title: Murder of Kristen French

text: On April 16, 1992, as she was walking home from Holy Cross Secondary School, a Catholic school in St. Catharines, French was approached at the entrance of the Grace Lutheran Church parking lot by serial killers Karla Homolka and Paul Bernardo under the pretense of needing directions. While French was assisting Homolka with directions, Bernardo attacked her from behind and forced her into the car at knifepoint. While French was seated in the front seat, Homolka held down her hair in order to keep the abductee in check. The kidnapping was seen by several eyewitnesses. When French went missing it drew immediate attention to her family and friends as she always followed the routine of a fifteen-minute walk from school to her home to feed and walk her dog in time.


title: Murder of Kristen French

text: The medical examiner's report state she was held in captivity for three days, during which Bernardo and Homolka videotaped themselves torturing and subjecting the 15-year-old to sexual humiliation and degradation while forcing her to drink large amounts of alcohol. They murdered her on April 19, 1992. Her naked body was found in a ditch along No. 1 Sideroad in north Burlington on April 30, 1992.


title: Murder of Kristen French

text: While French was missing, her classmates, teachers and friends at Holy Cross Secondary School chose the Green Ribbon of Hope as the symbol for their search. French's school community also gave the name to the Green Ribbon of Hope Campaign, a national campaign continued by Child Find Canada, governments, organizations and individuals to raise funds and awareness for missing children.


title: Murder of Kristen French

text: The Green Ribbon Trail in St. Catharines was named in her honour, and a monument to French's memory stands at the beginning of the trail. The ribbon also gave its name to the Green Ribbon Task Force, the police group tasked with finding Leslie Mahaffy and French's killers, though they later found themselves embroiled in controversy over the role of media in police investigations.


title: Murder of Kristen French

text: French is remembered for declining cooperation with her abductors in the latter period of her abduction: "Some things are worth dying for". She said to Bernardo: "I don't know how your wife can stand to be around you." On one of the memorials dedicated to her is engraved "Her legacy proves an inspiration."


title: Will Hughes

text: William James Hughes (born 17 April 1995) is an English professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Premier League club Crystal Palace.


title: Will Hughes

text: Having graduated a scholarship with Derby County, Hughes made his first team breakthrough during the 2012–13 season; his performances resulted in him earning attraction from multiple clubs across Europe. Hughes made his move to the Premier League with Watford in 2017, helping the Hornets reach the FA Cup final in 2019 and maintain top-flight football for three seasons. Following Watford's relegation in 2020, Hughes played a central role in their promotion campaign the following season.


title: Will Hughes

text: Born in Weybridge, Surrey, Hughes moved to Derby at the age of two. Hughes was first educated at St Peter's Junior school and then Repton School for secondary school in Derbyshire, where he was a boarder attending on a sports scholarship. Growing up, Hughes also played cricket and tennis. He played for Repton's football team, reaching the final of the Independent Schools Football Association Under-15 Cup in 2010, where he scored the first goal in a 3–1 extra-time defeat to Brentwood. Having briefly been on the books of Nottingham Forest, Hughes played for local side Mickleover Jubilee, before leaving Repton to sign for Derby County as a first-year scholar in the summer of 2011. While at Derby he completed A-Levels in politics and business with the help of tutors.


title: Will Hughes

text: Hughes made his debut for the club's reserve team as a 70th minute substitute in a 6–1 Central League win over Walsall on 22 September 2011 and made two additional appearances in the Central League Cup. It was his "outstanding" performance in a 1–0 win over Port Vale reserves in the competition on 1 November which brought him to manager Nigel Clough's attention for possible inclusion in the Derby first-team squad against Peterborough United four days later.


title: Will Hughes

text: Hughes made his full debut for Derby as a 90th-minute substitute for Jamie Ward. Despite entering the match late with the scores level, there was still time for Hughes' first-team debut to end in defeat as a 94th-minute goal saw Peterborough win 3–2.


title: Will Hughes

text: After Derby midfielder Paul Green, who was out-of-contract at the end of the season, rejected a contract offer, Clough dropped him and promoted Hughes to the first-team squad as his replacement for the penultimate match of the season at Portsmouth. Hughes started the match on the substitute's bench and came on in the 68th minute, replacing Theo Robinson in a 2–1 win. Hughes started his first match for the senior team in the final match of the season, a 1–1 draw against Peterborough United. Hughes' performance match earned praise from Derby manager Nigel Clough. At Derby's awards night, Hughes won the Scholar of the Year Award.


title: Will Hughes

text: After impressing in pre-season, Clough said that Hughes could be in line for a place in the starting line-up in the first match of the season against Scunthorpe United in the League Cup. Clough was particularly impressed with his substitute appearance against Colchester United saying, "When he came off the bench at Colchester, he was very good indeed. I thought he was the star of the subs. He looked comfortable. I don't think he gave the ball away and he made our equaliser. We are very pleased with him."


title: Will Hughes

text: Hughes scored his first goal for the club in a 5–1 win against Watford on 1 September 2012. Hughes signed a new contract in October 2012, committing his future at the club until summer 2015. Hughes scored his second goal for the club in a 2–1 defeat at Millwall on 10 November, scoring an equalising goal from 20 yards. In November 2012, Hughes was linked with moves to Arsenal, Liverpool and Manchester City. Nigel Clough denied the rumours, however he said the interest in the player was inevitable and said many scouts had been at Derby matches to watch Hughes.


title: Will Hughes

text: Hughes was named the Football League Young Player of the Month for November 2012, after a series of impressive performances. On the eve of the 2013 January transfer window, it was reported in the "Derby Telegraph" that Hughes was being closely observed by 10 Premier League clubs with Fulham's manager Martin Jol saying of Hughes, "Believe me, there are probably 10 clubs in the Premier League having a look at him. He is one of these wonderful talents, so he is always on lists. If you have a good scouting system, he will always be on the list but we will see."


title: Will Hughes

text: In February 2013, during a 0–0 draw against Wolverhampton Wanderers, Hughes picked up a groin injury and was replaced after 63 minutes. As a result of this injury, Hughes ended his ever-present run of Derby first-team appearances after 35 matches and ended a run of 37 consecutive appearances. With twelve matches remaining in the season and with Derby unlikely to fight for a play-off place and with Hughes being ruled out for the first two matches in March; Clough said he considered resting Hughes for the rest of season to reduce stress on his body.


title: Will Hughes

text: In April 2013, Hughes signed a one-year extension to his contract after his 18th birthday, extending his stay until June 2016. Hughes returned to first-team action before schedule on 20 April as an 85th-minute substitute in Derby's 3–1 against Peterborough United. At the end of the season, Hughes won the Sammy Crooks Young Player of the Year award.


title: Will Hughes

text: Ahead of the 2013–14 season, Hughes was expected to compete with Craig Bryson, Paul Coutts and Jeff Hendrick, with then-manager Nigel Clough stating that rotation could be utilised. Hughes scored his first goal of the season on 27 August in a 5–0 win against League One side Brentford in the League Cup. He scored his first league goal of the season in a 3–1 defeat at home to Reading on 21 September. This was Hughes' last goal under Nigel Clough, who was sacked a week later following a 1–0 defeat at the hands of rivals Nottingham Forest in the East Midlands derby. Clough was replaced by former England manager Steve McClaren, and Hughes scored in his first match in charge of Derby; a 3–1 win against Leeds United. On 1 July 2014, Hughes agreed a new four-year contract at Derby County, which would see his contract at the club extended until the end of the 2017–18 season.


title: Will Hughes

text: On 8 August 2015 in the season opener against Bolton, Hughes damaged his anterior cruciate ligaments in his right knee and was ruled out for six months. In April 2016, he rejoined the first-team squad at Derby after returning to full fitness. Hughes has stated that he stagnated at the end of his Derby career, and believes he wasn't manager Gary Rowett's "cup of tea".


title: Will Hughes

text: Despite interest from Premier League giants Manchester United, Hughes remained at Derby for their 2016–17 Championship campaign, under new manager Nigel Pearson. The team's negative start at the start of the season saw Pearson sacked, with former manager Steve McClaren replacing him. On 13 January 2017, after meeting Luke Middleton, Hughes signed a new contract with Derby, running until the summer of 2020. McClaren was later replaced by Gary Rowett in March that year, with Derby going on to finish ninth in the Championship after an indifferent season. Hughes' final appearance for Derby was a 1–1 draw at relegated Rotherham United, coming on as a substitute at half-time for Craig Bryson.


title: Will Hughes

text: On 24 June 2017, Hughes joined Premier League club Watford on a five-year contract for an undisclosed fee, reported to be around £8 million. Hughes became newly appointed manager Marco Silva's first signing of the season. He made his Premier League debut on 28 October 2017, coming on as a substitute for André Carrillo in the 80th minute, during a 1–0 defeat against Stoke City at Vicarage Road. Hughes then scored his first goal for the Hornets on 19 November that year, scoring the opener in a 2–0 victory over West Ham United.


title: Will Hughes

text: Hughes was part of a Watford side that reached the FA Cup final at Wembley Stadium during the 2018–19 season, where they would be defeated 6–0 by domestic treble winners Manchester City in the final, Hughes having played all sixth matches during their FA Cup campaign. Despite their success, Watford were relegated to the Championship at the end of the following season. Hughes remained at Watford, playing a crucial role as Watford earned promotion back to the Premier League at the first time of asking, finishing the Championship league campaign as runners-up.


title: Will Hughes

text: On 28 August 2021, Hughes signed a three-year deal with Premier League club, Crystal Palace. He made his debut for the club on 30 November as an 82nd minute substitute for Jeffrey Schlupp in a 1–0 defeat away to Leeds United.


title: Will Hughes

text: On 17 January 2012, Hughes was called up to the England U17 for the first time for the Algarve Tournament in February 2012, he was joined by his teammate Mason Bennett. Hughes appeared in all three match, as England won the three-match tournament with seven points. Hughes scored a goal in the 2–2 draw against Netherlands U17 on 4 February 2012. Hughes was also called up the 2012 UEFA European Under-17 Championship elite round in March 2012, however England failed to qualify for the main tournament, finishing third in their group on four points, with their exit confirmed in a 4–0 loss to Spain U17. In August 2012, Hughes was named as standby for the England U19 squad for a friendly against Germany U19 in September. On 19 November 2013, Hughes scored his first goal for England U21 against San Marino U21.


title: Will Hughes

text: In November 2012, Hughes made his first appearance for the England U21 squad in a friendly against Northern Ireland U21 on 13 November. Hughes came on as a 65th-minute substitute for Josh McEachran, becoming the second youngest player to get capped for the U21s, beaten only by Theo Walcott. Derby youth academy director Darren Wassall praised Hughes after his call-up to the England U21 side, saying "It's a great achievement to get in at 17 and we are all delighted for him. To make that rise into the Under-21s so soon is fantastic for him and everyone at the club." Hughes called the experience "surreal".


title: Will Hughes

text: Hughes claimed eligibility to play for the Wales national team through Welsh paternal grandparents in 2019. However, earlier research by the Football Association of Wales in 2015 concluded that only his great-grandparents were Welsh and therefore Hughes was ineligible to represent Wales.


title: Will Hughes

text: Hughes has been described as a "flair player" who uses through balls and mazy runs to create space for teammates and beat opposition defences in attacking positions. He has expressed a "love of a challenge, a 50–50".


title: Will Hughes

text: Hughes said in a December 2012 interview for the BBC, that he bases his play on Barcelona and Spanish international central midfielders Xavi and Andrés Iniesta. Hughes states his strengths are his passing and technical ability and targeted improvements in pace and physical strength. Growing up a Liverpool fan, his favourite player was Steven Gerrard, admiring his ability both in the tackle and as a playmaker.


title: Will Hughes

text: Hughes' former England U21 coach Stuart Pearce described Hughes as "technically a very sound player". "He rarely gave the ball away in training or in the game he played [against Northern Ireland], which is vitally important at international level. He's progressing really well."


title: Operation Atalanta

text: Operation Atalanta, formally European Union Naval Force (EU NAVFOR) Somalia, is a current counter-piracy military operation at sea off the Horn of Africa and in the Western Indian Ocean, that is the first naval operation conducted by the European Union (EU). The operational headquarters is currently located at the Spanish Operation Headquarters (ESOHQ) at Naval Station Rota (NAVSTA Rota) in Spain, having moved from London as a result of the British withdrawal from the EU.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: It is part of a larger global action by the EU to prevent and combat acts of piracy in the Indian Ocean, and it is the first EU naval operation to be launched. It cooperates with the multinational Combined Task Force 151 of the US-led Combined Maritime Forces (CMF) and NATO's anti-piracy Operation Ocean Shield.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: The mission was launched in December 2008 with a focus on protecting Somalia-bound vessels and shipments belonging to the WFP and AMISOM, as well as select other vulnerable shipments. In addition, Operation Atalanta monitors fishing activity on the regional seaboard. In 2012, the scope of the mission expanded to include Somali coastal territories and internal waters so as to co-ordinate counter-piracy operations with Somalia's Transitional Federal Government (TFG) and regional administrations. On 16 July 2012, the EU also mandated the EUCAP Nestor mission to build up the maritime capacity of regional navies.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: In July 2018, the Council of the European Union extended the Mandate of Operation ATALANTA until December 2020.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: January the 1st, the Council Decision (CFSP) 2020/2188 of 22 December 2020 that extended again the mandate of the EU NAVFOR Somalia Operation ATALANTA for another two years was implemented.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: The Operation's mission evolved over its first ten years. On 8 December 2009, monitoring of fishing activity was formally added to the mandate. Although it took time for the data to lead to direct legal consequences, DG MARE has subsequently used the information EU NAVFOR provides to build sanctions cases against foreign governments. On 17 December 2018 the EU Council granted permission for EU NAVFOR to share data on forms of maritime crime other than piracy with INTERPOL and EUROPOL.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: Council Decision (CFSP) 2020/2188 extended the mandate of the EU NAVFOR Somalia Op. ATALANTA for another two years until the end of 2022.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: With this latest mandate extension, besides operation's core tasks, there were included some non-executive secondary tasks:


title: Operation Atalanta

text: Finally, the new mandate includes the possibility to activate as an executive secondary task, the contribution to the disruption of drug and weapons trafficking inside EU NAVFOR Somalia area of operations.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: Located in Brest (FR) and depending on the Headquarters of Operation ATALANTA, is the Maritime Security Centre – Horn of Africa (MSCHOA), an initiative established by the European Union Naval Force, with close co-operation from industry. The MSCHOA centre provides 24-hour manned monitoring of vessels transiting through the Gulf of Aden, whilst the provision of an interactive website enables the centre to communicate the latest anti-piracy guidance to industry and for Shipping Companies and operators to register their movements through the region.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: Participation in EU NAVFOR goes beyond EU member states. Norway was the first non-EU country to contribute to the Operation, with a warship in 2009. Thereafter Croatia (pre-Accession), Montenegro, Serbia, Ukraine and the Republic of Korea have provided staff officers either to the Operational Headquarters (OHQ) or to the Force Headquarters (FHQ). Ukraine contributed a warship early in 2014, and New Zealand contributed an MPRA asset (a Lockheed P-3 Orion of No. 5 Squadron RNZAF) later the same year. The Republic of Korea formally joined EU NAVFOR on 27 February 2017.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: Around 700 personnel are involved in ATALANTA, with the size of the force typically varying between 1–6 surface combat vessels and 1–3 Maritime Patrol Aircraft. In 2019, the budget was around €5 million for the common costs of the mandate.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: Piracy has to be understood as organised criminal activity occurring at sea. It is organised on land, with kidnapping crews and ships for ransom as the business model. Prosecution of piracy suspects is a key component of the overall fight against piracy. The EU NAVFOR seeks, where possible, a legal finish. Transfers of suspect pirates for trial to competent authorities remain necessary to put an end to impunity in the Indian Ocean.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: The EU is assisting the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Office for Drugs and Crime (UNODC) in their work to establish sufficient conditions to allow fair and efficient piracy trials in Somalia. The EU is the largest contributor to the UNODC counter-piracy programme. In the short term, transfers for trial from EU NAVFOR ships remain necessary to put an end to impunity in the Indian Ocean.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: The Transitional Federal Government of Somalia wrote to the President of the United Nations Security Council asking for international help to fight piracy and armed robbery against ships off the coast of Somalia. In June 2008, the Council unanimously passed Resolution 1816 authorising nations that have the agreement of the Transitional Federal Government to enter Somali territorial waters to deal with pirates. The measure, which was sponsored by France, the United States and Panama, was to last six months. France initially wanted the resolution to include other regions with pirate problems, such as West Africa, but were opposed by Vietnam, Libya and China, who wanted the sovereignty infringement limited to Somalia.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: Operation Atalanta formally commenced on 8 December 2008 in accordance with the mandate laid down in UNSC Resolution 1814.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: On 1 January 2009, eight Somali suspects were captured by the French frigate "Premier-Maître L'Her" as they attempted to seize a Panamanian-registered cargo ship (MV S Venus) some 50 nautical miles south of Yemen.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: On 14 April 2009, the French frigate "Nivôse", attached to Operation Atalanta, captured 11 suspected pirates, together with their mother ship and two skiffs, in an EU NAVFOR focused operation carried out in the Indian Ocean. The French ship responded to the distress message by the 21,000 tonne Liberia flagged MV "Safmarine Asia" which came under small arms and RPG attack from two skiffs operating from a pirate mother ship. The warship deployed its helicopter, which quickly arrived on the scene, to deter the hijacking and shadow the mother vessel until the frigate arrived.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: On 26 May 2009, the EU Naval Task Force vessel HSwMS "Malmö" responded to a distress call from the European cargo vessel and apprehended seven suspected pirates.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: From 5 to 7 March 2010, forces from France, Italy, Luxembourg, Spain and Sweden were in action; the French frigate "Nivôse" (F 732) secured its "biggest seizure" to-date in a vital shipping lane off the coast of Somalia, with 35 pirates arrested and four mother ships seized in three days.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: In May 2010, there were a number of incidents in the area. The Russian destroyer "Marshal Shaposhnikov" freed the 106,474-ton MV Moscow University, which was about 350 miles east of Socotra, transporting crude oil from Sudan to China. Two days later, however, Russia's Defense Ministry said it had proved impossible to establish the pirates' citizenship or to establish legal grounds for prosecuting, therefore the pirates were returned to their boat and set free. In another incident, a Swedish aircraft attached to the EU Naval Force, the French warship "La Fayette" and the Dutch warship collaborated in the spotting and capturing of a pirate action group composed of a whaler and two skiffs, about 400 miles northwest of the Seychelles Islands. Reports on these incidents, citing other news reports, concluded that pirates were holding almost 20 vessels and about 300 crew members.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: In September 2011, Marines from the Spanish landing platform dock "Galicia" rescued the French citizen Evelyn Colombo. She had been kidnapped from the French yacht "Tribal Kat", and her husband Christian killed while trying to protect her.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: In November 2012, Marines from the Spanish corvette "Infanta Cristina" liberated 21 Pakistani sailors from the trawler "Al Talal", who had been kidnapped, detaining 9 pirates.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: On 15 May 2012, EU naval forces conducted their first raid on pirate bases on the Somalia mainland as part of the operation, saying they 'destroyed several boats'. The forces were transported by helicopter to the pirate bases near the port of Harardhere. The attack was carried out overnight, and, according to the European forces, no local residents were hurt during the mission.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: On 24 October 2014, the first non-European Third State asset integrated into EU NAVFOR, when New Zealand provided a P-3 Orion of 5 Squadron RNZAF.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: On 27 October 2016, following an appeal from the President of Puntland direct to the Operational Headquarters, EU NAVFOR warship "Relámpago" diverted to the Puntland coast in the first EU NAVFOR show of force against violent extremist organisations when the coastal town of Qandala was overrun by ISIS sympathisers.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: In November 2017, a six crew member motor whaler acting as mother ship, and a skiff attacked a 52,000 tonne container ship and a fishing vessel in the Southern Somali Basin. The suspected pirates were apprehended by the Italian Marines from ITS Virginio Fasan after their vessels were located using Fasan's SH-90 helicopter, following initial searches by the Spanish Maritime Patrol Aircraft Cisne.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: On 27 Oct 2018, EU NAVFOR destroyed a whaler that took part on a boarding attempt to the MV KSL SYDNEY on 16 Oct 18 to prevent it being used for pirate acts.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: In April 2019, several piracy incidents took place involving different shipping vessels and a Yemeni dhow where captured off the coast of Somalia. On 21 April, EU NAVFOR dispatched its Maritime Patrol Aircraft (MPRAs) and conducted a search in the area, resulting in identifying the mothership dhow. On 23 April, in collaboration with its MPRAs, EU NAVFOR's flagship ESPS NAVARRA successfully intercepted and boarded the captured dhow vessel. EU NAVFOR apprehended five suspected pirates, and the 23 hostages aboard the hijacked FV Al Azham were released unharmed. This is the latest piracy incident reported by EU NAVFOR Somalia Op. ATALANTA.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: The following vessels are part of EU NAVFOR's current fleet in Operation Atalanta as of 15 February 2022. Operation Atalanta has the task force designator Task Force 465.


title: Operation Atalanta

text: As of May 2021 the following aircraft are currently deployed with the European Union Naval Force – Operation Atalanta.


title: Gandharva marriage

text: A Gandharva marriage (Sanskrit: गान्धर्व विवाह, " gənd̪ʱərvə vɪvaːhə") (also known as love marriage) is one of the eight classical types of Hindu marriage. This ancient marriage tradition from the Indian subcontinent was based on consensual acceptance between two people, with no rituals, witnesses or family participation. The marriage of Dushyanta and Shakuntala was a historically celebrated example of this class of marriage.


title: Gandharva marriage

text: In Hinduism and Buddhism, "Gandharvas" are male nature spirits and the masculine counterparts of the Apsaras. They are passionate lovers of women and arouse erotic and romantic passion in women.


title: Gandharva marriage

text: The Smritis of Hinduism recognize eight types of marriage, one of them being Gandharva marriage. The other seven are: "Brahma", "Daiva", "Arya", "Prajapatya", "Asura", "Raksasa" and "Paisacha".


title: Gandharva marriage

text: According to "Apastamba Grhyasutra", an ancient Hindu literature, the woman chooses her own husband in Gandharva marriage. They meet each other of their own accord, consent to live together, and their relationship is consummated in copulation born of passion. This form of marriage did not require consent of parents or anyone else. According to Vedic texts, this is one of earliest and common forms of marriage in Rig Vedic times.


title: Gandharva marriage

text: In Rig vedic opinions and classical literature, the commonly described marriage type was Gandharva, where the woman and the man had met each other in their ordinary village life, or in various other places such as regional festivals and fairs, begun to enjoy each other's company, and decided to be together. This free choice and mutual attraction were generally approved by their kinsmen. A passage in the "Atharvaveda" suggests that parents usually let the daughter freely select her lover and directly encouraged her in being forward in affairs of the heart. The mother of the girl thought of the time when the daughter's developed youth ("Pativedanam", post-puberty), that she would win a husband for herself, it was a smooth and happy sort of affair with nothing scandalous and unnatural about it. The translated version of the "Atharvaveda" (Strikaratâni, ii.36) passage is:


title: Gandharva marriage

text: In Mahabharata, one of two major epics of Hindus, Rishi Kanva, the foster father of Shakuntala, recommends Gandharva marriage with the statement “"The marriage of a desiring woman with a desiring man, without religious ceremonies, is the best marriage".” Elsewhere in Mahabharata (iii:190.36), the epic says “"No man any longer asks for the daughter, nor does a father give away his daughter, they (women) find the man for themselves".”


title: Gandharva marriage

text: Gandharva marriage over time became controversial, disputed and debated. Majority of ancient scholars discouraged it on religious and moral grounds. One argument found in the classical literature is that Gandharva marriage ignores the sacred rituals and vows the groom and bride must make to each other. Such a marriage, argued those ancient Vedic scholars, may or may not be lasting since it did not involve Agni. Over time, Gandharva marriages were either opposed or done with the use of Agni to ensure the longevity of the marriage through vows.


title: Gandharva marriage

text: Manu argued that Gandharva marriage is almost always the most suitable form of marriage. He goes on to state that Gandharva marriage is best suited for males who are priests, warriors, serving in the military, administrators, nobility and rulers. Baudhayana claims that it is the best type of marriage, as it is based on love and free will. Narada, yet another ancient scholar who wrote Nāradasmṛti sometime between 100 BC and 400 AD, suggests Gandharva marriage is best for everyone including the Brahmins. Calling it "sadharna"; Narada claims the only methods of marriage that are wrong are those that are based on abduction, forced, violence, fraud or purchase.


title: Gandharva marriage

text: There is no consensus theory to explain why Gandharva marriages have declined over the ages. One theory claims that as prosperity and wealth increased, parents sought greater control of the activities and social life of their children. Pandey claims Hindu ideology shifted from diversity of marriage types to where the social pressures compelled the girl's family to seek arranged early marriages. Yet another theory is that the priestly caste of India, who officiated Brahma marriages and religious ceremonies, over time crafted rules that declared Gandharva marriage for most Hindus as inappropriate and disapproved ("aprasasta"), because traditional marriages were a source of their income, and Gandharva marriages made them poorer or obsolete.


title: Gandharva marriage

text: In 1817, Gandharva marriages in India were ruled legal for some social groups by the Bengal Saddar Court.


title: Gandharva marriage

text: In 1930, Justice Abdur Rahim held that the marriage in Gandharva form was not valid in India. This ruling came from the Madras High Court, with the statement that amongst the Hindus, the Gandharva form of marriage was obsolete (as of 1930). This was appealed based on the fact that the case was in court is proof that Gandharva weddings among Hindus is not obsolete.


title: Gandharva marriage

text: In 1946, the Patna High Court in Kamani Devi v. Kameshwar Singh, ILR 25 Pat 58 = (AIR 1946 Pat 316) held that the relationship of husband and wife, created by Gandharva marriage is binding. The husband, the court ruled, cannot escape his responsibility of financially caring for his wife married in Gandharva form. The Patna High Court went further and held that the celebration of Gandharva form of marriage must be attended with nuptial rites and ceremonies including Homa (invocation before the sacred fire) and Saptapadi (the taking of seven steps by the groom and the bride together) for its validity. This ruling was cited in a decision by the Supreme Court in the case of Bhaurao v. State of Maharashtra.


title: Gandharva marriage

text: In a 1974 case, Justice Mukherji noted, "Gandharva form of marriage should not be regarded as concubinage or quasi-marital union, more so in the context of the modern Society and in the background of the forward thinking of the present law givers. The possibility of legal validity of this form of marriage in the whole of India in near future even without being backed by custom, is too notorious to be ignored. In a sense, Gandharva form of marriage is trying to come back very fast (in India), pushing parental domination to the background."


title: Gandharva marriage

text: In modern India, particularly in urban regions, Gandharva marriage is re-emerging. One term for couples choosing their own partners is 'love marriage' in India which usually means a couple choosing each other of their own accord but in most cases following it up with Hindu wedding rituals.


title: Gandharva marriage

text: However, to that extent 'love marriages' do not fulfill the criterion of Gandharva marriage but the English term 'relationship' arrives at the closest co-relate wherein the parents', state's and religion's word is irrelevant.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: The geography of Scotland is varied, from rural lowlands to unspoilt uplands, and from large cities to sparsely inhabited islands. Located in Northern Europe, Scotland comprises the northern third of the island of Great Britain as well as 790 surrounding islands encompassing the major archipelagos of the Shetland Islands, Orkney Islands and the Inner and Outer Hebrides.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: Scotland's only land border is with England, which runs for in a northeasterly direction from the Solway Firth in the west to the North Sea on the east coast. Separated by the North Channel, the island of Ireland lies from Mull of Kintyre on the Scottish mainland. Norway is located northeast of Scotland across the North Sea. The Atlantic Ocean, which fringes the coastline of western and northern Scotland and its islands, influences the temperate, maritime climate of the country.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: Scotland contains the majority of mountainous terrain in the UK. The topography of Scotland is distinguished by the Highland Boundary Fault which traverses the Scottish mainland from Helensburgh to Stonehaven. The faultline separates two distinctively different physiographic regions; namely the Highlands to the north and west and the Lowlands to the south and east. The more rugged Highland region contains the majority of Scotland's mountainous terrain, including the highest peak, Ben Nevis.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: Lowland areas, in the southern part of Scotland, are flatter and home to most of the population, especially the narrow waist of land between the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth known as the Central Belt. Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland, although Edinburgh is the capital and political centre of the country. While the Lowlands are less elevated, upland and mountainous terrain is located across the Southern Uplands.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: An abundance of natural resources such as coal, iron and zinc contributed significantly to the industrial growth of Scotland during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Today, energy is a major component of Scotland's economy. Whilst Scotland is a large producer of petroleum, the production potential of renewable energy has emerged as an important economic and environmental issue in recent years.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: The land area of Scotland is , 32% of the area of the United Kingdom (UK). The mainland of Scotland has of coastline.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: The morphology of Scotland was formed by the action of tectonic plates, and subsequent erosion arising from glaciation. The major division of Scotland is the Highland Boundary Fault, which separates the land into 'highland' to the north and west, and 'lowland' to the south and east. The Highlands of Scotland are largely mountainous, and form the highest ground in the UK: they are bisected by the Great Glen into the Grampians Mountains to the southeast and the Northwest Highlands. The Scottish Lowlands can be further subdivided into the Southern Uplands, an area of rolling farmland and high moorland, and the lowland farmland of the Central Belt and eastern Scotland.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: The oldest rocks of Scotland are the Lewisian gneisses, which were formed in the Precambrian period, up to 3 billion years ago. They are among the oldest rocks in the world. During the Precambrian, the Torridonian sandstones and the Moine were also laid down. Further sedimentary deposits were formed through the Cambrian period, some of which metamorphosed into the Dalradian series. The area which would become Scotland was at this time close to the south pole.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: During the Silurian period (439-409 Ma), the area which became Scotland was part of the continent of Laurentia. Across the Iapetus ocean to the south, was the continent of Baltica. The two continents gradually collided, joining Scotland to the area which would become England and Europe. This event is known as the Caledonian Orogeny, and the Highland Boundary Fault marks this stitching together of continents. Silurian rocks form the Southern Uplands of Scotland, which was pushed up from the seabed during the collision. The highlands were also pushed up as a result of this collision, and may have been as high as the modern-day Alps at this time. The Old Red Sandstones were laid down in low-lying areas during this period. Volcanic activity occurred across Scotland as a result of the collision of the tectonic plates, with volcanoes in southern Scotland, and magma chambers in the north, which today form the granite mountains such as the Cairngorms.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: During the Carboniferous period (363-290 Ma), Scotland lay close to the equator. Several changes in sea level occurred during this time. The coal deposits of Lanarkshire, and further sedimentary deposits, date from this time. More volcanic activity formed Arthur's Seat in Edinburgh, among other hills. By the Triassic, Scotland was a desert, the origin of large sandstone outcrops of the southwest. Although large deposits of Cretaceous rocks would have been laid down over Scotland, these have not survived erosion, as have the chalks of England.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: By the Tertiary period, the tectonic plates were again moving, separating into modern-day North America and Europe with the creation of the Atlantic Ocean. The split occurred to the west of Scotland, leaving a chain of former volcanic sites through the Hebrides, including Skye and St. Kilda. This was the last period of rock formation in Scotland.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: It is often yet incorrectly stated that John o' Groats is the most northerly point of mainland Scotland. The pre-Union phrase "John o' Groats to Maidenkirk" was the Scottish equivalent of the British Land's End to John o' Groats.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: The geographical centre of Scotland lies a few miles from the village of Newtonmore in Badenoch, far to the north of the modern population heartlands. The geographical centre of the mainland alone lies near the peak of Schiehallion.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: The total land area of Scotland is 8,023,947 hectares. Grasses and rough grazing account for 67% of the land area, forest and woodland 17%, urban development 8%, crops and fallow 7%, and other agricultural land accounts for 2%.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: Scotland contains the most mountainous terrain in Great Britain. Much of the highest uplands lie to the north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault in the Northwest Highlands and Grampian ranges. The jagged Cuillin, on the Isle of Skye, represents a major mountain range that is not located on the Scottish mainland. Located at the western end of the Grampian Mountains, at an elevation of , Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in Scotland and Great Britain. Ben Macdui and Braeriach are, respectively, the second and third tallest peaks in Scotland. Both are located in the Cairngorms, a mountain range in the eastern Highlands which is the highest upland area in Britain.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: In the south of Scotland lie the Southern Uplands, a vast, rolling mountain chain that is less rugged and more forested than the Highlands. Shorter than the Highlands, the tallest mountain in the range is Merrick, at .


title: Geography of Scotland

text: There are ranges of gentler, rolling hills even in the central lowlands of Scotland. Such ranges include the Ochil Hills, near Stirling, the Campsie Fells outside Glasgow, and the Lomond Hills in Fife.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: Mountains in Scotland are categorised by their height. Peaks over are known as Munros. There are 282 Munros in Scotland, all within the Highlands. Corbetts are peaks with an altitude of between , with a relative height of at least . The classification of peaks in Scotland is kept under periodic review by the Scottish Mountaineering Club.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: Mainland Scotland has of coastline. Including the numerous islands, this increases to some . The west coast in particular is heavily indented, with long promontories separated by fjordlike sea lochs. The east coast is more regular, with a series of large estuarine inlets, or firths, and long sandy beaches, for example at Aberdeen. Parts of the Scottish coastline consist of a machair formation, a dune pasture land formed as sea levels subsided.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: The east coast has several significant estuaries and is home to nature reserves including the Ythan Estuary and Fowlsheugh, both of which have been designated as Important Bird Areas.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: Firths around the Scottish coast include the Solway Firth, Firth of Clyde, and Firth of Lorne on the west coast, and the Cromarty Firth, Moray Firth, Firth of Tay, and Firth of Forth on the east coast. The Pentland Firth is not an inlet, but the strait that separates the Orkney Isles from the mainland.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: Major sea lochs include Loch Fyne, Loch Long, Loch Ryan, Loch Linnhe, Loch Torridon, Loch Ewe and, on the Isle of Lewis, Loch Seaforth.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: Scotland has over 900 islands, over 100 of which are inhabited. Most of the islands are located off the northern and western coast of the country. The northern and western islands of Scotland can be found in three main groups: Shetland, Orkney and the Hebrides which can be divided into the Inner Hebrides and the Outer Hebrides. Shetland and Orkney, together with Fair Isle and Stroma are referred to as the Northern Isles. With a total land area of Lewis and Harris (referred to as two islands but actually just one) is the largest Scottish island.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: Many of these offshore islands are swept by strong tides, and the Corryvreckan tide race between Scarba and Jura is one of the largest whirlpools in the world. Other strong tides are to be found in the Pentland Firth between mainland Scotland and Orkney, and the "Grey Dog" between Scarba and Lunga. There are also numerous clusters of islands in the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde and in freshwater lochs such as Loch Lomond and Loch Maree. Outlying islands include St Kilda and Rockall the status of which is disputed.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: Scotland's islands have a varied topography. Mull, Skye and Arran are noted for their mountainous terrain, whilst Tiree and Coll are flat or low lying. Striking topographical differences can be seen within island groups themselves; in Orkney, the Island of Hoy is hillier and more rugged than surrounding islands and Harris is distinctive in being more mountainous than the islands of Lewis, North Uist, South Uist and Barra, in the Outer Hebrides. Islay's terrain is gentle and rolling; however, its neighbour Jura is mountainous and rugged. Rùm and Eigg display jagged terrain; nearby Canna and Muck are flatter.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: The watershed between river systems flowing west to the Atlantic Ocean and east into the North Sea is long.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: Fresh water bodies in Scotland are known as lochs, with the exception of the Lake of Menteith and one or two-man-made "lakes". 90% of the standing fresh water volume of Great Britain lies within Scotland. Loch Lomond is the largest freshwater body in Britain by area, although with a capacity of Loch Ness is the most voluminous. The water in Loch Ness is nearly double that of all the lakes of England and Wales combined, and is by volume the largest lake in the British Isles.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: Scotland's only land border is with England, and runs for approximately between the basin of the River Tweed on the east coast and the Solway Firth in the west. The Atlantic Ocean borders the west coast and the North Sea is to the east. The island of Ireland lies only from the southwestern peninsula of Kintyre; Norway is to the east; the Faroes, to the north; and Iceland, to the northwest.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: The climate of Scotland is temperate and very changeable, but rarely extreme. Scotland is warmed by the North Atlantic Drift and given the northerly location of the country, experiences much milder conditions than areas on similar latitudes, such as Labrador in Canada—where icebergs are a common feature in winter.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: Average temperatures are lower than in the rest of Great Britain, with the coldest ever UK temperature of recorded at Braemar in the Grampian Mountains, on 10 January 1982 and also at Altnaharra, Highland, on 30 December 1995. Winter maxima average , with summer maxima averaging . Western coastal areas of Scotland are warmer than the east and inland areas, due to the influence of the Atlantic currents, and the colder surface temperatures of the North Sea; however, during rare hot spells, the west is cooler than the east. The highest temperature recorded was at Greycrook in the Scottish Borders on 9 August 2003. Areas such as Inverewe Garden in the northwest and the Logan Botanic Garden in the southwest have warm enough microclimates to support palm trees.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: Rainfall totals vary widely across Scotland—the western highlands of Scotland are one of the wettest places in the UK with annual rainfall up to . Due to the mountainous topography of the western Highlands, this type of precipitation is orographic in nature, with the warm, wet air forced to rise on contact with the mountainous coast, where it consequently, cools and condenses, forming clouds. In comparison, much of eastern Scotland receives less than annually; lying in the rain shadow of the western uplands. The town of Dunbar, east of Edinburgh, has an annual rainfall of merely 560.18 mm (22.05 in), less than Barcelona. Snowfall is less common in the lowlands, but becomes more common with altitude. Parts of the Highlands have an average of 36 to 60 snow days per year, while some western coastal areas have between 0 and 6 days with snow a year. Scotland's snowiest spot is the Cairngorm mountain range.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: The Hebridean island of Tiree received a total of 329 hours of sunshine in May 1946 and again in May 1975, the highest number of sunshine hours ever recorded in one month in Scotland. On the longest day of the year there is no complete darkness over the northern isles of Scotland. Lerwick, in Shetland, has four hours more daylight at midsummer than London, although this is reversed in midwinter. Annual average sunshine totals vary from as little as 711–1140 hours in the Highlands and the north-west up to 1471–1540 hours on the extreme eastern and south-western coasts.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: In common with the rest of the British Isles, wind prevails from the south-west, bringing warm, wet and unstable air from the Atlantic. The windiest areas of Scotland are in the north and west, with parts of the Outer Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland experiencing over 30 days with gales per year. Vigorous Atlantic depressions, also known as European windstorms, are a common feature of the autumn and winter in Scotland.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: According to the General Register Office for Scotland, the total population of Scotland stood at 5,168,500 in June 2008, an increase of 2.1% since the census of April 2001. Scotland's share of the United Kingdom population has been declining in recent years and stands at just over 8.5% due to differential rates of growth in the home nations. However an increasing birth rate and higher levels of inward migration to Scotland have reversed the decline and contributed to the recent population growth.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: Compared with the rest of Europe, Scotland has a low population density at 65 people per square kilometre. However Scotland is a highly urbanised country, with 82% of the population living in settlements of 3,000 people or more. As a result, the majority of the population live in the Central Lowlands of Scotland, surrounding the chief cities of Glasgow and Edinburgh. Other concentrations of population include the northeast coast of Scotland – principally surrounding the city of Aberdeen and its environs – and around Inverness. With a population density of 8 people per square kilometre, the Highlands are the most sparsely populated part of the country, and one of the most sparsely populated areas in Europe. In these areas, the population is scattered in villages, small towns and isolated farmsteads or crofts.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: Nearly 100 of Scotland's islands are inhabited, the most populous being Lewis and Harris with 21,031 people resident in 2011, primarily concentrated around Stornoway, the only burgh of the Outer Hebrides. Other island populations range down to very low levels on certain small isles. Between 1991 and 2001, the total number of people living on Scotland's islands fell by 3%. Conversely, islands such as Tiree, Skye and Eigg experienced increases in their respective populations over the same decade.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: There are seven cities in Scotland; Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen, Dundee, Inverness, Perth and Stirling. The 2001 census identified Glasgow as being the largest city in Scotland, with a total population of 629,501, while the Scottish capital, Edinburgh had a population of 448,624, in the same year. Between 1991 and 2001, the populations of Edinburgh and Stirling grew by 2.9% and 6.5% respectively. Inverness experienced population growth of over 10% during the same period. At the same time, Glasgow, Dundee and Aberdeen all witnessed population decline. Aside from the cities, the greatest intra-census population growth was experienced in the local authorities of West Lothian, East Lothian, Aberdeenshire and Perth and Kinross. The Western Isles saw a 9.8% decrease in population between 1991 and 2001.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: The territorial extent of Scotland is generally that established by the 1237 Treaty of York between Scotland and England and the 1266 Treaty of Perth between Scotland and Norway. Exceptions include: the Isle of Man, which having been lost to England in the 14th century is now a crown dependency outside of the United Kingdom, the acquisition of Orkney and Shetland from Norway in 1472, and the permanent recovery of Berwick by England in 1482. Originally an independent country, Scotland joined with England to form the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 with the Acts of Union.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: Between 1889 and 1975 Scotland was divided into burghs and counties, which were replaced by regions and districts. Since 1996, for the purposes of local government, Scotland has been divided into 32 council areas.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: Rockall, a small and uninhabitable rocky islet in the North Atlantic, was annexed by the UK in 1955 and later declared part of Scotland by the Island of Rockall Act 1972. However, the legality of this claim is disputed by the Republic of Ireland, Denmark and Iceland and it is probably unenforceable in international law.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: As one of the constituent countries of the United Kingdom, Scotland is represented by Members of Parliament at the Parliament of the United Kingdom at Westminster, London. In 1997 a referendum was held, and the people of Scotland voted for the establishment of a devolved Scottish Parliament in Edinburgh. The new parliament has the power to govern the country on Scotland-specific matters and has a limited power to vary income tax. The United Kingdom Parliament retains responsibility for Scotland's defence, international relations and certain other areas. A Scottish independence referendum was held in September 2014, at which time independence was rejected.


title: Geography of Scotland

text: For centuries, a core aspect of Scotland's political geography has been the general divide between the Highlands and the Lowlands, a divide both physical and cultural. The physical geography of the divide (via the Highland Boundary Fault) and the political geography of the divide greatly overlap but are not identical. Despite any suggestiveness of the etymons "high" and "low", the division of Highlands and Lowlands does not "thoroughly" correspond either to elevation or to latitude in the sense of Northern Scotland and Southern Scotland being "upper" and "lower" (as north and south are often termed in various countries), and yet interestingly, the division does bear "some noticeable degree" of correspondence to both elevation and latitude, with upward and northward both "tending" toward stronger Highlander identity, more preservation of Gaelic versus Scots, and other political differentials (e.g., in previous centuries, degree of Unionism, degree of Jacobitism, and others).


title: Geography of Scotland

text: The gross domestic product (GDP) of Scotland in 2006 is estimated to have been £124 billion, resulting a per capita GDP of approximately £24,000. Major industries include banking and financial services, steelmaking, transport equipment manufacturing, oil and gas, agriculture, whisky distilling, and tourism.


title: Frank Faylen

text: Frank Faylen (born Charles Francis Ruf, December 8, 1905 – August 2, 1985) was an American film and television actor. Largely a bit player and character actor, he occasionally played more fleshed-out supporting roles during his forty-two year acting career, during which he appeared in some 223 film and television productions, often without credit.


title: Frank Faylen

text: Born in St. Louis, Missouri, Faylen began his acting career as an infant appearing with his vaudeville-performing parents on stage. The family lived on a showboat, and performed throughout his youth.


title: Frank Faylen

text: Faylen became a stage actor at 18 and eventually began working in films in the 1930s. He began playing a number of bit parts for Warner Bros., then freelanced for other studios in gradually larger character roles. He appeared as Walt Disney's musical conductor in "The Reluctant Dragon", and as a stern railroad official in the Laurel and Hardy comedy "A-Haunting We Will Go". Faylen and Laurel and Hardy supporting player Charlie Hall were teamed briefly by Monogram Pictures.


title: Frank Faylen

text: Faylen's breakthrough came in 1945, where he was cast as Bim, the cynical nurse at Bellevue's alcoholic ward in "The Lost Weekend". In the following year, he played Ernie Bishop, the friendly taxi driver in Frank Capra's 1946 film "It's a Wonderful Life". Faylen's career also stretched to television, where he appeared in a number of western series, such as Maverick and Zane Grey Theater, as well as playing series regular long-suffering grocer Herbert T. Gillis, the father of the title character on the 1950s-'60s television sitcom "The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis". He also played Bert Hollinger in the ABC comedy "That Girl".


title: Frank Faylen

text: In 1968, he had a small part in the Barbra Streisand film "Funny Girl". Faylen appeared in almost 200 films.


title: Frank Faylen

text: He has a star at 6201 Hollywood Boulevard in the Television section of the Hollywood Walk of Fame. It was dedicated on February 8, 1960.


title: Frank Faylen

text: Faylen was married to Carol Hughes, an actress. Their two daughters, Catherine and Carol, are retired actresses. Catherine "Kay" Faylen was Regis Philbin's first wife.


title: Frank Faylen

text: Faylen died from pneumonia in Burbank, California, in 1985. He was interred in the San Fernando Mission Cemetery in Mission Hills, Los Angeles, California.


title: Self-hating Jew

text: Self-hating Jew or self-loathing Jew, transliterated in Hebrew as auto-antisemitism, is a term which is used to describe Jews whose views are perceived as antisemitic. The concept gained widespread currency after Theodor Lessing's 1930 book ("Jewish Self-hatred"), which sought to explain a perceived inclination among Jewish intellectuals, toward inciting antisemitism, by stating their views about Judaism. The term is said to have become "something of a key term of opprobrium in and beyond Cold War-era debates about Zionism".


title: Self-hating Jew

text: The expression "self-hating Jew" is often used rhetorically, meaning towards Jews who differ in their lifestyles, interests or political positions from the speaker.


title: Self-hating Jew

text: The origins of terms such as "Jewish self-hatred" lie in the mid-19th century feuding between German Orthodox Jews of the Breslau seminary and Reform Jews. Each side accused the other of betraying Jewish identity, the Orthodox Jews accusing the Reform Jews of identifying more closely with German Protestantism and German nationalism than with Judaism.


title: Self-hating Jew

text: According to Amos Elon, during 19th-century German-Jewish assimilation, conflicting pressures on sensitive and privileged or gifted young Jews produced "a reaction later known as 'Jewish self-hatred.' Its roots were not simply professional or political but emotional." Elon uses the term "Jewish self-hatred" synonymously with Jewish antisemitism when he points out, "One of the most prominent Austrian anti-Semites was Otto Weininger a brilliant young Jew" who "published 'Sex and Character', attacking Jews and women." Elon attributes Jewish antisemitism as a cause in the overall growth of antisemitism when he says,"(Weininger's) book inspired the typical Viennese adage that anti-Semitism did not really get serious until it was taken up by Jews."


title: Self-hating Jew

text: According to John P. Jackson Jr., the concept developed in the late 19th century in German Jewish discourse as "a response of German Jews to popular anti-Semitism that primarily was directed at Eastern European Jews." For German Jews, the Eastern European Jew became the "bad Jew". According to Sander Gilman, the concept of the "self-hating Jew" developed from a merger of the image of the "mad Jew" and the "self-critical Jew", and was developed to counter suggestions that an alleged Jewish stereotype of mental illness was due to inbreeding. "Within the logic of the concept, those who accuse others of being self-hating Jews may themselves be self-hating Jews." Gilman says "the ubiquitousness of self-hatred cannot be denied. And it has shaped the self-awareness of those treated as different perhaps more than they themselves have been aware."


title: Self-hating Jew

text: The specific terms "self-hating Jew" and "Jewish self-hatred" only came into use later, developing from Theodor Herzl's polemical use of the term "anti-Semite of Jewish origin", in the context of his project of political Zionism. The underlying concept gained common currency in this context, "since Zionism was an important part of the vigorous debates that were occurring amongst Jews at the time about anti-Semitism, assimilation and Jewish identity." Herzl appears to have introduced the phrase "anti-Semite of Jewish origin" in his 1896 book, "Der Judenstaat" (The Jews' State), which launched political Zionism.


title: Self-hating Jew

text: He was referring to "philanthropic Zionists", assimilated Jews who might wish to remain in their home countries while at the same time encouraging the Jewish proletariat (particularly the poorer Eastern Jews) to emigrate; yet did not support Herzl's political project for a Jewish state. Ironically, Herzl was soon complaining that his "polemical term" was often being applied to him, for example by Karl Kraus. "Assimilationists and anti-Zionists accused Zionists of being self-haters, for promoting the idea of the strong Jew using rhetoric close to that of the Anti-Semites; Zionists accused their opponents of being self-haters, for promoting the image of the Jew that would perpetuate his inferior position in the modern world."


title: Self-hating Jew

text: The Austrian-Jewish journalist Anton Kuh argued in a 1921 book "Juden und Deutsche (Jews and Germans)" that the concept of "Jewish anti-semitism" was unhelpful, and should be replaced with the term "Jewish self-hatred", but it was not until the 1930 publication of the German-Jewish anti-Nazi philosopher Theodor Lessing's book "Der Jüdische Selbsthass" (Jewish Self-hatred) that the term gained widespread currency. Lessing's book "supposedly charts Lessing's journey from Jewish self-hater to Zionist." In it he analyses the writings of Jews such as Otto Weininger and Arthur Trebitsch who expressed hatred for their own Judaism. Lessing was assassinated by Nazi agents shortly after Hitler came to power.


title: Self-hating Jew

text: In English the first major discussion of the topic was in the 1940s by Kurt Lewin, who was Lessing's colleague at the University of Berlin in 1930. Lewin emigrated from Germany to the United States in 1933, and though focused on Jews also argued for a similar phenomenon among Polish, Italian and Greek immigrants to the USA. Lewin's was a theoretical account, declaring that the issue "is well known among Jews themselves" and supporting his argument with anecdotes. According to Lewin, a self-hating Jew "will dislike everything specifically Jewish, for he will see in it that which keeps him away from the majority for which he is longing. He will show dislike for those Jews who are outspokenly so, and will frequently indulge in self-hatred." Following Lewin's lead, the concept gained widespread currency. "The 1940s and 1950s were 'the age of self-hatred'. In effect, a bitter war broke out over questions of Jewish identity. It was a kind of 'Jewish Cold War'..." in which questions of Jewish identity were contentiously debated. The use of the concept in debates over Jewish identity – for example over resistance to the integration of African Americans into Jewish neighbourhoods – died down by the end of the 1970s, having been "steadily emptied of most of its earlier psychological, social, and theoretical content and became largely a slogan."


title: Self-hating Jew

text: The term was used in a derogatory way during the 1940s by "'militant' Zionists", but the 1963 publication of Hannah Arendt's "Eichmann in Jerusalem" opened a new chapter. Her criticism of the trial as a "show trial" provoked heated public debate, including accusations of self-hatred, and over-shadowed her earlier work criticising German Jewish "parvenu" assimilationism. In the following years, after the 1967 Six-Day War and 1973 Yom Kippur War, "willingness to give moral and financial 'support' to Israel constituted what one historian called 'the existential definition of American Jewishness'." "This meant that the opposite was also true: criticism of Israel came to constitute the existential definition of 'Jewish self-hatred'." This is dismissed by


title: Self-hating Jew

text: Rosenfeld saying it "masquerades as victimization" and "can hardly be expected to be taken seriously" since criticism of Israel "proceeds across all the media in this country and within Israel itself."


title: Self-hating Jew

text: Even "Commentary", the Jewish journal which had once been "considered the venue of self-hating Jews with questionable commitments to the Zionist project", came under the editorship of Norman Podhoretz to staunchly support Israel. In his 2006 essay "Progressive Jewish Thought and the New Anti-Semitism", Alvin H. Rosenfeld takes "a hard look at Jewish authors" whose statements go well beyond "legitimate criticism of Israel," and considers rhetoric that calls into question Israel's "right to continued existence" to be antisemitic. The use of the concept of self-hatred in Jewish debates about Israel has grown more frequent and more intense in the US and the UK, with the issue particularly widely debated in 2007, leading to the creation of the British Independent Jewish Voices. The Forward reported that the group was formed by "about 130 generally leftist Jews." It was the Rosenfeld essay, which did not use the term Jewish self-hatred, that led to the 2007 debate. Critics claimed the charge of antisemitism implied Jewish self-hatred to those criticizing Israel. Rosenfeld responded that such claims were "disingenuous" and for some a "dialectical scam validating themselves as intellectual martyrs." The New York Times reported that the essay spotlighted the issue of when "legitimate criticism of Israel ends and antisemitic statements begin."


title: Self-hating Jew

text: The issue has periodically been covered in the academic social psychology literature on social identity. Such studies "frequently cite Lewin as evidence that people may attempt to distance themselves from membership in devalued groups because they accept, to some degree, the negative evaluations of their group held by the majority and because these social identities are an obstacle to the pursuit of social status." Modern social psychology literature uses terms such as "self-stigmatization", "internalized oppression", and "false consciousness" to describe this type of phenomenon. Phyllis Chesler, the professor of psychology and women's studies, in referring to female Jewish self-hatred, points to progressive Jewish women who "seem obsessed with the Palestinian point of view." She believes their rage against oppression, frustration and patriarchy "is being unconsciously transferred onto Israel."


title: Self-hating Jew

text: Kenneth Levin, a Harvard psychiatrist, says that Jewish self-hatred has two causes: Stockholm syndrome, where "population segments under chronic siege commonly embrace the indictments of their besiegers however bigoted and outrageous", as well as "the psychodynamics of abused children, who almost invariably blame themselves for their predicament, ascribe it to their being 'bad,' and nurture fantasies that by becoming 'good' they can mollify their abusers and end their torment." According to Howard W. Polsky, the social scientist, "feelings about Jewish marginality are often a step away from self-hatred." He then says, "Jewish self-hatred denotes that a person has adopted gentiles' definition of Jew as bad in one way or another and that being Jewish will hinder their success or identity."


title: Self-hating Jew

text: It is argued by some academics that the concept of Jewish self-hatred is based on an essentialisation of Jewish identity. Accounts of Jewish self-hatred often suggest that criticizing other Jews, and integrating with Gentile society, reveals hatred of one's own Jewish origins. Yet both in the early twentieth century, where the concept developed, and today, there are groups of Jews who had "important differences in identity based on class, culture, religious outlook, and education", and hostility between these groups can only be considered self-hate "if one assumes that a superordinate Jewish identity should take precedence over other groupings of Jews."


title: Self-hating Jew

text: Yet such hostility between groups has at times drawn on some of the rhetoric of antisemitism: "criticism of subgroups of Jews which drew on anti-Semitic rhetoric were common in 19th and 20th century arguments over Jewish identity". In practice, according to one academic, whilst there have been Jewish writers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries who consistently employed virulent antisemitic rhetoric without seeming to value any aspects of being a Jew, too often "those who accuse others of being self-haters search for examples of when they have criticized Jews or Judaism but ignore examples of when those they criticize have shown they value being a Jew." He argues that Jewish antisemitism does not necessarily amount to self-hatred, implying that "antisemitic Jew" may be a more accurate term to use. Other authors have also shown a preference for using "antisemitism" rather than "self-hatred."


title: Self-hating Jew

text: The term is in use in Jewish publications such as "The Jewish Week" (New York) and "The Jerusalem Post" (Jerusalem) in a number of contexts, often synonymously with antisemitic Jew. It is used "to criticize a performer or artist who portrays Jews negatively; as a shorthand description of supposed psychological conflict in fictional characters; in articles about the erosion of tradition (e.g. marrying out and circumcision); and to discount Jews who criticize Israeli policies or particular Jewish practices." However the widest usage of the term is currently in relation to debates over Israel. "In these debates the accusation is used by right-wing Zionists to assert that Zionism and/or support for Israel is a core element of Jewish identity. Jewish criticism of Israeli policy is therefore considered a turning away from Jewish identity itself."


title: Self-hating Jew

text: Thus some of those who have been accused of being a "self-hating Jew" have characterized the term as a replacement for "a charge of anti-Semitism [that] will not stick," or as "pathologizing" them. Some who use the term have equated it with "anti-Semitism", on the part of those thus addressed, or with "so called 'enlightened' Jews who refuse to associate themselves with people who practice a 'backward' religion." One novelist, Philip Roth, who — because of the nature of the Jewish characters in his novels, such as the 1969 "Portnoy's Complaint" — has often been accused of being a "self-hating Jew", argues that all novels deal with human dilemmas and weaknesses (which are present in all communities), and that to self-censor by only writing about positive Jewish characters would represent a submission to antisemitism.


title: Self-hating Jew

text: The Israeli-born British Jazz saxophonist, writer and Hebrew speaking anti-Semite of Jewish descent Gilad Atzmon openly used the term to describe himself in a 2010 interview for the Cyprus Mail. In that interview, Atzmon calls himself a "proud self-hating Jew" and also described fellow Jewish anti-Semite, the Austrian Otto Weininger as one as well. At the same time, Atzmon stated that he considers a "self-hating Jew" as very different to a "proud self-hating Jew", considering "proud self-hating Jews" such as himself and Weininger as celebrating the hatred they feel for themselves, the Jewish people, Judaism, Israel and anything else they associate with Jewishness. Atzmon has taken several positions on history and politics associated with anti-Semitism including but not limited to, endorsing on his blog the conspiracy theory that "the Jewish people" are trying to take over the world (though he later amended the original blog post to replace "the Jewish people" with "Zionists"), blaming the entire Jewish people for killing Jesus (including those not even born at the time), accusing Gideon Falter (the chairman of the Campaign Against Antisemitism) of faking anti-Semitic incidents for profit (Falter then sued Atzmon for libel which Atzmon lost and was left with expensive legal costs) and promoting the conspiracy theory of Holocaust denial, even publicly advising people to read Holocaust denying books by David Irving. The Southern Poverty Law Center (SPLC)'s official blog "Hatewatch" written by David Neiwert noted that Atzmon was "a self-described 'self-hating ex-Jew' whose writings and pronouncements are rich in conspiracy theories, Holocaust trivialization and distortion, and open support of anti-Israeli terrorist groups."


title: Self-hating Jew

text: The legitimacy of the term (in modern usage) remains controversial. According to the transdenominational Jewish platform "My Jewish Learning": "Some scholars have claimed that by labeling another Jew self-hating, the accuser is claiming his or her own Judaism as normative–and implying that the Judaism of the accused is flawed or incorrect, based on a metric of the accuser's own stances, religious beliefs, or political opinions. By arguing with the label, then, the accused is rejecting what has been defined as normative Judaism. The term “self-hating” thus places the person or object labeled outside the boundaries of the discourse–and outside the boundaries of the community." "Haaretz" writes that the term is almost exclusively used today by the Jewish right against the Jewish left, and that within left-wing and liberal circles, is "usually considered a joke". Richard Forer, writing for "The Huffington Post", rejects the legitimacy of the term as it is commonly used, calling them so divisive that they make tolerance and cooperation impossible, eradicating the possibility for genuine understanding. Forer writes: "The notion that any Jew who is dedicated to justice for all people harbors self-hatred defies common sense. Given the self-esteem it takes to stand for justice amidst fierce denunciation, a more accurate assessment is that these are self-loving Jews."


title: Self-hating Jew

text: Jon Stewart, former host of "The Daily Show", was repeatedly called a "self-hating Jew" by people whom he described as "fascistic". Considering the term to be like equating someone with the Jews who turned their backs on each other during the Holocaust, he said, "I have people that I lost in the Holocaust and I just … go fuck yourself. How dare you?" Stewart commented that the way his critics used the term—to define who is a Jew and who is not—was formerly always done by people who weren't Jewish. He saw this as "more than nationalism". Stewart also criticized right-wing Jews for implying that they are the only ones who can decide what it means to be Jewish: "And you can't observe in the way you want to observe. And I never thought that that would be coming from brethren. ... How dare they? That they only know the word of God and are the ones who are able to disseminate it. It's not right." To "The Hollywood Reporter", he said, "Look, there's a lot of reasons why I hate myself—being Jewish isn't one of them."


title: Self-hating Jew

text: In 2014, Noam Chomsky said that Zionists divided critics of Israeli policy into two groups: antisemitic non-Jews and neurotic self-hating Jews, stating:


title: Self-hating Jew

text: Actually, the "locus classicus", the best formulation of this, was by an ambassador to the United Nations, Abba Eban, Israel's ambassador to the United Nations... He advised the American Jewish community that they had two tasks to perform. One task was to show that criticism of the policy, what he called anti-Zionism—that means actually criticisms of the policy of the state of Israel—were anti-Semitism. That's the first task. Second task, if the criticism was made by Jews, their task was to show that it's neurotic self-hatred, needs psychiatric treatment. Then he gave two examples of the latter category. One was I. F. Stone. The other was me. So, we have to be treated for our psychiatric disorders, and non-Jews have to be condemned for anti-Semitism, if they're critical of the state of Israel. That's understandable why Israeli propaganda would take this position. I don't particularly blame Abba Eban for doing what ambassadors are sometimes supposed to do. But we ought to understand that there is no sensible charge. No sensible charge. There's nothing to respond to. It's not a form of anti-Semitism. It's simply criticism of the criminal actions of a state, period.


title: Self-hating Jew

text: Bernie Sanders, one of the Democratic candidates running for US Presidential elections in 2016 and 2020, was accused by comedian Jackie Mason of being a "self-hating Jew". His brother, Larry Sanders, told the "Times of Israel" that this was because his brother disagreed with Benjamin Netanyahu's foreign policy. "Bernard is not a self-hating Jew. There was never a moment in our life when we had any reason to be self-hating. The fact that he does not agree with Netanyahu on politics does not make him a self-hating Jew." In March 2016, after a reporter asked him if he was "intentionally keeping his Judaism in the background", Sanders stated that he is "very proud to be Jewish, and being Jewish is so much of what I am. Look, my father's family was wiped out by Hitler in the Holocaust. I know about what crazy and radical, and extremist politics mean." Max Berger wrote in "Haaretz", "While some in the Jewish American establishment strive to marginalize Bernie and his movement by suggesting we're self-hating Jews who don't care about Israel, it just goes to show how badly out of touch they are with the future of our community, and the values of our tradition." A related dispute revolved around his Jewish advisor, Simone Zimmerman, who was similarly accused of being a self-hating Jew. "In These Times" strongly criticized this accusation, describing it as "slandering".


title: Self-hating Jew

text: "Self-loathing Jew" is synonymously used with "self-hating Jew." "Antisemitic Jew" can be used synonymously as well. "Self-hating Jew" has also been compared to the term "Uncle Tom" which is used in the African-American community. The term "auto-antisemitism" (, "autoantishemiut") is also synonymously used in Hebrew. In a column in "Haaretz", Uzi Zilber used the term "Jew Flu" as a synonym for Jewish self-hatred.


title: Ko Tao

text: Ko Tao (, , ) is an island in Thailand and is part of the Chumphon Archipelago on the western shore of the Gulf of Thailand. It covers an area of about 21 km (8 sq mi). Administratively it is a subdistrict ("tambon") of Ko Pha-ngan District ("amphoe") of Surat Thani Province. , its official population was 1,382. The main settlement is Ban Mae Haad.


title: Ko Tao

text: The economy of the island is almost exclusively centered on tourism, especially scuba diving. Scuba diving is extremely popular in Ko Tao due to clear visibility, inexpensive pricing and the range of sealife to be seen.


title: Ko Tao

text: Before being settled the island would be occasionally visited by fishermen from neighbouring islands looking for shelter in a storm or just resting before continuing on their journeys.


title: Ko Tao

text: It would appear from old maps and descriptions that this island was known by European cartographers and mariners as "Pulo Bardia", indicating that it was first settled by Malayo-Polynesian peoples. The old maps show a chain of three islands aligned north–south and lying off the east coast of the Malay Peninsula. The most northerly and smallest of these islands is marked P. Bardia, the name it had until the early 1900s. The best map example is by John Thornton from "The English Pilot, the Third Book", dated 1701, but the specific map of the Gulf of Siam is dated around 1677. Also see maps of the East Indies by William Dampier c.1697. By modern standards of accuracy, the islands are poorly placed on early maps. Seventeenth century marine navigation and cartography used the "backstaff" which, in this area, was accurate to one degree of longitude, or around 60 nautical miles.


title: Ko Tao

text: "The Edinburgh Gazetteer, or Geographical Dictionary" published in 1827 also mentions the island and provides a geographical position. In his 1852 book titled "Narrative of a Residence in Siam." by Frederick Arthur Neale, the author describes the people and wildlife of Bardia. According to the account there were farms and even cows in a village on the bay lying on the west side of the island. The book includes a fanciful illustration of "Bardia" showing huts and palm trees.


title: Ko Tao

text: Joseph Huddart in 1801 included these directions for navigating the islands, "To the N.W. by N are two islands of about the same height as Poolo Carnom [Ko Samui]; the first, called SANCORY [Ko Pha-ngan], is 7 leagues from Carnom; the other...,named BARDA, or "Bardia" [Ko Tao], is 7½ leagues from Sancory." (A league is approximately 3 nautical miles or 5.5 km.)


title: Ko Tao

text: On 18 June 1899, King Chulalongkorn visited Ko Tao and left as evidence his monogram on a huge boulder at Jor Por Ror Bay next to Sairee Beach. This place is still worshiped today.


title: Ko Tao

text: In 1933, the island started to be used as a political prison. In 1947 Khuang Abhaiwongse, prime minister at that time, pleaded and received a royal pardon for all prisoners on the island. Everybody was taken to the shore of Surat Thani and Ko Tao was abandoned again.


title: Ko Tao

text: In the 1980s, overseas travellers began to visit Ko Tao and it quickly became a popular destination. In the 1990s the island became known as a diving site.


title: Ko Tao

text: The island is an important breeding ground for hawksbill and green turtles. The development of tourism has negatively impacted the health of these grounds, but a breeding programme organised in 2004 by the Royal Thai Navy and KT-DOC, a coalition of local scuba diving centres, has reintroduced hundreds of juvenile turtles to the island's ecosystem.


title: Ko Tao

text: Chumpon Pinnacle, a dive site to the west of the island has a reputation for divers in search of both whale sharks and bull sharks. However, because of warmer water temperatures over the last year a great number of bull sharks have migrated to cooler waters. The island is host to over 130 species of hard corals, and over 223 species of reef fishes belonging to 53 families.


title: Ko Tao

text: Diving conditions have improved dramatically in the past few years with the continuing education of locals by the dive community. El Niño weather patterns caused a warming of the waters which resulted in the loss of a great deal of the shallow corals near the island. Since then, the recovery has been swift and dramatic. Ko Tao now offers some of the best scuba diving in the Gulf of Thailand. And with help by the island conservation group, Save Koh Tao, the island's environmental outlook is improving.


title: Ko Tao

text: As one of the world's most popular diving destinations, more attention is being focused on the negative effects of diving on coral reef health around Ko Tao. Natural factors combined with over-use of some areas has led to an increase in the abundance of corallivores such as "Drupella" snails and the crown-of-thorns starfish around the island in recent years. In 2012, a Marine Zoning and Regulations Master Plan was developed for the island and subsequently become local law, but the positive effects of increased management have yet to be realized.


title: Ko Tao

text: Tourism and development on the island has grown steadily for the last several decades, with public infrastructure often lagging far behind. Shortages of electricity and fresh water are common, and both solid and liquid waste management is inadequate. About 42,000 tonnes of solid waste are produced annually on the island, resulting in a 45,000 tonne garbage mountain while the island's waste incinerator sits idle.


title: Ko Tao

text: Ko Tao is one of Thailand's most popular tourist spots. Although the "Bangkok Post" cannot decide if it receives 132,000 or three million visitors a year, it does receive a lot.


title: Ko Tao

text: The island is well known for scuba diving and snorkeling, as well as hiking, rock climbing, and bouldering. The most popular place for tourists is Sairee on the west coast, which has a white sandy beach of 1.7 km interrupted only by a few huge boulders and a scattering of medium budget resorts and restaurants. Chalok Baan Khao, to the south of the island, is becoming increasingly popular as an alternative for those wishing to escape the crowds. A great many granite boulders, both in the forests and on the beaches of Ko Tao, attract a growing number of climbers. Koh Tao has a little over 25 dive sites to explore.


title: Ko Tao

text: Ko Tao is less developed than Ko Samui and Ko Pha-ngan, but has become increasingly popular especially with the mid-20s backpacker crowd in search of relatively inexpensive scuba diving certification. For the past two years the demographics of the island have seen an age increase, with many of the visitors who first visited the island over ten years ago now returning with their families.


title: Ko Tao

text: A series of tourist deaths – including murder and alleged suicide – particularly since 2014, has prompted some to advise that tourists avoid visiting Ko Tao, with some British tabloids labelling it as "Death Island". Although tourist arrivals to the island dropped in the months immediately following the murders in 2014, there was little lasting effect.


title: Ko Tao

text: To serve the tourist population, some 3,000–5,000 Burmese workers staff the island. There is a dominant Thai family on the island that owns several dive schools, resorts, and bars.


title: Ko Tao

text: Motorbikes are the main form of transport, however visitors are advised to drive responsibly as motorbikes are the main cause of injury to tourists in the area.


title: Ko Tao

text: All ferries dock at Ban Mae Haad. Journey times vary due to the different boats used by the various ferry companies.


title: Ko Tao

text: Ko Tao has no airport, but connections to high speed catamarans and ferries are available at three airports.


title: John Seale

text: John Clement Seale ACS ASC (born 5 October 1942) is an Australian cinematographer. He won an Oscar for his work in the 1996 film "The English Patient," in addition to a BAFTA and Satellite Award. He is a member of both the Australian Cinematographers Society (ACS) and the American Society of Cinematographers (ASC).


title: John Seale

text: Seale was born in Warwick, Queensland, Australia, to Marjorie Lyndon (née Pool) and Eric Clement Seale. He received Oscar nominations for his work on "Witness", "Rain Man", and "Cold Mountain", and won for "The English Patient". Seale directed one film, "Till There Was You", in 1990. He is a four-time Oscar nominee, five-time BAFTA nominee, and four-time ASC Award nominee.


title: John Seale

text: His greatest commercial successes have been "Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone", which grossed US$974 million; "Rain Man", which grossed US$354 million; "", which grossed US$335 million; "The Perfect Storm", which grossed US$328 million; and "The Tourist", which grossed US$278 million.


title: John Seale

text: He came out of retirement in 2012 to shoot "", for which he received another Academy Award nomination.


title: John Seale

text: Seale was appointed a Member of the Order of Australia in the 2002 Australia Day Honours in recognition of his "service to the arts as an Australian and internationally acclaimed cinematographer".


title: Slavs (ethnonym)

text: The Slavic ethnonym (and autonym), "Slavs", is reconstructed in Proto-Slavic as "*Slověninъ", plural "Slověně". The earliest written references to the Slav ethnonym are in other languages.


title: Slavs (ethnonym)

text: Possibly the oldest mention of Slavs in almost historical form "*Slověne" is attested in Ptolemy's "Geography" (2nd century) as "Σταυανοί" (Stavanoi) and "Σουοβηνοί" (Souobenoi/Sovobenoi, Suobeni, Suoweni), both listed as Scythian tribes living near Alanians north of Scythia (first roughly between Volga and Ural Mountains, second between the Baltic Sea and Black Sea). Zbigniew Gołąb accepted Pavel Jozef Šafárik's opinion that Greeks inserted "τ" or "θ" for Slavic "sl-" (reconstructing Proto-Slavic "*Slɔu̯ǣnæ"), and "through the labialized articulation of the vowel /ɔ/ conditioned by the preceding /u̯/" in Proto-Slavic "*Su̯ɔbǣnæ" ("*Svoběne").


title: Slavs (ethnonym)

text: "Sporoi" () or "Spori" was according to Eastern Roman/Byzantine scholar Procopius (500–560) the old name of the Antes and Sclaveni, two Early Slavic branches. Procopius stated that the Sclaveni and Antes spoke the same language, but he traced their common origin back to not the Veneti (as per Jordanes) but a people that he called "Sporoi". He derived the name from Greek ("I scatter grain"), because "they populated the land with scattered settlements". He described their society as democratic, and their language as barbaric.


title: Slavs (ethnonym)

text: The Roman bureaucrat Jordanes wrote about the Slavs in his work "Getica" (551): "although they derive from one nation, now they are known under three names, the Veneti, Antes and Sclaveni" (); that is, the West Slavs, East Slavs, and South Slavs. He stated that the Veneti were the ancestors of the Sclaveni and the Antes, the two having used to be called "Veneti" but are now "chiefly" (though, by implication, not exclusively) called Sclaveni and Antes. Jordanes' "Veneti" and Procopius' "Sporoi" were used for the ethnogenetic legend of the Slavs, the ancestors of the "Slavs" (the subsequent ethnic group name).


title: Slavs (ethnonym)

text: Thus, the Slav ethnonym at first denoted the southern group of the early Slavs. That ethnonym is attested by Procopius in Byzantine Greek as ('), ('), ('), ('), or Σκλαβῖνοι (""), while his contemporary Jordanes refers to the "Sclaveni" in Latin. In Ancient Greek there are no words with the root "sl-", thus the original ethnonym was transformed into "skl-", as that root was present (in "sklērós", "hard").


title: Slavs (ethnonym)

text: In East Church Slavonic manuscripts, the ethnonym is spelt "Slověne" (), such as in the "Primary Chronicle", "Sofia First Chronicle", "Novgorod First Chronicle" and "Novgorod Fourth Chronicle". In the source dating to 898 included in the "Primary Chronicle", the term is used both for East Slavic tribes and more often for a people (in the Kievan Rus' society, alongside Varangians, Chuds and Kriviches).


title: Slavs (ethnonym)

text: The Slavic autonym "*Slověninъ" is usually considered a derivation from Proto-Slavic adjective "svobъ" ("oneself", "one's own"; derivative "svoboda" > "sloboda" also "freedom", "free settlement"), which derives from Indo-European "*s(w)e/obh(o)-" "a person or thing apart, separate", root "*swobh" "his/hers", meaning "all the members of an exogamic moiety > actual or potential affines/blood relatives". It can be interpreted as "a tribe of the free, of their own people". Names of many Germanic tribes derive from the same root, which was not an exonym but endonym. Eventually with dissimilation of "svobъ" > "slobъ" was associated with "slovo" "word", originally denoting "people who speak (the same language)", i.e. people who understand each other, in contrast to the Slavic word denoting "foreign people", namely "němci", meaning "mumbling, murmuring people" (from Slavic "*němъ" "mumbling, mute"). The latter word may be the derivation of words to denote "Germans" or "Germanic peoples" in many later Slavic languages, e. g., Czech "Němec", Slovak "Nemec", Slovene "Nemec", Belarusian, Russian and Bulgarian "Немец", Serbian "Немац", Croatian "Nijemac", Polish "Niemiec", Ukrainian "Німець", etc., but another theory states that rather these words are derived from the name of the Nemetes tribe, which is derived from the Celtic root "nemeto-".


title: Slavs (ethnonym)

text: The word "slovo" ("word") and the related "slava" ("glory, fame, praise") and ("hearing") originate from the Proto-Indo-European root ("be spoken of, glory"), cognate with Ancient Greek ( "fame"), whence comes the name Pericles, Latin ("be called"), as well as English .


title: Slavs (ethnonym)

text: Alternative proposals for the etymology of "*Slověninъ" propounded by some scholars have much less support. B. Philip Lozinski argues that the word "*slava" once had the meaning of "worshipper", in this context "practicer of a common Slavic religion"; from that evolved into an ethnonym. S. B. Bernstein speculated that it derives from a reconstructed Proto-Indo-European "", cognate to Ancient Greek λαός ("laós") "population, people", which itself has no commonly accepted etymology. Meanwhile, others theorize that "Slavyane" () is of toponymic origin, from a place named "Slovo" or a river named "Slova"; this, according to some, is implied by the suffix "-enin". The Old East Slavic "Slavuta" for the Dnieper River was argued by Henrich Bartek (1907–1986) to be derived from "slova" and also the origin of "Slověne".


title: Slavs (ethnonym)

text: According to the widespread view known since 18th century, the English word slave, which arrived in modern language from Middle English sclave, from Old French esclave, from Late Middle High German sklave, from Medieval Latin sclāvus, from Late Latin Sclāvus, from Byzantine Greek Σκλάβος ["Sklábos"], ["Ésklabḗnos"] and displaced native Old English þēow, derives from Byzantine loanword from a Slavic gen self-name - ["Sklábinoi"], ["Ésklabēnoí"], that turned into the meaning 'prisoner of war Slave', 'slave' (, , Late Latin ) in 8th/9th century, because they often became captured and enslaved (see also Saqaliba). Similarly the popular Italian-language (and international) salutation "Ciao" is also derived from that Slavic athnonym. However this version is disputed since 19th century.


title: Slavs (ethnonym)

text: Alternative contemporary hypothesis states that Medieval Latin via secondary form derives from Byzantine ["skūláō", "skyláō"], ["skūleúō", "skyleúō"] - "to strip the enemy (killed in a battle)", "to make booty / extract spoils of war". This version is criticised as well.


title: Vadnagar

text: Vadnagar is a town and municipality in the Mehsana district of the state of Gujarat in India. It just about 35 km from Mehsana city. Its ancient name was Anartapura, and was also known as Anandapura. It was a Buddhist location visited by Xuanzang in 640 C.E. Historian and archaeologist Alexander Cunningham has identified Anandapura with the town of Vadnagar.


title: Vadnagar

text: Several ancient inscriptions and literary sources mention a town called Anartapura or Anandapura, identified as the area in and around the present-day Vadnagar. The epic tale Mahabharata mentions the Anarta Kingdom in the northern part of present-day Gujarat. The oldest Puranic legend about Gujarat is about a king named Anartha. The town is mentioned in the Tirtha Mahatmya section of Nagara Khanda of Skanda Purana by the name of Chamatkarapura. The Junagadh rock inscription (dating from 150 C.E.) of Western Kshatrapa King Rudradaman I mentions a region called "Anartha" (meaningless) in northern present-day Gujarat.


title: Vadnagar

text: The Maitraka rulers of Vallabhi (505-648 C.E.) issued land grants to the Brahmins of Anarthapura or Anandapura. The Harsola copper plates (949 C.E.) of the Paramara king record the granting of two villages in Gujarat area to the Nagar Brahmins who originated from Anandapura. This Anandapura is also identified with Vadnagar, which is associated with the Nagar Brahmins. In 2009, archaeologists discovered a 4 km long fortification near Vadnagar which they believe could be the historical Anartapura.


title: Vadnagar

text: Vadnagar has also yielded an image of Bodhisattva dated back to the 3rd or 4th century C.E. This image may have been brought from Mathura to install in one of the town's Buddhist monasteries.


title: Vadnagar

text: Vadnagar's old town is found inside the walls of a fort with six gates: Arjun, Nadiol, Amarthol, Ghaskol and Pithori.


title: Vadnagar

text: India census, Vadnagar's population was 27,790, including 14,097 males and 13,693 females. Its female sex ratio is 971 compared to the state average of 919. Moreover, Vadnagar's child sex ratio is around 937 compared to the 890 Gujarat state average. Vadnagar's average literacy rate is 80.53%, higher than the 78.03% national average: male literacy is 90.41%, and female literacy is 70.42%. In Vadnagar, 12.26% of the population is under 6 years of age.


title: Vadnagar

text: Vadnagar is served by a bus stand and a railway station. Buses are available from here to all major towns in Gujarat. Vadnagar railway station is on the Mahesana–Taranga Hill line, a branch railway line within the Ahmedabad railway division of the Western Railway zone.


title: Vadnagar

text: Sharmistha Lake is a lake in Vadnagar with a small island amidst it connected by a 7 km long inlet canal. The island has been developed into an urban park. As of 2009, the island includes a stadium.


title: Vadnagar

text: There are scores of temples dedicated to almost every god: Shiva (Daaneshwar Mahadev Temple, Somnath Mahadev Temple and Kashi Vishveshvara temple), Vishnupuri, Chhabila, Hanuman, Ashapuri Mata, Ambaji Mata, Sitla mata, Bhuvaneshpuri Temple, Amther Mata, Gauri kund, Swaminarayan Temple. There are remains of a Buddhist monastery dating from the 7th century C.E. as well as two Jain derasars.


title: Vadnagar

text: Hatkeshver Mahadev temple, a 15th-century temple, is the most significant of the numerous Shiva shrines. He is the family deity of the Nagar Brahmins. Facing east, the temple is enclosed by a high wall surmounted by three circular domes. From the roof of the sanctum a massive pinnacle rises high above into the sky. A massive congregation hall leads to the sanctum which houses a shivling said to have self-emerged, or as it is said, Swayambhu (self-emerged). The temple's exterior is exquisitely and profusely ornamented with figures of the nine planets, regent deities, the chief gods of the Hindu pantheon, scenes from the life of Krishna and Pandava princes, as well as varied animal and floral motifs.


title: Vadnagar

text: Sitala Mata temple, is ornately carved with figures of celestial beings. Its door frames and ceilings depict the Rasmandala (Krishna dancing with milkmaids).


title: Vadnagar

text: Two Kirtistambhas, or triumphal arches, are built of red sandstone and are both identical in size and style. Its pillars and arches are decorated with lozenges at the base and geometric and floral designs (i.e., leaves, creepers and lotus), animal motifs, human figures engaged in various activities, and divine figures in different poses. The top bears an image of a seated god Kartikeya flanked by Ganesh and Makara (a griffin) from which spring arches. A number of standing female figures also ornament the top.


title: Vadnagar

text: Other places of interest are Kirti Toran or Narsinh Mehta’s Chori, a toran built in 12th century and in Solanki style although Narsinh Mehta was born in 15th century, Tana Riri garden and shrine, Gauri Kund, Pancham Mehta's well, Janjanio well, Baithakji of Gusaiji, an ancient library and a directional stone from the Solanki era.