved. They dismissed the theory that Muslim Sultans, anyone from the Mughal empire, Hindu kings before the arrival of Islam, or any private individual may have moved the pillar from Kaushambi to the current location. Their arguments are based on the dates of the numerous inscriptions on the pillar, the lack of textual evidence in any historical texts, or of a reason for anyone to move the pillar from Kaushambi to Allahabad, since there is no evidence that these were significant cities. They also dismiss the possibility that a private individual may have moved it because the pillar is too big and heavy, and required a very large amount of resources to move it. Ashoka may have installed it at Prayag because the confluence of Ganges and Yamuna rivers was already a major pilgrimage site during his time, thus a location that gave more access and visibility to his edicts. The Ashokan inscription is merely a copy of the Kausambi inscription, state Krishnaswamy and Ghosh. The surface damage and the addition of numerous new inscriptions happened while the pillar stood in Allahabad.


title: Allahabad Pillar

text: A third theory was proposed in 1979 by John Irwin, who concurred with Krishnaswamy and Ghosh that the Allahabad pillar was never moved and was always at the confluence of the rivers Ganges and Yamuna. He further stated that the pillar's origins were undoubtedly pre-Ashokan based on all the evidence at the site, the major and minor inscriptions as well as textual evidence, taken together. According to Irwin, an analysis of the minor inscriptions and ancient scribblings on the pillar first observed by Cunningham, also noted by Krishnaswamy and Ghosh, reveals that these included years and months, and the latter "always turns out to be Magha, which also gives it name to the Magh Mela", the bathing pilgrimage festival of the Hindus.


title: Allahabad Pillar

text: Archaeological and geological surveys done since the 1950s, states Irwin, have revealed that the rivers – particularly Ganges – have a different course now than in distant past. The original path of river Ganges had settlements dating from 8th-century BCE onwards. This ancient path of the river placed the pillar more directly on the banks of the confluence. Further, east from the pillar is the remains of an ancient massive well ("samudra-kup" in early Sanskrit texts), in the direction of the remains of "Pratisthan" (now Jhusi). The Vasuki temple and Alarkapuri, which pilgrims visit after ritual bathing as a part of their traditional "parikrama" (circumambulation, Magha Mela walking circuit), are also ancient and consistent with early Sanskrit texts. According to Irwin, the pillar itself is pre-Buddhist, to which Ashoka added the Brahmi script inscription to advertise his edicts to the masses of pilgrims and the extant Buddhist monasteries there. He adds, "we also know with certainty that its original emblem had been – not a lion, as previously supposed – but the bull of pre-Buddhist, Brahmanical religion".


title: Allahabad Pillar

text: According to Karel Werner – an Indologist known for his studies on religion particularly Buddhism, Irwin work "showed conclusively that the pillar did not originate at Kaushambi", but had been at Prayaga from pre-Buddhist time as a center of a very ancient pillar cult and that in fact, this was incorrectly attributed to Ashoka.


title: Allahabad Pillar

text: When James Prinsep of the Asiatic Society came across the broken pillar just inside the gates of the Allahabad Fort in , its inscriptions were being eroded by the rain and sun. He remarked,


title: Allahabad Pillar

text: There are three sets of inscriptions on the column from the three emperors, Ashoka Maurya, Samudragupta and Jahangir. They are accompanied by some minor inscriptions by pilgrims and others, which were derided as a mass of modern scribblings by Alexander Cunningham. Some of these are, however, dated and coupled with the style of scripts used, are useful to establish the periods when the pillar was in an erect position, and when it was lying prone on the ground.


title: Allahabad Pillar

text: The Ashokan inscriptions on the Allahabad Pillar (along with inscriptions elsewhere) were pivotal to the decipherment of the Brahmi script by The Asiatic Society's James Prinsep. It led to the rediscovery of the Mauryan emperor and the unearthing of the full extent of his empire.


title: Allahabad Pillar

text: The inscription is engraved in continuous lines around the column in Brahmi and contains the same six edicts that can be seen on the other pillars. The surviving inscriptions from the Ashoka period are "uniform in size, neat and deeply engraved" observed Cunningham.


title: Allahabad Pillar

text: The pillar contains the Major Pillar Edicts of Ashoka, from 1 to 6. The first and second edicts have survived in full. However, much of the third and fourth edicts were "ruthlessly destroyed by the cutting of the vain-glorious inscription of Jahangir, recording the names of his ancestors". Only two lines of the fifth edict have survived, the others lost by surface peel off. The sixth is almost complete, with a loss of about half a line. These edits are the same as found at other Ashokan pillars. Besides the six edicts, the Allahabad pillar also includes what are known as the "Schism edict", the "Queen's edict" and the "Birbal Magha Mela inscription".


title: Allahabad Pillar

text: The Schism Edict, referred to as the "Kaushambi edict" by Cunningham, is a command from the emperor addressing the senior officials ("Mahamatras") of Kaushambi urging them to avoid dissension and stay united. The following is a conflation of various fragmented versions of the edict:


title: Allahabad Pillar

text: The Queen's Edict refers to the charitable deeds of Ashoka's queen, Karuvaki, the mother of Prince Tivala.


title: Allahabad Pillar

text: A later inscription, also known as the "Prayag Prashasti", is attributed to the 4th century CE Gupta emperor Samudragupta, and follows immediately below the edicts of Ashoka. It is considered "the most important historical document of the classical Gupta age". It is in excellent Sanskrit, written in the more refined Gupta script (a later version of Brahmi) by the poet and minister, Harishena. The inscription is a panegyric praising Samudragupta and lists the political and military achievements of his reign including his expeditions to the south. It provides a unique snapshot of the Gupta empire and its neighbours and is the source of much of what is known of the geopolitical landscape of that era.


title: Allahabad Pillar

text: This inscription is significant because it confirms that Prayag was a significant pilgrimage center – Tirth Raj – for the Hindus in the 16th century, and that the festival was held in the month of Magha. The Samvat year 1632 is equivalent to 1575 CE, while Saka 1493 equals 1571 CE. One of these is a scribal error, but the decade is accurate because Allahabad was under Akbar's control at the time and where built a major fort. Historical documents also confirm that Birbal did visit Akbar and Allahabad often.


title: Allahabad Pillar

text: Cunningham noted that many smaller inscriptions were added on the pillar over time. Quite many of these inscriptions include a date between 1319 CE and 1397 CE, and most of these include the month Magha. According to Krishnaswamy and Ghosh, these dates are likely related to the Magh Mela pilgrimage at Prayag, as recommended in the ancient Hindu texts.


title: Allahabad Pillar

text: A still later inscription in Persian traces the ancestry of the Mughal emperor Jahangir. It was carved by Mir Abdullah Mushkin Qalam, shortly before his accession to the throne when he was still "Shah Salim". The Jahangir inscription overwrote and "ruthlessly destroyed" the significant portion of the ancient Ashoka inscription, states Cunningham.


title: St. John's International Airport

text: St. John's International Airport is in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada. It is located northwest of St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador and serves the St. John's metropolitan area and the Avalon Peninsula. The airport is part of the National Airports System, and is operated by St. John's International Airport Authority Inc.


title: St. John's International Airport

text: Designated as an international airport by Transport Canada it is classified as an airport of entry by Nav Canada and is staffed by the Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA). CBSA officers at this airport can handle aircraft with no more than 165 passengers. However, they can handle up to 450 if the aircraft is unloaded in stages.


title: St. John's International Airport

text: Concern was expressed in the Canadian Parliament as early as September 1939 for the security of the Dominion of Newfoundland (which was not yet a part of Canada) in the event of a German raid or attack. It was felt that a permanent airfield defense facility was needed and as a result discussions were carried out among Canada, Newfoundland and the United Kingdom during 1940. In late 1940 the Canadian Government agreed to construct an air base near St. John's. Early in 1941, Canadian Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King informed Newfoundland Governor Sir Humphrey T. Walwyn of the intended location in Torbay. Newfoundland agreed, but stipulated that Canada was to assume all expenses and that the aerodrome not be used for civil purposes without first receiving Newfoundland's permission. The Canadian Government agreed, and in April 1941 McNamara Construction Company began construction on the runway. At a cost of approximately $1.5 million, a pair of runways, taxiways, aprons, hangars and other facilities were built and in operation by the end of 1941. The Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) officially opened Torbay Airport on December 15, 1941. It was jointly used by the RCAF, Royal Air Force (RAF), and the United States Army Air Corps until December 1946.