title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: By the 19th century, most of Africa fell under European colonial rule. Having lost control of the vast territory of Brazil in South America, the Portuguese began to focus on expanding their African colonies. This brought them into direct conflict with the British. Since David Livingstone had returned to the area in 1858 in an attempt to foster trade routes, British interest in Mozambique had risen, alarming the Portuguese government. During the 19th century, much of Eastern Africa was still being brought under British control, and in order to facilitate this, the British government required several concessions from the Portuguese colony.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: As a result, in an attempt to avoid a naval conflict with the superior Royal Navy, Portugal adjusted the borders of its colony and the modern borders of Mozambique were established in May 1881. Control of Mozambique was left to various organisations such as the Mozambique Company, the Zambezi Company and the Niassa Company which were financed by British investors and provided with cheap labour by immigrants from British East Africa to work mines and construct railways.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: The Gaza Empire, a collection of indigenous tribes who inhabited the area that now constitutes Mozambique and Zimbabwe, was defeated by the Portuguese in 1895, and the remaining inland tribes were eventually defeated by 1902; in that same year, Portugal established Lourenço Marques as the capital. In 1926, political and economic crisis in Portugal led to the establishment of the Second Republic (later to become the Estado Novo), and a revival of interest in the African colonies. Calls for self determination in Mozambique arose shortly after World War II, in light of the independence granted to many other colonies worldwide in the great wave of decolonisation.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: Portugal designated Mozambique an overseas territory in 1951 in order to show the world that the colony had greater autonomy. It was called the Overseas Province of Mozambique ("Província Ultramarina de Moçambique"). Nonetheless, Portugal still maintained strong control over its colony. The increasing number of newly independent African nations after World War II, coupled with the ongoing mistreatment of the indigenous population, encouraged the growth of nationalist sentiment within Mozambique.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: Mozambique was marked by large disparities between the wealthy Portuguese and the rural indigenous African population. Poorer whites, including illiterate peasants, were given preference in lower-level urban jobs, where a system of job reservation existed. In the rural areas, Portuguese controlled the trading stores with which African peasants interacted. Being largely illiterate and preserving their local traditions and ways of life, skilled employment opportunities and roles in administration and government were rare for these numerous tribal populations, leaving them few or no opportunities in the urban modern life. Many indigenous peoples saw their culture and tradition being overwhelmed by the alien culture of Portugal. A small educated African class did emerge, but faced substantial discrimination.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: Vocal political dissidents opposed to Portuguese rule and claiming independence were typically forced into exile. From the mid-1920s onward, unions and left-wing opposition groups were suppressed within both Portugal and its colonies by the authoritarian Estado Novo regime.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: The Portuguese government forced black Mozambican farmers to grow rice or cotton for export, providing little for the farmers to support themselves. Many other workers—over 250,000 by 1960—were pressured to work on coal and gold mines in neighbouring territories, mainly in South Africa, where they comprised over 30% of black underground miners. By 1950, only 4,353 Mozambicans out of 5,733,000 had been granted the right to vote by the Portuguese colonial government. The rift between Portuguese settlers and Mozambican locals is illustrated in one way by the small number of people with mixed Portuguese and Mozambican heritage ("mestiço"), numbering only 31,465 in a population of 8–10 million in 1960 according to that year's census.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: The Mozambique Liberation Front, or FRELIMO, formally Marxist-Leninist as of 1977 but adherent to such positions since the late 1960s, was formed in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, on June 25, 1962, under the leadership of sociologist Eduardo Mondlane. It was created during a conference of political figures who had been forced into exile, by the merging of various existing nationalist groups, including the Mozambican African National Union, National African Union of Independent Mozambique and the National Democratic Union of Mozambique which had been formed two years earlier. It was only in exile that such political movements could develop, due to the strength of Portugal's grip on dissident activity within Mozambique itself.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: The United Nations also put pressure on Portugal to move for decolonisation. Portugal threatened to withdraw from NATO, which put a stop to pressure from within the NATO bloc, and nationalist groups in Mozambique were forced to turn to Soviet bloc for aid.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: Leaders of the Mozambican independence movement were educated abroad and thus brought a focus on the transnational to their liberation efforts. Marcelino dos Santos, the movement's unofficial diplomat, took the lead on international networking between the movement and other countries that provided aid. They read Mao's works and thus adopted Maoist and Marxist-Leninist ideology at an early stage, even though the group's Marxist-Leninist affiliations were not made official until 1977. As such, their approach to the war for independence was rooted in understanding of international liberation struggles, especially those by countries that would later align themselves with Marx-Leninism or communism. FRELIMO's fighting strategy was inspired by anti-colonial wars and other guerilla campaigns in China, South Vietnam and Algeria.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: FRELIMO was recognized early on by the Organization of African Unity (OAU), a group founded by Kwame Nkrumah and other African leaders, focused on eradicating colonialism and neocolonialism from the African continent. The OAU provided funds in support of the independence fight.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: Such support from other free nations on the African continent was crucial to the war effort. FRELIMO, and other Mozambican liberation groups that preceded it, were based in Tanzania because the character of Portuguese colonization under the Estado Novo was so repressive that it was nearly impossible for such resistance movements to begin and flourish in Mozambique proper. When Tanzania gained independence in 1961, President Julius Nyerere permitted liberation movements in exile, including FRELIMO, to have the country as their base of operations. On the African continent, FRELIMO received support from Tanzania, Algeria, and Egypt, among other independent nations.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: In the spring of 1972, Romania allowed FRELIMO to open a diplomatic mission in Bucharest, the first of its kind in Eastern Europe. In 1973, Nicolae Ceaușescu recognized FRELIMO as "the only legitimate representative of the Mozambican people", an important precedent. Machel stressed that - during his trip to the Soviet Union - he and his delegation were granted "the status that we are entitled to" due to Romania's official recognition of FRELIMO. In terms of material support, Romanian trucks were used to transport weapons and ammunition to the front, as well as medicine, school material and agricultural equipment. Romanian tractors contributed to the increase in agricultural production. Romanian weapons and uniforms - reportedly of "excellent quality" - played a "decisive role" in FRELIMO's military progress. It was in early 1973 that FRELIMO made these statements about Romania's material support, in a memorandum sent to the Romanian Communist Party's Central Committee. In 1974, Romania became the first country to formally recognize Mozambique.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: During the Cold War, and particularly in the late 1950s, the Soviet Union and People's Republic of China adopted a strategy of destabilization of Western powers by disrupting their hold on African colonies. Nikita Khrushchev, in particular, viewed the 'underdeveloped third of mankind' as a means to weaken the West. For the Soviets, Africa represented a chance to create a rift between western powers and their colonial assets, and create pro-communist states in Africa with which to foster future relations. Prior to the formation of FRELIMO, the Soviet position regarding the nationalist movements in Mozambique was confused. There were multiple independence movements, and they had no sure knowledge that any would succeed.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: The liberation movement's largely Marxist-Leninist principles and the eastern bloc's strategy of destabilization made Mozambican alliance with other left nations of the world seem like a foregone conclusion. Nationalist groups in Mozambique, like those across Africa during the period, received training and equipment from the Soviet Union. But leaders of the movement for independence also wanted to balance their support. As such, they lobbied for and received support from both eastern bloc and non-aligned nations upon its consolidation into FRELIMO. The movement was even initially supported by the U.S. government. In 1963, Mondlane met with Kennedy administration officials who later provided a $60,000 CIA subsidy in support of the movement. The Kennedy administration, however, rejected his request for military aid and by 1968 the Johnson administration severed all financial ties.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: Eduardo Mondlane's successor, future President of Mozambique, Samora Machel, acknowledged assistance from both Moscow and Peking, describing them as "the only ones who will really help us. They have fought armed struggles, and whatever they have learned that is relevant to Mozambique we will use." Guerrillas received training in subversion and political warfare as well as military aid, specifically shipments of 122mm artillery rockets in 1972, with 1,600 advisors from Russia, Cuba and East Germany. Chinese military instructors also trained soldiers in Tanzania.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: Cuba's relationship with the Mozambican liberation movement was somewhat more fraught than that which FRELIMO fostered with the Soviet Union and China. Cuba had a similar interest in African wars for liberation as a potential locus for the spread of the ideology of the Cuban Revolution. The Cubans identified Mozambique's war for liberation as one of the most important ones occurring in Africa at the time. But Cuba's efforts to make connection with FRELIMO were frustrated almost from the outset. In 1965, Mondlane met with Argentine marxist revolutionary Che Guevara in Dar es Salaam to discuss potential collaboration. The meeting ended acrimoniously when Guevara called into question the reports of FRELIMO's prowess, which it had greatly exaggerated in the press. Cubans also tried to convince FRELIMO to agree to train their guerillas in Zaire, which Mondlane refused. Eventually, these initial disagreements were resolved and Cubans agreed to train FRELIMO guerillas in Cuba and continued to provide weapons, food, and uniforms for the movement. Cuba also acted as a conduit for communication between Mozambique and its fellow Portuguese colony Angola, and Latin American nations in the thrall of their own revolutionary movements such as Peru, Venezuela, Colombia, Nicaragua, El Salvador and Guatemala.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: European nations that provided FRELIMO with military and/or humanitarian support were Denmark, Norway, Sweden and the Netherlands. FRELIMO also had a small but significant network of support based in Reggio Emilia, Italy.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: At the war's outset, FRELIMO had little hope for a conventional military victory, with a mere 7,000 combatants against a far larger Portuguese force. Their hopes rested on urging the local populace to support the insurgency, in order to force a negotiated independence from Lisbon. Portugal fought its own version of protracted warfare, and a large military force was sent to quell the unrest, with troop numbers rising from 8,000 to 24,000 between 1964 and 1967.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: The military wing of FRELIMO was commanded by Filipe Samuel Magaia, whose forces received training from Algeria. The FRELIMO guerrillas were armed with a variety of weapons, many provided by the Soviet Union and China. Common weapons included the Mosin–Nagant bolt-action rifle, SKS and AK-47 automatic rifles and the Soviet PPSh-41. Machine guns such as the Degtyarev light machine gun were widely used, along with the DShK and the SG-43 Gorunov. FRELIMO were supported by mortars, recoilless rifles, RPG-2s and RPG-7s, Anti-aircraft weapons such as the ZPU-4.In the dying stages of the conflict, FRELIMO was provided with a few SA-7 MANPAD shoulder-launched missile launchers from China; these were never used to shoot down any Portuguese aircraft. Only one Portuguese aircraft was lost in combat during the conflict, when Lt. Emilio Lourenço's G.91R-4 was destroyed by premature detonation of his own ordnance.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: The Portuguese forces were under the command of General António Augusto dos Santos, a man with strong faith in new counter-insurgency theories. Augusto dos Santos supported a collaboration with Rhodesia to create African Scout units and other special forces teams, with Rhodesian forces even conducting their own independent operations during the conflict. Due to Portuguese policy of retaining up-to-date equipment for the metropole while shipping obsolete equipment to their overseas territories, the Portuguese soldiers fighting in the opening stages of the conflict were equipped with World War II radios and the old Mauser rifle. As the fighting progressed, the need for more modern equipment was rapidly recognised, and the Heckler & Koch G3 and FN FAL rifles were adopted as the standard battlefield weapon, along with the AR-10 for paratroopers. The MG42 and, then in 1968, the HK21 were the Portuguese general purpose machine guns, with 60, 81 and 120mm mortars, howitzers and the AML-60, Panhard EBR, Fox and Chaimite armoured cars frequently deployed for fire support.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: In 1964, attempts at peaceful negotiation by FRELIMO were abandoned and, on September 25, Eduardo Mondlane began to launch guerrilla attacks on targets in northern Mozambique from his base in Tanzania. FRELIMO soldiers, with logistical assistance from the local population, attacked the administrative post at Chai in the province of Cabo Delgado. FRELIMO militants were able to evade pursuit and surveillance by employing classic guerrilla tactics: ambushing patrols, sabotaging communication and railroad lines, and making hit-and-run attacks against colonial outposts before rapidly fading into accessible backwater areas. The insurgents took full advantage of the monsoon season in order to evade pursuit. During heavy rains, it was much more difficult to track insurgents by air, negating Portugal's air superiority, and Portuguese troops and vehicles found movement during rain storms difficult. In contrast, the insurgent troops, with lighter equipment, were able to flee into the bush (the "mato") amongst an ethnically similar populace into which they could melt away. Furthermore, the FRELIMO forces were able to forage food from the surroundings and local villages, and were thus not hampered by long supply lines.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: With the initial FRELIMO attacks in Chai Chai, the fighting spread to Niassa and Tete at the centre of Mozambique. During the early stages of the conflict, FRELIMO activity was reduced to small, platoon-sized engagements, harassments and raids on Portuguese installations. The FRELIMO forces often operated in small groups of ten to fifteen guerillas. The scattered nature of FRELIMO's initial attacks was an attempt to disperse the Portuguese forces.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: The Portuguese troops began to suffer losses in November, fighting in the northern region of Xilama. With increasing support from the populace, and the low number of Portuguese regular troops, FRELIMO was quickly able to advance south towards Meponda and Mandimba, linking to Tete with the aid of forces from the neighbouring Republic of Malawi, which had become a fully independent member of the Commonwealth of Nations on the 6 July 1964. Despite the increasing range of FRELIMO operations, attacks were still limited to small strike teams attacking lightly defended administrative outposts, with the FRELIMO lines of communication and supply utilising canoes along the Ruvuma River and Lake Malawi.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: It was not until 1965 that recruitment of fighters increased along with popular support, and the strike teams were able to increase in size. The increase in popular support was in part due to FRELIMO's offer of help to exiled Mozambicans, who had fled the conflict by travelling to nearby Tanzania. Like similar conflicts against the French and United States forces in Vietnam, the insurgents also used landmines to a great extent to injure the Portuguese forces, thus straining the armed forces' infrastructure and demoralising soldiers.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: FRELIMO attack groups had also begun to grow in size to include over 100 soldiers in certain cases, and the insurgents also began to accept women fighters into their ranks. On either October 10 or October 11, 1966, on returning to Tanzania after inspecting the front lines, Filipe Samuel Magaia was shot dead by Lourenço Matola, a fellow FRELIMO guerrilla who was said to be in the employ of the Portuguese.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: One seventh of the population and one fifth of the territory were in FRELIMO hands by 1967; at this time there were approximately 8000 guerrillas in combat. During this period, Mondlane urged further expansion of the war effort, but also sought to retain the small strike groups. With the increasing cost of supply, more and more territory liberated from the Portuguese, and the adoption of measures to win the support of the population, it was at this time that Mondlane sought assistance from abroad, specifically the Soviet Union and China; from these benefactors, he obtained large-calibre machine guns, anti-aircraft rifles and 75 mm recoilless rifles and 122 mm rockets. In 1967 East Germany agreed to begin supplying FRELIMO with military aid. It equipped the organisation with various stocks of arms—many of which were weapons of World War II vintage—almost every year through the end of the war.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: In 1968, the second Congress of FRELIMO was a propaganda victory for the insurgents, despite attempts by the Portuguese, who enjoyed air superiority throughout the conflict, to bomb the location of the meeting late in the day. This gave FRELIMO further weight to wield in the United Nations.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: Due to both the technological gap between civilisations and the centuries-long colonial era, Portugal had been a driving force in the development of all of Portuguese Africa since the 15th century. In the 1960s and early 1970s, to counter the increasing insurgency of FRELIMO forces and show to the Portuguese people and the world that the territory was totally under control, the Portuguese government accelerated its major development program to expand and upgrade the infrastructure of Portuguese Mozambique by creating new roads, railways, bridges, dams, irrigation systems, schools and hospitals to stimulate an even higher level of economic growth and support from the populace.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: As part of this redevelopment program, construction of the Cahora Bassa Dam began in 1969. This particular project became intrinsically linked with Portugal's concerns over security in the overseas territories. The Portuguese government viewed the construction of the dam as testimony to Portugal's "civilising mission" and intended for the dam to reaffirm Mozambican belief in the strength and security of the Portuguese overseas government. To this end, Portugal sent three thousand new troops and over one million landmines to Mozambique to defend the building project.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: Realising the symbolic significance of the dam to the Portuguese, FRELIMO spent seven years attempting to halt its construction by force. No direct attacks were ever successful, but FRELIMO had some success in attacking convoys "en route" to the site. FRELIMO also lodged a protest with the United Nations about the project, and their cause was aided by negative reports of Portuguese actions in Mozambique. In spite of the subsequent withdrawal of much foreign financial support for the dam, it was finally completed in December 1974. The dam's intended propaganda value to the Portuguese was overshadowed by the adverse Mozambican public reaction to the extensive dispersal of the indigenous populace, who were forced to relocate from their homes to allow for the construction project. The dam also deprived farmers of the critical annual floods, which formerly re-fertilised the plantations.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: On February 3, 1969, Mondlane was killed by explosives smuggled into his office in Dar es Salaam. Many sources state that, in an attempt to rectify the situation in Mozambique, the Portuguese secret police assassinated Mondlane by sending a parcel with a book containing an explosive device, which detonated upon opening. Other sources state that Eduardo was killed when an explosive device detonated underneath his chair at the FRELIMO headquarters, and that the faction responsible was never identified.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: The original investigations levelled accusations at Silverio Nungo (who was later executed) and Lazaro Kavandame, FRELIMO leader in Cabo Delgado. The latter had made no secret of his distrust of Mondlane, seeing him as too conservative a leader, and the Tanzanian police also accused him of working with PIDE (Portugal's secret police) to assassinate Mondlane. Kavandame himself surrendered to the Portuguese in April of that year.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: Although the exact details of the assassination remain disputed, the involvement of the Portuguese government, particularly Aginter Press or PIDE, is generally accepted by most historians and biographers and is supported by the Portuguese stay behind Gladio-esque army, known as Aginter Press, that suggested in 1990 that they were responsible for the assassination. Initially, due to the uncertainty regarding who was responsible, Mondlane's death created great suspicion within the ranks of the FRELIMO itself and a short power struggle which resulted in a dramatic swing to the political left.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: In 1969, General António Augusto dos Santos was relieved of command, with General Kaúlza de Arriaga taking over officially in March 1970. Kaúlza de Arriaga favored a more direct method of fighting the insurgents, and the established policy of using African counter-insurgency forces was rejected in favor of the deployment of regular Portuguese forces accompanied by a small number of African fighters. Indigenous personnel were still recruited for special operations, such as the Special Groups of Parachutists in 1973, though their role less significant under the new commander. His tactics were partially influenced by a meeting with United States General William Westmoreland.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: By 1972 there was growing pressure from other commanders, particularly Kaúlza de Arriaga's second in command, General Francisco da Costa Gomes, for the use of African soldiers in "Flechas" units. Flechas units ("Arrows") were also employed in Angola and were units under the command of the PIDE. Composed of local tribesmen, the units specialized in tracking, reconnaissance and anti-terrorist operations.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: Costa Gomes argued that African soldiers were cheaper and were better able to create a relationship with the local populace, a tactic similar to the 'hearts and minds' strategy being used by United States forces in Vietnam at the time. These Flechas units saw action in the territory at the very end stages of the conflict, following the dismissal of Arriaga on the eve of the Portuguese coup in 1974. The units were to continue to cause problems for the FRELIMO even after the Revolution and Portuguese withdrawal, when the country splintered into civil war.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: During the entire period of 1970–74, FRELIMO intensified guerrilla operations, specializing in urban terrorism. The use of landmines also intensified, with sources stating that they had become responsible for two out of every three Portuguese casualties. During the conflict, FRELIMO used a variety of anti-tank and anti-personnel mines, including the PMN (Black Widow), TM-46, and POMZ. Even amphibious mines were used, such as the PDM. Mine psychosis, an acute fear of landmines, was rampant in the Portuguese forces. This fear, coupled with the frustration of taking casualties without ever seeing the enemy forces, damaged morale and significantly hampered progress.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: On June 10, 1970, a major counter-offensive was launched by the Portuguese army. Operation Gordian Knot (Portuguese: Operação Nó Górdio) targeted permanent insurgent camps and the infiltration routes across the Tanzanian border in the north of Mozambique over a period of seven months. The operation involved some 35,000 Portuguese troops, particularly elite units like paratroopers, commandos, marines and naval fusiliers.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: Problems for the Portuguese arose almost immediately when the offensive coincided with the beginning of the monsoon season, creating additional logistical difficulties. Not only were the Portuguese soldiers badly equipped, but there was very poor cooperation, if any at all, between the FAP and the army. Thus, the army lacked close air support from the FAP. Mounting Portuguese casualties began to outweigh FRELIMO casualties, leading to further political intervention from Lisbon.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: The Portuguese eventually reported 651 guerrillas as killed (a figure of some 440 was most likely closer to reality) and 1,840 captured, for the loss of 132 Portuguese soldiers. Arriaga also claimed his troops destroyed 61 guerrilla bases and 165 guerrilla camps, while 40 tons of ammunition had been captured in the first two months. Although "Gordian Knot" was the most effective Portuguese offensive of the conflict, weakening guerrillas to such a degree that they were no longer a significant threat, the operation was deemed a failure by some military officers and the government.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: On December 16, 1972, the Portuguese 6th company of Commandos in Mozambique killed the inhabitants of the village of Wiriyamu, in the district of Tete. Referred to as the 'Wiriyamu Massacre', the soldiers killed between 150 (according to the Red Cross) and 300 (according to a much later investigation by the Portuguese newspaper "Expresso" based in testimonies from soldiers) villagers accused of sheltering FRELIMO guerrillas. The action, "Operation Marosca", was planned at the instigation of PIDE agents and guided by agent Chico Kachavi, who was later assassinated while an inquiry into the events was being carried out. The soldiers were told by this agent that "the orders were to kill them all", never mind that only civilians, women and children included, were found. All of the victims were civilians. The massacre was recounted in July 1973 by the British Catholic priest, Father Adrian Hastings, and two other Spanish missionary priests. Later counter-claims have been made in a report of Archbishop of Dar es Salaam Laurean Rugambwa that alleged that the killings were carried out by FRELIMO combatants, not Portuguese forces. In addition, others claimed that the alleged massacres by Portuguese military forces were fabricated to tar the reputation of the Portuguese state abroad. Portuguese journalist Felícia Cabrita reconstructed the Wiriyamu massacre in detail by interviewing both survivors and former members of the Portuguese Army Commandos unit that carried out the massacre. Cabrita's report was published in the Portuguese weekly newspaper "Expresso" and later in a book containing several of the journalist's articles. On July 16, 1973, Zambia condemned the alleged massacres carried out by Portuguese troops.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: By 1973, FRELIMO were also mining civilian towns and villages in an attempt to undermine the civilian confidence in the Portuguese forces. "Aldeamentos: agua para todos" (Resettlement villages: water for everyone) was a commonly seen message in the rural areas, as the Portuguese sought to relocate and resettle the indigenous population, in order to isolate the FRELIMO from its civilian base. Conversely, Mondlane's policy of mercy towards civilian Portuguese settlers was abandoned in 1973 by the new commander, Machel. "Panic, demoralisation, abandonment, and a sense of futility—all were reactions among whites in Mozambique" stated conflict historian T. H. Henricksen in 1983. This change in tactics led to protests by Portuguese settlers against the Lisbon government, a telltale sign of the conflict's unpopularity. Combined with the news of the Wiriyamu Massacre and that of renewed FRELIMO onslaughts through 1973 and early 1974, the worsening situation in Mozambique later contributed to the downfall of the Portuguese government in 1974. A Portuguese journalist argued:


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: Back in Lisbon, the 'Armed Revolutionary Action' branch of the Portuguese Communist Party, which was created in the late 1960s, and the Revolutionary Brigades (BR), a left-wing organisation, worked to resist the colonial wars. They had carried out multiple sabotages and bombings against military targets, such as the attack on the Tancos air base that destroyed several helicopters on March 8, 1971, and the attack on the NATO headquarters at Oeiras in October of the same year. The attack on the Portuguese ship "Niassa" illustrated the role of the colonial wars in this unrest. "Niassa" (named after the Mozambican province) was preparing to leave Lisbon with troops to be deployed in Guinea. By the time of the Carnation Revolution, 100,000 draft dodgers had been recorded.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: Fighting colonial wars in Portuguese colonies had absorbed forty-four percent of the overall Portuguese budget, which led to a diversion of funds from infrastructure developments in Portugal, contributing to the growing unrest. The unpopularity of the Colonial Wars among many Portuguese led to the formation of magazines and newspapers, such as "Cadernos Circunstância", "Cadernos Necessários", "Tempo e Modo", and "Polémica", which had support from students and called for political solutions to Portugal's colonial problems. Dissatisfaction in Portugal culminated on April 25, 1974, when the Carnation Revolution, a peaceful leftist military "coup d'état" in Lisbon, ousted the incumbent Portuguese government of Marcello Caetano. Thousands of Portuguese citizens left Mozambique, and the new head of government, General António de Spínola, called for a ceasefire. With the change of government in Lisbon, many soldiers refused to continue fighting, often remaining in their barracks instead of going on patrol. Negotiations between the Portuguese administration culminated in the Lusaka Accord signed on September 7, 1974, which provided for a complete hand-over of power to FRELIMO, uncontested by elections. On Machel's demands, formal independence was set for June 25, 1975, the 13th anniversary of the founding of FRELIMO.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: Upon Mozambique's independence, Machel became the country's first president. The new government was confronted with the issue of the "comprometidos" (compromised) Mozambicans—those who had worked for the Portuguese administration, particularly its security apparatus. After some delay, in the 1978 the government decided that, instead of imprisoning them, it would be required that their photos be posted at their places of work with captions describing their past actions. After about four years, the photos were removed, and in 1982 Machel hosted a national conference of "comprometidos", during which they talked about their experiences.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: Many Portuguese colonists were not typical settlers in Mozambique. While most European communities in Africa at the time—with the exception of Afrikaners—were established from the late nineteenth to early twentieth centuries, some white families and institutions in those territories still administered by Portugal had been entrenched for generations. About 300,000 white civilians left Mozambique in the first week or two of independence (in Europe they were popularly known as "retornados"). With the departure of Portuguese professionals and tradesmen, Mozambique lacked an educated workforce to maintain its infrastructure, and economic collapse loomed.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: Advisors from communist countries were brought in by the FRELIMO regime. Within about two years, fighting resumed with the Mozambican Civil War against RENAMO insurgents supplied with Rhodesian and South African military support. The Soviet Union and Cuba continued to support the new FRELIMO government against counterrevolution in the years after 1975. The United States' Ford administration had rebuffed Machel's desire to establish a trade relationship, effectively pushing Mozambique to align primarily with the eastern bloc. By 1981, there were 230 Soviet, close to 200 Cuban military and over 600 civilian Cuban advisers still in the country. Cuba's involvement in Mozambique was as part of a continuing effort to export the anti-imperialist ideology of the Cuban Revolution and forge desperately needed new allies. Cuba provided support to left wing rebels and governments in numerous African countries, including Angola, Ethiopia, Guinea-Bissau and Congo-Brazzaville. In 1978, Mozambique sent some of its youth to be educated in Cuban schools.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: Industrial and social recession, corruption, poverty, inequality and failed central planning eroded the initial revolutionary fervour. Single party rule by FRELIMO also became increasingly authoritarian throughout the Civil War.


title: Mozambican War of Independence

text: Mozambique's successful war for independence brought an end to the white-ruled cordon of nations separating Apartheid South Africa from the independent black-ruled nations of the continent. As a result, newly independent nations such as Angola, Mozambique and the Democratic Republic of the Congo acted as stages for proxy battles between capitalist and communist nations attempting to proliferate their respective ideologies. Independent Mozambique, like Tanzania before it, served as a temporary base for African National Congress (ANC) operatives fighting to release South Africa from its white-led rule.


title: Archduke Ludwig Viktor of Austria

text: Archduke Ludwig Viktor Joseph Anton of Austria (15 May 1842 – 18 January 1919) was the youngest child of Archduke Franz Karl of Austria and his wife Princess Sophie of Bavaria, and as such was the younger brother of Emperor Franz Joseph I. He had a military career, as was usual for archdukes, but did not take part in politics. He was openly homosexual and declined to marry princesses who were sought for him. He is well known for his art collection and patronage as well as philanthropy.


title: Archduke Ludwig Viktor of Austria

text: Ludwig Viktor was born in Vienna. He was the youngest son born to Archduke Franz Karl of Austria and Princess Sophie of Bavaria. His elder siblings included Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria, Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico and Archduke Karl Ludwig. His family called him by the nickname "Luziwuzi".


title: Archduke Ludwig Viktor of Austria

text: During the Revolutions of 1848 and the Vienna Uprising, Ludwig Viktor and his family had to flee the Austrian capital, at first to Innsbruck, later to Olomouc. Ludwig Viktor pursued the usual military career and was appointed General of the Infantry, but had no intentions to interfere in politics. He rejected his brother Maximilian's ambitions in the Second Mexican Empire. Instead he concentrated on building up his own art collection and had Heinrich von Ferstel design and build a city palace on the new Schwarzenbergplatz in Vienna, where Ludwig Viktor hosted homophile soirées.


title: Archduke Ludwig Viktor of Austria

text: Ludwig Viktor's mother attempted to arrange a marriage for him with Duchess Sophie Charlotte in Bavaria, youngest sister of Empress Elisabeth, but he declined. He likewise rejected plans to marry him to Isabel, daughter and heir presumptive of Emperor Pedro II of Brazil. In 1863, Ludwig Viktor's brother Maximilian had tried to persuade him to marry her because "such a marriage might found yet another Habsburg dynasty in Latin America... Maximilian wrote to Franz Joseph that Ludwig Viktor was 'anything but pleased with the idea,'" and asked Franz Joseph to order Ludwig Viktor to marry her. Franz Joseph refused.


title: Archduke Ludwig Viktor of Austria

text: Ludwig Viktor was "a homosexual and cross-dresser with a reputation as a libertine..." After a scandalous incident at the Central Bathhouse Vienna in which he was publicly slapped, his brother Emperor Franz Joseph finally forbade him to stay in Vienna and joked that he should be given a ballerina as adjutant to keep him out of trouble.


title: Archduke Ludwig Viktor of Austria

text: Ludwig Viktor retired to Klessheim Palace near Salzburg where he became known as a philanthropist and patron of the arts. He died in 1919, at the age of 76, and is buried at the Siezenheim cemetery.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: The series has been adapted as four different television series: as an award-winning Japanese live-action drama that aired in 2006 followed by a sequel television special that aired in January 2008, as an anime series spanning three seasons with the first broadcast in 2007, the second in 2008 and the third in 2010. Two live-action movie sequels to the Japanese television drama, with the same actors, were produced with release dates of 18 December 2009 and April 2010. In addition, several soundtrack albums of classical music have been released, as well as three video games. A South Korean drama live action adaptation aired on the KBS network in 2014.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: The series has currently 37 million copies in circulation, making it the best selling "josei" manga in history. It received the 2004 Kodansha Manga Award for best "shōjo" manga.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: Shinichi Chiaki, an arrogant, multilingual perfectionist, is the top student at Momogaoka College of Music and has secret ambitions to become a conductor. Born into a musical family, he is talented in piano and violin and once lived abroad in the music capitals of the world as a young boy (namely Prague), but is trapped in Japan because of his childhood phobia of airplanes and the ocean. In contrast, Megumi Noda, or "Nodame", is a piano student at Momogaoka, notorious for messiness and eccentric behavior. Despite being very talented, Nodame prefers to play by ear rather than according to the musical score; thus, she is regarded as sloppy and playful.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: When they meet by accident, Nodame quickly falls in love, but it takes much longer for Chiaki to even begin to appreciate Nodame's unusual qualities. Their relationship causes them both to develop and grow. Along the way, they meet some crazy people (like Masumi, Mine, and Stresemann) and make lasting friendships. Because of Nodame, Chiaki gets the opportunity to lead a student orchestra and begins to have a broader appreciation of people's musical abilities. Because of Chiaki, Nodame faces her fears and enters a piano competition. Opportunities open up as both begin taking risks, stretching themselves far more than they ever thought possible.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: After graduation, Nodame succeeds in curing Chiaki from his phobias and they both move to Paris, where Nodame continues her piano studies at the Conservatoire de Paris while Chiaki starts a professional career as a conductor. In Europe, they encounter new friends and rivals, as well as keep in touch with their friends from Japan.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: Tomoko Ninomiya based the character of Megumi Noda on a real-life counterpart with the same name. Ninomiya first learned about the real Noda when the latter, a music college student at the time, posted a photograph of her messy room on a website Ninomiya managed. This inspired her to start a comedy series about a sloppy music student. Ninomiya consults with Noda about musical details, claiming to receive inspiration from her, and thanks Noda in the acknowledgments of every "tankōbon" volume of "Nodame Cantabile". Noda, currently a piano teacher in Fukuoka (the home-town of her fictional counterpart), composed the music and co-wrote (with Ninomiya) the lyrics for the "Fart Song" Nodame plays in the first episode of the anime series, and visited Ninomiya upon the birth of her son.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: Ninomiya also based the character of James DePreist, the musical director of the fictional Roux-Marlet Orchestra in Paris, on a real-life counterpart with the same name. James DePreist was Permanent Conductor of the Tokyo Metropolitan Symphony Orchestra, and conducted the Nodame Orchestra, which provided the music for both the live-action drama and the anime adaptations.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: The "Nodame Cantabile" manga was written and illustrated by Tomoko Ninomiya. It was serialized by Kodansha in the biweekly josei (aimed at younger adult women) manga magazine "Kiss" from 10 July 2001, to 10 October 2009. The untitled chapters have been collected in 23 "tankōbon" volumes. It was licensed in North America by Del Rey Manga, which released 16 of the 23 volumes. In 2016 Kodansha USA announced that they received the rights to the series for digital release. It is licensed in France by Pika Édition, in South Korea by Daiwon C.I., in Thailand by NED Comics, in Indonesia by Elex Media Komputindo, and in Taiwan by Tong Li Comics. All volume covers feature Nodame with a musical instrument.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: Starting in May 2008, Japanese serialization changed from biweekly to monthly because of Ninomiya's pregnancy. Serialization went on hiatus starting October 2008 following the birth of her son and Ninomiya's subsequent diagnosis of having carpal tunnel syndrome, but resumed again with the 10 March 2009 issue of "Kiss" on an irregular schedule depending on her continued recovery. In June 2009, the series went on hiatus again when Ninomiya was hospitalized with acute appendicitis, and resumed serialization in the 25 July issue. In July 2009, "Asahi Shimbun" reported that the manga was scheduled to end in the spring of 2010, coinciding with the release of the final live-action movie. However, the series ended with chapter 136 in the 10 October 2009 issue of the magazine.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: Starting in late 2009, a sequel titled "Nodame Cantabile - Encore Opera Chapter" started running in the same magazine. It ended in September 2010. The numbering of the volumes follow right after the original series so they start at volume 24.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: On 25 February 2016 in the April 2016 edition of "Kiss", Ninomiya published, a one shot set five years after the last installment, it has been described as a final coda to Nodame and Chiaki's story.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: "Nodame Cantabile" has been adapted as a live-action television drama broadcast in 11 hour-long episodes from 16 October – 25 December 2006, on Fuji TV, covering events up to volume 9 of the manga. This was followed by a four-hour sequel television special, "Nodame Cantabile New Year's Special in Europe", adapting further events in the manga after Chiaki and Nodame move to Paris, broadcast on Fuji TV on 4 and 5 January 2008. These were directed by Hideki Takeuchi from scripts by Rin Etou, and starred Hiroshi Tamaki as Shinichi Chiaki and Juri Ueno as Megumi "Nodame" Noda.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: Music direction was by Daisuke Mogi with original music by Takayuki Hattori, with several works of classical music featured in each episode. The orchestral music was performed by Nodame Orchestra, which consisted of members specially selected for the live-action drama with professional support from the Tokyo Metropolitan Symphony Orchestra. The Orchestra was conducted by James DePriest, Permanent Conductor of the Tokyo Metropolitan Orchestra, who would later have his name and likeness used in the Nodame storyline as the musical director of the fictional Roux-Marlet Orchestra. The opening theme for both the drama series and special was the first movement ("Andante Cantabile") from Beethoven's "Symphony No. 7", and the ending theme was Gershwin's "Rhapsody in Blue", both performed by the Nodame Orchestra conducted by Toshiaki Umeda.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: An episode of , the fictional anime series that Nodame watches, was created by J.C.Staff for the drama. The anime was written and directed by Ken'ichi Kasai, the director of the first season of the "Nodame Cantabile" anime. Segments of the "PuriGorota" anime were shown during episode 4 of the "Nodame Cantabile" drama, with the complete anime released as a DVD extra with the "Nodame Cantabile" anime series.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: On 4 May 2009, the drama began airing in the Philippines on the GMA Network. In South Korea the drama aired on MBC's cable channel where it achieved peak ratings of 2%, which is a record high for a foreign cable drama.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: A South Korean adaptation titled "Naeil's Cantabile" starring Joo Won, Shim Eun-kyung and Park Bo-gum


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: Two live-action movie sequels to the television drama with the same actors were produced, with the first film being released in December 2009, while the second film was released in April 2010. Filming began in May 2009 and lasted for five months, and included location filming in Vienna.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: In Japan, "Nodame Cantabile: The Movie I" grossed and "Nodame Cantabile: The Movie II" grossed for a combined , with both among the top ten highest-grossing domestic films of 2010. "Nodame Cantabile: The Movie II" went on to gross $86,192,740 worldwide, .


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: "Nodame Cantabile" was also adapted as an anime television series, produced by Fuji TV and animated by J.C.Staff. The series was broadcast on Fuji and associated stations in the Noitamina time slot. The first season, titled "Nodame Cantabile", was broadcast in 23 episodes from 11 January – 28 June 2007, and the second season, called "Nodame Cantabile: Paris Chapter", was broadcast in 11 episodes from 8 October – 18 December 2008. Both seasons were also later aired in Japan on the satellite television network Animax. The first season was directed by Ken'ichi Kasai (the director of the "Honey and Clover" anime) and the second season by Chiaki Kon, and starred Ayako Kawasumi as Megumi "Nodame" Noda and Tomokazu Seki as Shin'ichi Chiaki. An original video animation (OVA) episode was included with the limited edition volume 22 of the manga when it was published in Japan on 10 August 2009, and a third and final anime season, called "Nodame Cantabile: Finale" began airing in January 2010.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: On 6 February 2009, the series received its English language television premiere on Animax Asia across its networks in Southeast Asia and South Asia, airing the series with its original Japanese audio and English subtitles. and later its air in English Dubbed on 12 June 2009.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: The music director for both seasons was Suguru Matsutani. As with the live-action drama, several works of classical music were featured in each episode, performed by the Nodame Orchestra. The opening theme of season one was "Allegro Cantabile" by Suemitsu & The Suemith, and the ending themes were "Konna ni Chikaku de..." by Crystal Kay (episodes 1–12), "Sagittarius" by Suemitsu & the Nodame Orchestra (episodes 13–22), and "Allegro Cantabile" by Suemitsu & The Suemith (episode 23). The opening theme for the second season was "Sky High" by The Gospellers (with melody taken from the Third movement ("Allegro Scherzando") of Rachmaninoff's Piano Concerto No. 2), and the ending theme was by Emiri Miyamoto x solita (with variations on the theme from Ravel's "Boléro"). The opening theme for the final season is "Manazashi Daydream" by Yuu Sakai (with variations on the theme from Bach's "Jesu, Joy of Man's Desiring") and the ending theme is "Kaze to Oka no Ballad (風と丘のバラード)" by Real Paradis with Nodame Orchestra.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: The first season was released on 8 DVDs between April and November 2007. A box set was released in February 2008 with an additional 15-minute original video animation (OVA), taking place between episodes 8 and 9. The series has been licensed in Russia and South Korea. The first DVD of the second season was released on 24 December 2008.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: Several albums of classical music have been released in association with "Nodame Cantabile". Some were promotional tie-ins with the manga, while others are soundtrack albums for the live-action and anime series.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: In addition, "Nodame Cantabile Special BEST!" Released in December 2007, a "best-of" compilation of the most popular works from these albums to date.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: The manga of "Nodame Cantabile" received the 2004 Kodansha Manga Award for shōjo manga, and was a jury recommendation at both the 2005 and 2008 Japan Media Arts Festivals. It was a finalist for the Tezuka Osamu Cultural Prize in 2005 and 2006, but did not win. In 2006, the English translation was named by the New York Public Library as one of the Books for the Teen Age. The series sold 2.8 million copies in 2008, making it the 8th best-selling manga series in Japan that year. Volume 17 was the third best-selling manga on the Oricon charts for 2007, and volumes 20 and 21 were the 6th and 7th best-selling manga on the Oricon charts for 2008, respectively, selling 1.2 million copies each. According to an Oricon survey men and women aged 10–40, "Nodame Cantabile" was the second "most interesting" manga series published during 2008. The series and its associated music albums are credited with increasing sales of classical music in Japan. As a whole, the series is a best-seller in Japan, having sold over 37 million copies as of March 2015.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: The English translation of "Nodame Cantabile" has been praised for its quirky, interesting characters, sense of humor, and clean art. Dirk Deppey in "The Comics Journal" praised Ninomiya's storytelling, saying she "has a solid sense of when to accentuate the highs and lows with just the right note, and understands that one can only do this by not hitting such notes very often", resulting in "an understated soap opera" that is "a seamless and enjoyable storytelling experience." Reviewers have called Ninomiya's character development subtle, while noting it is the character interactions that drive the story, and that "each character has a real and lasting effect on others." Reviewers also cite Ninomiya's ability to depict "scenes of people playing music that no one can hear" and her sense of humor as factors in the series' appeal. Ninomiya has been criticized for not handling transitions between storylines well, for sometimes letting the characters derail the story, and for art and backgrounds that are sometimes too plain. Matt Thorn criticized the English translation for inaccuracies of tone.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: The live-action drama received the 2007 Japanese Drama Academy Awards for Best Drama, Best Lead Actress (Juri Ueno), Best Direction (Hideki Takeuchi), Best Music (Takayuki Hattori), and Best Title Song; the show was also recognized overseas as Best Miniseries at the 2nd Seoul Drama Festival. Juri Ueno also was named Best Newcomer at the Élan d'or Awards for her performance, and the next year was named Best Actress at the International Drama Festival in Tokyo Awards for reprising her role as Nodame in the television special. The "New Year's Special in Europe" received an average household rating of 20.3% and 21.0% for the two nights it was broadcast in Japan, making it them the highest-rated drama episodes of the week. The first soundtrack album for the drama, "Nodame Orchestra LIVE!", reached number seven on the Oricon album chart, breaking the record for highest ranked classical music album.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: The opening episode of the anime series broke the record for audience share for its time-slot. The first DVD volume debuted at number 3 on the Oricon chart for anime the week it went on sale.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: Although the anime has not been licensed in English, it has still received notice from English reviewers, who praised the character development and chemistry, the balance between drama and comedy, voice acting, and especially the music—both the performances and how it was presented. Reviewers did complain that the visual design of some secondary characters were too similar.


title: Nodame Cantabile

text: In 2006, a cafe based on "Nodame Cantabile" opened in Harajuku, Tokyo, including live music from the live-action drama and sets from the show.


title: Park Myung-hoon

text: Park Myung-hoon (; born May 28, 1975), is a South Korean actor. He made his acting debut as a stage actor in the 1999 play "Class". He is best known internationally for his role as Geun-sae in the Academy Award winning film "Parasite".


title: She Never Died

text: She Never Died is a 2019 Canadian horror comedy film directed by Audrey Cummings and written by Jason Krawczyk. The movie is intended as a follow up sister-sequel to Krawczyk's 2015 movie "He Never Died", which starred Henry Rollins, and is set within the same universe. Krawczyk had initially intended the 2015 film to be expanded into a miniseries and follow-up film, but repurposed the script into "She Never Died" after the endeavor was cancelled.


title: She Never Died

text: This iteration stars Olunike Adeliyi in a role similar to Rollins' character Jack, playing a mysterious recluse with a hunger for human flesh and a talent for violence. Noah Dalton Danby and Michelle Nolden play the film's main antagonists, while Peter MacNeill and Kiana Madeira star as a grizzled detective and innocent bystander.


title: She Never Died

text: The film opens to a city plagued by human-trafficking, where an inhumanly strong Lacey enters to foil a late-night abduction, devouring the attacker in a flood of screams and allowing the victim to flee.


title: She Never Died

text: A tired and aging Detective Godfrey leaves the police station to continue his one-man investigation of a comfortably sinister character (Terrance), whom he suspects to be in charge of a trafficking operation. He takes up a surveillance post in an abandoned warehouse district where a disheveled Lacey has also been waiting for the suspect to arrive. With apparent disregard of the detective’s presence, she forces entrance into the compound. Inside, a young man is being forced into a game of Russian roulette between himself and a chained dog for the entertainment of a live-streamed audience. Lacey interrupts to kill the man and savagely remove his eyes for a snack, apparently unaffected by a gunshot to the head. The man behind the camera flees to find his boss, Terrance, engaged in his own game of torture. Both returning to the scene, they find the body dismembered and the incident recorded; meanwhile Lacey leaves frustrated, ignoring Godfrey as he enters to discover what has happened.


title: She Never Died

text: Similar to "He Never Died" the antisocial Lacey finds refuge in a boring diner, seeking only oatmeal and tea. With Godfrey at home in disbelief, Terrance seeks to verify his own disbelief by showing the footage to his boss and sibling, Meredith. The pair, comically comfortable in their criminal enterprise, plot to capture Lacey in order to profit off of her abilities. The next day Godfrey returns to find Lacey and the two decide to talk at the diner, Lacey is forthcoming about her cannibalistic needs that she claims to satisfy only by eating evil people; in this case, Terrance. Godfrey realises Lacey is his only hope in exacting retribution so he offers her up targets in exchange for a place to stay. Lacey promptly finds and kills two of these targets in a suspicious apartment and, after conferring with Godfrey, she returns to release their detainee, Suzzie. Though initially afraid Suzzie follows Lacey to the diner in awe of her abilities. The bubbly Suzzie is intent on staying with Lacey and becoming her friend.


title: She Never Died

text: Godfrey heads off to investigate the apartment where Terrance finds and captures him, winding up strapped to a chair in the company of Meredith. After a casual conversation, she then leaves Terrance to interrogate Godfrey for Lacey’s whereabouts. Terrance and a crony then track down Lacey, who is indifferent to being beaten and captured, taking her back to their compound to be heavily restrained. Suzzie, who has witnessed Lacey’s abduction seeks Godfrey’s help at the police station where only the desk sergeant is concerned enough to help; all the while, the criminal siblings are beginning to experiment on Lacey for their amusement. A concerned and reckless Suzzie finds a way into the compound, passing through a party for the rich and powerful before finding and freeing Godfrey. Together they attempt to rescue an impaled Lacey who erupts into a rage of power to decapitate Terrance and wreak havoc on the party; a rampage that concludes with Meredith being thrown off the rooftop.


title: She Never Died

text: Much later, a retired Godfrey runs into Lacey at the laundromat. During a friendly farewell they exchange first names, revealing Lacey to really be Lilith. After Godfrey leaves, the haunting "man in the hat" finally appears clearly to Lacey, so she addresses her frustration about immortality to him, assuming him to be God. The film ends foreboding an apocalypse, as revealed to Godfrey at home by yet another bulletproof character.


title: She Never Died

text: The ending shot is of four motorcycle license plates that reference Revelations and the four horsemen of the apocalypse. This was alluded to at the beginning by the "pantless" man in the cell that speaks to Godfrey.


title: She Never Died

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes surveyed and, categorizing the reviews as positive or negative, assessed 13 as positive and 0 as negative for a rating. Among the reviews, it determined an average rating of . Ian Sedensky of Culture Crypt gave the film an 80/100, summarising it as "…an updated, unusual experience in abnormality whose mundane moments are punctuated by sparks of savage horror and slow strokes of deadpan humour."


title: 39th Golden Raspberry Awards

text: The 39th Golden Raspberry Awards was an awards ceremony that honored the worst the film industry had to offer in 2018. The Golden Raspberry Awards, also known as the "Razzies", are awarded based on votes from members of the Golden Raspberry Foundation. The nominees were announced on January 21, 2019 and the winners were announced on February 23, 2019.


title: 39th Golden Raspberry Awards

text: On January 31, 2019, the ceremony was accused of rigging the vote tallies for its nominees. For example, Jamie Dornan ("Fifty Shades Freed") and Kevin Spacey ("Billionaire Boys Club") received enough votes for Worst Actor, but neither were included on the final nominee list.


title: 39th Golden Raspberry Awards

text: The ballot itself was also heavily criticized for overlook critically panned films and the nomination and win of non-acting performances for documentary stock footage.


title: 39th Golden Raspberry Awards

text: Despite mix-to-poor reviews, the awards was criticized for nominating "The Meg" in the Worst Prequel, Remake, Rip-off or Sequel as a rip-off of Steven Spielberg's film "Jaws" despite having nothing to do with the film besides having a shark as an antagonist.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: Marcia Lenore Sossoman (King) ( – ) was a 21-year-old Arkansas woman who was murdered in April 1981 and whose body was discovered in Troy, Ohio approximately 48 hours after her murder. Her body remained unidentified for 36 years before being identified via DNA analysis and genetic genealogy in April 2018. King was one of the first unidentified decedents to be identified via this method of forensic investigation.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: Prior to her 2018 identification, King was informally known as "Buckskin Girl" and "Miami County Jane Doe". The first of these two names is in reference to the distinctive tasseled buckskin poncho she was wearing at the time of her discovery.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: Following the identification of her body, Marcia King's family erected a new headstone at her grave in Riverside Cemetery, inscribed with her actual name. The investigation into her murder is ongoing.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: On April 24, 1981, three young men discovered the body of a young Caucasian woman in a ditch alongside Greenlee Road in Newton Township, Troy, Ohio. One of the three men, Greg Bridenbaugh, initially noticed the decedent's distinctive buckskin poncho. Informing one of his companions, Neal Hoffman, to take a look at the coat, Hoffman walked closer to the article of clothing before turning toward Bridenbaugh, stating: "Oh my God, there's a woman in that coat!" The young woman was lying in a fetal position, on her right side, and without shoes or socks. The men immediately reported their discovery to the police.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: The decedent's body was autopsied on the afternoon of her discovery. The medical examination revealed she had suffered extensive blunt force trauma to the head and neck, before she had been strangled to death approximately 48 hours before her body was discovered. Additionally, her liver was found to have been lacerated. She had not been subjected to any form of sexual assault.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: The woman had been between and in height, aged between eighteen and twenty-six, and weighed . She had naturally reddish-brown hair, which was parted in the middle and braided into pigtails on both sides of her head. Her eyes were light brown in color, and she had freckles across her face. In addition, her nose was described as being "very pointed". The victim also had a ruddy complexion, indicating she had spent a lot of time outdoors in the final weeks or months of her life.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: The young woman had maintained a high level of personal hygiene. All her teeth, including her wisdom teeth, were in good condition and had no evidence of fillings or other dental work, except for one porcelain crown upon her upper-right incisor. The coroner also noted several scars upon her body, including a vertical scar beneath her chin, with other scars also visible upon one wrist, both arms, and one ankle.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: The young woman was dressed in blue bell-bottom Wrangler jeans, a brown turtleneck pullover sweater with an orange crisscross design on the front, a white brassiere and a hoodless deerskin poncho with purple lining, which appeared to be handmade. She wore no shoes or socks. No form of identification was located upon her body or at the crime scene.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: Because the decedent's body was found approximately 48 hours after her death, police were able to obtain her fingerprints and dental information. The dental charts and fingerprints of this decedent yielded no results matching her to any known missing person, and her fingerprints matched no police records, indicating she had no criminal record. Early police efforts to identify this decedent also involved the creation of a composite drawing of her face which was published in local newspapers and broadcast on television networks on April 28, 1981. This initial media publicity surrounding the murder generated approximately two hundred leads. Although all were investigated, all failed to bear fruit.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: The victim gradually became known as "Buckskin Girl" in reference to the distinctive tasseled buckskin jacket she was wearing when found. The failure to establish her identity hindered investigators' efforts to solve her murder. As her identity remained undiscovered, investigating authorities came to increasingly believe the reason Buckskin Girl remained unidentified had been due to the fact that she had been murdered far from her hometown. A retired investigator is also known to have opined his belief the decedent was highly unlikely to have originated from the area where she was discovered.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: Authorities strongly believed Buckskin Girl had been murdered elsewhere and her body discarded beside the road shortly after her death. This conclusion was supported by the fact her bare feet were clean, showing no indication of her having walked upon a dirty surface, and because Interstate 75 is just from where her body was recovered, making the site a convenient and discreet location to discard a body. Police and the media later speculated that she may have been a teenage runaway or a possible victim of a serial killer known to have murdered several prostitutes in the region during the 1980s and 1990s. However, her body had not been subjected to any form of sexual assault, indicating she was unlikely to have been a sex worker.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: The investigation into Buckskin Girl's murder gradually became a cold case, although police and other officials continued to investigate her murder. Her clothing and other physical evidence recovered at the crime scene was retained, and a sample of her blood preserved.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: Investigators theorized that Buckskin Girl had been a runaway teenager, a foster child, or a transient wanderer unlikely to have spent a significant period of time in Ohio prior to her death, although her high quality of personal hygiene strongly indicated that she had not lived as a vagrant. As her body was located close to a town road instead of a highway, the probability of her being a wanderer for a significant amount of time was considered to be negligible. The absence of her footwear at the crime scene led some investigators to believe she may have been murdered by an abusive partner.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: A 2016 isotope analysis of the decedent's hair and fingernails revealed Buckskin Girl had spent approximately four months in areas within the Southwestern and/or Southeastern United States, as opposed to Ohio, prior to her murder, although forensic palynology had revealed she had most likely originated from either the Northeastern United States or Canada, or had spent a significant amount of time in these regions in the year prior to her murder.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: Initially, investigators speculated regarding a potential connection between this decedent and the murder of a 27-year-old woman two months earlier, in February 1981, although police never officially linked these two murders.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: In 1985, investigators tentatively linked the murder of Buckskin Girl to a nationwide series of murders of caucasian women—several of whom were sex workers or erotic dancers—known as the Redhead Murders. However, this theory was eventually disproven.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: Some investigators also speculated that Buckskin Girl may have been the first of numerous young women murdered by a suspected unidentified serial killer who perpetrated his known murders between 1985 and 2004—many of which were of known or suspected sex workers. This serial killer was suspected to have murdered between seven and ten other young women. All the victims of this suspected serial killer had been murdered via bludgeoning or strangulation, and items of clothing or jewelry were missing from each crime scene.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: Jewelry and footwear was also missing from the crime scene of Buckskin Girl, and she had been murdered in a similar manner to these victims. However, several elements of evidence were found to contradict this theory. There was no indication Buckskin Girl had engaged in any form of sexual activity immediately prior to her death. In addition, unlike many of the victims of this serial killer, she was markedly well-groomed, with a history of dental care.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: In 1991, a newly established task force convened in London, Ohio. This task force was dedicated to the investigation of these unsolved homicides, which had occurred in Ohio, New York, Pennsylvania and Illinois and composed of investigators from more than a dozen law enforcement agencies.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: With advances in technology and the increasing use of DNA analysis in criminal investigations, investigators were able to extract the decedent's DNA from the blood sample preserved in 1981. This DNA sample was added to the growing number of law enforcement databases.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: In 2001, the Miami Valley Regional Crime Laboratory generated a DNA profile of Buckskin Girl, this data was entered into the newly established National Missing and Unidentified Persons System (NamUs) database in 2008, through which her fingerprints, dental and DNA information were made nationally accessible to law enforcement. This data was able to conclusively rule out any possibility of 226 missing teenage girls and young women as Buckskin Girl. In 2009, a mitochondrial DNA sample was submitted to the FBI for inclusion within the Combined DNA Index System (CODIS).


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: The following year, the NamUs case management of Buckskin Girl was assigned to Dr. Elizabeth Murray, a Cincinnati based forensic anthropologist and professor of biology, who remained active in her pursuit of the decedent's identity.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: In April 2016, the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children released two versions of an updated forensic facial reconstruction of the victim and added her case to their website, depicting her with and without her braided pigtails. These images were extensively distributed via online media, although initially, no significant leads developed.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: In 2016, the Miami County Sheriff's Office approved forensic palynology testing upon the victim's clothing in their efforts to identify her and her murderer(s). This testing was conducted by the U.S. Customs and Border Protection Agency. The results of this testing suggested Buckskin Girl had either originated within the Northeastern United States, or had spent a significant amount of time in this region in the year prior to her murder. Her clothing also contained high levels of soot from exposure to vehicular traffic and/or industrial activity, supporting investigators' initial suspicions she may have been a habitual hitchhiker. In addition, the pollen recovered from her external clothing suggested that, shortly before her murder, she had been in an arid climate such as the Western United States, or northern Mexico.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: On April 9, 2018, the Miami Valley Regional Crime Laboratory announced they had identified the decedent as 21-year-old Marcia Lenore King of Little Rock, Arkansas. Her identification had been achieved via DNA analysis conducted by the DNA Doe Project, with assistance from the Miami Valley Regional Crime Laboratory and Full Genomes Corporation. This organization had been contacted by Dr Murray in 2017, and was able to successfully match a sample of King's DNA to a sample submitted for comparison by a first cousin. Her family declined to release a press statement, requesting that their confidentiality be respected.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: King had last been seen by her family in 1980. She had never officially been reported as a missing person, although her family had continued to search for her. It is believed King had frequently hitchhiked as a means of transportation, as investigators had long theorized prior to her identification. She is also known to have had ties with both Pittsburgh and Louisville, Kentucky.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: Addressing the media to announce the formal identification of Buckskin Girl, a spokesman for the Miami County Sheriff's Office informed all present: "Law enforcement never forgets. We've had a long journey to [be] where we are today." This spokesman also emphasized the investigation into King's homicide is ongoing, with the primary focus being upon King's movements in the last month of her life, when she was known to have been in both Pittsburgh and Louisville.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: In July 2018, the Miami County Sheriff's Office announced they had received further information regarding King's actual whereabouts shortly prior to her death. This information included eyewitness accounts placing her in Louisville, Kentucky, approximately 14 days before her death. Six eyewitnesses have also corroborated accounts of King also being in Arkansas shortly before her murder. It is believed the reason she had traveled to Ohio may have been due to her suspected involvement with the religious organization The Way.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: In February 2020, the Miami County Sheriff's Office announced they had been able to further reconstruct King's whereabouts, and relationships, in the two weeks prior to her murder, adding that as advances in technology now mean nuclear DNA samples can be retrieved from hair samples missing the actual root, they remained confident hair samples discovered at the crime scene and submitted to a renowned Californian paleogeneticist could yield a nuclear DNA profile of either her murderer, or an individual she had been in the company of very shortly before her death. Addressing these latest developments, Miami County Sheriff Dave Duchalk stated: "We always have hopes to bring justice for homicide victims and their families. We never have, nor will we ever forget, and will continually work the case and, as new technologies are developed, will review our evidence to learn if it is worth re-submitting."


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: King had been buried as a Jane Doe at Riverside Cemetery in Miami County, Ohio weeks after her death, with several officers assigned to investigate her murder serving as pallbearers at her funeral. Following the identification of her body, King's family chose for her to remain buried within this cemetery, with her stepmother, Cindy Sossoman, explaining her family's belief that it had been "God's plan" that their daughter was to be murdered and to remain unidentified for so long, they believed King was blessed to have died within a community which had shown such consideration and dignity to her while she had remained unidentified. Her parents had long since divorced, and her father, John Wesley Sossoman, had remarried, having several children with his second wife, all of whom had long wondered as to King's whereabouts and welfare.


title: Murder of Marcia King

text: On July 20, 2018, a memorial service for King was held at a chapel in Troy, Ohio. This service was officiated by the Reverend Gregory Simmons. Her new headstone was unveiled at this service. Marcia's father, John, had died on January 5, 2018. Her brother, Daniel King, and half-brother, Jonathan Sossoman, had also died by the time King's identity was discovered. Marcia's stepmother and eight other surviving family members replaced the headstone simply reading "Jane Doe" with a headstone bearing her actual name at this service, which was attended by over fifty local residents. Describing King's personality, her stepmother described her as a "very trusting" young woman, before informing all present: "Words don't describe the feelings we have for all of you, how you have loved her and taken her in your arms."


title: Veil of Maya

text: Veil of Maya is an American metalcore band, formed in Chicago, Illinois, by members Marc Okubo and Sam Applebaum in 2004. They are currently signed to Sumerian Records and have released six studio albums. Their first four albums are considered to be deathcore, but their fifth album, "Matriarch", is considered to be metalcore. They have also been associated with djent.


title: Veil of Maya

text: Veil of Maya formed in 2004 in Chicago, Illinois after melodic death metal band Insurrection broke up, which led members Marc (lead guitar), Sam (drums) and Kris (bassist) to start up the new project. Guitarist Timothy Marshall and vocalist Adam joined shortly thereafter.


title: Veil of Maya

text: After recording a self-released demo in 2005, guitarist Scott Okarma briefly joined the group, participating in local shows and early touring. At this point, Veil of Maya were a six-piece band with three guitarists, but this only lasted for a few months before both Marshall and Okarma left the band. Bryan Ruppell replaced them both on rhythm guitar thus reverting their lineup back to five members.


title: Veil of Maya

text: With this five member line-up, the band recorded, self-produced and released their debut full-length album "All Things Set Aside" through Corrosive Recordings in 2006. In early 2006 vocalist Clemans and guitarist Ruppell left the group leading Veil of Maya to enlist the help of then 20-year-old Brandon Butler, former vocalist of the Indiana metal band Iscariot. The band also decided not to search for a new rhythm guitarist, thus leaving Veil of Maya as a four-piece.


title: Veil of Maya

text: In January 2008, after heightened exposure from interviews and successful tours, Veil of Maya signed with Sumerian Records. Sumerian manager Shawn Keith and founder Ash Avildsen were both reportedly very ecstatic about the partnership. Veil of Maya's second album, "The Common Man's Collapse" was recorded with Butler in 2008 and released the same year. Shortly after the album release, the band parted ways their original bassist Kristopher "Kris" Higler in 2009, and was replaced by Matthew Pantelis, formerly of Born of Osiris.


title: Veil of Maya

text: After their second album's release, the following several months held extensive touring before the writing and recording for the group's third full-length, "Id" began. "Id" was released on April 6, 2010, and reached number 107 on the "Billboard" 200. The band worked again with producer Michael Keene from The Faceless for this album, who previously produced "The Common Man's Collapse". The album's name was derived from the main character of the PlayStation game "Xenogears"; the album itself also holds several concepts and references to other topics in popular culture, especially television shows.


title: Veil of Maya

text: After the release of "Id", Pantelis as well left the band, which led to Danny Hauser replacing him in 2010; the band's current bassist. On January 13, 2012, Sumerian Records released a teaser for Veil of Maya's next album, "Eclipse". On January 17, the single "Vicious Circles" was released onto the iTunes Store. "Eclipse" was then released on February 28, 2012 and was produced and co-written by Periphery guitarist Misha Mansoor.


title: Veil of Maya

text: On November 11, 2013 the band released a digital-only single, "Subject Zero", with a lyric video uploaded on YouTube two weeks earlier, on September 30, 2013.


title: Veil of Maya

text: Veil of Maya announced in 2014 that they had finished writing the follow-up to "Eclipse" and were recording with Taylor Larson. However, progress was stopped as long-time vocalist Brandon Butler left the band, citing creative differences with his bandmates. Butler moved on to join a band named Lost Origins, which features former members of I Declare War.


title: Veil of Maya

text: At Knotfest 2014, Veil of Maya were seen performing with a new vocalist, who is well known in the local music scene of the state of Wisconsin, on January 1, 2015 it was announced that Arms of Empire vocalist Lukas Magyar joined the band replacing the departed Butler. At the same time, the band released a new single, "Phoenix".


title: Veil of Maya

text: Shortly after the announcement, the band headed out on the "Slow Your Troll and Know Your Role" tour with Upon a Burning Body, Volumes, Gideon and The Last Ten Seconds of Life. They also took part in the Ashes to Ashes European Tour with Chelsea Grin, Oceans Ate Alaska and Black Tongue (Black Tongue pulled out within the first few shows due to an injury sustained by frontman Alex Teyen).


title: Veil of Maya

text: On March 23, 2015, Veil of Maya officially announced the release of a new album, "Matriarch", and released a new single, "Mikasa". The album was released on May 12, 2015 through Sumerian Records. It is the band's first release with Magyar, and represents somewhat of a departure from the style of the band's previous releases: it is less focused on technicality and is their first work to incorporate clean singing and replaces growling with hardcore-style screaming.


title: Veil of Maya

text: On September 13, 2017, the band released a music video "Overthrow" on YouTube, and announced the album "False Idol" for October 20, 2017. The music video for the band's second single "Doublespeak" was added to YouTube on October 3, 2017.


title: Veil of Maya

text: On September 12, 2019, they released the single "Members Only" off a future unknown album. On May 3, 2020, the band released a music video for the single "Outsider" and an animated music video for their single “Viscera” on February 27, 2021, from the presumed unannounced album. On October 6, 2021, their single "Outrun" was uploaded to YouTube as a music video. On April 20, 2022, the band released a new single, "Synthwave Vegan".


title: Toyota G16E engine

text: The Toyota G16E engine is a straight-three engine built by Toyota under its Gazoo Racing division that was first introduced in January 2020 for the GR Yaris.


title: Toyota G16E engine

text: The "G16E-GTS" is a turbocharged engine model with 10.5:1 compression ratio and D-4ST direct/port injection system with multi-oil jet piston cooling, large-diameter exhaust valves and a part-machined intake port. The turbo boost is set between . With the engine producing up to (which comes out to per litre) in the GR Yaris and ( per litre) in the GR Corolla, it makes the engine as one of the most powerful three-cylinder automobile engines ever produced. The engine also has the highest specific output of any Toyota road car engine, exceeding the per litre specific output from the 2.0-litre "3S-GTE" engine used in the ST246 Caldina GT-Four.


title: Toyota G16E engine

text: A de-stroked variation of the "G16E-GTS" engine with a displacement of , which is compatible with synthetic fuel, is used by the GR86 for the 2022 Super Taikyu series. The stroke was reduced from to .


title: Blood doping

text: Blood doping is a form of doping in which the number of red blood cells in the bloodstream is boosted in order to enhance athletic performance. Because such blood cells carry oxygen from the lungs to the muscles, a higher concentration in the blood can improve an athlete's aerobic capacity (VO max) and endurance. Blood doping can be achieved by making the body produce more red blood cells itself using drugs, giving blood transfusions either from another person or back to the same individual, or by using blood substitutes.


title: Blood doping

text: Many methods of blood doping are illegal, particularly in professional sports where it is considered to give an artificial advantage to the competitor. Anti-doping agencies use tests to try to identify individuals who have been blood doping using a number of methods, typically by analysing blood samples from the competitors.


title: Blood doping

text: Blood doping is defined as the use of illicit products (e.g. erythropoietin (EPO), darbepoetin-alfa, hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) stabilizers) and methods (e.g. increase aerobic capacity by maximizing the uptake of O) in order to enhance the O transport of the body to the muscles.


title: Blood doping

text: The body undergoes aerobic respiration in order to provide sufficient delivery of O to the exercising skeletal muscles and the main determining factors are shown in figure 1. The rate of maximum O uptake (Omax) depends on cardiac output, O extraction and hemoglobin mass. The cardiac output of an athlete is difficult to manipulate during competitions and the distribution of cardiac output is at the maximum rate (i.e. 80%) during competitions. In addition, the O extraction is approximately 90% at maximal exercise. Therefore, the only method to enhance the physical performance left is to increase the O content in the artery by enhancing the hemoglobin mass. In other words, hemoglobin concentration and blood volume contribute to hemoglobin mass.


title: Blood doping

text: Many forms of blood doping stem from the misuse of pharmaceuticals. These drug treatments have been created for clinical use to increase the oxygen delivery when the human body is not able to do so naturally.


title: Blood doping

text: Erythropoietin (EPO) is a glycoprotein hormone produced by the interstitial fibroblasts in the kidney that signal for erythropoiesis in bone marrow. The increased activity of a hemocytoblast (RBC stem cell) allows the blood to have a greater carrying capacity for oxygen. EPO was first developed to counteract the effects of chemotherapy and radiation therapy for cancer patients. EPO also stimulates increased wound healing. Because of its physiological side effects, particularly increased hematocrit, EPO has become a drug with abuse potential by professional and amateur cyclists.


title: Blood doping

text: Hypoxia-inducible factor stabilizer (HIF stabilizer) is a pharmaceutical used to treat chronic kidney disease. Like most transcription factors, the HIF transcription factor is responsible for the expression of a protein. The HIF stabilizer activates the activity of EPO due to anemia induced hypoxia, metabolic stress, and vasculogenesis—the creation of new blood vessels. HIF stabilizers as used by cyclists in combination with cobalt chloride/desferrioxamine stimulate and de-regulate the natural production of erythropoietin hormone. At physiologically low PaO around 40 mmHg, EPO is released from the kidneys to increase hemoglobin transportation. The combination of drugs consistently releases EPO due to increased transcription at the cellular level. The effect wears off when the HIF stabilizers, cobalt chloride/desferrioxamine is excreted and/or decayed by the body.


title: Blood doping

text: Myo-inositol trispyrophosphate (ITPP), also known as compound number OXY111A, is an allosteric effector of hemoglobin which causes a rightward shift in the oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve, increasing the amount of oxygen released from red blood cells into surrounding tissue during each passage through the cardiovascular system. ITPP has been a subject of anti-doping research in both humans and racehorses.


title: Blood doping

text: Blood transfusions can be traditionally classified as autologous, where the blood donor and transfusion recipient are the same, or as allogeneic/homologous, where the blood is transfused into someone other than the donor. Blood transfusion begins by the withdrawal of 1 to 4 units of blood (1 unit = 450 mL of blood) several weeks before competition. The blood is centrifuged, the plasma components are immediately reinfused, and the corpuscular elements, principally red blood cells (RBCs), are stored refrigerated at 4 °C or frozen at −80 °C. As blood stored by refrigeration displays a steady decline in the number of RBCs, a substantial percentage, up to 40%, of the stored RBCs may not be viable. The freezing process, conversely, limits the aging of the cells, allowing the storage of the blood for up to 10 years with a 10% to 15% loss of RBCs. Stored RBCs are then reinfused, usually 1 to 7 days before a high-endurance event. As a significant amount of iron is removed by each autologous transfusion, an adequate time for recovery of not less than 3 days from the last donation, and appropriate iron supplements, are usually required for patients undergoing autologous donations. Nearly 50% of autologous donations are not used by the donor and are discarded, as current standards do not allow transfusion of these units to another patient for safety reasons.


title: Blood doping

text: Biochemical and biotechnological development has allowed novel approaches to this issue, in the form of engineered O carriers, widely known as "blood substitutes". The blood substitutes currently available are chiefly polymerized haemoglobin solutions or haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs).


title: Blood doping

text: Hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers are intra/ inter-molecularly engineered human or animal hemoglobins, only optimized for oxygen delivery and longer intravascular circulation. The presence of 2,3-diphosphoglycerate within erythrocytes maintains the normal affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen. HBOCs do not contain erythrocytes and lose this interaction, thus, unmodified human HBOC solutions have a very high oxygen affinity which compromises their function. Chemical methods developed to overcome this problem have resulted in carriers that effectively release oxygen at the physiological pO of peripheral tissues.


title: Blood doping

text: A common feature of all HBOCs is their resistance to dissociate when dissolved in media, which contrasts hemoglobin of natural dissociation under non-physiological conditions. HBOCs may hypothetically supply greater benefits to athletes than those provided by the equivalent hemoglobin in traditional RBC infusion. Recent developments have shown that HBOCs are not only simple RBC substitutes, but highly effective O donors in terms of tissue oxygenation. Additional effects include increases in blood serum iron, ferritin, and Epo; up to 20% increased diffusion of oxygen and improved exercise capacity; increased CO production; and lower lactic acid generation in anaerobic activity. HBOCs have been shown in trials to be extremely dangerous in humans. Because HBOCs increase both the risk of death and risk of myocardial infarction clinical trials were ended. They are not commercially available in the US or Europe and there is no approved use for them.


title: Blood doping

text: PFCs, also known as fluorocarbons, are inert, water-insoluble, synthetic compounds, consisting primarily of carbon and fluorine atoms bonded together in strong C–F bonds. PFCs are substantially clear and colorless liquid emulsions that are heterogeneous in molecular weight, surface area, electronic charge, and viscosity; their high content of electron-dense fluorine atoms results in little intramolecular interaction and low surface tension, making such substances excellent solvents for gases, especially oxygen and carbon dioxide. Some of these molecules can dissolve 100 times more oxygen than plasma. PFCs are naturally hydrophobic and need to be emulsified to be injected intravenously. Since PFCs dissolve rather than bind oxygen, their capacity to serve as a blood substitute is determined principally by the pO gradients in the lung and at the target tissue. Therefore, their oxygen transport properties differ substantially from those of whole blood and, especially, from those of RBCs. At a conventional ambient pO of 135 mmHg, the oxygen content of 900 mL/L perfluorocarbon is less than 50 mL/L, whereas an optimal oxygen content of 160 mL/L, which is still lower than that of whole blood in normal conditions, can be achieved only by a pO greater than 500 mmHg. In practice, at a conventional alveolar pO of 135 mmHg, PFCs will not be able to provide sufficient oxygenation to peripheral tissues.


title: Blood doping

text: Due to their small size, PFCs are able to permeate circulation where erythrocytes may not flow. In tiny capillaries, PFCs produce the greatest benefit, as they increase local oxygen delivery much more efficiently than would be expected from the increase in oxygen content in larger arteries. In addition, as gases are in the dissolved state within PFCs, it pO promotes efficient oxygen delivery to peripheral tissues. Since the mid-1980s, improvements in both oxygen capacity and emulsion properties of PFCs have led to the development of second-generation PFC-based oxygen carriers; two PFC products are currently being tested in phase III clinical trials.


title: Blood doping

text: Transition metal complexes are widely known to play important roles in erythropoiesis; as such, inorganic supplementation is proving to be an emerging technique in blood doping. Particularly of note is the cobalt complex, cobalamin (Vitamin B) commonly used as a dietary supplement. Cobalamin is an important complex used in the manufacture of red blood cells and thus was of interest for potential use in blood doping. Experimental evidence, however, has shown that cobalamin has no effect on erythropoiesis in the absence of a red blood cell/oxygen deficiency. These results seem to confirm much of what is already known about the functioning of cobalamin. The signaling pathway that induces erythropoietin secretion and subsequently red blood cell manufacture using cobalamin is O dependent. Erythropoietin is only secreted in the kidneys when there is an O deficiency, as such, RBC manufacture is independent of the amount of cobalamin administered when there is no O deficiency. Accordingly, cobalamin is of little to no value in blood doping.


title: Blood doping

text: More potent for use in blood doping is Co (administered as Cobalt(II) chloride, CoCl). Cobalt chloride has been known to be useful in treating anemic patients. Recent experimental evidence has proved the efficacy of cobalt chloride in blood doping. Studies into the action of this species have shown that Co induces hypoxia like responses, the most relevant response being erythropoiesis. Co induces this response by binding to the N-terminus (loop helix loop domain) of the Hypoxia inducing transcription factors HIF-1α and HIF-2α, and thus stabilizes these protein complexes. Under normal O conditions, HIFs are destabilized as proline and asparagine residues are hydroxylated by HIF-α hydroxylases, these unstable HIFs are subsequently degraded following a ubiquitin-proteosome pathway, as such, they cannot then bind and activate transcription of genes encoding Erythropoietin (EPO). With Co stabilization, degradation is prevented and genes encoding EPO can then be activated. The mechanism for this Co N terminus stabilization is not yet fully understood. In addition to N-terminus binding, it has also been hypothesized that replacement of Fe by Co in the hydroxylase active site could be a contributing factor to the stabilizing action of Co. It is understood however, is that Co binding permits Ubiquitin binding but prevents proteosomal degradation.


title: Blood doping

text: In 2004, a test for detection allogeneic/homologous blood transfusion doping was implemented. Flow cytometry is the method of choice. By examining markers on the surface of blood cells, the method can determine whether blood from more than one person is present in an athlete's circulation. The test utilizes 12 antisera directed against the blood group antigens, obtained from donor plasma. The antigens are labeled with secondary antibodies, which are conjugated with phycoerythrin to label IgG or IgM-coated RBCs and enhance the detection by flow cytometry The flow cytometry is able to detect minor variance in blood group antigens. The assessment was able to distinguish the blood of subjects who had earlier received at least one unit of allogeneic blood. This technique is able to detect small (<5%) populations of cells that are antigenically distinct from an individual's own RBCs.


title: Blood doping

text: Autologous blood doping detection is done indirectly via CO rebreathing technique to measure the nonphysiologic increases in Hb mass. The principle of CO rebreathing method used currently requires an O-CO gas mixture inhalation for about 10-15mins. By measuring the difference in carboxyhemoglobin concentration (HbCO) before and after rebreathing, the volume of CO and the binding capacity of Hb for CO ( 1.39ml g-1), total Hb mass can be calculated. This detection method is problematic for an athlete as it is not desirable to breathe in CO shortly before a competition, which may potentially affect their performances.