title: Aria Montgomery

text: In "Till Death Do Us Part", it has been one year since the last episode, we first see Aria and Ezra on the set of a film studio where their book is being made into a movie. Before her wedding to Ezra, Aria finds out that she will not be able to have children making her believe she can no longer get married since Ezra wants a family. When she shares the unfortunate news with Ezra he consoles her and tells her that they have other options and confirms that he still loves her and wants to get married. After their rehearsal dinner at the Radley, Ezra begins discussing getting other opinions from fertility specialists. After Aria claims that she has already seen other fertility doctors Ezra becomes upset wondering why she did not tell him about the sooner. After telling him that she wanted to make sure she couldn't have children on her own before telling him he becomes upset asking her if he has so much trust in her why does she not have the same trust in him. Aria tells Ezra she loves him, he tells her he loves her too, but it is not the same as trusting him and he leaves. The next day Aria and the girls are in her dressing room when she comes out in her gown excited and ready to marry Ezra, however he does not show and sends her a text saying that he can not go through with the wedding. What Aria doesn't know is that Ezra has been captured by A.D. as has Spencer whose place has been taken by A.D (Alex Drake, Spencer's evil twin sister). When Toby realizes that "Spencer" (A.D posing as Spencer) is not the real Spencer, with the help from Jenna, he lets the other girls and Caleb know. With the help of Mona, who has only been pretending to be on A.D's side tells them the location of A.D.'s lair they rescue Ezra and Spencer. The next day Aria and Ezra happily get married. While the girls are saying goodbye, Aria shares her and Ezra's plans for their honeymoon as well as their plans to look at adoption agencies when they return.


title: Aria Montgomery

text: After the second episode it was revealed that Aria and Ezra adopted a baby girl who they named Katherine Ella. It was also revealed that Aria's first book will turn into a movie which will feature Reese Witherspoon.


title: Aria Montgomery

text: In the final episode when Tabby asks Imogen if she wants her to accompany her to Rosewood to deliver her baby to her new family, Imogen mentions that if she wishes and that those who will adopt her baby are writers named Aria and Ezra. She also mentions that she is happy with them because they will allow her to keep in touch with the baby.


title: Aria Montgomery

text: Lucy Hale's character Aria received mixed to negative reception from fans. Most notably, Aria is acknowledged for having a unique fashion sense that piqued the interest of many fans. However, many viewers have expressed dislike for the character for being the most selfish out of the other Liars, and often acting without regard for others.


title: Aria Montgomery

text: Her romantic teacher-student relationship with Ezra Fitz was controversial throughout the series, especially due to it being romanticized and rarely addressed as problematic in the show. Many critics have panned the representation of Aria as an equal in the relationship, with reviewers stating that she was a victim of statutory rape all throughout the series.


title: Purulia district

text: Purulia district (Pron: puruliːaː) is one of the twenty-three districts of West Bengal state in Eastern India. Purulia is the administrative headquarters of the district. Some of the other important towns of Purulia district are Raghunathpur-Adra, Jhalda, Anara and Balarampur.


title: Purulia district

text: The territory of present Purulia district was a part of Banga, one of the 16 Mahajanapadas according to Jaina Bhagavati Sutra (c. fifth century CE) and was also a part of the country known as Vajra-bhumi in ancient period. During medieval period, this territory was regarded as part of "Jharkhand" region. Little is known about Purulia before the British East India Company acquired this territory by obtaining the grant of Diwani of the subahs of Bengal, Bihar, Odisha in 1765.


title: Purulia district

text: By Regulation XVIX of 1805, a Jungle Mahals district composed of 23 parganas and mahals including the present Purulia was formed. By Regulation XIII of 1833 the Jungle Mahals district was broken up and a new district called Manbhum was constituted with headquarters at Manbazar. The district was very large in size and included parts of Bankura and Bardhaman districts of present West Bengal state and Dhanbad, Dhalbhum and Seraikela-Kharswan districts of present Jharkhand states. In 1838 the district headquarters was transferred from Manbazar to Purulia. Since the formation of the district it was withdrawn from regular administration and placed under an officer called Principal Assistant to the agent to the Governor-General for South-Western Frontier. The title of the officer Principal Agent was later changed to Deputy Commissioner by Act XX of 1854.


title: Purulia district

text: Finally in 1956 Manbhum district was partitioned between Bihar and West Bengal under the States Reorganization Act and the Bihar and West Bengal (Transfer of Territories) Act 1956 and the present Purulia district was born on 1 November 1956.


title: Purulia district

text: Purulia lies between 22.60 degrees and 23.50 degrees north latitudes and 85.75 degrees and 86.65 degrees east longitudes. Compass Declination 0º22'W. The geographical area of the district is . This district is bordered on the east by Bankura, Paschim Medinipur districts, on the north by Bardhaman district of West Bengal state and Dhanbad district of Jharkhand state, on the west by Bokaro and Ranchi districts of Jharkhand state and on the south by West Singhbhum and East Singhbhum districts of Jharkhand state.


title: Purulia district

text: Purulia is the westernmost district of West Bengal with an all-India significance because of its tropical location, its shape as well as function like a funnel. It funnels not only the tropical monsoon current from the Bay to the subtropical parts of north-west India, but also acts as a gateway between the developed industrial belts of West Bengal and the hinterlands in Odisha, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.


title: Purulia district

text: Using the Köppen classification, Purulia has a tropical savanna climate "(Aw)" and receives most of its rainfall during the monsoon season. Temperature is high in summer, averaging and average in winter, around . Rainfall defines the climate of the district. South west monsoon is the principal source of rainfall in the district. Average annual rainfall varies between . The relative humidity is high in monsoon season, being 75% to 85%. But in hot summer it comes down to 20% to 35%.


title: Purulia district

text: Several rivers flow across Purulia district. Among these Kangsabati, Kumari, Silabati (silai), Dwarakeswar, Subarnarekha and Damodar are the important ones. Although several rivers flows across the district, 50% of the water run off due to the undulated topography. There are also several Small dams like Futiyary, Murguma, Pardi, Burda, Gopalpur, which are mainly used for irrigation of agriculture field. Saheb Bandh is one of the popular and famous waterbodies of Purulia. It is located in the heart of the purulia town. It is a shelter of the migratory birds which comes from Bangladesh, Burma, Sindh, Baluchistan during December to March.


title: Purulia district

text: Due to undulated topography nearly 50% of the rainfall flows away as runoff. The district is covered by mostly residual soil formed by weathering of bed rocks.


title: Purulia district

text: The economy of the Purulia district is mainly driven by the industrial & Agricultural sector and tourism. Among these, the industrial sector is the backbone of the economy of the district.


title: Purulia district

text: From 2001, with the new industrial policies of government of West Bengal, this district has attracted investments in steel, cement and power sectors. The district has large scale industries like Santaldih Thermal Power Station at Santaldih, Pumped Storage Project at Baghmundi, ACC Damodar Cement Factory at Madhukunda. The Purulia Pumped Storage Project of West Bengal State Electricity Distribution Company Ltd. consists of 4 units with a capacity of 224 MW each, which generates 900 MW of electricity. DVC is involved with a thermal power plant in Raghunathpur sub division with a capacity of 2400 MW. It has investments in steel and cement sectors. The manufacturing sector specially the sponge iron sector got an investment of 306.17 crores, which is comparable to the economically developed districts of West Bengal.


title: Purulia district

text: Among small scale industries, the lac industry and sericulture industry is another major source of income of this district. Purulia produces 90% of the lac produced in West Bengal. Lac is cultivated in all the blocks of Purulia and about 70,000 people are associated with this industry. Sericulture industry is supported by the ample amount of caterpillar larvae as raw materials.


title: Purulia district

text: Tourism is another source of income for this district. Forests, Hillocks, Rivulets, Streams, Wild Life, Flora & Fauna has tremendous scope to be explored by the tourist. The prominent of the district like Ajodhya Hills, Matha, Murguma Dam and Kuilapal Forests, Jaychandi Pahar, Panchakote Raj, Duarsini Hills and Forests attract quite a good number of visitors to Purulia every year.


title: Purulia district

text: Due to the rough weather and soil, purulia lags behind in agricultural arena from the other districts of West Bengal. However cultivation of silk and lac are the main agricultural products.


title: Purulia district

text: In 2006 the Ministry of Panchayati Raj named Purulia one of the country's 250 most backward districts (out of a total of 640). It is one of the eleven districts in West Bengal that has received funds from the Backward Regions Grant Fund programme (BRGF).


title: Purulia district

text: The district comprises four subdivisions: Purulia Sadar, Jhalda, Raghunathpur and Manbazar. Puruliya Sadar consists of Purulia municipality and five community development blocks: Purulia–I, Purulia–II, Hura, Puncha and Balarampur. Jhalda subdivision consists of Jhalda municipality and four community development blocks: Jhalda–I, Jhalda–II, Jaipur, Bagmundi. Raghunathpur subdivision consists of Raghunathpur municipality and six community development blocks: Para, Raghunathpur–I, Raghunathpur–II, Neturia, Santuri and Kashipur. Manbazar subdivision consists of five community development blocks: Manbazar–I, Manbazar–II Barabazar, Bandwan and Puncha. Purulia town is the district headquarters. There are 21 police stations, 20 development blocks, 3 municipalities, 170 gram panchayats, and 2459 inhabited villages in this district.


title: Purulia district

text: Each subdivision except Manbazar contains one municipality each along with community development blocks which in turn is divided into rural areas and census towns. In total there are 11 urban units: 3 municipalities and 9 census towns.


title: Purulia district

text: Para constituency was reserved for Scheduled Castes (SC) candidates. Banduan, Manbazar, Balarampur, Arsa, Jhalda, Jaipur and Purulia constituencies formed the Purulia (Lok Sabha constituency). Para, Raghunathpur, Kashipur and Hura were assembly segments of Bankura (Lok Sabha constituency), which also contained three assembly segments from Bankura district.


title: Purulia district

text: As per order of the Delimitation Commission in respect of the delimitation of constituencies in the West Bengal, the district is presently divided into 9 assembly constituencies:


title: Purulia district

text: Bandwan and Manbazar constituencies are reserved for Scheduled Tribes (ST) candidates, while Para and Raghunathpur constituencies are reserved for Scheduled Castes (SC) candidates. Banduan is an assembly segment of Jhargram (Lok Sabha constituency), which also contains six assembly segments from Paschim Medinipur district. Balarampur, Baghmundi, Jaipur, Purulia, Manbazar, Kashipur and Para constituencies will form the Purulia (Lok Sabha constituency). Raghunathpur assembly segment is part of Bankura (Lok Sabha constituency), which also contains six assembly segments from Bankura district.


title: Purulia district

text: According to the 2011 census Purulia district has a population of 2,930,115, roughly equal to the nation of Jamaica or the US state of Arkansas. This gives it a ranking of 129th in India (out of a total of 640). The district has a population density of . Its population growth rate over the decade 2001-2011 was 15.43%. Puruliya has a sex ratio of 955 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 65.38%. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 19.37% and 18.45% respectively.


title: Purulia district

text: The district has a population of 2,538,233. The literacy rates of male and female are 74.18% and 37.15% of the total population.


title: Purulia district

text: Purulia district is well connected with other cities and towns of West Bengal and neighbourhood states by road and rail transport.


title: Purulia district

text: The District is served by three Rail connections provided by the South Eastern Railways. One line runs from Jharkhand in the South through the district up to Asansol passing through Adra division. Another line runs between Bankura and Dhanbad also via the Adra Division. The third line connects purulia with Jharkhand. Major cities and towns like Ranchi, Tatanagar, Patna, Howrah, Bokaro, Dhanbad, Lucknow, Asansol, Bhubaneswar, Puri, Durgapur, Mumbai, Chennai and Delhi are now well connected with this district by railways. The Railway Divisional Headquarter Adra railway division, which is one of the major rail division of South Eastern Railway, is situated on the northeastern part of Purulia district.


title: Purulia district

text: The road transport is another important transportation medium of Purulia. The road transport is adequate in terms of bus availability and goods flow. NH 18 (NH 32) connects this district with Jamshedpur, Bokaro, Chas and Dhanbad. National Highway 60A (now NH 314) connects Purulia with State Highway 9 at Bankura and subsequently to NH2 at Durgapur. State Highway 5 also plays an important role in district's transport network as it connects the towns like Raghunathpur, Adra, Santaldih and Neturia to NH2 at Neamatpur and Asansol. Purulia has excellent road connectivity with Raniganj-Asansol industrial belt. South Bengal State Transport Corporation runs 4 buses from Purulia to Kolkata via State Highway 5 thus connecting towns and cities like Raghunathpur, Adra, Neturia to the industrial belt of Asansol, Raniganj, Durgapur and Burdwan. There are also many private bus operators on this route.


title: Purulia district

text: Purulia has rich cultural heritage. It has the mixed culture of Bengal, Jharkhand, and Orrisa as it was a part of these areas for various times. From archaeological evidences to local festivals, every cultural event has got a tribal touch in it, which is the speciality of Purulia. Living mostly in rural areas and keeping intact many of their socio-cultural values, more or less in pristine forms, the rural people of Purulia have their folks to speak about many of their tenets. The distinctiveness of those is well demonstrated with the sentiments and feelings of the population and these are marked with splash of colours and often entwined with pathos, romanticism, velour and social consciousness. Purulia got a distinct folk culture of Jhumur, Tusu, Bhadu songs. It is also the birthplace of a martial dance of Bengal Chhau.


title: Purulia district

text: Hundreds of thousands of tourists come to visit Purulia annually to witness the charm of the natural scenery of Ayodhya, Turga Falls, PPSP Upper and Lower Dam, Dawri khal in Kesto Bazar Dam, Lahoria Shiv Mandir, Matha and Kuilapal, falls and tribal habitations of Ajodhya Hills and Bagmundih, dams like Panchet, Murguma Dam and Futiari, heritage buildings like Panchakot Raj Place, trekking range of Matha proud with Pakhi Pahar, and Joychandi Pahar, picnic spots like Baranti, Duarsini, Doladanga, Jamuna, traditional folk dance and culture like Chhou Dance and Jhumur Song.


title: Richard III, Duke of Normandy

text: Richard III (997/1001 – 6 August 1027) was the duke of Normandy who reigned from August 1026 to his death. His brief reign opened with a revolt by his brother.


title: Richard III, Duke of Normandy

text: Richard III was the eldest son of Richard II of Normandy and Judith of Brittany. Around 1026, Richard was sent by his father in command of a large army to rescue his brother-in-law, Reginald, later Count of Burgundy, by attacking bishop and count Hugh of Chalon, who had captured and imprisoned Reginald in Chalon-sur-Saône.


title: Richard III, Duke of Normandy

text: When Richard II died in August 1026, his eldest son, Richard III became Duke of Normandy. Shortly after his reign began his brother Robert, discontented with his province of Hiemois on the border of Normandy, revolted against his brother. He laid siege to the town of Falaise, but was soon brought to heel by Richard who captured him, then released him on his oath of fealty. No sooner had Richard disbanded his army and returned to Rouen, when he died suddenly (some say suspiciously). The duchy passed to his younger brother Robert I.


title: Richard III, Duke of Normandy

text: In January 1027 he was married to Adela, of a noble lineage. She is usually identified with Adela, a younger daughter of King Robert II of France, who married to Baldwin V, Count of Flanders after Richard's 6 August 1027 death.


title: You Can Leave Your Hat On

text: "You Can Leave Your Hat On" is a song written by Randy Newman and appearing on his 1972 album "Sail Away".


title: You Can Leave Your Hat On

text: According to a retrospective AllMusic review by Mark Deming, the song is a "potent mid-tempo rock tune" and a "witty and willfully perverse bit of erotic absurdity". Newman later admitted the song was, "too low for me to sing it. I can't rock it too hard, which maybe I should have...or maybe not."


title: You Can Leave Your Hat On

text: Joe Cocker recorded "You Can Leave Your Hat On" for his 1986 album "Cocker". Released as a single, Cocker's version peaked at No. 35 on "Billboard" Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks, and it was featured in the 1986 Adrian Lyne film "9½ Weeks" during the striptease scene. It was also a popular single in Australia (where the film was immensely popular), reaching Number 23.


title: You Can Leave Your Hat On

text: A music video was released which features footage of the striptease scene from "9½ Weeks" and scenes with Cocker and his band performing the song. In some countries, the song itself is considered a striptease anthem, and still being used by strippers.


title: You Can Leave Your Hat On

text: Etta James covered the song in a 1974 single, published by Chess Records and produced by Gabriel Mekler.


title: You Can Leave Your Hat On

text: Merl Saunders and Aunt Monk covered it in 1976 on their album "You Can Leave Your Hat On". Here for the first time that specific brass arrangement was used, which Joe Cocker used in his more successful cover 10 years later.


title: You Can Leave Your Hat On

text: Tom Jones covered the song for the soundtrack of the 1997 British film "The Full Monty" and is included in the subsequent 2013 play of the same name. As a medley with Hot Chocolate's "You Sexy Thing" and Donna Summer's "Hot Stuff", the track reached Number 62 in the UK Singles Chart in 1998, under the title "The Full Monty - Monster Mix".


title: You Can Leave Your Hat On

text: American country music singer Ty Herndon covered the song on his 1999 album, "Steam". Herndon's version reached No. 72 on the "Billboard" Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart from unsolicited airplay and was included on his 2002 compilation, "".


title: Alone in the Dark (2008 video game)

text: Alone in the Dark is a survival horror video game published by Atari Interactive and is the fifth installment of the series under the same name. The game was released for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, Xbox 360 and Wii in Europe, North America, and Australia in June 2008. The PlayStation 3 version, titled Alone in the Dark: Inferno, was released in November 2008 and includes several enhancements from the other versions. The Windows, Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions were released by Electronic Arts in Japan on December 25, 2008.


title: Alone in the Dark (2008 video game)

text: The Windows, Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions were developed by Eden Games while the PS2 and Wii versions were simultaneously developed by Hydravision Entertainment. The PS2 and Wii version of "Alone in the Dark" is a completely different game from the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 version. Though both have a similar plot, it has largely different levels, removing all the free-roaming from the other versions. Despite receiving mixed reviews, "Alone in the Dark" was a financial success.


title: Alone in the Dark (2008 video game)

text: The gameplay in "Alone in the Dark" differs greatly from other games in the series. It is set out through DVD-style "episodes", where the player can choose to start the game from the beginning or choose to skip to a section if they get stuck. If they choose to do so, the past events are recollected in a "Previously on "Alone in the Dark"..." cutscene at the start of the episode.


title: Alone in the Dark (2008 video game)

text: "Alone in the Dark" has an interchangeable first and third person camera, and puzzle solving style gameplay. The environment plays a big part of the core gameplay, as the player can pick up any object (such as pipes, wood, etc.) and use it as a melee weapon. It can also be used to break through doors, and knock objects over. Fire is generated in real-time, as objects can be set alight by holding it over the fire, and it can be extinguished. If the fire isn't extinguished fast enough, the flames will continue to regenerate. The player can pick up objects, and combine to make different styles of weapons, however, only some objects can be combined with others. Any object which is shot at or thrown will be destroyed instantly.


title: Alone in the Dark (2008 video game)

text: If the player takes damage, open wounds appear on Edward's outfit. The player must use a medical spray or, if the wounds are too deep, use bandages to heal themselves. If Edward takes too much damage, the screen will flash red, and a heartbeat sound will be heard indicating that he is bleeding out.


title: Alone in the Dark (2008 video game)

text: The game begins with an amnesiac Edward Carnby, a paranormal investigator recovering from an exorcism performed on him by a group of occultists led by Crowley. A guard is instructed to take him to the roof for execution, only to be dragged away and slaughtered by an unseen force. He wanders the collapsing building in search of an exit; witnessing several people being killed in a similar fashion as the guard, as well as a young woman becoming possessed by a demon which claims to know of his past. After battling the entity, he meets art dealer Sarah Flores. They make their way to the basement parking garage where they meet Theophile Paddington, the occultist who performed Edward's exorcism and an old apprentice and friend of Carnby's. Theo explains the nature of the Philosopher's Stone and Crowley's desire to unleash its evil power.


title: Alone in the Dark (2008 video game)

text: Hijacking a car, they drive into New York City, finding it in the same destroyed state as the building; supernatural fissures erupting from the earth. They crash in Central Park and Theo gives Edward the Stone, telling him to find him in a room of a museum before killing himself. On the way to the museum, Edward begins to bleed out from his injuries. Making his way through the destruction, Edward learns his surname from Crowley. Later, his past medical records from an attending medic reveals that he is over a hundred years old, having disappeared in 1938. Finding Room 943 of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Theo's ghost explains more of the Stone's history. Forged by Lucifer after his fall from Heaven, the Stone tempted men with promises of mass wealth and immortality; in actuality, it merely made them vessels for the Devil's soul.


title: Alone in the Dark (2008 video game)

text: Sarah stays behind in the museum to research Paddington's notes, emailing Edward various texts as well as receiving some from Crowley, both of which reveal more of his past and the Stone. Delving deep beneath Belvedere Castle, he solves various puzzles trailing the Path of Light. Reaching a hidden chamber in the underground temple, Edward meets Hermes Treismajice, one of the alchemists who built Central Park and the holder of the other half of the Stone - rendering him effectively immortal as he waited for the Carrier of the Stone (Edward) to release him. While driving Hermes back to the museum, Sarah is kidnapped by Crowley and held hostage. In a final confrontation, Edward finally kills the mad occultist by quickly shooting him in the head while he was struggling with Flores. Treismajice then leads them to the innermost chamber.


title: Alone in the Dark (2008 video game)

text: Inside the chamber, they find a large portal between the living world and the afterlife; a gateway for Lucifer to return to a body. Needing both halves of the Stone to unlock it, Edward and Hermes reunite it on the pedestal only for the Light Bringer to begin repossessing Carnby. Sarah - unwilling to let Edward sacrifice himself - takes the Stone from him, allowing Lucifer to begin possessing her instead. The player is given a choice: to kill her and take the Light Bringer into his own body, or to let her live and allow the Devil to use her as his vessel. If he chooses the former, he becomes fully possessed by Lucifer and declares his intention to rule over humanity. If he chooses the latter, Sarah becomes possessed and the Devil mocks Edward for being so alone; to which he replies, ""I'm used to it"", before walking away in defeat.


title: Alone in the Dark (2008 video game)

text: A tech demo was released on February 16, 2008, showing the inventory system and how items and environmental objects can be manipulated, as well as how items may be used together. For example, double-sided adhesive tape can be used to attach a glow stick to a wall, creating a source of light. Another example is the player using a knife to puncture a blood pack, then throwing the blood pack creating a blood trail to lure enemies from one spot to another. A second tech demo was released on February 26, showing the realistic use of fire with various objects in the game.


title: Alone in the Dark (2008 video game)

text: It also shows how objects are affected when shot. The player is seen shooting a table and subsequently one of the tables legs breaks off, and shatters. The player then picks this up and lights it in a fire for a spontaneous torch. A third tech demo was released on April 18, displaying the attributes and gameplay mechanics of fire in the game. A fourth tech demo was released on June 3, highlighting the enemies and their characteristics including what they look like and how to kill them. The inventory is limited to what it's possible to fit in the jacket. Everything in the environment can be used as a weapon. The game's working title was "Alone in the Dark: Near Death Investigation".


title: Alone in the Dark (2008 video game)

text: The music in "Alone in the Dark" is scored by Olivier Deriviere. It includes the female choir The Mystery of Bulgarian Voices. Derivière did not use a live orchestra; instead, he used virtual instruments and samplers to create a realistic orchestral sound. The official soundtrack album by Derivière and Voices is available for purchase digitally and in audio CD format.


title: Alone in the Dark (2008 video game)

text: "Alone in the Dark: Inferno" is the PlayStation 3 version of the game. It addresses a number of gameplay issues found in the Xbox 360 version, such as the additions of full 360° camera control, a more zoomed-out third-person camera view, a more user-friendly inventory system, and tighter driving mechanics. It also includes an exclusive new gameplay sequence found in Episode 6.


title: Alone in the Dark (2008 video game)

text: A limited edition of the game was released for the European market. In the UK, the Limited Edition is only available through Game stores.


title: Alone in the Dark (2008 video game)

text: The PlayStation 3, Xbox 360 and PC versions of "Alone in the Dark" received "mixed or average reviews", while the PlayStation 2 and Wii versions received "generally unfavorable reviews", according to the review aggregation website Metacritic. In Japan, "Famitsu" gave it a score of one seven, one six, one seven and one six for the PS3 version (26/40); and two sixes, one seven, and one five for the Xbox 360 version (24/40).


title: Alone in the Dark (2008 video game)

text: GameSpot said of the Xbox 360 version: "If you can endure some vexing technical flaws, "Alone in the Dark" can be a clever, satisfying adventure." GameTrailers said: "The game needed more gestation to really iron out the interface issues, but it remains an adventure worth pursuing...".


title: Alone in the Dark (2008 video game)

text: The PlayStation 3 version, "Alone in the Dark: Inferno", received far more favorable reviews due to the improved movement and driving controls, as well as the extra scenes.


title: Alone in the Dark (2008 video game)

text: After several European websites had given the game average or low ratings, publisher Atari threatened the responsible websites with lawsuits, claiming the reviews could not have been based on the final version since it was not available by the time they were published; Atari themselves had not delivered review versions to them. The publisher suspected the reviewers to have used illegally downloaded versions of the title. However, review website Gamer.nl claimed that it was, in fact, sent a legitimate copy of the game prior to its release by Atari executives and, after the review was published: "They explicitly told [Gamer.nl] that they only let high scoring reviews break the post-release embargo date." Gamer.nl still has the offending review posted on the website, despite Atari's wishes. In addition Atari claimed that reviews were not done as demanded by the official product-review standards at all and should be deleted immediately.


title: Alone in the Dark (2008 video game)

text: Most other websites defended their reviews and refused to delete their articles. Atari did not follow through with lawsuits. In the meantime other editors of various other gaming magazines stated that poor reviews were possibly published to garner attention and clicks on their websites, due to the predictability of Atari's reaction.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: Iranian Kurdistan or Eastern Kurdistan () is an unofficial name for the parts of northwestern Iran with either a majority or sizable population of Kurds. Geographically, it includes the West Azerbaijan Province, Kurdistan Province, Kermanshah Province, Ilam Province and parts of Hamadan Province and Lorestan Province.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: In totality, Kurds are about 10% of Iran's total population. According to the last census conducted in 2006, the four main Kurdish-inhabited provinces in Iran – West Azerbaijan, Kermanshah Province, Kurdistan Province and Ilam Province – had a total population of 6,730,000. Kurds generally consider northwestern Iran (Eastern Kurdistan) to be one of the four parts of a Greater Kurdistan, which under that conception are joined by parts of southeastern Turkey (Northern Kurdistan), northern Syria (Western Kurdistan), and northern Iraq (Southern Kurdistan).


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: Outside the traditional Kurdistan region, a sizable isolated community of Kurds live in north-eastern Iran, about 1000 km away from Iranian Kurdistan. They are referred to as the Kurds of Khorasan and speak the Kurmanji dialect unlike Kurds in western Iran.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: From the 10th century to 12th century A.D., two Kurdish dynasties were ruling this region, the Hasanwayhids (959–1015) and the Ayyarids (990–1117) (in Kermanshah, Dinawar, Ilam and Khanaqin). The Ardalan state, established in the early 14th century, controlled the territories of Zardiawa (Karadagh), Khanaqin, Kirkuk, Kifri, and Hawraman. The capital city of the state was first in Sharazour in present-day Iraqi Kurdistan, but was later moved to Sinne (Sanandaj) (in present-day Iran). The Ardalan Dynasty continued to rule the region until the Qajar monarch Nasser-al-Din Shah (1848–1896) ended their rule in 1867.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: In the 12th century CE, Sultan Sanjar created a province called "Kurdistan" centered at Bahar, located to the northeast of Hamadan. This province included Hamadan, Dinawar, Kermanshah, Sanandaj and Sharazur. It was ruled by Sulayman, the nephew of Sanjar. In 1217, Kurds of Zagros defeated the troops of Ala ad-Din Muhammad II, the Khwarazmid king, who were sent from Hamadan.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: According to the "Encyclopaedia of Islam", the Safavid family came from Iranian Kurdistan, and later moved to Azarbaijan. They finally settled in the 11th century C.E. at Ardabil. During Safavid rule, the government tried to extend its control over Kurdish-inhabited areas in western Iran. At that time, there were a number of semi-independent Kurdish emirates such as the Mukriyan (Mahabad), Ardalan (Sinne), and Shikak tribes around Lake Urmiye and northwest Iran. Kurds resisted this policy and tried to keep some form of self-rule. This led to a series of bloody confrontations between the Safavids and the Kurds. The Kurds were finally defeated, and as a result the Safavids decided to punish rebellious Kurds by forced relocation and deportation in the 15-16th century. This policy began under the reign of the Safavid King Tahmasp I (r. 1514–1576).


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: Between 1534 and 1535, Tahmasp I began the systematic destruction of the old Kurdish cities and the countryside. Large numbers of Kurds from these areas found themselves deported to the Alborz mountains and Khorasan (Khurasan), as well as the heights in the central Iranian Plateau. At this time the last remnant of the ancient royal Hadhabâni (Adiabene) tribe of central Kurdistan was removed from the heartland of Kurdistan and deported to Khorasan, where they are still found today.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: The Safavid era played a substantial role in the integration of Iranian Kurdistan into the political structure of Iran. The Kurdish local elites were strongly aware of their affiliation with Iran, which helped shape Iran's western border.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: There is a well documented historical account of a long battle in 1609–1610 between Kurds and the Safavid Empire. The battle took place around a fortress called "Dimdim" located in Beradost region around Lake Urmia in northwestern Iran. In 1609, the ruined structure was rebuilt by Emîr Xan Lepzêrîn ("Golden Hand Khan"), ruler of Beradost, who sought to maintain the independence of his expanding principality in the face of both Ottoman and Safavid penetration into the region. Rebuilding Dimdim was considered a move toward independence that could threaten Safavid power in the northwest. Many Kurds, including the rulers of Mukriyan (Mahabad), rallied around Amir Khan. After a long and bloody siege led by the Safavid grand vizier Hatem Beg, which lasted from November 1609 to the summer of 1610, Dimdim was captured. All the defenders were massacred. Shah Abbas ordered a general massacre in Beradost and Mukriyan (reported by Eskandar Beg Turkoman, Safavid historian, in the book "Alam Aray-e Abbasi") and resettled the Turkish Afshar tribe in the region while deporting many Kurdish tribes to Khorasan. Although Persian historians (like Eskandar Beg) depicted the first battle of Dimdim as a result of Kurdish mutiny or treason, in Kurdish oral traditions ("Beytî dimdim"), literary works (Dzhalilov, pp. 67–72), and histories, it was treated as a struggle of the Kurdish people against foreign domination. In fact, "Beytî dimdim" is considered a national epic second only to "Mem û Zîn" by Ahmad Khani. The first literary account of Dimdim battle was written by Faqi Tayran.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: Kurds took advantage of the Afghan invasion of the Safavid realm in the early 18th century, and conquered Hamadan and penetrated to the area near Isfahan. Nader Shah sought to suppress a Kurdish rebellion in 1747, but he was assassinated before completing the expedition. After Nadir's death, Kurdish tribes exploited the power vacuum and captured parts of Fars.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: In 1880, Shaykh Ubaydullah, a Kurdish leader, engaged in a series of revolts against the Iranian government. These revolts were successfully suppressed by the Qajar kings, and this was one of Iran's few victories during the Qajar period. In the early 20th century, Ismail Agha Simko took advantage of the chaotic situation in the aftermath of World War I and rebelled against the Iranian government. He was finally defeated by Reza Shah Pahlavi.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: The weakness of the Persian government during World War I encouraged some Kurdish chiefs to take advantage of the chaotic situation. Simko, chief of the Shikak tribe, established his authority in the area west of Lake Urmia from 1918 to 1922. Jaafar Sultan of Hewraman region took control of the region between Marivan and north of Halabja and remained independent until 1925. In 1922, Reza Khan (who later became the first Pahlavi monarch), took action against Kurdish leaders. Simko was forced to abandon his region in the fall of 1922, and spent eight years in hiding. When the Iranian government persuaded him to submit, he was ambushed and killed around Ushno (Oshnavieh) in 1930. After this, Reza Shah pursued a crude but effective policy against the Kurds. Hundreds of Kurdish chiefs were deported and forced into exile. Their lands were also confiscated by the government.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: When Allied troops entered Iran in September 1941, the Persian Army was quickly dissolved and their ammunition was seized by the Kurds. Sons of the Kurdish chiefs seized the opportunity and escaped from their exile in Tehran. Hama Rashid, a Kurdish chief from Baneh, took control of Sardasht, Baneh and Mariwan in western Iran. He was finally driven out of the region by the Persian Army in the fall of 1944.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: Although Iran had declared its neutrality in the Second World War, it was occupied by Allied forces. With support from the Soviet Union, a Kurdish state was created in the city of Mahabad in 1946 by the Kurdish Movement Komeley Jiyanewey Kurd under the leadership of Qazi Muhammad. Since the minuscule entity extended no further than the small cities of Mahabad, Bukan, Piranshahr, and Oshnaviyeh in Iran, not even all of Iranian Kurdistan supported the experiment, let alone the Kurds in other states. The Republic of Mahabad, as it is often called, lasted less than a year, as the end of the war and the withdrawal of the occupying Soviet forces allowed the central government to defeat the separatists and return Kurdistan to Iran.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: Kurdish political organizations were enthusiastic supporters of the revolution against the Shah, which brought Ayatollah Khomeini to power in February 1979. The Shah had shown himself to be no friend of Kurdish aspirations for greater autonomy and a loosening of Tehran's control over their affairs.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: The Kurds, with their different language and traditions and their cross-border alliances, were seen as vulnerable to exploitation by foreign powers who wished to destabilize the young republic.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: The crisis deepened after Kurds were denied seats in the "Assembly of Experts" gathering in 1979, which were responsible for writing the new constitution. Ayatollah Khomeini prevented Dr. Ghassemlou, the elected representative of the region, from participating in the assembly of experts' first meeting.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: The wave of nationalism engulfed eastern Kurdistan after the fall of the Pahlavi dynasty in line with a series of anti-revolutionary revolts across the country. In early 1979 armed conflict broke out between armed Kurdish factions and the Iranian revolutionary government's security forces. The Kurdish forces included primarily the Democratic Party of Iranian Kurdistan (KDPI) and the leftist Komalah (Revolutionary Organization of Kurdish Toilers).


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: In a speech in December 1979, Ayatollah Khomeini called the concept of ethnic minorities contrary to Islamic doctrines. He also accused those "who do not wish Muslim countries to be united" in creating the issue of nationalism among minorities. His views were shared by many in the clerical leadership.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: David McDowall has argued that since the 1990s Kurdish nationalism has seeped into the Shia Kurdish area partly due to outrage against government's violent suppression of Kurds farther north, but David Romano reject such claims noting that there's no evidence of an active guerrilla insurgency in the area. Although, there is a new rise of Kurdish identity movement in the southern parts of Iranian Kurdistan, which has risen up from the first decade of 21st century that shows itself in the way of formation of an armed group called the Partisans of Southern Kurdistan and some other organizations specially about Yarsani people of that parts of Kurdistan.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: On December 2, 1996, the death of a prominent Sunni clergyman, Mulla Mohammed Rabiei, in Kermanshah led to violent clashes between Sunni Kurds and the security forces. Mulla Rabiei was the prayer leader in the Al-Shafe'i mosque in Kermanshah. The protests continued for three days and spread to neighboring towns in the region.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: In 1997, Sunni Kurds like many other Iranians took part in the presidential election. Both civilian and military Kurdish opposition groups requested Kurds "not to be indifferent" toward the election. President Khatami praised the glory of Kurdish culture and history. From the Kurdish side, the demands were mainly related to the Kurdish language and top-level officials. In his first term, Khatami appointed Abdollah Ramezanzadeh to be the first Kurdish governor of the Iranian province of Kurdistan. He also appointed several Sunni and Shia Kurds as his own or cabinet members' advisors. In his second term, Khatami had two Kurdish cabinet members; both of them were Shia. The increased presence of Kurdish representatives in the sixth parliament led to expectations that some of the voters' demands would be met. After the first round, in which 18 Kurds were elected, one candidate said that he expected there would be more Kurdish instruction at the university in Sanandaj, and he called on the Khatami government to have more Kurdish officials. Subsequently, a 40-member parliamentary faction representing the predominantly Kurdish provinces of Kurdistan and Kermanshah was formed. However, there were many other civilian Kurdish activists who did not join the reform movement. Mohammad Sadiq Kaboudvand was among the latter who started an independent human rights association to defend the rights of the Kurdish people.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: In February 1999, Kurdish nationalists took to the streets in several cities such as Mahabad, Sanandaj and Urmia and staged mass protests against the government and in support of Abdullah Öcalan. This was viewed as "trans-nationalization" of the Kurdish movement. These protests were violently suppressed by the government forces. According to human rights groups, at least 20 people were killed.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: Despite the fact that more than one million Sunnis live in Tehran, many of them Kurds, no Sunni mosque exists to serve their religious needs.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: On July 9, 2005, a Kurdish opposition activist, Shivan Qaderi (also known as Shwane Qadri or Sayed Kamal Asfaram), and two other Kurdish men were shot by Iranian security forces in Mahabad.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: For the next six weeks, riots and protests erupted in Kurdish towns and villages throughout Eastern Kurdistan such as Mahabad, Piranshahr. Sinne (Sanandaj), Sardasht, Oshnavieh (Şino), Baneh, Bokan and Saqiz (and even inspiring protests in southwestern Iran and in Baluchistan in eastern Iran) with scores killed and injured, and an untold number arrested without charge.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: On 13 March 2006, Saleh Nikbakht, a well-known Iranian human rights lawyer who is Mr. Qaderi's lawyer, announced that Qaderi's murderer was a member of the police who shot the victim illegally. He also added that the murderer and the one who ordered the act are under investigation and the judiciary system has been cooperative up to now.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: Kurds have suffered a long history of discrimination in Iran. In a report released in 2008, Amnesty International said that Kurds have been a particular target of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and the Kurds' "social, political and cultural rights have been repressed, as have their economic aspirations." As a result, many human rights activists in Iran often shift their focus to specifically identify the Iranian authorities' violations of human rights against the Kurdish minority. However, according to Amnesty International, those activists who do "link their human rights work – drawing attention to the government's failure to observe international human rights standards - to their Kurdish identity they risk further violations of their rights."


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: At the beginning of the 21st century, a number of Kurdish activists, writers, and teachers have been arrested for their work and were sentenced to death. The increase is likely due to the government's crackdown following the nationwide protests after Iran's presidential elections. Even before the elections, Kurdish rebel groups - specifically the Party for a Free Life in Kurdistan or PJAK - have taken up arms against the state.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: In November 2009, Iran executed Ehsan Fattahian - the first of over a dozen political prisoners on death row - despite an international campaign calling for his release. Authorities accused Fattahian of carrying arms for an "illegal organization" and sentenced him to several years in prison. Fattahian never confessed to carrying arms and was not given a fair trial, nor was he permitted access to his lawyer, and the Komala - the illegal organization he was accused of associating with - claimed that he had left the group a long time ago. Fattahian attempted to appeal, and when he did so, he was sentenced to death for "enmity against God". His execution was condemned by human rights groups and activists internationally.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: In January 2010, Iran executed a second Kurdish political prisoner, Fasih Yasamani, for "enmity against God". Like Fattahian, Yasamani was tortured and authorities tried to force him to confess, but he refused. He was also denied a fair trial.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: Without notifying the families or lawyers of the political prisoners, Iranian authorities ordered the execution of four more Kurdish political prisoners - Ali Heydarian, Farhad Vakili, Mehdi Eslamian, Shirin Alam Hooli, and Farzad Kamangar, a teacher who received a lot of attention internationally following his arrest - in Iran on May 9, 2010. The four political prisoners suffered severe torture at the hands of Iranian authorities and were also forced to confess their memberships in an illegal organization - namely PJAK. None of the activists were given fair trials nor did they have access to their lawyers. Amnesty International described the executions as "a blatant attempt to intimidate members of the Kurdish minority."


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: Despite repeated international calls demanding the release or retrial of these four political prisoners, all were executed without any prior notice or warning. Following the executions, Iranian authorities refused to return the bodies of those executed to their families.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: As of May 2010, there were at least 16 other Kurdish political prisoners on death row. Not one case has been reported as having received a fair trial.


title: Iranian Kurdistan

text: The Kurdistan Free Life Party or PJAK. Feb 4, 2009, Stuart Levey, U.S. Treasury undersecretary for terrorism and financial intelligence stated "With today's action, we are exposing PJAK's (Free Life Party of Kurdistan) terrorist ties to the PKK and supporting Turkey's efforts to protect its citizens from attack."


title: Komati (caste)

text: The Komati (Kūmūti, Kōmaṭi, Kūmaṭi) is a trading community found primarily in southern and central India, that is currently organised as a caste. The members of the Komati caste are commonly engaged in business pursuits. The community consists of many sects who are followers of Hinduism, namely the Gomata , the Thrivarnika (Trivarṇika) and the Kalinga (Kaliṅga), along with the Jaina Komatis who are followers of Jainism. Traditionally, most Komatis have been vegetarian due to ahimsa (nonviolence).


title: Komati (caste)

text: The affinity of the word "Komati" to "Gomata" has led to speculation that the word is derived from Gomata (Gomateshwara), the name of a Jain deity. This theory is supported by scholars such as C. Dwarakanath Gupta, and Jaisetty Ramanaiah; B. S. L. Hanumantha Rao also mentions this as the most reasonable of the theories, noting that it is a "derivation of the word from gomata, the great Jaina saint, which implies that they were followers of Gomata cult or were originally Jains". Gupta theorises the Komatis were originally traders from Gauda in Bengal, who adopted Jainism and followed the cult of Gomata. They later gave up Jainism and embraced Vedic Hinduism. Hanumantha Rao noted that the merchant classes preferred Jainism for gaining social status and respectability, and the erstwhile Banias became Gomati or followers of the Gomata cult in medieval times.


title: Komati (caste)

text: An alternative etymology mentioned by Gupta derives the name of the caste from the name of a river. He states that the Komatis are said to have originally lived on the banks of Gomati, a local name for the Godavari river. Yet another theory states that the name of the community is derived from the Telugu phrase "konu-ammu-atti" ("persons engaged in the exchange of goods"). Colonial ethnographers Edgar Thurston and R. V. Russell derived "Komati" from the Sanskrit term "Gomathi," believed to have the meaning of possessor or keeper of cows or "Ko-mati" ("to be fox minded"), which references their business acumen. An origin story accepted by many in the community is mentioned in the "Kanyaka Purana" which states that Shiva gave them the name "Go-mati" ("cow-minded").


title: Komati (caste)

text: The term "Vaisya" has been used to refer to Komatis. The term "Komati" also has a denotation of "trader in the north of Madras and corresponded to chetty".


title: Komati (caste)

text: There is epigraphic evidence that the term "Komati" was in use by the 11th century CE. The Komati merchants were associated with the town of Penugonda in the West Godavari district of Andhra Pradesh.


title: Komati (caste)

text: Inscriptions from the Godavari, Krishna and Guntur districts from 11th century refer to the merchants referred to as the "Lords of Penugonda". The wealthier sections of the Komatis were addressed as Setti, Chetti or Chettiyar, all derived from the Sanskrit term "Sreshthi". Their trade associations bore the name "nagaram". They also participated in long-distance trade networks called "pekkandru" (literally "the many"). During the times of the Vijayanagara Empire, they moved to various parts of South India to further their businesses. During the empire's reign, they emerged as prominent merchants in South Indian trade, and sought to be considered as Vaishyas, the third highest varna in the Hindu caste system. During this time, the Komati and Balija competed between each other for Vaishya status.


title: Komati (caste)

text: During the pre-colonial period, Komatis migrated "to the Malayan peninsula". Komatis also immigrated to Malaysia in the 1930s.


title: Komati (caste)

text: After the arrival of European trading companies, the Komati merchants were among the local traders that partnered with them. The British referred to them as "Committys" and often used the term generically for all merchants on the Coromandel coast. Among the "Committys" that the British dealt with were the bulk sellers of cloth and other export commodities, money lenders and money changers, and the individual shop-keepers.


title: Komati (caste)

text: The second Chief Merchant of the British East India Company in Madras was a Komati called Kasi Viranna, appointed in 1669. There was fierce competition in George Town between the Tamil-speaking Beeri merchants, who formed the 'left-hand' caste division and the Komati and Balija merchants, who were referred to as the 'right-hand' caste division and who also led the right-hand castes. Other "right hand" castes included those of washermen, barbers, potters, tank-diggers, Yenadis (tribals), and outcastes. The competition between the divisions gave rise to riots and disputes in 1652 and 1707. The British were able to settle the disputes between left-hand and right-hand caste divisions amicably by resettling members to designated areas in George Town which is a small neighbourhood in the city of Chennai.


title: Komati (caste)

text: Niyogi Brahmins and the Maha-nad opposed the attempts of Komatis to designate themselves as Vaishyas. The Maha-nad was a multi-caste secret assembly that was created to exact retribution for breaking the rules and rights of castes. The Maha-nad was led by Niyogi Brahmins, Chettiars, and Telagas. Whenever the Komati's attempted to perform orthodox rites (especially the Upanayana ceremony), the Maha-nad would disrupt the ceremonies. The leaders of the Maha-nad would invade the house of Komatis and disrupt the sacrificial fire, rendering the ceremony useless. The Maha-nad would hire throngs of untouchables to attack the houses of Komatis and vandalise them with cattle bones, blood, human feces, and cattle feces mixed with water. The Vaidiki Brahmins who served as family priests for the Komatis were, unlike their Niyogi Brahmin counterparts, unconcerned with the idea that Komatis were infringing the boundaries between lower once-born and upper twice born castes. From 1784-1825, the majority of Komatis conducted the Upanayana ceremonies according to the Kanyaki Purana, a late medieval Telugu text sacred to the Komatis. These Upanayana ceremonies were completely in Telugu and conducted right before a Komati man's marriage, however a few wealthier Komati families were able to afford the orthodox Sanskrit Upanayana for younger bachelor men. The orthodox Sanskrit version allowed Komatis to perform further orthodox rites, and Vaidiki Brahmins were fine in officiating them. By 1825, the two versions had mixed into a part-Telugu, part-Sanskrit ceremony. By the 1830s, the Komatis began to phase out their native Telugu Komati elements of their rituals.


title: Komati (caste)

text: Lengthy legal battles ensued between the Vaidiki and Niyogi Brahmins on whether the Komatis were allowed to perform orthodox Vaishya rites. The Vaidikis argued that there was nothing in the Vedas (the orthodox Sanskrit Hindu texts) the prohibited the Komatis from performing their own Telugu versions of the Upanayana. They stated that since it was a well known fact that Komatis called themselves Vaishyas and their men wore the sacred thread, there was no reason prohibiting them from moving on to the orthodox Sanskrit versions of the Upanayana ceremony. The Niyogis argued that while they did indeed call themselves Vaishyas, they could not be real Vaishyas due to Hindu chronology. According to Hindu chronology, Vaishyas had become extinct in Kali Yuga, the final time period in Hindu cosmology. Additionally, the Niyogis stated that the Komatis performed the Upanayana incorrectly due to the fact that the majority of them had it performed right before an man's marriage, rather than at age 24 which the orthodox texts state a Vaishya bachelor should have the ceremony conducted. They argued that since the Komatis could not be real Vaishyas and performed the Upanayana incorrectly, they had renounced their right to do so and that there was nothing they could do to atone for it. Legal battles ensued for decades, with British officials being unable to resolve the conflict and agitation between Komatis and Niyogis.


title: Komati (caste)

text: In the 1800s, Komatis were involved with the indigo and cotton trade. Komatis were "founding import-export firms, particularly in timber, sugar and liquor, construction and engineering companies, and western style banks" by the late 1800s. Komatis were involved with modernizing the commercial activity in Madras. Most Komatis were involved with the trade of oil, salt, grains, fruits and vegetables or were moneylenders or textile merchants. In 1905 the Komatis founded the South Indian Vaishya Sangam. The Komati community during the colonial period changed their name to the Arya Vaishya Community.


title: Komati (caste)

text: By the 20th century, the Komatis had begun calling themselves according to the orthodox rishi gotras, rather than their native 102 gotras, which were inappropriate in accordance with the rules for Vaishya gotras. Over the 19th century, many Komatis became wealthy and in the 1901 census, were the only Telugu caste to be ranked as Vaishya. Spurred by this recognition, in 1905, prominent Komatis formed the Southern India Vysia Association, and in the 1921 census, tens of thousands of Komatis were recorded as Vaishyas.


title: Komati (caste)

text: Vasavi Mata is considered the Kuladevata of Komatis. "Kanyaki Purana" – a late medieval sacred text in Telugu – is their key religious text. The Kanyaka Purana is an oral epic, and today the Skanda Purana is associated with a written Sanskrit version of the Kanyaka Purana off of which the Kanyaka Purana is performed. Records are available for a Kanyaka Parameswari temple built on a garden owned by the Komati community in George Town, Madras in the early 18th century.


title: Komati (caste)

text: Komatis regard themselves as a `twice-born' caste, meaning that they are allowed to wear a sacred thread following an initiation ceremony (the "upanayana"). This status was contested by Niyogi Brahmins in Masulipatnam in the early 19th century in the Imperial British courts at considerable expense. The 102 "gotras" of the Komati community do not correspond with gotras that were deemed appropriate for Vaishyas because the gotras are not "rishi gotras".


title: Komati (caste)

text: Arya Vysya (or Arya Vyshya) is a subset of the Komati caste. As of 2017, there are approximately 22,952,000 Vaishyas in India. Arya Vysyas are traditionally vegetarian; ahimsa is important to Arya Vysyas. Orthodox Arya Vysyas follow rituals prescribed in the "Vasavi Puranam", a religious text written in the late Middle Ages. The community were formerly known as Komati Chettiars but now prefer to be referred to as Arya Vysyas.


title: Komati (caste)

text: The Komati merchants along with Balijas became notable as trading communities during the period of the Vijayanagara Empire (1325-1565 CE), and desired Vaishya status.


title: Komati (caste)

text: The Mackenzie manuscripts provide a record of a copper plate grant of guru Bhaskaracharya (16th century CE), given by the 102 gotras which formed the Gavara grouping. According to the "Vasavi Purana", the Vaisyas of Penugonda and 17 other towns belonged to a group of Vaisyas of 714 gotras. However, the 102 gotras of Gavaras separated out, and formed the Gavara Komati community.


title: Komati (caste)

text: Kalinga Vysyas "worship deities belonging to both Vaishnavite and Saivite sects". Kalinga Vysyas are found in the old Kalinga country, from Visakhapatnam to "contiguous areas in Orissa [sic] state".


title: Komati (caste)

text: Thrivarnika Vysyas call themselves Thrivarnika Vaishnavites. They say that their community started in the 11th century at the time of Ramanuja.


title: Komati (caste)

text: Arya Vysyas are the largest subsect of Komatis, with Kalinga Vysyas being the second largest subsect. The Thrivarnika Vysyas are lesser in number than both Arya Vyyas and Kalinga Vysyas.


title: 1991–92 Football League

text: The tables and results below are reproduced here in the exact form that they can be found at The Rec.Sport.Soccer Statistics Foundation website, with home and away statistics separated.


title: 1991–92 Football League

text: With the announcement halfway through the season that the Football Association would be creating a new Premier League of 22 clubs for the 1992–93 season, this was the final season of the old Football League First Division as the top flight of English football. The race for the title was mostly a two-horse race between Leeds United (promoted just two years earlier and previously league champions in 1969 and 1974) and a Manchester United who were fresh from back-to-back successes in cup competitions, but who had not won the First Division title since 1967. Alex Ferguson's side had a strong first half of the season, losing just once before the end of 1991, but then lost 4–1 at home to QPR on New Year's Day 1992, and a shortage of goals and wins during the second half of the season cost them the title, with Leeds clinching it on the penultimate weekend of the season when they won 3–2 at Sheffield United and Alex Ferguson's side lost 2–0 to Liverpool at Anfield, although they did manage to win the Football League Cup final two weeks earlier. The catalyst in the West Yorkshire side's title triumph had been a mid-season signing from France, 25-year-old striker Eric Cantona, who joined pre-season signing Rod Wallace and established stars including Gary McAllister, Lee Chapman and Gordon Strachan as well as promising midfielders Gary Speed and David Batty as part of the team which clinched the title. The latest additions to Manchester United's ever-changing squad were goalkeeper Peter Schmeichel, defender Paul Parker and winger Andrei Kanchelskis, while teenage winger Ryan Giggs established himself as a regular and crucial member of the first team squad before his 18th birthday, having made his debut the previous season.


title: 1991–92 Football League

text: Newly promoted Sheffield Wednesday had won the Football League Cup to end their 56-year wait for a major trophy, but were then left without a manager when Ron Atkinson accepted the offer to take over at Aston Villa. The Hillsborough club then turned to veteran striker Trevor Francis, who was appointed player-manager and took them to third place in the final table and into the UEFA Cup, delivering European qualification to the club for the first time since the 1960s. Defending champions Arsenal had a disappointing start to the season, but the £2.5million signing of striker Ian Wright from Crystal Palace in late September helped the Gunners recover their form, and they finished fourth in the final table, although their first venture into the European Cup for 20 years ended in the second round, and they then suffered a shock first-hurdle exit from the FA Cup at the hands of Fourth Division side Wrexham. Manchester City finished fifth for the second season running, while a Liverpool side in transition in their first full season under the management of Graeme Souness finished a disappointing sixth in the league but still managed to win the FA Cup.


title: 1991–92 Football League

text: West Ham United and Notts County went straight back down to the First Division after just one season, while Luton Town were relegated on the final day of the season after a decade in the First Division, with their defeat at the season's end ensuring that Coventry City secured a 26th successive season among the elite. Norwich City, who reached the semi-finals of the FA Cup for the second time in four seasons but finished 18th after a dismal end to the league season, saw their manager Dave Stringer resign after an eventful five seasons and hand over the reins to coach Mike Walker. Oldham Athletic's first top flight campaign since the 1920s saw them secure survival with a 17th-place finish and book a place in the new Premier League. Southampton spent much of the season battling against relegation before a seven-match winning run during the second half of the campaign helped lift them to safety, with all eyes at The Dell being on Southampton's top scorer, 21-year-old striker Alan Shearer, who scored on his England debut in February and was subject of interest from a string of bigger clubs throughout the campaign, although he decided to remain on the South Coast until the end of the season before manager Ian Branfoot invited offers with "cash plus unwanted players" in return to Shearer's services, with fees in the region of £3million being quotes and the likes of Manchester United and Liverpool being strongly linked with Shearer's signature.


title: 1991–92 Football League

text: As one highly promising English striker's career was taking off, a goal scoring legend was on his way out of the English league. In November 1991, Tottenham and England striker Gary Lineker accepted an offer to sign for Japanese side Grampus Eight at the end of the season. Lineker finished the season as PFA Player of the Year and was among the top scorers with 28 First Division goals, before bowing out of the international scene at the European Championships in Sweden, making the last of his 80 appearances for the national side in a 2–1 defeat to Sweden at the end of an international career where a total of 48 goals left him just one goal short of Bobby Charlton's (then) record of 49 England goals.


title: 1991–92 Football League

text: The Second Division title was won by Ipswich Town, with John Lyall taking the Suffolk club back to the top flight after a six-year absence. Middlesbrough were also automatically promoted as runners-up on the final day of the season, but it was play-off winners Blackburn Rovers whose promotion made the biggest headlines. Bankrolled by millionaire chairman Jack Walker and managed by former Liverpool boss Kenny Dalglish, Rovers spent several million pounds of building a promotion-winning squad, clinching their promotion with a 1–0 win over Leicester City in the play-off final, booking a place in the new Premier League after 26 years away from the elite of the English league. Blackburn had also overcome the Second Division's other heavy-spending side, Derby County in the semi-finals of the playoffs. Leicester had faced a different sort of challenge in their semi-final clash, travelling to East Anglia for the first leg, where they were paired with a Cambridge United managed by John Beck and the attack being led by Leicester-born forward Dion Dublin, in hunt of a unique third successive promotion. The first leg at the Abbey Stadium had ended in a 1–1 draw, before Leicester triumphed 5–0 in the return leg at Filbert Street.


title: 1991–92 Football League

text: In manager Jim Smith's first full season as manager, Portsmouth just missed out on the Second Division playoffs but enjoyed a memorable run in the FA Cup, taking eventual winners Liverpool to a replay in the semi-finals before losing on penalties.


title: 1991–92 Football League

text: By the turn of 1992, fallen giants Newcastle United were struggling at the foot of the Second Division, millions of pounds in debt and facing relegation to the third tier for the first time ever. However, the club's future was secured in a takeover deal by millionaire John Hall, who sacked Ossie Ardiles as manager in early February and appointed former England striker Kevin Keegan as manager of the club where he had ended his playing career eight years earlier. Keegan kept Newcastle up and the club's new owners made money available to build a team capable of winning promotion in the 1992–93 season.


title: 1991–92 Football League

text: Newcastle's local rivals Sunderland were disappointing in the league, failing to mount a promotion challenge in the Second Division following their relegation the previous campaign, but reached the FA Cup final – the first team from the Second Division to do so for more than a decade – where they lost 2–0 to Liverpool.


title: 1991–92 Football League

text: The relegation places were occupied by Port Vale, Plymouth Argyle and Brighton & Hove Albion. The Valiants had been in the Second Division for the previous three seasons and had spent most of that time in the bottom half of the table, while Plymouth (who replaced manager David Kemp with the former England goalkeeper Peter Shilton in February 1992) had enjoyed six seasons in the Second Division but had also struggled for much of that time apart from a seventh-place finish in 1987. Brighton, however, had been on the brink of First Division football 12 months before being relegated, being beaten finalists in the previous season's playoff final, but the sale of players including top scorer Mike Small and rising debt restricting their options on the transfer market ultimately sent them down to the third tier.


title: 1991–92 Football League

text: In their first full season under the management of Phil Holder, Brentford clinched in the Third Division title and won promotion to the newly rebranded Division One for the 1992–93 season, ending their 14-year run in the league's third tier. Birmingham City, another team with a new manager in the shape of Terry Cooper, finished runners-up to claim their return to the league's second tier at the third time of asking. In the playoffs, two newly promoted teams battled it out for a second successive promotion. Peterborough United came out 2-1 winners against Stockport County to reach the league's second tier for the first time.


title: 1991–92 Football League

text: Lou Macari's first season as manager of Stoke City ended in disappointment as they finished fourth in the league but saw their promotion hopes ended by a defeat to Stockport County in the playoffs. West Bromwich Albion, in the Third Division for the first time, failed to win promotion at the first time of asking, a win at doomed Shrewsbury Town on the final day of the season not being enough to secure a playoff place. This disappointment was swiftly followed by the end of Bobby Gould's unpopular 15-month reign as manager. Bolton Wanderers, who had narrowly missed out on promotion the previous season, finished a disappointing 13th in the league and sacked manager Phil Neal after nearly seven years in charge, turning to Bruce Rioch as the man to mastermind their Division Two promotion challenge for the 1992–93 season.


title: 1991–92 Football League

text: Darlington suffered an immediate relegation back to the Fourth Division following two successive promotions, with manager Frank Gray unable to adjust the County Durham side to the pace of a higher division following the departure of his predecessor Brian Little in the summer of 1991. Torquay United also went straight back down to the league's basement division, following a turbulent season which saw three different men occupy the manager's seat at Plainmoor, with not even the mid-season signing of striker Justin Fashanu and his 10 goals from 21 Third Division fixtures being enough to secure survival. Shrewsbury Town also went down, as did a Bury side who had almost won promotion the previous season.


title: 1991–92 Football League

text: Following a slow start to the season which saw manager Frank Casper replaced by Jimmy Mullen in October 1991, Burnley made huge progress in the league and won the Fourth Division title to join Wolverhampton Wanderers as champions of all four divisions of the Football League, also ending their seven-year stay in the Fourth Division.


title: 1991–92 Football League

text: Runners-up Rotherham United and third-placed Mansfield Town achieved immediate promotion from the Fourth Division, one season after relegation. They were joined by the previous season's beaten playoff finalists Blackpool, who found themselves level with their opponents at the end of extra time as had happened a year earlier, but this time emerged victorious after defeating Scunthorpe United in the shootout. Barnet, in the Football League for the first time, reached the playoff semi-finals but their hopes of a second successive promotion were ended when they were beaten by Blackpool. Crewe Alexandra's hopes of an instant return to the league's third tier were ended in a similar fashion by Scunthorpe United.


title: 1991–92 Football League

text: On 25 March 1992, Aldershot were declared bankrupt and obliged to resign from the Football League – their record was expunged. A new club to represent the Hampshire town was formed within weeks, but Aldershot Town had to start the 1992–93 season in the Third Division of Isthmian League – five divisions below the original club's final division. Carlisle United eventually finished bottom, but there was no relegation from the Football League in 1991–92 – although Conference champions Colchester United were still promoted, returning to the league after a two-year absence.


title: 1991–92 Football League

text: Wrexham, the league's lowest placed club the previous season, made good progress in 1991–92 to finish 14th, but the big story of the season came in January 1992 when they defeated defending First Division champions Arsenal 2–1 at the Racecourse Ground in their FA Cup third round tie.


title: 1991–92 Football League

text: As the season drew to its close, speculation was mounting about the future of another club, Maidstone United, who had been without a home of their own since becoming tenants at Dartford in 1988 and were now hundreds of thousands of pounds in debt.


title: 1991–92 Football League

text: Returning to the Football League for the 1992–93 season were the Conference champions Colchester United, who were promoted back to the league after a two-year absence following a two-horse promotion race with Wycombe Wanderers.


title: Hershey's Kisses

text: Hershey's Kisses is a brand of chocolate first produced by the Hershey Company in 1907. The bite-sized pieces of chocolate have a distinctive conical shape, sometimes described as flat-bottomed teardrops. Hershey's Kisses chocolates are wrapped in squares of lightweight aluminum foil. A narrow strip of paper (called a plume) sticks out from the top of each Hershey's Kiss wrapper. Originally designed as a flag for the "Hershey's" brand, the printed paper plumes were added to the Kisses product wrapper in 1921 in order to distinguish the Hershey's Kiss from its competitors who offered similar products.


title: Hershey's Kisses

text: When first manufactured in 1907, Hershey's Kisses were wrapped by hand. In 1921, a machine was used so the Kisses would be wrapped automatically. This machinery also added the paper plume or paper strip flag to the aluminum foil wrapper to identify Hershey's Kisses, replacing the original small square of printed tissue that was inside the foil wrapper.


title: Hershey's Kisses

text: In 1924, Milton S. Hershey received a registered design trademark (Reg. 0186828) for "foil wrapped conical configuration with plume" which included the paper plume sticking out from the top of the aluminum foil wrapper. In 1976, Hershey received a registered trademark for the Hershey's Kisses foil wrapper.


title: Hershey's Kisses

text: During 1942, production of Hershey's Kisses was briefly interrupted due to the rationing of aluminum foil. Instead, the machines were re-purposed to create military chocolate D ration bars for the soldiers in World War II. By the end of World War II, Hershey's had produced more than three billion D ration chocolate bars.


title: Hershey's Kisses

text: Kisses are one of the most popular brands of candies in the US. In 1989, the chocolate drops were the fifth most popular chocolate brand in the United States, spawning sales that topped $400 million. More than 70 million Hershey's Kisses chocolates are produced each day at the company's two factories. Today's Kisses brand chocolates use Hershey's original milk chocolate formula.


title: Hershey's Kisses

text: Though originally made of solely milk chocolate, many variations of the Kisses brand of chocolates and candies have since been introduced. Hershey introduces and discontinues new Kisses flavors constantly as part of its standard Kisses offering, including holidays. In addition to the standard milk chocolate, year-round varieties include caramel, Special Dark, hazelnut (deluxe), birthday cake, cookies'n'cream, milk chocolate almond, and white chocolate (Hugs). Seasonal varieties include cherry cordial, hot cocoa, mint truffle, sugar cookie, candy cane, lava cake, and "vampire" milk chocolate with strawberry creme.


title: Hershey's Kisses

text: Throughout the years, Hershey's has created many different flavors of kisses, most of which are currently discontinued. The following list, updated in December 2021, is not necessarily exhaustive.


title: Hershey's Kisses

text: Introduced in late 2005, these mini candy-coated milk chocolate kisses were similar to M&Ms and Reese's cups. Colors included red, orange, yellow, green, and blue, as well as pastels for Easter, pink, red, and white for Valentine's Day, and red, purple, and brown Special Dark Kissables. In 2008, Hershey's attempted to cut production costs by changing the recipe for these (and other chocolates), opting to use vegetable oils instead of cocoa butter. Customers were not pleased and this change ultimately led to the death of Kissables in July 2009.


title: Hershey's Kisses

text: These candy corn limited edition Halloween kisses were introduced in 2007, and had three layers of white chocolate flavored candy; yellow on bottom, orange in the middle, and a white tip. Discontinued in 2011, Hershey's opted not to bring them back for future Halloween's due to poor sales.


title: Hershey's Kisses

text: This Limited Edition flavor was only available for a few months around Easter 2021. Strawberry Ice Cream Cone kisses were available for purchase as of July 2022 at Hershey's Chocolate World.


title: Hershey's Kisses

text: Released in fall of 2008, shortly following Hershey's Kiss 100th anniversary, this limited edition candy was well received by the public. The kisses had that iconic pumpkin spice smell; some compared it to snickerdoodles or ginger snaps. The orange kiss was filled with a white pumpkin-flavored creme, and wrapped in a special gold and brown foil wrapper.


title: Hershey's Kisses

text: When introduced in 1907, Hershey's Kisses chocolates originally were wrapped by hand. The automated wrapping machinery was introduced in 1921.


title: Hershey's Kisses

text: The original wrapper was silver-colored foil and Hershey's Kisses were only available in this single color for decades. In 1962, Hershey became one of the first companies to change its wrappers for seasonal sales. That was the first year that Kisses chocolates were available in different colored foil wrappers: red, green, and silver-wrapped candies were manufactured to coincide with the Christmas season. This idea was the suggestion of John Figi, owner of Figi's "Gifts in Good Taste"—a mail-order food gifts company based in Marshfield, Wisconsin. The green and red colored wrapped chocolates were featured for the first time in the Figi's Christmas catalog.


title: Hershey's Kisses

text: In 1968, pastel blue, pink, and green wrappers were introduced for Easter, and in 1986, Valentine's Day-themed wrappers of red and silver were introduced. Xs and Os have also appeared on pink and red wrappers as well as little red hearts on silver wrappers for Valentine's Day. "Fall Harvest" colors were introduced in 1991. Independence Day has silver with red stripes and blue-starred wrappers. Pink wrappers with "ribbons" on them to support breast cancer research have also appeared. Camouflage wrappers are also available, primarily on military bases. Kisses Dark Chocolates come in a deep purple wrapper. The Halloween themed Kisses Candy Corn candies come in a wrapper whose colors imitate the color of a candy corn with yellow, white and orange stripes swirling around the candy.


title: Hershey's Kisses

text: In 2016, four limited Holiday wrapper varieties were released: Santa hats, Kissmas sweaters that resemble knit Christmas sweaters, Kissmas Trees with plumes that read "Fa La La", and "Kissmas" Presents with plumes that read from me to you. The Christmas themed Kisses Candy Cane candies also come in a wrapper whose colors imitate the color pattern (red stripes and white chocolate). The original silver (for regular) and gold (for almonds) wrappers are available year-round.


title: Hershey's Kisses

text: All Kisses wrappers have the paper strip called a plume as an identification tag sticking from the top of the foil wrapper. When the paper plume was added to the Kisses wrapper in 1921, originally it was a flag for the "Hershey's" brand, distinguishing Hershey's Kisses from its competitors.


title: Hershey's Kisses

text: Later "KISSES" was printed on the paper plume, as well as other Kisses flavors. The company has also added special variety plumes (such as "cheesecake"). Special messages have been available for various occasions, including "Happy Halloween," "Get Spooky," "Gobble Gobble," "Lucky You," and "Love is in the air bud “


title: Hershey's Kisses

text: "Christmas Bells" is a commercial in which Hershey's Kisses, fashioned as a handbell choir, perform the Christmas carol "We Wish You a Merry Christmas". It premiered in 1989 and has run each holiday season since in the United States; it is the longest-running television commercial for the Hershey brand. In 2020, Hershey's introduced a new "Bells to Blossoms" version of the ad, but was criticized for changing a 30-year running iconic holiday tradition. The company made the decision to air both the "classic" and newer versions of the holiday ad throughout the holiday season.


title: Hershey's Kisses

text: Beginning with its own consumer research into product information, in 2015 Hershey led the SmartLabel initiative. Hershey's was the first brand to adopt this Grocery Manufacturers Association mobile-scannable packaging standard.


title: Hershey's Kisses

text: Kisses ingredients are cane sugar, milk, chocolate, cocoa butter, milk fat, lecithin, and natural flavor. A 1.45-ounce serving of Hershey's Kisses consists of seven Kisses pieces. Kisses has the following nutrition information:


title: Hershey's Kisses

text: Hershey's Hugs and Hershey's Kisses Cookies 'N' Creme are made with the ingredient PGPR (Polyglycerol polyricinoleate, E476), which is used as a cheaper replacement for cocoa butter.


title: Hershey's Kisses

text: On December 9, 2018, a member of the Wedding Cookie Table Community on Facebook posted a picture of a tip-less Kiss, wondering “Do this year’s Kisses look like this for you? Or are the tops broken off?” Other members of the group began to check their Kisses and as a result, dozens of others posted in the group that many, but not all, of them were found to be missing their tips. Twitter users soon picked up on the controversy and began to post pictures of Kisses that were also tip less.


title: Hershey's Kisses

text: Hershey representatives had responded to the group's messages. At first, customer service told consumers that it was deliberate so the pieces did not fall off after production, but later on, they said the company was looking into the cause. In a statement, Jeff Beckman, a Hershey spokesman, said, "We love our Kisses as much as our consumers. We make more than 70 million Kisses a day here in Hershey, PA, and we want each of them looking as great as they taste. The iconic, conical shape is one of the reasons families have loved Kisses for generations. We shape the tip on our classic, solid Milk and Dark Chocolate Kisses to create that iconic appearance. And while there has always been some variability in that process, we are working to improve the appearance because it's as important to us as it is to our fans."


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: The Exclusive Brethren are a subset of the Christian evangelical movement generally described as the Plymouth Brethren. They are distinguished from the Open Brethren from whom they separated in 1848.


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: The Exclusive Brethren are now divided into a number of groups, most of which differ on minor points of doctrine or practice. Perhaps the best-known of these, mainly through media attention, is the Raven-Taylor-Hales group, now known as the Plymouth Brethren Christian Church, which maintains the doctrine of uncompromising separation from the world based on their interpretation of 2 Corinthians 6 and 2 Timothy 2, believing that attendance at the Communion Service, the 'Lord's Supper', governs and strictly limits their relationship with others, even other Brethren groups.


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: These brethren have one fellowship in some nineteen countries – including France, Germany, Spain, Italy, Denmark, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Sweden, Argentina, Jamaica, Barbados, St Vincent and the Grenadines, but they are more numerous in Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and North America


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: The Plymouth Brethren split into Exclusive and Open Brethren in 1848 when George Müller refused to accept John Nelson Darby's view of the relationship between local assemblies following difficulties in the Plymouth meeting. Brethren that held Muller's congregational view became known as "Open", those holding Darby's 'connexional' view, became known as "Exclusive" or "Darbyite" Brethren.


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: Darby's circular on 26 August 1848, cutting off not only Bethesda but all assemblies who received anyone who had ever attended Bethesda, was to define the essential characteristic of "exclusivism" that he was to pursue for the rest of his life. He set it out in detail in a pamphlet he issued in 1853 entitled "Separation from Evil - God’s Principle of Unity". But a tension had existed since the earliest times, as set out in a letter from Anthony Norris Groves in 1836 to Darby (who was not a believer in adult baptism):


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: Some will not have me hold communion with the Scotts, because their views are not satisfactory about the Lord’s Supper; others with you, because of your views about baptism; others with the Church of England, because of her thoughts about ministry. On my principles, I receive them all; but on the principle of witnessing against evil, I should reject them all.


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: For most of his life, Darby was able to hold the exclusives together, although several longtime members had seceded after accusing him of similar errors about the nature of Christ's humanity of which he had accused Benjamin Wills Newton. The Central Meeting in London (London Bridge) would communicate with the other assemblies and most difficulties were eventually smoothed over.


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: But shortly before he died in 1882, things started to fall apart. It all started from an initiative in 1879 of Edward Cronin, one of the Dublin founding members, that paralleled Darby's initiation of a new assembly at Plymouth thirty years before. Some members had left a failing assembly in Ryde and Cronin travelled down to break bread with them. When he reported back to London, different assemblies took differing views of his action. Though Darby was sympathetic in private he attacked him fiercely in public. By 1881 an assembly in Ramsgate had itself split over the issue and the division, over an issue not of doctrine or principle but church governance, became irrevocable.


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: The excluded party became known as the "Kelly Brethren", although William Kelly remained devoted to the memory of Darby and edited his collected papers. But after another division in 1885, three years after Darby's death, when a London assembly excommunicated a brother in Reading over the "standing" of a Christian, the minority in the resultant split (Stuarts) adopted a more "open" approach to fellowship, as did those who followed Grant in America.


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: A more serious split occurred in 1890 around the teaching of F. E. Raven of Greenwich. "The seceders from his communion falsely accused him of denying the orthodox doctrine of the union of the Divine and the human natures in the Man Christ Jesus – not indeed in a Unitarian, but in a Gnostic sense." After furious strife in which the leading opponent was William Lowe, many of the remaining assemblies in Britain stayed with Raven but those on the continent separated whilst the American assemblies were split.


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: Not all of the people remaining in fellowship with Raven agreed with him and this led in 1908–9 to further splits, initiated by actions of the Glanton assembly in Northumberland over dissensions in the neighbouring Alnwick assembly. Once more assemblies had to decide which side to support and this included those as far away as Melbourne, Australia. Thus the "Ravens" and the "Glantons" were established. In the same year a festering disagreement in Tunbridge Wells led to a minor breakaway from the "Lowe" group by a number of assemblies.


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: A further division took place in 1970. By this time, James Taylor, Jr. had come to control what had been the Raven group. At a meeting in Aberdeen, Scotland, on 25 July, it was alleged Taylor's behaviour was improper. His host published a long letter of protest which was sent to the New York assembly. Taylor immediately rejected these accusations as lies and the incident definitively divided the Brethren membership worldwide. Very few based near the scene of the events stayed in fellowship with Taylor – only two families in Aberdeen and 200 out of 3,000 members in Scotland remained. Altogether, over 200 such assemblies in England, Scotland and Ireland seceded from the Taylor group, according to a 1971 listing.


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: Others, especially those further afield, believed Taylor's line that he was a "pure man" and that this incident was used by God to expose his enemies. Following this incident, those who separated from Taylor "rolled back" the changes in doctrine and practice that he had introduced, reverting to the teachings that had been followed in the time of his father, James Taylor, Sr., who had led the movement from 1905 till his death in 1953. This fellowship further fragmented in 1972, and the party which broke away has since further sub-divided.


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: However, the history of Exclusive Brethren is not only one of division. Eventually several of the groups realised that the divisions caused by personalities clashes or ecclesiastical issues were no longer relevant and reunions occurred. The Kelly and Lowe groups reunited in 1926 to form the "Lowe-Kelly" group, in 1940 with most of Tunbridge Wells and in 1974 with the Glantons and are sometimes known as "Reunited Brethren". There was a further split in 2000, catalysed by tensions concerning Willem Ouweneel, one of the 'Dutch Five' in 1995. Their ageing congregations have often not been replenished, and are dwindling. Most of the Grant party merged with the Open Brethren in 1932.


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: Most Exclusive Brethren have traditionally been described as "Darbyite" as they adhere in the main to the original doctrines and teachings of John Darby, and do not accept the concept of a doctrine that evolves through the teachings of successive leaders. Neither do they accept the concept that teachings of church leaders are authoritative, divinely sanctioned, and binding on those in fellowship, as is the belief of the Raven/Taylor/Hales Brethren.


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: At one time, all Exclusive Brethren groups believed that there was a necessary unity of the local church or assembly, but some who once were in fellowship with the Raven/Taylor/Hales group have become independent companies modifying their requirements for receiving members to suit individual conscience. Amongst such groups views concerning their way of life and relationships are frequently affected by the varying standards in the general community.


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: This is expressed practically in different ways by the different groups, but matters of fellowship and church discipline used to be generally not merely questions of local responsibility; such decisions would have been accepted in all meetings. Exclusive Brethren were therefore sometimes described as Connexional Brethren, as they recognised an obligation to accept and adhere to the disciplinary actions of other associated assemblies. For example, where one of their branches had excluded a person from Christian fellowship, that person remained excluded from all other branches, who must then treat the excluded person as a leper (according to the book of Leviticus ). This is still the practice amongst the Brethren and no doubt would be claimed by other independent assemblies.


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: There are common threads throughout all Plymouth Brethren groups, most notably the centrality of the Lord's Supper (Holy Communion) in the weekly calendar as well as the format of meetings and worship: the distinctions between the many groups are generally not well understood by non-members. The adjective "exclusive" has been applied to the groups by others, partially due to their determination to separate from and exclude what they believe to be evil. Exclusive Brethren usually disown any name and simply refer to themselves as "Christians", "brethren", "those with whom we walk", "those in fellowship with us", or "the saints". However, the Raven/Taylor/Hales group being the most universally identifiable has attracted the term "Exclusive Brethren" and accepted its application to themselves as meaning, the exclusion of, or withdrawal from, evil.


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: Dissecting the history and branches of the Exclusive Brethren, particularly in the 20th century, can be a challenge as there has been no formal mechanism for documenting their movement's history.


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: With the exception of the hardline Plymouth Brethren Christian Church (PBCC), Exclusive Brethren differ very little from the Open Brethren on theological issues, both holding the Bible as their sole authority in regard to matters of doctrine and practice. Like the Exclusives, Open Brethren have traditionally based much of their doctrine on the teachings of John Nelson Darby. With few exceptions, particularly in regards to whom to accept into fellowship, exclusive brethren have continued to hold the same beliefs that inspired the early Plymouth Brethren.


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: Exclusive Brethren reject evolution, and if their children attend state schools they are withdrawn from lessons on this. They do not believe that women should have authority over men. They hold to the concept of the Rapture and the End Times. In the 1960s, the group's teachings were that members could not join trade unions or professional associations, as this was mixing too much with the world.


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: The centrality of the Lord's Supper (Holy Communion) is one of the primary linking threads between the different Brethren groups; however, it is also one of the primary differentiators between the various Exclusive Brethren sub-groups: there are exclusive groups which receive all professing Christians to communion, and there are exclusive groups which restrict access to communion to those who are known to be in their fellowship. The PBCC are generally regarded as having the most stringent and uncompromising views on this. However, only two of their services are closed to those who are not members in good standing, the Lord's Supper and the monthly Care Meeting, with well-disposed members of the public free to come into Gospel Preachings and other meetings.


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: Most Exclusive Brethren groups have no formal leadership structure. In many assemblies, matters up for debate may be discussed at special meetings attended solely by adult males called, in some groups, "Brothers Meetings". As a result, schisms can occur in the Brethren over disagreements about church discipline and whether other sister groups in other locations have authority to intervene in these disagreements. There are often global family connections due to the emphasis among members to marry within the Exclusive Brethren, and family connections often influences which side of the issue members will take. The PBCC avoid this trend by having a structured leadership with a central authority figure which has maintained unity through the upholding of a universal standard.


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: Some Exclusive Brethren assemblies "commend" men who are dedicated to the work of preaching. Although they usually do not receive a salary, gifts are often given to them by the separate assemblies where they preach and teach.


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: Exclusive Brethren do not generally name their meeting rooms or Halls except by reference perhaps to the road, e.g. Galpins Road Meeting Room, Mallow Street Hall. The meeting room or Hall is often referred to as "The Room" or "The Hall". Notice boards give the times of Gospel Preachings with a formula such as "If the Lord will, the Gospel will be preached in this room Lord's Day at 6.30." Meeting rooms of the Plymouth Brethren Christian Church, perhaps the most hardline of the Exclusive Brethren groups, have notice boards indicating that the building is a place registered for public worship and give a contact number for further information.


title: Exclusive Brethren

text: Unlike the Open Brethren, whose assemblies usually do not have an official membership, Exclusive Brethren are more particular about affiliation, as people who wish to break bread must be affiliated with a "local assembly" to which they are responsible in terms of lifestyle choices.