title: Draco Rosa

text: The first live performance of the album took place at Premios Lo Nuestro 2013 where Draco and Ricky Martin shared the stage to perform live their single "Más y Más" for the first time since they were both in Menudo.


title: Draco Rosa

text: On April 23, 2013, previous to the 2013 Billboard Latin Music Awards, Draco received the first Premio Conquistador given by the Latin Songwriters Hall of Fame at the New World Center in Miami and presented to him by Rubén Blades. After the presentation of the award, Draco and Rubén shared the stage to perform a duet of "El Tiempo Va", included in "Vida". Two days after, Draco and Mexican band Maná performed "Penélope" together at the 2013 Billboard Latin Music Awards, held at the BankUnited Center in Miami on April 25, 2013.


title: Draco Rosa

text: After making a special appearance at Alejandro Sanz's concert in Puerto Rico on May 12, 2013, in which both sang their duet of "Como Me Acuerdo", Draco and Sanz's duet was filmed and used for the music video released on October 21, 2013, which was removed from YouTube the same day.


title: Draco Rosa

text: After making his first ever appearance at the Puerto Rican Day Parade on June 9, 2013, and performing at the Copacabana in Times Square on May 11, 2013, Draco confirmed that he will film the music video for duet of "Esto Es Vida" with Juan Luis Guerra in the Dominican Republic which he appraised during his illness as one of his "best compositions". "It was a strong moment in my life. They're important parts with serious people, important", he expressed. Filming took place on June 17, 2013, at the ruins of the Engombe Sugar Mill in Santo Domingo. The video was directed by Guerra's own son, Jean Gabriel Guerra, a filmmaker. The music video was released on August 14, 2013.


title: Draco Rosa

text: Draco made his return to the stage on December 6, 2013, at the José Miguel Agrelot Coliseum with a concert entitled "Draco & Friends". Many artists who collaborated on "Vida" performed alongside Draco, including Juan Luis Guerra, Enrique Bunbury, Calle 13's René Pérez, Juanes and Ricky Martin. Draco announced that due to overwhelming demand, a second concert date was added for December 7, 2013, which featured other guest artists performing alongside him.


title: Draco Rosa

text: Along with the authorship of Nena Niessen, it was announced on May 6, 2015, that Draco would release his first publication, a cookbook on nutritional and alternative cooking divided into three sections: the first devoted to fundamental ingredients for good health, the second dealing with body detox and the third with recipes easy to prepare dishes that combine a good and important nutrition detoxification. The book, entitled "El Secreto de la Vida a Base De Plantas" ("The Secret of Life Based on Plants") was released late July 2015.


title: Draco Rosa

text: "Monte Sagrado", Rosa's first album of original material in over a decade, was released on October 26, 2018. "Rolling Stone"s David Fricke called it "one of the (most) honest records you will hear this year — at any volume, in any language".


title: Draco Rosa

text: Rosa is fluent in Spanish, English, German and Portuguese. He was married to actress and director Angela Alvarado, whom he met during the filming of "Salsa", in which they both starred in. They married in 1988 and had two sons, Revel (born 1994) and Redamo (born 2001). In June 2019, Rosa filed for divorce in Los Angeles after nearly 30 years of marriage, citing "irreconcilable differences". He currently resides in Utuado, after moving from Los Angeles.


title: Draco Rosa

text: Rosa owns a recording studio, an independent music label and a multimedia company under the name of Phantom Vox. He also owns Hacienda Horizonte in the mountains of Utuado, where his recording studio was relocated to and where the music videos for "Paraíso Prometido" and "Reza Por Mí" from the album "Amor Vincit Omnia" have been filmed. Aside from the many different projects in Utuado, Draco also created his own line of rum, Ron Vagabundo with the Serrallés Destillery; a brand of locally grown coffee, Café Horizonte and a clothing line, Vagabundo Clothing. Puerto Rico's Chamber of Commerce awarded Draco with the Zenit award as Businessman of the Year in 2011.


title: Draco Rosa

text: On December 10, 2013, Rosa was recognized by the House of Representatives of Puerto Rico at the Capitol Building of Puerto Rico for his successful career while in recovery from cancer at the recent light of his relapse.


title: Draco Rosa

text: Outside of his personal investments, musical and otherwise, he has also contributed towards the improvement of artistic and cultural life in Puerto Rico, sponsoring the Museo de Arte Contemporáneo de Puerto Rico and setting up an annual scholarship for outstanding students at the Conservatory of Music of Puerto Rico.


title: Draco Rosa

text: On April 9, 2001, Rosa was arrested alongside Senator Luis Gutiérrez, Edward James Olmos, Robert Kennedy Jr. and other protesters for civil disobedience when they invaded the US Navy's security zone surrounding the island-municipality of Vieques. Rosa has vehemently opposed the US Navy training missions in Vieques and has been a vocal supporter of the environmental movement and the independence movement.


title: Draco Rosa

text: Shortly after leaving Menudo, Rosa started taking drugs, and often drew inspiration from hallucinogens and alcohol for his songwriting. Although this generated heavy criticism, most of his fans did not seem to be bothered by this. Rosa has always been very open about the subject, even admitting that his wife, Angela, saved his life on at least one occasion. Rosa stopped taking drugs in 2005.


title: Draco Rosa

text: On April 25, 2011, Rosa was diagnosed with cancer: a non-Hodgkin lymphoma, near his liver. He followed several alternative treatments, such as high vitamin C doses or neoplasm treatment at the Burzynski Clinic in Houston. Finally, he underwent conventional treatments of chemotherapy and bone marrow transplantation. He was under quarantine in his California home until December 31, 2012, when Draco completed his quarantine and was declared cancer-free. On May 30, 2013, Rosa tweeted that his recent cancer study resulted negative, confirming he is completely cured of cancer. His tweet read: "Familia: I went in yesterday for a pet scan. Today my results came in; I'm free. So happy!! #cancerfree #celebration#love #faith #gratitude" .


title: Draco Rosa

text: On December 9, 2013, Rosa's manager confirmed that Draco's cancer had relapsed in a press conference for the World's Best 10K on February 23, 2014. A routine test taken while on tour, led to the diagnosis of a diffuse B-cell lymphoma, non-Hodgkin type, which his doctors consider he may recover from again. Draco himself told his manager the night of the 2013 Latin Grammys. Rosa was declared again cancer-free on January 5, 2014. Rosa initially had planned to participate at the 10K on behalf of a nine-year-old patient, who was recovering from a bone marrow transplant but his own recovery and quarantine prevented Rosa from participating. Rosa, instead, sent his wife Angela and son Redamo in his place. On February 26, Draco commenced his second bone marrow transplant in California and remained in quarantine for a course of four months before being declared cancer-free once again.


title: Draco Rosa

text: On August 23, 2018, Rosa announced by way of a video post on Instagram that after his last check-up examinations he is completely cancer-free, information that was corroborated by his manager Wanda Troche. Rosa celebrated his fifth cancer-free anniversary in another Instagram post from February 28, 2019.


title: Draco Rosa

text: The Grammy Award is an accolade by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences of the United States to recognize outstanding achievement on the music industry.


title: Draco Rosa

text: A Latin Grammy Award is an accolade by the Latin Academy of Recording Arts & Sciences to recognize outstanding achievement in the Latin music industry.


title: Draco Rosa

text: Lo Nuestro Awards () is an awards show honoring the best of Latin music, presented by television network Univision.


title: Lynden Gooch

text: Lynden Jack Gooch (born December 24, 1995) is an American professional soccer player who plays as a winger or wing-back for Sunderland in EFL Championship.


title: Lynden Gooch

text: Gooch was born in Santa Cruz, California on December 24, 1995, son of an English father (born in Colchester) and an Irish mother (born in Dublin). His father is a professional Football coach. At an early age, he joined the U.S. Football Development Academy club Santa Cruz County Breakers Academy. Gooch's talent attracted the attention of several European outfits, earning him a trial and eventual spot with Sunderland's youth academy. From the age of 10 Gooch traveled to Sunderland regularly during school holidays to train before moving to England and joining full-time at the age of 16, signing a two-year scholarship. Since joining the Sunderland U-16 side, Gooch worked his way through the U-18 and U-21 sides. Because of this, he signed a contract with the club, keeping him until 2017.


title: Lynden Gooch

text: On February 27, 2015, Gooch went on loan to Conference side Gateshead, on a 28-day youth loan. Gooch made his professional debut soon after, playing the whole game, in a 1–0 home loss against Bristol Rovers. Gooch made seven appearances and scored one goal, putting the Tynesiders ahead in a 3–1 home win against Wrexham and causing an own goal by opponent Steve Tomassen.


title: Lynden Gooch

text: Gooch made his professional debut for Sunderland on August 26, 2015, in a League Cup second round match against Exeter City as a substitute for Adam Matthews in the 58th minute of a 6–3 win at the Stadium of Light. On January 21, 2016, Gooch was loaned for a month to Doncaster Rovers of League One. He made his debut for them two days later, playing the full 90 minutes of a goalless draw at Fleetwood Town and his performance was praised by the "Sheffield Star". After a handful of appearances for the club, on February 24 his loan was extended till then end of the season. He returned to Sunderland on March 19, due to ankle injury that he sustained against Fleetwood Town, but continued to play through the pain for eight matches.


title: Lynden Gooch

text: On April 21, 2016, Gooch signed a three-year contract with Sunderland, keeping him until 2019. On August 13, he made his Premier League debut, starting away against Manchester City in Sunderland's first match of the season, a 2–1 defeat. After making his debut, the "Sunderland Echo" commented on his performance, describing him as "Energy, fearlessness and endeavour". Gooch continued to appear in the first team despite being on the substitutes' bench on numerous occasions, before suffering an ankle injury in November that kept him out between two and three months. Though he was fit again by February 2017, he was frozen out of the team by manager David Moyes who preferred Adnan Januzaj and Fabio Borini in midfield, as the season ended with relegation.


title: Lynden Gooch

text: Gooch scored his first goal for the Black Cats on August 22, 2017 in a League Cup second round match away to Carlisle United, the winning goal in a 2–1 victory at Brunton Park. He said that he had dreamt of the moment since the age of 10. A month later he recorded a first league goal, a penalty that he won himself to equalise in a 2–1 home loss to Cardiff City.


title: Lynden Gooch

text: Sunderland suffered a second consecutive relegation to the 2018–19 EFL League One. On August 4, in their first game of the season, Gooch headed an added-time winner in a 2–1 home victory over Charlton Athletic – the Black Cats' first opening win for eleven years. In what would have been the last season of his contract, he signed a three-year extension on December 31.


title: Lynden Gooch

text: Gooch was eligible to play for England (due to his English father), the Republic of Ireland (due to Irish mother), or the United States (due to birthright citizenship).


title: Lynden Gooch

text: After appearing once for the Republic of Ireland U18 side, Gooch switched allegiance to United States after being called up for United States U20, Gooch made his United States U20 debut on November 15, 2014, in a 1–0 win over Republic of Ireland U21. Gooch represented the United States under-20 team at the 2015 CONCACAF Championship in Jamaica, playing four games as they achieved qualification for the year's World Cup in that category.


title: Lynden Gooch

text: On October 2, 2016, Gooch was called up to the senior team for a pair of friendlies against Cuba and New Zealand. Nine days later, he made his debut against New Zealand, replacing Kellyn Acosta for the final 31 minutes of a 1–1 draw at the RFK Stadium in Washington, D.C.


title: Lynden Gooch

text: Gooch's brother, Anthony, played college soccer for the San Diego State Aztecs men's soccer program and currently works for the San Jose Earthquakes of Major League Soccer. Gooch has another brother, Darshan, who is a professional surfer.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: Óscar Washington Tabárez Silva (; born 3 March 1947), known as "El Maestro" (The Teacher), is a Uruguayan professional football manager and former player. He most recently coached the Uruguay national team.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: After an unassuming career as a player and after working as a primary school teacher, Tabárez embarked on an extensive coaching career which has lasted more than 30 years and included coaching teams in Colombia, Argentina, Italy and Spain. He managed the Uruguay national football team from 1988 to 1990, returning to the job for a second time in 2006. He led the team to fourth place in the 2010 FIFA World Cup, and to victory in the 2011 Copa América. With Tabárez, Uruguay qualified for four World Cups, reaching the round of 16 twice, the quarterfinals once, and the semi-finals once. In October 2017 Tabárez qualified Uruguay for a fourth time; reaching the 5th position at the 2018 World Cup tournament.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: On 25 March 2016, two and a half weeks after completing ten years as the manager of Uruguay, Tabárez surpassed Francisco Maturana for the head coach with most World Cup qualifying games in South America with 47, with the singularity that he has only managed Uruguay. Tabárez also is the fourth-ranked manager with most games at the Copa América with 30, participating in seven tournaments (1989, 2007, 2011, 2015, 2016, 2019 and 2021). In 2012, for his contributions to association football, Tabaréz became the recipient of the FIFA Order of Merit, the highest honour awarded by FIFA.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: During his 12-year senior playing career, Tabárez played mainly for modest clubs, representing Sud América, Sportivo Italiano (Argentina), Montevideo Wanderers (at the time when they were the first non traditional team from Uruguay to qualify for Copa Libertadores), Fénix, Puebla in Mexico and Bella Vista. He retired at age 32.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: In 1980, one year after retiring as a player, Tabárez took up coaching at Bella Vista. There he met José Herrera, who has worked alongside him as physical trainer ever since. The following year, Tabárez was named manager of the Uruguay under-20 team. He would coach the side on two occasions. He managed the team at the Pan American Games, in 1983 in Caracas, where Uruguay won the gold medal, defeating Guatemala in the final.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: Tabárez subsequently worked for various clubs in Uruguay, including Danubio, Montevideo Wanderers and Peñarol. Around this time he first met his current assistant coaches, Mario Rebollo and Celso Otero. In 1987, Tabárez led Peñarol to its fifth Copa Libertadores title after defeating América de Cali in the tournament final.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: The Copa Libertadores title was fundamental in Tabárez's appointment as manager of the Uruguay senior team, in which the 1989 Copa América, in Brazil, was his first major tournament in charge. Uruguay finished in second place, eliminating Diego Maradona-led Argentina in the process, losing to hosts Brazil at the Maracanã Stadium.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: After four games of qualification, Uruguay qualified for the 1990 FIFA World Cup, held in Italy. Uruguay reached the round of 16 of the tournament after a draw with Spain, a loss to Belgium and a win against South Korea. In the round of 16, however, Uruguay was eliminated by hosts Italy. After 34 games, Tabárez's first stint ended. The victory over South Korea was the first at the World Cup since 1970 and the last until 2010, also with Tabárez as manager.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: Tabárez later coached Argentine Primera División giants Boca Juniors for two years. In 1994, Tabárez moved to Italy to manage Serie A side Cagliari. After leading them to a ninth-place finish in 1994–95, Tabárez was hired by Milan. His spell, however, would only last a few months: after a Supercoppa Italiana defeat against Fiorentina at home at the San Siro, a 2–3 loss at Piacenza for the league cost him his position. He was replaced by Arrigo Sacchi, and the "Rossoneri" eventually finished 11th.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: Tabárez then worked with Real Oviedo in Spain, with the club eventually only maintaining top division status in the promotion/relegation play-offs against Las Palmas, winning 4–3 on aggregate. He then returned to Cagliari, being sacked after one draw and three losses.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: After two years in Argentina with Vélez Sarsfield and Boca Juniors, Tabárez spent four years away from football management.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: On 7 March 2006, Tabárez took charge of the national team for a second time, and at that time Uruguay had only qualified for 2002 FIFA World Cup since his first spell as manager as they failed to qualify for 1994 FIFA World Cup (losing to Brazil in the last match in their group), 1998 FIFA World Cup (finished 7th in the Group Stage) and 2006 FIFA World Cup (lost to Australia in the play-off). Also on the same day he presented the ""Proceso de Institucionalización de Selecciones y la Formación de sus Futbolistas"" (Process of National Teams' Institutionalization and Players' Growth), which established a "proper way" of work with the national teams (under-15, -18 and -20 and the senior team), reintroducing the 4–3–3 formation and setting time for players in which they can study. With the help of the Complejo Celeste, the work were facilitated upon the objectives of the Proceso. As of 29 March 2016, 10 of the 11-most capped players for Uruguay have been part of the "Proceso".


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: In the group stage, Uruguay lost to Peru (3–0), drew with Venezuela (0–0) and defeated Bolivia (1–0). In the quarter-finals, Uruguay met Venezuela again, this time winning (4–1). After being eliminated in the semi-finals on penalties (5–4) against Brazil (2–2), they lost in the match for third place against Mexico, (3–1).


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: After a successful play-off against Costa Rica, Tabárez and the "Charrúas" qualified for the 2010 World Cup in South Africa, first winning Group A (Uruguay did not win its group since 1954 World Cup in Switzerland, 56 years prior). They drew with France (0–0), beat South Africa (3–0) and Mexico (1–0). In the round of 16 they beat South Korea (2–1). In the quarter-finals, Uruguay faced Ghana and after a draw (1–1), they went to extra time. In the last minute of extra time, a penalty kick was missed by Asamoah Gyan, after a handball by Luis Suárez.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: In South Africa, the national team reached the semi-finals for the first time in 40 years, where it lost 3–2 to the Netherlands, only conceding five goals in six matches until that point. Uruguay ended the competition in fourth place, after a 3–2 defeat against Germany.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: In the 2011 Copa América, Tabárez led Uruguay to its 15th victory in the tournament, with the national side winning three games and drawing three in Argentina, and only conceding three goals. With these wins, Uruguay became the country with the most wins in the history of the Copa América. In 2011 and 2012, under Tabárez's leadership, Uruguay remained undefeated in 18 consecutive games from June 2011 to August 2012, a national team record previously set by Juan Carlos Corazzo. With the Copa América win, Uruguay qualified for the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: After an 84-year absence, Uruguay returned to the Olympic Games, held in London in 2012. After a victory against the United Arab Emirates U23 (2–1), the team lost the next two games against Senegal U23 (2–0) and Great Britain (1–0), marking the end of the Olympic adventure. Egidio Arévalo Ríos, Edinson Cavani and Luis Suárez were the nation's three overage players at the tournament.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: Uruguay passed the first stage after a 2–1 defeat to Spain and two victories (2–1 against Nigeria and 8–0 against Tahiti). In the semi-finals, they lost 2–1 against hosts Brazil and finished in fourth place after a 2–2 draw against Italy after penalties.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: Tabárez led Uruguay in its qualification to the 2014 World Cup in Brazil, defeating Jordan in two play-off games, and thus becoming the first Uruguayan manager to do so in two consecutive World Cups. In Brazil, after an opening 3–1 defeat to Costa Rica followed by two wins (2–1 against England, 1–0 against Italy), to finish its group stage, Uruguay reached the round of 16, Tabárez's third time for Uruguay at the World Cup. This also marked the first time an Uruguayan team defeated a European opponent in 44 years, the last time being a win against the Soviet Union during the 1970 World Cup in Mexico. Without star striker Luis Suárez in the lineup, however, Uruguay lost to Colombia (0–2).


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: On 19 June, the Asociación Uruguaya de Fútbol made a video tribute to celebrate Tabárez's 150 games at the helm of the Uruguayan national team. In the group stage, Uruguay defeated Jamaica (1–0), lost to Argentina (1–0) and drew Paraguay (1–1) to finish in third position in its group. Uruguay qualified as the top third-placed and met Chile in the next stage. In a game marked with the controversy between Edinson Cavani and Chile's Gonzalo Jara, Uruguay were eliminated after a 1–0 defeat. After the tournament, Tabárez was suspended for three official games for the incidents of the Chile–Uruguay match, in which Cavani was also suspended for two games.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: Uruguay contested the Copa América Centenario as part of Group C, Uruguay was eliminated after its three group stage matches, losing to Mexico (3–1) and Venezuela (1–0) but defeating Jamaica (3–0).


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: Despite the suspension after the Copa América, and with Celso Otero assisting on the bench, Uruguay won its first two games in the 2018 World Cup qualification, the first time it had done this since the 1966 World Cup qualification, including its first ever win in La Paz against Bolivia. After the game against Chile, a 3–0 victory, Tabárez equaled Francisco Maturana as the South American coach with the most games in the CONMEBOL qualifiers, with the distinction that Tabárez has only represented one nation, Uruguay.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: Qualification continued in March 2016 with a draw at Brazil (2–2) and a home win against Peru (1–0). In September 2016, after a 1–0 defeat to Argentina, Tabárez became the national team manager with the most games with one country, surpassing the record held by Sepp Herberger (167 games) since 1964. The next game saw Uruguay beat Paraguay 4–0. In October 2016, Uruguay played two games: a victory over Venezuela (the first in Uruguay for 16 years), and a draw with Colombia in Barranquilla (the first time Uruguay got a point in that city). Also, Luis Suárez tied Argentinian Hernán Crespo as the top goal scorer in World Cup Qualifications for CONMEBOL.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: In November 2016, Uruguay defeated Ecuador and lost to Chile. In March 2017, Uruguay was defeated by Brazil and Peru. In June 2017, another two defeats against the Republic of Ireland and Italy led to worries about the performance of the national team. In August, Uruguay obtained a draw in the Centenario against Argentina, but a victory in September (the first time ever when visiting Paraguay), returned the team to the running for the World Cup. After the game against Argentina, Tabarez told the press that he might leave Uruguay as manager because of his age. In October Uruguay played against Venezuela (0–0) and Bolivia (a 4–2 victory), which sent Uruguay straight to the World Cup for the first time since the current Qualification system was implemented and the third time in a row.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: Tabárez arrived to his fourth World Cup as the oldest manager at the tournament. With his appearance, he became tied for third-most World Cup appearances by a manager and tied for most World Cup appearances by a manager of a single national team. In the group stage, Uruguay defeated Egypt, winning its inaugural game for the first time since 1970. Uruguay the defeated Saudi Arabia to qualify for the next round for the third time in a row for the first time in World Cup history. Uruguay defeated Russia to win three consecutive games for the first time since 1954, and for the first time to win its group, with no goals against and no yellow or red cards. It was the fourth time that Uruguay advanced to the next round with Tabárez. Uruguay defeated Portugal and advanced to the quarterfinals to face France. France defeated Uruguay, and would proceed to win the World Cup. Tabárez became one of the national team managers with the most World Cups, and the third one representing the same team four times.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: Following the tournament, Tabárez's contract expired, and its intended renewal was initially not completed due to controversy surrounding the national federation which included the resignation of its president Wilmar Valdez. One friendly match in September 2018 was overseen on an interim basis by the Under-20 coach Fabián Coito; the contract was renewed a few weeks later.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: Uruguay advanced to the next round after defeating Ecuador, a draw against Japan and a win against Chile. In the next round, Peru eliminated Uruguay in the penalties series. Tabarez reached 30 Copa America games, becoming the fourth in the list of national team managers with most games in the history of the competition. Uruguay ended the entire calendar year with a 13 games undefeated streak. The last time this had happened was in 1987.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: After poor results in the qualifying rounds of the Qatar 2022 World Cup, Tabárez was fired on 19 November 2021, ending 15 years as coach of the Uruguay national football team.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: Tabárez is presently the first on the list of football managers with most games, that have managed one national team. In September 2016, he surpassed the record held by Sepp Herberger (167) and Morten Olsen (166) as the national team manager with the most games as national football manager with just one national team, leading a selected group with 100 games or more. In November 2019, he reached the 200 games with the national team of Uruguay. The list also includes such names as Hugo Meisl, Alf Ramsey, Mario Zagallo, Helmut Schön, Carlos Alberto Parreira, Joachim Löw, Lars Lagerbäck, Bruce Arena, Berti Vogts, Guillermo Stábile, Ignacio Trelles, Walter Winterbottom, Lajos Baróti and Vicente del Bosque.


title: Óscar Tabárez

text: Aside from his career in football, Tabárez also worked as a teacher. He has been diagnosed with Guillain–Barré syndrome, and was seen utilizing crutches during the 2018 FIFA World Cup.


title: Hydride

text: In chemistry, a hydride is formally the anion of hydrogen( H). The term is applied loosely. At one extreme, all compounds containing covalently bound H atoms are called hydrides: water (HO) is a hydride of oxygen, ammonia is a hydride of nitrogen, etc. For inorganic chemists, hydrides refer to compounds and ions in which hydrogen is covalently attached to a less electronegative element. In such cases, the H centre has nucleophilic character, which contrasts with the protic character of acids. The hydride anion is very rarely observed.


title: Hydride

text: Almost all of the elements form binary compounds with hydrogen, the exceptions being He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Pm, Os, Ir, Rn, Fr, and Ra. Exotic molecules such as positronium hydride have also been made.


title: Hydride

text: Bonds between hydrogen and the other elements range from highly to somewhat covalent. Some hydrides, e.g. boron hydrides, do not conform to classical electron-counting rules and the bonding is described in terms of multi-centered bonds, whereas the interstitial hydrides often involve metallic bonding. Hydrides can be discrete molecules, oligomers or polymers, ionic solids, chemisorbed monolayers, bulk metals (interstitial), or other materials. While hydrides traditionally react as Lewis bases or reducing agents, some metal hydrides behave as hydrogen-atom donors and act as acids.


title: Hydride

text: Free hydride anions exist only under extreme conditions and are not invoked for homogeneous solution. Instead, many compounds have hydrogen centres with hydridic character.


title: Hydride

text: Aside from electride, the hydride ion is the simplest possible anion, consisting of two electrons and a proton. Hydrogen has a relatively low electron affinity, 72.77 kJ/mol and reacts exothermically with protons as a powerful Lewis base.


title: Hydride

text: The low electron affinity of hydrogen and the strength of the H–H bond () means that the hydride ion would also be a strong reducing agent


title: Hydride

text: According to the general definition, every element of the periodic table (except some noble gases) forms one or more hydrides. These substances have been classified into three main types according to the nature of their bonding:


title: Hydride

text: While these divisions have not been used universally, they are still useful to understand differences in hydrides.


title: Hydride

text: These are stoichiometric compounds of hydrogen. Ionic or saline hydrides are composed of hydride bound to an electropositive metal, generally an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal. The divalent lanthanides such as europium and ytterbium form compounds similar to those of heavier alkaline earth metals. In these materials the hydride is viewed as a pseudohalide. Saline hydrides are insoluble in conventional solvents, reflecting their non-molecular structures. Ionic hydrides are used as bases and, occasionally, as reducing reagents in organic synthesis.


title: Hydride

text: Typical solvents for such reactions are ethers. Water and other protic solvents cannot serve as a medium for ionic hydrides because the hydride ion is a stronger base than hydroxide and most hydroxyl anions. Hydrogen gas is liberated in a typical acid-base reaction.


title: Hydride

text: Often alkali metal hydrides react with metal halides. Lithium aluminium hydride (often abbreviated as LAH) arises from reactions of lithium hydride with aluminium chloride.


title: Hydride

text: According to some definitions, covalent hydrides cover all other compounds containing hydrogen. Some definitions limit hydrides to hydrogen centres that formally react as hydrides, i.e. are nucleophilic, and hydrogen atoms bound to metal centers. These hydrides are formed by all the true non-metals (except zero group elements) and the elements like Al, Ga, Sn, Pb, Bi, Po, etc., which are normally metallic in nature, i.e., this class includes the hydrides of p-block elements. In these substances the hydride bond is formally a covalent bond much like the bond made by a proton in a weak acid. This category includes hydrides that exist as discrete molecules, polymers or oligomers, and hydrogen that has been chem-adsorbed to a surface. A particularly important segment of covalent hydrides are complex metal hydrides, powerful soluble hydrides commonly used in synthetic procedures.


title: Hydride

text: Molecular hydrides often involve additional ligands; for example, diisobutylaluminium hydride (DIBAL) consists of two aluminum centers bridged by hydride ligands. Hydrides that are soluble in common solvents are widely used in organic synthesis. Particularly common are sodium borohydride () and lithium aluminium hydride and hindered reagents such as DIBAL.


title: Hydride

text: Interstitial hydrides most commonly exist within metals or alloys. They are traditionally termed "compounds" even though they do not strictly conform to the definition of a compound, more closely resembling common alloys such as steel. In such hydrides, hydrogen can exist as either atomic or diatomic entities. Mechanical or thermal processing, such as bending, striking, or annealing, may cause the hydrogen to precipitate out of solution by degassing. Their bonding is generally considered metallic. Such bulk transition metals form interstitial binary hydrides when exposed to hydrogen. These systems are usually non-stoichiometric, with variable amounts of hydrogen atoms in the lattice. In materials engineering, the phenomenon of hydrogen embrittlement results from the formation of interstitial hydrides. Hydrides of this type form according to either one of two main mechanisms. The first mechanism involves the adsorption of dihydrogen, succeeded by the cleaving of the H-H bond, the delocalisation of the hydrogen's electrons, and finally the diffusion of the protons into the metal lattice. The other main mechanism involves the electrolytic reduction of ionised hydrogen on the surface of the metal lattice, also followed by the diffusion of the protons into the lattice. The second mechanism is responsible for the observed temporary volume expansion of certain electrodes used in electrolytic experiments.


title: Hydride

text: Palladium absorbs up to 900 times its own volume of hydrogen at room temperatures, forming palladium hydride. This material has been discussed as a means to carry hydrogen for vehicular fuel cells. Interstitial hydrides show certain promise as a way for safe hydrogen storage. Neutron diffraction studies have shown that hydrogen atoms randomly occupy the octahedral interstices in the metal lattice (in an fcc lattice there is one octahedral hole per metal atom). The limit of absorption at normal pressures is PdH0.7, indicating that approximately 70% of the octahedral holes are occupied.


title: Hydride

text: Many interstitial hydrides have been developed that readily absorb and discharge hydrogen at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. They are usually based on intermetallic compounds and solid-solution alloys. However, their application is still limited, as they are capable of storing only about 2 weight percent of hydrogen, insufficient for automotive applications.


title: Hydride

text: Transition metal hydrides include compounds that can be classified as "covalent hydrides". Some are even classified as interstitial hydrides and other bridging hydrides. Classical transition metal hydride feature a single bond between the hydrogen centre and the transition metal. Some transition metal hydrides are acidic, e.g., and . The anions potassium nonahydridorhenate and are examples from the growing collection of known molecular homoleptic metal hydrides. As pseudohalides, hydride ligands are capable of bonding with positively polarized hydrogen centres. This interaction, called dihydrogen bonding, is similar to hydrogen bonding, which exists between positively polarized protons and electronegative atoms with open lone pairs.


title: Hydride

text: Hydrides containing deuterium are known as "deuterides". Some deuterides, such as LiD, are important fusion fuels in thermonuclear weapons and useful moderators in nuclear reactors.


title: Hydride

text: Mixed anion compounds exist that contain hydride with other anions. These include boride hydrides, carbohydrides, hydridonitrides, oxyhydrides and others.


title: Hydride

text: "Protide", "deuteride" and "tritide" are used to describe ions or compounds that contain enriched hydrogen-1, deuterium or tritium, respectively.


title: Hydride

text: In the classic meaning, hydride refers to any compound hydrogen forms with other elements, ranging over groups 1–16 (the binary compounds of hydrogen). The following is a list of the nomenclature for the hydride derivatives of main group compounds according to this definition:


title: Hydride

text: All metalloid hydrides are highly flammable. All solid non-metallic hydrides except ice are highly flammable. But when hydrogen combines with halogens it produces acids rather than hydrides, and they are not flammable.


title: Hydride

text: According to IUPAC convention, by precedence (stylized electronegativity), hydrogen falls between group 15 and group 16 elements. Therefore, we have NH, "nitrogen hydride" (ammonia), versus HO, "hydrogen oxide" (water). This convention is sometimes broken for polonium, which on the grounds of polonium's metallicity is often referred to as "polonium hydride" instead of the expected "hydrogen polonide".


title: Hydride

text: W. M. Mueller, J. P. Blackledge, G. G. Libowitz, "Metal Hydrides", Academic Press, N.Y. and London, (1968)


title: ARY News

text: ARY News () is a Pakistani news channel launched on 26 September 2004 with the name "ARY One World" until May 2009 when it was rebranded as "ARY News". A bilingual news channel in English and Urdu, it is a part of the ARY Digital Network, which is a subsidiary of ARY Group. ARY is an acronym of Abdul Razzak Yaqoob, who was the owner of ARY Group. ARY News is biggest and most watched news channel in Pakistan & all around the world.


title: Droperidol

text: Droperidol (Inapsine, Droleptan, Dridol, Xomolix, Innovar [combination with fentanyl]) is an antidopaminergic drug used as an antiemetic (that is, to prevent or treat nausea) and as an antipsychotic. Droperidol is also often used as a rapid sedative in intensive-care treatment, and where "agitation aggression or violent behavior" are present.


title: Droperidol

text: Discovered at Janssen Pharmaceutica in 1961, droperidol is a butyrophenone which acts as a potent D (dopamine receptor) antagonist with some histamine and serotonin antagonist activity.


title: Droperidol

text: It has a central antiemetic action and effectively prevents postoperative nausea and vomiting in adults using doses as low as 0.625 mg.


title: Droperidol

text: For treatment of nausea and vomiting, droperidol and ondansetron are equally effective; droperidol is more effective than metoclopramide. It has also been used as an antipsychotic in doses ranging from 5 to 10 mg given as an intramuscular injection, generally in cases of severe agitation in a psychotic patient who is refusing oral medication. Its use in intramuscular sedation has been replaced by intramuscular preparations of haloperidol, midazolam, clonazepam and olanzapine. Some practitioners recommend the use of 0.5 mg to 1 mg intravenously for the treatment of vertigo in an otherwise healthy elderly patients who have not responded to Epley maneuvers.


title: Droperidol

text: In 2001, the FDA changed the labeling requirements for droperidol injection to include a Black Box Warning, citing concerns of QT prolongation and torsades de pointes. The evidence for this is disputed, with 9 reported cases of "torsades" in 30 years and all of those having received doses in excess of 5 mg. QT prolongation is a dose-related effect, and it appears that droperidol is not a significant risk in low doses.


title: Droperidol

text: A study in 2015 showed that droperidol is relatively safe and effective for the management of violent and aggressive


title: Droperidol

text: adult patients in hospital emergency departments in doses of 10mg and above and that there was no increased risk of QT prolongation and torsades de pointes.


title: Droperidol

text: Dysphoria, sedation, hypotension resulting from peripheral alpha adrenoceptor blockade, prolongation of QT interval which can lead to torsades de pointes, and extrapyramidal side effects such as dystonic reactions/neuroleptic malignant syndrome.


title: Droperidol

text: The alkylation between 1-(1,2,3,6-tetrahydro-4-pyridyl)-2-benzimidazolinone [2147-83-3] (1) and 4-chloro-4'-fluorobutyrophenone [3874-54-2] (2) gives Droperidol (3).


title: Bone resorption

text: Bone resorption is resorption of bone tissue, that is, the process by which osteoclasts break down the tissue in bones and release the minerals, resulting in a transfer of calcium from bone tissue to the blood.


title: Bone resorption

text: The osteoclasts are multi-nucleated cells that contain numerous mitochondria and lysosomes. These are the cells responsible for the resorption of bone. Osteoblasts are generally present on the outer layer of bone, just beneath the periosteum. Attachment of the osteoclast to the osteon begins the process. The osteoclast then induces an infolding of its cell membrane and secretes collagenase and other enzymes important in the resorption process. High levels of calcium, magnesium, phosphate and products of collagen will be released into the extracellular fluid as the osteoclasts tunnel into the mineralized bone. Osteoclasts are prominent in the tissue destruction found in psoriatic arthritis and rheumatological disorders.


title: Bone resorption

text: The human body is in a constant state of bone remodeling. Bone remodeling is a process which maintains bone strength and ion homeostasis by replacing discrete parts of old bone with newly synthesized packets of proteinaceous matrix. Bone is resorbed by osteoclasts, and is deposited by osteoblasts in a process called ossification. Osteocyte activity plays a key role in this process. Conditions that result in a decrease in bone mass can either be caused by an increase in resorption or by a decrease in ossification. During childhood, bone formation exceeds resorption. As the aging process occurs, resorption exceeds formation.


title: Bone resorption

text: Bone resorption rates are much higher in post-menopausal older women due to estrogen deficiency related with menopause. Common treatments include drugs that increase bone mineral density. Bisphosphonates, RANKL inhibitors, SERMs—selective oestrogen receptor modulators, hormone replacement therapy and calcitonin are some of the common treatments. Light weight bearing exercise tends to eliminate the negative effects of bone resorption.


title: Bone resorption

text: Bone resorption is highly stimulated or inhibited by signals from other parts of the body, depending on the demand for calcium.


title: Bone resorption

text: Calcium-sensing membrane receptors in the parathyroid gland monitor calcium levels in the extracellular fluid. Low levels of calcium stimulates the release of parathyroid hormone (PTH) from chief cells of the parathyroid gland. In addition to its effects on kidney and intestine, PTH increases the number and activity of osteoclasts. The increase in activity of already existing osteoclasts is the initial effect of PTH, and begins in minutes and increases over a few hours. Continued elevation of PTH levels increases the abundance of osteoclasts. This leads to a greater resorption of calcium and phosphate ions.


title: Bone resorption

text: High levels of calcium in the blood, on the other hand, leads to decreased PTH release from the parathyroid gland, decreasing the number and activity of osteoclasts, resulting in less bone resorption. Vitamin D increases absorption of calcium and phosphate in the intestinal tract, leading to elevated levels of plasma calcium, and thus lower bone resorption.


title: Bone resorption

text: Calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol) is the active form of vitamin D. It has numerous functions involved in blood calcium levels. Recent research indicates that calcitriol leads to a reduction in osteoclast formation, and bone resorption. It follows that an increase in vitamin D intake should lead to a decrease in bone resorption — it has been shown that oral administration of vitamin D does not linearly correlate to increased serum levels of calcifediol, the precursor to calcitriol.


title: Bone resorption

text: Calcitonin is a hormone secreted by the thyroid in humans. Calcitonin decreases osteoclast activity, and decreases the formation of new osteoclasts, resulting in decreased resorption. Calcitonin has a greater effect in young children than in adults, and plays a smaller role in bone remodeling than PTH.


title: Bone resorption

text: In some cases where bone resorption outpaces ossification, the bone is broken down much faster than it can be renewed. The bone becomes more porous and fragile, exposing people to the risk of fractures. Depending on where in the body bone resorption occurs, additional problems like tooth loss can arise. This can be caused by conditions such as hyperparathyroidism and hypovitaminosis D or even decreased hormonal production in the elderly. Some diseases with symptoms of decreased bone density are osteoporosis, and rickets.


title: Bone resorption

text: Some people who experience increased bone resorption and decreased bone formation are astronauts. Due to the condition of being in a zero-gravity environment, astronauts do not need to work their musculoskeletal system as hard as when on earth. Ossification decreases due to a lack of stress, while resorption increases, leading to a net decrease in bone density.


title: Bone resorption

text: The effects of alcohol on bone mineral density (BMD) are well-known and well-studied in animal and human populations. Through direct and indirect pathways, prolonged ethanol exposure increases fracture risk by decreasing bone mineral density and promoting osteoporosis. Indirect effects of excessive alcohol use occur via growth hormone, sex steroids, and oxidative stress.


title: Bone resorption

text: Growth hormone is an important regulator of bone growth and remodeling in adults, and it acts via insulin-like growth factor I (IGF1) to stimulate osteoblastic differentiation. Chronic alcoholism decreases the levels of IGF1, which suppresses the ability of GH to increase bone mineral density.


title: Bone resorption

text: Increasing alcohol consumption is linked with decreasing testosterone and serum estradiol levels, which in turn lead to the activation of RANK (a TNF receptor) protein that promote osteoclast formation. Oxidative stress results when ethanol induces NOX expression, resulting in ROS production in osteoblasts which can ultimately result in cell senescence. Direct effects of chronic alcoholism are apparent in osteoblasts, osteoclasts and osteocytes. Ethanol suppresses the activity and differentiation of osteoblasts.


title: Bone resorption

text: At the same time, it has a direct effect on osteoclast activity. This results in an increased bone resorption rate and a decreased bone mineral density due to increased pit numbers and pit areas in the bone. Research has shown that viable osteocytes (another type of bone cell) may prevent osteoclastogenesis, whereas apoptotic osteocytes tend to induce osteoclast stimulation. Stimulation of osteocyte apoptosis by alcohol exposure may explain decreased bone mineral density in chronic drinkers.


title: Sherrie Rose

text: Sherrie Rose is an American actress, producer, director, and screenwriter. She co-produced, directed, wrote and starred in the 1999 road drama "Me and Will", starring Patrick Dempsey. The film opened the Women in Film Series for Sundance and appeared in many film festivals.


title: Sherrie Rose

text: Rose has also appeared in over 65 films including "Killer Crocodile" (1989), "" (1990), "The King of the Kickboxers" (1990), "Maximum Force" (1992), "Unlawful Entry" (1992), "New Crime City" (1994), "Demon Knight" (1995) and "Black Scorpion II" (1997), and television shows including "Miami Vice", "Married With Children", "Charmed", and "Sons of Anarchy", two "Tales from the Crypt" episodes and the books entitled Tales from the Crypt and Girlfriends.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: The modern synthesis was the early 20th-century synthesis of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution and Gregor Mendel's ideas on heredity into a joint mathematical framework. Julian Huxley coined the term in his 1942 book, "".


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: The synthesis combined the ideas of natural selection, Mendelian genetics, and population genetics. It also related the broad-scale macroevolution seen by palaeontologists to the small-scale microevolution of local populations.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: The synthesis was defined differently by its founders, with Ernst Mayr in 1959, G. Ledyard Stebbins in 1966, and Theodosius Dobzhansky in 1974 offering differing basic postulates, though they all include natural selection, working on heritable variation supplied by mutation. Other major figures in the synthesis included E. B. Ford, Bernhard Rensch, Ivan Schmalhausen, and George Gaylord Simpson. An early event in the modern synthesis was R. A. Fisher's 1918 paper on mathematical population genetics, though William Bateson, and separately Udny Yule, had already started to show how Mendelian genetics could work in evolution in 1902.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: Charles Darwin's 1859 book, "On the Origin of Species," convinced most biologists that evolution had occurred, but not that natural selection was its primary mechanism. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, variations of Lamarckism (inheritance of acquired characteristics), orthogenesis (progressive evolution), saltationism (evolution by jumps) and mutationism (evolution driven by mutations) were discussed as alternatives. Darwin himself had sympathy for Lamarckism, but Alfred Russel Wallace advocated natural selection and totally rejected Lamarckism. In 1880, Samuel Butler labelled Wallace's view neo-Darwinism.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: From the 1880s onwards, biologists grew skeptical of Darwinian evolution. This eclipse of Darwinism (in Julian Huxley's words) grew out of the weaknesses in Darwin's account, with respect to his view of inheritance. Darwin believed in blending inheritance, which implied that any new variation, even if beneficial, would be weakened by 50% at each generation, as the engineer Fleeming Jenkin noted in 1868. This in turn meant that small variations would not survive long enough to be selected. Blending would therefore directly oppose natural selection. In addition, Darwin and others considered Lamarckian inheritance of acquired characteristics entirely possible, and Darwin's 1868 theory of pangenesis, with contributions to the next generation (gemmules) flowing from all parts of the body, actually implied Lamarckism as well as blending.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: August Weismann's idea, set out in his 1892 book "Das Keimplasma: eine Theorie der Vererbung" (The Germ Plasm: a Theory of Inheritance), was that the hereditary material, which he called the germ plasm, and the rest of the body (the soma) had a one-way relationship: the germ-plasm formed the body, but the body did not influence the germ-plasm, except indirectly in its participation in a population subject to natural selection. If correct, this made Darwin's pangenesis wrong, and Lamarckian inheritance impossible. His experiment on mice, cutting off their tails and showing that their offspring had normal tails, demonstrated that inheritance was 'hard'. He argued strongly and dogmatically for Darwinism and against Lamarckism, polarising opinions among other scientists. This increased anti-Darwinian feeling, contributing to its eclipse.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: While carrying out breeding experiments to clarify the mechanism of inheritance in 1900, Hugo de Vries and Carl Correns independently rediscovered Gregor Mendel's work. News of this reached William Bateson in England, who reported on the paper during a presentation to the Royal Horticultural Society in May 1900. In Mendelian inheritance, the contributions of each parent retain their integrity, rather than blending with the contribution of the other parent. In the case of a cross between two true-breeding varieties such as Mendel's round and wrinkled peas, the first-generation offspring are all alike, in this case, all round. Allowing these to cross, the original characteristics reappear (segregation): about 3/4 of their offspring are round, 1/4 wrinkled. There is a discontinuity between the appearance of the offspring; de Vries coined the term allele for a variant form of an inherited characteristic. This reinforced a major division of thought, already present in the 1890s, between gradualists who followed Darwin, and saltationists such as Bateson.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: The two schools were the Mendelians, such as Bateson and de Vries, who favoured mutationism, evolution driven by mutation, based on genes whose alleles segregated discretely like Mendel's peas; and the biometric school, led by Karl Pearson and Walter Weldon. The biometricians argued vigorously against mutationism, saying that empirical evidence indicated that variation was continuous in most organisms, not discrete as Mendelism seemed to predict; they wrongly believed that Mendelism inevitably implied evolution in discontinuous jumps.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: A traditional view is that the biometricians and the Mendelians rejected natural selection and argued for their separate theories for 20 years, the debate only resolved by the development of population genetics.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: A more recent view is that Bateson, de Vries, Thomas Hunt Morgan and Reginald Punnett had by 1918 formed a synthesis of Mendelism and mutationism. The understanding achieved by these geneticists spanned the action of natural selection on alleles (alternative forms of a gene), the Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium, the evolution of continuously-varying traits (like height), and the probability that a new mutation will become fixed. In this view, the early geneticists accepted natural selection but rejected Darwin's non-Mendelian ideas about variation and heredity, and the synthesis began soon after 1900. The traditional claim that Mendelians rejected the idea of continuous variation is false; as early as 1902, Bateson and Saunders wrote that "If there were even so few as, say, four or five pairs of possible allelomorphs, the various homo- and heterozygous combinations might, on seriation, give so near an approach to a continuous curve, that the purity of the elements would be unsuspected". Also in 1902, the statistician Udny Yule showed mathematically that given multiple factors, Mendel's theory enabled continuous variation. Yule criticised Bateson's approach as confrontational, but failed to prevent the Mendelians and the biometricians from falling out.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: Starting in 1906, William Castle carried out a long study of the effect of selection on coat colour in rats. The piebald or hooded pattern was recessive to the grey wild type. He crossed hooded rats with both wild and "Irish" types, and then back-crossed the offspring with pure hooded rats. The dark stripe on the back was bigger. He then tried selecting different groups for bigger or smaller stripes for 5 generations and found that it was possible to change the characteristics considerably beyond the initial range of variation. This effectively refuted de Vries's claim that continuous variation was caused by the environment and could not be inherited. By 1911, Castle noted that the results could be explained by Darwinian selection on a heritable variation of a sufficient number of Mendelian genes.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: Thomas Hunt Morgan began his career in genetics as a saltationist and started out trying to demonstrate that mutations could produce new species in fruit flies. However, the experimental work at his lab with the fruit fly, "Drosophila melanogaster" showed that rather than creating new species in a single step, mutations increased the supply of genetic variation in the population. By 1912, after years of work on the genetics of fruit flies, Morgan showed that these insects had many small Mendelian factors (discovered as mutant flies) on which Darwinian evolution could work as if the variation was fully continuous. The way was open for geneticists to conclude that Mendelism supported Darwinism.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: The theoretical biologist and philosopher of biology Joseph Henry Woodger led the introduction of positivism into biology with his 1929 book "Biological Principles". He saw a mature science as being characterised by a framework of hypotheses that could be verified by facts established by experiments. He criticised the traditional natural history style of biology, including the study of evolution, as immature science, since it relied on narrative. Woodger set out to play the role of Robert Boyle's 1661 "Sceptical Chymist", intending to convert the subject of biology into a formal, unified science, and ultimately, following the Vienna Circle of logical positivists like Otto Neurath and Rudolf Carnap, to reduce biology to physics and chemistry. His efforts stimulated the biologist J. B. S. Haldane to push for the axiomatisation of biology, and by influencing thinkers such as Huxley, helped to bring about the modern synthesis. The positivist climate made natural history unfashionable, and in America, research and university-level teaching on evolution declined almost to nothing by the late 1930s. The Harvard physiologist William John Crozier told his students that evolution was not even a science: "You can't experiment with two million years!"


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: The tide of opinion turned with the adoption of mathematical modelling and controlled experimentation in population genetics, combining genetics, ecology and evolution in a framework acceptable to positivism.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: In 1918, R. A. Fisher wrote "The Correlation between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance," which showed how continuous variation could come from a number of discrete genetic loci. In this and other papers, culminating in his 1930 book "The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection", Fisher showed how Mendelian genetics was consistent with the idea of evolution by natural selection.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: In the 1920s, a series of papers by J. B. S. Haldane analyzed real-world examples of natural selection, such as the evolution of industrial melanism in peppered moths. and showed that natural selection could work even faster than Fisher had assumed. Both of these scholars, and others, such as Dobzhansky and Wright, wanted to raise biology to the standards of the physical sciences by basing it on mathematical modeling and empirical testing. Natural selection, once considered unverifiable, was becoming predictable, measurable, and testable.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: The traditional view is that developmental biology played little part in the modern synthesis, but in his 1930 book "Embryos and Ancestors", the evolutionary embryologist Gavin de Beer anticipated evolutionary developmental biology by showing that evolution could occur by heterochrony, such as in the retention of juvenile features in the adult. This, de Beer argued, could cause apparently sudden changes in the fossil record, since embryos fossilise poorly. As the gaps in the fossil record had been used as an argument against Darwin's gradualist evolution, de Beer's explanation supported the Darwinian position.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: However, despite de Beer, the modern synthesis largely ignored embryonic development when explaining the form of organisms, since population genetics appeared to be an adequate explanation of how such forms evolved.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: The population geneticist Sewall Wright focused on combinations of genes that interacted as complexes, and the effects of inbreeding on small relatively isolated populations, which could be subject to genetic drift. In a 1932 paper, he introduced the concept of an adaptive landscape in which phenomena such as cross breeding and genetic drift in small populations could push them away from adaptive peaks, which would in turn allow natural selection to push them towards new adaptive peaks. Wright's model would appeal to field naturalists such as Theodosius Dobzhansky and Ernst Mayr who were becoming aware of the importance of geographical isolation in real world populations. The work of Fisher, Haldane and Wright helped to found the discipline of theoretical population genetics.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: Theodosius Dobzhansky, an immigrant from the Soviet Union to the United States, who had been a postdoctoral worker in Morgan's fruit fly lab, was one of the first to apply genetics to natural populations. He worked mostly with "Drosophila pseudoobscura". He says pointedly: "Russia has a variety of climates from the Arctic to sub-tropical... Exclusively laboratory workers who neither possess nor wish to have any knowledge of living beings in nature were and are in a minority." Not surprisingly, there were other Russian geneticists with similar ideas, though for some time their work was known to only a few in the West. His 1937 work "Genetics and the Origin of Species" was a key step in bridging the gap between population geneticists and field naturalists. It presented the conclusions reached by Fisher, Haldane, and especially Wright in their highly mathematical papers in a form that was easily accessible to others. Further, Dobzhansky asserted the physicality, and hence the biological reality, of the mechanisms of inheritance: that evolution was based on material genes, arranged in a string on physical hereditary structures, the chromosomes, and linked more or less strongly to each other according to their actual physical distances on the chromosomes. As with Haldane and Fisher, Dobzhansky's "evolutionary genetics" was a genuine science, now unifying cell biology, genetics, and both micro and macroevolution. His work emphasized that real-world populations had far more genetic variability than the early population geneticists had assumed in their models and that genetically distinct sub-populations were important. Dobzhansky argued that natural selection worked to maintain genetic diversity as well as by driving change. He was influenced by his exposure in the 1920s to the work of Sergei Chetverikov, who had looked at the role of recessive genes in maintaining a reservoir of genetic variability in a population, before his work was shut down by the rise of Lysenkoism in the Soviet Union. By 1937, Dobzhansky was able to argue that mutations were the main source of evolutionary changes and variability, along with chromosome rearrangements, effects of genes on their neighbours during development, and polyploidy. Next, genetic drift (he used the term in 1941), selection, migration, and geographical isolation could change gene frequencies. Thirdly, mechanisms like ecological or sexual isolation and hybrid sterility could fix the results of the earlier processes.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: E. B. Ford was an experimental naturalist who wanted to test natural selection in nature, virtually inventing the field of ecological genetics. His work on natural selection in wild populations of butterflies and moths was the first to show that predictions made by R. A. Fisher were correct. In 1940, he was the first to describe and define genetic polymorphism, and to predict that human blood group polymorphisms might be maintained in the population by providing some protection against disease. His 1949 book "Mendelism and Evolution" helped to persuade Dobzhansky to change the emphasis in the third edition of his famous textbook "Genetics and the Origin of Species" from drift to selection.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: Ivan Schmalhausen developed the theory of stabilizing selection, the idea that selection can preserve a trait at some value, publishing a paper in Russian titled "Stabilizing selection and its place among factors of evolution" in 1941 and a monograph "Factors of Evolution: The Theory of Stabilizing Selection" in 1945. He developed it from J. M. Baldwin's 1902 concept that changes induced by the environment will ultimately be replaced by hereditary changes (including the Baldwin effect on behaviour), following that theory's implications to their Darwinian conclusion, and bringing him into conflict with Lysenkoism. Schmalhausen observed that stabilizing selection would remove most variations from the norm, most mutations being harmful. Dobzhansky called the work "an important missing link in the modern view of evolution".


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: In 1942, Julian Huxley's serious but popularising "" introduced a name for the synthesis and intentionally set out to promote a "synthetic point of view" on the evolutionary process. He imagined a wide synthesis of many sciences: genetics, developmental physiology, ecology, systematics, palaeontology, cytology, and mathematical analysis of biology, and assumed that evolution would proceed differently in different groups of organisms according to how their genetic material was organised and their strategies for reproduction, leading to progressive but varying evolutionary trends. His vision was of an "evolutionary humanism", with a system of ethics and a meaningful place for "Man" in the world grounded in a unified theory of evolution which would demonstrate progress leading to humanity at its summit. Natural selection was in his view a "fact of nature capable of verification by observation and experiment", while the "period of synthesis" of the 1920s and 1930s had formed a "more unified science", rivalling physics and enabling the "rebirth of Darwinism".


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: However, the book was not the research text that it appeared to be. In the view of the philosopher of science Michael Ruse, and in Huxley's own opinion, Huxley was "a generalist, a synthesizer of ideas, rather than a specialist". Ruse observes that Huxley wrote as if he were adding empirical evidence to the mathematical framework established by Fisher and the population geneticists, but that this was not so. Huxley avoided mathematics, for instance not even mentioning Fisher's fundamental theorem of natural selection. Instead, Huxley used a mass of examples to demonstrate that natural selection is powerful and that it works on Mendelian genes. The book was successful in its goal of persuading readers of the reality of evolution, effectively illustrating topics such as island biogeography, speciation, and competition. Huxley further showed that the appearance of long-term orthogenetic trends – predictable directions for evolution – in the fossil record were readily explained as allometric growth (since parts are interconnected). All the same, Huxley did not reject orthogenesis out of hand, but maintained a belief in progress all his life, with "Homo sapiens" as the endpoint, and he had since 1912 been influenced by the vitalist philosopher Henri Bergson, though in public he maintained an atheistic position on evolution. Huxley's belief in progress within evolution and evolutionary humanism was shared in various forms by Dobzhansky, Mayr, Simpson and Stebbins, all of them writing about "the future of Mankind". Both Huxley and Dobzhansky admired the palaeontologist priest Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, Huxley writing the introduction to Teilhard's 1955 book on orthogenesis, "The Phenomenon of Man". This vision required evolution to be seen as the central and guiding principle of biology.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: Ernst Mayr's key contribution to the synthesis was "Systematics and the Origin of Species", published in 1942. It asserted the importance of and set out to explain population variation in evolutionary processes including speciation. He analysed in particular the effects of polytypic species, geographic variation, and isolation by geographic and other means. Mayr emphasized the importance of allopatric speciation, where geographically isolated sub-populations diverge so far that reproductive isolation occurs. He was skeptical of the reality of sympatric speciation believing that geographical isolation was a prerequisite for building up intrinsic (reproductive) isolating mechanisms. Mayr also introduced the biological species concept that defined a species as a group of interbreeding or potentially interbreeding populations that were reproductively isolated from all other populations. Before he left Germany for the United States in 1930, Mayr had been influenced by the work of the German biologist Bernhard Rensch, who in the 1920s had analyzed the geographic distribution of polytypic species, paying particular attention to how variations between populations correlated with factors such as differences in climate.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: George Gaylord Simpson was responsible for showing that the modern synthesis was compatible with palaeontology in his 1944 book "Tempo and Mode in Evolution". Simpson's work was crucial because so many palaeontologists had disagreed, in some cases vigorously, with the idea that natural selection was the main mechanism of evolution. It showed that the trends of linear progression (in for example the evolution of the horse) that earlier palaeontologists had used as support for neo-Lamarckism and orthogenesis did not hold up under careful examination. Instead, the fossil record was consistent with the irregular, branching, and non-directional pattern predicted by the modern synthesis.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: During World War II, Mayr edited a series of bulletins of the Committee on Common Problems of Genetics, Paleontology, and Systematics, formed in 1943, reporting on discussions of a "synthetic attack" on the interdisciplinary problems of evolution. In 1946, the committee became the Society for the Study of Evolution, with Mayr, Dobzhansky and Sewall Wright the first of the signatories. Mayr became the editor of its journal, "Evolution". From Mayr and Dobzhansky's point of view, suggests the historian of science Betty Smocovitis, Darwinism was reborn, evolutionary biology was legitimised, and genetics and evolution were synthesised into a newly unified science. Everything fitted into the new framework, except "heretics" like Richard Goldschmidt who annoyed Mayr and Dobzhansky by insisting on the possibility of speciation by macromutation, creating "hopeful monsters". The result was "bitter controversy".


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: The botanist G. Ledyard Stebbins extended the synthesis to encompass botany. He described the important effects on speciation of hybridization and polyploidy in plants in his 1950 book "Variation and Evolution in Plants". These permitted evolution to proceed rapidly at times, polyploidy in particular evidently being able to create new species effectively instantaneously.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: The modern synthesis was defined differently by its various founders, with differing numbers of basic postulates, as shown in the table.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: After the synthesis, evolutionary biology continued to develop with major contributions from workers including W. D. Hamilton, George C. Williams, E. O. Wilson, Edward B. Lewis and others.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: In 1964, W. D. Hamilton published two papers on "The Genetical Evolution of Social Behaviour". These defined inclusive fitness as the number of offspring equivalents an individual rears, rescues or otherwise supports through its behaviour. This was contrasted with personal reproductive fitness, the number of offspring that the individual directly begets. Hamilton, and others such as John Maynard Smith, argued that a gene's success consisted in maximising the number of copies of itself, either by begetting them or by indirectly encouraging begetting by related individuals who shared the gene, the theory of kin selection.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: In 1966, George C. Williams published "Adaptation and Natural Selection", outlined a gene-centred view of evolution following Hamilton's concepts, disputing the idea of evolutionary progress, and attacking the then widespread theory of group selection. Williams argued that natural selection worked by changing the frequency of alleles, and could not work at the level of groups. Gene-centred evolution was popularised by Richard Dawkins in his 1976 book "The Selfish Gene" and developed in his more technical writings.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: In 1975, E. O. Wilson published his controversial book "", the subtitle alluding to the modern synthesis as he attempted to bring the study of animal society into the evolutionary fold. This appeared radically new, although Wilson was following Darwin, Fisher, Dawkins and others. Critics such as Gerhard Lenski noted that he was following Huxley, Simpson and Dobzhansky's approach, which Lenski considered needlessly reductive as far as human society was concerned. By 2000, the proposed discipline of sociobiology had morphed into the relatively well-accepted discipline of evolutionary psychology.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: In 1977, recombinant DNA technology enabled biologists to start to explore the genetic control of development. The growth of evolutionary developmental biology from 1978, when Edward B. Lewis discovered homeotic genes, showed that many so-called toolkit genes act to regulate development, influencing the expression of other genes. It also revealed that some of the regulatory genes are extremely ancient, so that animals as different as insects and mammals share control mechanisms; for example, the "Pax6" gene is involved in forming the eyes of mice and of fruit flies. Such deep homology provided strong evidence for evolution and indicated the paths that evolution had taken.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: In 1982, a historical note on a series of evolutionary biology books could state without qualification that evolution is the central organizing principle of biology. Smocovitis commented on this that "What the architects of the synthesis had worked to construct had by 1982 become a matter of fact", adding in a footnote that "the centrality of evolution had thus been rendered tacit knowledge, part of the received wisdom of the profession".


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: By the late 20th century, however, the modern synthesis was showing its age, and fresh syntheses to remedy its defects and fill in its gaps were proposed from different directions. These have included such diverse fields as the study of society, developmental biology, epigenetics, molecular biology, microbiology, genomics, symbiogenesis, and horizontal gene transfer. The physiologist Denis Noble argues that these additions render neo-Darwinism in the sense of the early 20th century's modern synthesis "at the least, incomplete as a theory of evolution", and one that has been falsified by later biological research.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: Michael Rose and Todd Oakley note that evolutionary biology, formerly divided and "Balkanized", has been brought together by genomics. It has in their view discarded at least five common assumptions from the modern synthesis, namely that the genome is always a well-organised set of genes; that each gene has a single function; that species are well adapted biochemically to their ecological niches; that species are the durable units of evolution, and all levels from organism to organ, cell and molecule within the species are characteristic of it; and that the design of every organism and cell is efficient. They argue that the "new biology" integrates genomics, bioinformatics, and evolutionary genetics into a general-purpose toolkit for a "Postmodern Synthesis".


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: In 2007, more than half a century after the modern synthesis, Massimo Pigliucci called for an extended evolutionary synthesis to incorporate aspects of biology that had not been included or had not existed in the mid-20th century. It revisits the relative importance of different factors, challenges assumptions made in the modern synthesis, and adds new factors such as multilevel selection, transgenerational epigenetic inheritance, niche construction, and evolvability.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: In 2009, Darwin's 200th anniversary, the "Origin of Species" 150th, and the 200th of Lamarck's "early evolutionary synthesis", "Philosophie Zoologique", the evolutionary biologist Eugene Koonin stated that while "the edifice of the [early 20th century] Modern Synthesis has crumbled, apparently, beyond repair", a new 21st-century synthesis could be glimpsed. Three interlocking revolutions had, he argued, taken place in evolutionary biology: molecular, microbiological, and genomic. The molecular revolution included the neutral theory, that most mutations are neutral and that negative selection happens more often than the positive form, and that all current life evolved from a single common ancestor. In microbiology, the synthesis has expanded to cover the prokaryotes, using ribosomal RNA to form a tree of life. Finally, genomics brought together the molecular and microbiological syntheses - in particular, horizontal gene transfer between bacteria shows that prokaryotes can freely share genes. Many of these points had already been made by other researchers such as Ulrich Kutschera and Karl J. Niklas.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: Biologists, alongside scholars of the history and philosophy of biology, have continued to debate the need for, and possible nature of, a replacement synthesis. For example, in 2017 Philippe Huneman and Denis M. Walsh stated in their book "Challenging the Modern Synthesis" that numerous theorists had pointed out that the disciplines of embryological developmental theory, morphology, and ecology had been omitted. They noted that all such arguments amounted to a continuing desire to replace the modern synthesis with one that united "all biological fields of research related to evolution, adaptation, and diversity in a single theoretical framework." They observed further that there are two groups of challenges to the way the modern synthesis viewed inheritance. The first is that other modes such as epigenetic inheritance, phenotypic plasticity, the Baldwin effect, and the maternal effect allow new characteristics to arise and be passed on and for the genes to catch up with the new adaptations later. The second is that all such mechanisms are part, not of an inheritance system, but a developmental system: the fundamental unit is not a discrete selfishly competing gene, but a collaborating system that works at all levels from genes and cells to organisms and cultures to guide evolution.


title: Modern synthesis (20th century)

text: Looking back at the conflicting accounts of the modern synthesis, the historian Betty Smocovitis notes in her 1996 book "Unifying Biology: The Evolutionary Synthesis and Evolutionary Biology" that both historians and philosophers of biology have attempted to grasp its scientific meaning, but have found it "a moving target"; the only thing they agreed on was that it was a historical event. In her words"by the late 1980s the notoriety of the evolutionary synthesis was recognized ... So notorious did 'the synthesis' become, that few serious historically minded analysts would touch the subject, let alone know where to begin to sort through the interpretive mess left behind by the numerous critics and commentators".


title: Oreshura

text: , short for , is a Japanese light novel series written by Yūji Yūji, with illustrations provided by Ruroo. SoftBank Creative published eighteen main novels and one extra from February 2011 to February 2022. There have been four manga adaptations and an anime adaptation by A-1 Pictures aired from January to March 2013.


title: Oreshura

text: Eita Kidō enters high school with the goal of graduating with marks high enough that he can earn a scholarship to medical school. Due to the fact that his parents divorced, found new lovers, and left him in the care of his aunt, he shuns anything to do with romance or love. One day, the school's No.1 beauty, Masuzu Natsukawa, invites him to walk home with her. He quickly deduces that Masuzu is scheming something. It turns out Masuzu is tired of being the center of attention and receiving confessions on a nearly-every-day basis, so she suggests that she and Eita become a fake couple. Although Eita objects, Masuzu blackmails him into becoming her boyfriend in name only. News of the new couple rapidly spreads throughout the school and Eita's childhood friend, Chiwa Harusaki, who likes him, begins to vie with Masuzu for Eita's affections.


title: Oreshura

text: "Ore no Kanojo to Osananajimi ga Shuraba Sugiru" began as a light novel series written by Yūji Yūji, with illustrations by Ruroo. The first volume was published on February 15, 2011 under SoftBank Creative's GA Bunko imprint, and the eighteenth and last on February 15, 2022. A spin-off novel was also released on February 15, 2013.


title: Oreshura

text: A manga adaptation, illustrated by Nanasuke, was serialized between the July 2011 and April 2014 issues of Square Enix's "Gangan Joker" manga magazine. The series was compiled into seven "tankōbon" volumes published between December 15, 2011 and April 22, 2014. A four-panel comic strip manga, illustrated by Marimo and titled , was serialized in Square Enix's "Young Gangan" magazine between October 21, 2011, and April 5, 2013. The series was compiled into two "tankōbon" volumes, released on July 14, 2012, and January 12, 2013.


title: Oreshura

text: A third manga, illustrated by Shinya Inase and titled , was serialized in Square Enix's "Big Gangan" between October 25, 2011, and October 25, 2012. Two volumes for Inase's manga were released: the first on July 14, 2012 and the second on December 22, 2012. A fourth manga, illustrated by Mutsutake and titled , was serialized in "Big Gangan" between December 25, 2012, and August 24, 2013. Its chapters were collected in one "tankōbon" volume, published on October 22, 2013. Square Enix published an anthology volume on March 22, 2013.


title: Oreshura

text: Hobirecords released two drama CDs in 2011: the first on July 29 and the second on October 28. An Internet radio show, titled "Shuraba Radio" and hosted by Chiwa Saitō and Junji Majima, started irregular broadcasts on April 28, 2011 and is produced by Hobirecords. A second radio show began broadcasting in December 2012 hosted by Chinatsu Akasaki and Ai Kayano.


title: Oreshura

text: An anime television series adaptation, produced by A-1 Pictures and directed by Kanta Kamei, aired in Japan from January 6 to March 31, 2013. The anime was simulcast by Crunchyroll, subtitled in English. The opening theme is "Girlish Lover" by Chinatsu Akasaki, Yukari Tamura, Hisako Kanemoto and Ai Kayano, and the ending theme is "W:Wonder Tale" by Yukari Tamura.


title: Neurocranium

text: In human anatomy, the neurocranium, also known as the braincase, brainpan, or brain-pan is the upper and back part of the skull, which forms a protective case around the brain. In the human skull, the neurocranium includes the calvaria or skullcap. The remainder of the skull is the facial skeleton.


title: Neurocranium

text: In comparative anatomy, neurocranium is sometimes used synonymously with endocranium or chondrocranium.


title: Neurocranium

text: The ossicles (three on each side) are usually not included as bones of the neurocranium. There may variably also be extra sutural bones present.


title: Neurocranium

text: Below the neurocranium is a complex of openings (foramina) and bones, including the foramen magnum which houses the neural spine. The auditory bullae, located in the same region, aid in hearing.


title: Neurocranium

text: The size of the neurocranium is variable among mammals. The roof may contain ridges such as the temporal crests.


title: Neurocranium

text: The neurocranium arises from paraxial mesoderm. There is also some contribution of ectomesenchyme. In Chondrichthyes and other cartilaginous vertebrates this portion of the cranium does not ossify; it is not replaced via endochondral ossification.


title: Neurocranium

text: The neurocranium is formed by the endocranium, the lower portions of the cranial vault, and the skull roof.


title: Neurocranium

text: Evolutionarily, the human neurocranium has expanded from comprising the back part of the mammalian skull to being also the upper part: during the evolutionary expansion of the brain, the neurocranium has overgrown the splanchnocranium. The upper-frontmost part of the cranium also houses the evolutionarily newest part of the mammal brain, the frontal lobes.


title: '39

text: "39" is a song by British rock band Queen. Composed by lead guitarist Brian May, it is the fifth track on their fourth studio album "A Night at the Opera". The song was also the B-side to "You're My Best Friend".


title: '39

text: The song relates the tale of a group of space explorers who embark on what is, from their perspective, a year-long voyage. Upon their return, however, they realise that a hundred years have passed, because of the time dilation effect in Einstein's special theory of relativity, and the loved ones they left behind are now all dead or aged.


title: '39

text: May sings lead vocal on the studio recording of the song, one of his few lead vocals on Queen recordings.


title: '39

text: May had asked bassist John Deacon to play double bass as a joke but a couple of days later he found Deacon in the studio with the instrument, and he had already learned to play it.


title: '39

text: May had been working on his thesis in astrophysics, but eventually abandoned his studies to pursue his career with Queen. In 2006, he resumed his studies and eventually completed his thesis, titled "A Survey of Radial Velocities in the Zodiacal Dust Cloud", and received his PhD in 2008.


title: '39

text: Since Queen had named their albums "A Night at the Opera" and "A Day at the Races" after two of the Marx Brothers' most popular films, surviving brother Groucho Marx invited Queen to visit him at his Los Angeles home in March 1977 (five months before he died). The band thanked him, and performed "39" a cappella.


title: '39

text: The song is the 39th album track released by the band when counting each album track from the debut album onwards.


title: '39

text: The song was a live favourite throughout the 1970s, often being used a singalong in concert. It was first performed in Edinburgh in September 1976 and remained in setlists until December 1979, although the song was briefly performed in 1984. Instead of May singing the lead vocals live, Mercury did. "The Guardian" later commented that live performances of the song were played as "a raucous, rollicking sea shanty."


title: '39

text: George Michael performed "39" at the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert in April 1992. Michael cited this song as his favourite Queen song, claiming he used to busk it on the London Underground.


title: '39

text: Later the song was included by Queen on the setlists of their Queen + Adam Lambert tours in 2012 & 2014-2015 featuring Adam Lambert & both Queen + Paul Rodgers Tours, which were Queen + Paul Rodgers Tour & Rock the Cosmos featuring Paul Rodgers; as on the album, it is sung by May.


title: Boroughs and neighborhoods of Berlin

text: Berlin is both a city and one of Germany’s federated states (city state). Since the 2001 administrative reform, it has been made up of twelve districts (, ), each with its own administrative body. However, unlike the municipalities and counties of other German states, the Berlin districts are not territorial corporations of public law () with autonomous competencies and property, but simple administrative agencies of Berlin's state and city government, the City of Berlin forming a single municipality () since the Greater Berlin Act of 1920. Thus they cannot be equated to US or UK boroughs in the traditional meaning of the term.


title: Boroughs and neighborhoods of Berlin

text: Each district possesses a district representatives' assembly () directly elected by proportional representation and an administrative body called district board (). The district board, comprising since October 2021 six (until then five) members - a district mayor () as head and five (earlier four) district councillors () - is elected by the district representatives' assembly, proportionally reflecting its party composition according to popular vote. The district board is in charge of most local administrative matters directly relevant to local citizens; however, all of its decisions can at any moment be revoked by the Berlin Senate. Furthermore, the districts are financially completely dependent on state donations, as they neither possess any taxation power nor own any property. The district mayors form a council of mayors (, led by the city's governing mayor), which advises the Senate.


title: Boroughs and neighborhoods of Berlin

text: Each borough is made up of several officially recognized subdistricts or neighborhoods ( in German, sometimes called "quarters" in English). The exact amount of neighborhoods that form a borough varies considerably, ranging from two (Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg) to fifteen (Treptow-Köpenick). These neighborhoods typically have a historical identity as former independent cities, villages, or rural municipalities that were united in 1920 as part of the Greater Berlin Act, forming the basis for the present-day city and state. The neighborhoods do not have their own governmental bodies but are recognized by the city and the boroughs for planning and statistical purposes. Berliners often identify more with the neighborhood where they live than with the borough that governs them. The neighborhoods are further subdivided into statistical tracts, which are mainly used for planning and statistical purposes. The statistical tracts correspond roughly but not exactly with neighborhoods recognized by residents.


title: Boroughs and neighborhoods of Berlin

text: When Greater Berlin was established in 1920, the city was organized into twenty boroughs, most of which were named after their largest component neighborhood, often a former city or municipality; others, such as Kreuzberg and Prenzlauer Berg, were named for geographic features.


title: Boroughs and neighborhoods of Berlin

text: By 2000, Berlin comprised twenty-three boroughs, as three new boroughs had been created in East Berlin. Today Berlin is divided into twelve boroughs (), reduced from twenty-three boroughs before Berlin's 2001 administrative reform.


title: Boroughs and neighborhoods of Berlin

text: An administrative reform in 2001 merged all but three of the existing boroughs into the current 12 boroughs, as listed below. The three boroughs that were not affected were Spandau, Reinickendorf and Neukölln, as the population of each was already exceeding 200,000.


title: Boroughs and neighborhoods of Berlin

text: The borough government is part of the two-stage administration of the Berlin city-state, whereby the Senate and its affiliated agencies, institutions, and municipal enterprises form the first stage of the so-called (central administration). On the second position, the boroughs enjoy a certain grade of autonomy—though in no way comparable to the German districts or independent cities, nor even to the local government of a common municipality as a legal entity, as according to the Berlin Constitution the legal status of the city as a German state itself is that of a unified municipality (). The power of the borough governments is limited and their performance of assigned tasks is subject to regulatory supervision by the Senate.


title: Boroughs and neighborhoods of Berlin

text: Nevertheless, the twelve self-governing boroughs have constitutional status and are themselves subdivided into two administrative bodies: each is governed by the borough assembly (, BVV) and a full-time borough council (), consisting of four councilors () and headed by a borough mayor (). The BVV assembly is directly elected by the borough's population and therefore acts as a borough parliament, though it is officially part of the executive. It elects the members of the borough council, checks its daily administration, and is able to make applications and recommendations. The twelve borough mayors regularly meet in the Council of Mayors (), led by the city's Governing Mayor; the council answers to and advises the Senate.


title: Boroughs and neighborhoods of Berlin

text: The localities have no local government bodies, and the administrative duties of the former locality representative, the , were taken over by the borough mayors.


title: Boroughs and neighborhoods of Berlin

text: All the coats of arms of Berliner boroughs (the current as of the ones in the period 1990 to 2001) have some common points: The shield has a Spanish form and the coronet is represented by a mural crown: 3 towers in red bricks with the coat of arms of Berlin in the middle.


title: Boroughs and neighborhoods of Berlin

text: Most of the coats of arms of current boroughs have changed some elements in their field: Some of them have created a "fusion" of themes of the merged (Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf, Lichtenberg, Steglitz-Zehlendorf, Tempelhof-Schöneberg); others have modified their themes taken from one of the two (or more) former merged boroughs (Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg, Marzahn-Hellersdorf, Mitte and Treptow-Köpenick). Only the unchanged boroughs of Neukölln, Reinickendorf and Spandau haven't changed their field. The coat of arms of Pankow was created with a new design in 2008, having been the only district without an emblem for 7 years.


title: Boroughs and neighborhoods of Berlin

text: As of 2012, the twelve boroughs are made up of a total of 97 officially recognized localities (). Almost all of them are further subdivided into (defined in German as etc.). The largest is Köpenick (), the smallest one is Hansaviertel (). The most populated is Neukölln (154,127 inhabitants in 2009), the least populated is Malchow (450 inhabitants in 2008).


title: Boroughs and neighborhoods of Berlin

text: The coats of arms of the Localitys lost their validity with the incorporation into Greater Berlin/in new districts and thus disappeared from official use. The coats of arms listed here are the historically used signs.


title: Pamela Mason

text: Pamela Mason (10 March 1916 – 29 June 1996), also known as Pamela Kellino, was an English actress, author, and screenwriter, known for being the creative partner and first wife of English actor James Mason.


title: Pamela Mason

text: Born Pamela Helen Ostrer in Southend-on-Sea, Essex, Mason was the daughter of Helen (née Spear-Morgan) and Isidore Ostrer, a wealthy Jewish industrialist and banker who became president of the Gaumont British Picture Corporation in the early 1920s. Pamela left school at age 9, and married cinematographer Roy Kellino at age 18 in 1934, thereafter taking the name "Pamela Kellino".


title: Pamela Mason

text: In 1935, Pamela Kellino met actor James Mason on the set of his second film, "Troubled Waters", on which her husband was working as a cinematographer. James Mason and Pamela Kellino were quickly attracted to each other. Mason became close friends with both Kellinos, moved in with them, and collaborated with them on several stage and screen projects, culminating in the 1938 film "I Met a Murderer", in which he and Pamela Kellino played lovers on the run. Shortly afterwards, Roy Kellino divorced Pamela, naming James Mason as co-respondent, and she married Mason in 1940. Roy Kellino remained on friendly terms with the Masons and directed their later films "Lady Possessed" and "Charade". After her divorce and remarriage, Pamela Mason continued to use the name "Pamela Kellino" for some years in her acting and writing work.


title: Pamela Mason

text: The Masons moved from London to Hollywood in the late 1940s, occupying the mansion previously owned by Buster Keaton, where Pamela became a popular hostess of parties. They had two children: daughter Portland (1948–2004), and son Morgan (who later became an advisor to President Ronald Reagan and married Belinda Carlisle). Portland was named for the Masons' friend Portland Hoffa, the wife of the American radio comedian Fred Allen.


title: Pamela Mason

text: Pamela Mason filed suit for divorce from James in 1962, claiming that he had committed adultery. According to their son Morgan and other sources, Pamela herself had had numerous affairs, but due to her attorney Marvin Mitchelson's skill, she won a monetary settlement of at least $1 million ($9.275 million today) when the marriage was finally dissolved in 1964; it was reported as "America's first million-dollar divorce". As a result of this success, Mitchelson became a sought-after celebrity divorce attorney. Pamela Mason continued to live in the Keaton mansion in Beverly Hills until her death, sharing it “with a multitude of free-range cats.” She remained someone who was listened to and outspoken “with unrepentant, undeviating, withering aim.”


title: Pamela Mason

text: Mason (as Pamela Kellino) made her film debut in 1934 in the Gaumont British big-budget film "Jew Süss". She remained under contract to Gaumont British (her father's film company) for several years, despite acting in films only sporadically while also working as a screenwriter, producer, and author.


title: Pamela Mason

text: From the late 1930s through the 1950s, Pamela Mason (often credited as Pamela Kellino, including after her marriage to James Mason), wrote, produced and/or appeared in several films in collaboration with James Mason and/or Roy Kellino. Most notably, she co-starred with James Mason in the films "The Upturned Glass" and "Charade" (directed by Roy Kellino), both of which she also co-wrote. The Masons co-produced the films "I Met a Murderer" and "Lady Possessed", both of which were directed by Roy Kellino and lost money. Pamela Mason also had small roles in a number of other films starring James Mason.