title: Static variable

text: In terms of scope and extent, static variables have extent the entire run of the program, but may have more limited scope. A basic distinction is between a "static global variable", which has global scope and thus is in context throughout the program, and a "static local variable," which has local scope. A static local variable is different from a local variable as a static local variable is initialized only once no matter how many times the function in which it resides is called and its value is retained and accessible through many calls to the function in which it is declared, e.g. to be used as a count variable. A static variable may also have module scope or some variant, such as internal linkage in C, which is a form of file scope or module scope.


title: Static variable

text: In object-oriented programming, there is also the concept of a "static member variable", which is a "class variable" of a statically defined class, i.e., a member variable of a given class which is shared across all instances (objects), and is accessible as a member variable of these objects. A class variable of a dynamically defined class, in languages where classes can be defined at run time, is allocated when the class is defined and is not static.


title: Static variable

text: Object constants known at compile-time, such as string literals, are usually allocated statically. In object-oriented programming, the virtual method tables of classes are usually allocated statically. A statically defined value can also be global in its scope ensuring the same immutable value is used throughout a run for consistency.


title: Kronborg

text: Kronborg is a castle and stronghold in the town of Helsingør, Denmark. Immortalized as Elsinore in William Shakespeare's play "Hamlet", Kronborg is one of the most important Renaissance castles in Northern Europe and was inscribed on the UNESCO's World Heritage List in 2000.


title: Kronborg

text: The castle is situated on the extreme northeastern tip of the island of Zealand at the narrowest point of the Øresund, the sound between present Denmark and the provinces of present Sweden that were also Danish at the time the castle was built. In this part, the sound is only wide, hence the strategic importance of maintaining a coastal fortification at this location commanding one of the few outlets of the Baltic Sea.


title: Kronborg

text: The castle's story dates back to a stronghold, "Krogen", built by King Eric VII in the 1420s. Along with the fortress Kärnan in Helsingborg on the opposite coast of Øresund, it controlled the entranceway to the Baltic Sea. From 1574 to 1585, King Frederick II had the medieval fortress radically transformed into a magnificent Renaissance castle. The main architects were the Flemings Hans Hendrik van Paesschen and Anthonis van Obbergen, whereas the sculptural work was coordinated by Gert van Groningen.


title: Kronborg

text: In 1629, a fire destroyed much of the castle, but King Christian IV subsequently had it rebuilt. The castle also has a church within its walls. In 1658, Kronborg was besieged and captured by the Swedes who took many of its valuable art treasures as war booty. In 1785 the castle ceased to be a royal residence and was converted into barracks for the Army. The Army left the castle in 1923, and after a thorough renovation it was opened to the public.


title: Kronborg

text: The castle's story dates back to a fortress, "Krogen" (lit. "the Hook"), built in the early 1400s by the Danish king, Eric of Pomerania. The king insisted on the payment of sound dues by all ships wishing to enter or leave the Baltic Sea through the Øresund; to help enforce his demands, he built a powerful fortress at the narrowest point in the Sound. At the time, the Kingdom of Denmark extended across both sides of the Sound, and on the eastern shore the Helsingborg Castle had been in existence since the Middle Ages. With the two castles and guard ships it was possible to control all navigation through the Sound.


title: Kronborg

text: The castle was built on "Ørekrog", a sandy tongue of land stretching into the sea from the coast of Zealand towards the coast of Scania. The castle consisted of a square curtain wall with a number of stone buildings inside. The stone building in the northeastern corner contained the king's residence. The building in the southwestern corner contained a large arched banquet hall. The building in the southeastern corner possibly served as the chapel. Large portions of the walls of Krogen are contained within the present-day Kronborg Castle.


title: Kronborg

text: As a consequence of developments in the military technique of the era and the improved striking power of the artillery, it became clear that it was necessary to modernize the fortifications of Krogen. After the conclusion of the Northern Seven Years' War in 1570, King Frederick II initiated an extension of the advanced bastions to relieve the medieval curtain wall. The main architect was the Flemish architect Hans Hendrik van Paesschen and the fortification works were completed in 1577. After this, the castle acquired its current name of "Kronborg" ().


title: Kronborg

text: The castle itself was rebuilt from 1574 to 1585, with the separated buildings of Krogen being extended to three coherent wings. The north wing was equipped with chambers for the king, queen and her ladies-in-waiting as well as for the chancellery. In the south wing, the medieval building in the southeast corner was refitted as a modern chapel with the vaulted windows facing the chapel being retained. Frederick was a keen patron of theatre and players performed at the castle when he held court there in 1579.


title: Kronborg

text: Initially, the castle was reconstructed only to a height of two storeys. In 1578, however, the Flemish architect Anthonis van Obbergen was engaged as new master builder and work was undertaken to make Kronborg even larger and more magnificent. The sculptural work was coordinated by Gert van Groningen. As a sign of the new ambitions, the south wing was heightened by one storey and a new, gigantic ball room placed over the chapel. Soon after the west and north wings were also heightened by one storey. Finally, the east wing was also heightened with a passageway, "The Queen's Gallery", allowing the Queen comfortable passage from her chambers in the north wing to the ball room in the south wing. The exterior walls were clad with sandstone from Scania, and the new castle was given a roof with copper sheeting.


title: Kronborg

text: James VI of Scotland stayed in the castle in 1590 after his marriage to Anne of Denmark. King James gave 2,000 Danish dalers in gold coins to the officers and servants in the castle as a reward.


title: Kronborg

text: In 1629, a moment's carelessness by two workmen caused much of the castle to go up in flames in the night between the 24 and 25 September. Only the chapel was spared by the strength of its arches. King Christian IV put great efforts into restoring the castle. Already in 1631, the work was underway, led by the architect Hans van Steenwinckel the Younger. By 1639, the exterior — which in keeping with the king's wish was reconstructed without major changes — was once again magnificent, but the interior never fully regained its former glory. Furthermore, certain modernizations were made, and portals, chimneypieces, ceiling paintings and other decorations were renewed in Baroque style.


title: Kronborg

text: During the Dano-Swedish War of 1658–60, Kronborg was besieged, attacked and conquered by a Swedish army commanded by Carl Gustaf Wrangel. During the Swedish occupation, the queen of Sweden, Hedvig Eleonora of Holstein-Gottorp and the Swedish king's sister Maria Eufrosyne of Pfalz lived at Kronborg, where they were visited by Charles X of Sweden during the campaign and entertained the foreign ambassadors.


title: Kronborg

text: As a result of the Swedish occupation, Kronborg was deprived of many of its most precious art works, including the richly decorated fountain in the castle courtyard, Frederick II's canopy and a number of the large ceiling paintings commissioned by Christian IV for the ballroom.


title: Kronborg

text: The Swedish conquest of Kronborg in 1658 demonstrated that the castle was far from impregnable. Afterwards, the defences were strengthened significantly. From 1688 to 1690, an advanced line of defence was added called the Crownwork. Shortly afterwards, a new series of ramparts were built around it. After their completion, Kronborg was considered the strongest fortress in Europe.


title: Kronborg

text: From 1739 until the 20th century, Kronborg was used as a prison. The inmates were guarded by the soldiers billeted in the castle. The convicts had been sentenced to work on the castle's fortifications. The convicts were divided into two categories: those with minor sentences were categorised as "honest" and were allowed to work outside the castle walls; those serving sentences for violence, murder, arson or the like were categorised as "dishonest" and had to serve the full sentence doing hard physical labour inside the castle ramparts. Otherwise, they served their time under the same conditions: they all had to wear chains and spend nights in cold and damp dungeons. From January 17, 1772, to April 30, 1772, Kronborg was the place of imprisonment of Queen Caroline Mathilde, sister of King George III, following the scandal of her affair with Johann Friedrich Struensee.


title: Kronborg

text: As Kronborg's importance as a royal castle diminished, the armed forces came to play a greater role. From 1785 to 1922, the castle was completely under military administration. During this period, a number of renovations were completed.


title: Kronborg

text: The captain of every ship sailing through the strait had to state the value of ship's cargo. Money that had to be paid to the King of Denmark, called Sound Dues, was then calculated depending on the value of the cargo. The king had the right to buy the cargo for the price the ship's captain stated. This policy prevented captains from stating prices that were too low. The Royal Danish Army left the castle in 1923, and after a thorough renovation it was opened to the public in 1938.


title: Kronborg

text: Kronborg Castle is located on the extreme northeastern tip of the island of Zealand, to the northeast of the historic centre of the town of Helsingør. It is situated at an elevation of 12 metres, on a small foreland jutting out into the narrowest point of the Øresund, the sound between the Danish island of Zealand and the Swedish province of Scania, that was also Danish until 1658. The approach from the town is to the east, with a series of moats and gates protecting the route from the town to the castle itself.


title: Kronborg

text: The royal apartments are located on the first floor of the north wing. The apartments were originally furnished by Frederick II around 1576, but after the fire in 1629, Christian IV had the apartments refurnished and richly decorated with ceiling paintings, stone portals and chimneypieces. The original floors were tiled in black and white which were replaced with wooden floorboards in 1760–61, and the walls were clad in gilt-leather. Today the chambers are furnished with Netherlandish furniture from the 17th century.


title: Kronborg

text: The King's Chamber has a bay window, located right above the castle's main portal, from which the king could keep an eye on guests arriving at the castle, whereas the Queen's Chamber has access to a vaulted tower chamber overlooking the Flag Bastion.


title: Kronborg

text: Measuring 62 x 12 metres, the Ballroom was the largest hall in Northern Europe when it was completed in 1582. The walls are hung with a series of large paintings which were originally made from 1618 to 1631 for the Great Hall of Rosenborg Castle in Copenhagen. The paintings in the Ballroom include: "Children off to School" by Francis Cleyn, "Feminine Pursuits" by Reinhold Timm, "Riding at the Ring" by Reinhold Timm, "A Boys School" by Francis Cleyn, "A Wedding in a Church" by Francis Cleyn, "An Academy for Noblemen" by Reinhold Timm, "A Banquet" (1622) by .


title: Kronborg

text: The walls of the Little Hall are furnished with seven tapestries originally from a series of forty tapestries portraying one hundred Danish kings. The masterpieces include "" (1376-1387) and "Tapestry depicting Knud VI" (1182-1202). The tapestries were commissioned by Frederick II around 1580. Seven more tapestries are at the National Museum of Denmark, while the rest have been lost.


title: Kronborg

text: The chapel is located in the ground floor of the south wing and was inaugurated in 1582. In 1785, as the castle was being fitted for use as army barracks, the chapel was fitted out as a gymnasium and fencing hall and the furniture stored away. The chapel was refurnished with the original furniture in 1838 and reinaugurated in 1843.


title: Kronborg

text: Kronborg is known to many as "Elsinore", the setting of William Shakespeare's famous tragedy "Hamlet, Prince of Denmark", though "Elsinore" is actually the anglicised name of the surrounding town of Helsingør. "Hamlet" was performed in the castle for the first time to mark the 200th anniversary of the death of William Shakespeare, with a cast consisting of soldiers from the castle garrison. The stage was in the telegraph tower in the southwest corner of the castle.


title: Kronborg

text: The play has since been performed several times in the courtyard and at various locations on the fortifications. Later performers to play Hamlet at the castle included Laurence Olivier, John Gielgud, Christopher Plummer, Derek Jacobi, David Tennant, and in 2009 Jude Law. In 2017, Hamletscenen presented a production of William Shakespeare's Hamlet at Kronborg castle, directed by Lars Romann Engel; the role of Hamlet was played by Cyron Melville and Ophelia by Natalie Madueño; music for the production was composed by Mike Sheridan.


title: Kronborg

text: According to a legend linked to Arthurian myth, a Danish king known as Ogier the Dane (Danish: "Holger Danske"), was taken to Avalon by the enchantress Morgan le Fay. Ogier returned to rescue France from danger, then travelled to Kronborg castle, where he sleeps until he is needed to save his homeland. His beard has grown to extend along the ground. A statue of the sleeping Ogier (right) has been placed in the castle casemates.


title: Kronborg

text: Kulturhavn Kronborg is an initiative of 2013 to offer a variety of culture experiences to residents and visitors to Helsingør. Kulturhavn Kronborg is a joint initiative by Kronborg Castle, Danish Maritime Museum, Kulturværftet and Helsingør harbour.


title: Kronborg

text: The castle was the setting of the televised holiday series "Jul på Kronborg" (), which featured both Hamlet and Holger the Dane. 'Elsinore Beer' is named for the castle and shown in the beer label logo in the 1983 comedy "Strange Brew", starring Rick Moranis and Dave Thomas.


title: Peripheral edema

text: Peripheral edema is edema (accumulation of fluid causing swelling) in tissues perfused by the peripheral vascular system, usually in the lower limbs. In the most dependent parts of the body (those hanging distally), it may be called dependent edema.


title: Peripheral edema

text: The condition is commonly associated with vascular and cardiac changes associated with aging but can be caused by many other conditions, including congestive heart failure, kidney failure, liver cirrhosis, portal hypertension, trauma, alcoholism, altitude sickness, pregnancy, hypertension, sickle cell anemia, a compromised lymphatic system or merely long periods of time sitting or standing without moving. Some medicines (e.g. amlodipine, pregabalin) may also cause or worsen the condition.


title: Peripheral edema

text: Successful treatment depends on control of the underlying cause. Severe swelling can cause permanent damage to nerves, resulting in peripheral neuropathy. Many cases from temporary or minor causes resolve on their own, with no lasting damage.


title: Pigeon toe

text: Pigeon toe, also known as in-toeing, is a condition which causes the toes to point inward when walking. It is most common in infants and children under two years of age and, when not the result of simple muscle weakness, normally arises from underlying conditions, such as a twisted shin bone or an excessive anteversion (femoral head is more than 15° from the angle of torsion) resulting in the twisting of the thigh bone when the front part of a person's foot is turned in.


title: Pigeon toe

text: The cause of in-toeing can be differentiated based on the location of the misalignment. The variants are:


title: Pigeon toe

text: The most common form of being pigeon toed, when the feet bend inward from the middle part of the foot to the toes. This is the most common congenital foot abnormality, occurring every 1 in 5,000 births. The rate of metatarsus adductus is higher in twin pregnancies and preterm deliveries. Most often self-resolves by one year of age and 90% of cases will resolve spontaneously (without treatment) by age 4.


title: Pigeon toe

text: The tibia or lower leg slightly or severely twists inward when walking or standing. Usually seen in 1-3 year olds, internal tibial torsion is the most common cause of intoeing in toddlers.  It is usually bilateral (both legs) condition that typically self-resolves by 4 to 5 years of age.


title: Pigeon toe

text: The neck of the femur is angled forward compared to the rest of the bone, causing a compensatory internal rotation of the leg. As a result, all structures downstream of the hip including the thigh, knee, and foot will turn in toward mid-line. Femoral anteversion is the most common cause of in toeing in children older than 3 years of age. It is most commonly bilateral, affects females twice as much as males, and in some families can show a hereditary pattern. This condition may progressively worsen from years 4 to 7, yet the majority of case still spontaneously resolve by 8 years of age.


title: Pigeon toe

text: Pigeon toe can be diagnosed by physical examination alone. This can classify the deformity into "flexible", when the foot can be straightened by hand, or otherwise "nonflexible". Still, X-rays are often done in the case of nonflexible pigeon toe. On X-ray, the severity of the condition can be measured with a "metatarsus adductus angle", which is the angle between the directions of the metatarsal bones, as compared to the lesser tarsus (the cuneiforms, the cuboid and the navicular bone). Many variants of this measurement exist, but "Sgarlato's angle" has been found to at least have favorable correlation with other measurements. "Sgarlato's angle" is defined as the angle between:


title: Pigeon toe

text: This angle is normally up to 15°, and an increased angle indicates pigeon toe. Yet, it becomes more difficult to infer the locations of the joints in younger children due to incomplete ossification of the bones, especially when younger than 3–4 years.


title: Pigeon toe

text: Internal tibial torsion is diagnosed by physical exam. The principle clinical exam is an assessment of the thigh-foot angle.  The affected individual is placed in prone position with the knees flexed to 90 degrees.  An imaginary line is drawn along the longitudinal axis of the thigh, and of the sole of the foot from a birds-eye view and the angle at the intersection of these two lines is measured.  A value greater than 10 degrees of internal rotation is considered internal tibial torsion.  A thigh-foot angle less than 10 degrees internal, and up to 30 degrees of external rotation is considered normal.


title: Pigeon toe

text: Femoral anteversion is diagnosed by physical exam.  The principle physical exam maneuver is an assessment of hip mobility. The child is evaluated in the prone position with knees flexed to 90 degrees. Using the tibia as a lever arm the femur is rotated both internally and externally.  A positive exam demonstrates internal rotation of greater than 70 degrees and external rotation reduced to less than 20 degrees. Normal values for internal rotation are between 20 and 60 degrees and normal values for external rotation are between 30 and 60 degrees.


title: Pigeon toe

text: In those less than eight years old with simple in-toeing and minor symptoms, no specific treatment is needed.


title: Pigeon toe

text: "Nonoperative management:" Non operative treatment of metatarsus adductus is dictated by the flexibility of the forefoot.  If the child can actively correct the forefoot to midline no treatment is indicated.  If the adduction cannot be corrected actively but is flexible in passive correction by an examiner, at-home stretching that mimics this maneuver can be performed by parents. In the case of a rigid deformity serial casting can straighten the foot.


title: Pigeon toe

text: "Surgical Management:" Most cases of metatarsus adductus that does not resolve is asymptomatic in adulthood and does not require surgery. Occasionally, persistent rigid metatarsus adductus can produce difficulty and significant pain associated with inability to find accommodating footwear. Surgical options include tasometatarsal capsulotomy with tendontransfers or tarsal osteotomies. Due to the high failure rate of capsulotomy and tendon transfer it is generally avoided. Osteotomy (cutting of bone) and realignment of the medial cuneiform, cuboid, or second through fourth metatarsal the safer and most effective surgery in patients over the age of 3 years old with residual rigid metatarsus adductus.


title: Pigeon toe

text: "Nonoperative management:" There are no bracing, casting, or orthotic techniques that have been shown to impact resolution of tibial torsion.  This rotational limb variant does not increase risk for functional disability or higher rates of arthritis if unresolved. Management involves parental education and observational visits to monitor for failure to resolve.


title: Pigeon toe

text: "Surgical management:" Indications for surgical correction are a thigh foot angle greater than 15 degrees in a child greater than 8 years of age that is experiencing functional limitations because of their condition. Surgical correction is achieved most commonly through a tibial derotational osteotomy. This procedure involves the cutting (osteotomy) and straightening (derotation) of the tibia, followed by internal fixation to allow the bone to heal in place.


title: Pigeon toe

text: "Nonoperative management:" Nonoperative treatment includes observation and parental education. Treatment modalities such as bracing, physical therapy, and sitting restrictions have not demonstrated any significant impact on the natural history of femoral anteversion.


title: Pigeon toe

text: "Surgical management:" Operative treatment is reserved for children with significant functional or cosmetic difficulties due to residual femoral anteversion greater than 50 degrees or internal hip rotation greater than 80 degrees after age 8. Surgical correction is achieved though a femoral derotation osteotomy. This procedure involves the cutting (osteotomy) and straightening (derotation) of the femur, followed by internal fixation and to allow the bone to heal in place.


title: Orangetheory Fitness

text: Orangetheory Fitness (OTF) is an American boutique fitness studio franchise based in Boca Raton, Florida. The first studio was established in Fort Lauderdale, Florida in 2010 by founder, Ellen Latham. The classes are one hour long and involve two groups, one on the treadmills and the other group working with weights or on rowers. Orangetheory Fitness has over 1,300 studios throughout 50 states and 23 countries. Since its founding in 2010, the chain has expanded, surpassing $1 billion in systemwide sales in 2018. As of 2020, the chain has over one million members.


title: Orangetheory Fitness

text: Orangetheory Fitness was founded by exercise physiologist Ellen Latham, Jerome Kern, and David Long in March 2010. It is the successor to a Fort Lauderdale-based Pilates studio, "Ellen's Ultimate Workout", founded by Latham in the late 1990s.


title: Orangetheory Fitness

text: Orangetheory Fitness was ranked #415 in "Inc." magazine's "Fastest-Growing Private Companies" list and #255 in "Entrepreneur" magazine's 2016 "Franchise 500" list of top franchises in the world. Its position on the "Franchise 500" rose to #25 in 2019 and #43 in 2020.


title: Orangetheory Fitness

text: At the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, Orangetheory Fitness attempted to instill precautions to keep their employees and members safe. On March 17, 2020, all corporate-owned studios were closed. Franchisees were encouraged to follow their lead.


title: Orangetheory Fitness

text: Orangetheory Fitness paused all payments on their memberships during this closure. Corporate studios continued to pay their employees throughout this period. Due to their studios being closed, they developed at-home workouts to give members a way to exercise during this time.


title: Orangetheory Fitness

text: During the closure, Orangetheory Fitness' Medical Advisory Board developed a plan for reopening in order to attempt to reduce uncertainty while also keeping staff and members safe. The new policies implemented follow the guidelines created by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, which consisted of “temperature checks before entry; reduced class sizes to maintain social distancing; redesigned workouts to minimize equipment cross-contamination; class scheduling modifications to allow for thorough sanitation protocols in between classes; training and implementation of electrostatic cleanings; temporarily closures of showers and towel service; recommended use of face masks by members; and required use personal protective equipment by all staff.” Despite reopening their studios, however, the decision was made to continue providing their at-home workouts.


title: Orangetheory Fitness

text: Orangetheory workouts are a form of high-intensity interval training, alternating between short periods of intense exercise and long recovery periods. These hour-long sessions are designed to generate excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC). Excess post-exercise oxygen consumption is a physiological concept that occurs after an elevation in oxygen consumption as the body returns to its pre-exercise state.


title: Orangetheory Fitness

text: Studios are split into three stations: treadmill, water-resistant rowing machines, and weight training. Attendees cycle between these stations over the course of a session. Workouts are categorized as emphasizing endurance, power, or strength, or a combination of the three. Workout sessions are group exercises led by a coach. Classes are pre-designed and not divulged to attendees prior to arrival.


title: Orangetheory Fitness

text: Members can book classes through the Orangetheory app which displays the location, day and time of open classes as well as which coach will be teaching. Members have the option to book classes at any OTF location around the world.


title: Orangetheory Fitness

text: Heart rate monitors are to be worn around the chest, forearm, or wrist. All metrics are shown on screens within the studio and for updated studios, they are shown on tablets attached to the treadmills or rowers.


title: Orangetheory Fitness

text: There are five heart rate zones used in the Orangetheory workout; grey, blue, green, orange, and red.


title: Orangetheory Fitness

text: Each attendee has the option to wear a branded heart rate monitor that is synchronized to a screen displaying performance metrics for the entire class. Attendees are encouraged to accumulate "splat points," which are based on the amount of time spent in the orange and red heart rate zones, in order to achieve the EPOC effect. Statistics are delivered to each member after each workout via email and a mobile app.


title: Orangetheory Fitness

text: OTF recently partnered with InBody to give members the opportunity to see their body composition analysis through the InBody Test. The test is performed by standing barefoot on the scale while it measures the weight. It then measures limb weight by standing still with arms out at a 45-degree angle while holding scanners. This 15 second test provides the user with a summary of statistics such as their metabolic rate, skeletal muscle mass, body fat percentage, and more. This test gives more information than a normal scale allowing users to pinpoint areas of improvement. After completing the scan, users are asked to enter their email to get a copy of their in-depth summary.


title: Orangetheory Fitness

text: Orangetheory Fitness hosts several challenges throughout the year, including the Transformation Challenge, Dri-Tri, Marathon, All Out Mayhem, Hell Week, Orange Voyage, Catch Me If You Can, Inferno, Capture the Flag, and 12 Days of Fitness. These challengers offer members themed workouts and apparel such as t-shirts, hats, or socks, for completing so many days of the challenge.


title: Orangetheory Fitness

text: "Momentum Shift" was released October 21, 2019. This short documentary follows founder Ellen Latham's journey to begin Orangetheory Fitness and how the company got to the success level that it has today.


title: Joseph Christopher

text: Joseph Gerard Christopher (July 26, 1955 – March 1, 1993) was an American serial killer who gained infamy for a series of murders in the early 1980s. He is believed to have killed at least twelve African American men and boys and wounded numerous others.


title: Joseph Christopher

text: Joseph Gerard Christopher was born in Buffalo, New York on July 26, 1955, as the only son born to Therese (née Hurley) and Nicholas Christopher. His mother was a registered nurse, and his father was a maintenance worker with the city's Sanitation Department. Joseph had two older sisters and one younger sister. Nicholas was an outdoorsman and hunter who taught Joseph how to shoot and handle weapons at a young age; according to friends, Joseph had a passion for the outdoors which exceeded all of his other interests.


title: Joseph Christopher

text: He enrolled in the automotive mechanics program at Burgard Vocational High School in 1971. He was remembered as a quiet student who did well in his shop courses before dropping out in early 1974, and was said to be "very intelligent, though he wasn't book-smart." He then worked a series of odd jobs before securing employment as a maintenance man at Canisius College, where he shared a midnight shift with a co-worker. He was fired in March 1979 for sleeping on the job and returned to live with his parents.


title: Joseph Christopher

text: Christopher, who had paranoid schizophrenia, reached out for assistance after noticing his mental health slipping in 1978. He tried to admit himself to the Buffalo Psychiatric Center in September 1980. The Psychiatric Center staff told him he was not a danger to himself or others and so could not be admitted. This was a common practice at a time when such centers were being downsized. Instead, the center officials recommended counseling therapy. Fourteen days after he left the center, the killings began.


title: Joseph Christopher

text: Christopher's murder spree began on September 22, 1980, when he killed three black men and one boy in the space of 36 hours with a .22 caliber sawed-off Ruger 10/22 semi-automatic rifle concealed in a brown paper bag. These murders led to the media epithet of the .22-Caliber Killer. A 14-year-old boy, Glenn Dunn was the first victim, shot outside a supermarket in Buffalo on September 22. Harold Green, 32, was shot the next day while dining at a fast food restaurant in Cheektowaga. That same evening in Buffalo, 30 year old Emmanuel Thomas was shot while crossing the street to his home, only 7 blocks away from Glenn Dunn's murder. On September 24, Joseph McCoy was shot to death in Niagara Falls.


title: Joseph Christopher

text: He committed two more murders on October 8 and October 9, both times bludgeoning his victims to death and then cutting their hearts out. The bloodied, beaten, and mutilated body of 71 year old Parler Edwards was found in the trunk of his taxi cab parked in Amherst on October 8. Forty-year-old Ernest Jones was found in similar condition beside the Niagara River in Tonawanda on October 9. Jones' blood-spattered taxi was found 3 miles away in Buffalo.


title: Joseph Christopher

text: Collin Cole, 37, was attacked in a Buffalo hospital on October 10. A white man matching the description of the .22 Caliber Killer tried to strangle him to death. Cole said the man snarled, "I hate niggers" at him before trying to kill him. He was saved by the arrival of a nurse, and though severe damage had been done to his throat, he survived the attack.


title: Joseph Christopher

text: These initial murders went unsolved at first, and Christopher enlisted in the United States Army in November, being stationed at Fort Benning. He soon received Christmas furlough and arrived in Manhattan on December 20, where, on December 22, he committed four more murders and two more attacks; this time stabbing his victims to death, thus earning the moniker of the Midtown Slasher. Twenty-five year old John Adams was stabbed at around 11:30 a.m., but survived. About two hours later, 32 year old Ivan Frazier was attacked. He managed to deflect the blade with his hand, suffering only minor injuries. Luis Rodriguez, 19, was the first murder of the day; at around 3:30 p.m., he was stabbed to death. At 6:50 p.m., 30 year old Antone Davis was stabbed to death. Around 4 hours later, 20 year old Richard Renner was stabbed and killed. Finally, Carl Ramsey was stabbed with a knife while on the subway at around 11 p.m., and died from his injuries before midnight.


title: Joseph Christopher

text: Christopher then returned to Buffalo and fatally stabbed another black man, 31-year-old Roger Adams, on December 29 and 26-year-old Wendell Barnes in Rochester on December 30. He committed three additional attacks in Buffalo on New Year's Eve and New Year's Day (Albert Menefee, Larry Little, and Calvin Crippen), but all three victims survived. Christopher then returned to Fort Benning in January 1981.


title: Joseph Christopher

text: When back at Fort Benning, Christopher attacked a fellow black soldier with a paring knife in what was described as an unprovoked attack on January 18. The soldier survived the attack and Christopher was placed in the fort's stockade, where he attempted suicide by cutting himself with a razor. In a subsequent psychiatric session, he told a psychiatrist that he "had to" kill blacks. This admission caused Christopher's home to be searched by the police. There the police found evidence linking Christopher to three murders, which led to his indictment in April 1981 and his transfer back to Buffalo for his trial on May 8.


title: Joseph Christopher

text: He pleaded not guilty to the three murders and refused counsel by lawyers hired by his mother, opting instead to represent himself. He was subsequently found guilty and sentenced to 60 years in prison, but this ruling was overturned as the trial judge had barred the defense from presenting expert psychiatric testimony about Christopher's ability to stand trial. He was later found competent to stand trial, and appeared in court again in 1985 under various charges which led to him being sentenced to life imprisonment. While imprisoned at the Attica Correctional Facility, Christopher claimed that he committed 13 killings. He died in prison due to a rare form of male breast cancer on March 1, 1993, at the age of 37.


title: Joseph Christopher

text: The Discovery Channel cable network television show "The FBI Files" first aired its Joseph Christopher investigation, on May 9, 2000, titled the ".22 Caliber Killer".


title: An Elephant Sitting Still

text: An Elephant Sitting Still () is a 2018 Chinese drama film written, directed, and edited by Hu Bo. The first and only feature film by the novelist-turned-director Hu, who died by suicide soon after finishing his film on 12 October 2017 at the age of 29, it is based on a story with the same title from his 2017 novel "Huge Crack", about four people who travel to a northern Chinese city to see the eponymous elephant. It made its world premiere in the Forum section of the 68th Berlin International Film Festival. The film has won acclaim from established directors such as Béla Tarr, Wang Bing, Ang Lee, and Gus Van Sant.


title: An Elephant Sitting Still

text: The film opened the 12th FIRST International Film Festival in Xining in late July 2018. It was released in the United Kingdom on December 14, 2018, and in the United States on March 8, 2019. Critics' reviews were highly positive.


title: An Elephant Sitting Still

text: In Shijiazhuang, gang member Yu Cheng monologues with a woman in his bed about a sitting elephant in a circus in Manzhouli who could be thrashed and beaten but remains still. A man later argues with her; he is Cheng's close friend and she his wife. The friend later kills himself off-screen. Later, Cheng meets his girlfriend, who rejected his sexual advances, and blames for the suicide. He tells her he plans to see the elephant in Manzhouli.


title: An Elephant Sitting Still

text: Simultaneously, Wei Bu wakes up to his father chastising him about his filthy room. As he leaves for school, he watches old man Wang Jin leave with his pet dog. He leaves for school to meet his friend Li Kai and discuss how they will face the school bully Yu Shuai as Li was accused of stealing his cell phone. Eventually they meet Shuai, who tells them to meet his gang at the stairway after school. Wei sees the school's vice-dean, who tells him the school will eventually close down and he will move to another, better school while Wei the students will go to a worse school and have no future. Wei briefly meets his neighbor and friend Huang Ling. Later that day, he and Li face up to Shuai, who mocks Wei's father for getting fired because of accepting bribes. Wei pushes Shuai and he falls down a flight of stairs. When Wei returns home to his father, he realizes he is not safe at home.


title: An Elephant Sitting Still

text: In the morning, Huang complains about a bathroom leakage; her mother does not care. In the afternoon she meets Wei who says he plans to leave to Manzhouli to see the elephant. He invites her to live with him on the run but she mocks him for his lack of planning and quips that his only skill is kicking around a shuttlecock. Later, Wei follows Huang to a bakery where he discovers her with the vice-dean. Cheng also happens to be there and tells him that he is looking for a boy who injured his little brother. Wei does not reveal his identity and leaves after writing a note threatening the vice-dean. Later, Huang and the vice-dean go to a hotel room, where she finds out that one of their intercourses was filmed and the video spread online. Huang goes home and tells her mother about it. Later, the vice-dean and his wife intrude and Huang escapes through the window, returning for a baseball bat with which she whacks the vice-dean and his wife.


title: An Elephant Sitting Still

text: Wang lives with his granddaughter, son, and daughter-in-law. His son pleads him to leave the apartment (which Wang owns) for a nursing home as he and his wife cannot afford to take care of them both. Wang mulls it over and leaves with his dog. Later, while walking, he sees a lady looking for her dog Pipi. Wang later meets Pipi in an alleyway; Pipi fatally attacks Wang's dog and runs away. He later goes to the woman's apartment. He meets a man and his wife and tells them about the incident. The man is upset about the accusations and becomes deranged. When Wang later buries his dog, Wei sees him and asks him for money. Wei, in return, gives him his pool cue, which he reclaimed from a store where Cheng and his gang stayed. The deranged man drives near them and accuses Wang of possibly killing Pipi because it has still not returned. Wei threatens him and gets beaten up. The man drives off without finding out anything. Wang returns to his apartment building, encountering Cheng and his gang. They notice the cue and question him; Wang escapes and beats up Cheng's goons. He reenters his apartment, his son wanting to call the authorities. However, Wang, a retired soldier, decides to go out with his cue and face the men who disappeared.


title: An Elephant Sitting Still

text: At dusk, Wei goes to the hospital where Shuai is hospitalized, sees Yu again, and runs away. He tells Li to meet him at a mall and angrily chokes him for he reveals that he did steal Shuai's phone because it had a video of Li urinating and the vice-dean with Huang. Wei decides to purchase tickets from a scalper to go to Manzhouli to hide but is deceived. The scalper leads him to a rooftop where the supposed money to be refunded is kept. They meet his friend and goons, who are revealed to be gangsters. They beat up Wei and call up Cheng. Cheng arrives and discovers Wei was responsible for fatally injuring Shuai. However, Cheng does not care about Shuai and asks Wei where he plans to run off to. Surprised to hear he also wants to go to Manzhouli, Cheng decides to help Wei by telling his men to purchase tickets but tells Wei that someone will arrest Wei sooner or later. Suddenly, Li appears with his gun and tells Wei to run. The men attack Li, who accidentally shoots Yu non-fatally. Li claims he is proud of himself and tells Wei he never posted the video of Huang and the vice-dean but Wei is disgusted and leaves him be. Yu then watches Li fatally shoot himself.


title: An Elephant Sitting Still

text: At evening, Wei buys tickets at the train station. He meets Wang, who decided to take his granddaughter to see the same elephant show, and Huang, who decides to leave the city. Huang reveals that the tickets were canceled so they take a bus to Shenyang en route to Manzhouli. They exit the bus near Manzhouli at dark. As Wei kicks a shuttlecock with others, an elephant roar is heard.


title: An Elephant Sitting Still

text: The film is set in the northern Chinese industrial city of Shijiazhuang in the Hebei province. Filming occurred in Shijiazhuang over the course of twenty-five days in March and April 2017. Fan Chao, the film's cinematographer, shot with a handheld camera and frequently used tracking shots. This was a result of low budget: Hu originally intended to film statically and with wide angles, but it was too expensive.


title: An Elephant Sitting Still

text: Hu Bo wrote, directed, and edited the film himself. Production began in 2016 when he took his screenplay to FIRST Film Festival in Xining for financing. The screenplay was noticed by producer Liu Xuan, who then took it to her husband Wang Xiaoshuai. He ended up producing the film. Reportedly, Hu struggled at this time with maintaining creative control over the project, as well as making enough money from it to be able to live. He described the experience as "humiliation, despair and powerlessness" online, and was berated by Wang who also posted that the film was a "mess." His relationship began deteriorating with Wang because of this.


title: An Elephant Sitting Still

text: The final straw came when Wang attempted to convince Hu to cut his film down from 230 minutes to 120 minutes. Those close to Hu reported that this pressure was a major reason Hu committed suicide after production of the film was over. Wang Xiaoshuai's name was scrubbed from the press kit credits, but his production company remained attached.


title: An Elephant Sitting Still

text: The film was first screened on 16 February 2018 at the 68th Berlin International Film Festival in the Forum section. He was one of three young Chinese directors that were able to make it in thanks to their higher-profile Chinese producers, part of a growing trend in representation for independent films at Berlinale. In light of Hu's suicide, the Q&A section of the premiere was replaced by speeches from Hu's mother and his film school teacher Wang Hongwei. The 230 minute cut was chosen for this release and the subsequent ones worldwide. The film was then shown at the 42nd Hong Kong International Film Festival, where it won the Audience Choice Award. It ran through festivals until widely released in the United Kingdom on 14 December 2018 and in the United States on 8 March 2019.


title: An Elephant Sitting Still

text: On 18 November 2019, the film received its streaming premiere on the Criterion Channel. On 10 December 2019, the film released on Blu-ray.


title: An Elephant Sitting Still

text: An emotional Béla Tarr, when presenting the film to an international audience, said that he felt he had done too little to prevent the suicide of his protégé, that the great film will be remembered forever, and that people should look after individuals like Hu. "An Elephant Sitting Still" was acclaimed by critics. Rotten Tomatoes reports 96% approval based on 51 critics, and the film also holds an 86/100 average on Metacritic. Justin Chang of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote that although the film has "a soap opera season's worth of romantic indiscretions, sudden deaths, unfortunate accidents, provoked and unprovoked attacks", the story "somehow never loses its sense of balance and modulation." Chang argued that the work had a consoling insight that the characters are all worth knowing despite their flaws, and lauded it as "a triumph of bold sociopolitical critique and intimate human portraiture, and a reminder that you rarely encounter the one without the other."


title: An Elephant Sitting Still

text: David Ehrlich, who assigned the film an "A−" rating in IndieWire, argued that "An Elephant Sitting Still" "has little interest in the conventional drama of cause and effect, and its fractured structure is used to emphasize the distance between these people rather than the ties that bind them together." He characterized it as a searching film that avoids "[contriving] an empty solution for the demoralized". Justine Smith, who awarded the film 3.5/4 stars, praised the film's portrayal of love in a system of inequality and oppression. She argued that Hu simultaneously suggests that love in a devastated system "means tethering yourself to people who have long been broken by mistreatment and inequality and who no longer have the capacity to return it", but also that love and beauty are "a constant source of minute, if not fleeting, pleasure." Smith referred to this as a "realistic" portrayal of love in such a system and billed the film's ending as "one of the greatest in contemporary film history", though also referred to the film as "overwhelmingly grey".


title: An Elephant Sitting Still

text: In "The New Yorker", Richard Brody lauded "An Elephant Sitting Still" as one of the greatest recent films, writing that Hu "builds an intricate grid of conflict-riddled connections among the movie's main characters" and that the "volatile, roving long takes pursue the characters to the deepest corners of their explosive despair". Brody argued that Hu's "vision conveys a mighty, universal human despair." Matthew Thrift of "Little White Lies" praised the film as "without question one of the strongest debuts in recent memory", arguing that "the remarkable surety of Hu's direction provides a restless momentum. It's a film constantly in motion, tracking cat and mouse alike through the city streets. [...] Conflict is borne out of character and circumstance, rather than narrative contrivance or traditional dramatic structure."


title: An Elephant Sitting Still

text: "An Elephant Sitting Still" has been ranked by numerous critics and publications as one of the best films of 2018/2019.


title: An Elephant Sitting Still

text: "They Shoot Pictures, Don't They?" determines "An Elephant Sitting Still" as the 518th most critically acclaimed film of the 21st century.


title: Jagadish Kumar

text: P. V. Jagadish Kumar (born 12 June 1955) known mononymously as Jagadish, is an Indian actor, screenwriter, television presenter and former politician. He has starred in over 375 Malayalam films and 2 Hindi films. He is best known for his comic and character roles. Jagadish starred in over 50 films as the lead actor during the 1990s. He was one of the bankable lead stars in Malayalam cinema during the 1990s, along with Mukesh, Siddique, Sreenivasan and Jayaram.


title: Jagadish Kumar

text: Jagadish made his acting debut with "My Dear Kuttichathan" (1984), India's first 3D film. He got a big break with his role as Appukuttan in Siddique-Lal's "In Harihar Nagar" (1990). His notable films include "Godfather" (1991), "Mimics Parade" (1991), "Welcome to Kodaikanal" (1992), "Thiruthalvaadi" (1992), "Priyapetta Kukku" (1992), "Mr & Mrs" (1992), "Pandu Pandoru Rajakumari" (1992), "Kunukkitta Kozhi" (1992), "Kasarkode Khaderbai" (1992), "Kallan Kappalil Thanne" (1992), "Grihaprevesam" (1992), "Sthreedhanam" (1993), "Sthalathe Pradhana Payyans" (1993), "Injakkadan Mathai & Sons" (1993), "Simhavalan Menon" (1995), "Mimics Super 1000" (1996), "Hitler" (1996),"Junior Mandrake"(1997),"Gramapanchayath (film)" (1998). He has written a few scripts as well, most notably "Adhipan" (1989).


title: Jagadish Kumar

text: Jagadish is a postgraduate M.Com. rank-holder. He transitioned from a nationalized bank officer to a govt aided college lecturer and to an actor within a short time. In 2016, Jagadish entered into politics using his star value to compete against his colleague and former state minister K. B. Ganesh Kumar for Member of the Legislative Assembly post of the Pathanapuram constituency under the banner of the Indian National Congress and lost in the elections.


title: Jagadish Kumar

text: Jagadish was born as the fifth son among six children to K. Parameshwaran Nair and P. Bhasurangi Amma on 21 June 1955 in present-day Chenkal, Neyyattinkara, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India. His father was a school headmaster and his mother was a housewife. He has two elder brothers, Dr. Gopakumar and Rajkumar; a younger brother, Sureshkumar; and two elder sisters, Late Dr.P.B.Santha Devi and Chandrika Devi. He had his primary education from Government Model Boys Higher Secondary School, Thiruvananthapuram. He earned a bachelor's in commerce from Government Arts College, Thiruvananthapuram. Jagadish post-graduated with a Master of Commerce from Mar Ivanios College, Nalanchira, Trivandrum under the University of Kerala with first rank. He worked as a Clerk in Canara Bank, Edappal, Kerala. Later he became a lecturer and NCC officer in M.G. College, Thiruvananthapuram, a college run by NSS. He had also worked as lecturer in


title: Jagadish Kumar

text: Pazhassi Raja N. S. S. College, Mattanur ,Kannur. He had dreams of becoming a film actor, so he took a long leave from his job and tried his luck in films.


title: Jagadish Kumar

text: Jagadish was married to Dr. P. Rema, a forensic professor in the Medical College, Thiruvananthapuram, who died on 1 April 2022. The couple has two daughters, both are doctors, now married and having their own children. They are settled at Kaladi, Karamana, Thiruvananthapuram.


title: Jagadish Kumar

text: Jagadish started his film career as a cinematographer with the 1978 film "Ahalya". He dubbed for various other actors, normally for short dialogues. As an actor, he debuted with a minor role as a cabaret announcer in "My Dear Kuttichathan" (1984), which was India's first 3-D film. Jagadish became an established actor with his roles in "Mutharamkunnu P.O." (1985), where he plays the hero's friend, "Nandi Veendum Varika" (1986), "Manivathoorile Aayiram Sivarathrikal" (1987) and "Vandanam" (1989). In his early career, he wrote stories and screenplays for a few films including "Mazha Peyyunnu Maddalam Kottunnu" (1986) (story), "Manivathoorile Aayiram Sivarathrikal" (1987) (dialogue) and "Adhipan" (1989) (screenplay). Jagadish's performance as Appukkuttan in "In Harihar Nagar" (1990), directed by Siddique-Lal, was highly acclaimed. Jagadish proved himself again with terrific comic timing with his role as Mayeen kutty in "Godfather" (1991), which was directed by the same director duo. He continued to play minor roles in high-budget films until 1993–1994. With the success of these movies, Jagadish became one of the most popular actors in the early to mid-1990s. He acted in the leading role in more than 30 low-budget films, most of which were successes at the box office. He acted in the family-oriented movies "Sthree dhanam", "Bharya", "Ponnaranthottathe Rajavu", and "Mr and Mrs". He also acted in the slapstick comedies "Pavam IA Ivachan", and "Kunukkitta Kozhi". In most movies he shared the hero role with the likes of Mukesh and Siddique. In his prime, he also acted in supporting roles with Mammootty, Mohanlal and Jayaram. The roles in "Butterflies", "Minnaminunginum Minnukettu" and "Jackpot" earned loud applause from the audience.


title: Jagadish Kumar

text: In the late 1990s and 2000s, Jagadish failed to reinvent himself as a strong actor and continued doing the same kind of roles as his younger days which did not go well with the audience. Also, a new generation of comedy actors (including Dileep becoming his competitor as a hero in low-budget films, Kalabhavan Mani, Janardhanan and Kalpana turning to comedy roles, and Jagathy Sreekumar turning to a new type of comedy) was rising. He later appeared in stage shows conducted in foreign countries with his self-mocking stances and improvised dialogues.


title: Jagadish Kumar

text: Jagadish again got a break in his career in 2009 with his reappearance as "Appukkuttan" in "Harihar Nagar 2", a sequel to "In Harihar Nagar". The film went on to become a hit. This proved to be vital for Jagdish as he got another opportunity as the hero in another movie, "Decent Parties". Jagadish was established as a comedian and light-hearted hero who evokes spontaneous laughter with a certain whimsical oddity; this was his humour quotient.


title: Jagadish Kumar

text: Later Jagadish played roles that distinguished him from his earlier stereotyped comedy roles, which has cost him dearly with the audience. In 2010 he scripted for the film "April Fool", which was literally copied from "Dinner for Schmucks", and the poor scripting resulted in failure. After a hiatus he came alive through television programs as a chief judge for the comedy programme "Vodafone Comedy Stars" in Asianet and anchored the channel's organized award functions. His policing changed the pattern of existing comedy through media into tight politically correct skits with light humour and morals. This screen presence brought him back more roles in big movies and his compatibility as a superstar both in front of the camera and on the TV stage was well praised by channels. He revealed in an interview as his fellow generation of actors were turning to production, he also is planning to direct a movie with Mammootty in the lead role.


title: Jagadish Kumar

text: In 2016, in Ranjith's movie Leela Jagadish played the negative role of a drunkard father which broke his stereotypical buffoon role and gathered wide appreciation.


title: Proofing (baking technique)

text: In cooking, proofing (also called proving) is a step in the preparation of yeast bread and other baked goods in which the dough is allowed to rest and rise a final time before baking. During this rest period, yeast ferments the dough and produces gases, thereby leavening the dough.


title: Proofing (baking technique)

text: In contrast, proofing or blooming "yeast" (as opposed to proofing the dough) may refer to the process of first suspending yeast in warm water, a necessary hydration step when baking with active dry yeast. Proofing can also refer to the process of testing the viability of dry yeast by suspending it in warm water with carbohydrates (sugars). If the yeast is still alive, it will feed on the sugar and produce a visible layer of foam on the surface of the water mixture.


title: Proofing (baking technique)

text: Fermentation rest periods are not always explicitly named, and can appear in recipes as "Allow dough to rise." When they are named, terms include "bulk fermentation", "first rise", "second rise", "final proof" and "shaped proof".


title: Proofing (baking technique)

text: The process of making yeast-leavened bread involves a series of alternating work and rest periods. Work periods occur when the dough is manipulated by the baker. Some work periods are called "mixing", "kneading", and "folding", as well as "division", "shaping", and "panning". Work periods are typically followed by rest periods, which occur when dough is allowed to sit undisturbed. Particular rest periods include, but are not limited to, "autolyse", "bulk fermentation" and "proofing". "Proofing", also sometimes called "final fermentation", is the specific term for allowing dough to rise after it has been shaped and before it is baked.


title: Proofing (baking technique)

text: Some breads begin mixing with an "autolyse". This refers to a period of rest after the initial mixing of flour and water, a rest period that occurs sequentially before the addition of yeast, salt and other ingredients. This rest period allows for better absorption of water and helps the gluten and starches to align. The autolyse is credited to Raymond Calvel, who recommended it as a way to reduce kneading time and thereby improve the flavor and color of bread.


title: Proofing (baking technique)

text: 'Proofing the yeast' is a hydration process that occurs when dry yeast is mixed with warm water and allowed to rest for a short time. The minimum weight of water required may be calculated: .


title: Proofing (baking technique)

text: Yeast viability can be tested by mixing yeast in warm water and sugar, and following a short rest period during which the cells first accommodate to the environment and then begin to grow, a layer of foam is developed by the action of the yeast, a sign of primary fermentation and live yeast. Typically 60 ml ( cup) water at and 2 g ( teaspoon) of sugar are used, or expressed differently, a sugar weight of about 3.5% of the water's weight. While this sugar may be sucrose or table sugar, instead it may be glucose or maltose.


title: Proofing (baking technique)

text: Fermentation typically begins when viable baker's yeast or a starter culture is added to flour and water. Enzymes in the flour and yeast create sugars, which are consumed by the yeast, which in turn produce carbon dioxide and alcohol. Specifically, the grain enzyme diastase begins to convert starch in the grain to maltose. The baker's yeast enzyme maltase converts maltose into glucose, invertase converts any added sucrose to glucose and fructose, and zymase converts glucose and fructose to carbon dioxide gas which makes the dough rise, and alcohol which gives the baked bread flavor. Sourdough starters also produce lactic and acetic acids, further contributing to flavor. When the yeast cells die, they release high quantities of a protease which snip protein strands, and in large die-offs result in soft, sticky dough, less baked volume, and a coarse crumb, but in smaller die offs, increase dough extensibility and baked volume.


title: Proofing (baking technique)

text: Different bread varieties will have different process requirements. These are generally classified as either straight or sponge dough processes. Straight doughs will require only a single mixing period. During bulk fermentation straight-dough recipes may instruct a baker to "punch down" or "deflate" the dough, while artisan bakers will use terms like "stretching", "folding", and "degassing", meaning to expel gas from the carbon dioxide bubbles that have formed. Sponge doughs will need multiple mixing periods.


title: Proofing (baking technique)

text: "Overproofing" occurs when a fermenting dough has rested too long. Its bubbles have grown so large that they have popped and tunneled, and dough baked at this point would result in a bread with poor structure. Length of rest periods, including proofing, can be determined by time at specific temperatures or by characteristics. Often the "poke method" is used to determine if a dough has risen long enough. If the dough, when poked, springs back immediately it is "underproofed" and needs more time. Some breads are considered fully proofed if the indent left by the poke springs back slowly, while others are considered fully proofed when the indent remains and does not spring back.


title: Proofing (baking technique)

text: A bread that is properly proofed will balance gas production with the ability of the bread's gluten structure to contain it, and will exhibit good oven spring when baked. A bread that is under- or overproofed will have less oven spring and be denser. An overproofed bread may even collapse in the oven as the volume of gas produced by the yeast can no longer be contained by the gluten structure.


title: Proofing (baking technique)

text: "Retarding" may occur at any time during fermentation and is accomplished by placing the dough into a dough retarder, refrigerator, or other cold environment to slow the activity of the yeast. The retarding stage is often used in sourdough bread recipes to allow the bread to develop its characteristic flavor. A cold fermentation stage is sometimes used to develop flavor in other artisan breads, with a part of the dough ("pre-ferment") before the final mixing, with the entire dough during bulk fermentation, or in the final fermentation stages after shaping.


title: Proofing (baking technique)

text: To ensure consistent results and maintain baking schedules, specialized tools are used to manipulate the speed and qualities of fermentation.


title: Proofing (baking technique)

text: A dough proofer is a warming chamber used in baking that encourages fermentation of dough by yeast through warm temperatures and controlled humidity. It is also called a proofing box, proofing oven, or proofing cabinet. The warm temperatures increase the activity of the yeast, resulting in increased carbon dioxide production and a higher, faster rise. Dough is typically allowed to rise in the proofer before baking, but can also be used for the first rise, or bulk fermentation. Desired proofer temperatures can range from ; cooler temperatures are achieved in a dough retarder, see below. Commercial bakers typically use large, temperature- and humidity-controlled proofers, whereas home bakers employ a variety of methods to create a warm, humid environment for dough rising. Examples include a home oven with a bowl of water and the pilot light on, a box with a bowl of hot water in it (the water is replaced periodically to maintain warmth), or a counter top proofer (an electric appliance) designed for home use.


title: Proofing (baking technique)

text: A dough retarder is a refrigerator used to control the fermentation of yeast when proofing dough. Lowering the temperature of the dough produces a slower, longer rise with more varied fermentation products, resulting in more complex flavors. In sourdough bread-making, cold decreases the activity of wild yeast relative to the "Lactobacilli", which produce flavoring products such as lactic acid and acetic acid. Sourdough that is retarded before baking can result in a more sour loaf. To prevent the dough from drying, air flow in the dough retarder is kept to a minimum. Home bakers may use cloth or other cover for dough that is kept for a longer period in the refrigerator. Commercial bakers often retard dough at approximately , while home bakers typically use refrigerators set at about or below.


title: Proofing (baking technique)

text: A "banneton" is a type of basket used to provide structure for shaped loaves of bread during proofing. Banneton baskets are also known as brotform or proofing baskets. It is normally used for doughs that are too soft or wet to maintain their shape while rising. Proofing baskets are distinct from loaf pans in that the bread is normally removed from these baskets before baking. Conventionally, these baskets are made out of rattan, but some modern proofing baskets are made out of cane, spruce pulp, terracotta, or polypropylene. A banneton will sometimes have a cloth liner, generally made of linen, to prevent dough from sticking to the sides of the basket. Bannetons become more non-stick with use as a small amount of flour accumulates in them. These baskets are used both to provide the loaf with shape and to wick moisture from the crust. Bannetons come in round or oblong shapes.


title: Proofing (baking technique)

text: Alternatively, a "couche" (pronounced "koosh"), bakery couche, or proofing cloth, can be used on which to proof dough. They are used for longer loaves, such as baguettes. Couches are typically made of linen. Flour collects in the weave creating a less-sticky surface. The couche is dusted lightly with flour, then shaped doughs are laid on top of it and folds are placed to separate and support them while proofing.


title: Proofing (baking technique)

text: Breads such as sandwich loaves and brioche are normally proofed in the bread pan in which they will be baked.


title: Nodens

text: The philologist and author J. R. R. Tolkien was invited to investigate the Latin inscription, and scholars have noted several likely influences on his Middle-earth fantasy writings, including the Elvish smith, maker of Rings of Power, Celebrimbor, whose name, like that of Nuada's epithet "Airgetlám", means 'Silver-hand'. Nodens appears, too, in H. P. Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos.


title: Nodens

text: The theonym *"Nodens" or *"Nodons" is reconstructed from the attested dative singular "Nodenti" or "Nodonti", which is derived from a Proto-Celtic stem "*Nowdont-." It is a cognate (linguistic sibling from the same origin) of the Middle Irish "Nuadu" and the Middle Welsh "Nudd" (which turned into "Lludd", apparently from an alliterative assimilation). The Irish genitives "nodot" and "núada(i)t" (perhaps 'hand, wrist or arm') also appear to be related. It suggests that "Nōdonti" was the original form, by showing the back vocalism of the Celtic suffix "-ont"-. The development from "-ō-" to "-ū-" in Brittonic languages dates back to the end of the 3rd century AD. An Old Breton name "Nodent" (modern "Nuz") may also be added to the cognates, although the vocalism raises phonological difficulties.


title: Nodens

text: The origin of the name remains obscure, scholar John Carey noting that "it seems at any rate safe to say that no etymology so far proposed can be accepted with full confidence". The Welsh noun "nudd" means 'mist, haze, fog', and both "Lludd" and "Nuadu" are attached to the epithet '[of the] silver hand/arm', which could lead to a conjectural Proto-Celtic stem *"snowdo-" ('mist, haze'), from Proto-Indo-European *"snewd"- ('mist, cloud'; cf. Latin "nūbēs" 'clouds'), perhaps also attested in the Irish "snuad" ('appearance, colour'). However, the sound shift "sn"- > "n"- does not seem to be attested elsewhere in Gaulish (although -"sn"- > -"n"- is known) and remains difficult to justify in Proto-Brittonic (the sound change should have occurred later than the inscriptions). Scholars have also linked the Celtic names with the stem *"néud-" (cf. Gothic "niutan" 'to catch, attain, acquire' and "nuta" 'catcher, fisherman', Lithuanian "naudà" 'property'), associating "*Nowdont-" with the fishing (and possibly hunting) motifs of the Lydney remains and with the silver arms of Nuadu and Lludd. However, this stem remains unattested elsewhere in Celtic, and possibly takes its origins from a pre-Indo-European language. A third alternative is the Proto-Indo-European stem *"nehu"-"t-" (cf. Goth. "nauþs" 'need, compulsion, distress', Old Prussian "nautin" 'need'), which could be found in Proto-Celtic *"nāwito"- ('need'; cf. Old Irish "neóit", Middle Welsh "neued"), although linguist Ranko Matasović finds the relation "formally quite difficult" to explain.


title: Nodens

text: Nudd's son "Gwyn" (ruler of the Welsh Otherworld), his name meaning 'white', is an exact cognate of the Irish name "Finn", who is described as the great-grandson of Nuadu mac Achi (Finn mac Umaill) or Nuadu Necht (Finn File). Although the origin of the association remains difficult to explain, Carey writes that Nodons may be seen "a god of multi-faceted but consistent character: a shining royal warrior presiding over the chaotic in nature, society and the Otherworld (water, war, the devils of Annwn)." In this view, the Middle Irish "núada", "núadu" ('hero, champion, king [poetic]?') may be interpreted as the euhemerized name of the Celtic deity, with a semantic shift comparable to that conjectured for Proto-Germanic "*balþaz" > "*Balðraz" ('white, shining' > 'strong, brave, bold' > 'hero, prince'; cf. Old Norse "Baldr" 'brave, defiant, lord, prince' and Old English "Bældæg" 'shining day').


title: Nodens

text: According to Arthur Bernard Cook (1906) the toponym "Lydney" derives from the Old English *"Lydan-eġ", "Lludd's Island", which could connect it with Nodens. However, alternative etymologies of Lydney are offered in other sources. A. D. Mills suggests "island or river-meadow of the sailor, or of a man named *Lida", citing the forms "Lideneg" from c. 853 and "Ledenei" from the 1086 Domesday Book.


title: Nodens

text: The temple complex at Lydney Park, situated on a steep bluff overlooking the Severn Estuary, is rectangular, measuring with a central cella measuring and its north-western end is divided into three chambers 6.3 m deep. This imposing, Romano-Celtic temple building has been interpreted as an "incubatio" or dormitory for sick pilgrims to sleep and experience a vision of divine presence in their dreams. The site may have been chosen because it offered a clear view of the River Severn near the point at which the Severn Bore begins. Its position within an earlier Iron Age hill fort may also be relevant.


title: Nodens

text: The temple complex was first excavated by Charles Bathurst in 1805, then reexcavated in 1928–1929 by Sir Mortimer Wheeler and Tessa Wheeler, who produced an extensive report of the findings at the site. Although no anthropomorphic depiction of the deity has been discovered, a dozen figures of dogs were found at the site, presumably deposited at the shrine as offerings by pilgrims due to the healing symbolism associated with dogs. As one of these figurines has a human face, it is possible that the deity himself could have been perceived as taking the form of an animal. A bronze arm whose hand displays the spoon-shaped fingernails characteristic of someone suffering from iron deficiency gives further evidence of the healing attributes of Nodens. Findings at the site include bronze reliefs depicting a sea deity, fishermen and tritons, a bronze plaque of a woman, about 320 pins, nearly 300 bracelets, and over 8,000 coins. Also present were oculists' stamps used to mark sticks of eye ointment, like those at Gallo-Roman healing sanctuaries in antiquity. The deity was further associated with aquatic and solar imagery, similar to other curative shrines of Roman Gaul.


title: Nodens

text: A silver statuette found at Cockersand Moss, Lancashire, in 1718 but now lost, had an inscription on the base that reads:


title: Nodens

text: Nuada Airgetlám was the first king of the Tuatha Dé Danann, who was disqualified from kingship after losing his hand (or arm) in battle, but restored after he was given a working silver one by the physician Dian Cecht and the wright Creidhne (gaining the epithet "Airgetlám", 'silver hand'), and later a flesh and blood one by Dian Cecht's son Miach.


title: Nodens

text: The legendary Welsh hero Nudd appears in the Triads as one of the three most generous men in Wales, along with his two cousins, Rhydderch Hael and Mordaf Hael. His two sons are known as Edern ap Nudd and Gwyn ap Nudd. Nudd may also be called "Lludd", and seems to be linked to other figures of the same name, such as the son of Beli Mawr in "Cyfranc Lludd a Llefelys".


title: Nodens

text: J. R. R. Tolkien, invited to investigate the Latin inscription at Lydney Park, traced Nodens to the Irish hero "Nuada Airgetlám", "Nuada of the Silver-Hand". The Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey thought this a "pivotal" influence on Tolkien's invention of Middle-earth, combining as it did a god-hero, a ring, dwarves, and a silver hand. Mathew Lyons notes the "Hobbit-like appearance of [Dwarf's Hill]'s mine-shaft holes", and that Tolkien was, according to the Lydney curator Sylvia Jones, extremely interested in the hill's folklore on his stay there. Helen Armstrong commented that the place may have inspired Tolkien's "Celebrimbor and the fallen realms of Moria and Eregion". The name of the Elven-smith Celebrimbor of Eregion, who forged the Rings of Power in "The Silmarillion", means "Silver Hand" in Tolkien's invented Elvish language of Sindarin. Dwarf's Hill with its many mineshafts has been suggested as an influence on the Lonely Mountain in "The Hobbit" and the Mines of Moria in "The Lord of the Rings".


title: Nodens

text: In H. P. Lovecraft's 1926 novella "The Dream-Quest of Unknown Kadath", part of his Cthulhu Mythos, Nodens is an "archaic" god served by the night-gaunts. He is depicted as somewhat benevolent and as opposing the frightening Nyarlathotep. Nodens appears again in Lovecraft's short story "The Strange High House in the Mist", also written in 1926. When the protagonist, Thomas Olney, enters the eponymous house, he sees "primal Nodens, Lord of the Great Abyss" riding in a large shell that is carried by dolphins.


title: Nodens

text: In Christopher Paolini's "Eragon", 'Argetlam' (lit: silver hand) is another name for the "gedwëy ignasia" (lit: "shining palm" in the fiction 'Ancient Language' made by Paolini for the series. It is adapted from the Irish word "Airgetlam".


title: Chetna Pande

text: Chetna Pande is an Indian actress and model who is known for her role of Jenny in "Dilwale" and as a contestant in" Ace of Space 1" and "" respectively.


title: Chetna Pande

text: Pande appeared in the TV series "MTV Fanaah" and in music videos. Her second participation in cinema was in "Dilwale", with the role of Jenny. In 2018, she participated in MTV's "Ace of Space", but got evicted on 17 December. On 30 November 2018, she was cast on ALT Balaji's web series "NIS".


title: Dreamcatcher discography

text: South Korean girl group Dreamcatcher have released three studio albums, nine extended plays, three single albums and 17 digital singles.


title: Cattle grid

text: A cattle grid – also known as a stock grid in Australia; cattle guard, or cattle grate in American English; vehicle pass, or stock gap in the Southeastern United States; Texas gate in western Canada and the northwestern United States; and a cattle stop in New Zealand English – is a type of obstacle used to prevent livestock, such as sheep, cattle, pigs, horses, or mules from passing along a road or railway which penetrates the fencing surrounding an enclosed piece of land or border. It consists of a depression in the road covered by a transverse grid of bars or tubes, normally made of metal and firmly fixed to the ground on either side of the depression, so that the gaps between them are wide enough for an animal's feet to enter, but sufficiently narrow not to impede a wheeled vehicle or human foot. This provides an effective barrier to animals without impeding wheeled vehicles, as the animals are reluctant to walk on the grates.


title: Cattle grid

text: The modern cattle grid for roads used by automobiles is said to have been independently invented a number of times on the Great Plains of the United States around 1905–1915. Before that period, a similar device for railroads was in use at least as early as 1836; a stone stile was used in Britain as far back as pre-Roman times. An article in "Texas Monthly" claims that the "first recorded use of a cattle grid for nonrail traffic" occurred in 1881 in Archer County, Texas, on the stagecoach road between Archer City and Henrietta.


title: Cattle grid

text: Cattle grids are usually installed on roads where they cross a fenceline, often at a boundary between public and private lands. They are an alternative to the erection of gates that would need to be opened and closed when a vehicle passes, and are common where roads cross open moorland, rangeland or common land maintained by grazing, but where segregation of fields is impractical. Cattle grids are also used when otherwise unfenced railways cross a fenceline. Cattle grids are common worldwide and are widespread in places such as Australia, the Scottish Highlands, or the National Parks of England and Wales. They are also common throughout the Western United States and Canada. In the United States, they are often used on Bureau of Land Management and Forest Service land, but are also used on paved roads and entry and exit ramps of the Interstate Highway System in rural areas.


title: Cattle grid

text: Almost all cattle grids are built around a grid. Most include a pit dug along a fence line, a base for the grid to rest on, and wings to connect the guard to the fence. Since many guards were or are home-made and to some degree idiosyncratic, a wide variety of designs exist. Designs may vary with local conditions. Materials used for construction of a cattle grid depend partly on the weight it must bear.


title: Cattle grid

text: A study of the bars of traditional cattle grids in the Flint Hills of Kansas found that 80 percent were made of pipe, while smaller percentages were made of railroad tracks, I-beams, planks, and other materials. The size of the bars varied from ; the spaces between bars varied from ; the number of bars per grid varied from 4 to 22. Grids differed in length from and in width from , while the pits beneath grids were deep.


title: Cattle grid

text: Cattle grids, as they are called in Great Britain, Ireland, and South Africa, are known by a wide variety of other names in other parts of the world. In the United States, they are cattle guards. "Mata burro" ("donkey killer") is the preferred name in Brazil and Venezuela, while "guarda ganado" ("cattle keeper") is what they are called in Argentina. Alternatives in the United States include car crossing, auto gate, corduroy gate, stock gap, cattle pass, run-over, and many others. Canadians use pit gate, vehicle pass, and Texas gate, as well as cattle guard, which in Canada refers mainly to guards at railway lines.


title: Cattle grid

text: Cattle grids made entirely or mostly of concrete have existed since the 1940s. Individual ranchers have often constructed their own, sometimes using plans developed in the 1940s. In the 21st century, a set of plans for do-it-yourself guards made of wood and concrete are available via the web site of the Missouri Alternatives Center at the University of Missouri in the US. Commercial precast concrete versions are also available; Smith Cattleguard Company, based in Virginia, sold more than 15,000 of them between 1960 and 1980. Manufacturers also produce commercial polyethylene forms with reinforcing rods. Placed in or on the ground and filled, a finished cattle grid with concrete reinforced with fiberglass (GFRP) rebar can support vehicle loads of up to per axle.


title: Cattle grid

text: University Lands, which manages land and mineral interests for a foundation supporting the University of Texas and Texas A&M University systems, publishes do-it-yourself manuals for three sizes of cattle grids with grids made of steel pipes. The manuals include schematic drawings as well as accompanying instructions. Commercial guards made of steel are also available from multiple companies.


title: Cattle grid

text: Painted lines on the road can serve as skeuomorphs of cattle grids. The light-dark pattern of lines on pavement resembles a true cattle grid to animals, and by association think they will not be able to cross. Using a virtual cattle grid is initially cheaper than a true cattle grid, but the cost of periodic re-painting may eventually exceed the initial cost of a well-built metal guard. A particular advantage of painted guards is that they are smooth to drive over; in the US, most are found on state or federal highways, rather than private roads.


title: Cattle grid

text: Why they work is unclear, but it is most likely related to the bovine visual system. Experts say that "a cow's depth perception is such that it makes little or no distinction between painted stripes on a dark background and bars over a pit." Cattle may acquire the behavior of avoiding grids over pits either from individual experience or through imitation of other cattle. However, painted grids have been reported to work with semi-wild cattle with no prior exposure to virtual grids.


title: Cattle grid

text: Cattle can sometimes defeat virtual guards. A rancher in Queensland, Australia, told a reporter that after some of his old bulls leaped a painted grid, the younger ones lost their fear of walking across. This is common; if one member of a herd discovers it can step safely on the lines, others will follow. Other incentives that lead cattle to test a virtual guard include placing food on the opposite side, or using strong driving pressure to run panicked cattle over a virtual grid.


title: Cattle grid

text: Electric cattle grids use electricity to deter animals from crossing the fence line. There are different designs. One uses high-tensile wire run across the roadway, about off the ground, attached to a power source on one side. The primary advantage is cost and ease of installation. Drawbacks include the necessity of spraying vegetation with herbicides to keep weeds from shorting out the grid if there is no barrier between the wires and the ground. In addition, some low-riding vehicles can catch the wires and tear them out.


title: Cattle grid

text: James Hoy in "The Cattle Guard" discusses four kinds of electric guards. One that was patented in Illinois in 1955 and another invented in New Zealand in 1979 are similar; each resemble "something like the framework of an old-fashioned metal bed" connected to a battery or high-powered fence charger. They are easy to drive across, but may pose a danger to children or animals that get stuck in the guard. Another type was patented in two versions by an Oregon inventor in 1956–57; it consisted of 20 current-carrying synthetic rubber strips mounted on a wooden frame. The invention proved highly effective in deterring all animals, including dogs, and it was maintenance free, easy to drive over, and safe. However, the company that acquired the manufacturing rights stopped production in 1960. A fourth type, homemade, consists of two sections of woven wire or steel plate laid on a concrete slab and set apart from one another on either side of a fenceline. The wire sections are then connected to an electric fence or to a separate charger, either conventional or solar-powered.


title: Cattle grid

text: While cattle grids are most effective on cattle, they can be used to exclude deer and elk. Research has shown that deer can cross cattle grids with flat, as opposed to rounded bars. Sometimes a cattle grid is doubled to exclude these animals. A cattle grid requiring a horizontal leap of is considered effective when combined with a deer fence. Striping is also painted on roads as a visual deterrent to deer, as with "virtual" cattle grids.


title: Cattle grid

text: While these barriers are usually effective for cattle, they can fail due to ingenious animals. Sheep searching for food have been known to jump across grids, step carefully into the spaces or run along the side of grids as wide as .


title: Cattle grid

text: Wider grids are used where wildlife is to be contained. Some animals can jump across them, and a barrier that stops deer needs to be at least wide. Bison, and bulls in particular can easily jump across an barrier, and have been known to jump widths of up to .


title: Cattle grid

text: In areas with heavy snowfall and long periods without a thaw, snow can accumulate beneath a grid and allow animals to walk across.


title: Cattle grid

text: Horses are particularly vulnerable to cattle grid injuries, as their single-toed hooves can slip between the bars and trap their legs in an easily broken position. The same risk exists for kangaroos in Australia's outback, with additional risk of entrapment.


title: Cattle grid

text: Cattle grids are generally useless for containing goats. However, a Texas Highway Department official reported that adding three painted stripes—arranged yellow, white, yellow—on the road in front of a cattle grid deterred goats from approaching or crossing the guard.


title: Cattle grid

text: The United States Patent and Trademark Office (US PTO) issued patent on January 15, 1915, to William J. Hickey, Reno, Nevada, for a cattle grid.


title: Cattle grid

text: There is a British Standard for cattle grids: "BS4008:2006". The US standards are put forth by The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). AASHTO provides load rating guidelines for cattle grids that are used on public roads in the US. All cattle grids used on US public roads must be certified by a qualified engineer that the grid meets AASHTO guidelines.


title: Jimmy DiResta

text: Jimmy DiResta (born April 3, 1967) is a New York-based designer, artist, and video producer. He enrolled in the School of Visual Arts in 1986 and graduated in 1990 with a BFA degree. In 1993, he formed a now-defunct toy design company/store called "DiResta" in the East Village which created Gurglin’ Gutz, a rubber toy replicating a miniature human organ. . He went on to teach at the School of Visual Arts.


title: Jimmy DiResta

text: In 2003, DiResta served as set decorator and co-host on "Trash to Cash" with his brother, John DiResta, on Fox Television (FX Network). In 2006, he co-hosted "Hammered with John & Jimmy DiResta", on HGTV. The show focused on the marriage of Jimmy's craftsmanship and John's humor. The show's tagline was "Jimmy can make anything and John can make anything funny." In 2009, Jimmy hosted "Against the Grain" on the DIY Network.


title: Jimmy DiResta

text: In 2011, he co-hosted "Dirty Money" with his brother, John, on Discovery Channel. The DiResta brothers set out scouring every corner of New York City, from dumpsters to flea markets.


title: Jimmy DiResta

text: Since his TV career, he has entered the YouTube media business, publishing on the "Make:" and "Core77" channel as well as his own. He co-hosts the weekly "Making It" podcast since October, 2014 together with David Picciuto and Bob Clagett.


title: Jimmy DiResta

text: In 2016, "Make:" published a book co-written by Jimmy DiResta and John Baichtal entitled "Workshop Mastery with Jimmy DiResta."


title: Jimmy DiResta

text: In 2017, DiResta traveled to California to be a part of NBC's "Making It", hosted by Amy Poehler and Nick Offerman, as an on-camera helper. Rejecting the name, "The Master Helper", DiResta wanted just to be referred to by name.


title: Jimmy DiResta

text: In 2022, DiResta comes back in a new show called "Making Fun" on Netflix where he, and a his buddies (Jackman, Derek, Graz and Canadian Pat), make things concocted by the minds of children. From a taco spitting T-Rex, to a punching sneaker, DiResta and his buddies create unthinkable toys dreamed up by children who get to see their idea built.


title: The Book of Lost Tales

text: The Book of Lost Tales is a collection of early stories by the English writer J. R. R. Tolkien, published as the first two volumes of Christopher Tolkien's 12-volume series "The History of Middle-earth", in which he presents and analyses the manuscripts of those stories, which were the earliest form (begun in 1917) of the complex fictional myths that would eventually comprise "The Silmarillion". Each of the Tales is followed by notes and a detailed commentary by Christopher Tolkien.


title: The Book of Lost Tales

text: For publication the book was split into two volumes: "The Book of Lost Tales 1" (1983) and "The Book of Lost Tales 2" (1984), but this is simply an editorial division. Both volumes are separated into several "Lost Tales".


title: The Book of Lost Tales

text: Though they cover a broadly similar history, the "Tales" are very different from "The Silmarillion". Firstly the "Tales" are more complex and detailed than "The Silmarillion": they are written in a less formal but more archaic style and include many obsolete words and phrases. Secondly the interaction between the different elf-races is profoundly different: the exiled "Noldoli" (or "gnomes", the Noldor of the later histories) suffer decisive defeat much earlier and become slaves of the enemy they had sought to punish. Thus when Thingol feels disdain for Beren it is because the latter is a gnome (not a mortal human) and therefore a thrall of Melko (an earlier name for Melkor).


title: The Book of Lost Tales

text: While many of the names in the book are identical or close to those in the later versions, some of them bear almost no resemblance to their final forms. Tolkien changed names rather frequently, sometimes with several new variants (rejected in turn) written in a single manuscript. Confusingly, sometimes the name applied to one thing is later used to refer to something quite different, the original use abandoned. For example, the house of Elves called "Teleri" in "The Book of Lost Tales" is not the same as that of "The Silmarillion" (see Teleri). The original usage of "Teleri" would eventually change until the name became "Vanyar", while the house of Elves called "Solosimpi" would inherit the name "Teleri".


title: The Book of Lost Tales

text: In the frame story of the book, a time-travelling mortal Man visits the Elvish Isle of Tol Eressëa where he learns the history of its inhabitants. In the earlier versions this man is named Eriol and is of some vague north European origin. In later versions he becomes Ælfwine, an Englishman of the Middle-ages.


title: The Book of Lost Tales

text: There are more changes visible within the book, and it is not internally consistent, partially because even while still writing it Tolkien began rewriting earlier parts as his ideas about the world changed. The Tales were eventually abandoned, but they were resurrected in part as the "Sketch of the Mythology" which would become the "Silmarillion".


title: The Book of Lost Tales

text: There is an inscription in the Fëanorian characters (Tengwar, an alphabet Tolkien devised for High-Elves) in the first pages of every "History of Middle-earth" volume, written by Christopher Tolkien and describing the contents of the book. The inscription in Book I reads "This is the first part of the Book of the Lost Tales of Elfinesse which Eriol the Mariner learned from the Elves of Tol Eressëa, the Lonely Isle in the western ocean, and afterwards wrote in the Golden Book of Tavrobel. Herein are told the Tales of Valinor, from the Music of the Ainur to the Exile of the Noldoli and the Hiding of Valinor."


title: The Book of Lost Tales

text: The inscription in Book II reads "This is the second part of the Book of the Lost Tales of Elfinesse which Eriol the Mariner learned from the Elves of Tol Eressëa, the Lonely Isle in the western ocean, and afterwards wrote in the Golden Book of Tavrobel. Herein are told the Tales of Beren and Tinúviel, of Turambar, of the Fall of Gondolin and of the Necklace of the Dwarves."


title: The Book of Lost Tales

text: The following is a direct comparison between the contents of the early "Book of Lost Tales" and the later sketches that became "The Silmarillion". Although one of the "Lost Tales" often corresponds to more tales from "The Silmarillion", still the narrative in the "Lost Tales" is more extended (typically, 50% pages more). In J. R. R. Tolkien's notebooks, the fourth and fifth tales were a single one, told by the character Meril-i-Turinqi, but Christopher Tolkien decided to separate them because of their length. The same applies to the sixth and seventh tales, told by Lindo.


title: The Book of Lost Tales

text: Dave Langford reviewed "The Book of Lost Tales II" for "White Dwarf" #59, stating that he had mixed feelings about it, since while it provided some added depth, he was not sure that every detail was worth "annotating with such ghastly solemnity."


title: The Book of Lost Tales

text: Colin Greenland reviewed "The Book of Lost Tales" for "Imagine" magazine, and stated that "Those who prefer their fairy-tales sophisticated, in weighty prose with scholarly footnotes and appendices, will plunge joyously into J R R Tolkien's first "Book of Lost Tales"."


title: The Book of Lost Tales

text: Vladimir Brljak, writing in "Tolkien Studies", notes that Tolkien's comment on "Beowulf", that it was already antiquarian when written, and is now "an echo of an echo", bringing poignant vistas of sad times long gone by, was also a defence of his own writings, where he followed the "Beowulf" poet in deliberately seeking to create an impression of depth. He did this in the two "Books of Lost Tales" by creating "an intricate metafictional structure", embedding his works in a framework of " translations of redactions of ancient works, telling of things even more ancient." Brljak argues that this framework is "both the cornerstone and crowning achievement of Tolkien's mature literary work."


title: Multilateralism

text: In international relations, multilateralism refers to an alliance of multiple countries pursuing a common goal.


title: Multilateralism

text: Multilateralism, in the form of membership in international institutions, serves to bind powerful nations, discourage unilateralism, and gives small powers a voice and influence that they could not otherwise exercise. For a small power to influence a great power, the Lilliputian strategy of small countries banding together to collectively bind a larger one can be effective. Similarly, multilateralism may allow one great power to influence another great power. For a great power to seek control through bilateral ties could be costly; it may require bargaining and compromise with the other great power.


title: Multilateralism

text: Miles Kahler defines multilateralism as "international governance" or global governance of the "many," and its central principle was "opposition [to] bilateral discriminatory arrangements that were believed to enhance the leverage of the powerful over the weak and to increase international conflict."; Robert Keohane defined it as "the practice of coordinating national policies in groups of three or more states."


title: Multilateralism

text: John Ruggie further elaborated the concept in his influential writings on multilateralism. Based on principles of "indivisibility" and "diffuse reciprocity he defined it as "an institutional form which coordinates relations among three or more states based on 'generalized' principles of conduct ... which specify appropriate conduct for a class of actions, without regard to particularistic interests of the parties or the strategic exigencies that may exist in any occurrence." He further clarified that multilateralism is 'a unique product of US global hegemony [. . . ] not necessarily a post-war American invention', but a reflection of post-war 'American hegemony'.


title: Multilateralism

text: Embedding the target state in a multilateral alliance reduces the costs borne by the power-seeking control, but it also offers the same binding benefits of the Lilliputian strategy. Furthermore, if a small power seeks control over another small power, multilateralism may be the only choice, because small powers rarely have the resources to exert control on their own. As such, power disparities are accommodated to the weaker states by having more predictable bigger states and means to achieve control through collective action. Powerful states also buy into multilateral agreements by writing the rules and having privileges such as veto power and special status.


title: Multilateralism

text: International organizations, such as the United Nations (UN) and the World Trade Organization, are multilateral in nature. The main proponents of multilateralism have traditionally been the middle powers, such as Canada, Australia, Switzerland, the Benelux countries and the Nordic countries. Larger states often act unilaterally, while smaller ones may have little direct power in international affairs aside from participation in the United Nations (by consolidating their UN vote in a voting bloc with other nations, for example.) Multilateralism may involve several nations acting together, as in the UN, or may involve regional or military alliances, pacts, or groupings, such as NATO. These multilateral institutions are not imposed on states but are created and accepted by them to increase their ability to seek their own interests through the coordination of their policies. Moreover, they serve as frameworks that constrain opportunistic behaviour and encourage coordination by facilitating the exchange of information about the actual behaviour of states regarding the standards to which they have consented.


title: Multilateralism

text: The term "regional multilateralism" has been proposed by Harris Mylonas and Emirhan Yorulmazlar, suggesting that "contemporary problems can be better solved at the regional rather than the bilateral or global levels" and that bringing together the concept of regional integration with that of multilateralism is necessary in today's world. Regionalism dates from the time of the earliest development of political communities, where economic and political relations naturally had a strong regionalist focus due to restrictions on technology, trade, and communications.


title: Multilateralism

text: The converse of multilateralism is unilateralism, in terms of political philosophy. Other authors have used the term "minilateralism" to refer to the fewest states required to get the biggest results through this institutional form.


title: Multilateralism

text: The foreign policy that India formulated after independence reflected its idiosyncratic culture and political traditions. Speaking in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of the Parliament of India, in March 1950, Nehru affirmed: “It should not be supposed that we are starting on a clean slate. It is a policy that flowed from our recent history and our national movement and its development and various ideals, we have proclaimed. (Nehru, 1961, p. 34). In fact, the foreign policy culture of India is an elite culture, meaning, in effect, that the writings and speeches of select leading figures of the Indian foreign policy elite provide an insight into the key ideas and norms constituting the foundation of India's foreign policy.