title: Roman numeral analysis

text: In Western classical music in the 2000s, some music students and theorists use Roman numeral analysis to analyze the harmony of a composition. In pop, rock, traditional music, and jazz and blues, Roman numerals can be used to notate the chord progression of a song independent of key. For instance, the standard twelve-bar blues progression uses the chords I (first), IV (fourth), V (fifth), sometimes written I, IV, V, since they are often dominant seventh chords. In the key of C major, the first scale degree (tonic) is C, the fourth (subdominant) is F, and the fifth (dominant) is a G. So the I, IV, and V chords are C, F, and G. On the other hand, in the key of A major, the I, IV, and V chords would be A, D, and E. Roman numerals thus abstract chord progressions, making them independent of key, so they can easily be transposed.


title: Roman numeral analysis

text: Roman numeral analysis is based on the idea that chords can be represented and named by one of their notes, their root (see History of the Root (chord) article for more information). The system came about initially from the work and writings of Rameau’s fundamental bass.


title: Roman numeral analysis

text: Arabic numerals have been used in the 18th century for the purpose of denoting the fundamental bass, but that aspect will not be considered here. The earliest usage of Roman numerals may be found in the first volume of Johann Kirnberger's "Die Kunst des reinen Satzes" in 1774. Soon after, Abbé Georg Joseph Vogler occasionally employed Roman numerals in his "Grunde der Kuhrpfälzischen Tonschule" in 1778. He mentioned them also in his "Handbuch zur Harmonielehre" of 1802 and employed Roman numeral analysis in several publications from 1806 onwards.


title: Roman numeral analysis

text: Gottfried Weber's "Versuch einer geordneten Theorie der Tonsetzkunst" (Theory of Musical Composition) (1817–21) is often credited with popularizing the method. More precisely, he introduced the usage of large capital numerals for major chords, small capitals for minor, superscript for diminished 5ths and dashed 7 for major sevenths – see the figure hereby. Simon Sechter, considered the founder of the Viennese "Theory of the degrees" ("Stufentheorie"), made only a limited use of Roman numerals, always as capital letters, and often marked the fundamentals with letter notation or with Arabic numbers. Anton Bruckner, who transmitted the theory to Schoenberg and Schenker, apparently did not use Roman numerals in his classes in Vienna.


title: Roman numeral analysis

text: In music theory related to or derived from the common practice period, Roman numerals are frequently used to designate scale degrees as well as the chords built on them. In some contexts, however, arabic numerals with carets are used to designate the scale degrees themselves (e.g. , , , …).


title: Roman numeral analysis

text: The basic Roman numeral analysis symbols commonly used in pedagogical texts are shown in the table below.


title: Roman numeral analysis

text: The Roman numerals for the seven root-position diatonic triads built on the notes of the C major scale are shown below.


title: Roman numeral analysis

text: In addition, according to "Music: In Theory and Practice", "[s]ometimes it is necessary to indicate sharps, flats, or naturals above the bass note." The accidentals may be below the superscript and subscript number(s), before the superscript and subscript number(s), or using a slash (/) or plus sign (+) to indicate that the interval is raised (either in a flat key signature or a or in a sharp key signature.


title: Roman numeral analysis

text: Modern Schenkerians often prefer the usage of large capital numbers for all degrees in all modes, in conformity with Schenker's own usage.


title: Roman numeral analysis

text: Roman numerals are sometimes complemented by Arabic numerals to denote inversion of the chords. The system is similar to that of Figured bass, the Arabic numerals describing the characteristic interval(s) above the bass note of the chord, the figures 3 and 5 usually being omitted. The first inversion is denoted by the numeral 6 (e.g. I for the first inversion of the tonic triad, even though a complete figuring would require I); the numerals denotes the second inversion (eg I). Inverted seventh chords are similarly denoted by one or two Arabic numerals describing the most characteristic intervals, namely the interval of a second between the 7th and the root: V is the dominant 7th (e.g. G–B–D–F); V is its first inversion (B–D–F–G); V its second inversion (D–F–G–B); and V or V its third inversion (F–G–B–D).


title: Roman numeral analysis

text: In the United Kingdom, there exists another system where the Roman numerals are paired with Latin letters to denote inversion. In this system, an “a” suffix is used to represent root position, “b” for first inversion, and “c” for second inversion. However, the "a" is rarely used to denote root position, just as is rarely used to denote root position in American nomenclature.


title: Roman numeral analysis

text: In music theory, fake books and lead sheets aimed towards jazz and popular music, many tunes and songs are written in a key, and as such for all chords, a letter name and symbols are given for all triads (e.g., C, G, Dm, etc.). In some fake books and lead sheets, all triads may be represented by upper case numerals, followed by a symbol to indicate if it is not a major chord (e.g. "m" for minor or "" for half-diminished or "7" for a seventh chord). An upper case numeral that is not followed by a symbol is understood as a major chord. The use of Roman numerals enables the rhythm section performers to play the song in any key requested by the bandleader or lead singer. The accompaniment performers translate the Roman numerals to the specific chords that would be used in a given key.


title: Roman numeral analysis

text: In popular music and rock music, "borrowing" of chords from the parallel minor of a major key is commonly done. As such, in these genres, in the key of E major, chords such as D major (or VII), G major (III) and C major (VI) are commonly used. These chords are all borrowed from the key of E minor. Similarly, in minor keys, chords from the parallel major may also be "borrowed". For example, in E minor, the diatonic chord built on the fourth scale degree is IVm, or A minor. However, in practice, many songs in E minor will use IV (A major), which is borrowed from the key of E major. Borrowing from the parallel major in a minor key, however, is much less common.


title: Roman numeral analysis

text: Using the V7 or V chord (V dominant 7, or V major) is typical of most jazz and pop music regardless of whether the key is major or minor. Though the V chord is not diatonic to a minor scale, using it in a minor key is not usually considered "borrowing," given its prevalence in these styles.


title: Roman numeral analysis

text: The seventh scale degree is very often raised a half step to form a leading tone, making the dominant chord (V) a major chord (i.e. V major instead of v minor) and the subtonic chord (vii), a diminished chord (vii, instead of VII). This version of minor scale is called the harmonic minor scale. This enables composers to have a dominant chord (V) and also the dominant seventh chord (V7) both available for a stronger cadence resolution in the minor key, thus V to i minor.


title: M7 bayonet

text: The M7 bayonet (NSN 1095-00-017-9701) is a bayonet that was used by the U.S. military for the M16 rifle, it can also be used with the M4 carbine as well as many other assault rifles, carbines and combat shotguns. It can be used as a fighting knife and utility tool. It was introduced in 1964, when the M16 rifle entered service during the Vietnam War.


title: M7 bayonet

text: The M7 bayonet is very similar to the older M4 bayonet with the Korean War era plastic grips for the M1/M2 carbines except that the M7 has a much larger muzzle ring. The M7 has the same two-lever locking mechanism as the M4, that connects to a lug on the M16 rifle's barrel. The M4 (M1/M2 carbine), M5 (M1 rifle), and M6 bayonet (M14 rifle), are all derived from the World War II M3 fighting knife.


title: M7 bayonet

text: The M7 differs from M6 bayonet for the M14 rifle. Most notably, the diameter of the muzzle rings, and the locking mechanism. The M7's release mechanism is on the pommel, while the M6 has a spring-loaded lever near the guard that when depressed releases the bayonet. Both models are approximately the same length, have the same black finish, and use the M8A1 (NSN 1095-508-0339), or later M10 (NSN 1095-00-223-7164) sheath.


title: M7 bayonet

text: The M7's 1095 carbon steel blade is 6 3/4 inches long, with an overall length of 11.9 inches. Blade width is 3/16 inch and it weighs about 9.6 ounces. One edge is sharpened its full length while the opposite side of the blade has approximately 3 inches sharpened. There are no markings on the blade itself. The manufacturer's initials or name, along with "US M7", will be found stamped under the crossguard (see photo, right). The non-slip grips are molded black plastic. The steel parts have a uniform dark grey/black parkerized finish.


title: M7 bayonet

text: The M7 bayonet NSN is NSN 1095-00-017-9701. The initial contractor was Bauer Ord Company. Colt (manufacturer of the M16) and Ontario Knife Company made many of the M7 bayonets for the military and continue to make and sell them commercially. Other manufacturers included Carl Eickhorn [for Colt], Columbus Milpar & Mfg. (MIL-PAR), Conetta Mfg., Frazier Mfg., General Cutlery (GEN CUT), and Imperial Knife. The M7 was also manufactured in Canada, West Germany, the Philippines, Singapore, Israel, South Korea and Australia.


title: M7 bayonet

text: The M7 has been partially replaced by the M9 bayonet in Army service, and the Marine Corps replaced it with the OKC-3S bayonet. The Army, Navy, and USAF still use M7s and may do so for years to come.


title: M7 bayonet

text: There are two variations of this scabbard, both with an olive drab fiberglass body with steel throat. The early version M8 scabbard only a had a belt loop and lacked the double hook that earlier bayonet scabbards had for attaching to load carrying equipment such as the M1910 Haversack. The improved M8A1 scabbard manufactured later in WW II has the M1910 bent wire hook. The scabbard throat flange is stamped "US M8" or "US M8A1" on the flat steel part along with manufacturer initials. Some M8 scabbards were later modified by adding the M1910 hook. Later M8A1 scabbards were manufactured with a modified extended tab on the web hanger to provide more clearance for the M5 bayonet which rubbed against the wider bayonet handle. This sheath is correct for all post-war US bayonets including the M4, M5, M6, and M7. It was also used with the M3 fighting knife.


title: Aston Martin V8

text: The Aston Martin V8 is a grand tourer manufactured by Aston Martin in the United Kingdom from 1969 to 1989. As with all traditional Aston Martins, it was entirely handbuilt – with each car requiring 1,200 man-hours to finish.


title: Aston Martin V8

text: Aston Martin were looking to replace the DB6 model and had designed a larger, more modern looking car. The engine was not ready, however, so in 1967 the company released the DBS with the straight-six "Vantage" engine from the DB6. Two years later, Tadek Marek's V8 was ready, and Aston released the DBS V8. With the demise of the straight-six Vantage in 1973, the DBS V8, now restyled and called simply the Aston Martin V8, became the company's mainstream car for nearly two decades. It was retired in favour of the Virage in 1989.


title: Aston Martin V8

text: From 1969 through 1972, Aston's flagship model was the DBS V8. Though the body and name was shared with the six-cylinder DBS, the V8 sold for much more. The body was a modern reinterpretation of the traditional Aston Martin look, with a squared-off grille and four headlights (William Towns admitted that the rear quarters were "borrowed" from the early Ford Mustang). Distinguishing features of the V8 model are the larger front air dam, 225/70VR15 tyres and lack of wire wheels, though some six-cylinder DBS cars also used the V8's alloy wheels. The tail lights were taken from the Hillman Hunter.


title: Aston Martin V8

text: A road test report of the time noted that the car had gained in weight with the fitting of the V8 in place of the previously used six-cylinder unit, despite the manufacturer's assurance that the engine weighed only more than the older straight-six. Other contributions to the weight gain included heavier ventilated brake discs, air conditioning, fatter tyres, a new and stronger ZF gearbox as well as some extra bodywork beneath the front bumper.


title: Aston Martin V8

text: Marek's V8 engine displaced 5.3 L (5,340 cc/325 in) and used Bosch fuel injection. Output was not officially released, but estimates center around 315 hp (235 kW). The DBS V8 could reach 100 km/h (62 mph) in 7.1 seconds and had a top speed of 242 km/h (150 mph). 402 DBS V8s were built.


title: Aston Martin V8

text: A DBS V8 was planned to be used by Roger Moore's character Brett Sinclair in the television show, "The Persuaders!" but no V8 car was available at that time so a six-cylinder DBS was modified to look like a V8 model for use in the show.


title: Aston Martin V8

text: The DBS V8 by Ogle Design was introduced in 1972 at the Montreal Motor Show. It is based on a DBS V8 and two cars were commissioned by the tobacco company W.O.Wills to promote their new premium brand of cigarettes: one show car with chassis number DBSV8/10380/R and one road going car with chassis number DBSV8/10381/RC. A third "replica" car was commissioned by a private party.


title: Aston Martin V8

text: In April 1972, the DBS V8 became just the Aston Martin V8 as the six-cylinder DBS was dropped, leaving just this car and the six-cylinder Vantage in production.


title: Aston Martin V8

text: The V8 became known as the AM V8, a model retroactively referred to as the Series 2 V8 to separate it from later models. Visual differences included twin quartz-halogen headlights and a mesh grille, a front design which was to last until the end of production in 1989. AM V8 cars, produced from May 1972 through July 1973, used a similar engine to the DBS V8, albeit with Bosch fuel injection rather than the earlier carburetors. Just 288 Series 2 cars were built. Although David Brown had left the company, he had overseen development of this model. The first 34 cars still carried leftover "DBS V8" badging.


title: Aston Martin V8

text: The car switched back to Weber carburetors for the Series 3 in 1973, ostensibly to help the car pass new stricter emissions standards in California but most likely because Aston Martin was unable to make the Bosch fuel injection system work correctly. These cars are distinguished by a taller hood scoop to accommodate four twin-choke (two-barrel) Weber carbs. The car produced and could reach in 6.1 seconds with an automatic transmission or 5.7 with a manual. Performance suffered with emissions regulations, falling to in 1976. The next year, a more powerful "Stage 1" engine with new camshafts and exhaust brought it up to .


title: Aston Martin V8

text: These cars either fitted 225/70VR15 Avon TurboSpeed or 235/70VR15 Turbospeed Rolls Royce tyre on the Auto models or the 255/60R15 Pirelli Cinturato CN12 off the Vantage.


title: Aston Martin V8

text: Production of Series 3 cars lasted from 1973 through October 1978, but was halted for all of 1975. 967 examples were produced in this time. While earlier V8 cars have louvers cut into the little panel mounted beneath the rear windshield, the Series 3 and later cars instead have a small lip at the bottom of this panel, just ahead of the leading edge of the bootlid.


title: Aston Martin V8

text: The "Oscar India" specification was introduced in October 1978 at the Birmingham International Motor Show. Visually, the former scoop on the bonnet gave way to a closed "power bulge", while a spoiler was integrated into the tail. Most Oscar India cars were equipped with a Chrysler "Torqueflite" three-speed automatic transmission, with wood trim fitted for the first time since the DB2/4 of the 1950s. Just 352 Oscar India models were built from 1978 through 1985. The power of the now de-smogged engines kept dropping on American market cars, down to a low of in the early eighties.


title: Aston Martin V8

text: The convertible "Volante" was introduced in June 1978, but featured the Series 4 bonnet from the get go – a few months before the coupé received the Oscar India update. The Volante Series 1 weighs more than the coupé, due to the necessity of reinforcing the frame. At this time, manufacturing a V8 Volante took about four months from beginning to end.


title: Aston Martin V8

text: US market cars received much larger bumpers beginning with the 1980 model year, adding weight and somewhat marring the car's lines. Owners of US-specified cars often modify them to have the slimmer European bumpers. By 1981, the success of the Volante meant that the coupé model was only built on individual demand. The 1980s were also tuned to provide much better fuel economy, up by some thirty percent.


title: Aston Martin V8

text: The fuel-injected Series 5 cars were introduced in January 1986 at the New York International Auto Show. The compact Weber/Marelli system no longer needed the space of the previous carburetors, so the bonnet bulge was virtually eliminated. 405 Series 5 cars were built before production ceased in 1989. The Volante Series 2 received the same changes; 216 were built.


title: Aston Martin V8

text: Between 1974 and 1976, seven four-door Lagonda saloons were produced based on the Aston Martin V8, with a Lagonda-style outline grille fitted within the space normally filled by the standard Aston Martin grille.


title: Aston Martin V8

text: In 1986, Timothy Dalton took over the role of James Bond from Roger Moore and EON Productions had decided to bring Aston Martin back to the Bond franchise with the new "007" now paired with a series 4 model in the film, "The Living Daylights". However, the film caused some confusion for viewers (even those quite familiar with Aston Martin models of that era). At the beginning of the film, the car is a V8 Volante (convertible). The actual car used in these scenes was a V8 Volante owned by Aston Martin Lagonda chairman, Victor Gauntlett. Later, the car is seen being fitted with a hardtop ("winterised") at Q Branch. However, later scenes actually feature a pair of V8 coupés with the same number plate as the Volante seen in the beginning of the movie, retrofitted with other "optional extras" such as spiked tyres, skis, lasers, and missiles. Clearly, the car was intended to be seen as a V8 Volante with hardtop.


title: Aston Martin V8

text: The V8 coupé has made a comeback in the James Bond film, "No Time to Die". Aston Martin CEO Dr. Andy Palmer confirmed on 20 June 2019 that the V8 would make another appearance sporting the same registration it had in "The Living Daylights" 32 years prior.


title: Charter city

text: In the United States, a charter city is a city in which the governing system is defined by the city's own charter document rather than solely by general law. In states where city charters are allowed by law, a city can adopt or modify its organizing charter by decision of its administration by the way established in the charter. These cities may be administered predominantly by residents or through a third-party management structure, because a charter gives a city the flexibility to choose novel types of government structure. Depending on the state, all cities, no cities, or some cities may be charter cities.


title: Charter city

text: For example, in California, cities which have not adopted a charter are organized by state law. Such a city is called a General Law City (or a Code City), which will be managed by a 5-member city council. A city organized under a charter may choose different systems, including the "strong mayor" or "city manager" forms of government. As of 21 January 2020, 125 of California's 478 cities are charter cities. A few examples include Los Angeles, San Francisco, San José, and the capital, Sacramento.


title: Charter city

text: Under Texas law, unless a city charter is passed, cities have only those powers granted under the Texas Constitution and the general laws of the state, and no more.


title: Charter city

text: Once a city reaches a population of 5,000, the voters may petition an election for a city charter. If the charter is approved by the voters, the city is governed under home rule status, which allows the city to pass any ordinance which is "not inconsistent" with either the Texas Constitution or the general laws of the state. This has caused some turmoil between cities seeking to pass laws and the Legislature attempting to keep them from doing so; examples include plastic bag bans (or plastic bag fees) and bans on oil and gas drilling within city limits. The city may retain home rule status even if the population subsequently falls below 5,000.


title: Charter city

text: Texas law does not allow counties or special districts (other than school districts) to operate under a charter; their powers are strictly limited to those under the Texas Constitution and general law. School districts may petition for a charter; however, no school district has done so.


title: Space Jam (soundtrack)

text: Space Jam: Music from and Inspired by the Motion Picture is the original soundtrack album of the 1996 film starring Michael Jordan and the "Looney Tunes" cast. An album featuring the film's score by James Newton Howard was also released. The soundtrack was released by Warner Sunset and Atlantic Records on October 29, 1996. "I Believe I Can Fly" by R. Kelly was first released on the soundtrack.


title: Space Jam (soundtrack)

text: The soundtrack peaked at No. 2 on the US "Billboard" 200 on the week ending April 5, 1997 behind Aerosmith's "Nine Lives". It was certified double platinum in January 1997. In 2001, the soundtrack was certified 6x Platinum.


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: Eudoxus of Cnidus (; , "Eúdoxos ho Knídios"; ) was an ancient Greek astronomer, mathematician, scholar, and student of Archytas and Plato. All of his original works are lost, though some fragments are preserved in Hipparchus' commentary on Aratus's poem on astronomy. "Sphaerics" by Theodosius of Bithynia may be based on a work by Eudoxus.


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: Eudoxus was born and died in Cnidus (also spelled Knidos), which was a city on the southwest coast of Asia Minor. The years of Eudoxus' birth and death are not fully known but the range may have been , or .


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: His name Eudoxus means "honored" or "of good repute" (, from "eu" "good" and "doxa" "opinion, belief, fame"). It is analogous to the Latin name Benedictus.


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: Eudoxus's father, Aeschines of Cnidus, loved to watch stars at night. Eudoxus first traveled to Tarentum to study with Archytas, from whom he learned mathematics. While in Italy, Eudoxus visited Sicily, where he studied medicine with Philiston.


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: At the age of 23, he traveled with the physician Theomedon—who (according to Diogenes Laërtius) some believed was his lover—to Athens to study with the followers of Socrates. He eventually attended lectures of Plato and other philosophers for several months, but due to a disagreement they had a falling-out. Eudoxus was quite poor and could only afford an apartment at Piraeus. To attend Plato's lectures, he walked the in each direction each day. Due to his poverty, his friends raised funds sufficient to send him to Heliopolis, Egypt, to pursue his study of astronomy and mathematics. He lived there for 16 months. From Egypt, he then traveled north to Cyzicus, located on the south shore of the Sea of Marmara, the Propontis. He traveled south to the court of Mausolus. During his travels he gathered many students of his own.


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: Around 368 BC, Eudoxus returned to Athens with his students. According to some sources, around 367 he assumed headship (scholarch) of the Academy during Plato's period in Syracuse, and taught Aristotle. He eventually returned to his native Cnidus, where he served in the city assembly. While in Cnidus, he built an observatory and continued writing and lecturing on theology, astronomy, and meteorology. He had one son, Aristagoras, and three daughters, Actis, Philtis, and Delphis.


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: In mathematical astronomy, his fame is due to the introduction of the concentric spheres, and his early contributions to understanding the movement of the planets.


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: His work on proportions shows insight into real numbers; it allows rigorous treatment of continuous quantities and not just whole numbers or even rational numbers. When it was revived by Tartaglia and others in the 16th century, it became the basis for quantitative work in science, and inspired the work of Richard Dedekind.


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: Craters on Mars and the Moon are named in his honor. An algebraic curve (the Kampyle of Eudoxus) is also named after him.


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: Eudoxus is considered by some to be the greatest of classical Greek mathematicians, and in all Antiquity second only to Archimedes. Eudoxus was probably the source for most of book V of Euclid's. He rigorously developed Antiphon's method of exhaustion, a precursor to the integral calculus which was also used in a masterly way by Archimedes in the following century. In applying the method, Eudoxus proved such mathematical statements as: areas of circles are to one another as the squares of their radii, volumes of spheres are to one another as the cubes of their radii, the volume of a pyramid is one-third the volume of a prism with the same base and altitude, and the volume of a cone is one-third that of the corresponding cylinder.


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: Eudoxus introduced the idea of non-quantified mathematical magnitude to describe and work with continuous geometrical entities such as lines, angles, areas and volumes, thereby avoiding the use of irrational numbers. In doing so, he reversed a Pythagorean emphasis on number and arithmetic, focusing instead on geometrical concepts as the basis of rigorous mathematics. Some Pythagoreans, such as Eudoxus's teacher Archytas, had believed that only arithmetic could provide a basis for proofs. Induced by the need to understand and operate with incommensurable quantities, Eudoxus established what may have been the first deductive organization of mathematics on the basis of explicit axioms. The change in focus by Eudoxus stimulated a divide in mathematics which lasted two thousand years. In combination with a Greek intellectual attitude unconcerned with practical problems, there followed a significant retreat from the development of techniques in arithmetic and algebra.


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: The Pythagoreans had discovered that the diagonal of a square does not have a common unit of measurement with the sides of the square; this is the famous discovery that the square root of 2 cannot be expressed as the ratio of two integers. This discovery had heralded the existence of incommensurable quantities beyond the integers and rational fractions, but at the same time it threw into question the idea of measurement and calculations in geometry as a whole. For example, Euclid provides an elaborate proof of the Pythagorean theorem ("Elements" I.47), by using addition of areas and only much later ("Elements" VI.31) a simpler proof from similar triangles, which relies on ratios of line segments.


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: Ancient Greek mathematicians calculated not with quantities and equations as we do today, but instead they used proportionalities to express the relationship between quantities. Thus the ratio of two similar quantities was not just a numerical value, as we think of it today; the ratio of two similar quantities was a primitive relationship between them.


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: Eudoxus was able to restore confidence in the use of proportionalities by providing an astounding definition for the meaning of the equality between two ratios. This definition of proportion forms the subject of Euclid's Book V.


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: By using modern-day notation, this is clarified as follows. If we take four quantities: "a", "b", "c", and "d", then the first and second have a ratio formula_1; similarly the third and fourth have a ratio formula_2.


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: "m"·"a" and "m"·"c" of the first and third; likewise form the equimultiples "n"·"b" and "n"·"d" of the second and fourth.


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: If it happens that "m"·"a" = "n"·"b", then we must also have "m"·"c" = "n"·"d". Finally, if it happens that "m"·"a" < "n"·"b", then we must also have "m"·"c" < "n"·"d".


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: Notice that the definition depends on comparing the similar quantities "m"·"a" and "n"·"b", and the similar quantities "m"·"c" and "n"·"d", and does not depend on the existence of a common unit of measuring these quantities.


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: The complexity of the definition reflects the deep conceptual and methodological innovation involved. It brings to mind the famous fifth postulate of Euclid concerning parallels, which is more extensive and complicated in its wording than the other postulates.


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: The Eudoxian definition of proportionality uses the quantifier, "for every ..." to harness the infinite and the infinitesimal, just as do the modern epsilon-delta definitions of limit and continuity.


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: Additionally, the Archimedean property stated as definition 4 of Euclid's book V is originally due not to Archimedes but to Eudoxus.


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: In ancient Greece, astronomy was a branch of mathematics; astronomers sought to create geometrical models that could imitate the appearances of celestial motions. Identifying the astronomical work of Eudoxus as a separate category is therefore a modern convenience. Some of Eudoxus's astronomical texts whose names have survived include:


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: We are fairly well informed about the contents of "Phaenomena", for Eudoxus's prose text was the basis for a poem of the same name by Aratus. Hipparchus quoted from the text of Eudoxus in his commentary on Aratus.


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: A general idea of the content of "On Speeds" can be gleaned from Aristotle's "Metaphysics" XII, 8, and a commentary by Simplicius of Cilicia (6th century AD) on "De caelo", another work by Aristotle. According to a story reported by Simplicius, Plato posed a question for Greek astronomers: "By the assumption of what uniform and orderly motions can the apparent motions of the planets be accounted for?" Plato proposed that the seemingly chaotic wandering motions of the planets could be explained by combinations of uniform circular motions centered on a spherical Earth, apparently a novel idea in the 4th century BC.


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: The Sun is also assigned three spheres. The second completes its motion in a year instead of a month. The inclusion of a third sphere implies that Eudoxus mistakenly believed that the Sun had motion in latitude.


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: Callippus, a Greek astronomer of the 4th century, added seven spheres to Eudoxus's original 27 (in addition to the planetary spheres, Eudoxus included a sphere for the fixed stars). Aristotle described both systems, but insisted on adding "unrolling" spheres between each set of spheres to cancel the motions of the outer set. Aristotle was concerned about the physical nature of the system; without unrollers, the outer motions would be transferred to the inner planets.


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: A major flaw in the Eudoxian system is its inability to explain changes in the brightness of planets as seen from Earth. Because the spheres are concentric, planets will always remain at the same distance from Earth. This problem was pointed out in Antiquity by Autolycus of Pitane. Astronomers responded by introducing the deferent and epicycle, which caused a planet to vary its distance. However, Eudoxus's importance to astronomy and in particular to Greek astronomy is considerable.


title: Eudoxus of Cnidus

text: Aristotle, in the "Nicomachean Ethics", attributes to Eudoxus an argument in favor of hedonism—that is, that pleasure is the ultimate good that activity strives for. According to Aristotle, Eudoxus put forward the following arguments for this position:


title: The Blue Umbrella

text: The Blue Umbrella is a 1980 Indian novel written by Ruskin Bond. It was adapted into 2005 Hindi film by the same name, directed by Vishal Bhardwaj, which later won the National Film Award for Best Children's Film. In 2012, the novel was adapted into a comic by "Amar Chitra Katha" publications, titled, "The Blue Umbrella – Stories by Ruskin Bond", and included another story, "Angry River". This story appeared in Bond's collection of short stories, "Children's Omnibus".


title: The Blue Umbrella

text: In the village of Garhwal lives a girl named Binya. She lives with her widow mother and her older brother


title: The Blue Umbrella

text: In the village, Ram Bharosa keeps an old shop and sells Coca-Cola with no ice, tea, curd and sweets. One day, Binya receives a beautiful blue umbrella by some foreigners in exchange for her leopard claw pendant. Soon, the shopkeeper becomes jealous of the umbrella and tries to buy it from Binya by claiming, "This is a fancy umbrella which small girls should not have", but Binya refuses. As time passes, Ram Bharosa's jealousy of the umbrella turns into an obsession. He employs a boy named Rajaram from the next village to work at the shop. When Rajaram learns of his boss' desire to own the umbrella, he makes an attempt to steal it but fails and is caught. Rajaram then gives up Ram Bharosa's name, causing his shop to be boycotted. Ram Bharosa is now remorseful of his actions and miserable. Binya realizes her showing off the blue umbrella indirectly led to Ram Bharosa's suffering. In the end, Binya willingly gives the umbrella to Ram Bharosa, who in turn gifts her a bear claw pendant..


title: Formula Regional European Championship

text: The Formula Regional European Championship by Alpine (FRECA) is a FIA-certified regional European Formula 3 racing series. On 12 October 2018 it was announced that the Italian autosport regulator Automobile Club d’Italia (ACI) and karting promoter WSK would organize the inaugural year of the championship in 2019. Their bid was chosen over Renault Sport's bid with the same chassis, who attracted fewer votes from Single-Seater Commission members. Following the 2020 season, the Formula Renault Eurocup merged with the Formula Regional European Championship to become the Formula Regional European Championship by Alpine.


title: Formula Regional European Championship

text: The championship's first season featured eight rounds on the circuits across Europe with half of them in Italy.


title: Formula Regional European Championship

text: The driver champions receive FIA Super License points. The series is intended to be a stepping stone between Formula 4 and the international FIA Formula 3 Championship.


title: Formula Regional European Championship

text: The championship features Tatuus-designed and built cars. The cars will be constructed out of carbon fibre and feature a monocoque chassis which feature a number of enhanced safety features including the new Halo device and improved side impact protection, and will have a six-speed paddle-shift sequential gearbox. In the 2019 and 2020 seasons, the car was powered by a Alfa Romeo 270PS (200kW) turbo engine tuned by Autotecnica. After the merge with Formula Renault Eurocup for the 2021 season the championship uses Renault engines.


title: Leedsichthys

text: Leedsichthys is an extinct genus of pachycormid fish that lived in the oceans of the Middle to Late Jurassic. It is the largest ray-finned fish, and amongst the largest fish known to have ever existed.


title: Leedsichthys

text: The first remains of "Leedsichthys" were identified in the nineteenth century. Especially important were the finds by the British collector Alfred Nicholson Leeds, after whom the genus was named "Leeds' fish" in 1889. The type species is "Leedsichthys problematicus". "Leedsichthys" fossils have been found in England, France, Germany and Chile. In 1999, based on the Chilean discoveries, a second species was named "Leedsichthys notocetes", but this was later shown to be indistinguishable from "L. problematicus".


title: Leedsichthys

text: "Leedsichthys" fossils have been difficult to interpret because the skeletons were not completely made of bone. Large parts consisted of cartilage that did not fossilize. On several occasions the enigmatic large partial remains have been mistaken for stegosaurian dinosaur bones. As the vertebrae are among the parts that have not been preserved, it is hard to determine the total body length. Estimates have varied significantly. At the beginning of the twentieth century, a length of was seen as plausible, but by its end "Leedsichthys" was sometimes claimed to have been over long. Recent research has lowered this to about for the largest individuals. Skull bones have been found indicating that "Leedsichthys" had a large head with bosses on the skull roof. Fossilised bony fin rays show large elongated pectoral fins and a tall vertical tail fin. The gill arches were lined by gill rakers, equipped by a unique system of delicate bone plates, that filtered plankton from the sea water, the main food source.


title: Leedsichthys

text: Along with its close pachycormid relatives "Bonnerichthys" and "Rhinconichthys", "Leedsichthys" is part of a lineage of large-sized filter-feeders that swam the Mesozoic seas for over 100 million years, from the middle Jurassic until the end of the Cretaceous period. Pachycormids might represent an early branch of Teleostei, the group most modern bony fishes belong to; in that case "Leedsichthys" is the largest known teleost fish.


title: Leedsichthys

text: During the 1880s, the gentleman farmer Alfred Nicholson Leeds collected large fish fossils from loam pits near Peterborough, England. In May 1886 these were inspected by John Whitaker Hulke, who in 1887 partially reported them as the back plates of the stegosaurian "Omosaurus". On 22 August 1888, the American dinosaur expert Professor Othniel Charles Marsh visited Leeds' farm at Eyebury and quickly concluded that the presumed dinosaurian armour in fact represented the skull bones of a giant fish. Within two weeks British fish expert Arthur Smith Woodward examined the specimens and began to prepare a formal description published in 1889. In it he named the species "Leedsichthys problematicus". The generic name "Leedsichthys" means "Leeds' fish", from Greek ἰχθύς, "ichthys", "fish". The fossils found by Leeds gave the fish the specific epithet "problematicus" because the remains were so fragmented that they were extremely hard to recognize and interpret. After a second publication in 1889, objections were raised against the perceived "barbaric" nature of the generic name, which simply attached a non-Latinised British family name to a Classical Greek word. Woodward therefore in 1890 changed the genus name to "Leedsia", resulting in a "Leedsia problematica". However, by modern standards this is a non-valid junior synonym.


title: Leedsichthys

text: The holotype specimen, BMNH P.6921, had been found in a layer of the Oxford Clay Formation dating from the Callovian, about 165 million years old. It consists of 1133 disarticulated elements of the skeleton, mostly fin ray fragments, probably of a single individual. Another specimen, BMNH P.6922, contains additional probable fragmentary remains of "Leedsichthys". Woodward also identified a specimen previously acquired from the French collector Tesson, who had in 1857 found them in the Falaises des Vaches Noires of Normandy, BMNH 32581, as the gill rakers of "Leedsichthys". Another specimen bought in 1875 from the collection of William Cunnington, BMNH 46355, he failed to recognise.


title: Leedsichthys

text: Leeds continued to collect "Leedsichthys" fossils that subsequently were acquired by British musea. In March 1898, Leeds reported to have discovered a tail which he on 17 March 1899 sold for £25 to the British Museum of Natural History, which exhibited it as specimen BMNH P.10000; a new inventory number range was begun for the occasion. Already in July 1898, the front of probably the same animal had been bought, BMNH P.11823. On 22 July 1905 specimen BMNH P.10156 was acquired, a gill basket. In January 1915 Leeds sold specimens GLAHM V3362, a pectoral fin, and GLAHM V3363, the remainder of the same skeleton with 904 elements, to the Hunterian Museum of Glasgow.


title: Leedsichthys

text: Leeds had a rival, the collector Henry Keeping, who in 1899 tricked pit workers into selling dorsal fin rays by misinforming them that Leeds had lost interest in such finds. Keeping again sold these to the University of Cambridge where they were catalogued as specimen CAMSM J.46873. In September 1901, they were examined by the German palaeontologist Friedrich von Huene, who identified them as tail spikes, "Schwanzstacheln", of "Omosaurus", the second time "Leedsichthys" remains were mistaken for stegosaurian bones; Leeds himself was able to disabuse von Huene the same year.


title: Leedsichthys

text: In 2001, students at the Dogsthorpe Star Pit discovered a major new British specimen that they nicknamed "Ariston" after a 1991 commercial for the Indesit Ariston washing machine that claimed it went "on and on and on" — likewise the bones of "Leedsichthys" seemed to endlessly continue into the face of the loam pit. From 2002 until 2004 "Ariston" or specimen PETMG F174 was excavated by a team headed by Jeff Liston; to uncover the remains it was necessary to remove ten thousand tonnes of loam forming an overburden of thickness. The find generated considerable media attention, inspiring an episode of the BBC "Sea Monsters" series, "The Second Most Deadly Sea", and a Channel Four documentary titled "The Big Monster Dig", both containing computer-generated animated reconstructions of "Leedsichthys". Liston subsequently dedicated a dissertation and a series of articles to "Leedsichthys", providing the first extensive modern osteology of the animal.


title: Leedsichthys

text: Apart from the British discoveries, finds of a more fragmentary nature continued to be made in Normandy, France. In July 1982, Germany became an important source of "Leedsichthys" fossils when two groups of amateur palaeontologists, unaware of each other's activities, began to dig up the same skeleton at Wallücke. Remarkably, parts of it were again incorrectly identified as stegosaurian material, of "Lexovisaurus". From 1973 onwards, fragmentary "Leedsichthys" fossils were uncovered in Chile. In March 1994, a more complete specimen was found, SMNK 2573 PAL. In 1999 the Chilean finds were named as a second species, "Leedsichthys notocetes", the "Southern Sea Monster". However, Liston later concluded that the presumed distinguishing traits of this species, depressions on the gill rakers, were artefacts caused by erosion; "Leedsichthys notocetes" would be a junior synonym of "Leedsichthys problematicus".


title: Leedsichthys

text: The fossil remains of "Leedsichthys" have been found in the Callovian of England and northern Germany, the Oxfordian of Chile, and the Callovian and upper Kimmeridgian of France. These occurrences span a temporal range of at least five million years. A complete and isolated gill raker from the Vaca Muerta formation of Argentina (MOZ-Pv 1788), has been assigned to the genus and dates to the early Tithonian.


title: Leedsichthys

text: Although the remains of over seventy individuals have been found, most of them are partial and fragmentary. The skeleton of "Leedsichthys" is thus only imperfectly known. This is largely caused by the fact that many skeletal elements, including the front of the skull and the vertebral centra, did not ossify but remained cartilage. Furthermore, those that did ossify were gradually hollowed out during the lifetime of the animal by resorption of the inner bone tissue. In the fossil phase, compression flattened and cracked these hollow structures, making it extraordinarily difficult to identify them or determine their original form.


title: Leedsichthys

text: The head was probably relatively large and wide but still elongated. The snout is completely unknown. Frontal bones are absent. The skull roof is rather robust with bosses on the parietals, continuing sideways over the dermopterotica, and the postparietals. The parietals have a notch on the front midline. A dermosphenoticum is present above the eye socket. The jaws are toothless. Behind the jaw joint a robust hyomandibula is present. The gill basket rests on paired hypohyalia. At least the first two gill arches have ossified hypobranchialia, the lower parts of the gill arch; a third hypobranchiale was likely present. The hypobranchials are attached at their lower ends at an angle of 21,5° via a functional joint that possibly served to increase the gape of the mouth, to about two feet. All five gill arches have ossified ceratobranchialia with a triangular cross-section, the middle sections of the arches. The hypobranchials are fused with their ceratobranchials. The fifth gill arch is fused with the front parts of the basket. Higher epibranchialia and pharyngobranchialia are present but poorly known. The fourth arches are supported by a midline fourth basibranchiale. An ossified operculum is present.


title: Leedsichthys

text: The gill arches are equipped with rows of parallel 3-to-12-centimetre-long (1.2-to-4.7-inch-long) gill rakers, in life probably attached to the ceratobranchials via soft tissue. On the top of each raker one or two rows of dozens of low "teeth" are present. When there are two rows, they are placed on the edges of the upper surface and separated by a deep trough, itself separated from an internal hollow space by a transverse septum. The teeth or "fimbriations" are obliquely directed towards the front and the top. They are grooved at their sides, the striations continuing over the sides of the raker. Detailed study of exquisitely preserved French specimens revealed to Liston that these teeth were, again via soft tissue, each attached to delicate 2-millimetre-long (0.08-inch-long) bony plates, structures that had never before been observed among living or extinct fishes. An earlier hypothesis that the striations would function as sockets for sharp "needle teeth", as with the basking shark, was hereby refuted. The rakers served to filter plankton, the main food supply of "Leedsichthys", from the sea water.


title: Leedsichthys

text: Large parts of the "Leedsichthys" fossils consist of bony finrays. "Leedsichthys" has two pectoral fins that probably were located rather low on the body. They are large, very elongated — about five times longer than wide — and scythe-like, with a sudden kink at the lower end, curving 10° to the rear. Also a dorsal fin is present, although its position is unknown. Pelvic fins at the belly are lacking; also a pelvic plate is absent. However, there are indications for a small triangular anal fin. The vertical tail fin is very large and symmetrical with paired upper and lower lobes; there is a smaller lobe in the middle protruding between them. The rays are unsegmented lepidotrichia, resulting in a rather stiff structure. They are bifurcated at up to three splitting points along their length, so a proximally single ray may have eight distal ends. A row of bony supraneuralia is present behind the head, at each side of the vertebral column. Uroneuralia at the tail are unknown. No bony scales are present.


title: Leedsichthys

text: "Leedsichthys" is the largest known member of the Osteichthyes or bony fishes. The largest extant non-tetrapodomorph bony fish is the ocean sunfish, "Mola mola", being with a weight of up to two tonnes an order of magnitude smaller than "Leedsichthys". The extant giant oarfish might rival "Leedsichthys" in length but is much thinner. The lack of a preserved vertebral column has made it difficult to estimate the exact length of "Leedsichthys". Arthur Smith Woodward, who described the type specimen in 1889, estimated specimen BMNH P.10000 to be of an around nine metre long individual, by comparing this tail of "Leedsichthys", having a preserved height of , with another pachycormid, "Hypsocormus". The length of "Leedsichthys" was not historically the subject of much attention, the only reference to it being made by Woodward himself when he in 1937 indicated it again as on the museum label of BMNH P.10000. However, in 1986, David Martill compared the bones of "Leedsichthys" to a pachycormid that he had recently discovered, "Asthenocormus". The unusual proportions of that specimen gave a wide range of possible sizes. Some were as low as , but extrapolating from the gill basket resulted in an estimated length of for "Leedsichthys" specimen NHM P.10156 (the earlier BMNH P.10156). Martill considered the higher estimate as a plausible size of the largest individuals. Subsequently, a length of thirty metres (hundred feet) was often mentioned in popular science publications, sometimes one as high as .


title: Leedsichthys

text: Liston in his studies concluded to much lower estimates. Documentation of historical finds and the excavation of "Ariston", the most complete specimen ever from the Star Pit near Whittlesey, Peterborough, support Woodward's figures of between . With "Ariston" the pectoral fins are apart, indicating a narrow body of no excessive size, even though it was initially thought to have been long. In 2007 Liston stated that most specimens indicated lengths between . A linear extrapolation from the gill basket would be flawed because the gills grow disproportionally in size, having to increase their surface allometrically to ensure the oxygen supply of a body increasing in volume to the third power. The growth ring structures within the remains of "Leedsichthys" have indicated that it would have taken 21 to 25 years to reach these lengths, and isolated elements from other specimens showed that a maximum size of just over is not unreasonable. In 2013 a new study by Liston found most specimens to be between 17 and 31 years old. Specimen GLAHM V3363, "Big Meg", could have been between . The exception was NHM P.10156. Its gill basket, with a preserved width of and height of , indicated a body length of and an age of 45 years. The largest individual would have weighed up to .


title: Leedsichthys

text: Woodward initially assigned "Leedsichthys" to the Acipenseroidea, considering it related to the sturgeon, having the large gill rakers and branching finrays in common. In 1905, he changed this to the Pachycormidae. The Pachycormidae have a somewhat uncertain position. Often they are considered very basal Teleostei — if so, "Leedsichthys" would be the largest known teleost — others see them as members of a Pachycormiformes forming the sister group of the Teleostei, and sometimes they are seen as even more basal Amiiformes. In the latter case the extant bowfin, "Amia calva", would be the closest living relative of "Leedsichthys".


title: Leedsichthys

text: Within the Pachycormidae, a cladistic analysis found "Leedsichthys" to be the sister species of "Asthenocormus", their clade being the sister group of "Martillichthys".


title: Leedsichthys

text: This cladogram after Friedman "et al." shows a possible position of "Leedsichtys" in the evolutionary tree.


title: Leedsichthys

text: Like the largest fish today, the whale sharks and basking sharks, "Leedsichthys problematicus" derived its nutrition as a suspension feeder, using an array of specialised gill rakers lining its gill basket to extract zooplankton, small animals, from the water passing through its mouth and across its gills. It is less clear whether also phytoplankton, algae, were part of the diet. "Leedsichthys" could have been a ram feeder, making the water pass through its gills by swimming, but could also have actively pumped the water through the gill basket. In 2010, Liston suggested that fossilised furrows discovered in ancient sea floors in Switzerland and attributed to the activity of plesiosaurs, had in fact been made by "Leedsichthys" spouting water through its mouth to disturb and eat the benthos, the animals dwelling in the sea floor mud.


title: Leedsichthys

text: Much is still uncertain about the life cycle of "Leedsichthys". Liston's 2013 study suggested a slow, nearly linear, growth. A French study in 1993 of its bone structure concluded however, that the metabolism was rather high. Also problematic is how "Leedsichthys" could increase its size quickly during the first year of its life. Teleostei typically lay relatively small eggs and this has been seen as an obstacle for them attaining giant sizes.


title: Leedsichthys

text: In 1986, Martill reported the presence of a tooth of the marine crocodile "Metriorhynchus" in a bone of "Leedsichthys". The bone would have healed, a sign that the about 3-metre-long (10-foot-long) "Metriorhynchus" was actively hunting the much larger fish. However, in 2007 Liston concluded the bone tissue had not in fact healed and that this was probably a case of scavenging. An apex predator of the Oxford Clay seas large enough to attack "Leedsichthys" was the pliosaurid "Liopleurodon".


title: Leedsichthys

text: In 1999 Martill suggested that a climate change at the end of the Callovian led to the extinction of "Leedsichthys" in the northern seas, the southern Ocean offering a last refuge during the Oxfordian. However, in 2010 Liston pointed out that "Leedsichthys" during the later Kimmeridgian was still present in the north, as testified by Normandian finds. Liston did nevertheless consider in 2007 that the lack of any vertebrate suspension feeders as large as prior to the Callovian stage of the Mesozoicum might indicate that the Callovian had seen a marked change in productivity as regarded zooplankton populations. Indeed, further studies supported this, viewing "Leedsichthys" as the beginning of a long line of large (> in length) pachycormid suspension feeders that continued to flourish well into the Late Cretaceous, such as "Bonnerichthys" and "Rhinconichthys", and emphasising the convergent evolutionary paths taken by pachycormids and baleen whales.


title: Leedsichthys

text: Recent studies have uncovered some estimations regarding metabolic rate and speed for "Leedsichthys". Using data from living teleost fish as a comparison, scientists discovered that "Leedsichthys" could have cruised along at potential speeds of while still maintaining oxygenation of its body tissues.


title: Kawasaki Z1000

text: The Kawasaki Z1000 is a four-cylinder motorcycle introduced in 2003 with streetfighter or standard styling. The Z1000 was first introduced in 1977 superseding the previous 903 cc capacity Z1/Z900.


title: Kawasaki Z1000

text: Kawasaki introduced the Z1 (900) motorcycle in 1972 as the first of the Kawasaki Z series, with four cylinders, dual overhead camshafts and , followed by a 1015 cc version designated Z1000.


title: Kawasaki Z1000

text: In 2003 Kawasaki introduced a completely revamped 30-year anniversary edition of the Z1000. It used a modified engine from the Kawasaki ZX-9R, and was bored out by 2.2 mm resulting in bigger displacement, more low-RPM torque, and only a slight power loss of 4 bhp from the original ZX9. In 2004, Kawasaki released the Z1000's smaller brother, the Z750. In 2007, Kawasaki released a new Z1000.


title: Kawasaki Z1000

text: In October 2009, Kawasaki unveiled the 2010 Z1000. It had a new aluminum frame, digital instrument panel, bodywork, and engine. Bore and stroke are 77 x 56 mm, 1 mm more than the ZX-10R's 76 x 55 mm displacing 1,043 cc. That is up from the previous model's 953 cc. Compression ratio is 11.8:1, and fuel injection is handled by a bank of 38-mm Keihin throttle bodies.


title: Kawasaki Z1000

text: Stylistically, the 2003 Z1000 was a departure from other naked sportbikes of the time. The Z1000 used the same tail section that was being used on the 2003 ZX6R 636 cc sport bike.


title: Kawasaki Z1000

text: It has a 4-2-4 exhaust system. The Z1000 uses a backbone frame that supports the engine as a stressed member. Engine mounts can be removed to ease access for maintenance. Compression damping is done on one fork leg, rebound damping on the other. This technology is from dirt bikes, and is rare on street motorcycles. The Nissin brakes have four piston calipers.


title: Kawasaki Z1000

text: In 2007 Kawasaki released an updated version of the Z1000. The bike features a detuned version of the ZX-9R engine. This detuning, in addition to the design of the exhaust, provides less top end compared to the super-sport ZX-9R engine, but more low to mid rpm range.


title: Kawasaki Z1000

text: The Z1000 was redesigned for 2010. Along with the customary styling update came a slightly larger capacity engine. The motorcycle was officially marketed as the "Z1000 ABS", as ABS came fitted as standard.


title: Kawasaki Z1000

text: In 2013 Kawasaki broke with the 3-year update cycle and choose to release a "special edition" – alongside the standard edition – to mark the 40th anniversary of the Z brand. The differences between the models were purely aesthetic.


title: Kawasaki Z1000

text: The Z1000 was restyled and updated for 2014, making slightly more power; and front brake caliper are 4-piston monoblock. Also a big piston Showa separate function fork along with lighter wheels and a slightly larger gas tank.


title: Chris Amon

text: Christopher Arthur Amon (20 July 1943 – 3 August 2016) was a New Zealand motor racing driver. He was active in Formula One racing in the 1960s and 1970s, and is widely regarded as one of the best F1 drivers never to win a championship Grand Prix. His reputation for bad luck was such that fellow driver Mario Andretti once joked that "if he became an undertaker, people would stop dying". Former Ferrari Technical Director Mauro Forghieri stated that Amon was "by far the best test driver I have ever worked with. He had all the qualities to be a World Champion but bad luck just wouldn't let him be".


title: Chris Amon

text: Apart from driving, Chris Amon also ran his own Formula One team for a short period in 1974. Away from Formula One, Amon had some success in sports car racing, teaming with co-driver Bruce McLaren to win the 24 Hours of Le Mans race in .


title: Chris Amon

text: Amon was born in Bulls, New Zealand, and attended Whanganui Collegiate School. He was the only child of wealthy sheep-owners Ngaio and Betty Amon. He learned to drive at the age of six, taught by a farm worker on the family farm. On leaving school, he persuaded his father to buy him an Austin A40 Special, which he entered in some minor local races and hillclimbs along with practice on the family farm. He progressed to a 1.5-litre Cooper and then an old 2.5-litre Maserati 250F, but only began to draw attention when he drove the Cooper-Climax T51 which Bruce McLaren had used to win his maiden Grand Prix.


title: Chris Amon

text: In 1962 Amon entered the Cooper for the New Zealand winter series, but was hampered by mechanical problems. However, Scuderia Veloce entered him in a similar car, and, in the rain at Lakeside, he performed well. One of the spectators there was the English racing driver Reg Parnell who persuaded Amon to come to England and race for his team. In a test at Goodwood Amon continued to impress and was on the pace in the Goodwood International Trophy and Aintree 200 pre-season races.


title: Chris Amon

text: For the 1963 Formula One season the Parnell team were using the year old Lola Mk4A, powered by 1962 specification Climax V8 engines. Amon was teamed with the very experienced Maurice Trintignant for the first race of the season at Monaco and his Grand Prix career started with what was to become typical bad luck: Trintignant's Climax developed a misfire, so he took over Amon's car.


title: Chris Amon

text: At the 1963 Belgian Grand Prix, Amon was partnered by Lucien Bianchi and started ahead of him from 15th position. After nine laps, however, an oil fire ended his race. He continued to experience mechanical problems at the Dutch, Mexican and German Grands Prix; and after an accident in practice for the Italian Grand Prix left him hanging out of his car's cockpit with three broken ribs, he missed both the Italian and United States rounds.


title: Chris Amon

text: Amon usually qualified in the midfield and generally outpaced his teammates, who included his good friend Mike Hailwood. His best results of the year were seventh at the French and British Grands Prix. During this time, however, Amon's social life was attracting as much attention as his driving. He was a member of the Ditton Road Flyers, the social set named after the road in London where Amon shared an apartment with American Peter Revson, Hailwood and Tony Maggs.


title: Chris Amon

text: Parnell was nonetheless impressed with Amon's results in what was regarded as less-than-competitive machinery and promoted him to team leader. Parnell died from peritonitis in January 1964 and his son Tim took over the team.


title: Chris Amon

text: In a series of four pre-season races in Britain and Italy, Amon recorded three fifth places at Snetterton, Silverstone and Syracuse. He failed to qualify for the first F1 race of the season, the Monaco GP, but at the next race, the Dutch GP, he scored his first World Championship points. The rest of his season, however, was blighted by mechanical problems.


title: Chris Amon

text: Parnell was offered BRM engines for 1965, but only if it ran Richard Attwood as its regular driver. Reluctantly, Parnell agreed and Attwood took Amon's place. Spotting an opportunity, Bruce McLaren quickly signed Amon for his new McLaren team, but when no second McLaren F1 car materialised, Amon could only drive in sports car races.


title: Chris Amon

text: At the French GP Amon rejoined Parnell to stand in for an injured Attwood. Amon also competed in a Formula Two race in Stuttgart and won. He returned to Germany for the German GP as second Parnell driver, but mechanical failure again forced an early retirement. His last drive before Attwood's return, a non-championship race in Enna, Sicily, also ended in retirement.


title: Chris Amon

text: During 1966 Amon continued to race for McLaren in Can-Am. He was intended to drive the second McLaren M2B but difficulties with engine supply meant that the team never made the intended expansion to two cars. (James Garner's character Pete Aron's helmet and car livery in the film "Grand Prix" were modelled on Amon driving a McLaren, which caused the movie makers to have to encourage other cars to be painted in the 'Yamura' colours and other drivers (Bruce McLaren included) to wear Amon-style helmets.)


title: Chris Amon

text: However, an opportunity arose to drive for the Cooper F1 team after Richie Ginther left them for Honda. Amon drove for Cooper at the French GP and was scheduled to drive for them for the rest of the season, until the more successful John Surtees left Scuderia Ferrari to join Cooper and Amon found himself dropped.


title: Chris Amon

text: Amon made one other F1 appearance during the year, driving a Brabham BT11 powered by an old 2-litre BRM engine at the Italian GP under the banner of "Chris Amon Racing". He failed to qualify.


title: Chris Amon

text: Amon did however, score his biggest success to date when he partnered Bruce McLaren in a 7-litre Ford GT40 Mark II and Ken Miles to Ford's dead-heat "photo-finish" after Miles was instructed to slow down despite leading at the Le Mans 24-hour race, spearheading a formation finish. He subsequently received an invitation to meet Enzo Ferrari at the Ferrari home in Maranello, where he signed to race for Ferrari in 1967 alongside Lorenzo Bandini, Mike Parkes and Ludovico Scarfiotti.


title: Chris Amon

text: Amon's first year with Ferrari did not begin auspiciously. En route to Brands Hatch for the pre-season Formula One Race of Champions, he crashed his road car and, following race practice, had to withdraw. Tragedy then struck the Ferrari team when Bandini died following a crash during the 1967 Monaco Grand Prix, Mike Parkes broke both his legs at the Belgian Grand Prix and, in the aftermath, Ludovico Scarfiotti went into temporary retirement. Amon, therefore, became Ferrari's only driver for the rest of the season, until joined by Jonathan Williams for the final race in Mexico. Amon scored his first podium in his first official outing for the Scuderia in Monaco and at the end of 1967 had achieved four third places finishing fifth in the Drivers' Championship, in what was going to be the most successful season of his career.


title: Chris Amon

text: Amon's Ferrari contract also included sports car racing and he began 1967 by winning the Daytona 24 Hours and 1000km Monza events with Bandini in the 4-litre Ferrari 330-P4. He finished the year partnering Jackie Stewart to a second place at the BOAC 500, thereby clinching the manufacturer's world championship for Ferrari by one point over Porsche.


title: Chris Amon

text: 1968 was the year aerodynamics first played a significant role in F1 car design and Amon worked with engineer Mauro Forghieri to place aerofoils on the Ferrari 312.


title: Chris Amon

text: In January 1968 Amon had returned home to New Zealand and Australia to compete in the 1968 Tasman Series which was used by many of the top Formula One drivers as a warm up series to the World Championship. Ferrari had been interested in the series for several years and in 1965 had reengineered 2.4 Dino engines used by Mike Hawthorn, Peter Collins and Phil Hill in 1958–60 with more torque and mid speed power for the planned use of team leader Surtees in the 1966 Tasman Series. After a late season crash in US Can-Am racing by Surtees, the entry was withdrawn but consideration was given to using NZ Gold star champion Jim Palmer in a semi-works Ferrari entry in the 1967 Tasman Series as it was viewed in a 2.4 car he would be competitive with Clark and Stewart in 2-litre F1 cars. Palmer had run world-class times in the 1966 Tasman Series, particularly in the Pukekohe practice and Longford race, and was tested in Italy at the same time as Amon by Ferrari, and ran competitive times at Modena but for whatever reason Ferrari did not compete in 1967 series. For the 1968 series Ferrari decided to use the 2.4 engines with a new Dino 166 F2 chassis rather than a downsized 3-litre V12. Using the 246T Amon won the first two rounds of the Tasman Series, including the 1968 New Zealand Grand Prix, before narrowly losing the series to the Lotus-Ford of Jim Clark. The Dino 246 Tasmania was better handling than Clark's Lotus 49T which was still wingless and a difficult proposition. Impressed by Amon's driving in the NZ rounds, Ferrari dispatched a new four-valve version of the 2.4 V6 for the Australian rounds and this gave another 15 hp, but with lesser reliability which, combined with the fact Clark was the best driver in the world at the time, cost Amon the series, although in the final round at Sandown Park he duelled wheel to wheel with Clark before being pipped at the line.


title: Chris Amon

text: After the first race of the F1 season in South Africa, Amon achieved pole positions in three of the following four races (at the Spanish, Belgian and Dutch Grands Prix) but ever-present mechanical problems meant he secured only a single Championship point from them. Throughout the rest of the season he never qualified lower than fifth place and nearly scored victories at the British and Canadian rounds and he suffered a 100 mph crash in Italy which demolished his car. In Britain, he duelled to the line with Jo Siffert's Lotus 49B and in Canada he dominated the race despite a malfunctioning clutch. Seventeen laps from the finish, however, his car's transmission failed and a distraught Amon had to be consoled by Jacky Ickx. From at least ten promising starts that season he was only able to finish five races and score ten Championship points. His best finish was second place to Siffert's Lotus-Cosworth at the British Grand Prix.


title: Chris Amon

text: Outside F1, Amon was runner-up in the Formula Two race at Zolder, Belgium, testing the Dino 166 F2. He also came third in that year's BRDC International Trophy.


title: Chris Amon

text: Amon began 1969 with success driving the Dino engined 246 Tasmania in the Tasman Series that included winning both the New Zealand and Australian Grands Prix. In straight fights, he beat new Gold Leaf Lotus team leader, Jochen Rindt, into second in the races at Pukekohe and Sandown. He would ultimately win the seven race Tasman Series, probably the best of the seven-year 2.5-litre international formula series in this country and the nearest to World Championship level racing in New Zealand, with ferocious competition between Rindt, Graham Hill, Amon and Williams driver Piers Courage. It was actually much more serious racing than the McLaren dominated Can-Am series in the US in which the big sports cars required few gear changes and were essentially cruised to victory with little real competition, where the Tasman cars were essentially marginally lower power F1 cars, as difficult to drive as GP cars on unforgiving very dangerous narrow tracks. Amon finished with four wins, two-thirds and one retirement, but in Formula One his poor luck continued. Despite six starts from top-six positions, he was only able to achieve a third-place at the Dutch GP. The ageing 312 was still quick at the start of the season and after the Lotus 49Bs of Rindt and Graham Hill crashed spectacularly after high wing failure in the opening laps at Barcelona, Amon dominated the Spanish GP until the almost inevitable engine breakage on lap 56, 40 seconds ahead of Stewart's Matra. At Monaco Amon ran second to Stewart for the first 17 laps losing a second a lap to Stewart, but still gaining a second a lap on the third placed G. Hill who survived the race of attrition to win. Ferrari's F1 V12 engine was too unreliable and although its replacement had proven very fast in testing, it had suffered many mechanical breakages. Amon had no reason to believe it would be any more dependable than the V12, so although the new engine was clearly more powerful, he decided to leave Ferrari for a Cosworth DFV powered team. Ironically, the new flat-12 engine would become one of the best Formula One engines of the 1970s. Jacky Ickx, Amon's old teammate did return to Ferrari for 1970, after a successful sabbatical with Brabham gained Ickx second in the 1969 World Championship. Ickx saw Enzo Ferrari had secured huge backing from Fiat who had taken partial ownership of the Marque, and believed Ferrari would be a renewed team and an effective proposition. Amon was more influenced by views of Jackie Stewart and Jochen Rindt, who believed it was essential to be Ford DFV-powered to be competitive.


title: Chris Amon

text: In addition to Formula One, Amon also drove for Ferrari in the 1969 International Championship for Makes, partnering Pedro Rodriguez to a fourth place in the BOAC 500 at Brands Hatch and coming second at the 12 Hours of Sebring, but retiring from the 1000km Nürburgring and 1000km Monza races, all in the Ferrari 312P sportscar. He also drove in a few Can-Am races. His last race for Ferrari would be the 1970 1000 km Monza, where he finished as runner-up.


title: Chris Amon

text: For the 1970 Formula One season, Amon made what was to be the first of several moves to smaller, newer teams. March Engineering had been formed the previous year to build custom chassis for Formulas 2 and 3, but quickly moved into F1, designing and building the March 701. Amon and Siffert were signed as drivers, with IndyCar driver Mario Andretti making an occasional appearance in a third car. March also sold their 701 chassis to Tyrrell, where Jackie Stewart drove it to its first victory in that year's Spanish GP.


title: Chris Amon

text: Amon won the pre-season Silverstone International Trophy, but once the F1 season began he found himself prevented from converting good qualifying positions into good results. He qualified second behind Stewart's Tyrrell-March for the season-opening South African Grand Prix only for his own March to overheat within fourteen laps. Amon then qualified sixth for the Spanish Grand Prix only for his March's Ford-Cosworth DFV engine to expire within ten laps. He qualified and ran second in the 1970 Monaco Grand Prix until his suspension failed twenty laps from the finish. This was the race where Amon refused to drive unless his entry number was changed from 18 – the number under which his then teammate Lorenzo Bandini had crashed and died in Monaco – to 28.


title: Chris Amon

text: Amon's close second place from a third-place start at the 1970 Belgian Grand Prix finally gave the March works team their first points finish. At that race, Amon set fastest lap at over 152 miles per hour, a lap record which still stands as of 2016, as it was the last race on the full-length Spa-Francorchamps circuit. However, after qualifying fourth for the next race, the Dutch Grand Prix, his car's clutch broke after just one lap. Amon duplicated his Belgian result at the 1970 French Grand Prix. After a disappointing performance in the British GP at Brands Hatch where Amon finished fifth after being outqualified by tyro Ronnie Peterson in a private 701 on the same tyres, conflict with team boss Max Mosley over the non-delivery of three-quarters of Amon's expected pay for the season saw him provided with inferior DFVs and two backmarker 7th places in Austria and Italy, Amon finished the season strongly with strong drives to third at Mosport, fifth at Watkins Glen and fourth in Mexico. At Watkins Glen in the USGP he was robbed of a probably certain victory, in the opinion of March designer Robin Herd, by a puncture.


title: Chris Amon

text: By the end of the year, disagreements with March co-founders Mosley and Robin Herd meant that Amon had decided to move to another relatively new team, Matra.


title: Chris Amon

text: In 1971, Amon, now driving for the Matra factory team, once again scored a pre-season victory, this time at the Argentine Grand Prix. Once the Formula One season had begun, he managed to convert a third-place start at the Spanish GP into a third-place podium finish and scored a couple of fifth places in the South African and French GPs. Apart from these results, however, his run of poor F1 returns continued. He had a major accident at the Nürburgring and it sidelined him for the next race at the Österreichring. At the Italian GP he qualified in pole position and despite a poor start to the race looked as if he would capitalise on it – until the visor on his helmet became detached. Amon had to slow to avoid risking a major accident, thereby allowing other drivers to catch and overtake him. He finished the race in sixth place, scoring just one Championship point.


title: Chris Amon

text: During the year Amon also competed in the non-championship Questor Grand Prix at the new Ontario Motor Speedway, where he qualified second and, despite suffering a puncture during the race, managed to finish fourth.


title: Chris Amon

text: In the Tasman Series Amon started from fourth at the Levin Circuit and in the race, he battled with David Oxton and John Cannon but managed to finish third. Amon's third race at Wigram Airfield starting fifth and spun at the start to drop him to the back of the field but managed to climb up to fifth.


title: Chris Amon

text: In the 1972 Formula One season, Amon, again driving for Matra achieved a handful of points-scoring finishes, but only one podium appearance, at the French GP. Here he achieved the fifth and final pole position of his career and was leading the race until a puncture forced him to pit. However, he climbed back through the field, breaking the circuit's lap record to finish third.


title: Chris Amon

text: With the money he had made from motorsport, Amon decided to set up a racing engine firm with former BRM engineer Aubrey Woods. Amon Racing Engines supplied Formula 2 engines to a few drivers, but the company quickly became too expensive to run and was sold to March for a loss.


title: Chris Amon

text: Matra decided to end their participation in Formula One at the end of 1972, so Amon found himself looking to return to March as a driver. The place, however, was given to Jean-Pierre Jarier, purportedly for financial reasons. Amon therefore signed for another recently formed F1 team, Tecno.


title: Chris Amon

text: Tecno had entered F1 the previous year, having been a successful chassis-builder for other Formulæ and had developed a potentially powerful Flat 12 for F1. Their first year in F1 proved to be dismal, however with considerable backing from Martini Rossi they had jumped at the chance to sign Amon, and allocate David Yorke the former Vanwall and Gulf GT40 Team Manager to run the team and commission two new chassis designs by former Lotus and McLaren mechanic. Alan McCall who had worked on Clark and Hulme's F1 cars and unproven, British designer Gordon Fowell for a more radical back up design, in the hope he would help transform their performance. While McCalls car was built rapidly, testing it was more time-consuming and after its non-appearance, for the Spanish GP, Amon and team manager David Yorke met with Enzo Ferrari to see if Amon could be released from his contract to develop the new Ferrari B3 for Ickx and Mezarrio, in a supposedly one off GP drive at Monaco. Yorke rejected the release, and Amon admits he would not have left Ferrari if offered the drive for a season.


title: Chris Amon

text: Unfortunately, the team went from bad to worse and wasn't able to field the Tecno PA123/6 until the fifth GP of the season, the Belgian GP. Amon managed to finish in sixth position. At Monaco the car qualified a useful 12th and chassis felt good but Chris was unhappy with the car. He decided to concentrate on the undeveloped Gordon Fowell Goral car. This was against the view of the Techno team and the Pederanzi engine builders and Martini Rossi who required the car and driver to appear at races Amon commented at the time that it was "the best chassis I've ever sat in", it too proved virtually undriveable. Amon refused to drive the McCall, Techno in the Swedish or German Gps and withdrew from the Austrian GP after qualifying. By the time of the Austrian GP, four races from the end of the season, Amon's patience had run out and he left the team. He would later claim that the months he spent with the team "felt like ten [seasons]".


title: Chris Amon

text: Tyrrell offered Amon a third car – the 005 – in which to drive the last two races of the season. After a mediocre first outing at the Canadian GP, he and Jackie Stewart withdrew from the final race of the year, the United States GP, following the death of their teammate François Cevert during qualifying.


title: Chris Amon

text: For the 1974 F1 season, Amon revived Chris Amon Racing. Gordon Fowell designed the car, the AF101, which featured a single central fuel tank, titanium torsion bars and a forward driving position. Structurally, however, it proved to be weak and was not ready for an F1 appearance until the fourth race of the season, the Spanish GP. Amon was only able to qualify 23rd, thanks to brake-disc vibration that only became worse with the tyres for the wet race that followed. Despite cautious driving, a brake shaft finally broke and Amon was forced to retire after 22 laps.


title: Chris Amon

text: Following further work and testing, Amon returned for the Monaco GP and qualified twentieth, but, thanks to mechanical problems, he was unable to start the race. Further problems and illness meant Amon was not able to reappear with the F101 until the Italian GP, three races from the end of the season, but this time he was unable to qualify. That sealed the fate of both the car and Chris Amon Racing, leaving Amon to drive the season's last two races with the faltering BRM team. He would later reveal that he had turned down a chance to join the Brabham team earlier in the season.


title: Chris Amon

text: Amon contested the 1975 F5000 Tasman series against only local Australasian drivers, although Graham McRae, Warwick Brown and Kevin Bartlett were acknowledged internationally. Amon qualified on the front row of three of the four New Zealand rounds and scored a victory at Teretonga in January 1975 in rainy conditions by 24.2 seconds. In the Australian rounds, the competition was always harder with more good cars and the locals on their own tracks. Amon had a frustrating series of races unable to pass, South Australian Johnnie Walker, in a superior Lola T332 chassis with Repco-engineered V8. At Surfers Paradise, running from the back of the grid he managed to eventually pass Walker by widening the braking zone in the only corner where overtaking was usually possible. Amon brushed the edge of the track on repeated laps, got extra grip and passed Walker to take the lead. He had been forced to miss most of the practice session, when Customs seized his car's gearbox. In the race, the brilliant effort went for nothing as the Chev engine blew. At Oran Park and Adelaide he followed Walker the whole way to 4th and 3rd unable to pass. In the final deciding race for the Tasman Series with Brown, Walker and Lawrence still in contention, Walker lost his T332 on the first lap and it demolished on wooden barriers surrounding Sandown's car and horse racing tracks. Amon was never in contention and finished 4th. Amon intended to compete in F5000 in both Europe and the US in 1975 but started in only one round of both series, managing a pole in one Shellsport round in the UK and a 4th place overall at the Long Beach GP in a two heat race. He used different Talon F5000 cars for both races. The speed he showed in qualifying for a couple of UK F5000 races encouraged the small Ensign team to give him a race. Mo Nunn the Ensign team owner had been a Lotus F3 driver in 1966 and the Dave Baldwin designed chassis was in many ways a lightweight Lotus F1, which Ronnie Peterson wanted to test in 1975 out of frustration with his old 72 and which could have been used by Colin Chapman had he not decided to concentrate on developing chassis which would use ground effect technology, the Lotus 77 design for 1976 which was in many ways a test vehicle for the development of concepts, including the de facto legalisation of technology like plastic sliding skirts, introduced on Andretti's 77 from the 1976 Canadian Grand Prix, that would be used in future Lotus wing cars the Lotus 78 and Lotus 79.


title: Chris Amon

text: Apart from these successes, Amon's racing career seemed once again to have stalled. Apparently a chance meeting with Mo Nunn of Ensign Racing led to the Ensign drive, but in fact Mo Nunn thought his new N175 a very fast car and did not view the two Dutch drivers favoured by the Dutch HB Security company who sponsored Ensign fast enough. Gijs van Lennep, the 1973 European F5000 Champion in a Surtees TS11 who had won Le Mans in 1971 and 1976 was a very good driver but also one of the last racing aristocrats. Van Lennep, qualified the car on its debut in the French GP at Paul Ricard and finished 6th in the German GP at Nürburgring, and was faster on both circuits than Patrick Nève or Amon were in 1976. Amon managed 7th in the non-championship Swiss GP at Dijon chasing James Hunt debuting the disappointing Hesketh 308C and 12th in two GP drives in the Ensign N175 at the Austrian and Italian GPs. At Monza after a long pit stop he finally ran at competitive pace, running 4 laps down but keeping pace with the leading Ferrari 312T of Niki Lauda for a number of laps. Progressive evaluation of the possibilities of what was slowing the N175 led Amon to change the airbox alignment on the day of the Italian GP and this resulted in a 2-second gain (much like the change in air cooler position that lost and gained two seconds on Hunt's McLaren M23 resolved by the 1976 French GP). Ironically Amon never raced the N175 again and the high airboxes had been banned by the time N176 ran at Jarama the following year, but the flash of testing and driving genius was enough to give Amon another chance. Although the results were unremarkable, he and Nunn worked well together, so Amon joined Ensign for the 1976 F1 season.


title: Chris Amon

text: Ensign's first race of the season was the South African GP where Amon qualified 18th and showed a revival of form, climbing to seventh place, in the old Ensign N174 and contesting sixth with Mario Andretti in the Parnelli Ford, in the last laps before a last minute refueling stop left him 14th. Thereafter results began to improve, with Amon qualifying 17th and finishing eighth in the USA West GP; qualifying tenth and finishing fifth in the Spanish GP; and then qualifying eighth for the Belgian GP. More points then seemed likely from the race until his car lost a wheel 19 laps from the finish and Amon was lucky to escape unhurt from the ensuing accident. He then achieved a third-place grid position start for the Swedish GP using a Nicholson rebuilt Cosworth for the first time and in the race looked as if he would join Tyrrell drivers Jody Scheckter and Patrick Depailler on the podium, until suspension failure threw him from the track after 38 laps.


title: Chris Amon

text: Amon had again been lucky to escape serious injury and decided to miss the next race, the French GP. He returned for the British GP, qualifying in sixth and running fourth in the race when his Ford-Cosworth DFV engine developed a water leak. Rather than risk losing an engine, his team called him in to retire.


title: Chris Amon

text: At the German GP problems dogged his attempts to qualify well, but it was Niki Lauda's crash during the second lap of the race that had a far greater impact. Amon refused to restart the race and Nunn fired him from the team. Amon declared his retirement from the sport and returned to New Zealand.


title: Chris Amon

text: ""I'd seen too many people fried in racing cars at that stage. When you've driven past Bandini, Schlesser, Courage and Williamson, another shunt like that was simply too much. It was a personal decision...""


title: Chris Amon

text: (Amon, on his retirement in 1976)However, Walter Wolf contacted Amon and persuaded him to drive for his Wolf–Williams team in the North American races near the end of the season. After recording some promising times in preparation for the Canadian GP, however, Amon was involved in a heavy collision with another car during qualifying and once again was lucky to walk away unharmed. He then did not take part in either the Canadian or United States Grands Prix.


title: Chris Amon

text: Amon turned down an offer of a full-time F1 drive for 1977, but did attempt a return to Can-Am racing in 1977 with a Wolf-Dallara WD1. However, after only one race he quit, saying "I'm just not enjoying this anymore". His place was taken by the young and then unknown Canadian Gilles Villeneuve, whom Amon would, later that year, recommend to Enzo Ferrari.


title: Chris Amon

text: In the meantime, Amon returned once again to New Zealand, this time to retire from F1 motor racing for good.


title: Chris Amon

text: Amon came out of retirement for a one-off appearance in the 2003 Dunlop Targa New Zealand with motorsport commentator Murray Walker as his navigator. The pair completed the week-long Auckland to Wellington Tarmac Rally in a Toyota Camry Sportivo, the same car previously used by Walker and Colin Bond in Australia's Targa Tasmania.


title: Chris Amon

text: After his retirement from F1, Amon dedicated himself to running the family farm in New Zealand's Manawatu District for many years. After retiring from farming, he lived in Taupo in New Zealand's North Island. In the early 1980s he became more well known in New Zealand from test-driving vehicles on the TV motoring series "Motor Show" and later consulted for Toyota New Zealand, tuning the 1984 Toyota Corolla and subsequent cars for sale there. He also appeared in TV commercials for the company, where much was made of the acclaim he won from Enzo Ferrari. Amon participated in the 2004 EnergyWise Rally where he won ahead of Brian Cowan. Amon drove a Toyota Prius for the event.


title: Chris Amon

text: In the 1993 Queen's Birthday Honours, Amon was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire, for services to motor sport.


title: Chris Amon

text: Amon was involved in the design of the upgraded Taupo Motorsport Park circuit, used for the New Zealand round of the 2006–07 A1 Grand Prix season in January 2007. At the New Zealand Festival of Motor Racing in 2011, Amon's life and career were honoured with a selection of his cars being driven and also used the event to raise funds for the Bruce McLaren trust. Amon was also honoured at the festival in January 2013.


title: Chris Amon

text: Amon died in Rotorua Hospital on 3 August 2016, aged 73, of cancer. He was survived by his wife (they married in 1977) their three children and their grandchildren. One of his sons, James, is a qualified High Performance personal trainer. He trained Central Districts Stags cricket team, and was revealed to be Brendon Hartley's personal trainer.


title: Chris Amon

text: Despite never winning a championship Formula One Grand Prix, Amon won eight non-championship GPs, the Silverstone International Trophy, the 1000 km Monza, the Daytona 24 Hours, the Tasman Series and, perhaps most significant of all, the famous 24 Heures du Mans (alongside Bruce McLaren). These races included many of Amon's otherwise more successful fellow Formula One drivers. Amon also remains the only driver from New Zealand and Oceania to have raced for Scuderia Ferrari in Formula One.


title: Chris Amon

text: In Formula One, Chris Amon took part in 96 Grands Prix, achieving 5 poles, leading 183 laps in 7 races, reaching the podium 11 times and scoring a total of 83 Championship points. Amon holds the record for the most different makes of car raced by a Formula 1 World Championship driver, with thirteen. A biography "Forza Amon" by journalist Eoin Young charts Amon's racing career and gives some insights into his personal life. The book makes clear one point on which Amon himself disagrees with most commentators, the issue of his bad luck. Amon has pointed out on several occasions that he competed for a decade and a half in Formula One and survived some serious accidents, notably in 1976, whilst others, including friends like Bruce McLaren, suffered serious injury and death. In 2008, motorsport journalist Alan Henry rated Chris Amon as his 13th greatest driver.


title: Chris Amon

text: Reflecting on the 1968 racing death of Jim Clark, Amon said: "If this can happen to Jimmy, what chance do the rest of us have? I think we all felt that. It seemed like we'd lost our leader." In 1995, Amon was inducted into the New Zealand Sports Hall of Fame.


title: Chris Amon

text: Amon's name has been given to the Toyota Racing Series driver's championship trophy, and the International Scholarship to support drivers who win his trophy to further their careers in single-seater racing. The Toyota Racing Series serves as motorsport's version of "winter ball" in New Zealand during January and February. Following his death, his name was also lent to the Manfeild Autocourse in Feilding, Manawatu.


title: Space weapon

text: Space weapons are weapons used in space warfare. They include weapons that can attack space systems in orbit (i.e. anti-satellite weapons), attack targets on the earth from space or disable missiles travelling through space. In the course of the militarisation of space, such weapons were developed mainly by the contesting superpowers during the Cold War, and some remain under development today. Space weapons are also a central theme in military science fiction and sci-fi video games.


title: Space weapon

text: The Soviet Almaz secret military space station program was equipped with a fixed 23mm autocannon to prevent hostile interception or boarding by hostile forces. This was the first and so far the only weapon to be fired in space.


title: Space weapon

text: The Soviet unmanned Polyus weapons platform was designed to be equipped with a megawatt carbon-dioxide laser and a self-defense cannon.


title: Space weapon

text: Anti-satellite weapons, which are primarily surface-to-space and air-to-space missiles, have been developed by the United States, the USSR/Russia, India and the People's Republic of China. Multiple test firings have been done as part of recent Chinese and U.S test programs that involved destroying an orbiting satellite.


title: Space weapon

text: In general, the use of explosive and kinetic kill systems is limited to relatively low altitude due to space debris issues and so as to avoid leaving debris from launch in orbit.


title: Space weapon

text: On March 23, 1983, President Ronald Reagan proposed the Strategic Defense Initiative, a research program with a goal of developing a defensive system which would destroy enemy ICBMs. The defensive system was nicknamed Star Wars, after the movie, by its detractors.


title: Space weapon

text: Some concepts of the system included Brilliant Pebbles, which were Kinetic Kill Vehicles, essentially small rockets launched from satellites toward their targets (a warhead, warhead bus, or even an upper stage of an ICBM). Other aspects included satellites in orbit carrying powerful laser weapons, plasma weapons, or particle beams. When a missile launch was detected, the satellite would fire at the missile (or warheads) and destroy it. Although no real hardware was ever manufactured for deployment, the military did test the use of lasers mounted on Boeing 747s to destroy missiles in the 2000s, however these were discontinued due to practical limitations of keeping a constant fleet airborne near potential launch sites due to the lasers range limitations keeping a small number from being sufficient. The tests took place at Edwards Air Force Base.


title: Space weapon

text: Orbital weaponry is any weapon that is in orbit around a large body such as a planet or moon. As of December 2022, there are no known operative orbital weapons systems, but several nations have deployed orbital surveillance networks to observe other nations or armed forces. Several orbital weaponry systems were designed by the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War. During World War II Nazi Germany was also developing plans for an orbital weapon called the Sun gun, an orbital mirror that would have been used to focus and weaponize beams of sunlight.


title: Space weapon

text: Development of orbital weaponry was largely halted after the entry into force of the Outer Space Treaty and the SALT II treaty. These agreements prohibit weapons of mass destruction from being placed in space. As other weapons exist, notably those using kinetic bombardment, that would not violate these treaties, some private groups and government officials have proposed a Space Preservation Treaty which would ban the placement of any weaponry in outer space.


title: Space weapon

text: Orbital bombardment is the act of attacking targets on a planet, moon or other astronomical object from orbit around the object, rather than from an aircraft, or a platform beyond orbit. It has been proposed as a means of attack for several weapons systems concepts, including kinetic bombardment and as a nuclear delivery system.


title: Space weapon

text: During the Cold War, the Soviet Union deployed a Fractional Orbital Bombardment System from 1968 to 1983. Using this system, a nuclear warhead could be placed in low Earth orbit, and later de-orbited to hit any location on the Earth's surface. While the Soviets deployed a working version of the system, they were forbidden by the Outer Space Treaty to place live warheads in space. The fractional orbital bombardment system was phased out in January 1983 in compliance with the SALT II treaty of 1979, which, among other things, prohibited the deployment of systems capable of placing weapons of mass destruction in such a partial orbit.


title: Space weapon

text: Orbital bombardment systems with conventional warheads are permitted under the terms of SALT II. Some of the proposed systems rely on large tungsten carbide/uranium cermet rods dropped from orbit and depend on kinetic energy, rather than explosives, but their mass makes them prohibitively difficult to transport to orbit.


title: Space weapon

text: As of 2020 the only true orbital bombardment in history has been executed for scientific purposes. On 5 April 2019 the Japanese "Hayabusa2" robotic space probe released an explosive device called an "impactor" from space onto the surface of asteroid 162173 Ryugu, in order to collect debris released by the explosion. The mission was successful and "Hayabusa2" retrieved valuable samples of the celestial body which it brought back to Earth.


title: Space weapon

text: Fictional or real space weapons in various forms are often prominently featured in science fiction, particularly in military science fiction and in video games with a sci-fi theme.


title: Façade (video game)

text: Façade is an artificial-intelligence-based interactive story created by Michael Mateas and Andrew Stern. It was the winner of the Grand Jury Prize at the 2006 Slamdance Independent Games Festival and has been exhibited at several international art shows. In 2010, it was included as one of the titles in the book "1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die".


title: Façade (video game)

text: "Façade" puts the player in the role of a close friend of Trip and Grace, a couple who recently invited the player to their New York City apartment for cocktails. This pleasant gathering, however, is somewhat damaged by the clear domestic confrontation between Grace and Trip upon the player's entry. Making full use of the incorporated language processing software, "Façade" allows the player to type sentences to "speak" with the couple, either supporting them through their troubles, driving them farther apart, or being thrown out of the apartment.