title: Behavioralism

text: With this in mind, behaviouralism resisted a single definition. Dwight Waldo emphasized that behaviouralism itself is unclear, calling it "complicated" and "obscure." Easton agreed, stating, "every man puts his own emphasis and thereby becomes his own behaviouralist" and attempts to completely define behaviouralism are fruitless. From the beginning, behaviouralism was a political, not a scientific concept. Moreover, since behaviouralism is not a research tradition, but a political movement, definitions of behaviouralism follow what behaviouralists wanted. Therefore, most introductions to the subject emphasize value-free research. This is evidenced by Easton's eight "intellectual foundation stones" of behaviouralism:


title: Behavioralism

text: Subsequently, much of the behavioralist approach has been challenged by the emergence of postpositivism in political (particularly international relations) theory.


title: Behavioralism

text: According to David Easton, behaviouralism sought to be "analytic, not substantive, general rather than particular, and explanatory rather than ethical." In this, the theory seeks to evaluate political behaviour without "introducing any ethical evaluations." Rodger Beehler cites this as "their insistence on distinguishing between facts and values."


title: Behavioralism

text: The approach has come under fire from both conservatives and radicals for the purported value-neutrality. Conservatives see the distinction between values and facts as a way of undermining the possibility of political philosophy. Neal Riemer believes behaviouralism dismisses "the task of ethical recommendation" because behaviouralists believe "truth or falsity of values (democracy, equality, and freedom, etc.) cannot be established scientifically and are beyond the scope of legitimate inquiry."


title: Behavioralism

text: Christian Bay believed behaviouralism was a pseudopolitical science and that it did not represent "genuine" political research. Bay objected to empirical consideration taking precedence over normative and moral examination of politics.


title: Behavioralism

text: Behaviouralism initially represented a movement away from "naive empiricism", but as an approach has been criticized for "naive scientism". Additionally, radical critics believe that the separation of fact from value makes the empirical study of politics impossible.


title: Behavioralism

text: British scholar Bernard Crick in "The American Science of Politics" (1959), attacked the behavioural approach to politics, which was dominant in the United States, but little known in Britain. He identified and rejected six basic premises and in each case argued the traditional approach was superior to behaviouralism:


title: Changdeokgung

text: Changdeokgung (Hangul: 창덕궁, Hanja: 昌德宮; literally, "The Palace of Prospering Virtue"), also known as Changdeokgung Palace or Changdeok Palace, is set within a large park in Jongno District, Seoul, South Korea. It is one of the "Five Grand Palaces" built by the kings of the Joseon dynasty (1392–1897). As it is located east of Gyeongbok Palace, Changdeokgung—along with Changgyeonggung—is also referred to as the "East Palace" (동궐, 東闕, "Donggwol").


title: Changdeokgung

text: Changdeokgung was the most favored palace of many Joseon kings and retained many elements dating from the Three Kingdoms of Korea period that were not incorporated in the more contemporary Gyeongbokgung. One such element is the fact that the buildings of Changdeokgung blend with the natural topography of the site instead of imposing themselves upon it. Like the other Five Grand Palaces in Seoul, it was heavily damaged during the Japanese occupation of Korea (1910–1945). Currently, only about 30% of the pre-Japanese structures of the East Palace Complex (Changdeokgung together with Changgyeonggung) survive.


title: Changdeokgung

text: Changdeokgung was the second palace after Gyeongbokgung which had been established in 1395 as a primary palace. In the midst of strife for the throne between princes and vassals, authority of Gyeongbokgung was deteriorated. King Jeongjong enthroned by Prince Jeong-an (Yi Bang-won, later became King Taejong) moved the capital to Gaegyeong, the capital of the Goryeo dynasty, again in 1400 on the pretext of its superior geographical features, but in fact, to avert a power struggle. King Taejong (Yi Bang-won) soon taking over the throne returned to Hanseong (present-day Seoul) had a new palace named "Changdeokgung" instead of Gyeongbokgung because he had killed his half brothers in Gyeongbokgung whose construction was led by Jeong Do-jeon, the king's rival before. Construction of Changdeok Palace began in 1405, and was completed in 1412. King Seonjo expanded the palace grounds by about 500,000 square meters, including "Huwon" (see below).


title: Changdeokgung

text: The palace was burnt to the ground during the Japanese invasion in 1592 and reconstructed in 1609 by King Seonjo and King Gwanghaegun. The palace burned down again in 1623 because of King Injo a political Revolt against Gwanghaegun. The palace was also attacked by the Manchu Qing but throughout its history of reconstruction and repair has remained faithful to its original design. Changdeokgung was the site of the royal court and the seat of government until 1868, when the neighboring Gyeongbokgung was rebuilt. Korea's last Emperor, Sunjong lived here until his death in 1926.


title: Changdeokgung

text: Parts of the palace (notably Nakseon-jae hall) continued to function as a royal residence up to 1989, when both Princess Deokhye and Crown Princess Bangja died. Other post-WWII residents included Empress Sunjeong (Sunjong's second wife), Crown Prince Yi Un, his son Yi Gu and Yi Gu's wife Julia Mullock. However, residence in the palace in the post-war period was at the whim of the republican leaders, and after the Korean liberation in 1945 it would take the resignation of Rhee Syngman for former imperial family members to be allowed back in.


title: Changdeokgung

text: Today there are 13 buildings remaining on the palace grounds and 28 pavilions in the gardens, occupying 110 acres (45 hectares) in all and the area is designated as Historical Site No. 122. Buildings of note include Donhwamun (built in 1412, rebuilt in 1607, with a copper bell weighing 9 short tons or 8 metric tons), Injeongjeon (main hall), Seongjeongjeon (auxiliary office in the main hall), Huijeongdang (the king's private residence, later used as a conference hall), Daejojeon (living quarters), and Nakseon-jae.


title: Changdeokgung

text: The palace was built between Peak Maebong of Mt. Bugaksan in the back and River Geumcheon having flowing in the front influenced by the principle "baesanimsu" (배산임수, lit. 'back to hill, face to water') in Feng Shui theory. Contrary to Gyeongbokgung whose main buildings are arranged in accurate architectural principle, however, buildings in Changdeokgung are disposed more freely without a regular system. Though its structure seems chaotic at a glance, all buildings are in harmony with the environment surrounding them.


title: Changdeokgung

text: Changdeokgung consists of governmental area (치조, 治朝, "chijo") centering on Injeongjeon and Seonjeongjeon, royal private area (침전, 寢殿, "chimjeon", meaning 'a house of king's bedroom'), Nakseonjae area in the east, and Huwon beyond the north hills. Most of major official buildings such as Injeongjeon, main hall of Changdeokgung, Seonjeongjeon, king's office, and many of government offices (궐내각사, 闕內各司, "gwollaegaksa") are placed in the front parts of the palace, beyond which there are royal private court for king and queen. King's houses like Seonjeongjeon, Huijeongdang, and Nakseonjae are surrounded in many folds of buildings and courts in case any outsider break through. The architectural style of Changdeokgung overall features simplicity and frugality because of Confucian ideology.


title: Changdeokgung

text: Behind the palace lies the 78-acre (32 ha) Huwon (후원, 後苑, "Rear garden") which was originally constructed for the use of the royal family and palace women. The garden incorporates a lotus pond, pavilions, and landscaped lawns, trees, and flowers. There are over 26,000 specimens of a hundred different species of trees in the garden and some of the trees behind the palace are over 300 years old. The garden for the private use of the king had been called 'Geumwon' (금원, 禁苑, "Forbidden garden") because even high officials were not allowed to enter without the king's permission. It had also been called 'Naewon' (내원, 內苑, 'Inner garden'). Today Koreans often call it 'Biwon' (비원, 秘院, "Secret garden") which derived from the office of same name in the late 19th century. Though the garden had many other names, the one most frequently used through Joseon dynasty period was 'Huwon'.


title: Changdeokgung

text: In September 2012, the Buyongjeong pavilion in the garden was re-opened after a year-long restoration project. The pavilion was restored based on the Donggwoldo from 1820, National Treasures of South Korea No. 249.


title: Changdeokgung

text: A variety of ceremonies hosted by the king were held in Huwon. In the early period of the Joseon dynasty, military inspections in which the king participated were often held here. King Sejo had troops parade and array before him or commanded them by himself in the garden. In addition, feasts were given, archery tournaments held, and fireworks enjoyed in Huwon.


title: Changdeokgung

text: The Ongnyucheon (옥류천, 玉流川, "Jade Stream") area is of particular interest. It contains a U-shaped water channel carved in 1636 for floating wine cups, with a small waterfall and an inscribed poem on the boulder above it. The area also contains five small pavilions.


title: Changdeokgung

text: Changdeokgung was added to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1997. The UNESCO committee stated the place was an "outstanding example of Far Eastern palace architecture and garden design" being exceptional because the buildings are "integrated into and harmonized with the natural setting" and adapted "to the topography and retaining indigenous tree cover."


title: Changdeokgung

text: Portions of the palace were used to film the hugely popular Korean drama "Dae Jang Geum" in the first decade of the 21st century.


title: Changdeokgung

text: From April to October 2018, Changdeok Palace hosted the 2018 Changdeok Palace moonlight tour. Changdeok Palace moonlight tours are special events where visitors can experience life at the palace. It typically took about two hours and starts at Donhwamun Gate, the main gate of Changdeok Palace, at 8 p.m.


title: Battle of Prestonpans

text: The Battle of Prestonpans, also known as the Battle of Gladsmuir, was fought on 21 September 1745, near Prestonpans, in East Lothian, the first significant engagement of the Jacobite rising of 1745.


title: Battle of Prestonpans

text: Jacobite forces, led by the Stuart exile Charles Edward Stuart, defeated a government army under Sir John Cope, whose inexperienced troops broke in the face of a Highland charge. The battle lasted less than thirty minutes, was a huge boost to Jacobite morale and established the revolt as a serious threat to the British government.


title: Battle of Prestonpans

text: The War of the Austrian Succession meant that by early 1745, the bulk of British forces were committed in Flanders. Encouraged by French victory at Fontenoy in April 1745, Charles Edward Stuart sailed for Scotland in July, hoping to take advantage of the situation. When he landed at Eriskay in the Outer Hebrides on 23 July, most of those contacted advised him to return to France, but enough were eventually persuaded, notably Donald Cameron of Lochiel, whose tenants provided a large proportion of the Jacobite force. The rebellion was formally launched at Glenfinnan on 19 August.


title: Battle of Prestonpans

text: Sir John Cope, government commander in Scotland, was a competent soldier with between 3,000 and 4,000 troops available, but many were inexperienced recruits. He was hampered by poor intelligence and advice, particularly from the Marquess of Tweeddale, the Secretary of State for Scotland, who consistently underestimated the severity of the revolt. Once Charles's location was confirmed, Cope left his cavalry and artillery at Stirling under Thomas Fowke and marched on Corrieyairack Pass, the primary access point between the Western Highlands and the Lowlands. Control would allow Cope to block the route into Eastern Scotland, but he found the Highlanders already in possession and withdrew to Inverness on 26 August.


title: Battle of Prestonpans

text: Jacobite objectives remained unclear until early September, when Cope learned they were using the military road network to advance on Edinburgh. Concluding that the only way to reach the city first was by sea, his troops were loaded onto ships at Aberdeen. They began disembarking at Dunbar on 17 September but once again, he was too late. Charles had entered the Scottish capital earlier that day although Edinburgh Castle remained in government hands.


title: Battle of Prestonpans

text: Joined at Dunbar by Fowke and the cavalry, Cope was confident that he was strong enough to defeat a poorly-armed Jacobite army of less than 2,000. At the same time, Charles ordered his forces to move eastward from Edinburgh, and the two armies made contact on the afternoon of 20 September. Cope drew up his forces facing south, with a marshy area immediately in front, park walls protecting their right and cannon behind the embankment of the Tranent to Cockenzie Waggonway, which crossed the battlefield.


title: Battle of Prestonpans

text: The court-martial set up in 1746 to review Cope's conduct agreed that the ground was well chosen and that the disposition of his troops was appropriate. However, that was undermined by various factors, such as the poor quality of some senior officers, including James Gardiner, whose dragoons fled in panic from a small party of Highlanders in the so-called Coltbridge Canter of 16 September. In addition, much of Cope's infantry lacked experience. Until May, Lascelles' Regiment had been employed in building a military road near Loch Lomond. Finally, his gunners were so poorly trained that he sent a messenger to Edinburgh Castle asking for replacements, who never reached him.


title: Battle of Prestonpans

text: Charles wanted to attack immediately, but Murray argued that their charge would be slowed by the marshy ground in front of Cope's centre by exposing the Highlanders to his superior firepower. While his assessment was correct, it was the first in a series of fierce arguments between them that would fatally undermine the Jacobite leadership. Murray convinced the majority that only an attack against the open left flank of Cope's army stood any chance of success, and Robert Anderson, a local farmer's son who knew the area well, told him of a route through the marshlands. At 4 am, the entire Jacobite force began moving three abreast along the Riggonhead defile, east of Cope's position.


title: Battle of Prestonpans

text: To prevent a surprise attack during the night, Cope kept fires burning in front of his position and posted no fewer than 200 dragoons and 300 infantry as pickets. A company of Loudon's Highlanders, under Macpherson of Cluny, had deserted from Cope a few days before. The remaining three companies were detailed to guard the baggage park in Cockenzie and Port Seton, and some 100 volunteers were dismissed until the next morning and missed the battle. Warned by his pickets of the Jacobite movement, Cope had enough time to wheel his army to face east (see map) and reposition his cannon. As the Highlanders began their charge, his artillerymen fled, leaving the guns to be fired by their officers.


title: Battle of Prestonpans

text: The two dragoon regiments on the flanks panicked and rode off, leaving Gardiner mortally wounded on the battlefield, who was later carried from the field to Tranent, where he died during the night. Their flight exposed the infantry in the centre, which became attacked on three sides and overrun in less than 15 minutes. With retreat blocked by the park walls behind them, most were taken prisoner, but some escaped when the Highlanders stopped to loot the baggage train. Government losses were roughly 300 to 500 killed or wounded and another 500 to 600 captured, most of whom were released to save the expense of feeding them. Jacobite casualties were estimated as 35 to 40 dead plus 70 to 80 wounded.


title: Battle of Prestonpans

text: Deserted by his gunners, the artillery commander, Lieutenant-Colonel Whitefoord, left the battlefield unharmed after his life was spared by Stewart of Invernahyle. He returned the favour by obtaining a pardon for Stewart after he was captured at Culloden in April 1746. Cope escaped along with Fowke and Lascelles, one of the few members of his regiment to do so. They reached Berwick-upon-Tweed the next day with 450 survivors.


title: Battle of Prestonpans

text: Several hours after the battle, Cope wrote to Tweeddale to disclaim responsibility for the defeat: "I cannot reproach myself; the manner in which the enemy came on was quicker than can be described... and the cause of our men taking on a destructive panic...". Along with Fowke and Lascelles, he was later tried by a court-martial. All three were exonerated, the Court deciding that defeat had been due to the "shameful conduct of the private soldiers", but Cope never held a senior command again.


title: Battle of Prestonpans

text: The Battle of Killiecrankie (1689) had showed that even experienced troops struggled with the ferocity of the Highland charge, a lesson reinforced at Prestonpans and Falkirk Muir in January 1746. Its weakness was that if the initial charge failed, the Highlanders were not equipped to hold their ground. At Culloden in April, Cumberland's troops had been drilled in countering that tactic and inflicted heavy losses on the Scots as a result.


title: Battle of Prestonpans

text: Victory meant the rebellion was now taken more seriously. In mid-October, two French ships arrived at Montrose, bringing money, weapons and an envoy, the Marquis d'Eguilles. Cumberland and 12,000 troops were recalled from Flanders, including 6,000 German mercenaries who arrived in Berwick-upon-Tweed a few days after Cope. They were immediately available, having been captured at Tournai in June and released on condition that they did not fight against the French.


title: Battle of Prestonpans

text: The argument prior to the battle between Prince Charles and Lord Murray was the first episode in an increasingly-fractious relationship, and the Jacobite Council spent the next six weeks arguing strategy. Reversing the 1707 Union was a significant factor in Scottish Jacobites' support, which now appeared possible, and they wanted to consolidate their position. Charles and his exile advisors argued the removal of the Hanoverian regime was required ensure the end of the Union, which meant an invasion of England. The Scots eventually agreed after Charles assured them of substantial English and French support and left Edinburgh on 4 November and entered England on 8 November. Government forces, under General Roger Handasyd, retook Edinburgh on the 14th.


title: Battle of Prestonpans

text: On the march southward, the Council met daily to discuss strategy, and at Derby on 5 December, its members overwhelmingly counselled retreat, the only significant dissenter being Charles. There was no sign of the promised French landing, and despite the large crowds that turned out to see them, only Manchester provided a significant number of recruits. Preston, a Jacobite stronghold in 1715, supplied three. News of another French supply convoy arriving in Montrose seemed to validate the original preference for remaining in Scotland, and the Jacobites turned northward the next day. The rising ended with defeat at Culloden in April 1746.


title: Battle of Prestonpans

text: In 1953, a memorial to the dead of both sides was erected near the battle site, with a coal bing providing a vantage point for visitors. The "Prestonpans 1745 Heritage Trust" was established in 2006 to provide information on the battle, and the site is included in the Inventory of Historic Battlefields in Scotland and is protected by Historic Scotland. In 2019, a new visitor centre was proposed, which would permanently house the Prestonpans Tapestry, a depiction of the events leading up to the battle. The site has been partly developed for housing and the former Cockenzie power station.


title: Battle of Prestonpans

text: Popular perception of the battle and Cope's role has largely been set by accounts by third parties, none of whom was present and in one case had not yet been born. In his 1747 book "Life of Colonel Gardiner", the Nonconformist minister Philip Doddridge portrayed Gardiner, a convert to evangelicalism, as a hero and did so largely by ridiculing Cope. That is an enduring myth and is still recycled today. Gardiner features in Sir Walter Scott's 1817 novel "Waverley", whose hero is an English Jacobite. Gardiner's heroic death convinces him that the future lies with the Union, rather than with the Stuarts. An obelisk in his memory was set up in the mid-19th century.


title: Battle of Prestonpans

text: Scott was also responsible for the often-quoted but inaccurate comment attributed to Lord Mark Kerr that Cope was the first general to bring news of his own defeat. Perhaps the best-known legacy of the battle are two songs written by Skirving, a local farmer who visited the battlefield later the same day and was, by his own account, mugged by the victors. They were "Tranent Muir" and the far more famous "Hey, Johnnie Cope, Are Ye Waking Yet?", a short, catchy and mostly historically-inaccurate insult to Cope; the poet Robert Burns wrote his own words for the song, but they are not as well known as the original by Skirving. The tune is still played by some Scottish regiments for "Reveille" and was also played as the 51st (Highland) Division disembarked on Juno Beach in Normandy on 6 June 1944.


title: Battle of Prestonpans

text: Participants in the battle included Allan "Breac" Stewart, a soldier in Lee's Regiment, who switched sides after being taken prisoner and served in the Jacobite Stewart of Appin's regiment. The author Robert Louis Stevenson used him as a lead character in his 1886 novel "Kidnapped". The battle forms part of Season 2, Episode 10, of the historical drama television series "Outlander".


title: Just Wright

text: Just Wright is a 2010 American romantic comedy film directed by Sanaa Hamri, starring Queen Latifah and Common. The film tells the story of a physical therapist, Leslie Wright, who falls in love with a professional basketball player, Scott McKnight.


title: Just Wright

text: Leslie Wright, a physical therapist and die-hard basketball fan, is searching for a boyfriend but keeps being told by men that they see her only as a friend. After buying a house, Leslie allows her good friend and god-sister, Morgan, to stay at her home. The flighty and irresponsible Morgan dreams of becoming an NBA trophy wife.


title: Just Wright

text: Following a New Jersey Nets basketball game, Leslie helps star player Scott McKnight at a gas station. The two share a friendly conversation about basketball and jazz, and Scott invites Leslie to his birthday party. Leslie attends the party but also brings Morgan who quickly sets her sights on Scott. Intent on getting his interest, Morgan pretends to volunteer at a homeless shelter and claims to have no interest in Scott at all. Scott is intrigued and tracks her down. After dating for three months, he proposes to her and while Leslie expresses some skepticism about the relationship she is ultimately pleased that Morgan is happy.


title: Just Wright

text: At the 2009 NBA All-Star Game, Scott suffers a torn PCL injury that puts his entire career in jeopardy. Morgan becomes suspicious of Scott's physical therapist, a beautiful blonde woman, and begs Leslie to take over as Scott's live-in physical therapist. However, tensions arise as Morgan is now forced to spend more time with Scott and finds herself disliking him. As rumors circle that Scott's career could quickly end if he doesn't recover by the playoffs, Morgan decides to leave Scott by leaving him a letter.


title: Just Wright

text: Despite the awkward breakup, Leslie continues to work with Scott. She encourages and helps Scott with his recovery and helps to build his confidence. The two also bond over their mutual love of basketball and music. Scott expresses surprise that Leslie is not seeing anyone and begins to see her in a more romantic light and Leslie discovers that Scott plays piano, a talent he confides is his secret hobby.


title: Just Wright

text: Scott is able to return to the NBA just before the playoffs and wins his first game back after a pep-talk from Leslie. As a thank you, he presents Leslie with her grandfather's classic Mustang which he has had remodelled and refurbished, but also paid extra to leave a dent in the side door intact because Leslie says it reminds her of her grandfather. After taking her to dinner, Leslie and Scott share a kiss and spend the night together.


title: Just Wright

text: The next morning, Morgan arrives at Scott's door hoping to reconcile and revealing that she has been in therapy to work on the abandonment issues which led her to leave Scott in the first place. Broken-hearted, Leslie believes she has no chance against Morgan and decides to leave. Scott, who feels he owes it to Morgan to work things out, reluctantly lets Leslie go.


title: Just Wright

text: However, tensions quickly arise between Morgan and Scott as Morgan continues planning their wedding while Scott wants to take things slow. Meanwhile, Leslie is surprised to discover she's being headhunted by many basketball teams who were impressed by her notable work helping Scott recovery from his injury. Excited to get an offer from the Nets, Leslie realizes she would have to work with Scott and reluctantly turns the offer down. She then decides to interview with teams far from where she lives in order to put some distance between Scott, Morgan, and herself.


title: Just Wright

text: During a televised interview, Scott credits Leslie with his success. After praising her, he comes to the realization that he loves Leslie. Morgan, who has been watching the interview, also realizes Scott's feelings and urges him to go reunite with Leslie.


title: Just Wright

text: Chasing Leslie to a job interview, Scott tells her that he loves her and urges her to reconcile with him despite the anger she might feel. In response, Leslie places a phone call to the Nets and accepts a position with them.


title: Just Wright

text: A year later, Leslie and Morgan are watching Scott play. Leslie is now one of the Nets' athletic trainers and cheers loudly for Scott, who is at last revealed to be her husband.


title: Just Wright

text: Part of the film was shot at Regis High School in New York City. It was also filmed at Meadowlands Arena (named Izod Center at the time).


title: Just Wright

text: "Just Wright" received mixed reviews from movie critics. The film's rating on Rotten Tomatoes was 46% as of December 2020. The critical consensus reads: "Well-intentioned but formulaic, "Just Wright" has winning leads but can't overcome its preponderance of cliches." Conversely, Roger Ebert gave the film 3 stars out of 4.


title: Just Wright

text: The film debuted at number four behind "Iron Man 2", "Robin Hood" and "Letters to Juliet" with $8,284,989 million on its opening weekend. "Just Wright" grossed $21,540,363 million domestically and $29,900 globally to a total of $21,570,263 million worldwide. The film stayed in theaters 47 days, the equivalent of 6.7 weeks.


title: Dürüm

text: A dürüm (, "roll") or dürme is a Turkish wrap that is usually filled with typical döner kebab ingredients. The wrap is made from lavash or yufka flatbreads. It is common as a street food in Turkey but can also be found in sit-down restaurants.


title: Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)

text: Theosis (), or deification (deification may also refer to "apotheosis", lit. "making divine"), is a transformative process whose aim is likeness to or union with God, as taught by the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church. As a process of transformation, "theosis" is brought about by the effects of "catharsis" (purification of mind and body) and "theoria" ('illumination' with the 'vision' of God). According to Eastern Christian teachings, "theosis" is very much the purpose of human life. It is considered achievable only through synergy (or cooperation) of human activity and God's uncreated energies (or operations).


title: Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)

text: According to Metropolitan Hierotheos (Vlachos), the primacy of "theosis" in Eastern Orthodox Christian theology is directly related to the fact that Byzantine theology (as historically conceived by its principal exponents) is based to a greater extent than Latin Catholic theology on the direct spiritual insights of the saints or mystics of the church rather than the often more seen as rational thought tradition of the West. Byzantine Christians consider that "no one who does not follow the path of union with God can be a theologian" in the proper sense. Thus theology in Byzantine Christianity is not treated primarily as an academic pursuit. Instead it is based on applied revelation (see gnosiology), and the primary validation of a theologian is understood to be a holy and ascetical life rather than intellectual training or academic credentials (see scholasticism).


title: Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)

text: Athanasius of Alexandria wrote, "He was incarnate that we might be made god" (Αὐτὸς γὰρ ἐνηνθρώπησεν, ἵνα ἡμεῖς θεοποιηθῶμεν). What would otherwise seem absurd—that fallen, sinful man may become holy as God is holy—has been made possible through Jesus Christ, who is God incarnate. Naturally, the crucial Christian assertion, that God is One, sets an absolute limit on the meaning of "theosis": even as it is not possible for any created being to become God ontologically, or even a necessary part of God (of the three existences of God called hypostases), so a created being cannot become Jesus Christ, the Holy Spirit nor the Father of the Trinity.


title: Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)

text: Most specifically creatures, i.e. "created" beings, cannot become God in his transcendent essence, or ousia, hyper-being (see apophaticism). Such a concept would be the "henosis", or absorption and fusion into God of Greek pagan philosophy. However, every being and reality itself is considered as composed of the immanent energy, or "energeia", of God. As energy is the actuality of God, i.e. his immanence, from God's being, it is also the "energeia" or activity of God. Thus the doctrine avoids pantheism while partially accepting Neoplatonism's terms and general concepts, but not its substance (see Plotinus).


title: Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)

text: Through "theoria" (illumination with or direct experience of the Triune God), human beings come to know and experience what it means to be fully human, i.e., the created image of God; through their communion with Jesus Christ, God shares himself with the human race, in order to conform them to all that He is in knowledge, righteousness, and holiness. As God became human, in all ways except sin, he will also make humans "God", i.e., "holy" or "saintly", in all ways except his Divine Essence, which is uncaused and uncreated. Irenaeus explained this doctrine in the work "Against Heresies", Book 5, Preface: "the Word of God, our Lord Jesus Christ, Who did, through His transcendent love, become what we are, that He might bring us to be even what He is Himself."


title: Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)

text: For many Church Fathers, "theosis" goes beyond simply restoring people to their state before the fall of Adam and Eve, teaching that because Christ united the human and divine natures in Jesus' person, it is now possible for someone to experience closer fellowship with God than Adam and Eve initially experienced in the Garden of Eden, and that people can become more like God than Adam and Eve were at that time. Some Byzantine Christian theologians say that Jesus would have become incarnate for this reason alone, even if Adam and Eve had never sinned.


title: Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)

text: All of humanity is fully restored to the full potential of humanity because the Son of God took to himself a human nature to be born of a woman, and takes to himself also the sufferings due to sin (yet is not himself sinful, and is God unchanged in being). In Christ the two natures of God and human are not two persons but one; thus a union is effected in Christ between all of humanity in principle and God. So the holy God and sinful humanity are reconciled in principle in the one sinless man, Jesus Christ. (See Jesus' prayer as recorded in John 17.)


title: Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)

text: This reconciliation is made actual through the struggle to conform to the image of Christ. Without the struggle, the praxis, there is no real faith; faith leads to action, without which it is dead. One must unite will, thought, and action to God's will, his thoughts, and his actions. A person must fashion his life to be a mirror, a true likeness of God. More than that, since God and humanity are more than a similarity in Christ but rather a true union, Christians' lives are more than mere imitation and are rather a union with the life of God himself: so that the one who is working out salvation is united with God working within the penitent both to will and to do that which pleases God (Philippians 2:13).


title: Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)

text: A common analogy for "theosis", given by the Greek fathers, is that of a metal which is put into the fire. The metal obtains all the properties of the fire (heat, light), while its essence remains that of a metal. Using the head-body analogy from Paul the Apostle, every man in whom Christ lives partakes of the glory of Christ. As John Chrysostom observes, "where the head is, there is the body also. There is no interval to separate between the Head and the body; for were there a separation, then were it no longer a body, then were it no longer a head."


title: Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)

text: "Theosis" is understood to have three stages: first, the purgative way, purification, or "katharsis"; second, illumination, the illuminative way, the vision of God, or "theoria"; and third, sainthood, the unitive way, or "theosis". Thus the term ""theosis"" describes the whole process and its objective. By means of purification a person comes to "theoria" and then to "theosis". "Theosis" is the participation of the person in the life of God. According to this doctrine, the holy life of God, given in Jesus Christ to the believer through the Holy Spirit, is expressed through the three stages of "theosis", beginning in the struggles of this life, increasing in the experience of knowledge of God, and consummated in the resurrection of the believer, when the victory of God over fear, sin, and death, accomplished in the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus Christ, is made manifest in the believer forever.


title: Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)

text: The journey toward "theosis" includes many forms of praxis, the most obvious being monasticism and clergy. Of the monastic tradition, the practice of hesychasm is most important as a way to establish a direct relationship with God. Living in the community of the church and partaking regularly of the sacraments, especially the Eucharist, is taken for granted. Also important is cultivating "prayer of the heart", and prayer that never ceases, as Paul exhorts in 1 Thessalonians 5:17. This unceasing prayer of the heart is a dominant theme in the writings of the Fathers, especially in those collected in the "Philokalia". It is considered that no one can reach "theosis" without an impeccable Christian living, crowned by faithful, warm, and, ultimately, silent, continuous Prayer of the Heart.


title: Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)

text: The "doer" in deification is the Holy Spirit, with whom the human being joins his will to receive this transforming grace by praxis and prayer, and as Gregory Palamas teaches, the Christian mystics are deified as they become filled with the Light of Tabor of the Holy Spirit in the degree that they make themselves open to it by asceticism (divinization being not a one-sided act of God, but a loving cooperation between God and the advanced Christian, which Palamas considers a synergy).


title: Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)

text: This synergeia or co-operation between God and Man does not lead to mankind being absorbed into the God as was taught in earlier pagan forms of deification like henosis. Rather it expresses unity, in the complementary nature between the created and the creator. Acquisition of the Holy Spirit is key as the acquisition of the Spirit leads to self-realization.


title: Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)

text: Western attitudes have traditionally been negative, not towards divinization itself (which is also part of the doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church), but towards the ways in which divinization is supposed to happen according to Byzantine theology. In his article, Bloor highlights various Western theologians who have contributed to what he calls a "stigma" towards "theosis". Yet, recent theological discourse has seen a reversal of this, with Bloor drawing upon Western theologians from an array of traditions, whom, he claims, embrace "theosis"/deification.


title: Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)

text: The practice of ascetic prayer, called "Hesychasm" in the Eastern Orthodox Church and Byzantine Catholic Churches, "is centered on the enlightenment or deification (... or "theosis", in Greek) of man".


title: Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)

text: Hesychasm is directed to a goal that is not limited to natural life alone and goes beyond this to deification ("theosis").


title: Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)

text: In the past, Roman Catholic theologians generally expressed a negative view of Hesychasm. The doctrine of Gregory Palamas won almost no following in the West, and the distrustful attitude of Barlaam in its regard prevailed among Western theologians, surviving into the early 20th century, as shown in Adrian Fortescue's article on hesychasm in the 1910 "Catholic Encyclopedia". Fortescue translated the Greek words and as "quiet" and "quietist".


title: Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)

text: In the same period, Edward Pace's article on quietism indicated that, while in the strictest sense quietism is a 17th-century doctrine proposed by Miguel de Molinos, the term is also used more broadly to cover both Indian religions and what Edward Pace called "the vagaries of Hesychasm", thus betraying the same prejudices as Fortescue with regard to hesychasm; and, again in the same period, Siméon Vailhé described some aspects of the teaching of Palamas as "monstrous errors", "heresies" and "a resurrection of polytheism", and called the hesychast method for arriving at perfect contemplation "no more than a crude form of auto-suggestion".


title: Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)

text: The twentieth century saw a remarkable change in the attitude of Roman Catholic theologians to Palamas, a "rehabilitation" of him that has led to increasing parts of the Western Church considering him a saint, even if uncanonized. Some Western scholars maintain that there is no conflict between Palamas's teaching and Roman Catholic thought. According to G. Philips, the essence–energies distinction is "a typical example of a perfectly admissible theological pluralism" that is compatible with the Roman Catholic magisterium. Jeffrey D. Finch claims that "the future of East–West rapprochement appears to be overcoming the modern polemics of neo-scholasticism and neo-Palamism". Some Western theologians have incorporated the theology of Palamas into their own thinking.


title: Theosis (Eastern Christian theology)

text: Pope John Paul II said Catholics should be familiar with "the venerable and ancient tradition of the Eastern Churches", so as to be nourished by it. Among the treasures of that tradition he mentioned in particular:


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: "The Hounds of Baskerville" is the second episode of the second series of the BBC crime drama series "Sherlock", which follows the modern-day adventures of Sherlock Holmes, and was first broadcast by BBC One on 8 January 2012. It was written by co-creator Mark Gatiss, who also portrays Mycroft Holmes, Sherlock's brother in the series, and was directed by Paul McGuigan. The episode is a contemporary adaptation of "The Hound of the Baskervilles", one of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's most famous works.


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: In the episode, Sherlock (Benedict Cumberbatch) and his crime-solving partner John Watson (Martin Freeman) take on the case of Henry Knight (Russell Tovey), who 20 years earlier witnessed the brutal killing of his father by a "gigantic hound" on Dartmoor. The investigation leads the pair to Baskerville, a military research base. In the conclusion it is revealed that the hounds were images induced by a mind-altering drug, a chemical weapon whose creator was in fact the real murderer of Henry's father.


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: Because of the popularity of the novel, Gatiss felt a greater responsibility to include familiar elements of the story than he did when adapting the lesser-known stories. The script was intended to follow elements of the horror genre and make the episode scary. As opposed to traditional ghost stories, Gatiss's plot focused on more contemporary horrors, conspiracy theories and genetic modification. Filming was done throughout May 2011, with additional shots taking place as late as August. Location shooting took place mostly across South Wales, though parts were shot in Dartmoor. The hound was created using visual effects.


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: After its broadcast on BBC One, the episode received consolidated figures of 10.266 million viewers in the United Kingdom. This rating, although a slight drop from the previous episode, still represented the second largest audience in British television the week it aired. Critical reaction toward the episode was largely positive, with reviewers praising both the modernisation and its tonal fidelity to the original. Critics praised Cumberbatch, Freeman, and Tovey, as well as Sherlock's "mind palace" sequence.


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: Sherlock (Benedict Cumberbatch) and John (Martin Freeman) receive a visit from Henry Knight (Russell Tovey), who witnessed his father's death by a "gigantic hound" at Dartmoor 20 years ago. After years of therapy, Henry revisited the site, only to see the hound again, prompting his request for help. Though initially dismissive, Sherlock is soon interested in Henry's use of "hound" instead of "dog". Sherlock and John arrive in Dartmoor to find the hound is a local legend. They visit Baskerville, a nearby Ministry of Defence research base, using Mycroft's (Mark Gatiss) security pass. After Mycroft's credentials cause a security alert, Dr. Bob Frankland (Clive Mantle) vouches for Sherlock's identity, despite knowing the truth. Frankland says he was a friend of Henry's father and is concerned for Henry's well-being.


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: Henry tells John and Sherlock about the words "Liberty" and "In" in his dreams. Sherlock, John, and Henry then visit the hollow in the hope of finding the hound. On the way, John notices what seems to be Morse code signals (these were unrelated; they were headlight flashes from a group of doggers). When Sherlock and Henry arrive at the hollow, they see the hound. At a local inn, Sherlock is visibly shaken and confesses he saw the hound. John tries calming him, suggesting he imagines things. Sherlock reacts with anger, denying there is something wrong with him. John tries to interview Henry's therapist, Louise Mortimer (Sasha Behar). However, they are interrupted by Frankland, who blows his cover. Meanwhile, Henry hallucinates the hound is stalking his home.


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: The next morning Sherlock realises "hound" may be an acronym rather than a word. The pair run into DI Lestrade (Rupert Graves) who was sent by Mycroft to keep an eye on Sherlock. They interrogate the innkeepers about a past order for meat that John has spotted, which struck him as odd for a vegetarian restaurant. The innkeepers kept a dog on the moor to boost the tourist trade but assured the investigators they had put it down. This explanation satisfies Lestrade but not Sherlock, who insists the dog he saw was monstrous. Calling Mycroft, Sherlock gains access to Baskerville again. Searching the lower levels of the genetics labs, John finds himself trapped and then hears growling, which he assumes is the hound. Locking himself in an empty cage, he calls Sherlock, who rescues him. Sherlock deduces a chemical weapon designed to trigger violent hallucinations was responsible. Retreating into his "mind palace", a memory technique, Sherlock realises "Liberty" and "In" stands for Liberty, Indiana. After viewing confidential files, he sees "H.O.U.N.D." was a secret C.I.A. project aimed at creating a hallucinatory anti-personnel chemical weapon. Nonetheless, the project was abandoned several years before. Sherlock realises Frankland, who participated in the project, has continued it secretly.


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: After John receives a call from Mortimer that Henry has run off with a gun, John, Sherlock, and Lestrade run to the hollow to find Henry about to commit suicide. Sherlock explains the hound was a hallucination; his father was killed by Frankland, wearing a gas mask and a sweatshirt with "H.O.U.N.D. Liberty, In" on it; a child could not cope with this, so his mind tricked him. Every time Henry came back, Frankland gassed him with the hallucinogen; the chemical agent is the fog they encountered at the hollow, triggered by pressure pads in the area. As Henry calms down, they all see the innkeepers' dog affected by the gas; John shoots it. Sherlock finds and catches Frankland at the scene. Henry realises that Frankland murdered Henry's father because he found him testing the drug. Frankland flees into the base's minefield and gets blown up. As Sherlock and John prepare to leave the following day, John wonders why he saw the hound in the lab despite not having inhaled the gas from the hollow. Sherlock surmises that the leaking pipes poisoned John in the laboratory. John realises Sherlock locked him in the labs to test his theory. He also points out Sherlock was wrong for once; he believed the drug was in Henry's sugar and put it in John's coffee.


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: In the closing scenes, Mycroft oversees the release of Jim Moriarty (Andrew Scott) from a holding cell in which he has written Sherlock's name all over the walls.


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: The story is based on Arthur Conan Doyle's novel "The Hound of the Baskervilles", and also contains plot devices and lines from other Doyle stories:


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: In June 2011, it was announced that Russell Tovey would appear in "Sherlock" series two in its second episode. Tovey, who liked "Sherlock" for staying true to the style of the novels despite its modern twist, said of the experience: "It's amazing to be a part of it", adding, "I got to act with Benedict and Martin which was awesome". The actor also explained that during his scenes, "We did about two and a half weeks of night shoots in Cardiff and I felt like I had jetlag." In terms of Henry's character, Tovey did not want him to be a "jibbering wreck", but rather mature and truthful as well as damaged and haunted. Gatiss also made Henry display signs of survivor guilt. Tovey's nephew auditioned for the part of a younger Henry, but another child actor was cast for the role as the nephew was considered too young.


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: The episode was based on "The Hound of the Baskervilles", first serialised in 1901–1902; it is considered one of Arthur Conan Doyle's most famous Holmes stories, as it was written after Doyle killed off Sherlock and, consequently, sold well. It was also one of the most adapted novels in the Sherlock Holmes series. Because of its popularity, writer Mark Gatiss felt a greater responsibility to include familiar elements of the story than he did when adapting the lesser-known stories. Conan Doyle had killed off his famous character in the 1893 story "The Final Problem", but bowed to popular pressure to write another Holmes adventure. Gatiss observed that Conan Doyle's weariness with the character is demonstrated by Holmes' absence for half of "The Hound of the Baskervilles", in which Doctor Watson's role is foregrounded.


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: In contrast to the original, however, the producers decided to centre Sherlock in their adaptation, so Sherlock only threatens to stay behind in London. In addition, the three episodes of the second series show Sherlock dealing, respectively, with love, fear, and death. Here, the producers wanted Sherlock, an arch-rationalist, to confront something that seemed impossible, especially since their Sherlock is still a young character who has not experienced fear yet. Freeman stated that when he sees the hound, Sherlock becomes "really terrified" and for some time, stops trusting the evidence he has seen.


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: The producers also considered how to make the dog believable because, according to Gatiss, audiences always find the dog disappointing in the adaptations. Therefore, Gatiss wanted the solution to be more than a "dog with luminous paint". In one scene, Henry has an hallucination in his home, wherein the hound sets off the bright security lights in his back garden. That scene is apparently based on the experience of co-creator Steven Moffat and his executive producer and wife Sue Vertue, who also have bright security lights and are frequently startled whenever the lights turn on at night.


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: There were other differences from the novel. Henry Knight was based on Sir Henry Baskerville, but the character Barrymore, a butler in the book, became an Army major. Another character, Fletcher, was original to the episode; the character was based on Bertram Fletcher Robinson, the journalist who assisted Doyle with the novel. In another scene, John notices what appears to be Morse code, but it is unrelated to the case. Moffat named it the funniest instance where the producers take an element from Doyle's works and "do something cheeky with it". The Baskerville base was based on Porton Down military science research centre. While conducting research for the episode, Gatiss learned that artists and scientists made a luminous rabbit, using the green fluorescent protein of a jellyfish, which formed the basis for a side story involving a "glow-in-the-dark" rabbit created at Baskerville by Dr. Stapleton, the mother of the child who wrote to Sherlock at the beginning of the episode requesting that he help her find her missing rabbit. In the episode, it is specified that the spliced-in "GFP gene" that had allowed the rabbit to glow had come from a jellyfish of the species Aequorea victoria. Also, Gatiss suggested the concept of a "mind palace", a memory technique originating in Ancient Greece; the idea came from a book by illusionist Derren Brown. This technique would lead Sherlock to the revelation of the secret H.O.U.N.D. project.


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: Early script drafts had Henry accidentally kill Louise Mortimer, but producers were never satisfied with this development, thinking Henry would have failed if she died. Writers also posited that Henry's father's murder involved revenge after he had an affair, but the producers and Gatiss found it easier to mention he died because he learned of Franklin's experiments with the hallucinogenic gas. The ending also changed; the final scene had originally involved Moriarty entering the Tower of London but that was held back for the following episode.


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: "The Hounds of Baskerville" took around four weeks to film, with shooting mostly taking place throughout May 2011. Additional scenes were shot later in July and August. Filming on location mostly took place across South Wales, with parts of the episode being shot on location in Dartmoor, even though the producers did not originally intend to do so. The first day took place at a cemetery. The producers were looking for a village in South Wales that was "very English-looking." Scenes of the fictional "Cross Keys" pub were filmed at the Bush Inn in St Hilary, Vale of Glamorgan. The production team donated £500 to the village after filming had finished. In one scene, after Sherlock first witnesses the hound, Sherlock makes deductions about a mother and son from a nearby table. In filming the scene, Cumberbatch has to recall multiple pages of monologue in front of camera, and had to talk faster than he was used to.


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: The scenes at Baskerville were filmed at a number of locations. The exterior was filmed at the gas works by Baverstocks near Llwydcoed in Mid Glamorgan. The labs meanwhile were filmed in two separate locations, one of which was a microchip processing facility. The switch between two locations meant that the crew had to transport a lift set. The scenes in Dewer's Hollow, where the hound was sighted, was filmed near Castell Coch. The reveal scenes in the hollow took two nights to film. At some point filming the scenes were delayed due to rain. The scenes shot in Dartmoor took place in areas such as Haytor and Hound Tor, the latter of which was said to be where the original story was set.


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: Throughout his scenes, Rupert Graves was tanned because before filming the episode, the actor was in Guadeloupe, an island on the Caribbean, appearing in "Death in Paradise". As a result, Gatiss added mention that Lestrade went on holiday in the script. In the original episode, John was to hallucinate the hound at a meat storage locker. However, after visiting such a locker in Bristol, the producers came to realise that it would be too expensive, and cold for Freeman, forcing them to change the setting to the Baskerville labs. In one scene, Sherlock is driving a Land Rover with John as a passenger after their arrival at Dartmoor; John was originally going to be the one driving the car, however Freeman cannot drive. In the client scenes, Tovey had to smoke a herbal cigarette as it was illegal to smoke real cigarettes on set. Throughout the episode, the production crew used split dioptres in certain scenes, a camera technique where two separate camera angles are at the same focus on screen. The episode also includes shots of the hound, which was produced by visual effects. Although the series used computer-generated imagery (CGI) in the past, it was the first time a visual effect was made on a large scale. However, there was no guide for the cast to interact with.


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: "The Hounds of Baskerville" was first broadcast on BBC One on Sunday, 8 January 2012 between 8:30 p.m. and 10:00 p.m. It received preliminary overnight figures of 8.16 million viewers with a 29 per cent audience share. It was down by almost 400,000 from the previous week, but it was still the most seen broadcast in its timeslot, beating ITV1 drama "Wild at Heart". When final ratings are factored, the episode saw an increase of more than two million viewers, totalling 10.266 million viewers, making it the second most viewed programme for the week. The episode was later repeated on the digital channel BBC Three on Saturday, 14 January 2012 from 7pm, and was seen by 710,000 viewers. It also became the most-watched programme of 2012 on the online BBC iPlayer as of May, with over 1.6 million views.


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: The British Board of Film Classification awarded the episode a 12 certificate for "moderate threat and violence." The episode, which is accompanied by an audio commentary by Moffat, Gatiss, Tovey and Vertue, was released with the remainder of the second series in the UK on DVD and Blu-ray on 23 January 2012.


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: Reviews of the episode were mostly positive. In a pre-broadcast review, Terry Ramsey of "The Daily Telegraph" labelled the story's shift from a Gothic house to a military research base "an inspired piece of modernisation". He praised the two lead actors, and say that "the script is sharp and witty and the updating is clever, while remaining true to the original. A modern classic." Serena Davies, also of "The Daily Telegraph" praised the episode for being "pacy, sharp and witty, as we've come to expect from the Moffat and Gatiss crack creative duo, and rather less inscrutable than the New Year episode." Davies rated the episode four out of five stars. Chris Harvey, again from "The Daily Telegraph" identified a range of clues, cultural references and possible inspirations. He suggests that the scene in which "Sherlock Holmes clambered alone to the top of a Dartmoor mound and surveyed the landscape below, it appeared to be a direct visual reference to ... "Wanderer above the Sea of Fog"" by 19th century German Romantic landscape painter Caspar David Friedrich. Harvey also identified several references to Thomas Harris' character Hannibal Lecter, plot similarities to the 2005 film "Batman Begins", and jokes similar to "Scooby-Doo".


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: Sam Wollaston, for "The Guardian", favourably compared "The Hounds of Baskerville" to "A Scandal in Belgravia", writing that the episode "has a 21st-century pace to it, and fizzes with the wit we've come to expect from "Sherlock" ... [recapturing] the essence of "The Hound of the Baskervilles" ... like the original, it's properly creepy". The "Radio Times"s David Butcher compared the episode to Steven Moffat's series opener, "A Scandal in Belgravia", saying this "is more of a creepy affair, all jittery camerawork, paranoia and suspense." Christopher Hootan of "Metro" thought the episode was "the perfect marriage of misty, moor-based foreboding and modern, fast-paced thriller," adding that "with a breakneck script and captivating acting from Benedict Cumberbatch, "Sherlock" offers about the fastest hour and a half of television going at the moment."


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: Louisa Mellor of Den of Geek believed the episode was "well-schooled" in the horror genre, "with plenty of freaking out and jumping at shadows. Arnold and Price's elegant music came to the fore wonderfully in the largely wordless scenes of Watson and Henry's fearful hallucinations." Mellor was also appreciative of McGuigan's "stylish hand" as director, particularly highlighting the "mind palace" sequence, as well as Tovey's performance as Henry Knight and for "once again" seeing Watson's role for being "more than just sigh exasperatedly at his flatmate and apologise to others on Sherlock's behalf." In summary, the reviewer stated "I can only echo Sherlock's own closing words to Henry: "This case, thank you, it's been brilliant"." Chris Tilly of IGN rated the episode a "good" 7 out of 10, but stated that although it was "full of mystery and intrigue," the central story "wasn't strong enough to fill the 90-minute run-time, running out of steam at the mid-way point and padded out with irrelevant and at times exasperating efforts to throw the audience off the scent." Tilly praised Cumberbatch's performance as a mentally broke down Holmes, and Freeman for being "let off the leash this week, with Watson investigating solo on a couple of occasions," and also thought Tovey was a "fine addition to the ensemble."


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: David Lewis of CultBox called it "a pretty straightforward thriller about chemical warfare, cover-ups and a colossal canine. It's also suspenseful, spooky and superb." The reviewer also commented on the hound's appearance: "It isn't [mutant], of course—just an evil-looking mutt hired by Gary and Billy to drum up business for their boozer—and happily, like all the previous hounds that have haunted Holmes in film and TV for nearly a hundred years, it looks gloriously rubbish when it finally appears." Lewis rated the episode four out of five stars. Morgan Jeffery of Digital Spy thought "The Hounds of Baskerville" was "an excellent installment of Sherlock — fun, moody and, at times, genuinely scary." Jeffery felt that the final realisation of the hound was impressive, and praised the CGI work, as well as the performance of Cumberbatch and Freeman.


title: The Hounds of Baskerville

text: However, some critics gave the episode mixed to negative reviews. Tom Ryan of WhatCulture rated the episode two and a half out of five stars, summing up the review with; "Given the popularity of the original book and the success thus far of the current TV series, it is safe to assume that last night's episode was perhaps the most eagerly anticipated installment of the show since its inception. Too bad then that it was so underwhelming." "The Guardian" writer Stuart Heritage stated; "Last night's Hounds of Baskervilles wasn't quite as rapturously received as other adventures, perhaps because of the amount of time that Cumberbatch and Freeman spent apart. The whole middle section, where Watson stormed off in a huff after being subjected to another one of Sherlock's baroque "that man is left-handed and also has dog hair on one of his socks" monologues, felt slow and flat precisely because there was none of the chemistry between the two leads that we've come to expect from Sherlock." Jim Shelley of the "Daily Mirror" stated that the episode was "a disappointment," contrasting it against the original book as "a tedious treatise against vivisection." However, Shelley stated that he enjoyed the "mind palace" scene.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: The "Graf Zeppelin"-class aircraft carriers were four German "Kriegsmarine" aircraft carriers planned in the mid-1930s by Grand Admiral Erich Raeder as part of the Plan Z rearmament program after Germany and Great Britain signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement. They were planned after a thorough study of Japanese carrier designs. German naval architects ran into difficulties due to lack of experience in building such vessels, the situational realities of carrier operations in the North Sea and the lack of overall clarity in the ships' mission objectives.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: This lack of clarity led to features such as cruiser-type guns for commerce raiding and defense against British cruisers, that were either eliminated from or not included in American and Japanese carrier designs. American and Japanese carriers, designed along the lines of task-force defense, used supporting cruisers for surface firepower, which allowed flight operations to continue without disruption and kept carriers out of undue risk of damage or sinking from surface action.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: A combination of political infighting between the "Kriegsmarine" and the "Luftwaffe", disputes within the ranks of the "Kriegsmarine" itself and Adolf Hitler's waning interest all conspired against the carriers. A shortage of workers and materials slowed construction still further and, in 1939, Raeder reduced the number of ships from four to two. Even so, the "Luftwaffe" trained its first unit of pilots for carrier service and readied it for flight operations. With the advent of World War II, priorities shifted to U-boat construction; one carrier, "Flugzeugträger B", was broken up on the slipway while work on the other, "Flugzeugträger A" (christened "Graf Zeppelin") was continued tentatively but suspended in 1940. The air unit scheduled for her was disbanded at that time.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: The role of aircraft in the Battle of Taranto, the pursuit of the German battleship , the attack on Pearl Harbor and the Battle of Midway demonstrated conclusively the usefulness of aircraft carriers in modern naval warfare. With Hitler's authorization, work resumed on the remaining carrier. Progress was again delayed, this time by the demand for newer planes specifically designed for carrier use and the need for modernizing the ship in light of wartime developments. Hitler's disenchantment with the performance of the Kriegsmarine's surface units led to a final stoppage of work. The ship was captured by the Soviet Union at the end of the war and sunk as a target ship in 1947.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: After 1933, the Kriegsmarine began to examine the possibility of building an aircraft carrier. Wilhelm Hadeler had been Assistant to the Professor of Naval Construction at the Technical University of Berlin for nine years when he was appointed to draft preliminary designs for an aircraft carrier in April 1934. Hadeler's first design was a ship that could carry 50 aircraft and steam at .


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: The Anglo-German Naval Agreement, signed on 18 June 1935, allowed Germany to construct aircraft carriers with total displacement up to 38,500 tons, though Germany was limited to 35% of total British tonnage in any category of warship. The Kriegsmarine then decided to scale back Hadeler's design to , which would permit the construction of two ships within the 35% limit.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: The design staff decided that the new carrier would need to be able to defend itself against surface combatants, which necessitated armor protection to the standard of a heavy cruiser. A battery of sixteen guns were deemed sufficient to defend the ship from destroyers. In 1935, Adolf Hitler announced that Germany would construct aircraft carriers to strengthen the Kriegsmarine. A Luftwaffe officer, a naval officer, and a constructor visited Japan in the autumn of 1935 to obtain flight deck equipment blueprints and inspect the Japanese aircraft carrier . The Germans also unsuccessfully attempted to examine the British carrier .


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: The keel of "Graf Zeppelin" was laid down on 28 December 1936, on the slipway that had recently held the battleship . The ship was built by the Deutsche Werke shipyard in Kiel. Two years later, "Großadmiral" (Grand Admiral) Erich Raeder presented an ambitious shipbuilding program called Plan Z which would build up the "Kriegsmarine" to a point where it could challenge the British Royal Navy in the North Sea. Under Plan Z, by 1945 as part of the balanced force the navy would have four carriers; the pair of "Graf Zeppelin"-class ships were the first two in the plan. Hitler approved the construction program on 1 March 1939. In 1938, a second carrier, ordered under the provisional name "B", was laid down at the Germaniawerft dockyard in Kiel. "Graf Zeppelin" was launched on 8 December 1938.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: The "Graf Zeppelin" class's hull was divided into 19 watertight compartments, the standard division for all capital ships in the Kriegsmarine. Their belt armor was to vary from over the machinery spaces and aft magazines, to over the forward magazines and tapered down to at the bows. Stern armor was kept at to protect the steering gear. Inboard of the main armor belt was a anti-torpedo bulkhead.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: Horizontal armor protection against aerial bombs and plunging shellfire started with the flight deck, which acted as the main strength deck. The armor was generally thick except for those areas around the elevator shafts and funnel uptakes where thickness increased to in order to give the elevators necessary structural strength and the critical uptakes greater splinter protection. Beneath the lower hangar was the main armored deck (or tween deck) where armor thickness varied from over the magazines to over the machinery spaces. Along the peripheries, it formed a 45 degree slope where it joined the lower portion of the waterline belt armor.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: The "Graf Zeppelin"s original length-to-beam ratio was 9.26:1, resulting in a slender silhouette. However, in May 1942, the accumulating top-weight of recent design changes required the addition of deep bulges to either side of "Graf Zeppelin"s hull, decreasing that ratio to 8.33:1 and giving her the widest beam of any carrier designed prior to 1942. The bulges served mainly to improve "Graf Zeppelin"s stability but they also gave her an added degree of anti-torpedo protection and increased her operating range because selected compartments were designed to store approximately 1500 additional tons of fuel oil.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: "Graf Zeppelin"s straight-stemmed prow was rebuilt in early 1940 with the addition of a more sharply angled "Atlantic prow", intended to improve overall seakeeping. This added to her overall length.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: The "Graf Zeppelin" class's power plant was to consist of 16 La Mont high-pressure boilers, similar to those used in the heavy cruisers. Their four sets of geared turbines, connected to four shafts, were expected to produce and propel the carrier at a top speed of . With a maximum bunkerage capacity of 5000 tons of fuel oil (prior to the addition of bulges in 1942), the "Graf Zeppelins"' calculated radius of action was at . However, wartime experience on ships with similar power plants showed such estimates were highly inaccurate, and actual operational ranges tended to be much lower.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: Two Voith-Schneider cycloidal propeller-rudders were to be installed in the forward bow of the ship along the center-line. These were intended to assist in berthing the ship in harbor and also in negotiating narrow waterways such as the Kiel Canal where, due to the carrier's high freeboard and difficulty in maneuvering at speeds below , gusting winds might push the ship into the canal sides. In an emergency, the units could have been used to steer the ships at speeds under and, if the ships' main engines were rendered inoperable, could propel the vessel at a speed of in calm seas. When not in use, they were to be retracted into their vertical shafts and protected by water-tight covers.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: The "Graf Zeppelin"s steel flight deck, overlaid with wooden planking, was long by wide at its maximum. It had a slight round down right aft and overhung the main superstructure but not the stern; being supported by steel girders. At the bow, the carriers were to have an open forecastle and the leading edge of her flight deck was uneven (mainly due to the blunt ends of her catapult tracks), but it did not appear likely that would have caused any undue air turbulence. Careful wind-tunnel studies using models confirmed this, but they also revealed that their long low island structure would generate a vortex over the flight deck in these tests when the ship yawed to port. This was considered to be an acceptable hazard when conducting air operations.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: The "Graf Zeppelin" class's upper and lower hangars were long and narrow with unarmored sides and ends. Workshops, stores and crew quarters were located outboard of the hangars, a design feature similar to that of British carriers. The upper hangar measured x ; the lower hangar x . The upper hangar had vertical clearance while the lower hangar had less headroom due to the ceiling braces. Total usable hangar space was with stowage for 43 aircraft: 20 Fieseler Fi 167 torpedo bombers, 18 in the lower hangar, two in the upper hangar; 13 Junkers Ju 87C dive bombers in the upper hangar and 10 Messerschmitt Bf 109T fighters in the upper hangar.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: The "Graf Zeppelin" class had three electrically operated elevators positioned along the flight-deck's center-line: one near the bow, abreast the forward end of the island; one amidships; and one aft. They were octagonal in shape, measuring x , and were designed to transfer aircraft weighing up to 5.5 tons between decks.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: Two Deutsche Werke compressed air-driven telescoping catapults were installed at the forward end of the flight deck for power-assisted launches. They were long and designed to accelerate a fighter to a speed of approximately and a bomber to .


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: A dual set of rails led back from the catapults to the forward and midship elevators. In the hangars, aircraft were to be hoisted by crane - a method also proposed for the "Essex"-class carriers of the United States Navy, but rejected as too time-consuming - onto collapsible launch trolleys. The aircraft/trolley combination would then be lifted to flight deck level on the elevator and trundled along the rails to the catapult start points. When the catapults were triggered, a burst of compressed air would propel moveable slideways within the catapult track wells forward.<ref name="Wagner/Wilske54-56">Wagner & Wilske, pp. 54–56</ref>


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: As each plane lifted off, its launch trolley would reach the end of the slideway but remain locked in place until the tow attachment cables were released. Once the slideways were retracted back into the catapult track wells and the tow cables unhooked, the launch trollies would be manually pushed forward onto recovery platforms, lowered to the forecastle on "B" deck, then rolled back into the upper hangar for re-use via a secondary set of rails. When not in use, the catapult tracks were to be covered with sheet metal fairings to protect them from harsh weather.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: Eighteen aircraft could have theoretically been launched at a rate of one every 30 seconds before exhausting the catapult air reservoirs. It would then have taken 50 minutes to recharge the reservoirs. The two large cylinders holding the compressed air were housed in insulated compartments located between the two catapult tracks, below flight deck level but above the main armored deck. This positioning afforded them only light protection from potential battle damage. The insulated compartments were to be electrically heated to a temperature of in order to prevent ice from forming on the cylinder piping and control equipment as the compressed air was vented during launches.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: It was intended from the outset that all of the "Graf Zeppelins" aircraft would normally launch via catapult. Rolling take-offs would be performed only in an emergency or if the catapults were inoperable due to battle damage or mechanical failure. Whether this practice would have been strictly adhered to or later modified, based on actual air trials and combat experience is open to question, especially given the limited capacity of the air reservoirs and the long recharging times necessary between launches. One advantage of such a system, however, was that the "Graf Zeppelins" could have launched their aircraft without need for turning the ship into the wind or under conditions where the prevailing winds were too light to provide enough lift for her heavier aircraft. They could also have launched and landed aircraft simultaneously.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: To facilitate rapid catapult launches and eliminate the necessity of time-consuming engine warm-ups, up to eight aircraft were to be kept in readiness aboard the German carriers on their hangar decks by the use of steam pre-heaters. These would keep the aircraft engines at an operational temperature of . In addition, engine oil was to be kept warmed in separate holding tanks, then added via hand-pumps to the aircraft engines shortly before launch. Once the aircraft were raised to flight deck level via the elevators, aircraft oil temperature could be maintained, if need be, through the use of electric pre-heaters plugged into power points on the flight deck. Otherwise, the aircraft could have been immediately catapult-launched as their engines would already have been at or near normal operating temperature.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: Four arrester wires were positioned at the after end of the flight deck with two more emergency wires located afore and abaft of the amidships elevator. Original drawings show four additional wires fore and aft of the forward lift, possibly intended to allow recovery of aircraft over the bows, but these may have been deleted from the ship's final configuration. To assist with night landings, the arrester wires were to be illuminated with neon lights.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: Two high, slitted steel wind barriers were installed afore the midships and forward elevators. These were designed to reduce wind velocity over the flight deck to a distance of approximately behind them. When not in use they could be lowered flush with the deck to allow aircraft to pass over them.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: The "Graf Zeppelin"s starboard-side island housed the command and navigating bridges and charthouse. It also served as a platform for three searchlights, four domed stabilized fire-control directors and a large vertical funnel. To compensate for the weight of the island, the carrier's flight deck and hangars were offset to port from her longitudinal axis. Design additions proposed in 1942 included a tall fighter-director tower, air search radar antennas and a curved cap for her funnel, the latter intended to keep smoke and exhaust gases away from the armored fighter-director cabin.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: The "Graf Zeppelin"s were to be armed with separate high and low angle guns for AA and anti-ship defense at a time when most other major navies were switching to dual-purpose AA weapons and relying on escort ships to protect their carriers from surface threats. Her primary anti-shipping armament consisted of sixteen SK C/28 guns paired in eight armored casemates. These were mounted, two each, at the four corners of the carriers' upper hangar deck, positions that raised the possibility the guns would be washed out in heavy seas, especially those in the forward casemates.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: Chief Engineer Hadeler had originally planned for only eight such weapons on the carriers, four on each side in single mountings. However, the Naval Armaments Office misinterpreted his proposal to save space by pairing them and instead doubled the number of guns to 16, resulting in a need for increased ammunition stowage and more electrically operated hoists to service them. Later in "Graf Zeppelin"s construction, some consideration was given to deleting these guns and replacing them with SK C/33 guns mounted on sponsons just below flight deck level. But the structural modifications needed to accommodate such a change were judged too difficult and time-consuming, requiring major changes to the ship's design, and the matter was shelved.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: Primary AA protection came from 12 guns, paired in six turrets positioned three afore and three aft of the carrier's island. Potential blast damage to planes sited on the flight deck when these guns fired to port was an unavoidable risk and would have limited any flight activity during an engagement.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: The "Graf Zeppelin" class's secondary AA defenses consisted of 11 twin SK C/30 guns mounted on sponsons located along the flight deck edges: four on the starboard side, six to port and one mounted on the ship's forecastle. In addition, seven MG C/30 guns were installed on single-mount platforms on either side of the carrier: four to port and three to starboard. These guns were later changed to "Flakvierling" mountings.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: In 1937, with "Graf Zeppelin"s launch scheduled for the end of the following year, the Luftwaffe's experimental test facility at Travemünde ("Erprobungsstelle" See or "E-Stelle" See) on the Baltic coast - one of the four such "Erprobungstelle" facilities of the Third Reich, with the headquarters at Rechlin - began a lengthy program of testing prototype carrier aircraft. This included performing simulated carrier landings and take-offs and training future carrier pilots.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: The runway was painted with a contoured outline of "Graf Zeppelin"s flight deck and simulated deck landings were then conducted over an arresting cable strung width-wise across the airstrip. The cable was attached to an electromechanical braking device manufactured by DEMAG (Deutsche Maschinenfabrik A.G. Duisburg). Testing began in March 1938 using the Heinkel He 50, Arado Ar 195 and Ar 197. Later, a stronger braking winch was supplied by Atlas-Werke of Bremen and this allowed heavier aircraft, such as the Fieseler Fi 167 and Junkers Ju 87, to be tested. After some initial problems, Luftwaffe pilots performed 1,500 successful braked landings out of 1,800 attempted.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: Launches were practiced using a long barge-mounted pneumatic catapult, moored in the Trave River estuary. The Heinkel-designed catapult, built by Deutsche Werke Kiel (DWK), could accelerate aircraft to speeds of depending on wind conditions. Test planes were first hoisted by crane onto collapsible launch carriages in the same manner as intended on "Graf Zeppelin".


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: The catapult test program began in April 1940 and, by early May, 36 launches had been conducted, all carefully documented and filmed for later study: 17 by Arado Ar 197s, 15 by modified Junkers Ju 87Bs and four using a modified Messerschmitt Bf 109D. Further testing followed, and by June "Luftwaffe" officials were fully satisfied with the catapult system's performance.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: The expected role of the "Graf Zeppelin" class was that of a seagoing scouting platform and her initial planned air group reflected that emphasis: 20 Fieseler Fi 167 biplanes for scouting and torpedo attack, 10 Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters, and 13 Junkers Ju 87 dive bombers. This was later changed to 30 Bf 109 fighters and 12 Ju 87 dive-bombers as carrier doctrine in Japan, Great Britain and the United States shifted away from purely reconnaissance duties toward offensive combat missions.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: In late 1938, the Technische Amt RLM (Technical Office of the "Reichsluftfahrtministerium" or State Ministry of Aviation) requested that Messerschmitt's Augsburg design bureau draw up plans for a carrier-borne version of the Bf 109E fighter, to be designated Bf 109T (the "T" standing for Träger or Carrier). By December 1940, the RLM decided to complete only seven carrier-equipped Bf 109T-1s and to finish the remainder as land-based T-2s since work on "Graf Zeppelin" had ceased back in April and there appeared to be little likelihood she would then be commissioned any time soon.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: When work on "Graf Zeppelin" ceased, the T-2s were deployed to Norway. At the end of 1941, when interest in completing "Graf Zeppelin" revived, the surviving Bf 109 T-2s were withdrawn from front-line service in order to again prepare them for possible carrier duty. Seven T-2s were rebuilt to T-1 standards and handed over to the Kriegsmarine on 19 May 1942. By December, a total of 48 Bf 109T-2s had been converted back into T-1s. 46 of these were stationed at Pillau in East Prussia and reserved for use aboard the carrier. By February 1943, all work on "Graf Zeppelin" had ceased and the aircraft were returned to Luftwaffe service in April.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: When work on "Graf Zeppelin" was suspended in May 1940, the 12 completed Fi 167s were organized into "Erprobungsstaffel" 167 for the purpose of conducting further operational trials. By the time work on the carrier resumed two years later in May 1942, the Fi 167 was no longer considered adequate for its intended role and the Technische Amt decided to replace it with a modified torpedo-carrying version of the Junkers Ju 87D. Ten Ju 87C-0 pre-production aircraft were built and sent to the testing facilities at Rechlin and Travemünde where they underwent extensive service trials, including catapult launches and simulated deck landings. Of the 170 Ju 87C-1 ordered, only a few saw completion, suspension of work on "Graf Zeppelin" in May 1940 resulting in cancellation of the entire order. Existing aircraft and those airframes in process were eventually converted back into Ju 87B-2s.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: Work on developing a torpedo-carrying version of the Ju 87D for anti-shipping sorties in the Mediterranean had already commenced in early 1942 when the possibility again arose that "Graf Zeppelin" might be completed. As the Fieseler Fi 167 was now considered obsolete, the Technische Amt requested that Junkers modify the Ju 87D-4 into a carrier-borne torpedo-bomber/recon plane to be designated Ju 87E-1. But when all further work on "Graf Zeppelin" was halted for good in February 1943, the entire order was canceled. None of the Ju 87Ds converted to carry a torpedo were used operationally.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: By May 1942, when work was ordered resumed on "Graf Zeppelin", the older Bf 109T carrier-borne fighter was considered obsolete. By September 1942 detailed plans for the new fighter, the Me 155, were completed. When it became apparent "Graf Zeppelin" would not be commissioned for at least another two years, Messerschmitt was unofficially told to shelve the projected fighter design. No prototype of the carrier-borne version of the plane was ever constructed.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: On 1 August 1938, four months prior to "Graf Zeppelin"s launch date, the "Luftwaffe" formed its first carrier-based air unit, designated "Trägergruppe I/186", on Rugia Island near Burg. It was composed of three squadrons ("Staffeln") and was intended to serve aboard both carriers when completed. By October shipyard construction delays resulted in disbandment of the air group as it was considered too large and costly to maintain given the uncertainty over when the two vessels would be ready for sea trials. Instead, on 1 November that same year a single fighter squadron ("Trägerjagdstaffel") was created, 6./186, and placed under the command of Cpt. Heinrich Seeliger.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: Later, a dive bomber squadron was added, 4./186, equipped with Ju 87Bs under Cpt. Blattner. Six months after, in July 1939, a second fighter squadron was formed, 5./186, under "Oberleutnant" Gerhard Kadow and partly staffed with pilots culled from 6./186. By August the three squadrons were reorganised into "Trägergruppe II/186" under the command of Major Walter Hagen in anticipation that "Graf Zeppelin" would be ready for service trials by the summer of 1940.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: Construction on the "Kriegsmarine"s two aircraft carriers had been fitful from the start due to a shortage of welders and delays in obtaining materials.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: Work started on "Flugzeugträger" A in 1936. She was laid down on 28 December that year, and launched on 8 December 1938. She was incomplete by April 1940, when a changed strategic situation led to work on her being suspended. By early 1942 the usefulness of aircraft carriers in modern naval warfare had been amply demonstrated, and on 13 May 1942, with Hitler's authorization, the German Naval Supreme Command ordered work resumed on the carrier.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: With technical problems, such as the demand for newer planes specifically designed for carrier use, and the need for modernization, progress was delayed. The German naval staff hoped all these changes could be accomplished by April 1943, with the carrier's first sea trials taking place that August. By late January 1943 Hitler had become so disenchanted with the Kriegsmarine, especially with what he perceived as the poor performance of its surface fleet, that he ordered all of its larger ships taken out of service and scrapped. As of 2 February 1943, construction on the carrier ended for good.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: "Graf Zeppelin" languished for the next two years in various Baltic ports. On 25 April 1945, she was scuttled at Stettin (now Szczecin, Poland), ahead of the advancing Red Army. The ship was subsequently raised by the Soviets and was used for target practice and sunk in 1947. Her wreck was discovered in 2006 by Polish researchers in the Baltic off Władysławowo, at the head of the Hel Peninsula.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: The contract to build the ship was awarded to the Friedrich Krupp Germaniawerft in Kiel in 1938, with a planned launch date on 1 July 1940. Work on "Flugzeugträger B" began in 1938 but was halted on 19 September 1939 because, now that Germany was at war with Great Britain and France, priority had shifted to U-boat construction. The hull, completed only up to the armored deck, sat rusting on its slipway until 28 February 1940, when Admiral Raeder ordered her broken up and scrapped. Scrapping was completed four months later.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: The "Kriegsmarine" never named a vessel before it was launched, so it was only given the designation "B" ("A" was "Graf Zeppelin"s designation before launch). Had it been completed, the aircraft carrier could have been named "Peter Strasser" in honor of the World War I leader of the naval airships Peter Strasser.


title: Graf Zeppelin-class aircraft carrier

text: In 1937, the "Kriegsmarine" planned two additional aircraft carriers of the "Graf Zeppelin" class with the official designations C and D. Both these carriers were planned to be operational by 1943. However, by the end of 1938, this plan was changed to only build these two carriers plus any further units as smaller carriers.


title: Bulgaria–Greece–Romania–Serbia 2030 FIFA World Cup bid

text: The Bulgaria 2030 FIFA World Cup bid was a joint bid to host the 2030 FIFA World Cup by Bulgaria, Greece, Romania and Serbia. The bid was led by the Craiova Group.


text: On 25 February 2019, at the meeting in Sofia, Bulgaria of the Ministers of Youth and Sports of Romania, Constantin Bogdan Matei; Bulgaria, Krasen Kralev; Serbia, Vanja Udovičić and Deputy Minister of Culture and Sports of Greece, Giorgos Vasileiadis, it was officially confirmed that these four countries would submit joint candidacy for the organization of the UEFA Euro 2028 and the 2030 FIFA World Cup. Following the second meeting, the ministers signed a memorandum of understanding on 10 April 2019 in Thessaloniki, Greece. However, the project has been quietly abandoned, mainly due to Greece bidding with Egypt and Saudi Arabia.


text: For the 2026 FIFA World Cup, it has been confirmed that stadiums must have a capacity of at least 40,000 for group round matches and second round matches, 50,000 for quarter final and 60,000 for the semi-finals and at least 80,000 for the Opening Match and Final; none of the countries concerned have stadiums with such a capacity for the opening and final matches as of yet and the rules for 2030 have not been announced. Olympic Stadium was the stadium mentioned to host the Opening Match, while the Bucharest Arena was set for the Final match.


title: Terry Yorath

text: Terence Charles Yorath (born 27 March 1950) is a Welsh former football player and manager at both club and international level. He is the father of television presenter Gabby Logan.


title: Terry Yorath

text: He represented Leeds United, Coventry City, Tottenham Hotspur, Vancouver Whitecaps, Bradford City, Swansea City and the Welsh national team. He later became a football manager for Bradford City, Swansea City, Cardiff City and Sheffield Wednesday, as well as assistant at Huddersfield Town. Yorath also managed the Wales and Lebanon national teams.


title: Terry Yorath

text: Yorath was an apprentice at Leeds United signing professional forms at the age of 17. Along with other Leeds midfield players of the time, such as Mick Bates and Terry Hibbitt, he found it difficult to establish himself ahead of Don Revie's preferred pairing of Billy Bremner and Johnny Giles. Between 1967 and 1972 he made just 14 League appearances for Leeds.


title: Terry Yorath

text: In the 1972–73 season, injuries and suspensions allowed Yorath to establish himself as a first team regular. However, his first season ended with two cup final runners-up medals; he was a substitute in the 1973 FA Cup Final, which Leeds lost 1–0 to Sunderland, and also appeared in the 1973 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup Final, which Leeds lost in controversial circumstances to AC Milan.


title: Terry Yorath

text: Yorath finally won some silverware the following 1973–74 season, where he was a key member of the Leeds championship winning side. Yorath became the first Welshman to play in a European Cup final when Leeds reached the final of the UEFA European Cup, but again Yorath ended up with a runners up medal as Leeds lost 2–0 to Bayern Munich in controversial circumstances.


title: Terry Yorath

text: Don Revie had left Leeds to manage England, and his eventual replacement Jimmy Armfield decided to dispense with Yorath's services in 1976, selling him to Coventry City for £125,000. During his time with Leeds, Yorath made 120 appearances and scored ten goals.


title: Terry Yorath

text: Yorath would be captain to one of only a handful of top flight Coventry City sides that spent an entire season in the top ten. Spearheaded by the prolific strike partnership of Ian Wallace and Mick Ferguson, and ably abetted by the legendary winger Tommy Hutchison and attacking full backs Graham Oakey and Bobby MacDonald, the Sky Blues would enjoy a 7th-place finish in the 1977–78 season, narrowly missing out on European football. Yorath's Coventry side containing such notables as Alan Green, McDonald and Mick Coop are still fondly remembered even today by the Sky Blue faithful. A remarkable 5–4 win over Norwich City at Highfield Road, Christmas 1977, replete with bicycle kick by Ian Wallace and last gasp penalty save by Jim Blyth, lives long in Coventry folklore.


title: Terry Yorath

text: Yorath remained at Coventry for three years, playing 99 games and scoring three goals and was captain for most of this period. He moved onto Tottenham Hotspur in 1979 for £300,000, and then briefly to Vancouver Whitecaps in 1981, where he made 59 appearances, scoring four goals in his two seasons with the club.


title: Terry Yorath

text: Yorath picked up the first of 59 Welsh caps in 1970 against Italy, and he maintained a regular presence in the international side until 1981. Yorath also captained his country on 42 occasions.


title: Terry Yorath

text: In 1982, Yorath joined Bradford City as player/assistant coach. He was injured during the Bradford City stadium fire disaster in 1985 when he was forced to jump out of a window after evacuating supporters from a bar. He subsequently took up the manager's position at Swansea City in 1986 (making a single and final league appearance), and led the club to promotion from the Division Four to the Division Three at the end of the 1987–88 season.


title: Terry Yorath

text: In 1989, he was appointed part-time manager of Wales, eventually taking up the post on a full-time basis whilst still managing Swansea. However, this caused conflict with the club, and Yorath left Swansea to manage Bradford. He was dismissed by Bradford after just one year in charge, and returned to manage Swansea again.


title: Terry Yorath

text: In 1991, after a run of nine consecutive defeats, he left Swansea for a second time to concentrate on managing Wales. Yorath was popular amongst the Wales players and fans and guided them to wins over Brazil in 1990 and World Cup holders Germany in a European Championship Qualifier in 1991. Under Yorath, Wales attained what was then their highest ever FIFA ranking of 27th in August 1993 and came close to qualifying for the 1994 World Cup tournament. The qualifying group started disastrously with a 5–1 defeat away to Romania. However, Yorath turned things around with victories over the Faroe Isles, Belgium and Cyprus. Needing to win their final game of the qualifying group at home to Romania, Paul Bodin's penalty hit the crossbar with the scores level at 1–1. Romania went on to win 2–1. Following the failure to qualify Yorath's contract as manager was not renewed, angering many Welsh fans and John Toshack, then manager of Real Sociedad, was appointed as a part-time manager. However, Toshack resigned after just one game – a 3–1 defeat to Norway with the team being booed off the pitch in Cardiff by the Welsh fans still upset at the dismissal of Yorath.


title: Terry Yorath

text: Yorath joined Cardiff City as general manager in 1994, after speculation that he would become manager of Middlesbrough in May that year, and assumed control of team affairs in November of that year when manager Eddie May was sacked. However, his time in the hotseat with the Bluebirds was brief, and he was sacked in March 1995 with the club headed for relegation. In April of the same year, Yorath took over as coach of the Lebanon national team, and helped them rise 60 places in the FIFA World Rankings before leaving in 1997.


title: Terry Yorath

text: Between 1997 and 2000 he worked as a coach at Huddersfield Town and Bradford City, before joining Sheffield Wednesday as assistant to Paul Jewell. Yorath retained his position when Jewell was dismissed, and eventually became manager in 2001. However, he resigned in 2002 after a run of five defeats in six league matches saw Wednesday drop into the relegation zone.