title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: Andrew used the funds that he inherited from his father to recruit supporters among the Hungarian lords. It is plausible he demanded from his brother to install him as Duke of Slavonia, which became increasingly the title of heir to the throne by the second half of the 12th century. Andrew also formed an alliance with Leopold VI, Duke of Austria, and they plotted against Emeric. Their united troops routed the royal army at Mački, Slavonia, in December 1197. Under duress, King Emeric gave Croatia and Dalmatia to Andrew as an appanage, as most historians believe. In contrast, historian György Szabados claims that Emeric never acknowledged Andrew's dominion in Croatia and Dalmatia, who – as Szabados considers – arbitrarily used the title of Duke. In practice, Andrew administered Croatia and Dalmatia as an independent monarch. He minted coins, granted land and confirmed privileges. In accordance with the agreement, Varaždin and Bodrog counties also belonged to his suzerainty. He cooperated with the Frankopans, Babonići, and other local lords. Some of the prominent barons also supported his aspirations, including "comes" Andrew, the husband of princess Margaret (the aunt of Emeric and Andrew) and Macarius Monoszló. The Canons Regular of the Holy Sepulchre settled in the province during his rule. Taking advantage of Miroslav of Hum's death, Andrew invaded Hum and occupied at least the land between the Cetina and Neretva rivers sometime before May 1198. He styled himself, "By the grace of God, Duke of Zadar and of all Dalmatia, Croatia and Hum" in his charters.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: Pope Innocent III urged Andrew to lead a crusade to the Holy Land, but Andrew hatched a new conspiracy against Emeric with the help of John, Abbot of Pannonhalma, Boleslaus, Bishop of Vác, and many other prelates and lords. For instance, incumbent Palatine Mog also betrayed Emeric and swore allegiance to the Duke. The Pope threatened Andrew with excommunication if he failed to fulfill his father's vow, but Andrew did not yield. The conspiracy was uncovered on 10 March 1199, when King Emeric seized letters written by Andrew's partisans to Bishop Boleslaus. That summer, royal troops routed Andrew's army in the valley of Rád near Lake Balaton, and Andrew fled to Austria. During Andrew's exile, Emeric appointed his own partisans to administer Slavonia, Croatia and Dalmatia. A papal legate mediated a reconciliation between Andrew and Emeric, who allowed Andrew to return to Croatia and Dalmatia in 1200. Andrew married Gertrude of Merania sometime between 1200 and 1203; her father, Berthold, Duke of Merania, owned extensive domains in the Holy Roman Empire along the borders of Andrew's duchy.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: When Emeric's son, Ladislaus, was born around 1200, Andrew's hopes to succeed his brother as king were shattered. Pope Innocent confirmed the child's position as heir to the crown, declaring that Andrew's future sons would only inherit Andrew's duchy. Andrew planned a new rebellion against his brother, but King Emeric captured him without resistance near Varaždin in October 1203. In contrast, historian Attila Zsoldos considers it was the king who turned against his brother's province with an army initially convened for a crusade.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: Andrew was first imprisoned in the fort of Gornji Kneginec, then in Esztergom. Alexander of the Hont-Pázmány clan freed him in early 1204. It is uncertain whether Andrew was freed by his partisans or his release took place with Emeric's consent. Having fallen ill, King Emeric had his son, Ladislaus, crowned king on 26 August. As Pope Innocent already ordered Archbishop Ugrin Csák to perform the coronation in April, it is plausible that the king decided on Andrew's release, therefore, the coronation was not vitally urgent. Andrew reconciled with his dying brother, who entrusted him with "the guardianship of his son and the administration of the entire kingdom until the ward should reach the age of majority", according to the nearly contemporaneous Thomas the Archdeacon.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: King Emeric died on 30 November 1204. Andrew governed the kingdom as Ladislaus's regent, but subsequently he counted his regnal years from the time of his brother's death, showing that he already regarded himself as the lawful monarch during Ladislaus III's reign. Pope Innocent told Andrew that he should remain loyal to Ladislaus, also instructing him to fulfill his vow to lead a crusade, to secure the incomes of the dowager queen Constance of Aragon and to keep royal property intact. The pope's letters suggest that serious tensions burdened the relationship between Andrew and Constance after Emeric's death.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: Instead, Andrew seized the money that Emeric had deposited for Ladislaus in Pilis Abbey. He also confiscated a significant portion of private wealth from Constance, who deposited it in the Stephanites' convent in Esztergom prior to that, in addition to the denial of dowry from her. Ladislaus's mother, Constance of Aragon, fled from Hungary, taking her son and the Holy Crown to Austria. According to the Annals of Admont, "some bishops and nobles" escorted them, breaking through the blockade that Andrew erected along the Austrian border. Andrew prepared for a war against Leopold VI, Duke of Austria, but Ladislaus suddenly died in Vienna on 7 May 1205. Andrew sent Peter, Bishop of Győr to Austria, who successfully recovered the Holy Crown.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: John, Archbishop of Kalocsa, crowned Andrew king in Székesfehérvár on 29 May 1205. Andrew introduced a new policy for royal grants, which he called "new institutions" in one of his charters. He distributed large portions of the royal domainroyal castles and all estates attached to themas inheritable grants to his supporters, declaring that "the best measure of a royal grant is its being immeasurable." His "new institutions" altered the relations between the monarchs and the Hungarian lords. During the previous two centuries, a lord's status primarily depended on the income he received for his services to the monarch; after the introduction of the "new institutions", their inheritable estates yielded sufficient revenues. This policy also diminished the funds upon which the authority of the "ispáns", or heads, of the countieswho were appointed by the monarchshad been based.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: During his reign, Andrew was intensely interested in the internal affairs of his former principality of Halych. He launched his first campaign to recapture Halych in 1205 or 1206. Upon the boyars' request, he intervened against Vsevolod Svyatoslavich, Prince of Chernigov, and his allies on behalf of Daniel Romanovich, the child-prince of Halych, and Lodomeria. Svyatoslavich and his allies were forced to withdraw. Andrew adopted the title of "King of Galicia and Lodomeria", demonstrating his claim to suzerainty in the two principalities.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: After Andrew returned to Hungary, Vsevolod Svyatoslavich's distant cousin, Vladimir Igorevich, seized both Halych and Lodomeria, expelling Daniel Romanovich and his mother. They fled to Leszek I of Poland, who suggested that they visit Andrew. However, Vladimir Igorevich "sent many gifts" to both Andrew and Leszek, dissuading "them from attacking him" on behalf of Romanovich, according to the "Galician–Volhynian Chronicle". Vladimir Igorevich's rebellious brother, Roman Igorevich, soon came to Hungary, seeking Andrew's assistance. Roman returned to Halych and expelled Vladimir Igorevich with the help of Hungarian auxiliary troops.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: Andrew confirmed the liberties of two Dalmatian townsSplit and Omišand issued a new charter listing the privileges of the archbishops of Split in 1207. Taking advantage of a conflict between Roman Igorevich and his boyars, Andrew sent troops to Halych under the command of Benedict, son of Korlát. Benedict captured Roman Igorevich and occupied the principality in 1208 or 1209. Instead of appointing a new prince, Andrew made Benedict governor of Halych. Benedict "tortured boyars and was addicted to lechery", according to the "Galician–Volhynian Chronicle". The boyars offered the throne to Mstislav Mstislavich, Prince of Novgorod, if he could overthrow Benedict. Mstislav Mstislavich invaded Halych, but he could not defeat Benedict.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: Queen Gertrude's two brothers, Ekbert, Bishop of Bamberg, and Henry II, Margrave of Istria, fled to Hungary in 1208 after they were accused of participating in the murder of Philip, King of the Germans. Andrew granted large domains to Bishop Ekbert in the Szepesség region (now Spiš, Slovakia). Gertrude's youngest brother, Berthold, had been Archbishop of Kalocsa since 1206; he was made Ban of Croatia and Dalmatia in 1209. Andrew's generosity towards his wife's German relatives and courtiers discontented the local lords. According to historian Gyula Kristó, the anonymous author of "The Deeds of the Hungarians" referred to the Germans from the Holy Roman Empire when he sarcastically mentioned that " the Romans graze on the goods of Hungary." In 1209, Zadar, which had been lost to the Venetians, was liberated by one of Andrew's Dalmatian vassals, Domald of Sidraga, but the Venetians recaptured the town a year later.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: Roman Igorevich reconciled with his brother, Vladimir Igorevich, in early 1209 or 1210. Their united forces vanquished Benedict's army, expelling the Hungarians from Halych. Vladimir Igorevich sent one of his sons, Vsevolod Vladimirovich, "bearing gifts to the king in Hungary" to appease Andrew, according to the "Galician–Volhynian Chronicle". A group of discontented Hungarian lords offered the crown to Andrew's cousins, the sons of Andrew's uncle, Géza; they lived in "Greek land" (the Byzantine Empire). However, the cousins' envoys were captured in Split in 1210. In the early 1210s, Andrew sent "an army of Saxons, Vlachs, Székelys and Pechenegs" commanded by Joachim, Count of Hermannstadt, (now Sibiu, Romania) to assist Boril of Bulgaria's fight against three rebellious Cuman chieftains. Around the same time, Hungarian troops occupied Belgrade and Barancs (now Braničevo, Serbia), which had been lost to Bulgaria under Emeric. Andrew's army defeated the Cumans at Vidin. Andrew granted the Barcaság (now Țara Bârsei, Romania) to the Teutonic Knights. The Knights were to defend the easternmost regions of the Kingdom of Hungary against the Cumans and encourage their conversion to Catholicism.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: A group of boyars, who were alarmed by the despotic acts of Vladimir Igorevich, asked Andrew to restore Daniel Romanovich as ruler of Halych in 1210 or 1211. Andrew and his alliesLeszek I of Poland and at least five Rus' princessent their armies to Halych and restored Daniel Romanovich. Local boyars expelled Daniel Romanovich's mother in 1212. She persuaded Andrew to personally lead his army to Halych. He captured Volodislav Kormilchich, the most influential boyar, and took him to Hungary. After Andrew withdrew from Halych, the boyars again offered the throne to Mstislav Mstislavich, who expelled Daniel Romanovich and his mother from the principality. Andrew departed for a new campaign against Halych in summer 1213. During his absence, Hungarian lords who were aggrieved at Queen Gertrude's favoritism towards her German entourage captured and murdered her and many of her courtiers in the Pilis Hills on 28 September. When he heard of her murder, Andrew returned to Hungary and ordered the execution of the murderer, Peter, son of Töre. However, Peter's accomplices, including Palatine Bánk Bár-Kalán, did not receive severe punishments. A group of Hungarian lords, whom Andrew called "perverts" in one of his letters, was plotting to dethrone Andrew and crown his eldest son, the eight-year-old Béla, but they failed to dethrone him and could only force Andrew to consent to Béla's coronation in 1214.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: Andrew and Leszek of Poland signed a treaty of alliance, which obliged Andrew's second son, Coloman, to marry Leszek of Poland's daughter, Salomea. Andrew and Leszek jointly invaded Halych in 1214, and Coloman was made prince. He agreed to cede Przemyśl to Leszek of Poland. The following year, Andrew returned to Halych and captured Przemyśl. Leszek of Poland soon reconciled with Mstislav Mstislavich; they jointly invaded Halych and forced Coloman to flee to Hungary. A new officer of state, the treasurer, was responsible for the administration of the royal chamber from around 1214 onwards. However, royal revenues had significantly diminished. Upon the advice of the treasurer, Denis, son of Ampud, Andrew imposed new taxes and farmed out royal income from minting, salt trade and custom duties. The yearly exchange of coins also produced more revenue for the royal chamber. However, these measures provoked discontent in Hungary.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: Andrew signed a new treaty of alliance with Leszek of Poland in the summer of 1216. Leszek and Andrew's son, Coloman, invaded Halych and expelled Mstislav Mstislavich and Daniel Romanovich, after which Coloman was restored. That same year, Andrew met Stephen Nemanjić, Grand Prince of Serbia, in Ravno (now Ćuprija, Serbia). He persuaded Stephen Nemanjić to negotiate with Henry, Latin Emperor of Constantinople, who was the uncle of Andrew's second wife, Yolanda de Courtenay. Stephen Nemanjić was crowned king of Serbia in 1217. Andrew planned to invade Serbia, but Stephen Nemanjić's brother, Sava, dissuaded him, according to both versions of the "Life of Sava".


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: In July 1216, the newly elected Pope Honorius III once again called upon Andrew to fulfill his father's vow to lead a crusade. Andrew, who had postponed the crusade at least three times (in 1201, 1209 and 1213), finally agreed. Steven Runciman, Tibor Almási and other modern historians say that Andrew hoped that his decision would increase his likelihood of being elected as Latin Emperor of Constantinople, because his wife's uncle, Emperor Henry, had died in June. According to a letter written by Pope Honorius in 1217, envoys from the Latin Empire had actually informed Andrew that they planned to elect either him or his father-in-law, Peter of Courtenay, as emperor. Nonetheless, the barons of the Latin Empire elected Peter of Courtenay in the summer of 1216.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: Andrew sold and mortgaged royal estates to finance his campaign, which became part of the Fifth Crusade. He renounced his claim to Zadar in favor of the Republic of Venice so that he could secure shipping for his army. He entrusted Hungary to Archbishop John of Esztergom, and entrusted Croatia and Dalmatia to Pontius de Cruce, the Templar prior of Vrana. In July 1217, Andrew departed from Zagreb, accompanied by Dukes Leopold VI of Austria and Otto I of Merania. His army was so largeat least 10,000 mounted soldiers and uncountable infantrymenthat most of it stayed behind when Andrew and his men embarked in Split two months later. The ships transported them to Acre, where they landed in October.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: The leaders of the crusade included John of Brienne, King of Jerusalem, Leopold of Austria, the Grand Masters of the Hospitallers, the Templars and the Teutonic Knights. They held a war council in Acre, with Andrew leading the meeting. In early November, the Crusaders launched a campaign for the Jordan River, forcing Al-Adil I, Sultan of Egypt, to withdraw without fighting; the crusaders then pillaged Beisan. After the crusaders returned to Acre, Andrew did not participate in any other military actions. Instead, he collected relics, including a water jug allegedly used at the marriage at Cana, the heads of Saint Stephen and Margaret the Virgin, the right hands of the Apostles Thomas and Bartholomew and a part of Aaron's rod. If Thomas the Archdeacon's report of certain "evil and audacious men" in Acre who "treacherously passed him a poisoned drink" is reliable, Andrew's inactivity was because of illness.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: Andrew decided to return home at the very beginning of 1218, even though Raoul of Merencourt, Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem, threatened him with excommunication. Andrew first visited Tripoli and participated in the marriage of Bohemond IV of Antioch and Melisende of Lusignan on 10 January. From Tripoli, he travelled to Cilicia, where he and Leo I of Armenia betrothed Andrew's youngest son, Andrew, and Leo's daughter, Isabella. Andrew proceeded through the Seldjuk Sultanate of Rum before arriving in Nicaea (now İznik, Turkey). His cousins (the sons of his uncle, Géza) attacked him when he was in Nicaea. He arranged the marriage of his oldest son, Béla, to Maria Laskarina, a daughter of Emperor Theodore I Laskaris. When he arrived in Bulgaria, Andrew was detained until he "gave full surety that his daughter would be united in marriage" to Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria, according to Thomas the Archdeacon. Andrew returned to Hungary in late 1218. Andrew's "crusade had achieved nothing and brought him no honor", according to historian Thomas Van Cleve. Oliver of Paderborn, James of Vitry and other 13th-century authors blamed Andrew for the failure of the crusade. Stephen Donnachie says that "...from examining Honorius’s registers and the diplomatic communications between Andrew and the papal curia, Andrew’s genuine commitment to the crusade should not be doubted nor his extensive preparations for the campaign dismissed, even if he did ultimately bungle his opportunity."


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: When he returned to Hungary, Andrew complained to Pope Honorius that his kingdom was "in a miserable and destroyed state, deprived of all of its revenues." A group of barons had even expelled Archbishop John from Hungary. Andrew was in massive debt because of his crusade, which forced him to impose extraordinarily high taxes and debase coinage. In 1218 or 1219, Mstislav Mstislavich invaded Halych and captured Andrew's son, Coloman. Andrew compromised with Mstislavich. Coloman was released, and Andrew's youngest son and namesake was betrothed to Mstislavich's daughter. In 1220, a group of lords persuaded Andrew to make his eldest son, Béla, the duke of Croatia, Dalmatia and Slavonia.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: Andrew employed Jews and Muslims to administer royal revenues, which caused a discord between Andrew and the Holy See starting in the early 1220s. Pope Honorius urged Andrew and Queen Yolanda to prohibit Muslims from employing Christians. Andrew confirmed the privileges of clergymen, including their exemption from taxes and their right to be exclusively judged by church courts, but also prohibited the consecration of "udvornici", castle folk and other serfs in early 1222. However, a new conflict emerged between Andrew and the Holy See after he persuaded Béla to separate from his wife, Maria Laskarina. An "immense crowd" approached Andrew around April 1222, demanding "grave and unjust things", according to a letter of Pope Honorius. Actually, the royal servantswho were landowners directly subject to the monarch's power and obliged to fight in the royal armyassembled, forcing Andrew to dismiss Julius Kán and his other officials. Andrew was also forced to issue a royal charter, the Golden Bull of 1222. The charter summarized the liberties of the royal servants, including their exemption from taxes and the jurisdiction of the "ispáns". The last clause of the Golden Bull authorized "the bishops as well as the other barons and nobles of the realm, singularly and in common" to resist the monarch if he did not honor the provisions of the charter. The Golden Bull clearly distinguished the royal servants from the king's other subjects, which led to the rise of the Hungarian nobility. The Golden Bull is commonly compared with England's "Magna Carta" – a similar charter which was sealed a few years earlier in 1215. A significant difference between them is that, in England, the settlement strengthened the position of all the royal subjects but, in Hungary, the aristocracy came to dominate both the crown and the lower orders.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: Andrew discharged Palatine Theodore Csanád and restored Julius Kán in the second half of 1222. The following year, Pope Honorius urged Andrew to launch a new crusade. If the report of the "Continuatio Claustroneuburgensis" is reliable, Andrew took the cross to show that he intended to launch a new crusade, but no other sources mention this event. Andrew planned to arrange a new marriage for his eldest son, Béla, but Pope Honorius mediated a reconciliation between Béla and his wife in the autumn of 1223. This angered Andrew, and Béla fled to Austria. He returned in 1224 after the bishops persuaded Andrew to forgive him.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: In his "Diploma Andreanum" of 1224, Andrew confirmed the privileges of the "Saxons" who inhabited the region of Hermannstadt in southern Transylvania (now Sibiu, Romania). The following year, he launched a campaign against the Teutonic Knights, who had attempted to eliminate his suzerainty. The Knights were forced to leave Barcaság and the neighboring lands. Andrew's envoys and Leopold VI of Austria signed a treaty on 6 June, which ended the armed conflicts along the Hungarian-Austrian border. As part of the treaty, Leopold VI paid an indemnification for the damages that his troops had caused in Hungary. Andrew made his oldest son, Béla, Duke of Transylvania. Béla's former duchy was given to Andrew's second son, Coloman, in 1226. Duke Béla started expanding his suzerainty over the Cumans, who inhabited the lands east of the Carpathian Mountains. Andrew launched a campaign against Mstislav Mstislavich in 1226 because the latter refused to grant Halych to Andrew's youngest son despite a previous compromise. Andrew besieged and captured Przemyśl, Terebovl, and other fortresses in Halych. However, his troops were routed at Kremenets and Zvenigorod, forcing him to withdraw. Despite his victories, Mstislavich ceded Halych to Andrew's son in early 1227.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: In 1228, Andrew authorized his son, Béla, to revise his previous land grants. Pope Honorius also supported Béla's efforts. Béla confiscated the domains of two noblemen, Simon Kacsics and Bánk Bár-Kalán, who had taken part in the conspiracy to murder Queen Gertrude. In 1229, upon Béla's proposal, Andrew confirmed the privileges of the Cuman chieftains who had subjected themselves to Béla. Robert, Archbishop of Esztergom, made a complaint about Andrew to the Holy See, because Andrew continued to employ Jews and Muslims. Pope Gregory IX authorized the archbishop to perform acts of religious censure to persuade Andrew to dismiss his non-Christian officials. Under duress, Andrew issued a new Golden Bull in 1231, which confirmed that Muslims were banned from employment, and empowered the Archbishop of Esztergom to excommunicate the king if he failed to honor the provisions of the new Golden Bull. In the second half of the year, Andrew invaded Halych and restored his youngest son, Andrew, to the throne.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: Archbishop Robert excommunicated Palatine Denis and put Hungary under an interdict on 25 February 1232, because the employment of Jews and Muslims continued despite the Golden Bull of 1231. Since the archbishop accused the Muslims of persuading Andrew to seize church property, Andrew restored properties to the archbishop, who soon suspended the interdict. Upon Andrew's demand, Pope Gregory sent Cardinal Giacomo di Pecorari as his legate to Hungary and promised that nobody would be excommunicated without the pope's special authorization. Although Andrew departed for Halych to support his youngest son in a fight against Daniel Romanivich, he continued his negotiations with the papal legate. On 20 August 1233, in the forests of Bereg, he vowed that he would not employ Jews and Muslims to administrate royal revenues, and would pay 10,000 marks as compensation for usurped Church revenues. Andrew repeated his oath in Esztergom in September.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: Andrew and Frederick II, Duke of Austria, signed a peace treaty in late 1233. Andrew, who had been widowed, married the 23-year-old Beatrice D'Este on 14 May 1234, even though his sons were sharply opposed to his third marriage. John, Bishop of Bosnia, put Hungary under a new interdict in the first half of 1234, because Andrew had not dismissed his non-Christian officials despite his oath of Bereg. Andrew and Archbishop Robert of Esztergom protested against the bishop's act at the Holy See.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: Danilo Romanovich laid siege to Halych, and Andrew's youngest son died during the siege in the autumn of 1234. However, Andrew stormed Austria in the summer of 1235, forcing Duke Frederick to pay an indemnification for damages that his troops had caused while raiding Hungary. Upon Andrew's demand, Pope Gregory declared on 31 August that Andrew and his sons could only be excommunicated by the authorization of the Holy See. Andrew died on 21 September, and was buried in Egres Abbey.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: Andrew's first wife, Gertrude of Merania, was born around 1185, according to historian Gyula Kristó. Their first child, Mary, was born in 1203 or 1204. She became the wife of Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria. Andrew's eldest son, Béla, was born in 1206. He later succeeded his father as king. Béla's younger sister, Elisabeth, was born in 1207. She married Louis IV, Landgrave of Thuringia. She died in 1231 and was canonized during Andrew's life. Andrew's second son, Coloman, was born in 1208. His third son, Andrew, was born around 1210. Coloman and Andrew each ruled the Principality of Halych for a short period.


title: Andrew II of Hungary

text: Two years after his first wife was murdered, Andrew married Yolanda de Courtenay, who was born around 1198. Their only child, Yolanda, was born around 1219 and married James I of Aragon. Andrew's third wife, Beatrice D'Este, was about twenty-three when they married in 1234. She gave birth to a son, Stephen, after Andrew's death. However, Andrew's two older sons, Béla and Coloman, accused her of adultery and considered her child to be a bastard. Her grandson, Andrew, became the last monarch of the House of Árpád.


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: Vincent "Vinny" Lecavalier (born April 21, 1980) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player who is currently a special advisor to hockey operations for the Montreal Canadiens. Lecavalier, played seventeen seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL) between 1998 and 2016. He was the captain of the Tampa Bay Lightning for the 2000–2001 season and again from 2008–2013 and spent his first 14 NHL seasons with the Tampa Bay Lightning before being bought out following the 2012–13 season and signing with the Philadelphia Flyers for $22.5 million over 5 years. He was chosen first overall by the Lightning in the 1998 NHL Entry Draft and was a member of their 2004 Stanley Cup championship team. He won the Maurice "Rocket" Richard Trophy in 2007 as the NHL's leading goal scorer. On February 10, 2018, the Tampa Bay Lightning retired his number 4 jersey.


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: As a youth, Lecavalier played in the 1994 Quebec International Pee-Wee Hockey Tournament with a minor ice hockey team from the North Shore of Montreal.


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: Lecavalier played two years of junior hockey for the Rimouski Océanic of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (QMJHL). During his tenure, he quickly established himself as one of the NHL's top prospects. In his first season with the Océanic, he won the Michel Bergeron Trophy as the QMJHL's top rookie forward, and the RDS Cup as the top rookie overall.


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: Lecavalier was drafted first overall by Tampa Bay in the 1998 NHL Entry Draft, during which new Lightning owner Art Williams proclaimed that Lecavalier would be "the Michael Jordan of hockey".


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: On March 1, 2000, following his sophomore season, he was named captain, becoming the youngest captain in NHL history at 19 years and 314 days (since surpassed by Sidney Crosby, Gabriel Landeskog, and Connor McDavid). Previously, Steve Yzerman had held that honour, having been named captain of the Detroit Red Wings at 21 years, 5 months.


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: However, Lecavalier did not fulfill expectations and was later stripped of the captaincy before the 2001–02 NHL season when Lightning management decided he was too young even as a high calibre player. Around that time, he clashed frequently with head coach John Tortorella.


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: Tortorella has since noted that Lecavalier matured since losing the team captaincy. During the 2003–04 NHL season, while Martin St. Louis led in regular season scoring and Brad Richards led in the playoffs, Lecavalier played a key role in the team's Stanley Cup victory, assisting on the Cup-clinching goal. He was named MVP of the Canadian National Team in the 2004 World Cup of Hockey, which Canada won.


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: During the lock-out which cancelled the 2004–05 NHL season, Lecavalier, along with Lightning teammates Nikolai Khabibulin and Brad Richards, played for Ak Bars Kazan in the Russian Superleague. Lecavalier scored 15 points as Kazan finished 4th in the league and lost in the first round of the playoffs.


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: Lecavalier was chosen to play for Team Canada at the 2006 Olympics, but returned to Tampa without a medal.


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: Lecavalier broke the all-time Tampa Bay Lightning record for most points in a season by scoring his 95th point on March 16, 2007, against the Buffalo Sabres. The record was previously held by Martin St. Louis, who had 94 points during the 2003–04 NHL season. His record of 108 points was since surpassed by Nikita Kucherov, who recorded Art Ross trophy-winning 128 points during the 2018-19 NHL season and holds the record at this point.


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: On March 30, 2007, in a game against the Carolina Hurricanes, Lecavalier became the first Lightning player to record 50 goals in a season. He finished the season with 52 goals, edging Ottawa's Dany Heatley, who scored 50 goals, to earn the Maurice "Rocket" Richard Trophy as the NHL's top goal scorer for the 2006–07 season.


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: During the 2007–08 NHL season, Lecavalier recorded 8 straight multipoint games, being the first to do so since Jaromír Jágr in 1996. The scoring streak put him first in the NHL scoring race, until he was surpassed by Ottawa Senators' captain, Daniel Alfredsson, who scored 7 points in the final game before the All-Star break. He was named captain of the Eastern Conference at the 2008 NHL All Star Game. At the end of the season he was named the winner of both the King Clancy Memorial Trophy and the NHL Foundation Player Award for his tremendous charity work in the community.


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: In the 2007–08 offseason, Lecavalier underwent shoulder surgery to repair a fracture from taking a hit against Matt Cooke of the Washington Capitals. He underwent another surgery on his left wrist later in the summer.


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: On July 12, 2008, Lecavalier agreed to an eleven-year, $85 million contract extension with the Lightning. His new contract began after the 2008–09 season, and ran through the 2019–20 season.


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: In mid-January 2009, rumours were swirling around a possible trade which would send Lecavalier to the Montreal Canadiens, his hometown, but Brian Lawton later stated that Lecavalier would rather stay in Tampa Bay for the rest of his career. Lecavalier confirmed in his own words his preference of playing in Tampa Bay over his native Montreal. On January 24, at the NHL's superskills competition, Lecavalier received a standing ovation from the Montreal crowd that lasted for 30 seconds when he was being introduced.


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: On January 21, 2013, Lecavalier played in his 1000th NHL game, becoming the 280th NHL player to reach that milestone. His 1,000 games were all with the Tampa Bay Lightning. The team honoured him on January 25, their next home game, with several gifts including an engraved silver stick.


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: In June 2013, the "New York Post" reported that the Lightning and Toronto Maple Leafs had discussed a trade which would have sent Lecavalier to Toronto; the Maple Leafs would receive an asset in exchange for buying out Lecavalier's contract and he would then be free to re-sign with Tampa as an unrestricted free agent at a lower salary cap hit. Though the Maple Leafs denied the report, NHL Deputy Commissioner Bill Daly promptly sent out a memo to all 30 league teams, warning them to avoid transactions deemed a circumvention of the collective bargaining agreement. The CBA prevents teams from re-signing players they've bought out for a minimum of one year. One day later, the Lightning announced that it was buying out Lecavalier's contract, allowing their longest serving player to become an unrestricted free agent. The buyout would pay Lecavalier a total of $32.67 million and rid the Lightning of his $7.727 million salary cap hit.


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: On July 2, 2013, less than a week after being bought out by the Lightning, Lecavalier signed with the Philadelphia Flyers who agreed to pay him $22.5 million over a five-year contract; which is in addition to the $2.33 million he will receive annually from the Lightning for the next 14 years. Lecavalier chose to wear number 40 with the Flyers as his usual number 4 had been retired by the Flyers in honour of Barry Ashbee. On November 27, 2013, Lecavalier made his first return to Tampa as a member of the Flyers and was welcomed with a tribute video as well as a long, standing ovation from Lightning fans. He scored a goal in his homecoming and was awarded the game's 3rd star. Lecavalier finished the season registering 20 goals and 17 assists, and scored his 400th career goal against the Boston Bruins on March 30, 2014. The Flyers qualified for the 2014 Stanley Cup Playoffs, before being eliminated in seven games by the New York Rangers, in which Lecavalier had one goal and an assist in the series.


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: The 2014-15 NHL season began quite poorly for Lecavalier, and on December 2, 2014 he was a healthy scratch for the first time in his career.


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: On April 9, 2015 in a game against the Carolina Hurricanes, Lecavalier fought twice against Hurricanes rookie Keegan Lowe, who was playing his first NHL game. Lecavalier didn't play the third period and may have suffered a concussion.


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: During the 2015–16 season, having played sparingly for the previous two seasons within the Flyers organization, Lecavalier was traded alongside Luke Schenn to the Los Angeles Kings in exchange for Jordan Weal and a third round pick on January 6, 2016. One of the stipulations of the trade was that Lecavalier would retire at the end of the season to keep the Kings from being saddled with his hit to the salary cap. With number 4 being retired for Rob Blake, Lecavalier chose number 44 for the Kings. He officially announced his retirement on June 21, 2016.


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: Lecavalier went to John Rennie High School in Pointe-Claire, Quebec for two years (1992–1993) before transferring to Athol Murray College of Notre Dame in Wilcox, Saskatchewan. He has been friends with former teammate Brad Richards, who won the Conn Smythe Trophy in 2004 as Most Valuable Player of the NHL playoffs, since the age of 14, when they met at Notre Dame, where they were roommates and became best friends. Since then they have gone on to become teammates with the Rimouski Océanic, the Tampa Bay Lightning and also with Ak Bars Kazan. Lecavalier currently resides in Tampa's Davis Island.


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: Lecavalier began dating Caroline Portelance in 2001. After ten years of dating, the two were married in 2011. The couple have three children together.


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: He is featured in "The Rocket: The Maurice Richard Story" where he portrayed legendary Montreal Canadiens centre, Jean Béliveau. He wore number 4 to honour Béliveau.


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: In October 2007, Lecavalier pledged $3 million to a new All Children's Hospital facility under construction in St. Petersburg, Florida. The facility was named the Vincent Lecavalier Pediatric Cancer and Blood Disorders Center in his honour.


title: Vincent Lecavalier

text: On February 10, 2018, the Tampa Bay Lightning retired Lecavalier's number 4 jersey. Lecavalier is the second player in franchise history to have his jersey retired, the first being Martin St. Louis.


title: H. B. Reese

text: Harry Burnett Reese Sr (May 24, 1879 – May 16, 1956) was an American inventor and businessman known for creating the number one-selling candy brand in the United States Reese's Peanut Butter Cups and founding the H. B. Reese Candy Company. In 2009, he was posthumously inducted into the Candy Hall of Fame.


title: H. B. Reese

text: H. B. Reese was born on May 24, 1879, on the Frosty Hill Farm, an agricultural and dairy farm located near the Muddy Creek Forks Historic District in York County, Pennsylvania. He was of Welsh and English descent and was the only child of Annie Belinda Manifold (1854–1935) and Aquilla Asbury Reese Jr. (1845–1914). When it came to earning money as a young man, Reese was creative. He farmed the land, but also milked cows because doing so was a quick way to earn cash. He even built a pond where he raised frogs that he sold to restaurants in the Baltimore area. By 1898, Reese was an accomplished French horn player who performed with local area bands.


title: H. B. Reese

text: On August 1, 1900, Reese married Blanche Edna Hyson (1882–1968), the daughter of Mary Elizabeth Markey (1857–1952) and Robert Bortner Hyson (1853–1930). Together they had 16 children, 8 daughters and 8 sons (13 of whom survived to adulthood).


title: H. B. Reese

text: Reese's mother Annie Belinda Manifold (1854–1935) and her sisters Elizabeth Turner Manifold (1846–1910) and Mary Collins Manifold (1847–1933) lived with him for the rest of their lives. At least 20 family members were present during a typical Reese family supper and sometimes more than 40.


title: H. B. Reese

text: By 1903, Reese was managing the fishing operations of his father-in-law's cannery business located in Ditchley, Virginia. In 1912 he managed a dairy farm in Woodbine, Pennsylvania, but took a factory job in New Freedom, Pennsylvania in 1915 to support his growing family.


title: H. B. Reese

text: In 1916, Reese read an ad in the "York Daily Record" by Milton S. Hershey seeking to hire people to manage and operate his numerous dairy farms that were located in the Hershey, Pennsylvania area. In 1917, Hershey hired Reese to work as a dairyman at Farm 28-A. In 1918, Hershey asked Reese to manage a dairy farm called the Round Barn. Hershey visited the Round Barn every two weeks because it was an experimental dairy farm that used new milking machines (more efficient than milking cows by hand) as he sought new approaches to animal treatment and milk production. In 1919, Hershey found the Round Barn too expensive to operate and closed it.


title: H. B. Reese

text: Jobless in 1919, Reese formed a new business called the R&R Candy Company that he operated from an old canning factory located in Hummelstown, Pennsylvania where he manufactured milk chocolate covered almonds and raisins, selling them to local stores.


title: H. B. Reese

text: Reese knew he needed high-quality manufacturing equipment in order to boost the potential of his Hummelstown, Pennsylvania candy business. In January 1920, he reorganized the R&R Candy Company as the Superior Chocolate and Confectionery Company and proceeded to raise today's equivalent of $290,000 by issuing stock in the newly formed company. A State charter for the new company was issued on May 14, 1920, with the following company officers:


title: H. B. Reese

text: Under pressure to support his 10 children — with yet another baby on the way — Reese took a paper mill job in Spring Grove, Pennsylvania, where he worked a second job as a butcher. He also had a third job canning vegetables.


title: H. B. Reese

text: In 1921, Reese's father-in-law purchased a home at 18 E. Areba Avenue in Hershey, Pennsylvania for his son-in-law's growing family. With his return to Hershey, Reese began working at The Hershey Company factory in the shipping department and was soon promoted to foreman.


title: H. B. Reese

text: On the side, working from the basement of his Areba Avenue home, he made a variety of confectionery products including hard candy, chocolate covered nuts and raisins, mints as well as two popular milk chocolate covered caramel-coconut candy bars that he invented:


title: H. B. Reese

text: The ingredients for both bars included fresh grated coconut, caramel, molasses, cocoa butter and honey. The main difference between the two bars was that the Johnny Bar had nuts as an ingredient. From the very beginning, Reese used chocolate manufactured by The Hershey Company for his chocolate coatings.


title: H. B. Reese

text: Reese enjoyed enough success to finally quit his factory job at The Hershey Company and set out on his own to "make a living" manufacturing candy.


title: H. B. Reese

text: Reese incorporated the H. B. Reese Candy Company in 1923. Selling a large assortment of candies on consignment, his employees coated by hand each piece of candy on marble slabs, some coated with milk chocolate and others with dark chocolate that were placed in two-pound and five-pound boxes that were sold in department store candy displays. To promote sales, Reese set up special coating tables in the front display windows of large, downtown department stores and had his employees coat candies in full view of shoppers passing by while other employees handed out freshly made samples.


title: H. B. Reese

text: Below is a brief list of the candy initially manufactured by the H. B. Reese Candy Company. They were made with ingredients such as real cocoa butter, fresh cream, fresh grated coconut and freshly roasted peanuts:


title: H. B. Reese

text: Borrowing money from a York County, Pennsylvania bank in 1926, Reese built a large home and a new factory that were located next to each other at 203-205 W Caracas Ave in Hershey, Pennsylvania. By 1935, he had 62 employees as well as his 6 sons working for him and was so successful that he was able to pay off all his mortgages.


title: H. B. Reese

text: By 1928, H. B. and Blanche had 16 children. That same year, Reese invented Reese's Peanut Butter Cups after one of his customers in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania reported supply problems with another confectioner who made a candy consisting of peanut butter covered with chocolate. Reese developed an automated manufacturing process and the candy became part of his assorted chocolate line. Soon the company was packaging 120 individually wrapped pieces per box that sold for a penny per cup. Each candy wrapper prominently displaying the slogan: "Made in Chocolate Town, So They Must Be Good". Sales of the penny peanut butter cup helped Reese pay off the mortgages on both his house and factory by 1935. This was especially noteworthy since the United States was still in the grip of the Great Depression and chocolate was considered a luxury.


title: H. B. Reese

text: The product gained in popularity and quickly became Reese's primary focus. During World War II, economic constraints and scarcity of materials led him to discontinue his other candies. In 1943, the five-cent cup was introduced and as packaging machine and plant automation were placed into production, the sales of Reese's Peanut Butter Cups doubled every four years.


title: H. B. Reese

text: Before Reese died in 1956, he began construction of a second plant located at 925 Reese Avenue, Hershey, Pennsylvania. Completed on November 30, 1957, this new modern plant contained 100,000 square feet of state-of-the-art manufacturing technology built at a cost equivalent of $6.9 million at a time when the sales of Reese's Peanut Butter Cups were equivalent to $125 million.


title: H. B. Reese

text: After a short illness, H. B. Reese died of a heart attack eight days before his 77th birthday, on May 16, 1956, at the St. Mary's Medical Center in West Palm Beach, Florida, where he had been vacationing. His residence at the time of his death was located at 630 Linden Road in Hershey, Pennsylvania.


title: H. B. Reese

text: On July 2, 1963 (seven years after the death of H. B. Reese), when the sales of Reese's Peanut Butter Cups were equivalent to $243 million, his sons Robert, John, Ed, Ralph, Harry and Charles Richard Reese, merged the H. B. Reese Candy Company with The Hershey Company in a tax free stock-for-stock merger. In 2022 after 59 years of stock splits, the Reese brothers' original 666,316 shares of Hershey common stock represent 16 million Hershey shares valued at over $3.6 billion that pay annual cash dividends of $66.3 million. At the time of its 1963 merger, the H. B. Reese Candy Company was celebrating its 40th Anniversary and had just added 200,000 square feet of new state-of-the-art manufacturing capacity to its 925 Reese Avenue plant in Hershey. In 1969, only six years after the Reese/Hershey merger, Reese's Peanut Butter Cups became the best-selling product of The Hershey Company.


title: H. B. Reese

text: As of September 20, 2012, Reese's Peanut Butter Cups were the No. 1 selling candy brand in the United States with sales of $2.603 billion. Furthermore, back in 1973, the H. B. Reese Candy Company plant added yet another 200,000 square feet of manufacturing space in order to begin production of the Kit Kat for sale in the United States which had 2012 U.S. sales of $948 million, making Kit Kat the No. 4 selling candy brand in the United States.


title: Swimming Pools (Drank)

text: "Swimming Pools (Drank)" is a song by American rapper Kendrick Lamar. It was released on July 31, 2012 as the lead single (second overall) from his major-label debut studio album "Good Kid, M.A.A.D City" (2012), by Top Dawg, Aftermath and Interscope. The song was written by Lamar and Tyler "T-Minus" Williams, the latter of whom also produced the song. The song, mixed by Dr. Dre and Top Dawg's engineer Derek "MixedByAli" Ali, propelled Lamar to mainstream popularity. The song peaked at number 17 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, in its thirteenth week of charting, after gradually climbing up the chart. It debuted on the Hot 100 at number 100 and progressed from number 55 and 32 to its peak. "Swimming Pools (Drank)" also serves as Lamar's first entry on the UK Singles Chart, where it debuted at number 63.


title: Swimming Pools (Drank)

text: A music video was released to accompany the song in August 2012. It was featured in the 2013 game "Saints Row IV", the 2014 re-release of the game "Grand Theft Auto V", and on a 2013 episode of "Grey's Anatomy". On January 26, 2013, Lamar performed the song on "Saturday Night Live", as well as his third single "Poetic Justice". The music video was nominated for Best Male Video and Best Hip-Hop Video at the 2013 MTV Video Music Awards. The song was later nominated for Best Rap Performance at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards.


title: Swimming Pools (Drank)

text: The single is an introspective regarding Lamar's family and social life, alcoholism, and the peer pressure that accompanies it amongst his friends. In the first verse, he remembers his grandfather's drinking and resulting death, and the reasons that led Lamar himself to drinking.


title: Swimming Pools (Drank)

text: The song garnered acclaim from music critics upon its release. "Rolling Stone" ranked the song the 34th best of 2012. "XXL" named it one of the top five hip hop songs of 2012.


title: Swimming Pools (Drank)

text: In its first week of release, the song debuted at number 100 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and remained within the chart for another week then fell, but two weeks later re-entered the Hot 100 and climbed up each week, progressing from the top 90 to number 81, 71 and 61. In its tenth week, "Swimming Pools (Drank)" climbed up to number 55 and the following week, entered the top 40 of the Hot 100 at number 32, moving up to 25 and peaking at number 17. On the UK Singles Chart, the song entered at number 63, remaining in the top 100 for one week. The song is Lamar's sixth highest-charting solo single on the "Billboard" Hot 100 behind "DNA." which debuted and peaked at number four and "HUMBLE." which debuted at number two and peaked at number one (though his features on "Fuckin' Problems" and "Bad Blood" reached the top 10 in the United States) and on the UK Singles Chart.


title: Swimming Pools (Drank)

text: The music video, directed by Jerome D, premiered August 3, 2012 on "106 & Park". A review by the magazine "Rolling Stone" shared a summary of the video stating: "In his new video for 'Swimming Pools (Drank),' Kendrick Lamar defies gravity, floating and tumbling in suspended space as liquor bottles fly upwards and smash into the ceiling. The rapper gets introspective on a woozy beat, considering the highs and lows of alcohol consumption and the sense of confidence it bestows upon the drinker. Lamar spends most of the video rapping alone, but color-filtered shots of a booze-soaked rager poke through the more contemplative scenes."


title: Swimming Pools (Drank)

text: The official remix featuring his Black Hippy cohorts – Ab-Soul, Jay Rock and Schoolboy Q was included as a bonus track on the Target deluxe edition of "Good Kid, M.A.A.D City". On March 14, 2013, producer Dev Hynes uploaded a reinterpreted rendition of the track by English R&B group, Mutya Keisha Siobhan to his official SoundCloud page. The track, entitled "Lay Down in Swimming Pools", features an interpolation of the original Lamar song. Hynes later commented saying: "Just finished recording new music with Mutya, Keisha and Siobhan, and the girls felt like having a bit of fun at the end of the last session – enjoy!!". Lloyd and August Alsina have also released a remix of the song.


title: Locking differential

text: A locking differential is a mechanical component, commonly used in vehicles, designed to overcome the chief limitation of a standard open differential by essentially "locking" both wheels on an axle together as if on a common shaft. This forces both wheels to turn in unison, regardless of the traction (or lack thereof) available to either wheel individually.


title: Locking differential

text: When the differential is unlocked (open differential), it allows each wheel to rotate at different speeds (such as when negotiating a turn), thus avoiding tire scuffing. An open (or unlocked) differential always provides the same torque (rotational force) to each of the two wheels on that axle. Therefore, although the wheels can rotate at different speeds, they apply the same rotational force, even if one is entirely stationary, and the other spinning. (Equal torque, unequal rotational speed).


title: Locking differential

text: By contrast, a locked differential forces both left and right wheels on the same axle to rotate at the same speed under nearly all circumstances, regardless of the tractional differences at either wheel. Therefore, each wheel can apply as much rotational force as the traction under it will allow, and the torques on each side-shaft will be unequal. (Unequal torque, equal rotational speeds). Exceptions apply to automatic lockers, discussed below.


title: Locking differential

text: A locked differential can provide a significant traction advantage over an open differential, but only when the traction under each wheel differs significantly.


title: Locking differential

text: All of the above applies to central differentials as well as to those in each axle: full-time four-wheel-drive vehicles have three differentials, one in each axle, and a central one (called a "transfer case") between the front and rear axles.


title: Locking differential

text: Automatic lockers lock and unlock automatically with no direct input from the driver. Some automatic locking differential designs ensure that engine power is always transmitted to both wheels, regardless of traction conditions, and will "unlock" only when one wheel is required to spin faster than the other during cornering. These would be more correctly termed automatic unlocking differentials, because their at-rest position is locked. They will never allow either wheel to spin slower than the differential carrier or axle as a whole, but will permit a wheel to be over-driven faster than the carrier speed. The most common example of this type would be the Detroit Locker, made by Eaton Corporation, also known as the Detroit No-Spin, which replaces the entire differential carrier assembly. Others, sometimes referred to as lunchbox lockers, use the stock differential carrier and replace only the internal spider gears and shafts with interlocking plates. Both types of automatic lockers will allow for a degree of differential wheel speed while turning corners in conditions of equal traction, but will otherwise lock both axle shafts together when traction conditions demand it.


title: Locking differential

text: Some other automatic lockers operate as an open differential until wheel slip is encountered and then they lock up. These types generally use an internal governor to monitor vehicle speed and wheel slip. An example of this is the Eaton automatic locking differential (ALD), or Eaton automatic differential lock (ADL), developed by the Eaton Corporation and introduced in 1973 for GM's Rounded-Line C/K Series pickups and utilities. The Eaton ADL is sometimes incorrectly called the Gov-Lok, despite neither GM nor Eaton ever calling it by that name. Gov-Lok is rather an unofficial name of unknown origin that gained popularity over the years. Both Eaton and GM do not know where the name came from, and Eaton has made several unsuccessful attempts in the past to debunk the Gov-Lok name. An updated version of the old Eaton ADL design is still available from Eaton, now known as the Eaton mLocker mechanical differential lock.


title: Locking differential

text: Some other automatic lockers operate as an open differential until high torque is applied, at which point they lock up. This style generally uses internal gears systems with very high friction. An example of this is the ZF sliding pins and cams type available for use in early Volkswagens.


title: Locking differential

text: Selectable lockers allow the driver to lock and unlock the differential at will from the driver's seat. This can be accomplished in many ways.


title: Locking differential

text: A spool is a device that connects the two axles directly to the ring gear. There is no differentiation side to side, so a vehicle equipped with a spool will bark tires in turns and may become unmanageable in wet or snowy weather. Spools are usually reserved for competition vehicles not driven on the street.


title: Locking differential

text: Mini-spool uses the stock carrier and replaces only the internal components of the differential, similar in installation to the lunchbox locker. A full spool replaces the entire carrier assembly with a single machined piece. A full spool is perhaps the strongest means of locking an axle, but has no ability to differentiate wheel speeds whatsoever, putting high stress on all affected driveline components.


title: Locking differential

text: The internal spider gears of an open differential can also be welded together to make a locked axle; this method is not recommended as the welding process seriously compromises the metallurgical composition of the welded components, and can lead to failure of the unit under stress.


title: Locking differential

text: Because they do not operate as smoothly as standard differentials, automatic locking differentials are often responsible for increased tire wear. Some older automatic locking differentials are known for making a clicking or banging noise when locking and unlocking as the vehicle negotiates turns. This is annoying to many drivers. Automatic locking differentials also affect the ability of a vehicle to steer, particularly if a locker is located in the front axle. Aside from tire scuffing while turning any degree on high friction (low slip) surfaces, locked axles cause understeer and, if used on the front axle, will increase steering forces required to turn the vehicle. Furthermore, automatically locking differentials can cause a loss of control on ice where an open differential would allow one wheel to spin and the other to hold, while not transferring power. An example of this would be a vehicle parked sideways on a slippery grade. When both wheels spin, the vehicle will break traction and slide down the grade.


title: Locking differential

text: Limited-slip differentials (LSD) are considered a compromise between a standard differential and a locking differential because they operate more smoothly, and they do direct some extra torque to the wheel with the most traction compared to a standard differential, but are not capable of 100% lockup.


title: Locking differential

text: Traction control systems are also used in many modern vehicles, either in addition or as a replacement of locking differentials. Examples include: Volkswagen's electronic differential lock (EDL), Opel's TC+ installed for the first time in Opel Astra G (2001), et cetera. This is not in fact a differential lock, but operates at each wheel. Sensors monitor wheel speeds, and if one is rotating more than a specified number of revolutions per minute (e.g. 100) than the other (i.e. slipping) the traction control system momentarily brakes it. This transfers more power to the other wheel, but still employs the open differential, which is the same as on cars without the EDL option. If all drive wheels lose traction, then throttle control may be automatically applied. Electronic traction control systems may be integrated with anti-lock braking systems, which have a similar action on braking and use some similar components. Such systems are used for example on the most recent Nissan Pathfinder, Land Rover Defender, Land Rover Freelander, the McLaren P1 and the McLaren 650s.


title: Peter Rachman

text: Perec "Peter" Rachman (16 August 1919 – 29 November 1962) was a Polish-born landlord who operated in Notting Hill, London, England in the 1950s and early 1960s. He became notorious for his exploitation of his tenants, with the word "Rachmanism" entering the "Oxford English Dictionary" as a synonym for the exploitation and intimidation of tenants.


title: Peter Rachman

text: Rachman was born in Lwów, Poland, in 1919, the son of Jewish parents. His father was a dentist. After the German invasion of Poland in 1939, Rachman may have joined the Polish resistance. He was first interned by the Germans and, after escaping across the Soviet border, was reinterned in a Soviet labour camp in Siberia and cruelly treated. After the Germans invaded the Soviet Union in 1941, Rachman and other Polish prisoners joined the II Polish Corps and fought with the Allies in the Middle East and Italy. After the war he stayed with his unit, as an occupation force in Italy until 1946 when it transferred to Britain. Rachman was demobilised in 1948 and became a British resident.


title: Peter Rachman

text: Rachman began his career by working for an estate agent in Shepherd's Bush. By 1957, he had built up a property empire in west London, consisting of more than a hundred run-down mansion blocks and several nightclubs. His office was at 91–93 Westbourne Grove, in Bayswater and the first house he purchased and used for multi-occupation was nearby in the run-down, St Stephen's Gardens, W2. In adjacent areas in Notting Hill (W11) and North Kensington (W10), including Powis Square, Powis Gardens, Powis Terrace, Colville Road and Colville Terrace, he also subdivided large properties into flats and let rooms, initially often for prostitution. Much of this area, south of Westbourne Park Road, having become derelict, was compulsorily purchased by Westminster City Council in the late 1960s and was demolished in 1973–74 to make way for the Wessex Gardens estate.


title: Peter Rachman

text: According to his biographer, Shirley Green, Rachman moved the protected tenants into a smaller concentration of properties or bought them out to minimise the number of tenancies with statutory rent controls. Houses were also subdivided into a number of flats to increase the number of tenancies without rent controls. Rachman filled the properties with recent migrants from the West Indies. Rachman's initial reputation, which he sought to promote in the media, was as someone who could help to find and provide accommodation for immigrants, but he was massively overcharging these West Indian tenants, as they did not have the same protection under the law as had the previous tenants.


title: Peter Rachman

text: By 1958, he had largely moved out of slum-landlordism into property development, but his former henchmen, including the equally notorious Michael de Freitas (aka Michael X/Abdul Malik), who created a reputation for himself as a black-power leader and Johnny Edgecombe, who became a promoter of jazz and blues music, helped to keep him in the limelight. A special police unit was set up to investigate Rachman in 1959 and uncovered a complex network of 33 companies he had set up to control his property empire. They also discovered Rachman was involved in prostitution, and he was prosecuted twice for brothel-keeping. At the time, he lived in Hampstead, and was using a chauffeur-driven Rolls-Royce.


title: Peter Rachman

text: In 1960, after Ronnie Kray was imprisoned for 18 months for running a protection racket and related threats, his brother Reggie approached Rachman with a business proposition. Rachman would buy properties for the Krays and they would take a percentage from the rentals as "protection". Rachman realised this was a ruse by the Krays to slowly take over his property empire and made them a counter offer, to run a central London nightclub Rachman owned. When the Krays agreed, they took over Esmeralda's Barn in Knightsbridge (now the location of the Berkeley Hotel). By giving the Krays a club, Rachman knew they had got what they wanted and they would leave him alone.


title: Peter Rachman

text: Rachman did not achieve general notoriety until after his death, when the Profumo affair of 1963 hit the headlines and it emerged that both Christine Keeler and Mandy Rice-Davies had been his mistresses and that he had owned the mews house in Marylebone where Rice-Davies and Keeler had briefly stayed. As full details of his criminal activities were revealed, there was a call for new legislation to prevent such practices, led by Ben Parkin, MP for Paddington North, who coined the term "Rachmanism". The Rent Act 1965 gave security of tenure to tenants in privately rented properties.


title: Peter Rachman

text: Rachman married his long-standing girlfriend Audrey O'Donnell in March 1960 but remained a compulsive womaniser, maintaining Mandy Rice-Davies as his mistress at 1 Bryanston Mews West, W1, where he had previously briefly installed Christine Keeler. After suffering two heart attacks, Peter Rachman died in Edgware General Hospital on 29 November 1962, at the age of 43. He is buried at the Bushey Jewish Cemetery in Bushey, Hertfordshire.


title: Peter Rachman

text: Rachman was denied British citizenship. As his home city was transferred from Poland to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (part of the Soviet Union) in February 1946, he became stateless.


title: Gao Yuanyuan

text: She ranked 64th on "Forbes" China Celebrity 100 list in 2013, 40th in 2014, 76th in 2015, and 86th in 2017.


title: Gao Yuanyuan

text: Gao Yuanyuan was born in Beijing and graduated from China Institute of Industrial Relations. Gao entered the entertainment industry in 1996. Gao, unlike other mainland Chinese actresses, did not graduate from any drama academic institutions. Rather, she started acting in a television commercial for Meadow Gold ice-cream after being spotted on the street at Beijing's Wangfujing shopping district.


title: Gao Yuanyuan

text: Gao made her debut in the 1997 film "Spicy Love Soup". Thereafter, she starred in "Beijing Bicycle" (2001), which won the Silver Bear at the Berlin International Film Festival and romance film "Spring Subway" (2002). She rose to fame in 2003 for her role as Zhou Zhiruo in the television adaptation of Louis Cha's "The Heaven Sword and Dragon Saber".


title: Gao Yuanyuan

text: Gao made inroads into the international market with the film "Shanghai Dreams" (2005), directed by Wang Xiaoshuai, which won the Prix de Jury prize at the Cannes Film Festival. She was then picked by Jackie Chan to star in the action comedy movie "Rob-B-Hood" (2006). Chan has characterized Gao as having the "freshest look and chaste spirit no Hong Kong actress could approach".


title: Gao Yuanyuan

text: Gao next starred in the romance film "Love in the City" (2007) opposite Shawn Yue, where she plays a deaf-mute kindergarten teacher. Her performance won her the Newcomer Award at the 11th Golden Phoenix Awards.


title: Gao Yuanyuan

text: Gao was then cast in "City of Life and Death" (2009), directed by Lu Chuan and based on the events of the Nanjing Massacre. Departing from her "girl-next-door" image, Gao played a middle-aged teacher who helped Nanjing people survive the horrors of the Japanese atrocities in 1937. Gao called the role a "turning point" in her career, stating that she had never started taking acting seriously until she worked on the film. "City of Life and Death" won the


title: Gao Yuanyuan

text: In 2010, Gao starred alongside Korean actor Jung Woo-sung in the romantic film "A Season of Good Rain" directed by Hur Jin-ho, as well as the omnibus romance drama film "Driverless". The following year, she starred in Johnnie To's romantic comedy "Don't Go Breaking My Heart" alongside Daniel Wu.


title: Gao Yuanyuan

text: In 2012, Gao starred in Chen Kaige's "Caught in the Web" where she plays a young woman who commits suicide after she becomes embroiled in a social media controversy. The film was especially popular among young viewers, drawing more than six million viewers and praise from critics.


title: Gao Yuanyuan

text: Gao returned to television in 2013 with the television series "Let's Get Married", playing a "leftover" unmarried woman who gets entangled with a man who has a phobia of marriage. The series was a commercial hit, and was the highest rated drama of 2013. For her performance, Gao won the Best Actress Award at the 18th Beijing Chunyan Awards. Gao reprised her role in the film adaptation of the drama.


title: Gao Yuanyuan

text: Gao then starred alongside Nicholas Tse in the romantic film "But Always" (2014). She won the Best Foreign Actress Award at the 52nd Grand Bell Awards.


title: Gao Yuanyuan

text: After a two-year hiatus, Gao confirmed her return to the screen with Juno Mak's gangster epic "Sons of the Neon Night".


title: Gao Yuanyuan

text: Gao was appointed as California's tourism ambassador to China in 2013. She was picked as she "embodies the California brand and spirit and will share her authentic passion for California with the Chinese public, inspiring their California dreams".


title: Gao Yuanyuan

text: Gao married Taiwanese actor Mark Chao in 2014. The two met on the set of "Caught in the Web" and welcomed a daughter - Rhea Chao in June 2019 one month after announcing that Gao was pregnant.


title: Pooja Gor

text: Pooja Gor (born 1 June 1991) is an Indian television actress. She is best known for her role of Pratigya in "Mann Kee Awaaz Pratigya". In 2014, she participated in the reality show "".


title: Pooja Gor

text: Pooja Gor was born on 1 June 1991 in Ahmedabad, Gujarat. In 2015, Gor learned kickboxing for self defence and to stay physically fit.


title: Pooja Gor

text: Gor began her television career in 2009 with a supporting role in Imagine TV's romance "Kitani Mohabbat Hai" alongside Karan Kundra and Kritika Kamra. She played the role of Purvi, the sister-in-law of the female lead Aarohi (played by Kamra). The show, which premiered in January 2009, culminated in September that year.


title: Pooja Gor

text: Later that year, Gor was cast opposite Arhaan Behll in the Star Plus soap "Mann Kee Awaaz Pratigya", where she played Pratigya. The show went off air in 2012 after a good run of 3 years.


title: Pooja Gor

text: In 2013, Gor appeared in two episodes of Life OK's episodic horror series "Ek Thhi Naayka" opposite Vishal Gandhi. In the same year, she played an episodic role in another episodic romantic series "Yeh Hai Aashiqui" alongside Sehban Azim. She also made a special appearance in the finale of the reality show "Bigg Boss 6".


title: Pooja Gor

text: From 2013 to 2015, Gor hosted Life OK's crime drama "Savdhaan India". In 2014, she participated in Colors TV's reality-stunt series "" where she became the first contestant to be eliminated or evicted. That year, she also appeared in "Box Cricket League". In 2015, she starred opposite Sahil Anand as Roshni, a doctor, in Life OK's medical series "Ek Nayi Ummeed - Roshni".


title: Pooja Gor

text: In 2016, she played an episodic role in "Pyar Tune Kya Kiya". In 2019, Gor participated in Colors TV's "Kitchen Champion 5" along with Abigail Jain. In 2021, Gor reprise her role Pratigya in "Mann Kee Awaaz Pratigya 2" along with Arhaan Behll.


title: Pooja Gor

text: In 2018, Gor made her film debut with the Abhishek Kapoor-directed inter-faith romance "Kedarnath", co-starring Sushant Singh Rajput and newcomer Sara Ali Khan. She portrayed Brinda Mishra in the film.


title: Pooja Gor

text: Gor has been in an relationship with TV actor Raj Singh Arora since 2009. In December 2020, Gor announced their separation on Instagram.


title: Isenheim Altarpiece

text: The Isenheim Altarpiece is an altarpiece sculpted and painted by, respectively, the Germans Nikolaus of Haguenau and Matthias Grünewald in 1512–1516. It is on display at the Unterlinden Museum at Colmar, Alsace, in France. It is Grünewald's largest work and is regarded as his masterpiece. It was painted for the Monastery of St. Anthony in Issenheim near Colmar, which specialized in hospital work. The Antonine monks of the monastery were noted for their care of plague sufferers as well as for their treatment of skin diseases, such as ergotism. The image of the crucified Christ is pitted with plague-type sores, showing patients that Jesus understood and shared their afflictions. The veracity of the work's depictions of medical conditions was unusual in the history of European art.


title: Isenheim Altarpiece

text: With the exception of certain holy days, the wings of the altarpiece were kept closed, displaying The Crucifixion framed on the left by the martyrdom of Saint Sebastian pierced by arrows and on the right by Saint Anthony the Great, who remains placid even while being taunted by a frightening monster. The two saints protect and heal the sick, Saint Anthony as the patron saint of the victims of Saint Anthony's fire, and Saint Sebastian, whose aid was invoked to ward off the plague. Grünewald's Crucifixion stands as one of the most poignant representations of this scene in Western art, due to the artist's masterful depiction of horrific agony, with Christ's emaciated body writhing under the pain of the nails driven through his hands and feet. This body covered with sores and riddled with thorns must have terrified the sick, but it also left no doubt about Christ's suffering, thus comforting them in their communion with the Saviour, whose pain they shared. "Grünewald depicts Jesus' body ravaged by crucifixion yet evokes pointedly the Christian message of Jesus' horrible suffering; originally intended for a hospital, the altar painting may have been designed to provide comfort and solace to the sick." Mary, the mother of Jesus, is shown at Christ's right, collapsing in anguish in the arms of John, the beloved disciple of Christ, and shrouded in a large piece of white cloth. Also at Christ's right is Mary Magdalene, kneeling with hands clasped in prayer.


title: Isenheim Altarpiece

text: At Christ's left, John the Baptist is accompanied by a lamb, symbolising the sacrifice of Jesus. The presence of John the Baptist is anachronistic. Beheaded by order of Herod in 29 AD, he could not possibly have witnessed the death of Christ. This last figure announces the New Testament by crying out in Latin, "illum oportet crescere me autem minui" (Vulgate, John ), "He must increase, but I must decrease." The inclusion of John the Baptist in this scene is symbolic, since he is considered as the last of the prophets to announce the coming of the Messiah.


title: Isenheim Altarpiece

text: The outer wings of the Isenheim Altarpiece were opened for important festivals of the liturgical year, particularly those in honour of the Virgin Mary.


title: Isenheim Altarpiece

text: Thus are revealed four scenes: the left wing represents the Annunciation during which the archangel Gabriel comes to announce to Mary that she will give birth to Jesus, the son of God. The Virgin Mary is depicted in a chapel to indicate the sacred character of the event. In the central corpus, the Concert of Angels and the Nativity are not independent scenes but instead fit within a unified concept: the viewer witnesses Christ's coming to earth as a newborn baby, who will be led to combat the forces of evil personified by certain of the angels, disturbing in their physical appearance. A number of symbols provide keys to aid in interpretation: the enclosed garden represents Mary's womb and is a sign of her perpetual virginity, the rose bush without thorns refers to her as free of original sin, the fig tree symbolises mother's milk. The bed, the bucket and the chamber pot underscore the human nature of Christ. Lastly, the right wing shows the Resurrection, in which Christ emerges from the tomb and ascends into Heaven bathed in light transfiguring the countenance of the Crucified into the face of God. The Resurrection and the Ascension are therefore encapsulated in a single image.


title: Isenheim Altarpiece

text: – The sculptures of Saint Augustine and Guy Guers, Saint Anthony, Two Bearers of Offerings, Saint Jerome, Christ and the Twelve Apostles are by Niclaus of Haguenau. With its inner wings open, the altarpiece allowed pilgrims and the afflicted to venerate Saint Anthony, protector and healer of Saint Anthony's fire. Saint Anthony occupies the place of honour at the centre of the corpus and at his side a pig is depicted, the emblem of the Antonite order. On his left and right, two bearers of offerings illustrate these contributions in kind, an important source of income for the Antonites. This central section is framed by Saint Augustine and Saint Jerome, two of the four great fathers of the Latin Church. Guy Guyers, who had commissioned the Altarpiece, is depicted kneeling at the feet of Saint Augustine.


title: Isenheim Altarpiece

text: The two hermits meet in a stunning landscape, intended to represent the Theban Desert. Grünewald created a fantastic universe, surrounding the date palm with a strange mixture of vegetation, in marked contrast with the calmness and tranquillity of the encounter, in which the animals in attendance take part, with the crow bringing two morsels of bread to the two recluses. In this dreamlike scene, medicinal plants, painted in naturalistic fashion, sprout at the feet of the two main figures.


title: Isenheim Altarpiece

text: This panel depicts Saint Anthony being tormented by monstrous creatures sent by Satan. Trampled to the ground, beaten with sticks, torn by claws and bitten, Saint Anthony appeals to God for help who sends angels to combat these evil demons. In the lower left corner, the being with webbed feet and a distended belly seems to personify the disease caused by ergot poisoning, resulting in swelling and ulcerous growths.


title: Isenheim Altarpiece

text: The iconography of the altarpiece has several unusual elements derived from closely following the accounts left by Saint Bridget of Sweden of her mystical visions. These had long had a significant influence on art, especially on depictions of the Nativity of Christ, a scene not included here.


title: Isenheim Altarpiece

text: The altarpiece's location in Alsace has meant that, in recent times, control of the work has alternated between Germany and France according to the fortunes of war. Following the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71 and the passing of control to Germany, German writers developed the concept that the altarpiece somehow represented the essential character of the German nation. The work subsequently became an object of extraordinary scenes of veneration in Munich during its temporary relocation there during the First World War, and again when Alsace passed back into French hands at the end of the War.


title: Isenheim Altarpiece

text: In the immediate postwar period the altarpiece, with its strong overtones of violent sensation and emotion, became a natural source of inspiration for many painters in the influential Expressionist school, such as George Grosz and Otto Dix. It also provided the basis for Paul Hindemith's modernist opera "Mathis der Maler". In the later 1930s, it appears to have suffered a temporary decline in official esteem in Germany as a result of the National Socialists’ branding of both Expressionism and of Hindemith's work as "degenerate".


title: Isenheim Altarpiece

text: Due to renovation work in the former convent and until April 2015, the Isenheim Altarpiece was on view in the local Dominican Church, located about 200 metres from the Unterlinden Museum. This temporary transfer offered an exceptional and unprecedented opportunity to present, alongside Grünewald and Haguenau's monumental masterwork, all three painted works by the Colmar native Martin Schongauer held in Colmar: the Orlier Altarpiece (1470–1475), the Altarpiece of the Dominicans (c. 1480) and the Virgin of the Rose Bush (1473). The altarpiece depicting Saint Catherine and Saint Lawrence (c. 1510) and sculptures from the Late Middle Ages rounded out the presentation.


title: Isenheim Altarpiece

text: In mid-2022 the altarpiece was re-shown at the Musée d’Unterlinden after it underwent a cleaning and restoration by a team of restorers led by Anthony Pontabry. Haguenau’s sculptures were restored in the polychrome wood restoration workshop in Paris of the Center for Research and Restoration of Museums of France by a team of sculpture restorers led by Juliette Levy. A study had been conducted by the Research Centre of the Musées de France in 2014 when they determined the state of the altarpiece and established the protocol for its restoration.


title: Nashville metropolitan area

text: The Nashville metropolitan area (officially, the Nashville-Davidson–Murfreesboro–Franklin, TN Metropolitan Statistical Area) is a metropolitan statistical area centered on Nashville, Tennessee, the capital and largest city in Tennessee, in the United States. With a population of just over 2 million, it is the most populous metropolitan area in Tennessee. It is also the largest metropolitan area in Tennessee, in terms of land area.


title: Nashville metropolitan area

text: The Office of Management and Budget defines the metro area for statistical use by the United States Census Bureau and other agencies. The area is the 35th largest metropolitan area in the United States. The metropolitan statistical area was first designated in 1950 and initially included only Davidson County. As surrounding counties increased in population and densities and in the number of their residents employed in Davidson County, the OMB added new counties to the MSA. Today, the metro area includes Davidson and 12 other counties.


title: Nashville metropolitan area

text: The Nashville metropolitan area is located in the central part of the state of Tennessee, entirely within the Grand Division of Middle Tennessee, as defined by state law. Both the geographical center and population center of Tennessee are found in Murfreesboro, the second-largest city in the metropolitan area. Geologically, the metropolitan area covers most of the Nashville Basin, a geological dome. Parts of the region extend onto the Highland Rim, an elevated plain which completely surrounds the Nashville Basin. Both of these physiographic provinces are part of the Interior Low Plateaus of the Interior Plains. The region is characterized by a combination of uneven rolling hills and relatively level plains, and is underlain with porous sedimentary bedrock such as limestone, sandstone, and shale, which form karst. As a result, the region contains many caves, underground streams, and depressions, and sinkholes are a common problem in the region.


title: Nashville metropolitan area

text: Nashville is located in the northwestern corner of the basin, and most of Nashville's suburban growth has occurred to the south, southeast, east, and northeast of the city, due to the more level terrain of the basin. Much of the metro area contains extremely fertile soils, and crops such as corn and tobacco are commonly grown in the more rural parts of the metropolitan area. The Cumberland River passes through central part of the region, and is served by several tributaries, including the Stones, Harpeth, Caney Fork, and Red rivers. A small portion of the southern part of the metropolitan area, including most of Maury County, is within the drainage basin of the Tennessee River. A small part of the northern part of the region is within the Green River watershed. The Nashville metropolitan area is one of the most biodiverse inland regions in the United States, and is home to extremely rare ecosystems known as cedar glades, which are found in areas with shallow limestone bedrock that is largely barren of overlying soil, and are also one of the most endangered ecosystems in the nation, due to the rapid growth of the region.


title: Nashville metropolitan area

text: The Nashville-Davidson–Murfreesboro, TN, Combined Statistical Area (CSA) is the result of the addition of the Micropolitan Statistical Areas of Shelbyville (Bedford County), Lawrenceburg (Lawrence County) and Lewisburg (Marshall County) to the Nashville-Davidson–Murfreesboro–Franklin, TN, Metropolitan Statistical Area. The population of the CSA as of the 2020 United States census was 2,118,233.


title: Nashville metropolitan area

text: Three major interstate highways serve the Nashville metropolitan area, converging in downtown Nashville as a contiguous freeway loop. Most of the rapid growth of the Nashville metropolitan area has occurred along three major interstate highway corridors. Interstate 40 runs in an east-to-west direction, and connecting the region to Memphis to the west and Knoxville to the east. Interstate 65 runs north to south, and connects to Huntsville, Alabama to the south and Louisville, Kentucky to the north. Interstate 24, while technically an east-west interstate, runs in a northwest-to-southeast orientation, connecting the region to Clarksville to the northwest and Chattanooga to the southeast. Within the metro area, I-40 serves a suburban corridor that consists of the eastern neighborhoods of Nashville, including Donelson and Hermitage, and the cities of Mount Juliet and Lebanon. I-24 serves the suburban areas of Antioch, La Vergne, Smyrna, and Murfreesboro to the southeast, which is both the most populated and, in general, is the most congested corridor in the region. The I-65 corridor to the south consists of the suburban cities of Oak Hill, Berry Hill, Brentwood, and Franklin, and I-65 also serves the Nashville suburbs of Goodlettsville, Hendersonville, and Millersville to the north. Interstate 440 serves as a southern bypass around downtown Nashville, and Interstate 840 is an outer southern bypass around Nashville. State Route 155 (SR 155, Briley Parkway) is a freeway that bypasses downtown Nashville to the north and provides access to a number of tourist attractions including the Grand Ole Opry. SR 386 (Vietnam Veterans Boulevard) is a freeway that serves the suburbs of Hendersonville and Gallatin, and SR 396 connects Spring Hill to I-65.


title: Denisova Cave

text: Denisova Cave (; ) is a cave in the Bashelaksky Range of the Altai mountains, Siberia, Russia. The cave has provided items of great paleoarchaeological and paleontological interest. Bone fragments of the Denisova hominin originate from the cave, including artifacts dated to around 40,000 BP. A 32,000-year-old prehistoric species of horse has also been found in the cave.


title: Denisova Cave

text: The cave is located in a region thought to have been inhabited concurrently in the past by Neanderthals and by modern humans. A bone needle dated to 50,000 years ago was discovered at the archaeological site in 2016 and has been described as the most ancient needle known (though another possible needle dates to about 10,000 years earlier from South Africa from 61,000 years ago).


title: Denisova Cave

text: Denisovans, Neanderthals and related hybrids may have inhabited the Denisova Cave for extended periods, but perhaps not at the same time. The attribution of the needle and certain other artifacts at the cave, whether to "Homo sapiens" or to the Denisova hominin (also sometimes known as "Homo denisova"), is uncertain.


title: Denisova Cave

text: Located in Altai Krai, near the border with Altai Republic, both in Russia, the cave is near the village of Chorny Anui (), and some south of Barnaul, the regional capital. The cave, which is approximately above the right bank of the Anuy River (a left tributary of the Ob), has formed in upper Silurian limestone and contains a floor area of about . The cave is composed of three galleries. The central chamber, the Main Gallery, contains a floor of with side galleries, the East Gallery and the South Gallery. It has been described both as a karst cave and as a sandstone cave.


title: Denisova Cave

text: Cave sediments are rich with remnants of animals, including extinct ones. Remains of 27 species of large and medium-sized mammals have been found, (such as cave hyena, cave lion, etc.) and 39 species of small mammals, as well as remnants of reptiles, 50 bird species and other vertebrates. Pollen in the cave sediments is used for palaeoclimatological research.


title: Denisova Cave

text: In the 18th century, the cave was inhabited by an Old Believer hermit, Dyonisiy (Denis), and was named after him, while the indigenous Altay people call it "Ayu-Tash" (Bear Rock).


title: Denisova Cave

text: In the 1970s, Russian scientists discovered paleoarcheological remains in the cave that led to further explorations. So far, 22 strata have been identified, with archeological artifacts that cover the time from Dyonisiy back to about 125,000–180,000 years ago. The dating of the strata was accomplished by the use of thermoluminescence dating of sediments, or, in some cases, radiocarbon dating on charcoal.


title: Denisova Cave

text: Among the archeological artifacts are Mousterian- and Levallois-style tools attributed to Neanderthals. Beside tools, researchers found decorative objects of bone, mammoth tusk, animal teeth, ostrich egg shell, fragments of a stone bracelet made of drilled, worked, and polished dark green chlorastrolite, and pendants. A sewing needle made from bird bone, estimated to be around 50,000 years-old, was found in Denisova Cave. The cave also contains stone tools and bone artifacts made by modern humans, and Pääbo commented: "The one place where we are sure all three human forms have lived at one time or another is here in Denisova Cave."


title: Denisova Cave

text: Denisovans, Neanderthals and related hybrids, may have inhabited the Denisova Cave over thousands of years, but it is unclear whether they ever shared the cave.


title: Denisova Cave

text: In 2019, a team of archaeologists from the Novosibirsk Archeology and Ethnography Institute discovered a 45,000-year-old cave lion statue made from woolly mammoth tusk, according to "The Siberian Times". This 42 mm long, 8 mm thick and 11 mm high figurine was unearthed in the eleventh layer of the southern gallery of Denisova Cave. According to Siberian archeologists, this statue made by Upper Palaeolithic artist might be the oldest animal figurine in the world. The lion's hind legs, groin, back and belly are covered with eighteen rows of notch ornaments and its head is missing. On the right side of the lion there are two extra rows with four notches.


title: Denisova Cave

text: The average annual temperature of the cave remains at 0 °C (32 °F), which has contributed to the preservation of archaic DNA among the remains discovered.


title: Denisova Cave

text: Scientists from the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology of Novosibirsk have investigated the cave. Among the artifacts which had been left about 30,000 to 48,000 years ago (strata 9–11), bones were identified. One of these bones was a piece of phalanx of a child found in layer 11.2 of the East Gallery. The fossil element was analyzed by Svante Pääbo and coworkers from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig; its mitochondrial DNA revealed a structure that differs from known human patterns and has been ascribed to "Denisova hominin". Pääbo and his co-workers first intended to classify the Denisovans as a separate species but changed their minds prior to publication of the results. Further analysis revealed the Denisovans were related to the Neanderthals and interbred with the ancestors of modern Melanesians.


title: Denisova Cave

text: In 2010, a toe bone was discovered in the cave, in layer 11.4 of the East Gallery, and therefore contemporary with the Denisovan finger bone. Preliminary characterization of the bone's mitochondrial DNA suggested it belonged to a Neanderthal, not a Denisovan. Later analysis confirmed the toe bone as coming from a Neanderthal. The first high-coverage genome of Neanderthals was taken from this toe bone.


title: Denisova Cave

text: This Neanderthal is referred to as the "Altai Neanderthal". The "Altai Neanderthal" is estimated to be around 120,000 years old. Other Neanderthals for which nuclear DNA has been recovered are all genetically closer to each other than to the "Altai Neanderthal". Modern humans and Ust'-Ishim man share more alleles with all other Neanderthals than with the "Altai Neanderthal", which shows that the introgression event from Neanderthals into humans likely took place after the split of the lineage of the "Altai Neanderthal" from that of other Neanderthals.


title: Denisova Cave

text: The use of collagen peptide mass fingerprinting of ancient bone samples, called Zooarchaeology by Mass Spectrometry (ZooMS), for species identification allowed the sorting of 2,315 unidentified bone fragments from 2012 or 2014 excavation. One sample, DC1227 ("Denisova 11"), taken from layer 12 of the East Gallery, carried human traits. This was the first time that this technique was used to successfully identify the presence of an extinct human. DC1227 was a bone fragment weighing , measuring in with a maximum length of and maximum width of . Further analysis showed the bone fragment to have Neanderthal mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).


title: Denisova Cave

text: Whole genome sequencing and other characterization of "Denisova 11" to 2.6-fold coverage showed this specimen belonged to a female at least thirteen years old at the time of death. "Denisova 11" was found to be the hybrid progeny of a Neanderthal mother and a Denisovan father. Comparing the entire genome against all archaic hominin genomes on record, "Denisova 11" shares the most genetic affinity with "Denisova 3", indicating that her Denisovan father is more closely related to "Denisova 3" than her mother was to any of the sequenced Neanderthals. Like "Denisova 3", this father carries some


title: Denisova Cave

text: introgressed Neanderthal DNA from an admixture event far in the past, estimated at more than 300 generations earlier, and similar in sequence to the Altai Neanderthal genome. However, the mother of "Denisova 11" was genetically closer to Neanderthal specimen "Vindija 33.19" from Vindija Cave in Croatia and to other sequenced Neanderthal individuals than to the "Altai Neanderthal". This suggests a migration or population turnover involving the Neanderthal populations of the region surrounding the Denisova cave.


title: Denisova Cave

text: Sequencing of DNA from soil samples taken from Denisova Cave showed the presence of Neanderthal and Denisovan mtDNA from several samples, as well as the DNA of several animals. Neanderthal mtDNA was present in soil samples from layer 15 of the Main Gallery, a layer associated with Paleolithic artifacts where no Neanderthal fossils have been found. Neanderthal and Denisovan mtDNA were present in samples from layers 14 and 15, respectively, from the East Gallery, lower than any previous fossil finds.


title: Denisova Cave

text: MtDNA has also been recovered from an equid fossil, dating to around 32,000 years ago, taken from Denisova Cave. The equid fossil was identified as coming from "Equus ovodovi" (Ovodov horse), an extinct species first described based on a 40,000 year old fossil taken from Proskuryakova Cave in Khakassia, Russia. The mtDNA of the Denisova sample shows close affinity for that taken from Proskuryakova Cave. DNA analysis places "Equus ovodovi" as a phylogenetically basal group for non-caballine horses, with closest genetic affinity with zebras.


title: Denisova Cave

text: So far, the fossils of six distinct individuals from Denisova Cave have been identified through their DNA. Four of the individuals, Denisova 2, Denisova 3, Denisova 4 and Denisova 8 are classified as Denisovans. Denisova 2 and Denisova 3 are young females, while Denisova 4 and Denisova 8 are adult males. mtDNA analysis of the Denisovan individuals suggests that Denisova 2 is the oldest, followed by Denisova 8, while Denisova 3 and Denisova 4 are roughly contemporaneous.


title: Denisova Cave

text: One of the individuals, the Altai Neanderthal, is a Neanderthal woman. Before its DNA was sequenced, the Altai Neanderthal had been given the provisional name of Denisova 5. In 2018, Denisova 11 was identified as a Neanderthal/Denisova hybrid, based on whole genome sequencing and comparisons.


title: Denisova Cave

text: During DNA sequencing, Denisova 2, Denisova 4 and Denisova 8 yielded low-coverage genomes, while Denisova 3 and the Altai Neanderthal yielded high-coverage genomes.


title: Information processing

text: Information processing is the change (processing) of information in any manner detectable by an observer. As such, it is a process that "describes" everything that happens (changes) in the universe, from the falling of a rock (a change in position) to the printing of a text file from a digital computer system. In the latter case, an information processor (the printer) is changing the form of presentation of that text file (from bytes to glyphs). The computers up to this period function on the basis of programs saved in the memory, having no intelligence of their own.


title: Information processing

text: Within the field of cognitive psychology, information processing is an approach to the goal of understanding human thinking in relation to how they process the same kind of information as computers (Shannon & Weaver, 1963). It arose in the 1940s and 1950s, after World War II (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012). The approach treats cognition as essentially computational in nature, with "mind" being the "software" and the brain being the "hardware". The information processing approach in psychology is closely allied to the computational theory of mind in philosophy; it is also related, though not identical, to cognitivism in psychology and functionalism in philosophy (Horst, 2011).


title: Information processing

text: Information processing may be "vertical" or "horizontal", either of which may be "centralized" or decentralized ("distributed"). The horizontally distributed processing approach of the mid-1980s became popular under the name connectionism. The connectionist network is made up of different nodes, and it works by a "priming effect," and this happens when a "prime node activates a connected node" (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012). But "unlike in semantic networks, it is not a single node that has a specific meaning, but rather the knowledge is represented in a combination of differently activated nodes"(Goldstein, as cited in Sternberg, 2012).


title: Information processing

text: Every individual has different information overload point with the same information load because individuals have different information-processing capacities (Eppler and Mengis, 2004)


title: Information processing

text: Sternberg's theory of intelligence is made up of three different components: creative, analytical, and practical abilities (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012). Creativeness is the ability to have new original ideas, and being analytical can help a person decide whether the idea is a good one or not. "Practical abilities are used to implement the ideas and persuade others of their value" (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012 p. 21). In the middle of Sternberg's theory is cognition and with that is information processing. In Sternberg's theory, he says that information processing is made up of three different parts, meta components, performance components, and knowledge-acquisition components (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012). These processes move from higher-order executive functions to lower-order functions. Meta components are used for planning and evaluating problems, while performance components follow the orders of the meta components, and the knowledge-acquisition component learns how to solve the problems (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012). This theory in action can be explained by working on an art project. First is a decision about what to draw, then a plan and a sketch. During this process there is simultaneous monitoring of the process, and whether it is producing the desired accomplishment. All these steps fall under the meta component processing, and the performance component is the art. The knowledge-acquisition portion is the learning or improving drawing skills.