title: Antenna types

text: "Nearly" isotropic antennas can be made by combining several small antennas; these are used for field strength measurement, as standard reference antennas for testing other antennas, and as emergency antennas on satellites, since they can work when the satellite has lost its orientation towards the communications station.


title: Antenna types

text: An "isotropic antenna" should not be confused with an "omnidirectional antenna"; an isotropic antenna radiates equal power in all three dimensions, while an "omnidirectional" antenna radiates equal power in all horizontal directions, with the power radiated varying with elevation angle, but decreasing in the direction parallel to the antenna's vertical axis; for several antenna types there is no radiation at all in the exact vertical direction.


title: Antenna types

text: The shape and length of a "random" wire is determined by available space and supports, instead of being laid out in a single straight line in a planned direction, with a trimmed resonant length. A random wire antenna typically has a complicated radiation pattern, with several lobes at varying angles to each wire segment, in different directions for each, which depend on frequency and segment length.


title: Antenna types

text: Random wire antennas are often included as a sub-category of folded monopole antennas, if their lengths are a quarter-wave or less, or folded end-fed dipoles if a half-wave or more, up to one or two wavelengths or less. When they are laid out with at least one extended segment oriented in a straight line, one to several wavelengths long, they operate essentially the same as a traveling-wave antenna. Random wire antennas laid out along the ground are called "snake antennas" and are sometimes included among Beverage antennas as an extreme case of that type.


title: Coalescent theory

text: Coalescent theory is a model of how alleles sampled from a population may have originated from a common ancestor. In the simplest case, coalescent theory assumes no recombination, no natural selection, and no gene flow or population structure, meaning that each variant is equally likely to have been passed from one generation to the next. The model looks backward in time, merging alleles into a single ancestral copy according to a random process in coalescence events. Under this model, the expected time between successive coalescence events increases almost exponentially back in time (with wide variance). Variance in the model comes from both the random passing of alleles from one generation to the next, and the random occurrence of mutations in these alleles.


title: Coalescent theory

text: The mathematical theory of the coalescent was developed independently by several groups in the early 1980s as a natural extension of classical population genetics theory and models, but can be primarily attributed to John Kingman. Advances in coalescent theory include recombination, selection, overlapping generations and virtually any arbitrarily complex evolutionary or demographic model in population genetic analysis.


title: Coalescent theory

text: The model can be used to produce many theoretical genealogies, and then compare observed data to these simulations to test assumptions about the demographic history of a population. Coalescent theory can be used to make inferences about population genetic parameters, such as migration, population size and recombination.


title: Coalescent theory

text: Consider a single gene locus sampled from two haploid individuals in a population. The ancestry of this sample is traced backwards in time to the point where these two lineages "coalesce" in their most recent common ancestor (MRCA). Coalescent theory seeks to estimate the expectation of this time period and its variance.


title: Coalescent theory

text: The probability that two lineages coalesce in the immediately preceding generation is the probability that they share a parental DNA sequence. In a population with a constant effective population size with 2"N" copies of each locus, there are 2"N" "potential parents" in the previous generation. Under a random mating model, the probability that two alleles originate from the same parental copy is thus 1/(2"N") and, correspondingly, the probability that they do "not" coalesce is 1 − 1/(2"N").


title: Coalescent theory

text: At each successive preceding generation, the probability of coalescence is geometrically distributed—that is, it is the probability of "non"coalescence at the "t" − 1 preceding generations multiplied by the probability of coalescence at the generation of interest:


title: Coalescent theory

text: For sufficiently large values of "N", this distribution is well approximated by the continuously defined exponential distribution


title: Coalescent theory

text: This is mathematically convenient, as the standard exponential distribution has both the expected value and the standard deviation equal to 2"N". Therefore, although the "expected" time to coalescence is 2"N", actual coalescence times have a wide range of variation. Note that coalescent time is the number of preceding generations where the coalescence took place and not calendar time, though an estimation of the latter can be made multiplying 2"N" with the average time between generations. The above calculations apply equally to a diploid population of effective size "N" (in other words, for a non-recombining segment of DNA, each chromosome can be treated as equivalent to an independent haploid individual; in the absence of inbreeding, sister chromosomes in a single individual are no more closely related than two chromosomes randomly sampled from the population). Some effectively haploid DNA elements, such as mitochondrial DNA, however, are only passed on by one sex, and therefore have one quarter the effective size of the equivalent diploid population ("N"/2)


title: Coalescent theory

text: Coalescent theory can also be used to model the amount of variation in DNA sequences expected from genetic drift and mutation. This value is termed the mean heterozygosity, represented as formula_3. Mean heterozygosity is calculated as the probability of a mutation occurring at a given generation divided by the probability of any "event" at that generation (either a mutation or a coalescence). The probability that the event is a mutation is the probability of a mutation in either of the two lineages: formula_4. Thus the mean heterozygosity is equal to


title: Coalescent theory

text: For formula_6, the vast majority of allele pairs have at least one difference in nucleotide sequence.


title: Coalescent theory

text: There are numerous extensions to the coalescent model, such as the Λ-coalescent which allows for the possibility of multifurcations.


title: Coalescent theory

text: Coalescents can be visualised using dendrograms which show the relationship of branches of the population to each other. The point where two branches meet indicates a coalescent event.


title: Coalescent theory

text: The utility of coalescent theory in the mapping of disease is slowly gaining more appreciation; although the application of the theory is still in its infancy, there are a number of researchers who are actively developing algorithms for the analysis of human genetic data that utilise coalescent theory.


title: Coalescent theory

text: A considerable number of human diseases can be attributed to genetics, from simple Mendelian diseases like sickle-cell anemia and cystic fibrosis, to more complicated maladies like cancers and mental illnesses. The latter are polygenic diseases, controlled by multiple genes that may occur on different chromosomes, but diseases that are precipitated by a single abnormality are relatively simple to pinpoint and trace – although not so simple that this has been achieved for all diseases. It is immensely useful in understanding these diseases and their processes to know where they are located on chromosomes, and how they have been inherited through generations of a family, as can be accomplished through coalescent analysis.


title: Coalescent theory

text: Genetic diseases are passed from one generation to another just like other genes. While any gene may be shuffled from one chromosome to another during homologous recombination, it is unlikely that one gene alone will be shifted. Thus, other genes that are close enough to the disease gene to be linked to it can be used to trace it.


title: Coalescent theory

text: Polygenic diseases have a genetic basis even though they don't follow Mendelian inheritance models, and these may have relatively high occurrence in populations, and have severe health effects. Such diseases may have incomplete penetrance, and tend to be polygenic"," complicating their study. These traits may arise due to many small mutations, which together have a severe and deleterious effect on the health of the individual.


title: Coalescent theory

text: Linkage mapping methods, including Coalescent theory can be put to work on these diseases, since they use family pedigrees to figure out which markers accompany a disease, and how it is inherited. At the very least, this method helps narrow down the portion, or portions, of the genome on which the deleterious mutations may occur. Complications in these approaches include epistatic effects, the polygenic nature of the mutations, and environmental factors. That said, genes whose effects are additive carry a fixed risk of developing the disease, and when they exist in a disease genotype, they can be used to predict risk and map the gene. Both regular the coalescent and the shattered coalescent (which allows that multiple mutations may have occurred in the founding event, and that the disease may occasionally be triggered by environmental factors) have been put to work in understanding disease genes.


title: Coalescent theory

text: Studies have been carried out correlating disease occurrence in fraternal and identical twins, and the results of these studies can be used to inform coalescent modeling. Since identical twins share all of their genome, but fraternal twins only share half their genome, the difference in correlation between the identical and fraternal twins can be used to work out if a disease is heritable, and if so how strongly.


title: Coalescent theory

text: The human single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) map has revealed large regional variations in heterozygosity, more so than can be explained on the basis of (Poisson-distributed) random chance. In part, these variations could be explained on the basis of assessment methods, the availability of genomic sequences, and possibly the standard coalescent population genetic model. Population genetic influences could have a major influence on this variation: some loci presumably would have comparatively recent common ancestors, others might have much older genealogies, and so the regional accumulation of SNPs over time could be quite different. The local density of SNPs along chromosomes appears to cluster in accordance with a variance to mean power law and to obey the Tweedie compound Poisson distribution. In this model the regional variations in the SNP map would be explained by the accumulation of multiple small genomic segments through recombination, where the mean number of SNPs per segment would be gamma distributed in proportion to a gamma distributed time to the most recent common ancestor for each segment.


title: Coalescent theory

text: Coalescent theory is a natural extension of the more classical population genetics concept of neutral evolution and is an approximation to the Fisher–Wright (or Wright–Fisher) model for large populations. It was discovered independently by several researchers in the 1980s.


title: Coalescent theory

text: A large body of software exists for both simulating data sets under the coalescent process as well as inferring parameters such as population size and migration rates from genetic data.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The University of Lincoln is a public research university in Lincoln, England, with origins dating back to 1861. It gained university status in 1992 and its present name in 2001. The main campus is in the heart of the city of Lincoln alongside the Brayford Pool. There are satellite campuses across Lincolnshire in Riseholme and Holbeach and graduation ceremonies take place in Lincoln Cathedral.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The University of Lincoln developed out of several educational institutions, including "Hull School of Art" (1861), "Hull Technical Institute" (1893), the Roman Catholic teacher-training "Endsleigh College" (1905), "Hull Central College of Commerce" (1930), and "Kingston upon Hull College of Education" (1913). These merged in 1976 into "Hull College of Higher Education", with a change of name to "Humberside College of Higher Education" in 1983, when it absorbed several courses in fishing, food and manufacturing.


title: University of Lincoln

text: In 1992 it was one of many UK institutions to become full universities, as the University of Humberside.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The university developed a new campus to the southwest of Lincoln city centre, overlooking the Brayford Pool. It was renamed the University of Lincolnshire and Humberside in January 1996, entering its first 500 Lincoln based students in September 1996.


title: University of Lincoln

text: With another change of name to the University of Lincoln in October 2001, the university moved its main campus from Hull to Lincoln in 2002.


title: University of Lincoln

text: Queen Elizabeth II opened the university's main Lincoln campus, the first new city-centre campus built in the UK for several decades. Over £375 million has been invested at Brayford Pool, transforming a city-centre brownfield site, revitalising the area and attracting investment from the retail, leisure and property sectors. Economists estimate that the university has created at least 3,000 new jobs in Lincoln and generates more than £250 million a year for the local economy – doubling previous local economic growth rates.


title: University of Lincoln

text: On 28 October 2004, the National Centre for Food Manufacturing at Holbeach was reopened by John Hayes, Member of Parliament for South Holland and the Deepings, after redevelopment as a specialist food-science technology park. The consolidation involved the University of Lincoln acquiring the Leicester-based De Montfort University's schools in Lincolnshire: the Lincoln School of Art in uphill Lincoln, and the Lincolnshire School of Agriculture's sites at Riseholme, Caythorpe and Holbeach. Caythorpe was later closed and its activities moved to Riseholme. Courses held in Grimsby were also moved to Lincoln at that time.


title: University of Lincoln

text: Through the late 1990s, the university's sites in Hull were scaled down as the focus shifted towards Lincoln. In 2001 this process took a step further when it was decided to move the administrative headquarters and management to Lincoln and to sell the Cottingham Road campus in Hull, the former main campus, to its neighbour, the University of Hull. The site now houses the Hull York Medical School. Until 2012 the university maintained a smaller campus, the Derek Crothall Building, in Hull city centre. Another campus and student halls in Beverley Road, Hull, were also sold for redevelopment.


title: University of Lincoln

text: In 2012 all agricultural further education provisions were transferred from Riseholme College to Bishop Burton College. Bishop Burton College has now moved into a new, purpose-built site at the Lincolnshire Showground with only limited use of the Riseholme Campus which has now mainly reverted to the University of Lincoln from 2021 onwards. Development of the site has not been decided but the university has purchased the recently vacated Lawress Hall a former training, conferencing and wedding venue on an adjacent site which was formerly owned by the Government.


title: University of Lincoln

text: March 2021 saw the new Lincoln Medical School open in time for the 2021/2022 academic year. The building, on the Brayfood Pool campus, features lecture theatres, trainee observation theatres and a library dedicated to medical research, allied health care, pharmacy, chemistry and biology textbooks. It is run as a partnership with the University of Nottingham Medical School.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The University of Lincoln is structured as a college-based system, with each college headed by a pro vice chancellor. There are four colleges of study, each comprising schools, institutes and research centres.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The School of Engineering became the first such school founded in the UK for over 20 years, opening in 2011 under collaboration with Siemens. The Isaac Newton Building, designed by Architects Allies and Morrison, incorporates Siemens Industrial Turbo-machinery Lincoln as a co-located its product-training facility.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The Department of Geography offers programmes accredited by the Royal Geographical Society. The Department of Life Sciences offers an animal behaviour clinic.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The School of Mathematics and Physics opened in September 2014 and was inaugurated in September 2016 by Professor Efim Zelmanov. Physics programmes are accredited by the Institute of Physics.


title: University of Lincoln

text: Lincoln Medical School was established in 2018 in partnership with the University of Nottingham offering registration with the General Medical Council. It is housed in the purpose built Ross Lucas Medical Sciences Building consisting of consultation rooms, a prosection anatomy suite, and a bio-medical and health sciences library.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The School of Pharmacy offers programmes accredited by the General Pharmaceutical Council. The college incorporates JBL Science a commercial research organisation.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The National Centre for Food Manufacturing is located at the Holbeach campus, with microbiology labs, product development kitchens and sensory suites.


title: University of Lincoln

text: Lincoln Institute for Agri-food Technology is based at the Riseholme campus from the 18th-century grade II listed Riseholme Hall, alongside a working farm with livestock including the Lincoln Red cattle and Lincoln Longwool sheep.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The College of Arts undertakes research and has a range of undergraduate and postgraduate programmes. The college is the home to Siren Radio, a community radio station broadcasting on 107.3 FM and online, and the Lincoln Performing Arts Centre, a 446 seat venue, which opened in 2008.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The School of Film, Media and Journalism is home to the Media Archive for Central England and New Lincs Media. Lincoln Sound Theatre was opened in 2010 by the visiting Professor Trevor Dann.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The School of Humanities and Heritage incorporates Lincoln Conservation, the university's conservation and material analysis consultancy, works with clients including the Historic Royal Palaces and the Victoria and Albert Museum.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The School of Architecture and the Built Environment offers Royal Institute of British Architects accredited programmes. Courses are available in Hong Kong at the School for Higher and Professional Education.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The Sarah Swift Building houses the School of Psychology and the School of Health and Social Care. It has a range of dedicated facilities in these fields, including psychology laboratories and a mock hospital ward.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The Health and Wellbeing Hub offers post-registration programmes and continuing professional development for qualified health and social care practitioners, accredited by the Health and Care Professions Council and the Nursing and Midwifery Council.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The School of Sports and Exercise Science is based in the Human Performance Centre which houses labs containing treadmills and ergometers, gas and lactate measuring equipment, motion detection, impact analysis, and an endless pool. Programmes are endorsed by the Chartered Institute for the Management of Sport and Physical Activity, recognised by National Strength and Conditioning Association and accredited by the International Universities Strength and Conditioning Association.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The Lincoln International Business School (LIBS), based in the David Chiddick Building, offers undergraduate, postgraduate and doctoral-level programmes. As a member of AACSB it is noted for a cross-functional approach to business education and diverse methods of delivery. Courses feature accreditation from the Chartered Management Institute, Chartered Institute Of Professional Development and Chartered Institute Of Logistics And Transport. It also offers distance learning and executive education aimed at working professionals, and students can participate ih a student managed investment fund.


title: University of Lincoln

text: Professor Neal Juster was installed as Vice-Chancellor of the university in October 2021, having previously served as Deputy Vice Chancellor at the University of Glasgow. His background is in mechanical engineering where he was Pro Vice-Principal, Dean of the Faculty of Engineering at the University of Strathclyde and Senior Lecturer in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Leeds. The following have served as Vice-Chancellor of the university:


title: University of Lincoln

text: The current Chancellor, Lord Victor, was installed in December 2008. He is the former Chief Executive of the social care enterprise Turning Point, current Chair of the NHS Confederation and was one of the first individuals to become a People's Peer. The following have served as Chancellor of the university:


title: University of Lincoln

text: Two Pro-Chancellors assist the Chancellor in their ceremonial duties. The current Pro-Chancellors are Dame Diane Lees CBE, as the current Chair of the Board of Governors, and Mr Haydn Biddle as the immediate past Chair. The following have served as Pro-Chancellor and Chair of the Board of Governors of the university:


title: University of Lincoln

text: The university's Strategic Plan 2022-2027 sets out targets of being among the top 15 of universities in the UK. Lincoln was ranked 17th by "The Guardian" in 2020, its highest to date. In 2017, it ranked 8th in Agriculture and Forestry and 2nd in Business and Economics in The Complete University Guide rankings. More than half its submitted research was rated as internationally excellent or world-leading in the UK's last nationwide assessment of university research standards, the 2014 Research Excellence Framework (REF 2014). It was awarded gold in the Teaching Excellence Framework (TEF 2017).


title: University of Lincoln

text: In 2020, the university was named Modern University of the Year in "The Times" and "Sunday Times" Good University 2021, as the highest-ranked multi-faculty modern university in the UK, climbing to 45th (out of 135), its highest ever position in the guide. In the same year it was named one of the world's greatest young universities in "The Times" Higher Education Young University Rankings, placed 14th in the UK for overall student satisfaction of the 129 mainstream universities in the National Student Survey 2020, and given a five-star rating in the QS Stars rating of global universities.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The University of Lincoln's official logo from 2001 to 2012 was the head of Minerva, an Ancient Roman goddess of wisdom and knowledge. From July 2012 this was changed to incorporate the university's coat of arms, which features swans, fleur de lys and textbooks.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The university has three libraries: the main University Library, a Library at the Holbeach Campus which is part of the National Centre for Food Manufacturing, and the Biomedical and Health Sciences Library at the Lincoln Medical School.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The University Library occupies the Great Central Warehouse (GCW) building, a renovated industrial railway-goods warehouse. It opened in December 2004 on the Brayford campus. In total it houses over 300,000 books, journals and other reference materials.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The Great Central Warehouse building was built in 1907 by the Great Central Railway. It spent the second half of the 20th century as a builder's warehouse, before falling into disrepair in 1998. It was converted into a library by the university's in-house team of architects and was formally opened in 2004 by the chief executive of the UK's Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education. In 2005, the conversion won gold and silver for conservation and regeneration at the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) Regional Awards in Leicester. It has also gained awards from the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA).


title: University of Lincoln

text: Built in 1874 by the Manchester, Sheffield & Lincolnshire Railway, the Engine Shed was the one surviving four-track, dead-end railway building in Lincolnshire. It opened as a refitted entertainment venue in September 2006 as the region's largest live music venue. It consists of the Engine Shed, the Platform and Tower Bar, which combined can accommodate up to 2,000 people. In 2014 the university transferred control of The Engine Shed to the Students' Union.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The Lincoln Performing Arts Centre (LPAC) holds a 450-seat multi-purpose auditorium designed for live arts performances, conferences and film screenings. Its events are designed to complement, rather than compete with those of neighbouring venues.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The Lincoln Science and Innovation Park is a large redevelopment south of the main university campus. It will comprise university facilities, including laboratories, and space for industry partners to add new offices and research facilities.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The Science and Innovation Park is being developed in partnership with the Lincolnshire Co-operative.


title: University of Lincoln

text: Facilities include a double sports hall, four squash courts, synthetic pitches, a fitness suite, a dance studio, eight badminton and short tennis courts, two basketball courts, two volleyball courts, two netball courts, two five-a-side football pitches and a seven-a-side football pitch. It also holds the School of Sport And Exercise Science, the majority of whose facilities are located in the building.


title: University of Lincoln

text: According to the university, over 100 national groupings appear among the student population at the Brayford Pool campus. Based on the available academic year data, the total student population was undergraduates and postgraduates.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The University of Lincoln Students' Union dates back to the university's formation. It was reconstituted in 2007 as a company limited by guarantee, and registered as a charity, introducing a more conventional governance structure for students' unions. It


title: University of Lincoln

text: supports and represents the students of the university; sabbatical officers are elected by the student body and supported by the staff. A number of sports teams operate in the national BUCS' leagues, competing nationally against other institutions.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The Students' Union was awarded NUS (National Union of Students) Higher Education Students' Union of the Year 2014/15 at an annual awards ceremony.


title: University of Lincoln

text: In 2014, ownership of the on-campus pub "The Shed" was transferred to the Students' Union after its acquisition from Greene King. It was later renamed "The Swan". In 2015, the Students' Union was awarded Best Bar None Gold and named second in the Best Bar None Safest Venue category.


title: University of Lincoln

text: In 2016, after a student referendum, the Students' Union voted to disaffiliate from the NUS, due to dissatisfaction after the controversial 2016 NUS Conference. The decision was taken to formally leave the NUS in December, but a second referendum was held after approaches from students who opposed the first vote. The re-run had 1,302 students voting to remain part of the NUS and 437 backing disaffiliation.


title: University of Lincoln

text: The issue arose again in 2019, after consultations with students at All Student Member meetings in 2018 and 2019. However, the backlash across the student body caused a referendum to be held to leave the NUS. This proposed disaffiliation from the NUS on 1 January 2020: a total of 2614 (15.7%) of students voted, with 996 to remain, 1,539 to leave and 79 abstaining.


title: University of Lincoln

text: Lincoln offers many accommodation options for students. The university owns and operates the Student Village, including the Lincoln Courts and Cygnet Wharf; a waterfront complex situated on the Brayford Pool Campus. In Lincoln Courts, there are 17 blocks of self-catering apartments, each apartment housing five to eight students, and Cygnet Wharf, three buildings with flats of 10–12 residents. The site has a range of facilities, with a total of 1,037+ bedrooms available including apartments specifically designed for students with disabilities.


title: University of Lincoln

text: Furthermore, there is a range of other University-owned and private off-campus student accommodation in Lincoln.


title: Pastry chef

text: A pastry chef or pâtissier (; the French female version of the word is pâtissière ), is a station chef in a professional kitchen, skilled in the making of pastries, desserts, breads and other baked goods. They are employed in large hotels, bistros, restaurants, bakeries, and some cafés.


title: Pastry chef

text: The pastry chef is a member of the classic "brigade de cuisine" in a professional kitchen and is the station chef of the pastry department.


title: Pastry chef

text: Day-to-day operations can also require the pastry chef to research recipe concepts and develop and test new recipes. Usually, the pastry chef does all the necessary preparation of the various desserts in advance, before dinner seating begins. The actual plating of the desserts is often done by another station chef, usually the "garde manger", at the time of order. The pastry chef is often in charge of the dessert menu, which, besides traditional desserts, could include dessert wines, specialty dessert beverages, and gourmet cheese platters.


title: Pastry chef

text: They are responsible for the creation and execution of dessert courses, as well as the menu's overall presentation. Pastry chefs must have a solid grasp of flavor profiles, baking processes, and food styling in order to create desserts that are both delicious and aesthetically pleasing. In addition to their technical abilities, pastry chefs must be able to work swiftly and effectively under pressure, as they are sometimes required to meet strict deadlines.


title: Pastry chef

text: Pastry chefs are also expected to fully understand their ingredients and the chemical reactions that occur when making fine pastries. Precise timing and temperatures are critically important. It is generally preferred to weigh the ingredients (i.e., with a kitchen scale) as opposed to measuring by volume (e.g., with a measuring cup), as weighing inherently offers far more consistent baking results.


title: Pastry chef

text: In larger kitchens, the pastry chef may have a number of other chefs working in their station, each responsible for specific types of pastries:


title: The Girl Next Door (Ketchum novel)

text: Two teenage girls are left in the care of their aunt, and they suffer systematic and escalating abuse at the hands of their aunt and her children. It is loosely based on the 1965 murder of Sylvia Likens. In 2007, it was made into the film "The Girl Next Door".


title: The Girl Next Door (Ketchum novel)

text: The story takes place in 1950s suburban United States, and is told in flashback form by the narrator, David.


title: The Girl Next Door (Ketchum novel)

text: Ruth, a single mother and an alcoholic (amongst other things) has three sons: Willie, Donny, and Ralph. Ruth has gained the trust of the neighborhood children by allowing them to come freely into her home, play as rough as they wish, and even drink an occasional beer with her. Her nieces are Meg, a teen girl for whom David develops feelings and Susan, a young girl who was severely injured in a car accident and still experiences complications from it. Both come to live with their aunt after the sudden death of their parents. At first, all seems well. However, Ruth's mental state has been deteriorating over time, and the burden of having two more children to care for seems to accelerate her descent into madness.


title: The Girl Next Door (Ketchum novel)

text: Ruth begins verbally abusing Meg. After an incident where Meg hits Ralphie when he touches her breast, Ruth beats Susan for "being in connivance" with Meg. When Meg tries to tell a police officer about the abuse, Ruth locks her in their bomb shelter, allows her boys to strip her, then leaves her bound and gagged all night. She starves her and allows the other children to burn her, beat her, and even urinate in Meg's face over the course of months, making them feel that because they have the permission of an adult, their actions are okay.


title: The Girl Next Door (Ketchum novel)

text: David realizes that he must do something before he loses the first girl he has ever loved. Despite his efforts, his plan to rescue Meg is foiled when Meg tries to bring Susan with her and Ruth catches them. As punishment, Ruth allows her son Donny to rape Meg. Willie also wants to rape her, but Ruth refuses to let him, saying it is incest for him to do so after his brother. Ruth carves the words "I FUCK / FUCK ME" into Meg's stomach. She then decides she will end all sexual desire on Meg's part and gives her a clitorectomy.


title: The Girl Next Door (Ketchum novel)

text: After one final act of torture, Meg dies, shortly before the police arrive. David sees Ruth wearing Meg's mother's wedding band. Remembering a promise to get it back to Meg, he vengefully pushes Ruth down the stairs, killing her. The officer realizes David did this intentionally, but, knowing how evil Ruth was, the officer claims the fall was accidental, and David is never charged. As David grows up, he uncovers the whereabouts of some of the other children who helped to torture Meg. After reading of a brutal crime spree perpetuated by one of the now-grown children of Ruth, David is left to wonder what has become of the children that he was unable to track down.


title: The Girl Next Door (Ketchum novel)

text: A feature film based on Ketchum's novel was released in 2007. Entitled "The Girl Next Door", the film stars Blanche Baker, Blythe Auffarth, William Atherton, and Daniel Manche. It was directed by Gregory Wilson from a screenplay by Daniel Farrands and Philip Nutman. After a successful series of screenings at film festivals around the world, the film was released by Starz Home Entertainment on December 4, 2007.


title: Zodiacal light

text: The zodiacal light (also called false dawn when seen before sunrise) is a faint glow of diffuse sunlight scattered by interplanetary dust. Brighter around the Sun, it appears in a particularly dark night sky to extend from the Sun's direction in a roughly triangular shape along the zodiac, and appears with less intensity and visibility along the whole ecliptic as the zodiacal band. Zodiacal light spans the entire sky and contributes to the natural light of a clear and moonless night sky. A related phenomenon is "gegenschein" (or "counterglow"), sunlight backscattered from the interplanetary dust, appearing directly opposite to the Sun as a faint but slightly brighter oval glow.


title: Zodiacal light

text: Zodiacal light is very faint, often outshined and rendered invisible by moonlight or light pollution.


title: Zodiacal light

text: Zodiacal light is most visible when the zodiac is at a steep angle to the horizon. Its brighter triangular portion is best seen in the Northern Hemisphere in spring during twilight after sunset and in autumn before sunrise, and in the Southern Hemisphere in autumn before sunrise and in spring after sunset.


title: Zodiacal light

text: The interplanetary dust in the Solar System forms a thick, pancake-shaped cloud called the zodiacal cloud which straddles the ecliptic plane. The particle sizes range from 10 to 300 micrometres, implying masses from one nanogram to tens of micrograms.


title: Zodiacal light

text: The "Pioneer 10" and "Helios" spacecraft observations in the 1970s revealed zodiacal light to be scattered by the interplanetary dust cloud in the Solar System.


title: Zodiacal light

text: Analysis of images of impact debris from the "Juno" spacecraft shows that the distribution of the dust extends from Earth's orbit to the 4:1 orbital resonance with Jupiter at , and suggests that the dust is from Mars. However, no other dedicated dust instrumentation on Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, Galileo, Ulysses, and Cassini found an indication that Mars is a significant source of dust besides comets and asteroids.


title: Zodiacal light

text: In the mid-latitudes, the zodiacal light is best observed in the western sky in the spring after the evening twilight has completely disappeared, or in the eastern sky in the autumn just before the morning twilight appears. The zodiacal light appears as a column, brighter at the horizon and tilted at the angle of the ecliptic. The light scattered from extremely small dust particles is strongly forward scattering, although the zodiacal light actually extends all the way around the sky, hence it is brightest when observing at a small angle with the Sun. This is why it is most clearly visible near sunrise or sunset when the sun is blocked, but the dust particles nearest the line of sight to the sun are not. The dust band that causes the zodiacal light is uniform across the whole ecliptic.


title: Zodiacal light

text: The dust further from the ecliptic is almost undetectable except when viewed at a small angle with the sun. Thus it is possible to see more of the width at small angles toward the sun, and it appears wider near the horizon, closer to the sun under the horizon.


title: Zodiacal light

text: The source of the dust has been long debated. Until recently, it was thought that the dust originated from the tails of active comets and from collisions between asteroids in the asteroid belt. Many of our meteor showers have no known active comet parent bodies. Over 85 percent of the dust is attributed to occasional fragmentations of Jupiter-family comets that are nearly dormant. Jupiter-family comets have orbital periods of less than 20 years and are considered dormant when not actively outgassing, but may do so in the future. The first fully dynamical model of the zodiacal cloud demonstrated that only if the dust was released in orbits that approach Jupiter, is it stirred up enough to explain the thickness of the zodiacal dust cloud. The dust in meteoroid streams is much larger, 300 to 10,000 micrometres in diameter, and falls apart into smaller zodiacal dust grains over time.


title: Zodiacal light

text: The Poynting–Robertson effect forces the dust into more circular (but still elongated) orbits, while spiralling slowly into the Sun. Hence a continuous source of new particles is needed to maintain the zodiacal cloud. Cometary dust and dust generated by collisions among the asteroids are believed to be mostly responsible for the maintenance of the dust cloud producing the zodiacal light and the gegenschein.


title: Zodiacal light

text: Particles can be reduced in size by collisions or by space weathering. When ground down to sizes less than 10 micrometres, the grains are removed from the inner Solar System by solar radiation pressure. The dust is then replenished by the infall from comets. Zodiacal dust around nearby stars is called exozodiacal dust; it is a potentially important source of noise in attempts to directly image extrasolar planets. It has been pointed out that this exozodiacal dust, or hot debris disks, can be an indicator of planets, as planets tend to scatter the comets to the inner Solar System.


title: Zodiacal light

text: In 2015, new results from the secondary ion dust spectrometer COSIMA on board the "ESA/Rosetta" orbiter confirmed that the parent bodies of interplanetary dust are most probably Jupiter-family comets such as comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. Data from the Juno mission indicate that the dust close to Earth has a local origin in the inner Solar System, best fitting the planet Mars as a source.


title: Zodiacal light

text: Zodiacal light is produced by sunlight reflecting off dust particles in the Solar System known as cosmic dust. Consequently, its spectrum is the same as the solar spectrum. The material producing the zodiacal light is located in a lens-shaped volume of space centered on the sun and extending well out beyond the orbit of Earth. This material is known as the interplanetary dust cloud. Since most of the material is located near the plane of the Solar System, the zodiacal light is seen along the ecliptic. The amount of material needed to produce the observed zodiacal light is quite small. If it were in the form of 1 mm particles, each with the same albedo (reflecting power) as Earth's moon, each particle would be 8 km from its neighbors. The gegenschein may be caused by particles directly opposite the Sun as seen from Earth, which would be in full phase.


title: Zodiacal light

text: According to Nesvorný and Jenniskens, when the dust grains are as small as about 150 micrometres in size, they will hit the Earth at an average speed of 14.5 km/s, many as slowly as 12 km/s. If so, they pointed out, this comet dust can survive entry in partially molten form, accounting for the unusual attributes of the micrometeorites collected in Antarctica, which do not resemble the larger meteorites known to originate from asteroids. In recent years, observations by a variety of spacecraft have shown significant structure in the zodiacal light including dust bands associated with debris from particular asteroid families and several cometary trails.


title: Zodiacal light

text: According to Alexander von Humboldt's "Kosmos", Mesoamericans were aware of the zodiacal light before 1500. It was perhaps first reported in print by Joshua Childrey in 1661. The phenomenon was investigated by the astronomer Giovanni Domenico Cassini in 1683. According to some sources, he explained it by dust particles around the Sun. Other sources state that it was first explained this way by Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, in 1684, whom Cassini advised to study the zodiacal light.


title: Zodiacal light

text: The Islamic prophet Muhammad described zodiacal light in reference to the timing of the five daily prayers, calling it the "false dawn" ( '). Muslim oral tradition preserves numerous sayings, or hadith, in which Muhammad describes the difference between the light of false dawn, appearing in the sky long after sunset, and the light of the first band of horizontal light at sunrise, the "true dawn" ( '). According to the vast majority of Muslim scholars, astronomical dawn is considered the true dawn. Practitioners of Islam use Muhammad's descriptions of zodiacal light to avoid errors in determining the timing of daily prayers.


title: Zodiacal light

text: In 2007, Brian May, lead guitarist with the band Queen, completed his thesis, "A Survey of Radial Velocities in the Zodiacal Dust Cloud", thirty-six years after abandoning it to pursue a career in music. He was able to submit it only because of the minimal amount of research on the topic undertaken during the intervening years. May describes the subject as being one that became "trendy" again in the 2000s.


title: State of Franklin

text: The State of Franklin (also the Free Republic of Franklin or the State of Frankland) was an unrecognized proposed state located in what is today East Tennessee, United States. Franklin was created in 1784 from part of the territory west of the Appalachian Mountains that had been offered by North Carolina as a cession to Congress to help pay off debts related to the American War for Independence. It was founded with the intent of becoming the 14th state of the new United States.


title: State of Franklin

text: Franklin's first capital was Jonesborough. After the summer of 1785, the government of Franklin (which was by then based in Greeneville), ruled as a "parallel government" running alongside (but not harmoniously with) a re-established North Carolina bureaucracy. Franklin was never admitted into the union. The "extra-legal" state existed for only about four and a half years, ostensibly as a republic, after which North Carolina reassumed full control of the area.


title: State of Franklin

text: The creation of Franklin is novel, in that it resulted from both a cession (an offering from North Carolina to Congress) and a secession (seceding from North Carolina, when its offer to Congress was not acted upon and the original cession was rescinded).


title: State of Franklin

text: The concept of a new western state came from Arthur Campbell of Washington County, Virginia, and John Sevier. They believed the Overmountain towns should be admitted to the United States as a separate state. They differed, however, on the details of such a state, although John Sevier (in a letter written in 1782) acknowledged Campbell's leadership on the issue. Campbell's proposed state would have included southwestern Virginia, eastern Tennessee, and parts of Kentucky, Georgia, and Alabama. Sevier favored a more limited state, that being the eastern section of the old Washington District, which was then part of North Carolina.


title: State of Franklin

text: Although many of the frontiersmen supported the idea, Campbell's calls for the creation of an independent state carved out of parts of Virginia territory caused Virginia governor and Kentucky land speculator Patrick Henry — who opposed a loss of territory for the state — to pass a law that forbade anyone to attempt to create a new state from Virginia by the cession of state territory. After Virginia Gov. Henry stopped Campbell, Sevier and his followers renamed their proposed state Franklin and sought support for their cause from Benjamin Franklin. The Frankland movement had little success on the Kentucky frontier, as settlers there wanted their own state (which they achieved in 1792).


title: State of Franklin

text: The United States Congress was heavily in debt at the close of the American War for Independence. In April 1784, the state of North Carolina voted "to give Congress the lying between the Allegheny Mountains" (as the entire Appalachian range was then called) "and the Mississippi River" to help offset its war debts. This area was a large part of what had been the Washington District (usually referred to simply as the "Western Counties"). These western counties had originally been acquired by lease from the Overhill Cherokee, out of which the Watauga Republic had arisen.


title: State of Franklin

text: The North Carolina cession to the federal government had a stipulation that Congress would have to accept responsibility for the area within two years, which, for various reasons, it was reluctant to do. The cession effectively left the western settlements of North Carolina alone in dealing with the Cherokee of the area, many of whom had not yet made peace with the new nation. These developments were not welcomed by the frontiersmen, who had pushed even further westward, gaining a foothold on the western Cumberland River at Fort Nashborough (now Nashville), or the Overmountain Men, many of whom had settled in the area during the days of the old Watauga Republic. Inhabitants of the region feared that the cash-starved federal Congress might even be desperate enough to sell the frontier territory to a competing foreign power (such as France or Spain).


title: State of Franklin

text: A few months later, a newly elected North Carolina Legislature re-evaluated the situation. Realizing the land could not at that time be used for its intended purpose of paying the debts of Congress and weighing the perceived economic loss of potential real estate opportunities, it rescinded the offer of cession and reasserted its claim to the remote western district. The North Carolina lawmakers ordered judges to hold court in the western counties and arranged to enroll a brigade of soldiers for defense, appointing John Sevier to form it.


title: State of Franklin

text: Rapidly increasing dissatisfaction with North Carolina's governance led to the frontiersmen's calls to establish a separate, secure, and independent state. On August 23, 1784, delegates from the North Carolina counties of Washington (which at the time included present-day Carter County), Sullivan, Spencer (now Hawkins County) and Greene—all of which are in present-day Tennessee—convened in the town of Jonesborough. There, they declared the lands to be independent of the State of North Carolina.


title: State of Franklin

text: Leaders were duly elected. John Sevier reluctantly became governor; Landon Carter, speaker of the Senate; William Cage, first speaker of the House of Representatives; and David Campbell, judge of the Superior Court. Thomas Talbot served as Senate clerk, while Thomas Chapman served as clerk of the House. The delegates were called to a constitutional convention held at Jonesborough in December of that year. They drafted a constitution that excluded lawyers, doctors, and preachers as candidates for election to the legislature. The constitution was defeated in referendum. Afterward, the area continued to operate under tenets of the North Carolina state constitution.


title: State of Franklin

text: On May 16, 1785, a delegation submitted a petition for statehood to Congress. Eventually, seven states voted to admit what would have been the 14th federal state under the proposed name of "Frankland". This was, however, less than the two-thirds majority required under the Articles of Confederation to add additional states to the confederation. The following month, the Franklin government convened to address their options and to replace the vacancy at speaker of the House, to which position they elected Joseph Hardin. In an attempt to curry favor for their cause, delegation leaders changed the "official" name of the area to "Franklin" (ostensibly after Benjamin Franklin). Sevier even tried to persuade Franklin to support their cause by letter, but he declined, writing:


title: State of Franklin

text: Franklin, still at odds with North Carolina over taxation, protection, and other issues, began operating as a "de facto" independent republic after the failed statehood attempt. Greeneville was declared the new capital. The government had previously been assembling at Jonesborough, only blocks away from the North Carolina-backed rival seat of government. The first legislature met in Greeneville in December 1785. The delegates adopted a permanent constitution, known as the Holston Constitution, which was modeled closely upon that of North Carolina. John Sevier also proposed to commission a Franklin state flag, but it was never designed.


title: State of Franklin

text: Franklin opened courts, incorporated and annexed five new counties (see map below), and fixed taxes and officers' salaries. Barter became the economic system "de jure", with anything in common use among the people allowed in payment to settle debts, including corn, tobacco, apple brandy, and skins. (Sevier was often paid in deer hides.) Federal or foreign currencies were accepted. All citizens were granted a two-year reprieve on paying taxes, but the lack of hard currency and economic infrastructure slowed development and often created confusion.


title: State of Franklin

text: The new legislature made peace treaties with the Native American tribes in the area (with few exceptions, the most notable being the Chickamauga Cherokee). The Cherokee claim to sovereignty over much of the area of southern Franklin, though already occupied by Whites, was maintained at the 1785 Treaty of Hopewell with the federal government. In 1786, Samuel Wear helped negotiate the competing Treaty of Coyatee on behalf of the State of Franklin. Coyatee re-affirmed the 1785 Treaty of Dumplin Creek, which the republic had secured from the Cherokee, and which Dragging Canoe's Chickamauga faction had refused to recognize. The new treaty extended the area for White settlement as far south as the Little Tennessee River, along which the main Overhill Cherokee towns were located. The Cherokee did not formally relinquish their claim to this territory to the U.S. until the July 1791 Treaty of Holston and even then, hostilities continued in the area for years afterward.


title: State of Franklin

text: The small state began its demise in 1786, with several key residents and supporters of Franklin withdrawing their support in favor of a newly reinterested North Carolina. Until this point, Franklin had not had the benefit of either the federal army or the North Carolina militia. In late 1786, North Carolina offered to waive all back taxes if Franklin would reunite with its government. When this offer was popularly rejected in 1787, North Carolina moved in with troops under the leadership of Col. John Tipton and re-established its own courts, jails, and government at Jonesborough. The two rival administrations now competed side-by-side.


title: State of Franklin

text: In 1787, the "Franklinites" continued to expand their territory westward toward the Cumberland Mountains by forcibly stealing land from the Native American populations. The frontier shifted back and forth often throughout the Cherokee–American wars. The September 1787 meeting of the Franklin legislature, however, was its last.


title: State of Franklin

text: At the end of 1787, loyalties were divided among the area's residents and came to a head in early February 1788. Jonathan Pugh, the North Carolina sheriff of Washington County, was ordered by the county court to seize any property of Sevier's to settle tax debts North Carolina contended were owed to them. The property seized included several slaves, who were brought to Tipton's home and secured in his underground kitchen. On February 27, Governor Sevier arrived at the Tipton house leading a force numbering more than 100 men. During a heavy snowstorm in the early morning of February 29, Colonel George Maxwell arrived with a force equivalent to Sevier's to reinforce Tipton. After 10 minutes of skirmishing, Sevier and his force withdrew to Jonesborough. A number of men were captured or wounded on both sides, and three men were killed.


title: State of Franklin

text: In late March 1788, the Chickamauga, Chickasaw, and other tribes collectively began to attack American frontier settlements in Franklin. A desperate Sevier sought a loan from the Spanish government. With help from James White (who was later found to be a paid agent of Spain), he attempted to place Franklin under Spanish rule. Opposed to any foreign nation gaining a foothold in Franklin, North Carolina officials arrested Sevier in August 1788. Sevier's supporters quickly freed him from the local jail and retreated to "Lesser Franklin". In February 1789, Sevier, and the last holdouts of the "Lost State," swore oaths of allegiance to North Carolina after turning themselves in. North Carolina sent their militia to aid in driving out the Cherokee and Chickasaw.


title: State of Franklin

text: After the dissolution of the State of Franklin in February 1789, continued support of the separate state movement was confined largely to Sevier County, specifically in the country south of the French Broad River. The people there realized that the only entity recognizing title to their land holdings had been Franklin. Both North Carolina and the federal (Confederation) government supported the Cherokee claims as set forth in the Treaty of Hopewell, and considered settlers in the area "squatters". This led to the formation of a "Lesser Franklin" government, with Articles of Association similar to the earlier Watauga Constitution. In 1789, these articles were adopted at Newell's Station, which served as the seat of government for the wider area of Lesser Franklin, including all the settled country south of the French Broad.


title: State of Franklin

text: The Lesser Franklin government finally ended in 1791, when Governor William Blount, of the newly formed Southwest Territory, met the Cherokee chieftains on the site of the future Knoxville, and they made the Treaty of Holston. The Overhill Cherokee now acknowledged the authority of the United States government, and ceded to the federal government all of their lands south of the French Broad, almost as far as the Little Tennessee River.


title: State of Franklin

text: By early 1789, the government of the State of Franklin outside of Lesser Franklin had collapsed entirely and the territory was firmly back under the control of North Carolina. Soon thereafter, North Carolina once again ceded the area to the federal government to form the Southwest Territory, the precursor to the State of Tennessee. Sevier was elected in 1790 to the US Congress to represent the territory, and became Tennessee's first governor, in 1796. Col. John Tipton signed the Tennessee Constitution as the representative from Washington County.


title: State of Franklin

text: The Washington County farm of Col. John Tipton, where the 1788 Battle of Franklin was fought, has been preserved by the State of Tennessee as the Tipton-Haynes State Historic Site in southeastern Johnson City, Tennessee.


title: State of Franklin

text: Samuel Tipton, a son of Col. John Tipton, donated land for a town to be located along the east side of the Doe River near its confluence with the Watauga River in what was then known as Wayne County, and the town was named in his honor as Tiptonville (not to be confused with present-day Tiptonville, in West Tennessee). The losers of the Battle of Franklin (1788) later regained political power and renamed Wayne County as Carter County (after the former State of Franklin Senate Speaker Landon Carter), and also renamed Tiptonville as Elizabethton (after the wife of Landon Carter, Elizabeth Carter) when Tennessee was first admitted to the Union in 1796 and John Sevier became the first governor of Tennessee.


title: State of Franklin

text: The Franklin area also played a role in the Southern Unionist East Tennessee Convention. Throughout the first half of the 19th century, East Tennessee was frequently at odds with Tennessee's two other grand divisions, Middle Tennessee and West Tennessee. Many East Tennesseans felt the state legislature showed persistent favoritism toward the other two divisions, especially over funding for internal improvements. In the early 1840s, several East Tennessee leaders, among them Congressman (and future President) Andrew Johnson, led a movement to form a separate state in East Tennessee known as "Frankland". Though this movement was unsuccessful, the idea that East Tennessee should be a separate state periodically resurfaced over the subsequent two decades.


title: State of Franklin

text: Many businesses in the State of Franklin use that name to keep the legacy alive, such as the "State of Franklin Bank", based in Johnson City, Tennessee.


title: State of Franklin

text: One of the main thoroughfares in Johnson City is named "State of Franklin Road" and passes by East Tennessee State University.


title: State of Franklin

text: In law-school examinations in the U.S., a fictional "State of Franklin" is used as a placeholder name for a generic state, often the one in which the property of Blackacre is located. This way, variations in existing state law do not complicate the theoretical legal issues arising from the property disputes. By convention, Blackacre is located in Acre County, Franklin.


title: State of Franklin

text: The combined present-day (as of 2015 census) population of the counties that would have made up the State of Franklin is 540,000, which would have made the state have about 40,000 people fewer than Wyoming, the current least-populous state.


title: Volleyball jargon

text: There is no absolute standard for naming sets, so there can be several different names for any one type of set.


title: Volleyball jargon

text: While there is no absolute standard, the most common set naming system is a two number system where the first number corresponds to a zone on the net, and the second number corresponds to the height of the set at its apex above the top of the net in feet. Zones are named 1 through 9 from left to right along the net with the setter occupying Zone 6; and the most common set heights are 1, 2, 3, 5, and 10 (represented by a 0 in the notation). For example, a 10 set is a high ball to the left side, a 53 is a 3 foot high set to the middle of the court (in front of the setter), and a 61 is a 1 foot high set right behind the setter.


title: El Mirador

text: El Mirador (which translates as "the lookout", "the viewpoint", or "the belvedere") is a large pre-Columbian Maya settlement, located in the north of the modern department of El Petén, Guatemala.


title: El Mirador

text: Some of the Mirador basin was surveyed in 1885 by Claudio Urrutia, who noted the presence of ruins. But El Mirador had little attention paid to it until Ian Graham spent some time there making the first map of the area in 1962.


title: El Mirador

text: A detailed investigation began in 1978 with an archaeological project under the direction of Bruce Dahlin (The Catholic University of America) and Ray Matheny (Brigham Young University). Dahlin's work focused primarily on the bajo swamps and mapping, while Matheny's team focused primarily on excavations in the site center and architecture. This project ended in 1983. To the surprise of the archaeologists, it was found that a large amount of construction was not contemporary with the large Maya classic cities in the area, like Tikal and Uaxactun, but rather from centuries earlier in the pre-classic era ("see:" Mesoamerican chronology).


title: El Mirador

text: In 2003, Richard D. Hansen, a Senior Scientist from Idaho State University, initiated major investigation, stabilization, and conservation programs at El Mirador with a multi-disciplinary approach, including staff and technical personnel from 52 universities and research institutions from throughout the world. By August 2008, the team had published 168 scientific papers, and produced many technical reports and scientific presentations as well as documentary films for the History Channel, National Geographic, the Learning Channel, BBC, ABC's 20/20 and Good Morning America, 60 Minutes (Australia), and the Discovery Channel. In 2019, Yes Theory released "The Lost Pyramid", a feature-length documentary about their adventure through the Guatemalan jungle to climb The La Danta Pyramid.


title: El Mirador

text: El Mirador flourished from about the 6th century BCE to the 1st century CE, reaching its height from the 3rd century BCE. Then it experienced a hiatus of construction and perhaps abandonment for generations, followed by re-occupation and further construction in the Late Classic era, and a final abandonment about the end of the 9th century. The civic center of the site covers some with several thousand structures, including monumental architecture from 10 to 72 meters high.


title: El Mirador

text: One of the key elements for this tremendous rise in human population was the many bajos, seasonal swamps, in the region. Tropical-forest soil contains hardly any nutrients, and most of the nutrients present get washed away by rain. Yet the Maya developed a system that was highly productive. In the Mirador basin, the swamps provided the solution. By importing mud from the swamps by the thousands of tonnes, the Maya created mud-covered terraces ready for agriculture. By adding lime to the soil, they elevated the pH, making it suitable for a variety of crops: corn, squash, beans, cacao, cotton and palm. When the ground was depleted of nutrients, adding another layer of mud reinvigorated the fields.


title: El Mirador

text: There are a number of "triadic" structures (around 35 structures), consisting of large artificial platforms topped with a set of 3 summit pyramids. The most notable of such structures are three huge complexes; one is nicknamed El Tigre, with height ; another is called La Danta (or Danta) temple. The La Danta temple measures approximately tall from the forest floor, and considering its total volume (2,800,000 cubic meters) is one of the largest pyramids in the world. When the large man-made platform that the temple is built upon (some 180,000 square meters) is included in calculations, La Danta is considered by some archeologists to be one of the largest ancient structures in the world. Also the Los Monos complex is very large (48 meters high) although not as well known. Most of the structures were originally faced with cut stone which was then decorated with large stucco masks depicting the deities of Maya mythology. According to Carlos Morales-Aguilar, a Guatemalan archaeologist from Pantheon-Sorbonne University, the city appears to have been planned from its foundation, as alignments have been found between the architectural groups and main temples, which were possibly related to solar alignments. The study reflects an importance of urban planning and sacred spaces since the first settlers.


title: El Mirador

text: An additional feature of El Mirador is the quantity and size of causeways, internally linking important architectural compounds, and externally linking the numerous major ancient cities within the Mirador Basin during the later part of the Middle and Late Preclassic periods. The causeways are commonly referred to as "sacbeob" (the plural form of "sacbe", meaning "white road" in Mayan, from "sac" "white" and "be" "road"). These are raised stone causeways rising 2 to 6 meters above the level of the surrounding landscape and measuring from 20 to 50 meters wide. One "sacbe" links El Mirador to the neighbouring site of Nakbe, approximately 12 km away, while another joined El Mirador to El Tintal, 20 km away.


title: El Mirador

text: While the city and the sister centers of the Mirador Basin thrived between 300 BCE and the Common Era (CE), apparently, the site was abandoned, as were nearly all other major sites in the area, by about 150 CE. A large wall, which must have been as high as 3 to 8 meters, had been constructed on the entire northern, eastern, and southern portions of the West Group of the city prior to its abandonment in the terminal Preclassic period, suggesting a possible threat that had been perceived by this time.


title: El Mirador

text: Another aspect that may have led to the downfall of the system was soil erosion due to deforestation; trees were burned as part of the process of making stucco. The Maya were fond of plastering buildings, houses, floors and even ceramics with layers of lime plaster called stucco. This plaster created a nice smooth surface which facilitated painting. With this stucco, the Maya created many astonishingly beautiful artifacts, as well as smooth-walled pyramids and 'paved' roads. But a darker side to this production became evident when consumption started to evolve into conspicuous consumption. The production of lime needs a large amount of green wood. Archeologists have calculated that for the production of 1 tonne of lime cement, 5 tonnes of limestone and 5 tonnes of wood were needed.


title: El Mirador

text: Excavations in and around the bajos (swamps) revealed the effects of deforestation. When trees vanish, the soil becomes loose and is easily transported by water (e.g. rain). Also, water flows downhill, and the only places in the Basin where it could flow to were these bajos. The nutrient-rich muck that was so vigorously imported from the bajos was now buried under a 2 to 3-metre thick layer of sterile clay. This cut off the driving force behind the sustainable agricultural fields. When you cannot replenish your crop fields, more and more harvests start to fail. In the end the failing crop fields led to starvation and collapse of society.


title: El Mirador

text: In the Late Classic period, c. 700 CE, portions of the site were reoccupied on a more modest scale, with small structures nestled among the ruins of the great preclassic center. The largest structure from this time period is scarcely more than 8 meters high, and many of the preclassic building were plundered for stone materials for construction and lime making. The Late Classic occupants, however, were noted scribes and artists. The area of the Mirador Basin is the only known source of the "codex-style ceramics", a particularly fine polychrome ceramic consisting of black line drawings on a cream colored background. The Late Classic occupation was brief, and by about 900 CE the area was again nearly completely abandoned and remains so until the present time.


title: El Mirador

text: Richard D. Hansen, an archaeologist from the University of Utah, is the current director of the Mirador Basin Project, and according to his discoveries here, he thinks that the more than 45 mapped sites in the Mirador Basin may have formed the earliest well-defined political state in Mesoamerica.


title: El Mirador

text: Although containing striking examples of Preclassic Maya civilization, the remote location of El Mirador has prevented it from becoming a popular tourist site. Major plans by the current government of Guatemala include El Mirador as an important center of the Cuatro Balam Conservation and Development project.


title: El Mirador

text: This large concentration of Preclassic Maya cities in Mesoamerica is threatened by massive deforestation, looting, and destruction caused by equipment used in logging road construction, which itself facilitates intrusive settlements. The Mirador Basin in the far northern Petén region of Guatemala is known for its abundance of sites, many of which are among the largest and earliest in the Maya world. Of 26 known sites, only 14 have been studied; an estimated 30 more await discovery. By the time scholars get there, looters may already have plundered them:


title: El Mirador

text: Trafficking in Maya artifacts is big business. George S. Stuart of the National Geographic Society has suggested that 1,000 pieces of fine pottery leave the Maya region each month, not an unreasonable estimate in light of the site damage observed. The most sought-after finds are codex-style ceramics, Late Classic (600–900 CE) black-line-on-cream pottery depicting mythological and historical events. Looters are often paid between $200 and $500 per vessel. Collectors may pay more than $100,000 for the same pieces in a gallery or at auction. At even minimal prices this amounts to a $10-million-a-month business in stolen cultural property. Collecting Precolumbian art is often viewed as a justifiable means of preserving the past. It is, in fact, a destructive and sometimes violent business, as attested to by the recent assassination in Carmelita of Carlos Catalán, a local chiclero who had become a staunch opponent of looting in Petén.


title: El Mirador

text: Since 2003, California-based non-profit organization Global Heritage Fund (GHF) has been working to preserve and protect Mirador. In an October 2010 report titled "Saving Our Vanishing Heritage", GHF listed Mirador as one of 12 worldwide heritage sites most "On the Verge" of irreparable loss and destruction, citing deforestation, fires, major logging, poaching, looting, and narcotics trafficking as major threats to the region.


title: The Graduate (soundtrack)

text: The Graduate is a 1968 album of songs and music from the soundtrack of Mike Nichols' movie "The Graduate". It includes five songs from the folk-rock duo Simon & Garfunkel, including "Mrs. Robinson", a work in progress which Simon adapted to fit the movie, along with several instrumental pieces by Dave Grusin. Released January 21 on Columbia Masterworks, the album was produced by Teo Macero. In March of the following year, Simon and Grusin won the 1968 Grammy Award for "Best Original Score Written for a Motion Picture or Television Special". "Mrs Robinson" received the Grammy for "Record of the Year", whilst Simon & Garfunkel collected the "Best Contemporary-pop Performance, Vocal Duo or Group" award.


title: The Graduate (soundtrack)

text: Although the album features two versions of "Mrs. Robinson", neither is the full version as featured on "Bookends", which was composed later. The first consists of relentless, sharp guitar chords, with the "dee-de-dee-dee" sung motif, while the second includes a chorus, before tapering off as it does in the film. The other major song of the album, the 1965 hit "The Sound of Silence", is used three times in the film. Both songs have been inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame (in 1999 and 2004 respectively).


title: Bekuh Boom

text: Rebecca Rose Johnson, professionally known as Bekuh Boom (stylized as Bekuh BOOM) is an American singer and songwriter. She featured on two co-written singles: "I Won't Let You Down" by Danish singer Christopher, which charted at #1 on Tracklisten, the official Danish music charts, and "Money" by Norwegian electronic duo Broiler, which peaked at #3 on Norwegian music charts. As of 2016 she has co-written over 10 songs reaching the #1 position on various music charts.


title: Bekuh Boom

text: Bekuh Boom was born in Orange County, California , on June 21, 1994 with the real name Rebecca Rose Johnson. She stated that she had an interest in music since elementary school. At the age of 11, she started to learn how to write and compose her own melodies for her own songs. In high school, she revealed that she took dance and choreography classes to become a dance instructor and choreographer.


title: Bekuh Boom

text: In 2011, at the age of 16, Boom participated in American Idol season 10, though she didn't pass the audition. At the age of 18 she signed her first contract with Warner Chappell Music, going on to release her first two collaborations titled 'Money' and 'I Won't Let you Down'.


title: Bekuh Boom

text: Later, she landed deals primarily as composer and producer for K-pop artists, where two of the songs that she worked on were picked and released through YG Entertainment, namely "Eyes, Nose, Lips" by Taeyang and "I'm Different" by Hi Suhyun. Prior to becoming a Kpop composer and producer, Boom had composed songs for singers such as R. Kelly, Jordin Sparks and Jessica Mauboy. In 2012 she was connected with Blackpink via YG Entertainment, where she studied korean with them. In 2016, Boom became the songwriter and producer for two of BlackPink's debut singles, Whistle and Boombayah which occupied the #1 chart on World Digital Song Sales and Circle Digital Chart respectively. Later she published the demo versions on her social media. The next year she worked on Winner's song "Island", which topped the charts.


title: Bekuh Boom

text: In 2020 she became the lyricist and composer for the virtual group K/DA, where she provide the voice of Ahri. Later that year she released a solo single called "There’s no Place Like Home". In March 2021, she released the single "Designer Love", with an accompanying music video being released for the song on Johnson’s YouTube’ channel. In August 2022, she released the single "Anime Eyes".


title: Floods in India

text: This is a list of notable recorded floods that have occurred in India. Floods are the most common natural disaster in India. The heaviest southwest the Brahmaputra and other rivers to distend their banks, often flooding surrounding areas.


title: Floods in India

text: Climate change is said to have in part caused (but may also be a natural evolution of earth's cycle) large-scale floods across central India, including the Mumbai floods of 2006 and 2017. During 1901-2015, there has been a three-fold rise in widespread extreme rainfall events, across central and northern India – Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Telangana, Odisha, Jharkhand, Assam and parts of Western Ghats – Goa, north Karnataka and South Kerala. The rising number of extreme rain events are attributed to an increase in the fluctuations of the monsoon westerly winds, due to increased warming in the Arabian Sea. This results in occasional surges of moisture transport from the Arabian Sea to the subcontinent, resulting in heavy rains lasting for 2–3 days, and spread over a region large enough to cause floods.


title: Trilith Studios

text: Trilith Studios is an American film and television production studio located south of Atlanta in Fayette County, Georgia. Originally known as Pinewood Atlanta Studios, the studio has been used to produce many films and television programs, particularly those produced by Marvel Studios. Trilith Studios encompasses a 700-acre site, with a 400-acre backlot and 24 soundstages. A virtual production volume, Prysm Stage, opened in early 2022. As of 2021, Trilith Studios is the largest production facility in the state of Georgia.


title: Trilith Studios

text: The Pinewood Group announced in April 2013 that its first film production facility in the United States, Pinewood Atlanta Studios, would be located south of Atlanta at a complex consisting of in Fayette County, Georgia. The studio was a joint venture between Pinewood and River's Rock LLC, an independently managed trust of the Cathy family, founders of the Chick-fil-A fast-food chain. Pinewood Atlanta would feature at least five sound stages. The Pinewood Group was attracted to Georgia for the studio because of the state's film tax credit.


title: Trilith Studios

text: The first production to film at the studio was Marvel Studios' film "Ant-Man" (2015), which began in September 2014. In August 2019, Pinewood sold their shares of Pinewood Atlanta to River's Rock LLC, with Frank Patterson expected to remain to run the studio.


title: Trilith Studios

text: In October 2020, the studio was renamed Trilith Studios. Trilith was chosen as the studio's name as "a nod to our U.K. heritage” according to Patterson; its name originated from trilithon, an architectural term referring a structure consisting of two large vertical stones supporting a third stone laid horizontally across the top such as the structures in Stonehenge. In November 2021, it was announced that Trilith, in collaboration with NEP Virtual Studios, would open the virtual production volume Prysm Stage facility in early 2022.


title: Trilith Studios

text: In August 2022, Trilith filed a proposal to add an additional 4.7 million sq. ft. of studio, production, office, warehouse, retail, and residential space south of the existing property by 2032.


title: Trilith Studios

text: In 2016, the Pinewood Forest mixed-use complex was launched. Located across the street from the studio, it features homes along with plans for "a movie theater, restaurants, boutique hotels, retail and office space", built using environmentally friendly building materials. In 2020, when the studio was renamed Trilith Studios, Pinewood Forest was renamed the Town at Trilith. In April 2021, "Atlanta" magazine ranked the community ninth in their top ten metro Atlanta vibrant city centers list; the community was also the newest featured on the list.


title: Trilith Studios

text: In July 2022, Brianna Sacks of "Buzzfeed News" alleged that African American individuals faced unequal treatment to the majority white population. In September 2022, several residents held a public protest outside the studios. In November 2022, five current and former African American residents sued the site's housing development for racial discrimination. One resident cited complaints back in 2018, while another cited an assault with racial slurs that occurred in March 2022. Trilith issued a statement, alleging that five residents who filed the lawsuit "never had any employment or other relationship with Trilith Studios." They further condemned the March 2022 incident and wrote that their goal is to "provide creators of all demographics, backgrounds, upbringings, and abilities an environment that fosters inclusion and belonging and the opportunities and resources to share their stories".


title: Trilith Studios

text: In 2016, a soundstage at Pinewood Studios was open for educational use by the Georgia Film Academy. The site was formerly occupied by Rivers Elementary School. In late 2020, the Georgia Film Academy partnered with Trilith and the University of Georgia to launch its Master of Fine Arts film program; students would work and live in Trilith during their second year. Trilith also has a small K-12 school called "The Forest School".


title: Trilith Studios

text: , Trilith Studios encompasses a 700-acre site, with a 400-acre backlot. It features 1 million square feet of production facilities, with 24 soundstages, 40 on-site production vendors, and 75,000 square feet of stages equipped for virtual production technologies. , Trilth Studios was considered the second largest film and television studio in North America, and , it is the largest production facility in the state of Georgia.


title: Trilith Studios

text: The Prysm Stage is a virtual production volume in a purpose-built stage, featuring 360 degrees of LED panels and ceiling. It is able to accommodate large set pieces, in-camera visual effects, and is equipped for game-engine-driven video playback. Additionally, it has a dedicated process stage designed for automotive shoots.


title: Capellini

text: Capellini (, literally "little hairs") is a thin variety of Italian pasta, with a diameter ranging from . It is made in the form of long, thin strands, similar to spaghetti. Capelli d'angelo (, literally "angel hair"—hence, "angel hair pasta" in English), is even thinner, with a diameter ranging from . It is often sold in a nest-like shape.


title: Capellini

text: Capelli d'angelo has been popular in Italy since at least the 14th century and is known for its delicate, light texture. Due to its thinness, it is best suited for soups or dishes with light sauces, such as those made with seafood or vegetables. It is also a popular choice for dishes with Asian-inspired flavors, as it can easily absorb the flavors of the accompanying ingredients.


title: Copper conductor

text: Copper has been used in electrical wiring since the invention of the electromagnet and the telegraph in the 1820s. The invention of the telephone in 1876 created further demand for copper wire as an electrical conductor.


title: Copper conductor

text: Copper is the electrical conductor in many categories of electrical wiring. Copper wire is used in power generation, power transmission, power distribution, telecommunications, electronics circuitry, and countless types of electrical equipment. Copper and its alloys are also used to make electrical contacts. Electrical wiring in buildings is the most important market for the copper industry. Roughly half of all copper mined is used to manufacture electrical wire and cable conductors.


title: Copper conductor

text: Electrical conductivity is a measure of how well a material transports an electric charge. This is an essential property in electrical wiring systems. Copper has the highest electrical conductivity rating of all non-precious metals: the electrical resistivity of copper = 16.78 nΩ•m at 20 °C.


title: Copper conductor

text: The theory of metals in their solid state helps to explain the unusually high electrical conductivity of copper. In a copper atom, the outermost 4s energy zone, or conduction band, is only half filled, so many electrons are able to carry electric current. When an electric field is applied to a copper wire, the conduction of electrons accelerates towards the electropositive end, thereby creating a current. These electrons encounter resistance to their passage by colliding with impurity atoms, vacancies, lattice ions, and imperfections. The average distance travelled between collisions, defined as the "mean free path", is inversely proportional to the resistivity of the metal. What is unique about copper is its long mean free path (approximately 100 atomic spacings at room temperature). This mean free path increases rapidly as copper is chilled.


title: Copper conductor

text: Because of its superior conductivity, annealed copper became the international standard to which all other electrical conductors are compared. In 1913, the International Electrotechnical Commission defined the conductivity of commercially pure copper in its International Annealed Copper Standard, as 100% IACS = 58.0 MS/m at 20 °C, decreasing by 0.393%/°C. Because commercial purity has improved over the last century, copper conductors used in building wire often slightly exceed the 100% IACS standard.


title: Copper conductor

text: The main grade of copper used for electrical applications is electrolytic-tough pitch (ETP) copper (CW004A or ASTM designation C11040). This copper is at least 99.90% pure and has an electrical conductivity of at least 101% IACS. ETP copper contains a small percentage of oxygen (0.02 to 0.04%). If high conductivity copper needs to be welded or brazed or used in a reducing atmosphere, then specially-pure oxygen-free copper (CW008A or ASTM designation C10100) may be used; it is about 1% more conductive (i.e., achieves a minimum of 101% IACS).


title: Copper conductor

text: Several electrically conductive metals are less dense than copper, but require larger cross sections to carry the same current and may not be usable when limited space is a major requirement. Aluminium has 61% of the conductivity of copper. The cross sectional area of an aluminium conductor must be 56% larger than copper for the same current carrying capability. The need to increase the thickness of aluminium wire restricts its use in many applications, such as in small motors and automobiles. However, in some applications such as aerial electric power transmission cables, aluminium predominates, and copper is rarely used.


title: Copper conductor

text: Silver, a precious metal, is the only metal with a higher electrical conductivity than copper. The electrical conductivity of silver is 106% of that of annealed copper on the IACS scale, and the electrical resistivity of silver = 15.9 nΩ•m at 20 °C. The high cost of silver combined with its low tensile strength limits its use to special applications, such as joint plating and sliding contact surfaces, and plating for the conductors in high-quality coaxial cables used at frequencies above 30 MHz


title: Copper conductor

text: Tensile strength measures the force required to pull an object such as rope, wire, or a structural beam to the point where it breaks. The tensile strength of a material is the maximum amount of tensile stress it can take before breaking.


title: Copper conductor

text: Copper’s higher tensile strength (200–250 N/mm annealed) compared to aluminium (100 N/mm for typical conductor alloys) is another reason why copper is used extensively in the building industry. Copper’s high strength resists stretching, neck-down, creep, nicks and breaks, and thereby also prevents failures and service interruptions. Copper is much heavier than aluminum for conductors of equal current carrying capacity, so the high tensile strength is offset by its increased weight.


title: Copper conductor

text: Ductility is a material's ability to deform under tensile stress. This is often characterized by the material's ability to be stretched into a wire. Ductility is especially important in metalworking because materials that crack or break under stress cannot be hammered, rolled, or drawn (drawing is a process that uses tensile forces to stretch metal).


title: Copper conductor

text: Copper has a higher ductility than alternate metal conductors with the exception of gold and silver. Because of copper’s high ductility, it is easy to draw down to diameters with very close tolerances.


title: Copper conductor

text: Usually, the stronger a metal is, the less pliable it is. This is not the case with copper. A unique combination of high strength and high ductility makes copper ideal for wiring systems. At junction boxes and at terminations, for example, copper can be bent, twisted, and pulled without stretching or breaking.


title: Copper conductor

text: Creep is the gradual deformation of a material from constant expansions and contractions under “load, no-load” conditions. This process has adverse effects on electrical systems: terminations can become loose, causing connections to heat up or create dangerous arcing.


title: Copper conductor

text: Copper has excellent creep characteristics that minimizes loosening at connections. For other metal conductors that creep, extra maintenance is required to check terminals periodically and ensure that screws remain tightened to prevent arcing and overheating.


title: Copper conductor

text: Corrosion is the unwanted breakdown and weakening of a material due to chemical reactions. Copper generally resists corrosion from moisture, humidity, industrial pollution, and other atmospheric influences. However, any corrosion oxides, chlorides, and sulfides that do form on copper are somewhat conductive.


title: Copper conductor

text: Under many application conditions copper is higher on the galvanic series than other common structural metals, meaning that copper wire is less likely to be corroded in wet conditions. However, any more anodic metals in contact with copper will be corroded since they will essentially be sacrificed to the copper.


title: Copper conductor

text: Metals and other solid materials expand upon heating and contract upon cooling. This is an undesirable occurrence in electrical systems. Copper has a low coefficient of thermal expansion for an electrical conducting material. Aluminium, an alternate common conductor, expands nearly one third more than copper under increasing temperatures. This higher degree of expansion, along with aluminium’s lower ductility, can cause electrical problems when bolted connections are improperly installed. By using proper hardware, such as spring pressure connections and cupped or split washers at the joint, it may be possible to create aluminium joints that compare in quality to copper joints.


title: Copper conductor

text: Thermal conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct heat. In electrical systems, high thermal conductivity is important for dissipating waste heat, particularly at terminations and connections. Copper has a 60% higher thermal conductivity rating than aluminium, so it is better able to reduce thermal hot spots in electrical wiring systems.


title: Copper conductor

text: Soldering is a process whereby two or more metals are joined together by a heating process. This is a desirable property in electrical systems. Copper is readily soldered to make durable connections when necessary.


title: Copper conductor

text: The strength, hardness, and flexibility of copper make it very easy to work with. Copper wiring can be installed simply and easily with no special tools, washers, pigtails, or joint compounds. Its flexibility makes it easy to join, while its hardness helps keep connections securely in place. It has good strength for pulling wire through tight places (“pull-through”), including conduits. It can be bent or twisted easily without breaking. It can be stripped and terminated during installation or service with far less danger of nicks or breaks. And it can be connected without the use of special lugs and fittings. The combination of all of these factors makes it easy for electricians to install copper wire.


title: Copper conductor

text: Solid wire consists of one strand of copper metal wire, bare or surrounded by an insulator. Single-strand copper conductors are typically used as magnet wire in motors and transformers. They are relatively rigid, do not bend easily, and are typically installed in permanent, infrequently handled, and low flex applications.


title: Copper conductor

text: Stranded wire has a group of copper wires braided or twisted together. Stranded wire is more flexible and easier to install than a large single-strand wire of the same cross section. Stranding improves wire life in applications with vibration. A particular cross-section of a stranded conductor gives it essentially the same resistance characteristics as a single-strand conductor, but with added flexibility.


title: Copper conductor

text: A copper cable consists of two or more copper wires running side by side and bonded, twisted or braided together to form a single assembly. Electrical cables may be made more flexible by stranding the wires.


title: Copper conductor

text: Copper wires in a cable may be bare or they may be plated to reduce oxidation with a thin layer of another metal, most often tin but sometimes gold or silver. Plating may lengthen wire life and makes soldering easier. Twisted pair and coaxial cables are designed to inhibit electromagnetic interference, prevent radiation of signals, and to provide transmission lines with defined characteristics. Shielded cables are encased in foil or wire mesh.


title: Copper conductor

text: Electrolytic-tough pitch (ETP) copper, a high-purity copper that contains oxygen as an alloying agent, represents the bulk of electrical conductor applications because of its high electrical conductivity and improved annealability. ETP copper is used for power transmission, power distribution, and telecommunications. Common applications include building wire, motor windings, electrical cables, and busbars. Oxygen-free coppers are used to resist hydrogen embrittlement when extensive amounts of cold work is needed, and for applications requiring higher ductility (e.g., telecommunications cable). When hydrogen embrittlement is a concern and low electrical resistivity is not required, phosphorus may be added to copper.


title: Copper conductor

text: For certain applications, copper alloy conductors are preferred instead of pure copper, especially when higher strengths or improved abrasion and corrosion resistance properties are required. However, relative to pure copper, the higher strength and corrosion resistance benefits that are offered by copper alloys are offset by their lower electrical conductivities. Design engineers weigh the advantages and disadvantages of the various types of copper and copper alloy conductors when determining which type to specify for a specific electrical application. An example of a copper alloy conductor is cadmium copper wire, which is used for railroad electrification in North America. In Britain the BPO (later Post Office Telecommunications) used cadmium copper aerial lines with 1% cadmium for extra strength; for local lines 40 lb/mile (1.3 mm dia) and for toll lines 70 lb/mile (1.7 mm dia).


title: Copper conductor

text: Electrical wiring distributes electric power inside residential, commercial, or industrial buildings, mobile homes, recreational vehicles, boats, and substations at voltages up to 600 V. The thickness of the wire is based on electric current requirements in conjunction with safe operating temperatures. Solid wire is used for smaller diameters; thicker diameters are stranded to provide flexibility. Conductor types include non-metallic/non-metallic corrosion-resistant cable (two or more insulated conductors with a nonmetallic outer sheath), armored or BX cable (cables are surrounded by a flexible metal enclosure), metal clad cable, service entrance cable, underground feeder cable, TC cable, fire resistant cable, and mineral insulated cable, including mineral-insulated copper-clad cable. Copper is commonly used for building wire because of its conductivity, strength, and reliability. Over the life of a building wire system, copper can also be the most economical conductor.


title: Copper conductor

text: Copper used in building wire has a conductivity rating of 100% IACS or better. Copper building wire requires less insulation and can be installed in smaller conduits than when lower-conductivity conductors are used. Also, comparatively, more copper wire can fit in a given conduit than conductors with lower conductivities. This greater “wire fill” is a special advantage when a system is rewired or expanded.


title: Copper conductor

text: Copper building wire is compatible with brass and quality plated screws. The wire provides connections that will not corrode or creep. It is not, however, compatible with aluminium wire or connectors. If the two metals are joined, a galvanic reaction can occur. Anodic corrosion during the reaction can disintegrate the aluminium. This is why most appliance and electrical equipment manufacturers use copper lead wires for connections to building wiring systems.


title: Copper conductor

text: "All-copper" building wiring refers to buildings in which the inside electrical service is carried exclusively over copper wiring. In all-copper homes, copper conductors are used in circuit breaker panels, branch circuit wiring (to outlets, switches, lighting fixtures and the like), and in dedicated branches serving heavy-load appliances (such as ranges, ovens, clothes dryers and air conditioners).


title: Copper conductor

text: Attempts to replace copper with aluminium in building wire were curtailed in most countries when it was found that aluminium connections gradually loosened due to their inherent slow creep, combined with the high resistivity and heat generation of aluminium oxidation at joints. Spring-loaded contacts have largely alleviated this problem with aluminium conductors in building wire, but some building codes still forbid the use of aluminium.


title: Copper conductor

text: For branch-circuit sizes, virtually all basic wiring for lights, outlets and switches is made from copper. The market for aluminium building wire today is mostly confined to larger gauge sizes used in supply circuits.


title: Copper conductor

text: Electrical wiring codes give the allowable current rating for standard sizes of conductors. The current rating of a conductor varies depending on the size, allowable maximum temperature, and the operating environment of the conductor. Conductors used in areas where cool air is free to circulate around the wires are generally permitted to carry more current than the small sized conductor encased in an underground conduit run with many similar conductors adjacent to it. The practical temperature ratings of insulated copper conductors are mostly due to the limitations of the insulation material or of the temperature rating of the attached equipment.