title: 7 Seconds (song)

text: Dave Sholin from the "Gavin Report" viewed the song as "music to stir the senses combined with lyrics that make a powerful case for our common humanity." He noted that it "is especially powerful in light of recent events in South Africa and it's made that much more riveting by the melding of these two voices. Its worth spending some time with this amazing track." James Masterton deemed it a "gorgeous ballad" in his weekly UK chart commentary. Pan-European magazine "Music & Media" complimented Cherry as "again brilliant", and also complimented the song as "melodic, synthy, sexy and with a slow beat." Wendi Cermak from "The Network Forty" described it as "haunting". Dele Fadele from "NME" opined that it "makes like a future African sci-fi rumination on colour prejudice, with Yossou N'Dour's beguiling tones on show." David Sinclair from "The Times" wrote, "Built around a gentle boombox beat overlaid by drifting synthesizer chords, the song achieves the same seductive combination of rhythm and rumination that informed Bruce Springsteen's recent hit "Streets of Philadelphia"."


title: 7 Seconds (song)

text: "7 Seconds" was a worldwide hit, peaking within the top 10 of the charts in several countries, including Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands (number two), Sweden, Paraguay and the United Kingdom. It climbed to the top position in Finland, France, Iceland, Italy and Switzerland. It stayed at number one for 16 consecutive weeks on the French Singles Chart, which was the record for the most weeks at the top position at the time. On the Eurochart Hot 100, the song reached number two. It was awarded with a gold record in Austria, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland and the United Kingdom.


title: 7 Seconds (song)

text: The accompanying black-and-white music video for "7 Seconds" was directed by French director, photographer, film producer and actor Stéphane Sednaoui. It features people of different ethnicities walking by while the two are singing. When they sing the chorus, different kinds of people's faces appear.


title: 7 Seconds (song)

text: "NME" magazine ranked "7 Seconds" number 40 in their list of the 50 best songs of 1994. It was included in the 2010 book "1001 Songs You Must Hear Before You Die". Eloise Parker remarked that "the soul of '7 seconds' is N'Dour's heartfelt vocals, sung in Wolof and French, enhanced by Cherry's haunting English-language chorus."


title: Express Scripts

text: Express Scripts Holding Company is a pharmacy benefit management (PBM) organization. In 2017 it was the 22nd-largest company in the United States by total revenue as well as the largest pharmacy benefit management (PBM) organization in the United States. Express Scripts had 2016 revenues of $100.752 billion. Since December 20, 2018, the company has been a direct subsidiary of Bloomfield, Connecticut-based Cigna.


title: Express Scripts

text: Headquartered in Greater St. Louis within unincorporated North St. Louis County, Missouri, Express Scripts provides integrated pharmacy benefit management services including network-pharmacy claims processing; home delivery pharmacy services; specialty pharmacy benefit management, through its subsidiary Accredo; benefit-design consultation; drug-utilization review; formulary management; and medical and drug data analysis services to manage drug plans for health plans, self-insured employers and government agencies (both as administrator of employee benefits and public assistance programs). One of its largest clients is the United States Department of Defense's Tricare program.


title: Express Scripts

text: Express Scripts also offers pharmacy benefit management services for workers' compensation insurance programs. The program is accredited by URAC, the nation's largest accrediting body for pharmacy benefit management companies.


title: Express Scripts

text: The company processes pharmaceutical claims for members through a network of retail pharmacies. Its own automated pharmacies dispense medications for chronic long-term diseases, such as diabetes or heart disease, directly to members by home delivery.


title: Express Scripts

text: The deal closed on December 20, 2018 at $54 billion, allowing Cigna to start offering new Express Scripts products to its corporate health insurance customers in 2019.


title: Express Scripts

text: Express Scripts began in 1986 in St. Louis County, Missouri as a result of a joint venture between a retail chain of more than 79 pharmacies (Medicare Glaser Inc.) and Sanus Corp. Health Systems.


title: Express Scripts

text: Sanus traces its history to Bradford Systems and Administrative Services which was founded in Boston in 1968. Bradford had a contract for computer processing of Medicare and Medicaid payments. It was acquired in 1981 by McDonnell Douglas through its McDonnell Automation Company (McAuto) subsidiary for $11.5 million.


title: Express Scripts

text: In 1983, two of McDonnell Douglas' former principals Joseph T. Lynaugh (a former director of NYC Health + Hospitals in New York City), the McAuto's project manager of the Bradford takeover, and Howard L. Waltman, a long time Bradford's employee, formed the Sanus Corporation with substantial investments and ownership from McDonnell Douglas including a McDonnell Douglas whole ownership of the St. Louis office. General American Life Insurance Company invested in Sanus's future largest part based in New York. Sansa was a health maintenance organization and it merged with the General America Life Insurance preferred provider organization. Sanus rapidly grew and by 1986 it had 200,000 clients and $100 million in revenue operated in the St. Louis, Dallas, Fort Worth, Houston, and Washington, D.C. markets. It created a subsidiary called GenCare to fill prescriptions.


title: Express Scripts

text: In late 1986, Sanus announced a deal with St. Louis based pharmacy Medicare-Glaser for fulfilling prescriptions that would be 50-50 split ownership between Sanus and Medicare-Glaser called Express Scripts (scripts being medical industry jargon for prescriptions). Initial plans called for Missouri and Illinois clients to get their prescriptions at the Medicare-Glaser brick and mortar pharmacies while those in other cities could get their prescriptions via mail order—an innovation at the time. The initial report of the creation said that Charles H. Ridings, formerly in charge of McDonnell Douglas mergers and acquisitions, was named the first chief executive, although he was quickly replaced by Waltman.


title: Express Scripts

text: Sanus remained the dominant early insurance customer but Express Scripts began marketing to other providers. With increased investment by New York Life, Sansus change its name to NYL Cares and in 1998 was sold to Aetna for $1.05 billion.


title: Express Scripts

text: Glaser Drug Company sold its Express Scripts partnership interest back to Sanus before it was acquired by chain SupeRx in 1989 for $18.2 million. SupeRX declared bankruptcy and all stores closed in 1991 after Walgreens acquired the pharmacy records. SupeRX's loan to buy Glaser Drug Co. had been financed by Lincoln Savings and Loan Association. Morris Glaser had founded the company on October 1, 1924. In 1959, Glaser opened discount pharmacies, which would be called Medicare Pharmacy. The discount pharmacies were designed to resemble a doctor waiting room and were only about 800 to 1,000 square feet which focused just on the prescriptions. The two companies although sharing the same name operated separately, peaking at 100 stores.


title: Express Scripts

text: General America, which had been a private St. Louis-based insurance since 1933, was acquired by MetLife for $1.2 billion in 1999. General America had run into financial problems and had said it could not pay back $6.8 billion in short term bonds to investors.


title: Express Scripts

text: Express Scripts was purchased by New York Life Insurance Company in 1989 and became a publicly traded company in 1992. In 1993, Express Scripts signed on both FHP International and Maxicare Health Care and corporate clients Lockheed, Service Merchandise, and Ingersoll-Rand. In 1994, the company expanded its services by adding workers’ compensation prescription services and reinsurance. In 1994, the company announced a two-for-one stock split, and in 1996 established Express Scripts Canada. The same year, the company began the annual Drug Trend Report and launched the Outcomes Symposium Conference.


title: Express Scripts

text: In April 1998, Express Scripts acquired ValueRx, the PBM business of Columbia/HCA Healthcare Corp. The following year, in April 1999, the company purchased Diversified Pharmaceutical Services from SmithKline Beecham Corp for $700 million. That same year, the company purchased stock in PlanetRx.com. This partnership offered members options for purchasing prescriptions and over-the-counter health products online.


title: Express Scripts

text: In 2000, the company had to write off its $165 million relationship with PlanetRx.com when the startup experienced financial difficulties. In 2001, Express Scripts partnered with Merck-Medco and Advance PSC to form RxHub LLC.


title: Express Scripts

text: In late December 2006, Express Scripts made a proposal to purchase Caremark. Express Scripts lost the race to acquire Caremark to CVS Corporation, which became CVS/Caremark Corporation on March 22, 2007.


title: Express Scripts

text: In October 2007, Express Scripts acquired ConnectYourCare, and now handles FSA, HRA and HSA accounts for companies such as Suntrust, Zions Bancorporation and Allegis. However, Express Scripts divested ConnectYourCare in August 2012.


title: Express Scripts

text: On April 13, 2009, it was announced that Indianapolis-based WellPoint (now Anthem) had agreed to sell its NextRx subsidiaries for $4.675 billion to Express Scripts. Express Scripts closed the transaction in December 2009.


title: Express Scripts

text: In April 2012, Express Scripts completed a $29.1 billion acquisition of Medco Health Solutions. The Federal Trade Commission gave formal approval on April 2, 2012 after an anti-trust investigation. The acquisition positioned Express Scripts Holding Co. as the largest pharmacy benefit manager, filling 1.4 billion annual prescriptions.


title: Express Scripts

text: In 2017, Express Scripts launched Inside Rx, a partially owned subsidiary that provides discounts on medications for the uninsured and underinsured. In July 2017, Express Scripts purchased myMatrixx, a workers' compensation pharmacy benefits company based in Tampa, for $250 million.


title: Express Scripts

text: In October 2017, Express Scripts lost its biggest client, Anthem, which said it would not renew the PBM contract in 2019 and would instead use CVS Health. Anthem alleged in court filings that Express had overcharged it by $3 billion. Anthem said that it would launch its own competing PBM service, IngenioRx. The battle between the two companies in 2017 caused Express Scripts stock to drop by nearly a third. Express Scripts announced its acquisition of eviCore in October 2017. The $3.6 billion deal closed that December. In November 2017, Express Scripts announced it was divesting United BioSource Corp. (UBC), its pharmaceutical support business. UBC was sold to Avista Capital Partners.


title: Express Scripts

text: In March 2018, Cigna, which earlier was blocked by courts from being acquired by Anthem, announced a $67 billion deal to acquire Express Scripts. The Express Scripts acquisition would be the last major deal involving the country's largest PBMs. In 2017, CVS Health announced a merger with Aetna, completing in November 2018. The takeover of PBMs have drawn regulator resistance because of fears they foster an anti-competitive environment. Insurance companies have charged that the PBM model has contributed to high drug prices because PBMs take a commission on each transaction.


title: Express Scripts

text: Express Scripts has 30,000 employees worldwide. The company volunteers with local Blessings in a Backpack organizations.


title: Express Scripts

text: In December 2018, it was reported that Walmart and Express Scripts extended their network agreement to give Express Scripts' clients access to Walmart's prescription services.


title: Express Scripts

text: In late 2020, Express Scripts and several subsidiaries were rebranded and reorganized into a distinct health services organization, Evernorth. Evernorth CEO Tim Wentworth retired at the end of 2021 and Cigna veteran executive Eric Palmer became Evernorth CEO starting in 2022.


title: Express Scripts

text: For the fiscal year 2017, Express Scripts reported earnings of US$4.517 billion, with an annual revenue of US$100.065 billion, a decline of 0.2% over the previous fiscal cycle. Express Scripts shares traded at over $64 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$53.6 billion in October 2018.


title: Express Scripts

text: In 2007, the company became the first and only Fortune 500 company to open a headquarters on a college campus when it opened its headquarters at 1 Express Way on the north edge of the University of Missouri–St. Louis north of University Place Drive and south of Interstate 70. A second headquarters building adjoining the original one opened in 2008. Three additional structures have been added to the NorthPark development on the north side of I-70 including an Office and Data Center, Tech and Innovation Center, and Operations Center. The area north of I-70 is separate from the university. In 2018 the majority of the 5,000 St. Louis Express Scripts employees work in the complex.


title: Express Scripts

text: George Paz, CEO of Express Scripts at the time of the move, was an UMSL graduate. Express Scripts, which rather owns both its headquarters and nearby office buildings, received substantial tax breaks. Since the move the company has been an active partner with the university including contributing money to renovate the computer sciences building (Express Scripts Hall), raising funds for building projects, sponsoring a pre-collegiate bridge program for high school students and sponsoring a small business incubator.


title: Express Scripts

text: Express Scripts throughout its entire history has been in St. Louis County, Missouri rather than the City of St. Louis. It was originally headquartered in Maryland Heights, Missouri, and its current headquarters is about 4 miles west of the St. Louis city limits and its two building headquarters campus is actually spread across three jurisdictions. The entrance to the main building is located in Cool Valley, Missouri. The southeast portion of the campus is in Bellerive, Missouri and the southwest corner of the two-building complex is in unincorporated St. Louis County. The three buildings north of I-70 are in Berkeley, Missouri.


title: Express Scripts

text: Published annually since 1993, the Express Scripts Drug Trend Report provides detailed analysis of prescription drug costs and utilization. Now a web-based version, the Drug Trend Report is developed and published by the Express Scripts Research & New Solutions Lab with contributors from researchers, clinicians and others. This type of research is designed to understand consumer behavior relative to healthcare benefits.


title: Express Scripts

text: Health science is the study of how people make decisions, and how to help them make better ones. Upon the merger of Express Scripts and Medco Health Solutions, the company came up with its own approach to understand its members health concerns, which it has dubbed Health Decision Science. This involves looking at three scientific disciplines: behavioral science or “consumerology”, clinical specialization, and actionable data. Because of its position between pharmacies and health care plans, Express Scripts sees 1.4 billion prescriptions a year, and it uses this information as part of its research data to create better solutions for clients and patients.


title: Express Scripts

text: On August 4, 2004, New York State Attorney General Eliot Spitzer filed a lawsuit against Express Scripts alleging that the company had kept tens of millions of dollars in drug rebates owed to the state. The suit was filed in the New York Supreme Court in Albany County. The lawsuit further claimed that Express Scripts had overstated the cost benefits of switching to certain preferred medications. In 2008 the company settled the lawsuit, agreeing to pay $9.3 million to Pennsylvania and 28 other states to resolve claims of deceptive business practices. As part of the settlement, the company also agreed to change its business practices and pay up to $200,000 in reimbursement to patients.


title: Express Scripts

text: In October 2008, the St. Louis headquarters received an anonymous letter that contained sensitive information about 75 members. The extortionist stated that they would release more of similar records if the company failed to pay an unspecified amount of money. A consumer class action lawsuit against Express Scripts was brought on by John Amburgy, a Missouri man, who accused the company of negligence in protecting customer records. The case was dismissed when Amburgy failed to show how he was directly affected by the breach.


title: Express Scripts

text: The city of Rockford, Illinois is now suing Mallinckrodt Pharmaceuticals and Express Scripts for their failure to reduce the prescription drug Acthar's price. The suit alleges that Express Scripts had a contract to be the exclusive distributor of Acthar, and therefore benefited from its higher price. The company said in an email to 60 Minutes that there was no conflict of interest.


title: Express Scripts

text: Express Scripts is known to reimburse pharmacies below cost for medications and push patients to only use their mail order service. They then will spread price the medication and charge the plan sponsor a much higher price for the medication than they will reimburse pharmacies for.


title: The Horse Soldiers

text: The Horse Soldiers is a 1959 American adventure war western film set during the American Civil War directed by John Ford and starring John Wayne, William Holden and Constance Towers. The screenplay by John Lee Mahin and Martin Rackin was loosely based on Harold Sinclair's 1956 novel of the same name, a fictionalized version of Grierson's Raid in Mississippi.


title: The Horse Soldiers

text: A Union cavalry brigade led by Colonel John Marlowe—a railroad construction engineer in civilian life—is sent on a raid behind Confederate lines to destroy a railroad and supply depot at Newton Station. Major Henry Kendall, a regimental surgeon who is torn between duty and the horror of war, is constantly at odds with Marlowe.


title: The Horse Soldiers

text: While the unit rests at Greenbriar Plantation, Miss Hannah Hunter, the plantation's mistress, acts as a gracious hostess to the unit's officers. But she and her slave, Lukey, eavesdrop on a staff meeting as Marlowe discusses his battle strategy. To protect the secrecy of the mission, Marlowe is forced to take the two women with him. Initially hostile to her Yankee captor, Miss Hunter gradually comes to respect him and eventually falls in love with him. In addition to Kendall and Miss Hunter, Marlowe also must contend with Col. Phil Secord, a politically ambitious officer who continually second-guesses Marlowe's orders and command decisions.


title: The Horse Soldiers

text: Several battles ensue, including the capture of Newton Station, later a fire fight during which Lukey is killed, and a skirmish with boy cadets from a local military school (based on the actual Battle of New Market). After destroying the crucial supply line, and with Confederate forces in pursuit, the brigade reaches a bridge that must be stormed in order to access the Union lines. After taking the bridge, Marlowe's men rig it with explosive charges, and Marlowe bids Hannah farewell. Kendall chooses to remain behind with some badly wounded men, knowing he will be captured with them, rather than leave them unattended until Confederate medical personnel arrive.


title: The Horse Soldiers

text: Marlowe, though wounded, kisses Miss Hunter goodbye, lights the fuse and is the last of his men to cross the bridge before it is destroyed, halting the Confederate advance. Their mission accomplished, he and his brigade continue on toward Baton Rouge. Marlowe's Union cavalrymen belt out the song When Johnny Comes Marching Home, with the last line changed to "And we'll all "raise hell" when Johnny comes marching home.


title: The Horse Soldiers

text: Exterior scenes were filmed in Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana, along the banks of Cane River Lake, and in and around Natchez, Mississippi. The film company built a bridge over the Cane River for the pivotal battle scene, and many locals were hired as extras. It also features scenes shot in Wildwood Regional Park in Thousand Oaks, California. The film used DeLuxe Color.


title: The Horse Soldiers

text: Holden and Wayne both received $750,000 for starring, a record salary at the time. The project was plagued from the start by cost overruns, discord, and tragedy. Holden and Ford argued incessantly. Wayne was preoccupied with pre-production logistics for "The Alamo". Lukey's dialog was originally written in "Negro" dialect that Althea Gibson, the former Wimbledon and U.S. National tennis champion who was cast in the role, found offensive. She informed Ford that she would not deliver her lines as written. Though Ford was notorious for his intolerance of actors' demands, he agreed to modify the script.


title: The Horse Soldiers

text: During filming of the climactic battle scene, veteran stuntman Fred Kennedy suffered a broken neck while performing a horse fall and died. "Ford was completely devastated," wrote biographer Joseph Malham. "[He] felt a deep responsibility for the lives of the men who served under him." The film was scripted to end with the triumphant arrival of Marlowe's forces in Baton Rouge, but Ford "simply lost interest" after Kennedy's death. He ended the film with Marlowe's farewell to Hannah Hunter before crossing and blowing up the bridge.


title: The Horse Soldiers

text: The film opened at number one in the United States but the film was a commercial failure; analysts said this was due largely to Wayne's and Holden's high salaries, and the complex participation of multiple production companies. The response of audiences and critics was "lackluster".


title: The Horse Soldiers

text: The film was loosely based on Harold Sinclair's 1956 novel of the same name, which in turn was based on the historic 17-day Grierson's Raid and Battle of Newton's Station in Mississippi during the Civil War.


title: The Horse Soldiers

text: In April 1863, Colonel Benjamin Grierson led 1,700 Illinois and Iowa soldiers from LaGrange, Tennessee to Baton Rouge, Louisiana, through several hundred miles of enemy territory, destroying Confederate railroad and supply lines between Newton's Station and Vicksburg, Mississippi. The mission was part of the Union Army's successful Vicksburg campaign to gain control over boat traffic on the Mississippi River, culminating in the Battle of Vicksburg. Grierson's destruction of Confederate-controlled rail links and supplies played an important role in disrupting Confederate General John C. Pemberton's strategies and troop deployments. Union General William Tecumseh Sherman reportedly described Grierson's daring mission as "the most brilliant of the war".


title: The Horse Soldiers

text: Though based loosely on Grierson's Raid, "The Horse Soldiers" is a fictional account that departs considerably from the actual events. The real-life protagonist, a music teacher named Benjamin Grierson, becomes railroad engineer John Marlowe in the film. Hannah Hunter, Marlowe's love interest, has no historical counterpart. Numerous other details were altered as well, "to streamline and popularize the story for the non-history buffs who would make up a large part of the audience."


title: The Horse Soldiers

text: Dr. Erastus Dean Yule, the real-life surgeon counterpart of Major Hank Kendall, actually did volunteer to stay behind and get captured by the Confederates with the casualties who were too wounded to continue. The raid actually took place about a year before the notorious Andersonville POW camp was built, and he was eventually exchanged after several months as a POW.


title: Valencia Basket

text: Valencia Basket Club S.A.D., commonly known as Valencia Basket (), is a professional basketball team based in Valencia, Spain. The team plays in the Liga ACB and the EuroLeague, with home games played at the Fuente de San Luis. The club is sponsored by the Spanish billionaire Juan Roig.


title: Valencia Basket

text: Valencia Basket was founded on 27 September 1986, after Valencia CF decided to fold its basketball section.


title: Valencia Basket

text: On 4 May 1988, while in its second season in the Primera División B, which was the second tier league of Spanish basketball at that time, the team won its first promotion to the Spanish top-tier level ACB, where the team remained until the 1994–95 season. In 1995, Valencia was relegated to the Spanish 2nd-tier level EBA League, after falling in the league's relegation playoff against Somontano Huesca. In the next season, after being the runner-up in Liga EBA, in a non-promoting season, Valencia BC bought Amway Zaragoza's ACB place to join the top league, where it has remained until nowadays.


title: Valencia Basket

text: On 2 February 1998, Pamesa Valencia won its first Spanish national title, after beating Pinturas Bruguer Badalona, by a score of 89–75, in the final of the 1998 Copa del Rey, which was played in Valladolid. One year later, on 13 April 1999, the club played in the final of the 1998–99 FIBA Saporta Cup, but was defeated by Benetton Treviso, 64–60, in the final played in Zaragoza. Three years later, the club repeated the same success, but Montepaschi Siena won the final of the 2001–02 FIBA Saporta Cup, by a score of 81–71, in Lyon, France.


title: Valencia Basket

text: Continuing on with some of the club's best years, the 2001–02 ACB season was historic for the club, as it reached the Spanish ACB League finals, where they could not win any games in their series against FC Barcelona. Before this first success in reaching the finals of the Spanish league's playoffs, Pamesa Valencia won its first European-wide title, by defeating Krka Novo Mesto in the 2002–03 ULEB Cup, which would then also allow the club to make its debut in the European top-tier level EuroLeague.


title: Valencia Basket

text: In its first EuroLeague participation, Pamesa Valencia qualified for the Top 16, but was eliminated there, after not contesting its game at Nokia Arena against Maccabi Tel Aviv, adducing security issues in Israel.


title: Valencia Basket

text: On 18 April 2010, Power Electronics Valencia won its second European title, by beating Alba Berlin, 67–44, in the 2010 EuroCup Finals, which was played in Vitoria-Gasteiz. This allowed the club to come back to the top level EuroLeague, seven years after its first participation in the tournament. This time, Valencia reached the EuroLeague quarterfinals, where it was eliminated by Real Madrid, who won the playoff series by a 3–2 margin.


title: Valencia Basket

text: The club's third European-wide 2nd-tier level EuroCup title arrived on 7 May 2014, when Valencia beat UNICS Kazan, in the double-legged finals.


title: Valencia Basket

text: On 5 June 2017, Valencia Basket qualified for its second Spanish Liga ACB Finals series, after defeating Baskonia in the semifinals of the 2017 national league playoffs. This time, the club won its first ever Spanish national domestic league championship, on 16 June 2017, by defeating Real Madrid with a 3–1 series score in the ACB league's finals. In the same season, the club also reached the finals of both the Copa del Rey (Spanish Cup), and the EuroCup, but they lost those finals to Real Madrid, and fellow Spanish side, Unicaja, respectively. By winning the Spanish League championship, Valencia also sealed their return to the next season's top-tier level EuroLeague competition, for the 2017–18 season.


title: Valencia Basket

text: The club's fourth European-wide 2nd-tier level EuroCup title arrived on 16 April 2019, when Valencia beat Alba Berlin, in the double-legged finals.


title: Valencia Basket

text: Valencia Basket plays its home games at the 8,500 seat Fuente de San Luis arena, however the arena is better known as "La Fonteta".


title: Valencia Basket

text: The club is expected to move to a new 15,600 seat arena called Roig Arena (previously proposed as Casal España Arena), with the inauguration scheduled for 2024.


title: Valencia Basket

text: The women's team of Valencia Basket was created in 2014 and promoted to Liga Femenina in 2018, winning the final game against Real Club Celta de Vigo in Valencia. This access to the first division and the relegation of Club Baloncesto Estudiantes (femenino) made Valencia Basket the only club with masculine and feminine representation in the first division in the 2018-2019 season.


title: Valencia Basket

text: In the first season competing on the first division, Valencia Basket achieved a ticket to their first Copa de la Reina de baloncesto, celebrated in Vitoria between the 28th of February and the 3 of June. Also, they achieve a spot to participate in the playoffs, losing against Perfumerías Avenida on the semifinals, but achieving the opportunity to play his first European tournament the next season.


title: 2014 in video games

text: The year 2014 saw a number of events in the video game industry. No new major consoles were released, but updates and upgrades were: the New Nintendo 3DS was released in Japan and Oceania, and Sony released new model 2000 PS Vita systems in Europe & North America. In video game-related corporate acquisitions, Amazon purchased the online video game streaming service Twitch, and Facebook acquired the virtual reality company and product Oculus. Nintendo released Amiibo in 2014, companion figurines that could be scanned by the 3DS and WiiU systems. On Twitter and other Internet social media, the Gamergate controversy began.


title: 2014 in video games

text: Among video games originally released in 2014, critics gave the highest reviews to "Super Smash Bros. for Wii U", "Dark Souls II", "Bayonetta 2", "Shovel Knight", "Velocity 2X", "", "Mario Kart 8", and "". Other significant games that won awards included "Destiny", "", and "Monument Valley".


title: 2014 in video games

text: The following were 2014's top ten highest-grossing video games in terms of worldwide revenue (including physical sales, digital purchases, subscriptions, microtransactions, free-to-play and pay-to-play) across all platforms (including mobile, personal computer, and console platforms).


title: Poison discography

text: The following is a comprehensive discography of Poison, an American glam metal band that achieved huge success in the mid-1980s to mid-1990s. Poison sold more than 16 million records in the United States alone. The band has also charted ten singles to the Top 40 of the "Billboard" Hot 100, including six Top 10 singles and the Hot 100 number-one single, "Every Rose Has Its Thorn". The band became icons of the 1980s MTV era and have had widespread commercial success. The band's breakthrough debut album, the multi-platinum "Look What the Cat Dragged In" was released in 1986 and they hit their peak with the second album, the multi-platinum selling "Open Up and Say... Ahh!" which became the band's most successful album ever. The popularity continued into the new decade with their third consecutive multi-platinum selling album "Flesh & Blood".


title: Poison discography

text: In the 1990s following the release of the band's first live album "Swallow This Live", the band experienced some line up changes and the fall of glam metal with the grunge movement, but despite the drop in popularity the band's fourth studio album "Native Tongue" still achieved Gold status and the band's first compilation album "" went double platinum.


title: Poison discography

text: In the 2000s, with the original line up back together, the band found new popularity after a successful greatest hits reunion tour in 1999. The band began the new decade with the release of the long-awaited "Crack a Smile... and More!", followed by the "Power to the People" album. The band toured almost every year to sold out stadiums and arenas. They released a brand new album "Hollyweird" in 2002 and in 2006 the band celebrated their 20-year anniversary with "" tour and album, which was certified gold and marked Poison's return to the "Billboard" 200 top 20 charts for the first time since 1993. After over 35 years, the band is still recording music and performing.


title: Poison discography

text: Since their debut in 1986, they have released seven studio albums, four live albums, five compilation albums, and have issued 28 singles to radio.


title: Dave Free

text: Dave Free (born November 13, 1986), is a professional American filmmaker, record producer and record executive. He is best known for his creative partnership with rapper Kendrick Lamar, with whom he founded the creative collective pgLang. He has co-directed several music videos and films alongside Lamar under the collective name The Little Homies.


title: Dave Free

text: David Friley was born in Los Angeles, California on November 13, 1986. He is a childhood friend of rapper Kendrick Lamar, having met while they were both attending Centennial High School. After graduating, Friley worked as a computer technician while helping Lamar begin his rap career. He used his job to showcase Lamar's music to Anthony "Top Dawg" Tiffith, founder and CEO of independent record label Top Dawg Entertainment (TDE), which led to him signing a recording contract with the label in 2005.


title: Dave Free

text: Shortly after Lamar signed with TDE, Free joined the label as an in-house producer. He became a member of the hip hop production team Digi+Phonics alongside Sounwave, Willie B and Tae Beast and worked significantly on projects for the hip hop supergroup Black Hippy, composed of Lamar, Jay Rock, Schoolboy Q and Ab-Soul. Their production work received critical praise; "Complex" named Digi+Phonics as one of the top 25 new producers to watch out for in November 2012. BET named them as one of the top ten young producers on the rise in July 2013.


title: Dave Free

text: Free's business career began as the social media director for TDE. In 2007, he was named the label's co-president alongside Terrence "Punch" Henderson. Free subsequently became Lamar's manager during his tenure and co-directed several of his studio albums and accompanying music videos under the collective name The Little Homies. Their filmmaking work earned praise and led to the duo winning the Grammy Award for Best Music Video and the MTV Video Music Awards for Best Hip Hop Video and Video of the Year.


title: Dave Free

text: On October 4, 2019, "Rolling Stone" reported that Free had left TDE and was working independently. He was also helping rapper Baby Keem as he started gaining recognition and expressed his intention of "getting heavy into the film game." On March 5, 2020, Free and Lamar launched the "multi-lingual" creative collective PGLang. Through the collective, Free has written and directed several music videos and advertising campaigns for Calvin Klein, Converse and Cash App. On January 13, 2022, Free and Lamar announced they were producing an untitled comedy film with "South Park" creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone for Paramount Pictures.


title: Impi

text: Its beginnings lie far back in historic local warfare customs, when groups of armed men called battled. They were systematised radically by the king Shaka, who was then only the exiled illegitimate son of king Senzangakhona kaJama, but already showing much prowess as a general in the army () of Mthethwa king Dingiswayo in the Ndwandwe–Zulu War of 1817–1819.


title: Impi

text: The Zulu impi is popularly identified with the ascent of Shaka, ruler of the relatively small Zulu tribe before its explosion across the landscape of southern Africa, but its earliest shape as an instrument of statecraft lies in the innovations of the Mthethwa chieftain Dingiswayo, according to some historians (Morris 1965). These innovations in turn drew upon existing tribal customs, such as the "iNtanga". This was an age grade tradition common among many of the Bantu peoples of the continent's southern region. Young men were organised into age groups, with each cohort responsible for certain duties and tribal ceremonies. Periodically, the older age grades were summoned to the kraals of sub-chieftains, or "inDunas", for consultations, assignments, and an induction ceremony that marked their transition from boys to full-fledged adults and warriors, the "ukuButwa". Kraal or settlement elders generally handled local disputes and issues. Above them were the inDunas, and above the inDunas stood the chief of a particular clan lineage or tribe. The inDunas handled administrative matters for their chiefs – ranging from settlement of disputes, to the collection of taxes. In time of war, the inDunas supervised the fighting men in their areas, forming leadership of the military forces deployed for combat. The age grade "iNtangas", under the guidance of the inDunas, formed the basis for the systematic regimental organisation that would become known worldwide as the impi.


title: Impi

text: Warfare was of low intensity among the Bantu prior to the rise of Shaka, though it occurred frequently. Objectives were typically limited to such matters as cattle raiding, avenging some personal insult, or resolving disputes over segments of grazing land. Generally a loose mob, called an "impi" participated in these melees. There were no campaigns of extermination against the defeated. They simply moved on to other open spaces on the veldt, and equilibrium was restored. The bow and arrow were known but seldom used. Warfare, like the hunt, depended on skilled spearmen and trackers. The primary weapon was a thin 6-foot throwing spear, the "assegai". Several were carried into combat. Defensive weapons included a small cowhide shield, which was later improved by King Shaka. Many battles were arranged, with the clan warriors meeting at an agreed place and time, while women and children of the clan watched the festivities from some distance away. Ritualized taunts, single combats and tentative charges were the typical pattern. If the affair did not dissipate before, one side might find enough courage to mount a sustained attack, driving off their enemies. Casualties were usually light. The defeated clan might pay in lands or cattle and have captives to be ransomed but extermination and mass casualties were rare. Tactics were rudimentary. Outside the ritual battles, the quick raid was the most frequent combat action, marked by burning kraals, seizure of captives, and the driving off of cattle. Pastoral herders and light agriculturalists, the Bantu did not usually build permanent fortifications to fend off enemies. A clan under threat simply packed their meager material possessions, rounded up their cattle and fled until the marauders were gone. If the marauders did not stay to permanently dispossess them of grazing areas, the fleeing clan might return to rebuild in a day or two. The genesis of the Zulu impi thus lies in tribal structures existing long before the coming of Europeans or the Shaka era.


title: Impi

text: In the early 19th century, a combination of factors began to change the customary pattern. These included rising populations, the growth of white settlement and slaving that dispossessed native peoples both at the Cape and in Portuguese Mozambique, and the rise of ambitious "new men." One such man, a warrior called Dingiswayo ("the Troubled One") of the Mthethwa rose to prominence. Historians such as Donald Morris hold that his political genius laid the basis for a relatively light hegemony. This was established through a combination of diplomacy and conquest, using not extermination or slavery, but strategic reconciliation and judicious force of arms. This hegemony reduced the frequent feuding and fighting among the small clans in the Mthethwa's orbit, transferring their energies to more centralised forces. Under Dingiswayo the age grades came to be regarded as military drafts, deployed more frequently to maintain the new order. It was from these small clans, including among them the eLangeni and the Zulu, that Shaka sprung.


title: Impi

text: Shaka proved himself to be one of Dingiswayo's most able warriors after the military call up of his age grade to serve in the Mthethwa forces. He fought with his iziCwe regiment wherever he was assigned during this early period, but from the beginning, Shaka's approach to battle did not fit the traditional mould. He began to implement his own individual methods and style, designing the famous short stabbing spear the "iKlwa", a larger, stronger shield, and discarding the oxhide sandals that he felt slowed him down. These methods proved effective on a small scale, but Shaka himself was restrained by his overlord. His conception of warfare was far more extreme than the reconcilitory methods of Dingiswayo. He sought to bring combat to a swift and bloody decision, as opposed to duels of individual champions, scattered raids, or limited skirmishes where casualties were comparatively light. While his mentor and overlord Dingiswayo lived, Shakan methods were reined in, but the removal of this check gave the Zulu chieftain much broader scope. It was under his rule that a much more rigorous mode of tribal warfare came into being. This newer, brutal focus demanded changes in weapons, organisation and tactics.


title: Impi

text: Shaka is credited with introducing a new variant of the traditional weapon, demoting the long, spindly throwing spear in favour of a heavy-bladed, short-shafted stabbing spear. He is also said to have introduced a larger, heavier cowhide shield ("isihlangu"), and trained his forces to thus close with the enemy in more effective hand-to-hand combat. The throwing spear was not discarded, but standardised like the stabbing implement and carried as a missile weapon, typically discharged at the foe, before close contact. These weapons changes integrated with and facilitated an aggressive mobility and tactical organisation.


title: Impi

text: As weapons, the Zulu warrior carried the "iklwa" stabbing spear (losing one could result in execution) and a club or cudgel fashioned from dense hardwood known in Zulu as the "iwisa", usually called the knobkerrie or knobkerry English and knopkierie in Afrikaans, for beating an enemy in the manner of a mace. Zulu officers often carried the half-moon-shaped Zulu ax, but this weapon was more of a symbol to show their rank. The iklwa – so named because of the sucking sound it made when withdrawn from a human body – with its long and broad blade was an invention of Shaka that superseded the older thrown "ipapa" (so named because of the "pa-pa" sound it made as it flew through the air). It could theoretically be used both in melee and as a thrown weapon, but warriors were forbidden in Shaka's day from throwing it, which would disarm them and give their opponents something to throw back. Moreover, Shaka felt it discouraged warriors from closing into hand-to-hand combat.


title: Impi

text: Shaka's brother, and successor, Dingane kaSenzangakhona reintroduced greater use of the throwing spear, perhaps as a counter to Boer firearms.


title: Impi

text: As early as Shaka's reign small numbers of firearms, often obsolete muskets and rifles, were obtained by the Zulus from Europeans by trade. In the aftermath of the defeat of the British at the Battle of Isandlwana in 1879, many Martini–Henry rifles were captured by the Zulus together with considerable amounts of ammunition. The advantage of this capture is debatable due to the alleged tendency of Zulu warriors to close their eyes when firing such weapons. The possession of firearms did little to change Zulu tactics, which continued to rely on a swift approach to the enemy to bring him into close combat.


title: Impi

text: All warriors carried a shield made of oxhide, which retained the hair, with a central stiffening shaft of wood, the "mgobo". Shields were the property of the king; they were stored in specialised structures raised off the ground for protection from vermin when not issued to the relevant regiment. The large "isihlangu" shield of Shaka's day was about five feet in length and was later partially replaced by the smaller "umbumbuluzo," a shield of identical manufacture but around three and a half feet in length. Close combat relied on co-ordinated use of the "iklwa" and shield. The warrior sought to get the edge of his shield behind the edge of his enemy's, so that he could pull the enemy's shield to the side, thus opening him to a thrust with the "iklwa" deep into the abdomen or chest.


title: Impi

text: The fast-moving host, like all military formations, needed supplies. These were provided by young boys, who were attached to a force and carried rations, cooking pots, sleeping mats, extra weapons and other material. Cattle were sometimes driven on the hoof as a movable larder. Again, such arrangements in the local context were probably nothing unusual. What was different was the systematisation and organisation, a pattern yielding major benefits when the Zulu were dispatched on raiding missions.


title: Impi

text: Age-grade groupings of various sorts were common in the Bantu tribal culture of the day, and indeed are still important in much of Africa. Age grades were responsible for a variety of activities, from guarding the camp, to cattle herding, to certain rituals and ceremonies. It was customary in Zulu culture for young men to provide limited service to their local chiefs until they were married and recognised as official householders. Shaka manipulated this system, transferring the customary service period from the regional clan leaders to himself, strengthening his personal hegemony. Such groupings on the basis of age, did not constitute a permanent, paid military in the modern Western sense, nevertheless they did provide a stable basis for sustained armed mobilisation, much more so than ad hoc tribal levies or war parties.


title: Impi

text: Shaka organised the various age grades into regiments, and quartered them in special military kraals, with each regiment having its own distinctive names and insignia. Some historians argue that the large military establishment was a drain on the Zulu economy and necessitated continual raiding and expansion. This may be true since large numbers of the society's men were isolated from normal occupations, but whatever the resource impact, the regimental system clearly built on existing tribal cultural elements that could be adapted and shaped to fit an expansionist agenda.


title: Impi

text: After their 20th birthdays, young men would be sorted into formal "ibutho" (plural "amabutho") or regiments. They would build their "i=handa" (often referred to as a 'homestead', as it was basically a stockaded group of huts surrounding a corral for cattle), their gathering place when summoned for active service. Active service continued until a man married, a privilege only the king bestowed. The amabutho were recruited on the basis of age rather than regional or tribal origin. The reason for this was to enhance the centralised power of the Zulu king at the expense of clan and tribal leaders. They swore loyalty to the king of the Zulu nation.


title: Impi

text: Shaka discarded sandals to enable his warriors to run faster. Initially the move was unpopular, but those who objected were simply killed, a practice that quickly concentrated the minds of remaining personnel. Zulu tradition indicates that Shaka hardened the feet of his troops by having them stamp thorny tree and bush branches flat. Shaka drilled his troops frequently, implementing forced marches covering more than fifty miles a day. He also drilled the troops to carry out encirclement tactics (see below). Such mobility gave the Zulu a significant impact in their local region and beyond. Upkeep of the regimental system and training seems to have continued after Shaka's death, although Zulu defeats by the Boers, and growing encroachment by British colonists, sharply curtailed raiding operations prior to the War of 1879. Morris (1965, 1982) records one such mission under King Mpande to give green warriors of the uThulwana regiment experience: a raid into Swaziland, dubbed ""Fund' uThulwana"" by the Zulu, or "Teach the uThulwana".


title: Impi

text: Impi warriors were trained as early as age six, joining the army as "udibi" porters at first, being enrolled into same-age groups ("intanga"). Until they were "buta"'d, Zulu boys accompanied their fathers and brothers on campaign as servants. Eventually, they would go to the nearest "ikhanda" to "kleza" (literally, "to drink directly from the udder"), at which time the boys would become "inkwebane", cadets. They would spend their time training until they were formally enlisted by the king. They would challenge each other to stick fights, which had to be accepted on pain of dishonor.


title: Impi

text: In Shaka's day, warriors often wore elaborate plumes and cow tail regalia in battle, but by the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879, many warriors wore only a loin cloth and a minimal form of headdress. The later period Zulu soldier went into battle relatively simply dressed, painting his upper body and face with chalk and red ochre, despite the popular conception of elaborately panoplied warriors. Each "ibutho" had a singular arrangement of headdress and other adornments, so that the Zulu army could be said to have had regimental uniforms; latterly the 'full-dress' was only worn on festive occasions. The men of senior regiments would wear, in addition to their other headdress, the head-ring ("isicoco") denoting their married state. A gradation of shield colour was found, junior regiments having largely dark shields the more senior ones having shields with more light colouring; Shaka's personal regiment "Fasimba" (The Haze) having white shields with only a small patch of darker colour. This shield uniformity was facilitated by the custom of separating the king's cattle into herds based on their coat colours.


title: Impi

text: Certain adornments were awarded to individual warriors for conspicuous courage in action; these included a type of heavy brass arm-ring ("ingxotha") and an intricate necklace composed of interlocking wooden pegs ("iziqu").


title: Impi

text: The Zulu typically took the offensive, deploying in the well known "buffalo horns" formation. The attack layout was composed of four elements, each of which represented a grouping of Zulu regiments:


title: Impi

text: Encirclement tactics were not unique in the region and attempts to surround an enemy were not unknown even in the ritualised battles. The use of separate manoeuvre elements to support a stronger central group was also known in pre-mechanised tribal warfare, as is the use of reserve echelons farther back. What was unique about the Zulu was the degree of organisation, consistency with which they used these tactics, and the speed at which they executed them. Developments and refinements may have taken place after Shaka's death, as witnessed by the use of larger groupings of regiments by the Zulu against the British in 1879. Missions, available manpower and enemies varied, but whether facing native spear, or European bullet, the impis generally fought in and adhered to the classical buffalo horns pattern.


title: Impi

text: Organization. The Zulu forces were generally grouped into 3 levels: regiments, corps of several regiments, and "armies" or bigger formations, although the Zulu did not use these terms in the modern sense. Size distinctions were taken account of, any grouping of men on a mission could collectively be called an impi, whether a raiding party of 100 or horde of 10,000. Numbers were not uniform, but dependent on a variety of factors including assignments by the king, or the manpower mustered by various clan chiefs or localities. A regiment might be 400 or 4000 men. These were grouped into Corps that took their name from the military kraals where they were mustered, or sometimes the dominant regiment of that locality. While the modest Zulu population could not turn out the hundreds of thousand available to major world or continental powers like France, Britain, or Russia, the Zulu "nation in arms" approach could mobilize substantial forces in local context for short campaigns, and maneuver them in the Western equivalent of divisional strength. The victory won by Zulu king Cetawasyo at Ndondakusuka, for example, two decades before the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879, involved a battlefield deployment of 30,000 troops.


title: Impi

text: Higher command and unit leadership. An inDuna guided each regiment, and he in turn answered to senior izinduna who controlled the corps grouping. Overall guidance of the host was furnished by elder izinduna usually with many years of experience. One or more of these elder chiefs might accompany a big force on an important mission. Coordination of tactical movements was supplied by the indunas who used hand signals and messengers. Generally before deploying for battle, the regiments were made to squat in a semicircle while these commanders made final assignments and adjustments. Lower level regimental izinduna, like the NCOs of today's armies, and yesterday's Roman centurions, were extremely important to morale and discipline. Prior to the clash at Isandhlwana for example, they imposed order on the frenzied rush of warriors eager to get at the British, and steadied those faltering under withering enemy fire during the battle. The widely-spaced maneuvers of an impi sometimes could make control problematic once an attack was unleashed. Indeed, the Zulu attacks on the British strongpoints at Rorke's Drift and at Kambula, (both bloody defeats) seemed to have been carried out by over-enthusiastic leaders and warriors despite contrary orders of the Zulu King, Cetshwayo. Such over-confidence or disobedience by thrusting leaders or forces is not unusual in warfare. At the Battle of Trebia for example, the over-confident Roman commander Sempronius was provoked into a hasty attack, that resulted in a defeat for Roman arms. Likewise, General George Custer disobeyed the orders of his superior, General Terry, and rashly launched a disastrous charge against Indian forces at the Battle of the Little Bighorn, resulting in the total destruction of his command. Popular film re-enactments display a grizzled "izinduna" directing the Zulu host from a promontory with elegant sweeps of the hand, and the reserves still lay within top comanders' overall control. Coordination after an army was set in motion however relied more on the initial pre-positioning and assignments of the regiments before the advance, and the deep understanding by Zulu officers of the general attack plan. These sub-commanders could thus slow down or speed up their approach runs to maintain the general "buffalo horns" alignment to match terrain and situation.


title: Impi

text: As noted above, Shaka was neither the originator of the impi, or the age grade structure, nor the concept of a bigger grouping than the small clan system. His major innovations were to blend these traditional elements in a new way, to systematise the approach to battle, and to standardise organization, methods and weapons, particularly in his adoption of the "ilkwa" – the Zulu thrusting spear, unique long-term regimental units, and the "buffalo horns" formation. Dingswayo's approach was of a loose federation of allies under his hegemony, combining to fight, each with their own contingents, under their own leaders. Shaka dispensed with this, insisting instead on a standardised organisation and weapons package that swept away and replaced old clan allegiances with loyalty to himself. This uniform approach also encouraged the loyalty and identification of warriors with their own distinctive military regiments. In time, these warriors, from many conquered tribes and clans came to regard themselves as one nation- the Zulu. The Marian reforms of Rome in the military sphere are referenced by some writers as similar. While other ancient powers such as the Carthaginians maintained a patchwork of force types, and the legions retained such phalanx-style holdovers like the "triarii," Marius implemented one consistent standardised approach for all the infantry. This enabled more disciplined formations and efficient execution of tactics over time against a variety of enemies. As one military historian notes:


title: Impi

text: To understand the full scope of the impi's performance in battle, military historians of the Zulu typically look to its early operations against internal African enemies, not merely the British interlude. In terms of numbers, the operations of the impi would change--from the Western equivalent of small company and battalion size forces, to manoeuvres in multi-divisional strength of between 10,000 and 40,000 men. The victory won by Zulu king Cetawasyo at Ndondakusuka, for example, two decades before the Anglo-Zulu War, involved a deployment of 30,000 troops. These were sizeable formations in regional context but represented the bulk of prime Zulu fighting strength. Few impi-style formations were to routinely achieve this level of mobilisation for a single battle. By comparison, at Cannae, the Romans deployed 80,000 men, and generally could put tens of thousands more into smaller combat actions. The popular notion of countless attacking black spearmen is a distorted one. Manpower supplies on the continent were often limited. In the words of one historian: "The savage hordes of popular lore seldom materialized on African battlefields." This limited resource base would hurt the Zulu when they confronted technologically advanced world powers such as Britain. The advent of new weapons like firearms would also have a profound impact on the African battlefield, but as will be seen, the impi-style forces largely eschewed firearms, or used them in a minor way. Whether facing native spear or European bullet, impis largely fought as they had since the days of Shaka, from Zululand to Zimbabwe, and from Mozambique to Tanzania.


title: Impi

text: The Zulu had greater numbers than their opponents, but greater numbers massed together in compact arrays simply presented easy targets in the age of modern firearms and artillery. African tribes that fought in smaller guerrilla detachments typically held out against European invaders for a much longer time, as witnessed by the 7-year resistance of the Lobi against the French in West Africa, or the operations of the Berbers in Algeria against the French.


title: Impi

text: When the Zulu did acquire firearms, most notably captured stocks after the great victory at Isandhlwana, they lacked training and used them ineffectively, consistently firing high to give the bullets "strength." Southern Africa, including the areas near Natal, was teeming with bands like the Griquas who had learned to use guns. Indeed, one such group not only mastered the way of the gun, but became proficient horsemen as well, skills that helped build the Basotho tribe, in what is now the nation of Lesotho. In addition, numerous European renegades or adventurers (both Boer and non-Boer) skilled in firearms were known to the Zulu. Some had even led detachments for the Zulu kings on military missions.


title: Impi

text: Throughout the 19th century they persisted in "human wave" attacks against well defended European positions where massed firepower devastated their ranks. The ministrations of an "isAngoma" (plural: "izAngoma") Zulu diviner or "witch doctor", and the bravery of individual regiments were ultimately of little use against the volleys of modern rifles, Gatling guns and artillery at the Ineyzane River, Rorke's Drift, Kambula, Gingingdlovu and finally Ulindi.


title: Impi

text: While the term "impi" has become synonymous with the Zulu nation in international popular culture, it appears in various video games such as "Civilization III", "", "", "", and "Civilization VI", where the Impi is the unique unit for the Zulu faction with Shaka as their leader. 'Impi' is also the title of a very famous South Africa song by Johnny Clegg and the band Juluka which has become something of an unofficial national anthem, especially at major international sports events and especially when the opponent is England.


title: Impi

text: Before stage seven of the 2013 Tour de France, the Orica-GreenEDGE cycling team played 'Impi' on their team bus in honor of teammate Daryl Impey, the first South African Tour de France leader.


The Ecclesiastical History of the English People (), written by Bede in about AD 731, is a history of the Christian Churches in England, and of England generally; its main focus is on the conflict between the pre-Schism Roman Rite and Celtic Christianity. It was composed in Latin, and is believed to have been completed in 731 when Bede was approximately 59 years old. It is considered one of the most important original references on Anglo-Saxon history, and has played a key role in the development of an English national identity.


The "Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum", or "An Ecclesiastical History of the English People" is Bede's best-known work, completed in about 731. The first of the five books begins with some geographical background and then sketches the history of England, beginning with Julius Caesar's invasion in 55 BC. A brief account of Christianity in Roman Britain, including the martyrdom of St Alban, is followed by the story of Augustine's mission to England in 597, which brought Christianity to the Anglo-Saxons. The second book begins with the death of Gregory the Great in 604, and follows the further progress of Christianity in Kent and the first attempts to evangelise Northumbria. These encountered a setback when Penda, the pagan king of Mercia, killed the newly Christian Edwin of Northumbria at the Battle of Hatfield Chase in about 632. The setback was temporary, and the third book recounts the growth of Christianity in Northumbria under kings Oswald and Oswy. The climax of the third book is the account of the Council of Whitby, traditionally seen as a major turning point in English history. The fourth book begins with the consecration of Theodore as Archbishop of Canterbury, and recounts Wilfrid's efforts to bring Christianity to the kingdom of Sussex. The fifth book brings the story up to Bede's day, and includes an account of missionary work in Frisia, and of the conflict with the British church over the correct dating of Easter. Bede wrote a preface for the work, in which he dedicates it to Ceolwulf, king of Northumbria. The preface mentions that Ceolwulf received an earlier draft of the book; presumably, Ceolwulf knew enough Latin to understand it, and he may even have been able to read it. The preface makes it clear that Ceolwulf had requested the earlier copy, and Bede had asked for Ceolwulf's approval; this correspondence with the king indicates that Bede's monastery had excellent connections among the Northumbrian nobility.


title: Ecclesiastical History of the English People

text: Divided into five books (about 400 pages), the "Historia" covers the history of England, ecclesiastical and political, from the time of Julius Caesar to the date of its completion in 731.


text: The first twenty-one chapters cover the time period before the mission of Augustine; compiled from earlier writers such as Orosius, Gildas, Prosper of Aquitaine, the letters of Pope Gregory I and others, with the insertion of legends and traditions.


text: After 596, documentary sources that Bede took pains to obtain throughout England and from Rome are used, as well as oral testimony, which he employed along with critical consideration of its authenticity.


text: The monastery at Jarrow had an excellent library. Both Benedict Biscop and Ceolfrith had acquired books from the Continent, and in Bede's day the monastery was a renowned centre of learning.


text: For the period prior to Augustine's arrival in 597, Bede drew on earlier writers, including Orosius, Eutropius, Pliny, and Solinus. He used Constantius's "Life of Germanus" as a source for Germanus's visits to Britain. Bede's account of the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain is drawn largely from Gildas's "De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae". Bede would also have been familiar with more recent accounts such as Eddius Stephanus's "Life of Wilfrid", and anonymous "Lives" of Gregory the Great and Cuthbert. He also drew on Josephus's "Antiquities", and the works of Cassiodorus, and there was a copy of the "Liber Pontificalis" in Bede's monastery.


text: Bede also had correspondents who supplied him with material. Albinus, the abbot of the monastery in Canterbury, provided much information about the church in Kent, and with the assistance of Nothhelm, at that time a priest in London, obtained copies of Gregory the Great's correspondence from Rome relating to Augustine's mission. Almost all of Bede's information regarding Augustine is taken from these letters, which includes the "Libellus responsionum", as chapter 27 of book 1 is often known. Bede acknowledged his correspondents in the preface to the "Historia Ecclesiastica"; he was in contact with Daniel, the Bishop of Winchester, for information about the history of the church in Wessex, and also wrote to the monastery at Lastingham for information about Cedd and Chad. Bede also mentions an Abbot Esi as a source for the affairs of the East Anglian church, and Bishop Cynibert for information about Lindsey.


text: The historian Walter Goffart argues that Bede based the structure of the "Historia" on three works, using them as the framework around which the three main sections of the work were structured. For the early part of the work, dealing with the time up to the Gregorian mission of Augustine of Canterbury, Goffart asserts that Bede used Gildas's "De excidio". The second section, detailing the Gregorian mission, was framed on the anonymous "Life of Gregory the Great" written at Whitby. The last section, describing events after the Gregorian mission, Goffart says was modelled on Stephen of Ripon's "Life of Wilfrid". Most of Bede's informants for information after Augustine's mission came from the eastern part of Britain, leaving significant gaps in the knowledge of the western areas, which were those areas likely to have a native Briton presence.


text: The "Ecclesiastical History" has a clear polemical and didactic purpose. Bede sets out not just to tell the story of the English, but to advance his views on politics and religion.


text: In political terms he is a partisan of his native Northumbria, amplifying its role in English history over and above that of Mercia, its great southern rival. He takes greater pains in describing events of the seventh century, when Northumbria was the dominant Anglo-Saxon power than the eighth, when it was not. The only criticism he ventures of his native Northumbria comes in writing about the death of King Ecgfrith in fighting the Picts at Nechtansmere in 685.


text: Bede attributes this defeat to God's vengeance for the Northumbrian attack on the Irish in the previous year. For while Bede is loyal to Northumbria he shows an even greater attachment to the Irish and their missionaries, whom he considers to be far more effective and dedicated than their rather complacent English counterparts.


text: His final preoccupation is over the precise date of Easter, which he writes about at length. It is here, and only here, that he ventures some criticism of St Cuthbert and the Irish missionaries, who celebrated the event, according to Bede, at the wrong time. In the end he is pleased to note that the Irish Church was saved from error by accepting the correct date for Easter.


text: Bede's stylistic models included some of the same authors from whom he drew the material for the earlier parts of his history. His introduction imitates the work of Orosius, and his title is an echo of Eusebius's "Historia Ecclesiastica". Bede also followed Eusebius in taking the "Acts of the Apostles" as the model for the overall work: where Eusebius used the "Acts" as the theme for his description of the development of the church, Bede made it the model for his history of the Anglo-Saxon church. Bede quoted his sources at length in his narrative, as Eusebius had done. Bede also appears to have taken quotes directly from his correspondents at times. For example, he almost always uses the terms "Australes" and "Occidentales" for the South and West Saxons respectively, but in a passage in the first book he uses "Meridiani" and "Occidui" instead, as perhaps his informant had done. At the end of the work, Bede added a brief autobiographical note; this was an idea taken from Gregory of Tours' earlier "History of the Franks".


text: Bede's work as hagiographer, and his detailed attention to dating were both useful preparations for the task of writing the "Historia Ecclesiastica". His interest in computus, the science of calculating the date of Easter, was also useful in the account he gives of the controversy between the British and Anglo-Saxon church over the correct method of obtaining the Easter date.


text: One of the important themes of the "Historia Ecclesiastica" is that the conversion of Britain to Christianity had all been the work of Irish and Italian missionaries, with no efforts made by the native Britons. This theme was developed from Gildas' work, which denounced the sins of the native rulers during the invasions, with the elaboration by Bede that the invasion and settlement of Britain by the Angles and Saxons was God's punishment for the lack of missionary effort and the refusal to accept the Roman date for celebrating Easter. Although Bede discusses the history of Christianity in Roman Britain, it is significant that he ignores the missionary work of St Patrick. He writes approvingly of Aidan and Columba, who came from Ireland as missionaries to the Picts and Northumbrians, but disapproved of the failure of the Welsh to evangelize the invading Anglo-Saxons. Bede was a partisan of Rome, regarding Gregory the Great, rather than Augustine, as the true apostle of the English. Likewise, in his treatment of the conversion of the invaders, any native involvement is minimized, such as when discussing Chad of Mercia's first consecration, when Bede mentions that two British bishops took part in the consecration, thus invalidating it. No information is presented on who these two bishops were or where they came from. Also important is Bede's view of the conversion process as an upper-class phenomenon, with little discussion of any missionary efforts among the non-noble or royal population.


text: Another view, taken by historian D. H. Farmer, is that the theme of the work is "the progression from diversity to unity". According to Farmer, Bede took this idea from Gregory the Great and illustrates it in his work by showing how Christianity brought together the native and invading races into one church. Farmer cites Bede's intense interest in the schism over the correct date for Easter as support for this argument, and also cites the lengthy description of the Synod of Whitby, which Farmer regards as "the dramatic centre-piece of the whole work." The historian Alan Thacker wrote in 1983 that Bede's works should be seen as advocating a monastic rather than secular ministry, and Thacker argues that Bede's treatment of St Cuthbert is meant to make Cuthbert a role-model for the role of the clergy advocated by Gregory the Great.


text: The historian Walter Goffart says of the "Historia" that many modern historians find it a "tale of origins framed dynamically as the Providence-guided advance of a people from heathendom to Christianity; a cast of saints rather than rude warriors; a mastery of historical technique incomparable for its time; beauty of form and diction; and, not least, an author whose qualities of life and spirit set a model of dedicated scholarship." Goffart also feels that a major theme of the "Historia" is local, Northumbrian concerns, and that Bede treated matters outside Northumbria as secondary to his main concern with northern history. Goffart sees the writing of the "Historia" as motivated by a political struggle in Northumbria between a party devoted to Wilfrid, and those opposed to Wilfrid's policies.


text: Much of the "current" history in the "Historia" is concerned with Wilfrid, who was a bishop in Northumbria and whose stormy career is documented not only in Bede's works but in a "Life of Wilfrid". A theme in Bede's treatment of Wilfrid is the need to minimize the conflict between Wilfrid and Theodore of Tarsus, the Archbishop of Canterbury, who was involved in many of Wilfrid's difficulties.


text: The "Historia Ecclesiastica" includes many accounts of miracles and visions. These were "de rigueur" in medieval religious narrative, but Bede appears to have avoided relating the more extraordinary tales; and, remarkably, he makes almost no claims for miraculous events at his own monastery. There is no doubt that Bede did believe in miracles, but the ones he does include are often stories of healing, or of events that could plausibly be explained naturally. The miracles served the purpose of setting an example to the reader, and Bede explicitly states that his goal is to teach morality through history, saying "If history records good things of good men, the thoughtful reader is encouraged to imitate what is good; if it records evil of wicked men, the devout reader is encouraged to avoid all that is sinful and perverse."


text: Bede apparently had no informant at any of the main Mercian religious houses. His information about Mercia came from Lastingham, in Northumbria, and from Lindsey, a province on the borders of Northumbria and Mercia. As a result, there are noticeable gaps in his coverage of Mercian church history, such as his omission of the division of the huge Mercian diocese by Theodore in the late 7th century. Bede's regional bias is apparent.


text: There were clearly gaps in Bede's knowledge, but Bede also says little on some topics that he must have been familiar with. For example, although Bede recounts Wilfrid's missionary activities, he does not give a full account of his conflict with Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury, or his ambition and aristocratic lifestyle. Only the existence of other sources such as the "Life of Wilfrid" make it clear what Bede discreetly avoids saying. The omissions are not restricted to Wilfrid; Bede makes no mention at all of Boniface, though it is unlikely he knew little of him; the final book contains less information about the church in his own day than could be expected. A possible explanation for Bede's discretion may be found in his comment that one should not make public accusations against church figures, no matter what their sins; Bede may have found little good to say about the church in his day and hence preferred to keep silent. It is clear that he did have fault to find; his letter to Ecgberht contains several criticisms of the church.


text: The "Historia Ecclesiastica" has more to say about episcopal events than it does about the monasteries of England. Bede does shed some light on monastic affairs; in particular, he comments in book V that many Northumbrians are laying aside their arms and entering monasteries "rather than study the arts of war. What the result of this will be the future will show." This veiled comment, another example of Bede's discretion in commenting on current affairs, could be interpreted as ominous given Bede's more specific criticism of quasi-monasteries in his letter to Ecgberht, written three years later.


text: Bede's account of life at the court of the Anglo-Saxon kings includes little of the violence that Gregory of Tours mentions as a frequent occurrence at the Frankish court. It is possible that the courts were as different as their descriptions make them appear but it is more likely that Bede omitted some of the violent reality. Bede states that he wrote the work as an instruction for rulers, in order that "the thoughtful listener is spurred on to imitate the good". It also was no part of Bede's purpose to describe the kings who did not convert to Christianity in the "Historia".


text: In 725 Bede wrote "The Reckoning of Time" ("De Temporum Ratione"), using something similar to the "anno Domini" era (BC/AD dating system) created by the monk Dionysius Exiguus in 525, continuing to use it throughout "Historia Ecclesiastica", becoming very influential in causing that era to be adopted thereafter in Western Europe. Specifically, he used "anno ab incarnatione Domini" (in the year from the incarnation of the Lord) or "anno incarnationis dominicae" (in the year of the incarnation of the Lord). He never abbreviated the term like the modern AD. Bede counted "anno Domini" from Christ's birth, not from Christ's conception. Within this work, he was also the first writer to use a term similar to the English "before Christ". In book I chapter 2 he used "ante incarnationis dominicae tempus" (before the time of the incarnation of the Lord). However, the latter was not very influential—only this isolated use was repeated by other writers during the rest of the Middle Ages. The first extensive use of "BC" (hundreds of times) occurred in "Fasciculus Temporum" by Werner Rolevinck in 1474, alongside years of the world ("anno mundi").


text: Some early manuscripts contain additional annalistic entries that extend past the date of completion of the "Historia Ecclesiastica", with the latest entry dated 766. No manuscripts earlier than the twelfth century contain these entries, except for the entries for 731 through 734, which do occur in earlier manuscripts. Much of the material replicates what is found in Simeon of Durham's chronicle; the remaining material is thought to derive from northern chronicles from the eighth century.


text: The "Historia" was translated into Old English sometime between the end of the ninth century and about 930; although the surviving manuscripts are predominantly in the West Saxon dialect, it is clear that the original contained Anglian features and so was presumably by a scholar from or trained in Mercia. The translation was once held to have been done by King Alfred of England, but this attribution is no longer accepted, and debate centres on how far it owes its origins to the patronage of Alfred and/or his associates.


text: The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", the earliest tranche of which was composed/compiled around the same time as the translation was made, drew heavily on the "Historia", which formed the chronological framework of the early parts of the Chronicle.


text: The "Historia Ecclesiastica" was copied often in the Middle Ages, and about 160 manuscripts containing it survive. About half of those are located on the European continent, rather than in the British Isles. Most of the 8th- and 9th-century texts of Bede's "Historia" come from the northern parts of the Carolingian Empire. This total does not include manuscripts with only a part of the work, of which another 100 or so survive. It was printed for the first time between 1474 and 1482, probably at Strasbourg. Modern historians have studied the "Historia" extensively, and a number of editions have been produced. For many years, early Anglo-Saxon history was essentially a retelling of the "Historia", but recent scholarship has focused as much on what Bede did not write as what he did. The belief that the "Historia" was the culmination of Bede's works, the aim of all his scholarship, a belief common among historians in the past, is no longer accepted by most scholars.


text: The "Historia Ecclesiastica" has given Bede a high reputation, but his concerns were different from those of a modern writer of history. His focus on the history of the organization of the English church, and on heresies and the efforts made to root them out, led him to exclude the secular history of kings and kingdoms except where a moral lesson could be drawn or where they illuminated events in the church. In the early Middle Ages, the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle", "Historia Brittonum", and Alcuin's "Versus de patribus, regibus et sanctis Eboracensis ecclesiae" all drew heavily on the text. Likewise, the later medieval writers William of Malmesbury, Henry of Huntingdon, and Geoffrey of Monmouth used his works as sources and inspirations. Early modern writers, such as Polydore Vergil and Matthew Parker, the Elizabethan Archbishop of Canterbury, also utilized the "Historia", and his works were used by both Protestant and Catholic sides in the Wars of Religion.


text: Some historians have questioned the reliability of some of Bede's accounts. One historian, Charlotte Behr, asserts that the "Historia's" account of the arrival of the Germanic invaders in Kent should be considered as current myth, not history. Historian Tom Holland writes that "When, in the generations that followed Alfred, a united kingdom of England came to be forged, it was Bede’s history that provided it with a sense of ancestry that reached back beyond its foundation."


text: Manuscripts of the "Historia Ecclesiastica" fall generally into two groups, known to historians as the "c-type" and the "m-type". Charles Plummer, in his 1896 edition of Bede, identified six characteristic differences between the two manuscript types. For example, the c-type manuscripts omit one of the miracles attributed to St Oswald in book IV, chapter 14, and the c-type also includes the years 733 and 734 in the chronological summary at the end of the work, whereas the m-type manuscripts stop with the year 731. Plummer thought that this meant the m-type was definitely earlier than the c-type, but this has been disputed by Bertram Colgrave in his 1969 edition of the text. Colgrave points out that the addition of a couple of annals is a simple alteration for a copyist to make at any point in the manuscript history; he also notes that the omission of one of Oswald's miracles is not the mistake of a copyist, and strongly implies that the m-type is a later revision.


text: Some genealogical relationships can be discerned among the numerous manuscripts that have survived. The earliest manuscripts used to establish the c-text and m-text are as follows. The letters under the "Version" column are identifying letters used by historians to refer to these manuscripts.


text: With few exceptions, Continental copies of the "Historia Ecclesiastica" are of the m-type, while English copies are of the c-type. Among the c-texts, manuscript K includes only books IV and V, but C and O are complete. O is a later text than C but is independent of it and so the two are a valuable check on correctness. They are thought to have both derived from an earlier manuscript, marked "c2" in the diagram, which does not survive. A comparison of K and c2 yields an accurate understanding of the original c-text, but for the first three books, which are not in K, it is sometimes impossible to know if a variant reading in C and O represents the original state of the c-text, or is a variation only found in c2. One long chapter, book I chapter 27, is also found in another manuscript, Rh. 95 at the Zürich Zentralbibliothek; this is another witness to the c-text and appears to be independent of c2, and so is useful as a further cross-check on the c-text.


text: The m-text depends largely on manuscripts M and L, which are very early copies, made not long after Bede's death. Both seem likely to have been taken from the original, though this is not certain. Three further manuscripts, U, E, and N, are all apparently the descendants of a Northumbrian manuscript that does not survive but which went to the continent in the late 8th century. These three are all early manuscripts, but are less useful than might be thought, since L and M are themselves so close to the original.


text: The text of both the m-type and c-type seems to have been accurately copied. Taking a consensus text from the earliest manuscripts, Bertram Colgrave counted 32 places where there was an apparent error of some kind. However, 26 of these are to be found within a transcription from an earlier source, and it is apparent by checking independent copies of those sources that in such cases Bede copied the mistake into his own text.


text: Copies are sparse throughout the 10th century and for much of the 11th century. The greatest number of copies of Bede's work was made in the 12th century, but there was a significant revival of interest in the 14th and 15th centuries. Many of the copies are of English provenance, but also surprisingly many are Continental.


text: The first printed copy of the "Historia Ecclesiastica" appeared from the press of Heinrich Eggestein in Strasbourg, probably between 1475 and 1480. A defect in the text allows the identification of the manuscript Eggestein used; it subsequently appeared in a catalogue of the Vienna Dominicans of 1513. Eggestein had also printed an edition of Rufinus's translation of Eusebius's "Ecclesiastical History", and the two works were reprinted, bound as a single volume, on 14 March 1500 by Georg Husner, also of Strasbourg. Another reprint appeared on 7 December 1506, from Heinrich Gran and S. Ryman at Haguenau.


text: A Paris edition appeared in 1544, and in 1550 John de Grave produced an edition at Antwerp. Two reprints of this edition appeared, in 1566 and 1601. In 1563, Johann Herwagen included it in volume III of his eight-volume "Opera Omnia", and this was in turn reprinted in 1612 and 1688. Michael Sonnius produced an edition in Paris in 1587, including the "Historia Ecclesiastica" in a collection of other historical works; and in 1587 Johann Commelin included it in a similar compilation, printed at Heidelberg. In 1643, Abraham Whelock produced at Cambridge an edition with the Old English text and the Latin text in parallel columns, the first in England.


text: All of the above editions were based on the C-text. The first edition to use the m-type manuscripts was printed by Pierre Chifflet in 1681, using a descendant of the Moore MS. For the 1722 edition, John Smith obtained the Moore MS., and also, having access to two copies in the Cotton Library, was able to print a very high-quality edition. Smith undertook his edition under the influence of Thomas Gale, encouraged by Ralph Thoresby, and with assistance of Humfrey Wanley on Old English. He spent the majority of his time residing in Cambridge, and working on it, but did not live to complete the preparation. His son George brought out in 1722 the "Historiæ Ecclesiasticæ Gentis Anglorum Libri Quinque, auctore Venerabili Bæda ... cura et studio Johannis Smith, S. T. P.", published by Cambridge University Press. It contains also the preface to "The Reckoning of Time", and a world-chronicle. It also had the Old English version of the "Historia ecclesiastica". Smith's edition is described by David C. Douglas as "an enormous advance" on previous ones, adding that textual criticism of Bede hardly then changed until 1896, when the Plummer edition appeared.


text: Subsequently, the most notable edition was that of Charles Plummer, whose 1896 "Venerabilis Bedae Opera Historica", with a full commentary, has been a foundation-stone for all subsequent scholarship.


text: London, British Library, Cotton MS Tiberius C II, 1st half of 9th century, Latin https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/bedes-ecclesiastical-history-of-the-english-people


text: Oxford, Bodleian Library MS. Tanner 10, first half of 10th century, Old English https://digital.bodleian.ox.ac.uk/objects/8fb7abbc-bea5-494b-8ed5-34d11c8ce942/surfaces/04b93784-d6fa-4346-852b-724c0d9d7877/


text: Cambridge, Corpus Christi College, MS 041, c. 11th century, Old English https://parker.stanford.edu/parker/catalog/qd527zm3425


text: Cambridge, University Library, MS Kk.5.16 (The Moore Bede), c.737 https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-KK-00005-00016/1


title: Joe Conley

text: Joe Conley (March 3, 1928 – July 7, 2013) was an American actor who played many small roles on television and is most remembered for his role as the storekeeper Ike Godsey in "The Waltons".


title: Joe Conley

text: Joe Conley was born in Buffalo, New York. He started acting after returning from military service in Korea, and was running three real-estate agencies in the San Fernando Valley area of Los Angeles by the early 1970s after beginning this second career in 1961. While acting, he continued to work in real estate and, as a result, became wealthy.


title: Joe Conley

text: By the early 1970s, his career as an actor was in limbo. After twenty years of small parts in mainly television shows, he performed with Pat Harrington in an AT&T educational film called "How to Lose Your Best Customer Without Even Trying" before he was cast as storekeeper Ike Godsey in "The Waltons". Conley was paired with Ronnie Claire Edwards, who portrayed his bossy wife Corabeth Walton Godsey; their characters married in the show during 1975. In 2009, Conley published his autobiography, "Ike Godsey of Walton's Mountain".


title: Joe Conley

text: Conley died on July 7, 2013, at a care facility in Newbury Park, California of complications from dementia. He was 85 and is survived by his wife, three daughters and son.


title: Sleepaway Camp (film series)

text: Sleepaway Camp is an American slasher film franchise consisting of five films, one of which was not fully completed. The franchise primarily focuses on serial killer Angela Baker and the murders she commits, largely at summer camps.


title: Sleepaway Camp (film series)

text: Robert Hiltzik directed both the original 1983 film and "Return to Sleepaway Camp", while Michael A. Simpson oversaw "" and "", which introduced comedic elements into the franchise; "" was directed by Jim Markovic.


title: Sleepaway Camp (film series)

text: The "Year" column in the table below lists the year of release. "Sleepaway Camp II" and "III" were filmed back-to-back in 1988, with the latter released the following year.


title: Sleepaway Camp (film series)

text: "Sleepaway Camp IV" began filming in 1992 but was not completed; some footage that was shot on the first day, just over half an hour long, was released as an exclusive fourth disc included with some editions of the Region 1 "Sleepaway Camp" box set. The footage was compiled and improved by the makers and official "Sleepaway Camp" sequels website creator John Klyza and made into a 70-minute film, which was released on March 23, 2012, with online distribution.


title: Sleepaway Camp (film series)

text: "Return to Sleepaway Camp" was shot in 2003 and initially planned for release in 2006; it was eventually released in 2008 after improvements to the special effects were made.


title: Sleepaway Camp (film series)

text: "Sleepaway Camp Reunion" was set for DVD release by Magnolia Pictures in October 2011, with a limited 3D release in theaters, but the film was not made. The script for another sequel, tentatively titled "Sleepaway Camp: Berserk", was co-written by the director of "Sleepaway Camp II" and "III", Michael A. Simpson, with Fred Willard, an author.


title: Sleepaway Camp (film series)

text: The original "Sleepaway Camp" was written and directed by Robert Hiltzik and released in 1983. The film opens in an idyllic lake in summer, and shows a man, John Baker, and his two children, Angela and Peter, swimming around and on board a boat. Another group of teenagers are motorboating and in a freak accident run over John and one of the children, killing them. The film then cuts to a few years later, with a shy and quiet Angela, played by Felissa Rose, living with her eccentric aunt Dr. Martha Thomas and cousin Ricky. Martha sends the young teens off to summer camp at Camp Arawak. After the arrival of the teenage campers, several are mysteriously murdered by an unseen killer. All of the victims had at one point teased or tormented Angela, dying soon after. It is not revealed until the twist ending of the film that the killer is in fact "Peter", who survived the boat accident and was raised as his deceased sister Angela by his aunt.


title: Sleepaway Camp (film series)

text: "Sleepaway Camp II: Unhappy Campers" was made and released in 1988, directed by Michael A. Simpson and written by Fritz Gordon. It follows another group of teenagers at a summer camp, this time named Camp Rolling Hills. This film introduces Pamela Springsteen as an older, more confident, happy and expressive Angela Baker, named "Angela Johnson" who, unlike the first film, is shown as the killer within the first few minutes of the film. It features comedic elements, mostly jokes made by Angela as she kills her fellow campers for being "bad" campers - disobeying the rules (e.g. having sex, smoking or swearing/harassing others), getting in her way or suspecting her of being psychopathic.


title: Sleepaway Camp (film series)

text: "Sleepaway Camp III: Teenage Wasteland", filmed back-to-back with "Unhappy Campers" and largely featuring the same crew, follows Angela, who murders a prospective camper named Maria and takes her identity and place at the reopened Camp Rolling Hills, renamed Camp New Horizons, and is looking to change its reputation and brand to one of friendship amongst teenagers of different social classes and racial backgrounds. The campers are separated into groups with adult leaders, but Angela/Maria makes her way around the woods, integrating herself into the groups and killing the campers and leaders. Angela shows more of a sense of abandon in killing the campers this time around, some of whom she kills for next to no reason.


title: Sleepaway Camp (film series)

text: "Sleepaway Camp IV: The Survivor" was the planned fourth entry in the series and was partially filmed in 1992 before being abandoned due to the production company, Double Helix Films, going bankrupt. It follows a "survivor" of the original three films, Alison, who seeks psychiatric help after having nightmares about the camp site and the murders that took place there. She then travels back to the camp after receiving advice that revisiting might help her overcome her problems. After several events (and murders), however, she begins to suspect she may be Angela without knowing it, being revealed near the film's conclusion.


title: Sleepaway Camp (film series)

text: After years of tracking down those involved with the film's production including the director Jim Markovic, a team helped to uncover and compile additional footage, incorporating scenes from the first three films into flashback sequences and helping expand the initial 34-minute running time of the first day of takes from "The Survivor" and make them into a full-length, 70-minute completed film. It was released online on March 23, 2012 (although it was initially announced that there would "likely not be a specific release date") and is manufactured on-demand.


title: Sleepaway Camp (film series)

text: The following film in the franchise, "Return to Sleepaway Camp", was filmed from September to November 2003, but due to supposedly poor special effects, its straight-to-DVD release was delayed until 2008 in order to have time to improve them. It again features Robert Hiltzik as director and writer. The film ignores the plotline of the second and third film. It follows another, more chaotic camp, Camp Manabe, with an overweight, trouble-making and bullied teenage boy named Alan as its main character. Murders are again committed by an unknown person at the camp, but it is revealed that Angela has made a return in another disguise, a male police officer named Sheriff Jerry who uses an artificial voice box due to supposedly having had throat cancer.


title: Sleepaway Camp (film series)

text: Hiltzik reportedly planned a further sequel following "Return" titled "Sleepaway Camp Reunion", initially announced to be released in October 2011, but it is unknown if it evolved past the pre-production stages. It was set to have a limited release to theaters in 3D and would see the return of Angela, Ricky and Aunt Martha.


title: Sleepaway Camp (film series)

text: Similarly to "Reunion", another entry in the series was co-written by the director of "Sleepaway Camp II" and "III", Michael A. Simpson despite the fact that Simpson had no claim to the rights of the series. It was prospectively titled "Sleepaway Camp: Berserk" and reportedly introduced supernatural aspects into the series, but as of 2017, nothing has materialized.


title: Sleepaway Camp (film series)

text: In 2013, the franchise was set to be rebooted, but no progress was made like for the other aborted projects.


title: Sleepaway Camp (film series)

text: In December 2020, Felissa Rose had said that a sixth "Sleepaway Camp" film is in the works. She also said that she would be interested in playing Angela again.


title: Sleepaway Camp (film series)

text: For the first three "Sleepaway Camp" movies, early home video releases were made available. Each of the films from the original trilogy have been released in several countries around the world. In the United States, "Sleepaway Camp" was released not long following its theatrical exhibition. Its sequels "Sleepaway Camp II: Unhappy Campers" and "Sleepaway Camp III: Teenage Wasteland" were released on VHS format via Nelson Entertainment in October 1988 and December 15, 1989 respectively. In the United Kingdom, "Sleepaway Camp" was released on pre-cert VHS. "Sleepaway Camp II" and "III" were both released in cut versions under the titles "Nightmare Vacation II" and "III". In part 2, the scenes removed were the tongue removal scene and Ally's drowning in the toilet scene. Both II and III were released via Futuristic Entertainment in the UK in the early 1990s. Both these versions were again released on DVD in the UK via 23rd Century Entertainment in low quality and still in their cut versions.


title: Sleepaway Camp (film series)

text: In 2009, Felissa Rose reprised her role as Angela Baker in "Caesar and Otto's Summer Camp Massacre", a spoof of the "Sleepaway Camp" film series.