title: Kingdom of Essex

text: Wine (in 666) and Erkenwald (in 675) were appointed bishops of London with spiritual authority over the East Saxon Kingdom. A small stone chest bearing the name of Sæbbi of Essex () was visible in Old St Paul's Cathedral until the Great Fire of London of 1666 when the cathedral and the tombs within it were lost. The inscription on the chest was recorded by Paul Hentzner and translated by Robert Naunton as reading: "Here lies Seba, King of the East Saxons, who was converted to the faith by St. Erkenwald, Bishop of London, A.D. 677."


title: Kingdom of Essex

text: Although London (and the rest of Middlesex) was lost by the East Saxons in the 8th century, the bishops of London continued to exert spiritual authority over Essex as a kingdom, shire and county until 1845.


title: Kingdom of Essex

text: Despite the comparative obscurity of the kingdom, there were strong connections between Essex and the Kentish kingdom across the river Thames which led to the marriage of King Sledd to Ricula, sister of the king, Aethelbert of Kent. For a brief period in the 8th century the kingdom included west Kent. During this period, Essex kings were issuing their own sceattas (coins), perhaps as an assertion of their own independence. However, by the mid-8th century, much of the kingdom, including London, had fallen to Mercia and the rump of Essex, roughly the modern county, was now subordinate to the same. After the defeat of the Mercian king Beornwulf around AD 825, Sigered, the last king of Essex, ceded the kingdom which then became a possession of the Wessex king Egbert.


title: Kingdom of Essex

text: The Mercians continued to control parts of Essex and may have supported a pretender to the Essex throne since a Sigeric witnessed a Mercian charter after AD 825. During the ninth century, Essex was part of a sub-kingdom that included Sussex, Surrey and Kent. Sometime between 878 and 886, the territory was formally ceded by Wessex to the Danelaw kingdom of East Anglia, under the Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum. After the reconquest by Edward the Elder the king's representative in Essex was styled an ealdorman and Essex came to be regarded as a shire.


title: Femina Miss India 2020

text: Femina Miss India 2020 was the 57th edition of the Femina Miss India beauty pageant. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the entire Femina Miss India contest was held digitally for the first time in the contest's history. The competition was divided into four stages, with the grand finale taking place on 10 February 2021 at the Hyatt Regency Hotel in Mumbai.


title: Femina Miss India 2020

text: Suman Rao of Rajasthan crowned Manasa Varanasi of Telangana as the winner, earning the right to represent India at Miss World 2021..


title: Femina Miss India 2020

text: Shivani Jadhav of Chhattisgarh crowned Manika Sheokand of Haryana as her successor. She will represent India at Miss Grand International 2021.


title: Femina Miss India 2020

text: Runner-up was Femina Miss India Uttar Pradesh, Manya Singh. She graduated from Mumbai's Thakur College of Science and Commerce. The success story of this Mumbai rickshaw driver's daughter has been widely publicised in Indian media.


title: Femina Miss India 2020

text: The registration form was published on the organization's official website on 5 October 2020 and remained open until 2 November 2020. The format was updated to include more reduced height criteria (5 ft 3 in). Shortlisted were 31 finalists, 28 of whom were state representatives, one each from Delhi and Jammu and Kashmir, and a collective representative from the remaining union territories. The contest's progress was scheduled to be completed in four stages, with the grand finale taking place in February 2021.


title: Femina Miss India 2020

text: Due to COVID-19 restrictions, the selection and first phase (October & November) of the finals were entirely digital. Applicants for this year's competition went through an online selection process in which they were judged on four key parameters: appearance, personality, talent, interview, and walk down the ramp. A panel judged each candidate, and the entries were narrowed down to groups of finalists for each state.


title: Femina Miss India 2020

text: A series of online interviews were conducted in the second phase of the contest (November) to select 31 state winners who would form the final pool of contestants for Femina Miss India 2020.


title: Femina Miss India 2020

text: The third phase of the contest, which involved the 31 state finalists, was held online (December 2020 & January 2021). State winners were trained in a holistic curriculum from the comfort of their homes, consisting of classes and interactive sessions facilitated by industry experts on topics ranging from skincare to self-expression, from style from the changing room to the ramp. State winners also received training in content creation and social media management, in addition to presentation and grooming. This training would allow the finalists to document their experiences during both preparation and competition, and it was shared via social media and live streaming sessions, allowing fans to participate in the experience of becoming Miss India like never before.


title: Femina Miss India 2020

text: The 31 finalists were then reduced to a Top 15 list. The selected ladies advanced to the final round of the competition in Mumbai, which was held in the traditional format. The fewer contests were held to ensure proper social distancing protocols.


title: Femina Miss India 2020

text: The pageant's final phase (2020), the Grand Finale, was produced and broadcast as a prerecorded television show featuring artist performances, sponsor integrations, and contestant rounds, culminating in the announcement of the Top 3.


title: Femina Miss India 2020

text: The contest was mentored by Bollywood film actress and Femina Miss India 2002, Neha Dhupia. She coached the contestants through the rounds of the competition as a mentor, assisting them with overall development on their journey to becoming a beauty queen. Dhupia also announced the 31 finalists from the top five states from each zone, namely North, North East, South, East, West, and Union territory with Delhi.


title: Femina Miss India 2020

text: The following is the list of the official delegates of Miss India 2020 representing 30 states +1 common winners from all Union territories of the country:


title: KJ-2000

text: The KJ-2000 (), NATO reporting name: Mainring is a Chinese Airborne early warning and control system comprising domestically designed electronics and radars installed on a modified Ilyushin Il-76 airframe.


title: KJ-2000

text: The KJ-2000 development program started after the cancellation of the A-50I deal with Israel and Russia in July 2000, due to strong U.S. pressure regarding the Israeli radar that was to be mounted. China then went on to develop a domestic AWACS and the first aircraft made its maiden flight in 2003.


title: KJ-2000

text: Four KJ-2000 aircraft have been identified so far, but production of new aircraft will likely be delayed, dependent on the acquisition of Il-76 airframes. Currently, the Russian defense exporter Rosoboronexport has imposed a significant price hike on all future Il-76s delivered to China and India despite previous contracts. Both countries are currently in negotiation with Russia regarding this matter as of early 2008.


title: KJ-2000

text: In March 2011, Russia/China negotiations reached a new agreement to move production of Il-76s to Chinese owned companies. In this way it is expected production can be run smoothly to supply China with new Il-76 airframes, while delivery of Soloviev D-30KP-2 engines is not affected by recent issues.


title: KJ-2000

text: Due to unreliable external supplier sources, China has developed a backup known as the KJ-200 by installing a simplified system on board the Shaanxi Y-8. This aircraft has a similar configuration to that of the KJ-2000 and is characterized by the triple tail-fin configuration (one large and two small).


title: KJ-2000

text: The Chinese AWACS has a phased array radar (PAR) carried in a round radome. Unlike the US AWACS aircraft, which rotate their rotodomes to give a 360degree coverage, the radar antenna of the Chinese AWACS does not rotate. Instead, three PAR antenna modules are placed in a triangular configuration inside the round radome to provide a 360degree coverage. The multi-function, three-dimensional pulse-Doppler radar was developed by NII (Nanjing Electronic Technology Research Institute), and is designed to detect and track airborne and surface targets.


title: KJ-2000

text: It operates in the frequency range of 1200–1400 MHz. The antenna system consists of three phased arrays, located in a disc. In contrast, the Russian Beriev A-50 and American Boeing E-3 Sentry use a disc. Each phased array has a 120-degree field of view. Maximum range of detection of air targets is . A-50I of India made by Israel adopted its design and entered service later than KJ-2000(service 2004) in 2009.


title: KJ-2000

text: The PLAAF's first AWACS regiment was established at a small and remote airfield in southern China, for security reasons, during late 2004. The commander appointed to the regiment was Zhang Guangjian (张广建), a pilot with over 6,000 hours of flight time on various aircraft including the Il-76. The base was re-built and re-equipped for handling the KJ-2000, the first of which reached the base in 2005. A mixed fleet of KJ-2000 and the smaller KJ-200 have been operated at the base.


title: KJ-2000

text: In 2013 a 24-hour coverage drill was held using three KJ-2000s that covered NW China, the East China Sea, and the South China Sea.


title: KJ-2000

text: Since Il-76s are supplied by Russia and as the numbers are limited, China is seeking to replace the Il-76 platform currently used by the KJ-2000 with the Y-20.


title: Commander Shepard

text: Lieutenant Commander Shepard, better known as Commander Shepard, is the player character in the "Mass Effect" video game series by BioWare ("Mass Effect", "Mass Effect 2", and "Mass Effect 3").


title: Commander Shepard

text: A veteran soldier of the Systems Alliance Navy, an N7 graduate of the Interplanetary Combatives Training (ICT) military program, and the first human Citadel Council Spectre, Shepard works to stop the Reapers, a sentient machine race dedicated to wiping out all advanced organic life. Shepard is neither a hero, nor a villain; depending upon players' choices and actions, Shepard is the abstaining factor that acts as both on occasion, and will take whatever action is deemed necessary when presented with impossible scenarios.


title: Commander Shepard

text: Shepard's gender, class, first name and facial appearance are chosen and customised by the player. Mark Meer provides the voice for the male Shepard, while the default male Shepard's face and body were based on Mark Vanderloo. Jennifer Hale voices the female Shepard. Since the player can choose the gender of Shepard, much of the dialogue revolving around the character is gender-neutral with only a few exceptions. However, in some other "Mass Effect" media, Shepard is called "he" regardless of player choice for the gender.


title: Commander Shepard

text: The character is inspired by and named after American astronaut Alan Shepard. Shepard's armor developed over the series, and was originally intended to be red-and-white. Most promotional material for the series focused on the male Shepard, due to the studio's desire for a single identifiable hero, though both versions of the character were given equal priority during development. Various merchandise has been made, including several figurines. Shepard has made cameo appearances in other Electronic Arts games and is referenced in "".


title: Commander Shepard

text: BioWare wanted players to feel special and empowered from the start of the game. Unlike other role-playing game protagonists, they felt Shepard should not be an entirely blank character for the player to create, in order to create a more "intense" experience; with "Mass Effect" being more cinematic than other BioWare video games, they felt they needed an "extra bit" with a sense of a specific flavor that can be caused by a memorable character, such as "Star Trek"s Captain Kirk or "24"s Jack Bauer.


title: Commander Shepard

text: Developers wanted to at least give Shepard a last name so that other characters could address them. The developers wanted a name that was both "all-American" and common, which led them to start looking at the original seven astronauts. Alan Shepard was chosen due to fitting with the idea of "their" Shepard, being tough and respected, and fitting in with the character being the first human Spectre – Alan Shepard being the first American in space.


title: Commander Shepard

text: During the development of the first game, the female Shepard was given equal importance as the male counterpart; unique lines were written for her as well as a unique romance option. In fact, the early model for animation tests featured a female Shepard. When describing her, Casey Hudson said "[s]he's not a caricature of the idea of role-playing as a female, but instead she's very impressive as a strong female character that's sensitive yet extremely confident and assertive".


title: Commander Shepard

text: Shepard's default armor was originally red-and-white, but this was changed to charcoal grey, with a red-and-white stripe and the N7 logo, as Shepard looked too much like a medic. The red stripe in the N7 logo is said to symbolise the blood the character must sacrifice to save the galaxy. The armor became piece-based in "Mass Effect 2" to stress the character's silhouette, as well as making them look "stronger and able to take more punishment". Despite this, the colours, as well as other elements of the armor and the commander's appearance, are customisable in "Mass Effect 2".


title: Commander Shepard

text: For the character customisation at the start of the game, they focused on "quality and realism". In order to test out the customisation system, the team made various celebrity look-alikes to ensure it offered a wide enough variety. The default male face, as well as the male body, were based on Dutch model Mark Vanderloo. The default female face changed slightly between the first and second game, but underwent a big redesign for "Mass Effect 3". Six different designs for the default female Shepard were hosted online, and fans were told to vote for whichever design they preferred via Facebook; many different designs were made before the vote, but were whittled down to six by BioWare staff. The blonde Shepard with freckles won, though BioWare later decided that the hairstyle may have interfered with the vote, and so made another competition to decide that. The red-haired Shepard won the subsequent competition.


title: Commander Shepard

text: The male and female versions of Shepard were voiced by Mark Meer and Jennifer Hale respectively. Both of them had worked with BioWare many times previously.


title: Commander Shepard

text: Meer had first worked with BioWare during the creation of "", and went on to voice other bit parts in their games. When he was first called in to work on "Mass Effect", he expected to voice more bit parts, and was "pleasantly surprised" to get the role of Shepard. Caroline Livingstone gave voice direction during recording, and lead writer Mac Walters would occasionally sit in during recording sessions, allowing lines to be changed quickly.


title: Commander Shepard

text: Hale has said she is very invested in helping to "create" the stories of video games, though she herself is not a gamer. Although Hale does object to certain lines if they seem out-of-character in other works, she prefers not to mess with the words for Shepard and BioWare. That BioWare did not change the words based on gender considerations was one of Hale's favorite aspects of the series.


title: Commander Shepard

text: Lieutenant Commander Shepard serves as the player character of the main "Mass Effect" game trilogy. The commander is a graduate of the Systems Alliance's – the "galactic face of humanity" – military N7 program, the highest grade of their "Interplanetary Combatives Training" that commands a great deal of respect. Their service before joining the military and the military event that allowed them to rise to fame are both chosen by the player before the game starts, out of three options each. Also customizable is Shepard's gender, character class and physical appearance. The player is given paraphrased dialogue options via a radial command menu called the "dialogue wheel", which Shepard will expand on when clicked. Different choices on the dialogue wheel can grant either Paragon or Renegade points, which will overtime affect their physical appearance in "Mass Effect 2" and "Mass Effect 3": a higher Renegade score will cause Shepard's scars to worsen and their eyes to start glowing red, while a higher Paragon score will cause Shepard's scars to gradually heal and fade away.


title: Commander Shepard

text: Outside of the main trilogy, Shepard has been briefly mentioned in the novels "", "", and "", and has also made a brief appearance in the third issue of the comic "Homeworlds", with only the N7 logo on their armour being shown in-shot. "", taking place two years before the second game's main events, concerns how Shepard's body was retrieved by Liara T'Soni and then given to Cerberus after the character's death in "Mass Effect 2"s prologue. The character, however, will not be making any further appearances in any "Mass Effect" games now that the main trilogy is over, and BioWare have said that they do not wish the next "Mass Effect" protagonist to just be another soldier or "Shepard 2".


title: Commander Shepard

text: In the first game, the commander is serving under Captain David Anderson during the shakedown run of the highly advanced turian/human ship "SSV Normandy", heading toward humanity's first ever colony, Eden Prime. However, it turns out the ship is actually being sent to collect a Prothean beacon (the Protheans being an advanced and now-extinct race whose technology could contain great discoveries) and give it to the Citadel Council, an executive committee who hold great sway in the galaxy, and who are recognised as an authority by most of explored space. A Spectre, an elite agent of the Council with the authority to deal with situations "in whatever way they deem necessary", named Nihlus Kryik accompanies the mission to observe Shepard's candidacy to join the Spectres; if successful, this would make Shepard the first ever human Spectre and an exemplar of humanity's progress in galactic politics. However, Nihlus is killed during the mission when the geth, a race of sentient AIs, and Saren Arterius, a rogue Spectre, attack the colony to steal the beacon. Shepard manages to stop the colony from being destroyed, but is hit by a blast from the damaged beacon before it blows up; as a result, Shepard begins to have visions of war and death.


title: Commander Shepard

text: After Saren's treachery is exposed to the Council through the use of an audio recording that mentions "the Reapers", which are believed to be a race of synthetic-organic starships that eradicate all organic civilization every 50,000 years, the Council revoke Saren's Spectre status and make Shepard the first ever human Spectre, though they believe the Reapers are merely a myth Saren is using to manipulate the geth. Shepard is instructed to take down Saren, and is placed in charge of the "Normandy" and given free rein of the galaxy. Over the course of the game, it becomes clear that the visions are images of the Protheans being destroyed by the Reapers; the commander speaks to one of these Reapers, referred to as Sovereign, on the planet of Virmire, though the Council still believes them to be a myth.


title: Commander Shepard

text: Eventually, Saren, Sovereign and the geth launch an attack on the Citadel, the "political, cultural, and financial capital of the galactic community" and home of the Council, intending to activate a mass relay inside it that will allow all the Reapers to arrive at once from dark space, destroy the Citadel, and begin their "harvest" of organic life. Shepard manages to stop them, destroy Sovereign, and save the Citadel. Depending on the player's choices, Shepard may either also save the Council, or leave them to die to ensure Sovereign is destroyed or to build a new human-centric Council.


title: Commander Shepard

text: At the beginning of the game, Shepard is killed when the Collectors attack and destroy the "Normandy". The commander is revived by Cerberus, a human-supremacist organization considered to be terrorists by the Citadel Council and the Systems Alliance, with instructions by Cerberus leader the Illusive Man to be brought back unaltered and exactly as they were before their death. The Illusive Man provides Shepard with both a new ship (the "Normandy SR-2") and a crew, and sends them on various missions against the Collectors, who are revealed to be puppets of the Reapers.


title: Commander Shepard

text: Over the course of the game, Shepard must assemble a team to prepare for a final assault on the Collector base accessible only through the Omega-4 Relay, a relay that destroys all non-Collector ships that try to go through it. Depending on the player's choices during the final mission, it is possible that Shepard may fail to escape the Collector base and die, though the save cannot be imported to "Mass Effect 3" if this is the case. At the end of this mission, the player is given the choice to either destroy the base or hand it over to Cerberus – if the player chooses the former, Shepard effectively cuts all ties with Cerberus, and the crew and squadmates join the commander.


title: Commander Shepard

text: Depending on the player's decision concerning the Council in the first game, Shepard can either be reinstated as a Spectre now that they have been revived, be rejected by Udina and the rest of the Council, or refuse Spectre status when offered it.


title: Commander Shepard

text: Shepard has been grounded and stripped of rank by the Alliance before the game starts, due to either working with Cerberus or blowing up a Mass Relay in the "Mass Effect 2" DLC pack "". After Earth is invaded by the Reapers, the Alliance reinstates them and sends them to ask the Council for help, retaking command of the Alliance-refitted "Normandy SR-2". Though the Council refuses, they either reinstate or uphold the commander's Spectre status.


title: Commander Shepard

text: Shepard must then work to forge alliances between the various alien races to ensure the survival of Earth and to stop the Reapers from eradicating all organic life from the galaxy. Among the major decisions made by the player as part of the branching narrative of "Mass Effect 3" include the resolution of the Krogan Genophage storyline, the outcome of the war between the geth and the quarians, and ultimately the fate of the Reapers and the rest of the galactic community.


title: Commander Shepard

text: Following the conclusion of one of the three original endings of "Mass Effect 3", where Shepard activates a superweapon known as the Crucible on the Citadel to deal with the Reapers, the "Normandy" crashes on a distant planet after being caught in a wave of energy emitted by the Crucible. In some of the possible ending scenarios, the crew eulogizes Shepard by putting his or her name on the ship's memorial and flying away. If Shepard chose to destroy the Reapers, however, the crew will hesitate placing Shepard's name on the memorial wall. In one possible ending, the chestpiece of a body with the N7 emblem is shown to be moving, suggesting Shepard might have survived.


title: Commander Shepard

text: Shepard does not make a direct appearance, though players can select Shepard's gender at the start of the game. Shepard is referenced both in conversations between characters, and in audio logs sent by Liara T'Soni to Alec Ryder, the player character's father.


title: Commander Shepard

text: The default male Shepard was used heavily in marketing, being featured on the covers for all three games and most trailers. The female Shepard was confirmed to be making an appearance in one of the trailers for the third game, and on one side of " Mass Effect 3"s Collector's Edition, in June 2011. The female Shepard had not been advertised heavily previously as marketing wanted to only showcase one character, so that consumers could easily understand who the hero was. For "Mass Effect 3", BioWare wished to "acknowledge" the demand for material with the female Shepard.


title: Commander Shepard

text: Outside of the "Mass Effect" series, Shepard has also made cameo appearances in other Electronic Arts games. "SkyHeroes" features various different characters from EA games, acting as playable pilots during the game's multiplayer mode. Through downloadable content released on March 27, Shepard becomes available as an alternate skin for Serah and Noel within "Final Fantasy XIII-2". An N7 armor and omni-blades become available in "" if the demo for "Mass Effect 3" has been completed; similarly, an N7 armor becomes available in "Dead Space 3" if the player owns a copy of "Mass Effect 3".


title: Commander Shepard

text: The character has received a generally positive reception. Shepard was voted number 2 by readers in "Game Informer"s poll of the top 30 video game characters, behind "Halo" protagonist Master Chief, and "Game Informer" similarly listed them as 99 on their countdown of 100 favourite video game heroes – though squadmate Garrus Vakarian was placed significantly ahead, at number 15. Eric Zipper of "GameZone" has listed the character as one of "the 8 coolest video game heroes who wouldn't be any fun to actually hang out with", citing how, as they're controlled by the player, their actions could be "wildly erratic".


title: Commander Shepard

text: Joe Juba, also writing for "Game Informer", chose Shepard as their favourite protagonist in their "2012 RPG of the Year Awards", saying that while the player changed the tone and context of many parts of "Mass Effect", "Shepard never comes out of it looking any less awesome". The commander was voted the primary Xbox 360 candidate in IGN's mock video game presidential election, with Marcus Fenix being chosen as vice-president; in the end, readers voted them second-place behind PlayStation 3 representatives Nathan Drake and Solid Snake. GameDaily's Chris Buffa listed the default male Shepard as one of the top 25 gaming hunks, citing how he is "a mysterious and battle hardened soldier that won't take guff from aliens." A reader's poll for their top ultimate RPG party choices, drawing from characters of several disparate RPG video game franchises, published by IGN in December 2014 placed Shepard at No. 2. Another reader's poll published by "PC Gamer" in 2015 reveal that Shepard was overall the fifth most popular "Mass Effect" character.


title: Commander Shepard

text: "Maxim", however, criticised Shepard's armor when looking at "badass" powersuits, saying "there are eleven thousand different versions, so we've seen this look before." Andrew Goldfarb, for IGN, criticised the decision to revisit Shepard during the downloadable content of "Mass Effect 3", believing that "3"s ending was "final", and saying that he would have preferred to have a look at a new squad separate from Shepard.


title: Commander Shepard

text: Although Bioware reports showed that most players preferred male Shepard, sometimes referred to as "BroShep", at 82% of the time and only 18% of players chose to play as a female Shepard in "Mass Effect 2", vocal support for her was high. The female Shepard was nicknamed "FemShep". "PC Gamer"s Tom Francis listed an appearance of FemShep on the box as one of 15 things he wished to see from "3". Hale was nominated for "Best Performance By A Human Female" at the 2010 Spike Video Game Awards, though lost to fellow "Mass Effect" voice actor Tricia Helfer (playing Sarah Kerrigan in "").


title: Evelyn Einstein

text: Evelyn Einstein (March 28, 1941 – April 13, 2011) was the adopted daughter of Hans Albert Einstein, the son of Albert Einstein. She graduated from University of California, Berkeley with a master's degree in literature, and had several jobs in her life including animal control officer, cult deprogrammer, and reserve police officer in Berkeley, California.


title: Evelyn Einstein

text: Einstein was born in Chicago; after her birth she was adopted by Hans Albert Einstein. Towards the end of her life, she asserted that she was an illegitimate daughter of Albert Einstein and a ballet dancer; however, she had no documentation supporting this claim. She obtained a Master's degree in Medieval literature at University of California, Berkeley. She was married to Grover Krantz for 13 years from 1964 to about 1977. She then worked briefly as an animal control officer, as a cult deprogrammer, and as a Berkeley, California, reserve police officer.


title: Evelyn Einstein

text: As an 18-year-old college student in 1960, Einstein was the only person with a recognized name among the dozens of people arrested in San Francisco at a peaceful protest against the House Un-American Activities Committee.


title: Evelyn Einstein

text: After her divorce, she stated that she was impoverished. She claims that she was homeless, she slept in cars, scrounged for discarded food and described herself as a dumpster-diver for three months. From the mid-1990s up to her death in 2011, she lived in her own townhouse in Albany, California with a view of the San Francisco Bay.


title: Evelyn Einstein

text: Evelyn told CNN she was outraged she had not received a dime out of the millions of dollars earned annually from her grandfather's likeness, with all profits going to Hebrew University of Jerusalem. While Albert Einstein bequeathed the literary rights for the more than 75,000 papers and other items in his estate, Evelyn asked "What does a bobblehead have to do with a literary estate?" adding "It's hard for me to believe they would treat the family the way they have, which has been abysmally." In 1996 she sued the trustee in charge of a collection of correspondence between Albert and Mileva Einstein, a suit that was settled privately.


title: Marisol González

text: Marisol González Casas (; born 12 March 1983) is a Mexican television personality, actress, and beauty pageant titleholder who competed in the Miss Universe 2003 pageant, held in Panama City, Panama on 3 June 2003.


title: Marisol González

text: After winning the title of Nuestra Belleza México 2002, González competed in Miss Universe 2003. She is a sports reporter for Televisa Deportes and made her debut as an actress in 2005 on the telenovela "Contra viento y marea" with Danna Paola.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: The Indian National Satellite System or INSAT, is a series of multipurpose geostationary satellites launched by ISRO to satisfy the telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology, and search and rescue operations. Commissioned in 1983, INSAT is the largest domestic communication system in the Indo-Pacific Region. It is a joint venture of the Department of Space, Department of Telecommunications, India Meteorological Department, All India Radio and Doordarshan. The overall coordination and management of INSAT system rests with the Secretary-level INSAT Coordination Committee.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: INSAT satellites provide transponders in various bands to serve the television and communication needs of India. Some of the satellites also have the Very High Resolution Radiometer (VHRR), CCD cameras for meteorological imaging. The satellites also incorporate transponder(s) for receiving distress alert signals for search and rescue missions in the South Asian and Indian Ocean Region, as ISRO is a member of the Cospas-Sarsat program.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: The Indian National Satellite (INSAT) system was commissioned with the launch of INSAT-1B in August 1983 (INSAT-1A, the first satellite was launched in April 1982 but could not fulfil the mission). INSAT system ushered in a revolution in India's television and radio broadcasting, telecommunications and meteorological sectors. It enabled the rapid expansion of TV and modern telecommunication facilities to even the remote areas and off-shore islands. Together, the system provides transponders in C, Extended C and K bands for a variety of communication services. Some of the INSATs also carry instruments for meteorological observation and data relay for providing meteorological services. KALPANA-1 is an exclusive meteorological satellite. The satellites are monitored and controlled by Master Control Facilities that exist in Hassan and Bhopal.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: It is the last of the six five satellites in INSAT-2 series. It carries seventeen C-band and lower extended C-band transponders providing zonal and global coverage with an Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) of 36 dBW. It also carries a Very High Resolution Radiometer (VHRR) with imaging capacity in the visible (0.55–0.75 μm), thermal infrared (10.5–12.5 μm) and water vapour (5.7–7.1 μm) channels and provides 2x2 km, 8x8 km ground resolution respectively. In addition to the above two payloads it has with it a Charge Coupled Device (CCD) camera providing 1x1 km ground resolution in the Visible (0.63–0.69 μm), Near Infrared (0.77–0.86 μm) and Shortwave Infrared (1.55–1.70 μm) bands.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: The multipurpose satellite, INSAT-3A, was launched by Ariane in April 2003. It is located at 93.5 degree East longitude. The payloads on INSAT-3A are as follows:


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: Launched in January 2002, INSAT-3C is positioned at 74 degree East longitude. INSAT-3C payloads include 24 Normal C-band transponders providing an EIRP of 37 dBW, six Extended C-band transponders with EIRP of 37 dBW, two S-band transponders to provide BSS services with 42 dBW EIRP and an MSS payload similar to that on INSAT-3B. All the transponders provide coverage over India.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: Launched in July 2013, INSAT-3D is positioned at 82 Degree East longitude. INSAT-3D payloads include Imager, Sounder, Data Relay Transponder and Search & Rescue Transponder. All the transponders provide coverage over large part of the Indian Ocean


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: region covering India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, Nepal, Seychelles, Sri Lanka and Tanzania for rendering distress alert services.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: INSAT-3DR is a weather satellite meant to provide meteorological services to India using a 6-channel imager and a 19-channel sounder, it was launched on 9 September 2016 by the GSLV Mk II F05, and is a follow-up to INSAT-3D.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: Launched in September 2003, INSAT-3E is positioned at 55 degree East longitude and carries 24 Normal C-band transponders provide an edge of coverage EIRP of 37 dBW over India and 12 Extended C-band transponders provide an edge of coverage EIRP of 38 dBW over India.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: The satellite has been decommissioned and gone out of service from April 2014. GSAT-16 will replace this satellite.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: KALPANA-1 is an exclusive meteorological satellite launched by PSLV in September 2002. It carries Very High Resolution Radiometer and DRT payloads to provide meteorological services. It is located at 74 degree East longitude. Its first name was METSAT. It was later renamed as KALPANA-1 to commemorate Kalpana Chawla.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: Launched in December 2005 by the European Ariane launch vehicle, INSAT-4A is positioned at 83 degree East longitude along with INSAT-2E and INSAT-3B. INSAT-A carries 12 K band 36 MHz bandwidth transponders employing 140 W TWTAs to provide an EIRP of 52 dBW at the edge of coverage polygon with footprint covering Indian main land and 12 C-band 36 MHz bandwidth transponders provide an EIRP of 39 dBW at the edge of coverage with expanded radiation patterns encompassing Indian geographical boundary, area beyond India in southeast and northwest regions. Tata Sky, a joint venture between the TATA Group and STAR uses INSAT-4A for distributing their DTH service.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: It was launched in March 2007 by the European Ariane launch vehicle. Configured with payloads identical to that of INSAT-4A, INSAT-4B carries 12 K band and 12 C-band transponders to provide EIRP of 52 dBW and 39 dBW respectively. Two Tx/Rx dual grid offset fed shaped beam reflectors of 2.2 m diameter for K band and 2 m diameter for C-band are used. INSAT-4B augments the high power transponder capacity over India in K band and over a wider region in C-band. It is co-located with INSAT-3A at 93.5 degree E longitude.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: The national space agency Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has allotted nearly seven K band transponders to Sun Direct; a DTH service provider from South India, and the other five to Doordarshan's DD Direct Plus. 12 transponders in the C band are for TV, radio and telecommunication purposes.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: The satellite was decommissioned on 24 January 2022. The satellite was moved to a disposal orbit, 340 km above geostationary orbit.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: American cyber warfare expert Jeffrey Carr, who specialises in investigations of cyber attacks against government, mentioned in his interview with The Times of India, that the reason for this power glitch may have been an infection by the sophisticated Stuxnet worm. He attributed the development of Stuxnet worm most likely to Government of China which had the necessary sophistication to develop the bug and would gain the maximum by failure of Indian satellite. He also pointed out that Stuxnet was discovered just a month before the Indian satellite was hit by the power glitch, the reason for which still remains unknown. ISRO uses the same Siemens software that was targeted by Stuxnet.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: INSAT-4CR was launched on 2 September 2007 by GSLV-F04. It is a replacement satellite of INSAT-4C which was lost when GSLV-F02 failed and had to be destroyed on its course. It carries 12 K band 36 MHz bandwidth transponders employing 140 W TWTAs to provide an Effective Isotropic Radiated Power of 51.5 dBW at Edge of Coverage with footprint covering Indian mainland. It also incorporates a K band Beacon as an aid to tracking the satellite.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: On 8 September 2007 ISRO reported the satellite had reached a near geosynchronous orbit, and would be stabilized in its intended orbital position of 74 degrees E longitude by 15 September. The satellite is designed for a mission life in of ten years. There were reports that the mission life of the satellite had decreased by five years as the thrusters had to burn this much fuel to restore the satellite to its correct orbit. However, the ISRO later refuted this claim dismissing it as false.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: The GSAT satellites are India's indigenously developed communications satellites, used for digital audio, data and video broadcasting for both military and civilian users. As of November 2018, 19 GSAT satellites of ISRO have been launched out of which 15 satellites are currently in service.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: Launched by the second flight of GSLV in May 2003, GSAT-2 is located at 48 degree East longitude and carries four Normal C-band transponders to provide 36 dBW EIRP with India coverage, two K band transponders with 42 dBW EIRP over India and an MSS payload similar to those on INSAT-3B and INSAT-3C.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: Configured for audio-visual medium employing digital interactive classroom lessons and multimedia content, GSAT-3 (EDUSAT) was launched by a GSLV in September 2004. Its transponders and their ground coverage are specially configured to cater to the educational requirements. The satellite carries a K band transponder covering the Indian mainland region with 50 dBW EIRP, five K band spot beam transponders for south, west, central, north and north-east regional coverage with 55 dBW EIRP and six Extended C-band transponders with India coverage with 37 dBW EIRP. EDUSAT is positioned at 74 degree East longitude and is collocated with KALPANA-1 and INSAT-3.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: GSAT-6 (also called INSAT-4E) is a multimedia communication satellite that offers a Satellite Digital Multimedia Broadcasting (S-DMB) service across several digital multimedia terminals or consoles which can be used to provide information services to vehicles on the fly and to the mobile phones.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: GSAT-7 (or INSAT-4F) is a multi-band military communications satellite developed by ISRO. The Indian Navy is the user of the multi-band communication spacecraft, which has been operational since September 2013.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: GSAT-8 (INSAT-4G), is a high power communication satellite in the INSAT system. Weighing about 3,100 kg at lift-off, GSAT-8 is configured to carry 24 high power transponders Ku band and a two-channel GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) payload operating in L1 and L5 bands.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: The GSAT-9, also known as the "South Asia Satellite", is a geostationary communications satellite and meteorology satellite operated by the ISRO for the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) region. The satellite was launched on 5 May 2017.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: GSAT-10 was launched by Ariane-5ECA carrier rocket in 2012. It serves with C and Ku band transponders, and includes a navigation payload to augment GAGAN capacity.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: GSAT-12 configured to carry 12 Extended C-band transponders to meet the country's growing demand for transponders in a short turn-around-time. The 12 Extended C-band transponders of GSAT-12 will augment the capacity in the INSAT system for various communication services like Tele-education, Telemedicine and for Village Resource Centres (VRC). It weighs about at lift-off.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: GSAT-15 is similar to GSAT-10 and is used to augment the capacity of transponders to provide more bandwidth for Direct-to-Home television and VSAT services. It was successfully launched on 10 November 2015 at 21:34:07 UTC aboard an Ariane 5 rocket, along with the ArabSat 6B satellite.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: GSAT-16 is the 11th Indian communication satellite meant to increase the number of transponders that in turn enhance the satellite based telecommunication, television, VSAT services in India. GSAT-16 was launched on 7 December 2014 from the Guiana Space Centre, French Guiana, by an Ariane 5 rocket.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: it carries 24 C-band, 2 lower C-band, 12 upper C-band, 2 CxS (C-band up/S-band down), and 1 SxC (S-band up/C-band down) transponders. It additionally carries a dedicated transponder for data relay (DRT) and search-and-rescue (SAR) services. At the time of launch, GSAT-17 was the heaviest satellite built by ISRO. The satellite was launched on 28 June 2017 aboard an Ariane 5 ECA rocket from the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: GSAT-18 carries 24 C-band, 12 extended C-band, and 12 K-band transponders. It was launched on 5 October 2016 aboard an Ariane 5 ECA rocket from the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: Launched on 5 June 2017, GSAT-19 is a communication satellite testbed for the modular I-6K satellite bus, carrying experimental technologies such as ion thrusters for manoeuvring and stabilisation, active thermal control using thermal radiators, a miniaturised inertial reference unit, indigenously produced lithium-ion batteries, and C-band traveling-wave-tube amplifiers.


title: Indian National Satellite System

text: The GSAT-29 is a large high-throughput communication satellite that was launched on 14 November 2018 through the second developmental flight of GSLV Mark III, that placed the satellite into its planned geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO) over the equator. Apart from its main communication payload in Ka/Ku bands, GSAT-29 hosts few experimental payloads to mature their technology for use in future spacecraft.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: Captain Eric Melrose "Winkle" Brown, CBE, DSC, AFC, Hon FRAeS, RN (21 January 1919 – 21 February 2016) was a British Royal Navy officer and test pilot who flew 487 types of aircraft, more than anyone else in history.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: Brown holds the world record for the most aircraft carrier deck take-offs and landings performed (2,407 and 2,271 respectively) and achieved several "firsts" in naval aviation, including the first landings on an aircraft carrier of a twin-engined aircraft, an aircraft with a tricycle undercarriage, a jet aircraft, and a rotary-wing aircraft.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: He flew almost every category of Royal Navy and Royal Air Force aircraft: glider, fighter, bomber, airliner, amphibian, flying boat and helicopter. During World War II, he flew many types of captured German, Italian, and Japanese aircraft, including new jet and rocket aircraft. He was a pioneer of jet technology into the postwar era.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: Brown was born in Leith, near Edinburgh, in the United Kingdom. His father was a former balloon observer and pilot in the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) and Brown first flew when he was eight or ten when he was taken up in a Gloster Gauntlet by his father, the younger Brown sitting on his father's knee.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: In 1936 Brown's father took him to see the 1936 Olympics in Berlin. Hermann Göring had recently announced the existence of the Luftwaffe, and Brown and his father met and were invited to join social gatherings by members of the newly disclosed organisation. At one of these meetings, Ernst Udet, a former World War I fighter ace, was fascinated to make the acquaintance of Brown senior, a former RFC pilot, and offered to take his son Eric up flying with him. Eric eagerly accepted the German's offer and after his arrival at the appointed airfield at Halle, he was soon flying in a two-seat Bücker Jungmann. He recalled the incident nearly 80 years later on the BBC radio programme "Desert Island Discs",


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: In 1937, Brown left the Royal High School and entered the University of Edinburgh, studying modern languages with an emphasis on German. While there he joined the university's air unit and received his first formal flying instruction. In February 1938 he returned to Germany under the sponsorship of the Foreign Office, having been invited to attend the 1938 Automobile Exhibition by Udet, by then a Luftwaffe major general. He there saw the demonstration of the Focke-Wulf Fw 61 helicopter flown by Hanna Reitsch before a small crowd inside the "Deutschlandhalle". During this visit he met and got to know Reitsch, whom he had also briefly met in 1936.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: In the meantime, Brown had been selected to take part as an exchange student at the Schule Schloss Salem, located on the banks of Lake Constance, and it was while there in Germany that Brown was woken up with a loud knocking on his door one morning in September 1939. Upon opening the door he was met by a woman with the announcement that "our countries are at war". Soon afterwards, Brown was arrested by the SS. However, after three days' incarceration, they merely escorted Brown in his MG Magnette sports car to the Swiss border, saying they were allowing him to keep the car because they "had no spares for it".


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: On returning to a United Kingdom then at war, he joined the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve before subsequently joining the Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve as a Fleet Air Arm pilot, where he was posted to 802 Naval Air Squadron, initially serving on the first escort carrier, , converted and thus named in July 1941. He flew one of the carrier's Grumman Martlets. During his service on board "Audacity" he shot down two Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor maritime patrol aircraft, using head-on attacks to exploit the blind spot in their defensive armament.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: "Audacity" was torpedoed and sunk on 21 December 1941 by the , commanded by Gerhard Bigalk. The first rescue ship left because of warnings of a nearby U-boat, and Brown was left in the sea overnight with a dwindling band of survivors, until he was rescued the next day. He was the one of two of the 24 to survive the hypothermia; the rest succumbed to the cold. Of the complement of 480, 407 survived,


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: The loss of life was such that 802 Squadron was disbanded until February 1942. On 10 March 1942, Brown was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for his service on "Audacity", in particular "For bravery and skill in action against Enemy aircraft and in the protection of a Convoy against heavy and sustained Enemy attacks".


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: Following the loss of "Audacity", Brown resumed operational flying, being seconded to Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) squadrons flying escort operations to USAAF Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress bombers over France. His job was to train them in deck-landing techniques, though the training took place on airfields. As a form of "quid pro quo" he joined them on fighter operations.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: Brown was posted to the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) at Farnborough, where his experience in deck landings was sought. While there he initially performed testing of the newly navalised Sea Hurricane and Seafire. His aptitude for deck landings led to his posting for the testing of carriers' landing arrangements before they were brought into service. The testing involved multiple combinations of landing point and type of aircraft, with the result being that by the close of 1943 he had performed around 1,500 deck landings on 22 different carriers. In six years at RAE, Brown recalled that he hardly ever took a single day's leave. During carrier compatibility trials, Brown crash-landed a Fairey Firefly Mk I, "Z1844", on the deck of on 9 September 1943, when the arrestor hook indicator light falsely showed the hook was in the "down" position, compounded by the batsman failing to notice that the hook was not down. The fighter hit the crash barrier, sheared off its undercarriage and shredded the propeller, but he was unhurt.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: While at Farnborough as chief naval test pilot, Brown was involved in the deck landing trials of the de Havilland Sea Mosquito, the heaviest aircraft yet chosen to be flown from a British carrier. Brown landed one for the first time on on 25 March 1944. This was the first landing on a carrier by a twin-engined aircraft. The fastest speed for deck landing was , while the aircraft's stall speed was . He also flew several stints with Fighter Command in the air defence of Great Britain. During this time, in the summer of 1944, Brown's home was destroyed by a V-1 "Doodlebug" cruise missile, concussing his wife and causing serious injury to their cleaner. At this time, the RAE was the leading authority on high-speed flight and Brown became involved in this sort of testing, flights being flown where the aircraft, usually a Supermarine Spitfire, would be dived at speeds of the high subsonic and near transonic region. Figures achieved by Brown and his colleagues during these tests reached Mach 0.86 for a standard Spitfire MK IX, to Mach 0.92 for a modified Spitfire PR Mk XI flown by his colleague, Squadron Leader Anthony F. Martindale.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: Together with Brown and Martindale, the RAE Aerodynamics Flight also included two other test pilots, Sqn Ldr James "Jimmy" Nelson and Sqn Ldr Douglas Weightman. During this same period the RAE was approached by USAAF General Jimmy Doolittle with a request for help, as the 8th Air Force had been having trouble when their Lockheed P-38 Lightning, Republic P-47 Thunderbolt and North American P-51 Mustang fighters, providing top cover for the bombers, dived down onto attacking German fighters, some of the diving U.S. fighters encountering speed regions where they became difficult to control.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: As a result of Doolittle's request, early in 1944 the P-38H Lightning, a Packard Merlin-powered P-51B Mustang and P-47C Thunderbolt were dived for compressibility testing at the RAE by Brown and several other pilots. The results of the tests were that the tactical Mach numbers, i.e., the manoeuvring limits, were Mach 0.68 for the Lightning and Mach 0.71 for the Thunderbolt; the corresponding figure for both the Fw 190 and Messerschmitt Bf 109 was Mach 0.75, giving them the advantage in a dive. However the tests flown by Brown and his colleagues also gave a Mach number for the Mustang of 0.78, resulting in Doolittle being able to argue with his superiors for the Mustang to be chosen in preference to the P-38 and P-47 for all escort duties from then on, which was available in growing numbers by very early 1944; for Doolittle's eventual move to air supremacy missions in "leading" the bomber combat boxes with the Mustangs by some 75–100 miles, instead of merely accompanying them nearby.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: Brown had been made aware of the British progress in jet propulsion in May 1941 when he had heard of the Gloster E.28/39 after diverting in bad weather to RAF Cranwell during a flight and had subsequently met Frank Whittle when asked to suggest improvements to the jet engine to make it more suitable for naval use. This resulted in the Gloster Meteor being selected as the Royal Navy's first jet fighter, although, as it turned out, few would be used by them. Brown was also selected as the pilot for the Miles M.52 supersonic research aircraft programme, and he flew modified aircraft incorporating components intended for the M.52; however, the post-war government cancelled the project in 1945 with the M.52 almost complete. On 2 May 1944, he was appointed MBE "for outstanding enterprise and skill in piloting aircraft during hazardous aircraft trials."


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: In February 1945, Brown learned that the Aerodynamics Flight had been allocated three Sikorsky R-4B Hoverfly/Gadfly helicopters. He had never seen one of these tail-rotor machines, so a trip to Farnborough was arranged and Brown had a short flight as a passenger in one. A few days later, Brown and Martindale were sent to RAF Speke to collect two new R-4Bs.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: On arrival, they found the American mechanics assembling the machines, and when Brown asked the Master Sergeant in charge about himself and Martindale being taught to fly them, he was handed a "large orange-coloured booklet" with the retort; "Whaddya mean, bud? – Here's your instructor". Brown and Martindale examined the booklet and after several practice attempts at hovering and controlling the craft, followed by a stiff drink, they set off for Farnborough. Brown and Martindale managed the trip safely, if raggedly, in formation, although sometimes as much as a couple of miles apart.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: On 4 April, Brown added another "first" to his logbook when engaged in trials in relation to the flexible deck concept with HMS "Pretoria Castle", in which he was supposed to make a number of landing approaches to the escort carrier in a Bell Airacobra, which had coincidentally been modified with a tail hook. During one of these passes, Brown declared an emergency and was given permission to make a deck landing; a ruse which had previously been agreed with the carrier's captain, Caspar John. Although the landing was achieved without difficulty, the long take off run required for the Airacobra meant that even with the ship steaming at full speed, there was little margin of error. This was the first carrier landing and take off for any aircraft with a tricycle undercarriage.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: With the end of the European war in sight, the RAE prepared itself to acquire German aeronautical technology and aircraft before it was either accidentally destroyed or taken by the Soviets, and, because of his skills in the language, Brown was made the commanding officer of "Operation Enemy Flight". He flew to northern Germany; among the targets for the RAE was the Arado Ar 234, a new jet bomber in which the Allies, particularly the Americans, were very much interested. A number of the jets were based at an airfield in Denmark, the German forces having retreated there. He expected to arrive at a liberated aerodrome, just after it had been taken by the British Army; however, German resistance to the Allied advance meant that the ground forces had been delayed and the airfield was still an operational Luftwaffe base. Luckily for Brown, the commanding officer of the Luftwaffe airfield at Grove offered his surrender and Brown took charge of the airfield and its staff of 2,000 men until Allied forces arrived the next day.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: Subsequently, Brown and Martindale, along with several other members of the Aerodynamics Flight and assisted by a co-operative German pilot, later ferried twelve Ar 234s across the North Sea and on to Farnborough. The venture was not without risk, as before their capture, the Germans had destroyed all the engine log books for the aircraft, leaving Brown and his colleagues no idea of the expected engine hours remaining to the machines. Because of the scarcity of the special high-temperature alloys for use in their construction, the Junkers Jumo 004 engines had a life of only 25 hours – it was thus not known whether the engines were brand new or just about to expire.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: During this period, Brown was asked by Brigadier Glyn Hughes, the Medical Officer of the British 2nd Army occupying the newly liberated Bergen-Belsen concentration camp, to help interrogate the former camp commandant and his assistant. Agreeing to do so, he soon interviewed Josef Kramer and Irma Grese, and remarked upon the experience by saying that; "Two more loathsome creatures it is hard to imagine" and further describing the latter as "... the worst human being I have ever met." Kramer and Grese were later tried and hanged for war crimes.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: After World War II‚ Brown commanded the Enemy Aircraft Flight, an elite group of pilots who test-flew captured German and Italian aircraft. That experience rendered Brown one of the few men to have been qualified to compare both Allied and Axis aeroplanes as they flew during the war. He flight-tested 53 German aircraft, including the Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet rocket fighter. That Komet is now on display at the National Museum of Flight east of Edinburgh in the United Kingdom.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: His flight test of this rocket plane, the only one by an Allied pilot using the rocket motor, was accomplished unofficially: it was deemed to be more or less suicidal due to the notoriously dangerous C-Stoff fuel and T-Stoff oxidizer combination.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: Commenting to a newspaper in September 2015 he recalled, To me it was the most exciting thing on the horizon, a totally new experience. I remember watching the ground crew very carefully before take-off, wondering if they thought they were waving goodbye to me forever or whether they thought this thing was going to return. The noise it made was absolutely thunderous and it was like being in charge of a runaway train; everything changed so rapidly and I really had to have my wits about me. Brown flight-tested all three of the German jet designs to see front-line action in the war: the Messerschmitt Me 262A "Schwalbe" and the Arado Ar 234B "Blitz", each type powered by twin Junkers Jumo 004 engines, and the single-engined BMW 003-powered Heinkel He 162A "Spatz" turbojet combat aircraft. He would later fly the He 162A at the Farnborough Air Show, and described it as having the best controls of any aircraft he had ever flown but as being difficult to handle. One of his colleagues at Farnborough died trying the aircraft type in an evaluation.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: Fluent in German, he helped interview many Germans after World War II, including Wernher von Braun and Hermann Göring, Willy Messerschmitt, Ernst Heinkel and Kurt Tank. However, he described the interviews as being minimal, due to the need to begin the Nuremberg trials, and limited to matters related to aviation.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: Brown was using Himmler's personal aircraft, a specially converted Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor that had been captured and was being used by the RAE Flight based at the former Luftwaffe airfield at Schleswig. He was also able to renew acquaintances with German pilot Hanna Reitsch, whom he had met in Germany before the war. She had been arrested after the German surrender in 1945. Fearing the approaching Russians, her father had killed her mother, sister and then himself.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: As an RAE test pilot he was involved in the wartime Miles M.52 supersonic project, test flying a Spitfire fitted with the M.52's all moving tail, diving from high altitude to achieve high subsonic speeds. He was due to fly the M.52 in 1946, but this fell through when the project was cancelled. The all moving tail information, however, supplied upon instruction from the British government ostensibly as part of an information exchange with the Americans (although no information was ever received in return), allowed Bell to modify its XS-1 for true transsonic pitch controllability, in turn allowing Chuck Yeager to become the first man to exceed Mach 1 in 1947.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: If the Ministry of Supply had proceeded with Ralph Smith's V2-based Megaroc sub-orbital manned spacecraft, Brown would also have been the leading candidate for its projected 1949 first manned spaceflight.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: In a throwback to his days testing aircraft in high speed dives, while at the RAE Brown performed similar testing of the Avro Tudor airliner. The requirement was to determine the safe limiting speed for the aircraft and to gather data on high-speed handling of large civil aircraft in preparation for a projected four-jet version of the Tudor. Flying from 32,000 ft, in a succession of dives to speeds initially to Mach 0.6, he succeeded in diving the Tudor up to Mach 0.7, an unusual figure for such a large piston-engined aeroplane, this speed figure being dictated by the pilot's discretion, as pulling the aircraft out of the dive had required the combined efforts of both Brown and his second pilot. However, as an airliner, the Tudor was not a success. The planned jet version of the Tudor would later become the Avro Ashton.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: In 1949, he test flew a modified (strengthened and control-boosted) de Havilland DH.108, after a crash in a similar aircraft while diving at speeds approaching the sound barrier had killed Geoffrey de Havilland, Jr., Brown initially started his tests from a height of 35,000 ft, rising to 45,000 ft and during a dive from the latter he achieved a Mach number of 0.985. It was only when attempting the tests from the same height as de Havilland, 4,000 ft, that he discovered that in a Mach 0.88 dive from that altitude the aircraft suffered from a high-g pitch oscillation at several hertz (Hz). "The ride was smooth, then suddenly it all went to pieces ... as the plane porpoised wildly my chin hit my chest, jerked hard back, slammed forward again, repeated it over and over, flogged by the awful whipping of the plane ...". Remembering the drill he had often practised, Brown managed to pull back gently on both stick and throttle and the motion; "... ceased as quickly as it had started". He believed that he survived the test flight partly because he was a shorter man, de Havilland having suffered a broken neck possibly due to the violent oscillation.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: Test instrumentation on Brown's flight recorded during the oscillations accelerations of +4 and −3g's at 3 Hz. Brown described the DH 108 as; "A killer. Nasty stall. Vicious undamped longitudinal oscillation at speed in bumps". All three DH 108 aircraft were lost in fatal accidents.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: In 1948, Brown was awarded the Boyd Trophy for his work in trials for the rubber deck landing system. On 30 March 1949 he was granted a permanent Royal Navy commission as a lieutenant, with seniority backdated to his original wartime promotion to the rank.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: On 12 August 1949, he was testing the third of three Saunders-Roe SR.A/1 jet-powered flying-boat fighter prototypes, "TG271", when he struck submerged debris, which resulted in the aircraft sinking in the Solent off Cowes, Isle of Wight. He was pulled unconscious from the cockpit of the wrecked aircraft by his Saunders-Roe test pilot Geoffrey Tyson, having been knocked out in the crash. He was promoted lieutenant-commander on 1 April 1951, commander on 31 December 1953 and captain on 31 December 1960.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: Brown was responsible for at least three important firsts in carrier aviation: the first carrier landing using an aircraft equipped with a tricycle undercarriage (Bell Airacobra Mk 1 "AH574") on the trials carrier on 4 April 1945; the first landing of a twin-engined aircraft on a carrier (the Mosquito) on on 25 March 1944; and the world's first carrier landing of a jet aircraft, landing the prototype de Havilland Vampire "LZ551/G" on the Royal Navy carrier on 3 December 1945. For this work with the Mosquito and the Vampire he was later appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE).


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: In the 1950s during the Korean War, Brown was seconded as an exchange officer for two years to Naval Air Station Patuxent River, Maryland, US where he flew a number of American aircraft, including 36 types of helicopter. In January 1952, it was while at Patuxent River that Brown demonstrated the steam catapult to the Americans, flying a Grumman Panther off the carrier while the ship was still tied up to the dock at the Philadelphia Naval Yard. It had been planned for Brown to make the first catapult launch with the ship under way and steaming into any wind; however, the wind on the day was so slight that British officials decided that, as the new steam catapult was capable of launching an aircraft without any wind, they would risk their pilot (Brown) if the Americans would risk their aircraft. The launch was a success and US carriers would later feature the steam catapult.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: It was around the same time that another British invention was being offered to the US, the angled flight deck, and Brown once again was called upon to promote the concept. Whether due to Brown or not, the first US aircraft carrier modified with the new flight deck, , was ready less than nine months later.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: In 1954 Brown, by then a Commander in the Royal Navy, became Commander (Air) of the RNAS Brawdy, where he remained until returning to Germany in late 1957, becoming Chief of British Naval Mission to Germany, his brief being to re-establish German naval aviation after its pre-war integration with and subornation to, the Luftwaffe. During this period Brown worked closely with Admiral Gerhard Wagner of the German Naval Staff. Training was conducted initially in the UK on Hawker Sea Hawks and Fairey Gannets, and during this time Brown was allocated a personal Percival Pembroke aircraft by the Marineflieger, which, to his surprise, the German maintenance personnel took great pride in. It was, in fact, the first exclusively naval aircraft the German Navy had owned since the 1930s. Brown led the re-emergence of naval aviation in Germany to the point that in 1960 Marineflieger squadrons were integrated into NATO.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: Later Brown enjoyed a brief three-month period as a test pilot for the Focke-Wulf company, helping them out until they could find a replacement after the company's previous test pilot had been detained due to having relatives in East Germany.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: In the 1960s, due to his considerable experience of carrier aviation, Brown, while working at the Admiralty as deputy director of Naval Air Warfare, was consulted on the flight deck arrangement of the planned new UK class of aircraft carrier, the CVA-01, although the ship was subsequently cancelled while still on the stocks.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: In September 1967 came his last appointment in the Royal Navy when, as a captain, he took command of HMS "Fulmar", then the Royal Naval Air Station (now RAF), Lossiemouth, until March 1970. He was appointed a naval aide de camp to Queen Elizabeth II on 7 July 1969 and appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1970 New Year Honours. He relinquished his appointment as naval ADC on 27 January 1970 and retired from the Royal Navy later in 1970.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: Brown flew aircraft from Britain, the United States, Germany, the Soviet Union, Italy and Japan and is listed in the "Guinness Book of World Records" as holding the record for flying the greatest number of different aircraft. The official record is 487, but includes only basic types. For example, Brown flew 14 versions of the Spitfire and Seafire and although these versions are very different they appear only once in the list. This list includes only aircraft flown by Brown as "Captain in Command".


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: Because of the special circumstances involved, Brown didn't think that this record would ever be topped.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: He also held the world record for the most carrier landings, 2,407, partly compiled in testing the arrestor wires on more than 20 aircraft carriers during World War II.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: In his book "Wings on My Sleeve" (page 157 et seq), Brown records his admiration of a number of erstwhile colleagues who deserve recognition:-


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: Brown goes on to mention the pilot of the first jet flight in Britain, Gerry Sayer, then the aircraft designers R. J. Mitchell (designer of the Spitfire), Sir Sydney Camm, R. E. Bishop, Roy Chadwick and Joe Smith, followed by the names of what he describes as "boffins and boffinettes", which include the brilliant aerodynamicists Morien Morgan, Handel Davies, Dai Morris and P. A. Hufton, and the "boffinettes" like aerodynamicist Gwen Alston, Anne Burns (structural engineer), Dorothy Pearse (aircraft engineer) and Pauline Gower (head of the women's section of the ATA).


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: Brown's last credits mention Lewis Boddington, Dr. Thomlinson, John Noble and Charles Crowfoot, whom he records (with "others") as being responsible for "giving the Royal Navy a technical lead in aircraft carrier equipment which it still holds to this day [1978]." He ends this section: "These men and women were civil servants, but they worked hours, took responsibility, and produced results far beyond what their country paid them for. To me they represent the true measure of Britain's greatness."


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: Brown wrote several books about his experiences, including ones describing the flight characteristics of the various aircraft he flew and an autobiography, "Wings on My Sleeve", first published in 1961 and considerably up-dated in later editions. Other books were 'Wings of the Luftwaffe', 'Wings of the Weird and Wonderful' and 'Miles M.52' (with Dennis Bancorft). He was also the author of dozens of articles in aviation magazines and journals.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: His best-known series of articles is "Viewed from the Cockpit", which was published (and occasionally re-published) in the journal "Air International". Flight review highlights in this series have included the following types:


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: My favourite in the piston engine (era) is the de Havilland Hornet. For the simple reason it was over-powered. This is an unusual feature in an aircraft, you could do anything on one engine, almost, that you could do on two. It was a 'hot rod Mosquito' really, I always described it as like flying a Ferrari in the sky.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: On the jet side I was a great admirer of the F-86 Sabre, but in particular, the Model E (F-86E) which had the flying tail, and this gave me what I call the 'perfect harmony of control'. If a pilot has this perfect harmony of control you feel you're part of the aeroplane and you're bonded with it really. You've got into it and the aeroplane welcomes you and says 'thank God you've come, you're part of me anyway' and to fly like that is a sheer delight.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: Brown served as president of the Royal Aeronautical Society from 1982 to 1983. His last flight as a pilot was in 1994, but in 2015 he was still lecturing and regularly attending the British Rocketry Oral History Programme (BROHP), where the annual presentation of the Sir Arthur Clarke Awards takes place. In 2007 he was the recipient of their Lifetime Achievement Award.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: Brown lived, in semi-retirement, at Copthorne, West Sussex. He had married Evelyn (Lynn) Macrory in 1942. She died in 1998. He was interviewed many times, most recently by BBC Radio 4 at his home in April 2013.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: In June 2014 he was the subject of the hour-long BBC Two documentary "Britain's Greatest Pilot: The Extraordinary Story of Captain Winkle Brown". Assessing those achievements, Mark Bowman, chief test pilot at BAE Systems, said, "They didn't have the advantage of high-tech simulators. He just had to look at the aircraft and think what he was going to do with it", adding that he would have been flying the aircraft with "the benefit of a slide rule, not a bank of computers as we have now."


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: In November 2014 he was the guest for the 3,000th edition of BBC Radio 4's "Desert Island Discs". During the programme, the 95-year-old said that he still enjoyed driving and had just bought himself a new sports car. His musical choices included "At Last" by the Glenn Miller Orchestra and "Amazing Grace" by the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards. His favourite was "Stardust" by Artie Shaw and His Orchestra.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: On 24 February 2015 Brown delivered the University of Edinburgh Mountbatten Lecture, entitled "Britain's Defence in the Near Future". Speaking at the Playfair Library, he warned: "They [the Russians] are playing a very dangerous game of chess. ... They are playing it to the hilt. It may develop into that. It is certainly showing the same signs as what caused the Cold War."


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: In May 2015, Brown was awarded the Founder's Medal by the Air League. This was presented to him by the patron, the Duke of Edinburgh at the annual reception held at St James's Palace "for his amazing flying achievements and involvement with aviation during a remarkable lifetime." Brown died aged 97 on 21 February 2016 at East Surrey Hospital in Redhill, Surrey after a short illness.


title: Eric Brown (pilot)

text: Brown received the affectionate nickname "Winkle" from his Royal Navy colleagues. Short for "Periwinkle", a small mollusc, the name was given to Brown because of his short stature of . Brown partly attributed his survival of dangerous incidents to his ability to "curl himself up in the cockpit".


title: Onsemi

text: onsemi (stylized in lowercase; legally ON Semiconductor Corporation; formerly ON Semiconductor until August 5, 2021) is an American semiconductor supplier company, based in Phoenix, Arizona and ranked #483 on the 2022 "Fortune" 500 based on its 2021 sales. Products include power and signal management, logic, discrete, and custom devices for automotive, communications, computing, consumer, industrial, LED lighting, medical, military/aerospace and power applications. onsemi runs a network of manufacturing facilities, sales offices and design centers in North America, Europe, and the Asia Pacific regions. Based on its 2016 revenues of $3.907 billion, onsemi ranked among the worldwide top 20 semiconductor sales leaders.


title: Onsemi

text: onsemi was founded in 1999. The company was originally a spinoff of Motorola's Semiconductor Components Group. It continues to manufacture Motorola's discrete, standard analog, and standard logic devices.


title: Onsemi

text: In February 2022, it was announced that BelGaN Group BV had completed the acquisition of all shares of ON Semiconductor Belgium BV from the onsemi group.


title: Onsemi

text: In 2013, the company introduced the industry's highest resolution optical image stabilization (OIS) integrated circuit (IC) for smartphone camera modules.


title: Onsemi

text: The company's subsidiary AMI Semiconductor (AMIS) has also won many awards, such as President's Award and Preferred Supplier from Rockwell Collins, Strategic Supplier Award from Emerson Rosemount, Inc., Outstanding Technical Support in New Product Development from Alliant Techsystems.


Construcciones y Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles (Grupo CAF, literally "Construction and Other Railway Services") is a Spanish publicly listed company which manufactures railway vehicles and equipment and buses through its Solaris Bus & Coach subsidiary. It is based in Beasain, Basque Autonomous Community, Spain. Equipment manufactured by Grupo CAF includes light rail vehicles, rapid transit trains, railroad cars and locomotives, as well as variable gauge axles that can be fitted on any existing truck or bogie.


title: Construcciones y Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles

text: Over the 20 years from the early 1990s, CAF benefited from the rail investment boom in its home market in Spain to become a world player with a broad technical capability, able to manufacture almost any type of rail vehicle. CAF has supplied railway rolling stock to a number of major urban transit operators around Europe, the US, South America, East Asia, India, Australia and North Africa.


text: "CAF" was an acronym for the earlier name of Compañía Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles, as well as for "Construcciones y Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles".


text: In 1860, Domingo Goitia, Martín Usabiaga and José Francisco Arana established this company, whose main activity was puddling furnaces and cylinder rolling.


text: In 1892, Francisco de Goitia (Domingo Goitia's son and heir) joined the Marquess of Urquijo to set up La Maquinista Guipuzcoana, whose main activity was the operation of machinery and the forging and construction of railway rolling stock.


text: In 1898, it set up its plant in Beasain, Gipuzkoa. In 1905 it changed its name to Fábrica de Vagones de Beasain (FVB).


text: Compañía Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles (CAF) was founded in 1917, specializing in freight car production and with a total of 1,600 employees.


text: In 1940, the Irun factory was set up, following the expansion of activity after the Spanish Civil War (CAF took part in reconstructing the Spanish rail fleet).


text: In 1954, CAF took over Material Móvil y Construcciones (MMC) from Zaragoza (Aragon), a company with extensive experience in manufacturing long-distance and subway trains.


text: Since 1958, the company has modernized and enlarged its Beasain plant and expanded its activity to include all kinds of rolling stock. In line with this, in 1969 CAF created its Research and Development Unit, which increased the company's competitiveness and intensified the focus on in-house technology.


text: In 1971, the existing Compañía Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles (CAF) merged with Material Móvil y Construcciones (MMC) and the company adopted its current name "Construcciones y Auxiliar de Ferrocarriles".


text: CAF U.S.A., a wholly owned subsidiary of CAF, was incorporated in 1998 and is based in Elmira, New York. It manufactures rolling stock for the North American market at a plant in Elmira that the company acquired from ADtranz in 2000. The company from Beasain continued its expansion during the third millennium.


text: On 24 May 2019, it announced the acquisition of the Swedish company Euromaint at a cost of circa €80 million, following other international contracts to supply Flemish and English railway and underground networks in 2017.


text: CAF Rolling Stock U.K. Ltd. is the CAF subsidiary in the United Kingdom. Its factory is based at Celtic Springs Business Park, at Llanwern steelworks near Newport, Wales as a result of an agreement made between CAF and the Welsh Government. The Newport factory has built stock for Transport for Wales, Arriva Rail North, the Docklands Light Railway, and potentially High Speed 2 if CAF win the bid process.


text: In April 2014, two carriages of an Urbos 3 tram in Belgrade separated during passenger service, due to the cracking of screws connecting the cars. Half of the Belgrade tramway's CAF fleet were found to have been affected by similar cracking of screws in the two weeks prior to the incident.


text: In March 2016, 19 British Rail Class 332 units were taken out of service after a crack was discovered in the underframe of one unit during routine maintenance.


text: In December 2017, the Besançon Tramway in Besançon, France discovered cracks in their Urbos 3s vehicles around the bogie box area of the bodies, which in December 2020 CAF paid for remedial work to be performed with each unit affected requiring one month downtime for the work to be completed.


text: In April 2021, 22 British Rail Class 195 Civity units were temporarily removed from service after routine maintenance revealed a yaw damper bracket had detached from the body of unit 195121.


text: On June 11, 2021, West Midlands Metro (operating between Birmingham and Wolverhampton, England) were forced to suspend their services due to similar cracks being discovered in the bogie box areas of their Urbos 3s vehicles, with ongoing investigations continuing to identify any other issues relating to the cracks and to find options for remedial works to be performed. Full service only began once more in February 2022.


text: On June 24, 2021, Flytoget were forced to withdraw their entire CAF Oaris fleet after 19 days of service due to the discovery of cracks in the chassis. They remain out of service as of September 2022, with plans to reinstate them by the end of the year. In the meantime, CAF has paid an unknown amount to Flytoget in compensation.


text: Following on from these instances, in November 2021 the New South Wales transport minister Rob Stokes announced that the Sydney L1 Dulwich Hill Line would be decommissioned for up to 18 months, due to serious design flaws in all 12 of the CAF Urbos 3s tram sets that were running on the line. Stokes stated that the flaws (in the bogie boxes) were likely to be far broader in scope than those identified in Sydney due to the thousands of the same tram type operated around the world.


text: In March 2022, the West Midlands Metro was again forced to suspend its services due to the discovery of more cracks, this time on the bodywork of the trams.


text: During the 2019 United Kingdom general election, CAF Rail UK Limited made a donation of £50,000 to the Conservative Party.


text: CAF Rolling Stock U.K. Ltd announced in 2017 its UK factory location was selected as Celtic Business Park at Llanwern steelworks in Newport, Wales. It has at least five confirmed UK projects from 2019 onwards and would have been the construction site for their unsuccessful bid to deliver stock for High Speed 2. The site was funded with support from the Welsh Government Inward Investment Programme.


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: The Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML; ISO 8879:1986) is a standard for defining generalized markup languages for documents. ISO 8879 Annex A.1 states that generalized markup is "based on two postulates":


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: SGML is an ISO standard: "ISO 8879:1986 Information processing – Text and office systems – Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML)", of which there are three versions:


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: SGML is part of a trio of enabling ISO standards for electronic documents developed by ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 34 (ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1, Subcommittee 34 – Document description and processing languages) :


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: SGML descended from IBM's Generalized Markup Language (GML), which Charles Goldfarb, Edward Mosher, and Raymond Lorie developed in the 1960s. Goldfarb, editor of the international standard, coined the "GML" term using their surname initials. Goldfarb also wrote the definitive work on SGML syntax in "The SGML Handbook". The syntax of SGML is closer to the COCOA format. As a document markup language, SGML was originally designed to enable the sharing of machine-readable large-project documents in government, law, and industry. Many such documents must remain readable for several decades—a long time in the information technology field. SGML also was extensively applied by the military, and the aerospace, technical reference, and industrial publishing industries. The advent of the XML profile has made SGML suitable for widespread application for small-scale, general-purpose use.


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: SGML (ENR+WWW) defines two kinds of validity. According to the revised Terms and Definitions of ISO 8879 (from the public draft):


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: A conforming SGML document must be either a type-valid SGML document, a tag-valid SGML document, or both. Note: A user may wish to enforce additional constraints on a document, such as whether a document instance is integrally-stored or free of entity references.


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: An SGML document in which, for each document instance, there is an associated document type declaration (DTD) to whose DTD that instance conforms.


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: An SGML document, all of whose document instances are fully tagged. There need not be a document type declaration associated with any of the instances. Note: If there is a document type declaration, the instance can be parsed with or without reference to it.


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: "Tag-validity" was introduced in SGML (ENR+WWW) to support XML which allows documents with no DOCTYPE declaration but which can be parsed without a grammar, or documents which have a DOCTYPE declaration that makes no XML Infoset contributions to the document. The standard calls this "fully tagged". "Integrally stored" reflects the XML requirement that elements end in the same entity in which they started. "Reference-free" reflects the HTML requirement that entity references are for special characters and do not contain markup. SGML validity commentary, especially commentary that was made before 1997 or that is unaware of SGML (ENR+WWW), covers "type-validity" only.


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: The SGML emphasis on validity supports the requirement for generalized markup that "markup should be rigorous." (ISO 8879 A.1)


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: An SGML document may be composed from many entities (discrete pieces of text). In SGML, the entities and element types used in the document may be specified with a DTD, the different character sets, features, delimiter sets, and keywords are specified in the SGML Declaration to create the "concrete syntax" of the document.


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: Although full SGML allows implicit markup and some other kinds of tags, the XML specification (s4.3.1) states:


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: For introductory information on a basic, modern SGML syntax, see XML. The following material concentrates on features not in XML and is not a comprehensive summary of SGML syntax.


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: SGML generalizes and supports a wide range of markup languages as found in the mid 1980s. These ranged from terse Wiki-like syntaxes to RTF-like bracketed languages to HTML-like matching-tag languages. SGML did this by a relatively simple default "reference concrete syntax" augmented with a large number of optional features that could be enabled in the SGML Declaration. Not every SGML parser can necessarily process every SGML document. Because each processor's "System Declaration" can be compared to the document's "SGML Declaration" it is always possible to know whether a document is supported by a particular processor.


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: Many SGML features relate to markup minimization. Other features relate to concurrent (parallel) markup (CONCUR), to linking processing attributes (LINK), and to embedding SGML documents within SGML documents (SUBDOC).


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: The notion of customizable features was not appropriate for Web use, so one goal of XML was to minimize optional features. However, XML's well-formedness rules cannot support Wiki-like languages, leaving them unstandardized and difficult to integrate with non-text information systems.


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: The usual (default) SGML "concrete syntax" resembles this example, which is the default HTML concrete syntax:


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: SGML provides an "abstract syntax" that can be implemented in many different types of "concrete syntax". Although the markup norm is using angle brackets as start- and end- tag delimiters in an SGML document (per the standard-defined "reference concrete syntax"), it is possible to use other characters—provided a suitable "concrete syntax" is defined in the document's SGML declaration. For example, an SGML interpreter might be programmed to parse GML, wherein the tags are delimited with a left colon and a right full stop, thus, an ":e" prefix denotes an end tag: codice_1. According to the reference syntax, letter-case (upper- or lower-) is not distinguished in tag names, thus the three tags: (i) codice_2, (ii) codice_3, and (iii) codice_4 are equivalent. ("NOTE:" A concrete syntax might "change" this rule via the NAMECASE NAMING declarations).


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: SGML has features for reducing the number of characters required to mark up a document, which must be enabled in the SGML Declaration. SGML processors need not support every available feature, thus allowing applications to tolerate many types of inadvertent markup omissions; however, SGML systems usually are intolerant of invalid structures. XML is intolerant of syntax omissions, and does not require a DTD for checking well-formedness.


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: For example, if OMITTAG YES is specified in the SGML Declaration (enabling the OMITTAG feature), and the DTD includes the following declarations:


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: Note: The OMITTAG feature is unrelated to the tagging of elements whose declared content is codice_6 as defined in the DTD:


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: Elements defined like this have no end tag, and specifying one in the document instance would result in invalid markup. This is syntactically different from XML empty elements in this regard.


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: Tags can be replaced with delimiter strings, for a terser markup, via the SHORTREF feature. This markup style is now associated with wiki markup, e.g. wherein two equals-signs (==), at the start of a line, are the "heading start-tag", and two equals signs (==) after that are the "heading end-tag".


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: SGML markup languages whose concrete syntax enables the SHORTTAG VALUE feature, do not require attribute values containing only alphanumeric characters to be enclosed within quotation marks—either double codice_7 (LIT) or single codice_8 (LITA)—so that the previous markup example could be written:


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: One feature of SGML markup languages is the "presumptuous empty tagging", such that the empty end tag codice_9 in codice_10 "inherits" its value from the nearest previous full start tag, which, in this example, is codice_11 (in other words, it closes the most recently opened item). The expression is thus equivalent to codice_12.


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: Another feature is the "NET" (Null End Tag) construction: codice_13, which is structurally equivalent to codice_12.


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: Additionally, the SHORTTAG NETENABL IMMEDNET feature allows shortening tags surrounding an empty text value, but forbids shortening full tags:


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: wherein the first slash ( / ) stands for the NET-enabling "start-tag close" (NESTC), and the second slash stands for the NET. NOTE: XML defines NESTC with a /, and NET with an > (angled bracket)—hence the corresponding construct in XML appears as <QUOTE/>.


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: The third feature is 'text on the same line', allowing a markup item to be ended with a line-end; especially useful for headings and such, requiring using either SHORTREF or DATATAG minimization. For example, if the DTD includes the following declarations:


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: SGML has many features that defied convenient description with the popular formal automata theory and the contemporary parser technology of the 1980s and the 1990s. The standard warns in Annex H:


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: A report on an early implementation of a parser for basic SGML, the Amsterdam SGML Parser, notes and specifies various differences.


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: There appears to be no definitive classification of full SGML against a known class of formal grammar. Plausible classes may include tree-adjoining grammars and adaptive grammars.


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: XML is described as being generally parsable like a two-level grammar for non-validated XML and a Conway-style pipeline of coroutines (lexer, parser, validator) for valid XML. The SGML productions in the ISO standard are reported to be LL(3) or LL(4). XML-class subsets are reported to be expressible using a W-grammar. According to one paper, and probably considered at an "information set" or parse tree level rather than a character or delimiter level:


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: The SGML standard does not define SGML with formal data structures, such as parse trees; however, an SGML document is constructed of a rooted directed acyclic graph (RDAG) of physical storage units known as "entities", which is parsed into a RDAG of structural units known as "elements". The physical graph is loosely characterized as an "entity tree", but entities might appear multiple times. Moreover, the structure graph is also loosely characterized as an "element tree", but the ID/IDREF markup allows arbitrary arcs.


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: The results of parsing can also be understood as a data tree in different notations; where the document is the root node, and entities in other notations (text, graphics) are child nodes. SGML provides apparatus for linking to and annotating external non-SGML entities.


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: The SGML standard describes it in terms of "maps" and "recognition modes" (s9.6.1). Each entity, and each element, can have an associated "notation" or "declared content type", which determines the kinds of references and tags which will be recognized in that entity and element. Also, each element can have an associated "delimiter map" (and "short reference map"), which determines which characters are treated as delimiters in context. The SGML standard characterizes parsing as a state machine switching between recognition modes. During parsing, there is a stack of maps that configure the scanner, while the tokenizer relates to the recognition modes.


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: Parsing involves traversing the dynamically-retrieved entity graph, finding/implying tags and the element structure, and validating those tags against the grammar. An unusual aspect of SGML is that the grammar (DTD) is used both passively — to "recognize" lexical structures, and actively — to "generate" missing structures and tags that the DTD has declared optional. End- and start- tags can be omitted, because they can be inferred. Loosely, a series of tags can be omitted only if there is a single, possible path in the grammar to imply them. It was this active use of grammars that made concrete SGML parsing difficult to formally characterize.


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: SGML uses the term "validation" for both recognition and generation. XML does not use the grammar (DTD) to change delimiter maps or to inform the parse modes, and does not allow tag omission; consequently, XML validation of elements is not active in the sense that SGML validation is active. SGML "without" a DTD (e.g. simple XML), is a grammar or a language; SGML "with" a DTD is a metalanguage. SGML with an SGML declaration is, perhaps, a meta-metalanguage, since it is a metalanguage whose declaration mechanism "is" a metalanguage.


title: Standard Generalized Markup Language

text: SGML has an abstract syntax implemented by many possible concrete syntaxes; however, this is not the same usage as in an abstract syntax tree and as in a concrete syntax tree. In the SGML usage, a concrete syntax is a set of specific delimiters, while the abstract syntax is the set of names for the delimiters. The XML Infoset corresponds more to the programming language notion of abstract syntax introduced by John McCarthy.