title: Sam Billings

text: As of November 2022, Billings has made six first-class and seven List A centuries, including one in international cricket. The first was a score of 131 made on his first-class debut for Loughborough MCCU against Northamptonshire at the beginning of the 2011 season. He scored his first first-class century for Kent in July 2015 against Essex at Tunbridge Wells, having been out for 99 earlier in the same month against Surrey. His third first-class century, 171 runs, came against Gloucestershire in August 2016 and is his current highest first-class score. Billings' fourth, fifth and sixth centuries were scored in back-to-back innings in September 2019, including two in the same match against Yorkshire at Headingley, the first time two centuries had been scored by the same player on the ground in a County Championship match.


title: Sam Billings

text: Billings has scored seven List A cricket centuries and in 2014 shared the Walter Lawrence Trophy for the quickest century in County cricket during the season, scored off 46 balls against Somerset in a 2014 Royal London One-Day Cup match. His highest List A score of 175 was made for England Lions against Sri Lanka A at his home ground of Canterbury during July 2016 whilst his highest Twenty20 score of 95 not out was made for Kent against Hampshire at Beckenham in July 2018.


title: Sam Billings

text: In September 2020 Billings scored his debut senior international century, making a score of 118 in a One Day International match between England and Australia at Old Trafford cricket ground.


title: Sam Billings

text: In July 2022 Billings set a new County Championship record of 12 catches in a match as his Kent side beat Warwickshire.


title: Sam Billings

text: Billings has been involved in supporting the development of cricket by charitable organisations and throughout the world. He has supported activities organised by the Lord's Taverners and worked with disabilities cricket teams with the charity and with NatWest’s Cricket has no boundaries campaign. He is an ambassador for the Taverners and launched a cricket ambassador programme for them in 2016. He has worked with youth cricket teams and in October 2017 visited Rwanda to play in a T20 cricket match to mark the opening of the Rwanda Cricket Stadium. He is a patron of cricket in Rwanda.


title: Max Jacobson

text: Max Jacobson (3 July 1900 – 1 December 1979) was a German physician and medical researcher who treated numerous high-profile clients in America, including President John F. Kennedy. Jacobson came to be known as "Miracle Max" and "Dr. Feelgood" because he administered highly addictive "vitamin shots" laced with various substances that included amphetamine and methamphetamine.


title: Max Jacobson

text: Largely unknown to the public until his methods were exposed by "The New York Times" in 1972, Jacobson was charged with unprofessional conduct and fraud in 1973. He eventually lost his medical license in 1975. Jacobson died in December 1979, without regaining his license.


title: Max Jacobson

text: Born in the German Empire, Jacobson earned his medical degree from the Friedrich Wilhelm University of Berlin (now the Humboldt University of Berlin). Jacobson, who was Jewish, fled Nazi Germany in 1936. He emigrated to the United States where he established an office on the Upper East Side of Manhattan.


title: Max Jacobson

text: Jacobson treated dozens of famous clients, including: John F. Kennedy, Lauren Bacall, Ingrid Bergman, Leonard Bernstein, Humphrey Bogart, Yul Brynner, Maria Callas, Truman Capote, Van Cliburn, Montgomery Clift, Rosemary Clooney, Bob Cummings, Maya Deren, Cecil B. DeMille, Marlene Dietrich, Eddie Fisher, Judy Garland, Hedy Lamarr, Alan Jay Lerner, Mickey Mantle, Hugh Martin, Liza Minnelli, Thelonious Monk, Marilyn Monroe, Zero Mostel, Elvis Presley, Anthony Quinn, Paul Robeson, Nelson Rockefeller, David O. Selznick, Elizabeth Taylor, Kay Thompson, Billy Wilder, and Tennessee Williams. Dubbed "Dr. Feelgood," Jacobson was known for his "miracle tissue regenerator" shots, which consisted of amphetamines, animal hormones, bone marrow, enzymes, human placenta, painkillers, steroids, and multivitamins.


title: Max Jacobson

text: In September 1960, then-Senator John F. Kennedy first visited Jacobson shortly before the 1960 presidential election debates. Jacobson was part of the presidential entourage at the Vienna summit in 1961, where he administered injections to combat severe back pain. Some of the potential side effects included hyperactivity, impaired judgment, nervousness, and wild mood swings. Kennedy, however, was untroubled by Food and Drug Administration reports on the contents of Jacobson’s injections, and proclaimed: “I don’t care if it’s horse piss. It works.” Jacobson was used for the most severe bouts of back pain. By May 1962, Jacobson had visited the White House to treat the president thirty-four times, although such treatments were stopped by President Kennedy's White House physicians, who realized the inappropriate use of steroids and amphetamines administered by Jacobson. It was later observed that President Kennedy's leadership, specifically during the Cuban Missile Crisis and other events during 1963, improved greatly once Jacobson's treatments were discontinued and replaced by a medically appropriate regimen. Dr. Nassir Ghaemi, who studied Kennedy's medical records, concluded there was a “correlation; it is not causation; but it may not be coincidence either.”


title: Max Jacobson

text: When he began treating Mickey Mantle in late September of 1961 for a case of the flu, Jacobson's injection into Mantle's hip caused a severe abscessing septic infection at the injection site that hospitalized Mantle and threatened his career. It also sidelined him from the Yankees' quest for the 1961 AL East Pennant – which they won by 10 games – as well as the much higher profile homerun race between Mantle and team mate Roger Maris (#9), which Maris won. Maris also broke Babe Ruth's all time single season home run record of 60 by hitting his 61st home run on the last day of the season. While the episode treating Mantle should have – as several medical regulators admitted later – gotten the attention of those who knew better, it did not alert anyone to Jacobson's improper practices. This failure to recognize the problem was also blamed on the reality of Mantle's lifestyle and his often being hungover or otherwise ill from alcohol abuse and a generally unhealthy lifestyle. This illness was seen by most as just another episode in Mantle's self destructive lifestyle.


title: Max Jacobson

text: By the late-1960s, Jacobson's behavior became increasingly erratic, as his own amphetamine usage had increased. He began working 24-hour days, and was seeing up to thirty patients per day. In 1969, one of Jacobson's clients, former presidential photographer Mark Shaw, died at the age of 47. An autopsy showed that Shaw had died of "acute and chronic intravenous amphetamine poisoning." Under questioning, Jacobson's staff admitted to buying large quantities of amphetamines to give many high level doses. The Bureau of Narcotics and Dangerous Drugs seized Jacobson's supply, and his medical license was revoked on 25 April 1975, by the New York State Board of Regents.


title: Max Jacobson

text: In 1979, Jacobson attempted to regain his license but was denied. A state spokesman stated that the then 79-year-old Jacobson did not seem ready to enter into the "mainstream of practice" again. Jacobson died later that year on 1 December in New York City. His funeral was held at the Frank E. Campbell Funeral Chapel in Manhattan on 3 December. Jacobson is buried in Mount Hebron Cemetery, next to his second wife, Nina (who died in 1964), and his parents.


title: AAA Mega Championship

text: The AAA Mega Championship is a professional wrestling world heavyweight championship in the Mexican Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide (AAA) promotion. Known officially in Spanish as the "Mega Campeonato AAA", it is sometimes referred to in the English-language press as the "AAA World Heavyweight Championship". The title is the top championship of the AAA promotion. The current champion is El Hijo del Vikingo.


title: AAA Mega Championship

text: The title was established in 2007 via a single elimination tournament billed as the ""Torneo Campeón de Campeones"", or Champion of Champions Tournament, which effectively unified the International Wrestling Council (IWC) World Heavyweight Championship, the Grand Prix Championship Wrestling (GPCW) SUPER-X Monster Championship, the Mexican National Heavyweight Championship, and the Universal Wrestling Association (UWA) World Light Heavyweight Championship. The tournament field included the four reigning champions of the aforementioned titles as well as the number one contender to each championship. El Mesías, who entered the tournament as the IWC World Heavyweight Champion, became the inaugural AAA Mega Champion upon defeating the UWA World Light Heavyweight Champion entrant Chessman in the final round.


title: AAA Mega Championship

text: Overall, there have been 18 AAA Mega Championship reigns and 11 total champions, and the title has been vacated twice. The inaugural champion was El Mesías, who defeated Chessman in the final of an eight-man tournament at the "Verano de Escándalo" event on September 16, 2007, to become champion. El Texano Jr.'s first reign as champion gave the title world status when he defended it in Mexico. Kenny Omega had the longest reign at 765 days. Jeff Jarrett had the shortest reign at 83 days. El Mesías holds the record for the most reigns with four. El Texano Jr., Fénix, and Kenny Omega are the only three wrestlers to have held the title for a full consecutive year.


title: AAA Mega Championship

text: In 2011, the then-AAA Mega Champion and Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) founder Jeff Jarrett appeared with a redesigned version of the title belt on TNA programming. TNA used the Mega Championship belt on their programming, but due to Spike TV, then TNA's broadcaster, not allowing TNA to refer to AAA by name, a silver hexagonal plate was used to cover the AAA faceplate. While Jarrett appeared in TNA, the title was referred to as the "Mexican Heavyweight Championship". On April 21, 2013, the title was defended outside AAA for the first time at Puerto Rico's World Wrestling League (WWL). In March 2015, the AAA Mega Champion El Patrón Alberto defended the championship in Lucha Underground, made possible through AAA's joint ownership of Lucha Underground.


title: AAA Mega Championship

text: El Hijo del Vikingo is the current champion in his first reign. He won the vacant title after defeating Samuray del Sol, Jay Lethal, Bobby Fish, and Bandido in a Five-way match on at Triplemanía Regia II in Monterrey, Mexico on December 4, 2021. The previous champion, Kenny Omega, vacated it due to injury on November 22, 2021. During his reign, Omega also defended the title in All Elite Wrestling (AEW) – his home promotion – via a partnership between AAA and AEW.


title: Andy Timmons

text: Andy Timmons (born July 26, 1963) is an American guitarist who has played in the bands Taylor Bay Band, Danger Danger, Pawn Kings, and Andy Timmons Band (ATB). He has also released several solo albums and has worked as a session guitarist.


title: Andy Timmons

text: He has released two CDs on Favored Nations, the first being "That Was Then, This Is Now" and "Resolution" on May 2, 2006.


title: Andy Timmons

text: As guitarist for glam metal band Danger Danger, he toured the world opening for Kiss and Alice Cooper, sold over a million records worldwide, and had two #1 videos on MTV, and amassed a discography that includes seven solo releases that range from guitar instrumentals, to blues, and even a Beatles/Elvis Costello-inspired collection of pop tunes.


title: Andy Timmons

text: Timmons's many collaborations include a live CD with Olivia Newton-John (Timmons has been her music director-guitarist for many U.S. tours), two albums by Kip Winger, recording sessions for Paula Abdul and Paul Stanley, and radio and television jingles. He has also played alongside Steve Vai, Joe Satriani, Paul Gilbert, Eric Johnson, Steve Morse, Mike Stern, Ace Frehley, Ted Nugent, Reb Beach, and Pierre Bensusan, as well as some of his favorite 1960s singing stars such as the Beach Boys, Lesley Gore, and Gordon Waller.


title: Andy Timmons

text: Playing with drummer/bandleader Simon Phillips on four albums between 1997 and 2015, Timmons demonstrated a range extending well beyond rock and pop music, delivering energetic jazz fusion that earned both critical and audience acclaim.


title: Andy Timmons

text: Timmons is a native of Evansville, Indiana. He graduated from Evansville Harrison High School in 1981 and studied jazz guitar at the University of Miami. He currently resides in McKinney, Texas.


title: Andy Timmons

text: The Andy Timmons Band released their new album, entitled "Andy Timmons Band Plays Sgt. Pepper" on October 25, 2011.


title: Andy Timmons

text: In August 2014, Timmons participated in the G4 Experience—a week-long guitar camp—with fellow guitarists Joe Satriani, Paul Gilbert, and keyboardist Mike Keneally.


title: Andy Timmons

text: On the 26th of October 2014, Andy reunited with former Danger Danger band members for the 25th Anniversary of the band, which took place at the Firefest in Nottingham.


title: Arkady Dvorkovich

text: Arkady Vladimirovich Dvorkovich (; born 26 March 1972) is a Russian politician and economist, who was Deputy Prime Minister in Dmitry Medvedev's Cabinet from 21 May 2012 until 7 May 2018. He was previously an Assistant to the President of the Russian Federation from May 2008 to May 2012.


title: Arkady Dvorkovich

text: Dvorkovich was considered to be a close confidant of Dmitry Medvedev and an important figure in Russian politics. He rose to prominence during Medvedev's presidency but has suffered from the resurgence of Igor Sechin. From 2018 to 2022 he was the Chairman of Skolkovo Foundation. Since 2015, he is also the Chairman of the Board of the Directors in Russian Railways company.


title: Arkady Dvorkovich

text: Dvorkovich's father, Vladimir Dvorkovich, was an international chess arbiter. Dvorkovich is an official of the Russian Chess Federation and was first elected president of FIDE (the International Chess Federation) in October 2018, succeeding Kirsan Ilyumzhinov, and was re-elected for a second term in the elections held on the sidelines of the 44th Chess Olympiad held at Mamallapuram, India on August 7, 2022.


title: Arkady Dvorkovich

text: In 2018, he served as chairman of the 2018 FIFA World Cup Russia Local Organizing Committee, collaborating closely with FIFA President Gianni Infantino, who later praised him for his work. Subsequently, on 3 October 2018, he was elected FIDE President, receiving 103 votes, ahead of 78 votes for FIDE Vice President Georgios Markropoulos; noted English GM Nigel Short withdrew his candidacy minutes before voting commenced.


title: Arkady Dvorkovich

text: Dvorkovich's professional interests include economic regulation, financial management, and tax planning. According to BusinessWeek (2003) Arkady was included in the list of 50 potential world leaders.


title: Arkady Dvorkovich

text: In March 2022, Dvorkovich condemned Russia's invasion of Ukraine, saying that "Wars are the worst things one might face in life…including this war. My thoughts are with Ukrainian civilians." Andrey Turchak, a lawmaker from Putin's United Russia party, condemned Dvorkovich's anti-war stance and called for his “immediate dismissal in disgrace”, saying: "This is nothing but the very national betrayal, the behavior of the fifth column, which the president [Putin] spoke about today”. Later Dvorkovich said on the website of the Skolkovo foundation that he was "sincerely proud of the courage of our (Russian) soldiers" and that Russia had been targeted by "harsh and senseless sanctions".


title: Arkady Dvorkovich

text: In August 2022, he was re-elected for a second term as FIDE president receiving 157 votes as against 16 by his rival Andrii Baryshpolets.


title: Four-vector

text: In special relativity, a four-vector (or 4-vector) is an object with four components, which transform in a specific way under Lorentz transformations. Specifically, a four-vector is an element of a four-dimensional vector space considered as a representation space of the standard representation of the Lorentz group, the (,) representation. It differs from a Euclidean vector in how its magnitude is determined. The transformations that preserve this magnitude are the Lorentz transformations, which include spatial rotations and boosts (a change by a constant velocity to another inertial reference frame).


title: Four-vector

text: Four-vectors describe, for instance, position in spacetime modeled as Minkowski space, a particle's four-momentum , the amplitude of the electromagnetic four-potential at a point in spacetime, and the elements of the subspace spanned by the gamma matrices inside the Dirac algebra.


title: Four-vector

text: The Lorentz group may be represented by 4×4 matrices . The action of a Lorentz transformation on a general contravariant four-vector (like the examples above), regarded as a column vector with Cartesian coordinates with respect to an inertial frame in the entries, is given by


title: Four-vector

text: (matrix multiplication) where the components of the primed object refer to the new frame. Related to the examples above that are given as contravariant vectors, there are also the corresponding covariant vectors , and . These transform according to the rule


title: Four-vector

text: where denotes the matrix transpose. This rule is different from the above rule. It corresponds to the dual representation of the standard representation. However, for the Lorentz group the dual of any representation is equivalent to the original representation. Thus the objects with covariant indices are four-vectors as well.


title: Four-vector

text: For an example of a well-behaved four-component object in special relativity that is "not" a four-vector, see bispinor. It is similarly defined, the difference being that the transformation rule under Lorentz transformations is given by a representation other than the standard representation. In this case, the rule reads , where is a 4×4 matrix other than . Similar remarks apply to objects with fewer or more components that are well-behaved under Lorentz transformations. These include scalars, spinors, tensors and spinor-tensors.


title: Four-vector

text: The article considers four-vectors in the context of special relativity. Although the concept of four-vectors also extends to general relativity, some of the results stated in this article require modification in general relativity.


title: Four-vector

text: The notations in this article are: lowercase bold for three-dimensional vectors, hats for three-dimensional unit vectors, capital bold for four dimensional vectors (except for the four-gradient), and tensor index notation.


title: Four-vector

text: A four-vector "A" is a vector with a "timelike" component and three "spacelike" components, and can be written in various equivalent notations:


title: Four-vector

text: where in the last form the magnitude component and basis vector have been combined to a single element.


title: Four-vector

text: The upper indices indicate contravariant components. Here the standard convention is that Latin indices take values for spatial components, so that "i" = 1, 2, 3, and Greek indices take values for space "and time" components, so "α" = 0, 1, 2, 3, used with the summation convention. The split between the time component and the spatial components is a useful one to make when determining contractions of one four vector with other tensor quantities, such as for calculating Lorentz invariants in inner products (examples are given below), or raising and lowering indices.


title: Four-vector

text: In special relativity, the spacelike basis E, E, E and components "A", "A", "A" are often Cartesian basis and components:


title: Four-vector

text: or any other orthogonal coordinates, or even general curvilinear coordinates. Note the coordinate labels are always subscripted as labels and are not indices taking numerical values. In general relativity, local curvilinear coordinates in a local basis must be used. Geometrically, a four-vector can still be interpreted as an arrow, but in spacetime - not just space. In relativity, the arrows are drawn as part of Minkowski diagram (also called "spacetime diagram"). In this article, four-vectors will be referred to simply as vectors.


title: Four-vector

text: The relation between the covariant and contravariant coordinates is through the Minkowski metric tensor (referred to as the metric), "η" which raises and lowers indices as follows:


title: Four-vector

text: where the lowered index indicates it to be covariant. Often the metric is diagonal, as is the case for orthogonal coordinates (see line element), but not in general curvilinear coordinates.


title: Four-vector

text: The motivation for the above conventions are that the inner product is a scalar, see below for details.


title: Four-vector

text: Given two inertial or rotated frames of reference, a four-vector is defined as a quantity which transforms according to the Lorentz transformation matrix Λ:


title: Four-vector

text: in which the matrix has components in row  and column , and the inverse matrix has components in row  and column .


title: Four-vector

text: For background on the nature of this transformation definition, see tensor. All four-vectors transform in the same way, and this can be generalized to four-dimensional relativistic tensors; see special relativity.


title: Four-vector

text: where "δ" is the Kronecker delta, and "ε" is the three-dimensional Levi-Civita symbol. The spacelike components of four-vectors are rotated, while the timelike components remain unchanged.


title: Four-vector

text: For the case of rotations about the "z"-axis only, the spacelike part of the Lorentz matrix reduces to the rotation matrix about the "z"-axis:


title: Four-vector

text: For two frames moving at constant relative three-velocity v (not four-velocity, see below), it is convenient to denote and define the relative velocity in units of "c" by:


title: Four-vector

text: and is the Kronecker delta. Contrary to the case for pure rotations, the spacelike and timelike components are mixed together under boosts.


title: Four-vector

text: This Lorentz matrix illustrates the boost to be a "hyperbolic rotation" in four dimensional spacetime, analogous to the circular rotation above in three-dimensional space.


title: Four-vector

text: Four-vectors have the same linearity properties as Euclidean vectors in three dimensions. They can be added in the usual entrywise way:


title: Four-vector

text: Applying the Minkowski tensor to two four-vectors and , writing the result in dot product notation, we have, using Einstein notation:


title: Four-vector

text: in which case above is the entry in row and column of the Minkowski metric as a square matrix. The Minkowski metric is not a Euclidean metric, because it is indefinite (see metric signature). A number of other expressions can be used because the metric tensor can raise and lower the components of or . For contra/co-variant components of and co/contra-variant components of , we have:


title: Four-vector

text: which, depending on the case, may be considered the square, or its negative, of the length of the vector.


title: Four-vector

text: Following are two common choices for the metric tensor in the standard basis (essentially Cartesian coordinates). If orthogonal coordinates are used, there would be scale factors along the diagonal part of the spacelike part of the metric, while for general curvilinear coordinates the entire spacelike part of the metric would have components dependent on the curvilinear basis used.


title: Four-vector

text: in another frame, in which "C"′ is the value of the inner product in this frame. Then since the inner product is an invariant, these must be equal:


title: Four-vector

text: Considering that physical quantities in relativity are four-vectors, this equation has the appearance of a "conservation law", but there is no "conservation" involved. The primary significance of the Minkowski inner product is that for any two four-vectors, its value is invariant for all observers; a change of coordinates does not result in a change in value of the inner product. The components of the four-vectors change from one frame to another; A and A′ are connected by a Lorentz transformation, and similarly for B and B′, although the inner products are the same in all frames. Nevertheless, this type of expression is exploited in relativistic calculations on a par with conservation laws, since the magnitudes of components can be determined without explicitly performing any Lorentz transformations. A particular example is with energy and momentum in the energy-momentum relation derived from the four-momentum vector (see also below).


title: Four-vector

text: With the signature (+−−−), four-vectors may be classified as either spacelike if formula_39, timelike if formula_40, and null vectors if formula_41.


title: Four-vector

text: Some authors define "η" with the opposite sign, in which case we have the (−+++) metric signature. Evaluating the summation with this signature:


title: Four-vector

text: which is equivalent to the above expression for "C" in terms of A and B. Either convention will work. With the Minkowski metric defined in the two ways above, the only difference between covariant and contravariant four-vector components are signs, therefore the signs depend on which sign convention is used.


title: Four-vector

text: With the signature (−+++), four-vectors may be classified as either spacelike if formula_40, timelike if formula_39, and null if formula_41.


title: Four-vector

text: Applying the Minkowski tensor is often expressed as the effect of the dual vector of one vector on the other:


title: Four-vector

text: Here the "A"s are the components of the dual vector A* of A in the dual basis and called the covariant coordinates of A, while the original "A" components are called the contravariant coordinates.


title: Four-vector

text: In special relativity (but not general relativity), the derivative of a four-vector with respect to a scalar "λ" (invariant) is itself a four-vector. It is also useful to take the differential of the four-vector, "d"A and divide it by the differential of the scalar, "dλ":


title: Four-vector

text: In relativistic mechanics, one often takes the differential of a four-vector and divides by the differential in proper time (see below).


title: Four-vector

text: A point in Minkowski space is a time and spatial position, called an "event", or sometimes the position four-vector or four-position or 4-position, described in some reference frame by a set of four coordinates:


title: Four-vector

text: where r is the three-dimensional space position vector. If r is a function of coordinate time "t" in the same frame, i.e. r = r("t"), this corresponds to a sequence of events as "t" varies. The definition "R" = "ct" ensures that all the coordinates have the same units (of distance). These coordinates are the components of the "position four-vector" for the event.


title: Four-vector

text: defining the differential line element d"s" and differential proper time increment d"τ", but this "norm" is also:


title: Four-vector

text: When considering physical phenomena, differential equations arise naturally; however, when considering space and time derivatives of functions, it is unclear which reference frame these derivatives are taken with respect to. It is agreed that time derivatives are taken with respect to the proper time formula_60. As proper time is an invariant, this guarantees that the proper-time-derivative of any four-vector is itself a four-vector. It is then important to find a relation between this proper-time-derivative and another time derivative (using the coordinate time "t" of an inertial reference frame). This relation is provided by taking the above differential invariant spacetime interval, then dividing by ("cdt") to obtain:


title: Four-vector

text: where u = "d"r/"dt" is the coordinate 3-velocity of an object measured in the same frame as the coordinates "x", "y", "z", and coordinate time "t", and


title: Four-vector

text: is the Lorentz factor. This provides a useful relation between the differentials in coordinate time and proper time:


title: Four-vector

text: Considering that partial derivatives are linear operators, one can form a four-gradient from the partial time derivative /"t" and the spatial gradient ∇. Using the standard basis, in index and abbreviated notations, the contravariant components are:


title: Four-vector

text: Note the basis vectors are placed in front of the components, to prevent confusion between taking the derivative of the basis vector, or simply indicating the partial derivative is a component of this four-vector. The covariant components are:


title: Four-vector

text: Since this is an operator, it doesn't have a "length", but evaluating the inner product of the operator with itself gives another operator:


title: Four-vector

text: Geometrically, U is a normalized vector tangent to the world line of the particle. Using the differential of the four-position, the magnitude of the four-velocity can be obtained:


title: Four-vector

text: Units of four-velocity are m/s in SI and 1 in the geometrized unit system. Four-velocity is a contravariant vector.


title: Four-vector

text: where a = "d"u/"dt" is the coordinate 3-acceleration. Since the magnitude of U is a constant, the four acceleration is orthogonal to the four velocity, i.e. the Minkowski inner product of the four-acceleration and the four-velocity is zero:


title: Four-vector

text: which is true for all world lines. The geometric meaning of four-acceleration is the curvature vector of the world line in Minkowski space.


title: Four-vector

text: This last relation is useful relativistic mechanics, essential in relativistic quantum mechanics and relativistic quantum field theory, all with applications to particle physics.


title: Four-vector

text: The four-force acting on a particle is defined analogously to the 3-force as the time derivative of 3-momentum in Newton's second law:


title: Four-vector

text: where "P" is the power transferred to move the particle, and f is the 3-force acting on the particle. For a particle of constant invariant mass "m", this is equivalent to


title: Four-vector

text: The four-heat flux vector field, is essentially similar to the 3d heat flux vector field q, in the local frame of the fluid:


title: Four-vector

text: where is the number density of baryons in the local rest frame of the baryon fluid (positive values for baryons, negative for antibaryons), and the four-velocity field (of the fluid) as above.


title: Four-vector

text: where "ν" is the frequency of the wave and formula_92 is a unit vector in the travel direction of the wave. Now:


title: Four-vector

text: The quantities reciprocal to time "t" and space r are the angular frequency "ω" and angular wave vector k, respectively. They form the components of the four-wavevector or wave four-vector:


title: Four-vector

text: The de Broglie relations then showed that four-wavevector applied to matter waves as well as to light waves:


title: Four-vector

text: or . Note this is consistent with the above case; for photons with a 3-wavevector of modulus , in the direction of wave propagation defined by the unit vector formula_92.


title: Four-vector

text: In quantum mechanics, the four-probability current or probability four-current is analogous to the electromagnetic four-current:


title: Four-vector

text: where is the probability density function corresponding to the time component, and is the probability current vector. In non-relativistic quantum mechanics, this current is always well defined because the expressions for density and current are positive definite and can admit a probability interpretation. In relativistic quantum mechanics and quantum field theory, it is not always possible to find a current, particularly when interactions are involved.


title: Four-vector

text: Replacing the energy by the energy operator and the momentum by the momentum operator in the four-momentum, one obtains the four-momentum operator, used in relativistic wave equations.


title: Four-vector

text: where is the spin pseudovector. In quantum mechanics, not all three components of this vector are simultaneously measurable, only one component is. The timelike component is zero in the particle's rest frame, but not in any other frame. This component can be found from an appropriate Lorentz transformation.


title: Four-vector

text: The norm squared is the (negative of the) magnitude squared of the spin, and according to quantum mechanics we have


title: Four-vector

text: This value is observable and quantized, with the spin quantum number (not the magnitude of the spin vector).


title: Four-vector

text: A four-vector "A" can also be defined in using the Pauli matrices as a basis, again in various equivalent notations:


title: Four-vector

text: and in this formulation, the four-vector is represented as a Hermitian matrix (the matrix transpose and complex conjugate of the matrix leaves it unchanged), rather than a real-valued column or row vector. The determinant of the matrix is the modulus of the four-vector, so the determinant is an invariant:


title: Four-vector

text: This idea of using the Pauli matrices as basis vectors is employed in the algebra of physical space, an example of a Clifford algebra.


title: Four-vector

text: In spacetime algebra, another example of Clifford algebra, the gamma matrices can also form a basis. (They are also called the Dirac matrices, owing to their appearance in the Dirac equation). There is more than one way to express the gamma matrices, detailed in that main article.


title: Four-vector

text: The four-momentum contracted with the gamma matrices is an important case in relativistic quantum mechanics and relativistic quantum field theory. In the Dirac equation and other relativistic wave equations, terms of the form:


title: Corporation sole

text: A corporation sole is a legal entity consisting of a single ("sole") incorporated office, occupied by a single ("sole") natural person. This structure allows corporations (often religious corporations or Commonwealth governments) to pass without interruption from one officeholder to the next, giving positions legal continuity with subsequent officeholders having identical powers and possessions to their predecessors. A corporation sole is one of two types of corporation, the other being a "corporation aggregate".


title: Corporation sole

text: Most corporations sole are church related (for example, the Archbishopric of Canterbury), although some political offices of the United Kingdom (e.g., many of the Secretaries of State), Canada, and the United States are corporations sole.


title: Corporation sole

text: The concept of corporation sole originated as a means for orderly transfer of ecclesiastical property, serving to keep the title within the denomination or religious society. In order to keep the religious property from being treated as the estate of the vicar of the church, the property was titled to the office of the corporation sole. In the case of the Roman Catholic Church, ecclesiastical property is usually titled to the diocesan bishop, who serves in the office of the corporation sole.


title: Corporation sole

text: The Roman Catholic Church continues to use corporations sole in holding titles of property: as recently as 2002, it split a diocese in the US state of California into many smaller corporations sole and with each parish priest becoming his own corporation sole, thus limiting the diocese's liability for any sexual abuse or other wrongful activity in which the priest might engage. This is, however, not the case everywhere, and legal application varies. For instance, other U.S. jurisdictions have used corporations at multiple levels. In the jurisdictions of England and Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland, and the Republic of Ireland, a Roman Catholic bishop is not a corporation sole, and real property is held by way of land trusts, a tradition dating back to the suppression of Roman Catholicism by Henry VIII during the English Reformation and the Penal Laws of Ireland.


title: Corporation sole

text: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints uses the corporation sole form for its president, which is legally listed as "The Corporation of the President of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints".


title: Corporation sole

text: Iglesia ni Cristo was registered as corporation sole with the Insular Government of the Philippines in 1914 and with the People's Republic of China in 2014.


title: Corporation sole

text: The corporation sole form can serve the needs of a religious organization by reducing its complexity to that of a single office and its holder, thereby eliminating the need for by-laws and a board of directors.


title: Corporation sole

text: Within most constitutional monarchies, notably the Commonwealth realms, the Crown is a nonstatutory corporation sole. Although conceptually speaking, the office and officeholder retain dual capacities in that they may act both in a corporate capacity (as monarch) and in an individual capacity (as a private person), they are inseparably fused in law; there is no legal distinction between the office and the individual person who holds it. The Crown (state) legally acts as a person when it enters into contracts and possesses property. As a person, the monarch (officeholder) may hold properties privately, distinct from property he or she possesses corporately, and may act as monarch separate from their personal acts. For example, Charles III as a natural person holds several separate offices, such as King of the United Kingdom, King of Canada, King of Australia, and Supreme Governor of the Church of England, all of which are distinct corporations sole, even as he acts as a natural person in his private capacities separate and apart from his role filling these various offices (corporations). Likewise, the office of prime minister has use of certain properties and privileges, such as an official residence and decision-making powers, that remain with the office once the officeholder leaves, even as the officeholder may own property in a private capacity.


title: Corporation sole

text: The sovereign's status as a corporation sole ensures that all references to the Queen, the King, Her Majesty, His Majesty, and the Crown are synonymous, referring to exactly the same legal personality over time. While natural persons who serve as sovereign pass on, the sovereign never legally dies; thus the corporate nature of the office of sovereign ensures that the authority of the state continues uninterrupted. In other words, the sovereign is made a corporation sole to prevent the possibility of disruption or interregnum, thereby preserving the stability of the Crown (state). For this reason, at the moment of the demise of the sovereign, a successor is immediately and automatically in place.


title: Corporation sole

text: As a corporation sole, the legal person of the sovereign is the personification of the state and consequently acts as guarantor of the rule of law and the fount of all executive authority behind the state's institutions. As certain countries have federal systems of government, the sovereign in these cases also possesses capacities as distinct corporation sole in right of each of the Australian states and Canadian provinces; for example, as Her Majesty the Queen of Australia in Right of Queensland and Her Majesty the Queen of Canada in Right of Alberta.


title: Corporation sole

text: Every state of the United States recognizes corporations sole under common law, and about a third of the states have specific statutes that stipulate the conditions under which that state recognizes the corporations sole that are filed with that state for acquiring, holding, and disposing of title for church and religious society property. Almost any religious society or church can qualify for filing as a corporation sole in these states. There can be no legal limitation to specific denominations, therefore a Buddhist temple or Jewish Community Center would qualify as quickly as a Christian church. Some states also recognize corporations sole for various other non-profit purposes including performing arts groups, scientific research groups, educational institutions, and cemetery societies.


title: Amy Wren

text: Wren attended "Parsnips Youth Theatre" in Harborough for four years. She was featured in the "Mail" in July 2006, when she and two others from Parsnips were chosen to be a part of the "National Youth Theatre".


title: Amy Wren

text: Wren started acting when she was talent spotted by Disney UK at the age of 16. She was then engaged for Disney’s comedy sketch show "Life Bites", playing the lead role as Chloe. She moved onto working with Nickelodeon in "Genie In The House" and "Summer in Transylvania". In 2010 she appeared in Andrea Arnold's film adaptation of Emily Brontë’s novel "Wuthering Heights", in which she played Frances Earnshaw. In 2016 she played Lady Evelyn Herbert in Guy Burt's TV mini-series "Tutankhamun" which is the story of the archeologist Howard Carter, who discovered the tomb of Tutankhamun.


title: 10th Planet Jiu-Jitsu

text: 10th Planet Jiu-Jitsu is a non-traditional system of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu developed by Eddie Bravo. It was one of the first Jiu-Jitsu school systems to avoid using a gi.


title: 10th Planet Jiu-Jitsu

text: In 2003, after earning a black belt under Jean-Jacques Machado, Eddie Bravo opened his first 10th Planet Jiu-Jitsu school in Los Angeles, California. Bravo's system emphasizes developing students for submission-only grappling competition rather than points, he focused his jiu-jitsu training without the traditional gi, becoming one of the first jiu-jitsu schools to do so. The idea behind this was to try to implement as many of the techniques as possible in mixed martial arts (MMA) competitions. Bravo worked for the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) during this time and felt high-level jiu-jitsu practitioners weren't winning as much as they should have, mainly attributing this to them wearing a gi when training jiu-jitsu, but competing in MMA without one.


title: 10th Planet Jiu-Jitsu

text: 10th Planet Jiu-Jitsu has been controversial since its inception; abandoning the gi drew some backlash from other Jiu-Jitsu schools and there has been a debate as to how many 10th Planet techniques, most notably its iterations of the rubber guard, translate to MMA.


title: 10th Planet Jiu-Jitsu

text: In addition to the original 10th Planet headquarters in Los Angeles, there are over 100 schools worldwide. Some are established BJJ training facilities that have adopted the system as an expansion of the art. The style has spread overseas to Ireland, the United Kingdom, Germany, Sweden, Australia, and Korea.


title: 10th Planet Jiu-Jitsu

text: Victory Belt Publishing released three manuals covering techniques of the 10th Planet system: Mastering the Rubber Guard, Mastering the Twister, and Advanced Rubber Guard. The first and third books cover the system's signature rubber guard, while the second tackles the twister, another integral position in the system. The books were written by Eddie Bravo, Glen Cordoza, and Erich Krauss.


title: 10th Planet Jiu-Jitsu

text: While 10th Planet Jiu-Jitsu uses the standard Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu ranking system, its practitioners most commonly train without gi and the belt. 10th Planet offers colored ranked rashguards to help visually denote belt rank.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: Fashion in the period 1700–1750 in European and European-influenced countries is characterized by a widening silhouette for both men and women following the tall, narrow look of the 1680s and 90s. This era is defined as late Baroque/Rococo style. The new fashion trends introduced during this era had a greater impact on society, affecting not only royalty and aristocrats, but also middle and even lower classes. Clothing during this time can be characterized by soft pastels, light, airy, and asymmetrical designs, and playful styles. Wigs remained essential for men and women of substance, and were often white; natural hair was powdered to achieve the fashionable look. The costume of the eighteenth century, if lacking in the refinement and grace of earlier times, was distinctly quaint and picturesque.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: Distinction was made in this period between "full dress" worn at court and for formal occasions, and "undress" or everyday, daytime clothes. As the decades progressed, fewer and fewer occasions called for full dress, which had all but disappeared by the end of the century.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: Fashion designers became more recognizable during this period, as men and women were eager to be dressed in the latest trends and styles. Fashion magazines emerged during this era, originally aimed at educated readers, but quickly capturing the attention of lower classes with their colorful illustrations and up-to-date fashion news.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: In the early decades of the new century, formal dress consisted of the stiff-bodiced mantua. A closed (or "round") petticoat, sometimes worn with an apron, replaced the open draped mantua skirt of the previous period. This formal style then gave way to more relaxed fashions.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: The "robe à la française" or sack-back gown had a tight bodice with a low-cut square neckline, usually with large ribbon bows down the front, wide panniers, and was lavishly trimmed with all manner of lace, ribbon, and flowers. With flowing pleats from the shoulders was originally an undress fashion. At its most informal, this gown was unfitted both front and back and called a "sacque". With a more relaxed style came a shift away from heavy fabrics, such as satin and velvet, to Indian cotton, silks and damasks. Also, these gowns were often made in lighter pastel shades that gave off a warm, graceful and childlike appearance. Later, for formal wear, the front was fitted to the body by means of a tightly-laced underbodice, while the back fell in loose box pleats called "Watteau pleats" from their appearance in the paintings of Antoine Watteau.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: The less formal "robe à l'anglaise", Close-bodied gown or "nightgown" also had a pleated back, but the pleats were sewn down to fit the bodice to the body to the waist. It featured a snug bodice with a full skirt worn without panniers, usually cut a bit longer in the back to form a small train, and often some type of lace kerchief was worn around the neckline.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: Either gown could be closed in front (a "round gown") or open to reveal a matching or contrasting petticoat.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: Open-fronted bodices could be filled in with a decorative stomacher, and toward the end of the period a lace or linen kerchief called a "fichu" could be worn to fill in the low neckline.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: Sleeves were bell- or trumpet-shaped, and caught up at the elbow to show the frilled or lace-trimmed sleeves of the shift (chemise) beneath. Sleeves became narrower as the period progressed, with a frill at the elbow, and elaborate separate ruffles called engageantes were tacked to the shift sleeves, in a fashion that would persist into the 1770s.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: Necklines on dresses became more open as time went on allowing for greater display of ornamentation of the neck area. A thick band of lace was often sewed onto the neckline of a gown with ribbons, flowers, and/or jewels adorning the lace. Jewelry such as strings of pearls, ribbons, or lace frills were tied high on the neck. Finally, one other large element of 18th century women's dress wear became the addition of the frilled neckband, a separate piece from the rest of the dress. This ornament was popularized sometime around 1730 .


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: The "stays" of the early 18th century were long-waisting and cut with a narrow back, wide front, and shoulder straps; the most fashionable stays pulled the shoulders back until the shoulder blades almost touched. The resulting silhouette, with shoulders thrown back, very erect posture and a high, full bosom, is characteristic of this period and no other.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: Skirts were worn over small, domed hoops, called panniers, in the 1730s and early 1740s. Depending on the occasion, these panniers varied in size. Smaller hoops were worn in everyday settings and larger hoops for more formal occasions, which later widened to as much as three feet to either side at the French court of Marie Antoinette.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: The shift (chemise) or smock had full sleeves early in the period and tight, elbow-length sleeves in the 1740s as the sleeves of the gown narrowed.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: Some women wore drawers (underpants) in England. For instance, as early as 1676 inventory of Hillard Veren had "3 pair of women drawers". Although they are not common in English or New England inventories during the 17th and 18th century.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: Woolen waistcoats were worn over the corset and under the gown for warmth, as were petticoats quilted with wool batting.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: Free-hanging pockets were tied around the waist and were accessed through "pocket slits" in the gown or petticoat.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: Loose gowns, sometimes with a wrapped or surplice front closure, were worn over the shift (chemise), petticoat and stays (corset) for at-home wear, and it was fashionable to have one's portrait painted wearing these fashions.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: Riding habits consisted of a fitted, thigh- or knee-length coat similar to those worn by men, usually with a matching petticoat. Ladies wore masculine-inspired shirts and tricorne hats for riding and hunting.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: In the early years of this period, pastel silk hoods and light colors became fashionable at the French court for mature women, under the influence of Madame de Maintenon. Younger women also wore light or bright colors, but the preference was for solid-colored or floral silks with ornamentation.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: Gradually, trim in the form of applied lace and fabric "robings" (strips of ruched, gathered or pleated fabric) replaced the plain style. Ribbon bows, lacing, and rosettes became popular, as did boldly patterned fabrics. Silk gowns and stomachers were often intricately embroidered in floral and life motifs, demonstrating great attention to detail and care for an accurate portrayal of nature. A mid-century vogue for striped fabrics had the stripes running different directions on the trim and the body of the gown.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: Chintz, Indian cotton fabric with block-printed imaging on a white base, was wildly fashionable. Bans against their importation to protect the British silk, linen and woolen industries did nothing to reduce their desirability. Brocaded silks and woolens had similar colorful floral patterns on light-colored grounds. Blends of wool and silk or wool and linen (linsey-woolsey) were popular. Until the 1730s, European textiles were of inferior quality that could not match the complex fashionable designs of Indian calicoes. Europe was able to produce high quality petit teints (colors that faded with light and washing), but they were unable to produce grand teints (permanent colors resistant to light and wear).


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: The shoe of the previous period with its curved heel, squarish toe, and tie over the instep gave way in the second decade of the 18th century to a shoe with a high, curved heel. Backless mules were worn indoors and out (but not on the street). Toes were now pointed. This style of shoe would remain popular well into the next period. Shoes at the time had many variations of decoration, some even included metal wrapped threads.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: Women, particularly in France, began wearing a boutonnière, or a small bouquet of fresh flowers in a "bosom bottle." About four inches in length, these glass or tin bottles were small enough to discreetly tuck into the bosom or hair, but also just large enough to contain water to keep the flowers from wilting.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: An 18th-century toilette began with a heavy white foundation made from white lead, egg white, and a variety of other substances. This was overlaid with white powder (typically potato or rice powder), rouge, and deep red or cherry lip color.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: Tiny pieces of fabric, known as patches, in the shapes of dots, hearts, stars, etc. were applied to the face with adhesive. The fashion is thought to have originated as a way of disguising pox scars and other blemishes, but gradually developed coded meanings. A patch near the mouth signified flirtatiousness; one on the right cheek denoted marriage; one on the left cheek announced engagement; one at the corner of the eye signified a mistress.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: The male suit, also known as the habit à la française, made of three parts: the justaucorps, a jacket, and breeches. The waistcoat was the most decorative piece, usually lavishly embroidered or displaying patterned fabrics. In the early 18th century the Breeches usually stopped at the knee, with white stockings worn underneath and heeled shoes, which usually had large square buckles. Coats were worn closer to the body and were not as skirt-like as during the Baroque era. They were also worn more open to showcase the elaborate waistcoats... The skirts of the coat remained wide and were stiffened by buckram, horsehair, and other means to fan out over the hips. The front edges of the coat, which previously had been cut straight, began to curve slightly towards the back to reveal more of the waistcoat Fabrics for men were primarily silks, velvets, and brocades, with woolens used for the middle class and for sporting costumes.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: When the coat began to be worn in the 1600s, it was cut with little shaping to the figure and hung loosely from the shoulders to just below the knee. There were long vents from waist to hem at the sides and center-back, generally edged with buttons and buttonholes. During the 1670s and 1680s, the coat became closer-fitting with a slight shaping at the waist to produce a longer, narrower, more severe line. Sleeves were worn longer and tighter but still with cuffs. The slim, straight line was emphasized by low-set vertical pockets, but in the late 1680s, these were largely replaced by horizontal pockets which were later given flaps.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: Knee-breeches had a center-front opening, fastened at the waist, and were worn without other support. The legs were gathered into a band above or below the knee, closing with ties, buttons or a buckle or strap. Stockings were drawn up over the knees and covered the lower edge of the breeches.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: In the early 18th century, men's shoes continued to have a squared toe, but the heels were not as high. From 1720-1730, the heels became even smaller, and the shoes became more comfortable, no longer containing a block toe. The shoes from the first half of the century often contained an oblong buckle usually embedded with stones.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: Upper-class men often wore a cane as part of their outfits, suspending it by a loop from one of their waistcoat buttons to allow their hands to properly hold snuff-boxes or handkerchiefs. The cane was thus less functional and rather for the sake of fashion.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: The large high parted wig of the 1690s remained popular from 1700 until around 1720. During this time various colors were worn, but white was becoming more popular and the curls were getting tighter. The cadogan style of men's hair developed and became popular during this period, with horizontal rolls of hair over the ears. Later, wigs or the natural hair were worn long, brushed back from the forehead and "clubbed" or tied back at the nape of the neck with a black ribbon. From about 1720, a bag wig gathered the back hair in a black silk bag. Black ribbons attached to the bag were brought to the front and tied in a bow in a style called a "solitaire".


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: Wide-brimmed hats with brims turned up on three sides into tricornes were worn throughout the era. They were an essential element to the "domino", a stylish costume for masquerade balls, which became an increasingly popular mode of entertainment. The "domino" style consisted of a mask, a long cape, and a tricorne hat, all usually constructed of dark colors.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: Toddler boys and girls wore low-necked gowns. "Leading strings"—narrow straps of fabric attached to the gown at the shoulder—functioned as a sort of leash to keep the child from straying too far or falling as they learned to walk.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: Children older than toddlers continued to wear clothing which was in many respects simply a smaller version of adult clothing. Although it is often said that children wore miniature versions of adult clothing, this is something of a myth. Girls wore back-fastening gowns, trimmed much more simply than women's. The skirt of a girl's gown was not split down the front, as women's typically were. Girls did not wear jackets or bedgowns. Boys wore shirts, breeches, waistcoats and coats a man would, but often wore their necks open, and the coat was fitted and trimmed differently from a man's, and boys often went bareheaded. During some decades of the 18th Century, boys' shirts and coats had different collars and cuffs than a man's. Even if the size is not apparent, it is usually possible to tell a child's garment from an adult's.


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: 2. Silk dress supported by panniers. Note that there is no central parting to the dress. The low cut neckline is also less ornamented than a contemporary women's would be. (1718)


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: 3. A group scene of a girl and two boys. Boys were breeched at around 5-10. The girl wears a low neckline that was customary for young girls and boys. (1724)


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: 4. Portrait of the young archduchess and future Empress Maria Theresa. The neckline is still lower than a woman's but is more ornamented than that of a child. (1727)


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: 5. The girl sitting holding a fan is displaying her leading strings that her mother would have used to make sure she didn't fall when learning to walk. (1730)


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: 6. A boy of around 10 who has been breeched and wears a Frock coat of a child's pattern. The cuffs and frills would have been less obvious on a grown man. (1738)


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: 7. A middle-class girl c. 1740. The simpler fabric and colours used in her dress show her not to be of noble birth but not in poverty either. Again the low neckline is typical of girls of that age. (1740)


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: 8. A group portrait of children in fine clothes of the period. The boy has been newly breeched while the girls have the characteristic low neckline of children. (1745)


title: 1700–1750 in Western fashion

text: Joseph Addison in 1711 devoted an issue of "The Spectator" to satirising fashion, by noting how the country fashions lagged behind those in London. "As I proceeded in my journey I observed the petticoat grew scantier and scantier, and about threescore miles from "London" was so very unfashionable, that a woman might walk in it without any manner of inconvenience" and so on.


title: Swiss Guards

text: Swiss Guards (; ; ")" are Swiss soldiers who have served as guards at foreign European courts since the late 15th century.


title: Swiss Guards

text: The earliest Swiss guard unit to be established on a permanent basis was the Hundred Swiss ("Cent Suisses"), which served at the French court from 1490 to 1817. This small force was complemented in 1616 by a Swiss Guards regiment. In the 18th and early 19th centuries several other Swiss Guard units existed for periods in various European courts.


title: Swiss Guards

text: Foreign military service was outlawed by the first Swiss Federal Constitution of 1848 and a federal Law of 1859, with the only exception being the Pontifical Swiss Guard (; ) stationed in Vatican City. The modern Papal Swiss Guard serves as both a ceremonial unit and a bodyguard. Established in 1506, it is one of the oldest military units in the world. It is also the smallest army in the world.


title: Swiss Guards

text: Two different units of Swiss mercenaries performed guard duties for the Kings of France: the Hundred Swiss ("Cent Suisses") served in the Palace essentially as bodyguards and ceremonial troops, and the Swiss Guards ("Gardes Suisses"), who guarded entrances and outer perimeter. In addition, the Gardes Suisses served in the field as a fighting regiment in times of war.


title: Swiss Guards

text: The Hundred Swiss were created in 1480 when Louis XI retained a Swiss company for his personal guard.


title: Swiss Guards

text: By 1496 they comprised one hundred guardsmen and about twenty-seven officers and sergeants. Their main role was to protect the King in the palace as the "garde du dedans du Louvre" (the Louvre indoor guard), but in the earlier part of their history they also accompanied the King to war. In the Battle of Pavia (1525) the Hundred Swiss of Francis I of France were slain before Francis was captured by the Spanish. The Hundred Swiss shared indoor guard duties with the King's Bodyguards ("Garde du Corps"), who were French.


title: Swiss Guards

text: The Hundred Swiss were armed with halberds, the blade of which carried the Royal arms in gold, as well as gold-hilted swords. Their ceremonial dress until 1789 comprised an elaborate 16th century Swiss costume covered with braid and livery lace. A less ornate dark blue and red uniform with bearskin headdress was worn for ordinary duties.


title: Swiss Guards

text: The "Cent Suisses" company was disbanded after Louis XVI of France left the Palace of Versailles in October 1789. It was, however, refounded on 15 July 1814 with an establishment of 136 guardsmen and eight officers. The Hundred Swiss accompanied Louis XVIII into exile in Belgium the following year and returned with him to Paris following the Battle of Waterloo. The unit then resumed its traditional role, palace guards at the Tuileries, but in 1817 it was replaced by a new guard company drawn from the French regiments of the Royal Guard.


title: Swiss Guards

text: In 1616, Louis XIII of France gave an existing regiment of Swiss infantry the name of "Gardes suisses" (Swiss Guards). The new regiment primarily protected the doors, gates and outer perimeters of the royal palaces.


title: Swiss Guards

text: By the end of the 17th century the Swiss Guards were formally part of the "Maison militaire du roi". As such, they were brigaded with the Regiment of French Guards ("Gardes Françaises"), with whom they shared the outer guard, and were in peacetime stationed in barracks on the outskirts of Paris. Like the eleven Swiss regiments of line infantry in French service, the "Gardes suisses" wore red coats. The line regiments had black, yellow or light blue facings but the Swiss Guards were distinguished by dark blue lapels and cuffs edged in white embroidery. Only the grenadier company wore bearskins, while the other companies wore the standard tricorn headdress of the French infantry.


title: Swiss Guards

text: During the 17th and 18th centuries the Swiss Guards maintained a reputation for discipline and steadiness in both peacetime service and foreign campaigning. Their officers were all Swiss and their rate of pay substantially higher than that of the regular French soldiers.


title: Swiss Guards

text: The Guards were recruited from all Swiss cantons. The nominal establishment was 1,600 men though actual numbers seem to have normally been below this.


title: Swiss Guards

text: The most famous episode in the history of the Swiss Guards was their defence of the Tuileries Palace in central Paris during the French Revolution. Of the nine hundred Swiss Guards defending the palace on 10 August 1792, about six hundred were killed during the fighting or massacred after they surrendered. One group of sixty Swiss were taken prisoner and taken to the Paris City Hall before being killed by the crowd there. An estimated hundred and sixty more died in prison of their wounds, or were killed during the September Massacres that followed. Apart from less than a hundred Swiss who escaped from the Tuileries, some hidden by sympathetic Parisians, the only survivors of the regiment were a three-hundred-strong detachment that had been sent to Normandy to escort grain convoys a few days before 10 August. The Swiss officers were mostly massacred, although Major Karl Josef von Bachmann, in command at the Tuileries, was formally tried and guillotined in September, still wearing his red uniform coat. Two Swiss officers, the captains Henri de Salis and Joseph Zimmermann, did however survive and went on to reach senior rank under Napoleon and the Restoration.


title: Swiss Guards

text: There appears to be no truth in the charge that Louis XVI caused the defeat and destruction of the Guards by ordering them to lay down their arms when they could still have held the Tuileries. Rather, the Swiss ran low on ammunition and were overwhelmed by superior numbers when fighting broke out spontaneously after the royal family were escorted from the palace to take refuge with the National Assembly. A note written by the King has survived that ordered the Swiss to retreat from the palace and return to their barracks, but they only did so after their position became untenable. The regimental standards were secretly buried by the adjutant shortly before the regiment was summoned to the Tuileries on the night of 8/9 August, indicating that he foresaw the likely end. They were discovered by a gardener and ceremoniously burned by the new Republican authorities on 14 August. The barracks of the Guard at Courbevoie were stormed by the local National Guard and the few Swiss still on duty there also killed.


title: Swiss Guards

text: The heroic but futile stand of the Swiss is commemorated by Bertel Thorvaldsen's "Lion Monument" in Lucerne, dedicated in 1821, which shows a dying lion collapsed upon broken symbols of the French monarchy. An inscription on the monument lists the twenty-six Swiss officers who died on 10 August and 2–3 September 1792, and records that approximately 760 Swiss Guardsmen were killed on those days.


title: Swiss Guards

text: The French Revolution abolished mercenary troops in its citizen army, but Napoleon and the Bourbon Restoration both made use of Swiss troops. Four Swiss infantry regiments served with Napoleon in both Spain and Russia. Two of the eight infantry regiments included in the garde royale from 1815 to 1830 were Swiss and can be regarded as successors to the Gardes suisses. When the Tuileries was stormed again in the July Revolution (29 July 1830), the Swiss regiments, fearful of another massacre, withdrew or melted into the crowd. They were not used again. In 1831 disbanded veterans of the Swiss regiments and another foreign unit, the Hohenlohe Regiment, were recruited into the newly raised French Foreign Legion for service in Algeria.


title: Swiss Guards

text: Swiss Guard units similar to those of France were in existence at several other Royal Courts and public entities at the dates indicated below:


title: Swiss Guards

text: In total, Swiss mercenary regiments have been employed as guard and regular line troops in seventeen different armies; notably those of France, Spain and Naples (see Swiss mercenaries).


title: Swiss Guards

text: The first Swiss constitution, as amended in 1848, forbade all military capitulations, a federal law, as amended 30 September 1859, all military capitulations and recruitment of Swiss by foreign powers, although volunteering of individuals in foreign armies continued until prohibited outright in 1927. The Papal Swiss Guard (see above), reflecting the unique political status of the Vatican and the bodyguard-like role of the unit, remains an exception to this prohibition.


title: Swiss Guards

text: When writing "Hamlet", Shakespeare assumed (perhaps relying on his sources) that the royal house of Denmark employed a Swiss Guard: In Act IV, Scene v (line 98) he has King Claudius exclaim "Where are my Switzers? Let them guard the door". However, it may also be due to the word "Swiss" having become a generic term for a royal guard in popular European usage. Coincidentally, the present-day gatekeepers of the royal palace of Copenhagen are known as "schweizere", "Swiss".


title: Cusper

text: A cusper is a person born near the end of one generation and the beginning of another. People born in these circumstances tend to have a mix of characteristics common to their adjacent generations, but do not closely resemble those born in the middle of their adjacent generations. Generational profiles are built based on people born in the middle of a generation rather than those on the tails of a generation. Generations may overlap by five to eight years. As such, many people identify with aspects of at least two generations. The precise birth years defining when generations start and end vary.


title: Cusper

text: These cuspers experienced the lows after World War I but also the highs of the early Roaring Twenties, the Flappers, the Charleston and early silent films. As these cuspers came of age, some of them become more visionary like the Greatest Generation or stoic like the Silents.


title: Cusper

text: Claire Raines Associates names these cuspers the "Sandwich Group", Susan Mitchell calls these cuspers the "Swing Generation", and Smit calls them "Troomers". According to the Mayo Clinic, these cuspers have the work ethic of the Silent Generations, but like Baby Boomers will often challenge the status quo. Codrington describes them as having the status-seeking, career advancement motivations as Baby Boomers. Codrington adds that they are old enough to remember World War II, but were born too late to enjoy the 1960s. Hart notes that research has found the younger members of the Silent Generation tended to share more traits with Baby Boomers. Writer Marian Botsford Fraser described women in this cusper population as girls who "...did not smoke dope at high school, go to rock concerts, toy with acid and the pill and hippie boyfriends at university or tour Europe with a backpack." Instead, she notes "These girls wore crinolines and girdles, went to The Prom, went to nursing school and teachers' college, rarely university." Speaking of Susan Mitchell's population specifically they are believed to be an anomaly in that they tend be more activist and free thinkers than those born prior to them in the Silent Generation. Lancaster and Stillman echo this last point and note that these cuspers were on the frontlines of America's internal struggles as adults, agitating in favor of human rights. They go on to say many women among these cuspers entered in to male-dominated workplaces before the women's movement existed, blazing a trail for other generations of women to follow.


title: Cusper

text: This population is sometimes referred to as "Generation Jones", and less commonly as "Tweeners" & as "Baby X’s" by Smit. These cuspers were not as financially successful as older Baby Boomers. They experienced a recession like many Generation Xers but had a much more difficult time finding jobs than Generation X did. While they learned to be IT-savvy, they didn't have computers until after high school but were some of the first to purchase them for their homes. They were among some of the first to take an interest in video games. They get along well with Baby Boomers, but share different values. While they are comfortable in office environments, they are more relaxed at home. They're less interested in advancing their careers than Baby Boomers and more interested in quality of life.


title: Cusper

text: The Generation X/Millennial cuspers are most commonly referred to as "Xennials", although other names include the "Oregon Trail Generation", "Generation Catalano" and "The Lucky Ones". Researchers point out that these cuspers have both the healthy skepticism of Generation X and the optimism of Millennials. They are likely to challenge authority, but also are more career-focused than Generation X. While not all of these cuspers are digital natives, they are very comfortable with technology.


title: Cusper

text: Names given for these cuspers include the "Snapchat Generation" by Ubl, Walden, and Arbit, "MinionZ" by Smit, "Zillennials", and "Zennials". They are characterized as being "raised less by optimistic Boomers and more by skeptical Xers and pragmatic Gen Jonesers, who raised them to focus more on the practical rather than the aspirational."


title: Cusper

text: Communication misunderstandings between employees of different generations are detrimental to workplace morale, increasing turnover and absenteeism while decreasing job satisfaction, work commitment and productivity. Effective communication between employees of different generations, however, allows for collaborative relationships and ensures that information is retained from one generation to the next. Cuspers play an important role in multi-generational workplaces and other organizations. Metaphorically cuspers are like bridges or glue that connect members of their adjacent major generations. Between generations, they are naturally skilled at mediating, translating, mentoring and managing. Strategically placing cuspers in the workplace has the potential to reduce generational workplace friction and give organizations doing so a competitive advantage.


title: Cusper

text: Many cuspers don't feel a sense of belonging to a specific generation. Researchers studying generational subculture theory have speculated that there may be populations within larger generational cohorts whose values are more in line with those of preceding generations, for example, someone born in the range of Generation X who has a moral philosophy more similar to the Silent Generation. The generational fuzziness theory proposes that one's generation is best defined as the combination of one's birth year and generational identity—the cultural generation to feel most similar to.


title: Louisa Krause

text: Louisa Noel Krause (born May 20, 1986) is an American actress. After studying drama in college, Krause appeared in numerous off-Broadway productions while also appearing in episodes of New York-based network television series. Her first film role was in "The Babysitters" (2007). In 2017, Krause appeared in the lead role of Anna Garner in the television series "The Girlfriend Experience".


title: Louisa Krause

text: Krause was born May 20, 1986 in Falls Church, Virginia. Her father is of half-Japanese descent (from Okinawa, Japan) and her mother is American. She has a younger brother named Nathaniel who is a director. She began her interest in the arts at a young age by studying dance at the Washington School of Ballet in Washington D.C. Once Krause entered high school, dance took a back seat when she started performing in a variety of plays and musicals including "Side Show" as Violet Hilton, "Gypsy" as Mama Rose, and "Equus" as Dora Strang. After high school, she enrolled in the Carnegie Mellon Drama School. Soon after, Krause felt she was ready to start her professional career as an actress. She earned her Equity card by performing in a summer-stock production of "Aida".


title: Louisa Krause

text: Krause began her career in theatre, appearing in numerous Off-Broadway productions. In 2006, Krause appeared in the Huntington Theatre Company's production of "Les Liaisons Dangereuses". In 2007, she starred in the Signature Theatre Company's production of "Iphigenia 2.o", in the lead role of Iphigenia. That same year, Krause starred in the world premiere of "In a Dark Dark House", at the Lucille Lortel Theatre, June 7 – July 7, 2007. She has continued working on stage, appearing in 2013 as Rose in the world premiere of Annie Baker's "The Flick" at Playwrights Horizons, a role she reprised two years later for a second run at the Barrow Street Theatre and later the National Theatre.


title: Louisa Krause

text: Her first film credits came in 2007 with supporting roles in "The Speed of Life" and "The Babysitters". In 2009, she appeared in the films "Taking Woodstock" and "Toe to Toe". She is known for her work in independent cinema and has appeared in several short films. Krause gained more prominence with a role in the 2011 feature film "Young Adult", in which her perfectly low pitched comedic scene as the ennuied clerk at the hotel where Charlize Theron's character is staying was used for promotional purposes and played in the trailer and TV spots for the film. Krause also made an appearance as a cult member in the 2011 film "Martha Marcy May Marlene" – a film she became involved with through her work with the Sundance Film Festival.


title: Louisa Krause

text: In 2012, Krause played a role in the film "Return" and played the lead role in the independent film "King Kelly", which opened at South by Southwest. In 2012 she filmed a supporting role in the indie film "Bluebird", released in 2015. She also played a supporting role in the 2014 independent film, "The Mend", which premiered at South by Southwest.


title: Louisa Krause

text: Krause has appeared in several television roles, including in the "Law & Order" episode "Angelgrove" in 2008 as Brenda Tannerman, in "" in the episode "Loyalty: Part 1" in 2010 as Jolie, and in "Blue Bloods" in the 2011 episode "Silver Star" as Kimberly. In 2017, Krause played Anna Carr/Garner, one of the lead roles in the second season of the anthology television series "The Girlfriend Experience".


title: Deborah Santana

text: Deborah Sara Santana (née King, born January 30, 1951) is a peace and social justice activist for women and people of color, business manager and author. She is the former wife of musician Carlos Santana.


title: Deborah Santana

text: Santana is the daughter of the blues musician Saunders King and Jo Frances King (née Willis). Santana graduated from the California Institute of Integral Studies and holds a Master of Arts in Philosophy and Religion with a Concentration in Women’s Spirituality.


title: Deborah Santana

text: From 1994 to 2007, Santana was Vice-President and COO of Santana Management, which involved working in management of her husband's band.


title: Deborah Santana

text: As a philanthropist, Santana founded Do a Little, a non-profit which seeks to empower children and underprivileged women, in 2008. Santana has also served as a trustee for ANSA (Artists for a New South Africa) and the Smithsonian Institution. She is on the board of directors of the Violence Intervention program in Los Angeles and is a First Century Leader of the Smithsonian American Women's History Initiative, as well as a member of the Advisory Committee. Santana is also a founding donor of the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture.


title: Deborah Santana

text: In 2005, Santana published "Space Between the Stars: My Journey to an Open Heart," a memoir detailing her biracial upbringing as a child of African-American and European-American parents, and her marriage to Carlos. In 2018, Santana edited and co-published the anthology "All the Women in My Family Sing: Women Write the World: Essays on Equality, Justice, and Freedom (Nothing But the Truth So Help Me God)", a collection of poems and stories written by 69 women of color. She has also contributed to the anthologies "Tutu As I Know Him: On a Personal Note" (2006), "Nothing But the Truth So Help Me God" (2012), "Life Moments for Women" (2012), and "20 Years - Chokecherries Anniversary Edition" (2013).


title: Deborah Santana

text: Santana is credited as a producer on five short documentary films focusing on the Daraja Academy, a free secondary boarding school for high performing girls in need in Kenya, and the work of non-profit partners in South Africa. Four of these films were directed by Emmy Award-winner Barbara Rick. Santana continues to support the Daraja Academy both financially and by using her celebrity to bring awareness.


title: Deborah Santana

text: Santana has three children with Carlos Santana. Salvador Santana is a songwriter, band leader, and instrumentalist; Stella Santana, a singer/songwriter/performer; and Angelica Santana, a writer, archivist, and film producer.


title: Yeh Jhuki Jhuki Si Nazar

text: Yeh Jhuki Jhuki Si Nazar is an Indian Hindi-language television drama series that premiered on 7 March 2022 on StarPlus and is also available digitally on Disney+ Hotstar. It stars Swati Rajput and Ankit Siwach. The series ended on 25 June 2022. It is the remake of Asianet's Malayalam series "Karuthamuthu".


title: Yeh Jhuki Jhuki Si Nazar

text: Diya Mathur, a topper in hotel management gets humiliated everywhere for her dark complexion. Being 32 years old she is not married as everyone rejects her for her complexion. Even though applying for front desk in her dream hotel, she was directed to the kitchen department due to her looks. Later she meets Armaan in a hotel, and he befriends her. Later Armaan's mother comes to Diya's house for alliance but instead of her chooses her younger sister Palki, who is fair-skinned and beautiful. Heartbroken Diya befriends Kajal Asthana in her workplace.


title: Yeh Jhuki Jhuki Si Nazar

text: Diya and Armaan's constant meeting make them fall in love with each other. Armaan reveals his feelings to Krish, which Bhavna hears. Sudha and Bhavna plot and make Armaan misunderstand that Diya doesn't like him. Heartbroken, Armaan agrees for alliance with Palki.


title: Yeh Jhuki Jhuki Si Nazar

text: On the engagement day, both families learn about Armaan and Diya's true feelings for each other. Sudha and Bhavna get tensed. On Palki's insistence that she doesn't love Armaan, Diya agrees for marriage with Armaan. Bhavna harms Diya's legs during the Haldi function. Against all odds, Diya and Armaan get married. Sudha is revealed to be a dominating woman who wants to control the lives of her family members. Though Sudha tries to adjust with Diya, Bhavna instigates her mind against the other. Sudha falls to Bhavna's words and tries to show Diya her place keeping her control superior over others. Armaan who is somewhat aware of Sudha's this behavior tries to balance situations for her. After marriage, Diya gets Armaan meet her friend Kajal who is revealed to Armaan's ex-wife who cheated on him.


title: Yeh Jhuki Jhuki Si Nazar

text: The show had an initial working title of "Chandni", later being retitled to "Yeh Jhuki Jhuki Si Nazar".


title: Protoplasm

text: Protoplasm (; ) is the living part of a cell that is surrounded by a plasma membrane. It is a mixture of small molecules such as ions, monosaccharides, amino acid, and macromolecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, etc.


title: Protoplasm

text: In some definitions, it is a general term for the cytoplasm (e.g., Mohl, 1846), but for others, it also includes the nucleoplasm (e.g., Strasburger, 1882). For Sharp (1921), "According to the older usage the extra-nuclear portion of the protoplast ["the entire cell, excluding the cell wall"] was called "protoplasm," but the nucleus also is composed of protoplasm, or living substance in its broader sense. The current consensus is to avoid this ambiguity by employing Strasburger's ["(1882)"] terms cytoplasm ["coined by Kölliker (1863), originally as synonym for protoplasm"] and nucleoplasm (["term coined by van Beneden (1875), or"] karyoplasm, ["used by"] Flemming ["(1878)"])". The cytoplasm definition of Strasburger excluded the plastids ("Chromatoplasm").


title: Protoplasm

text: Besides "protoplasm", many other related terms and distinctions were used for the cell contents over time. These were as follows:


title: Protoplasm

text: The word "protoplasm" comes from the Greek "protos" for "first", and "plasma" for "thing formed", and was originally used in religious contexts. It was used in 1839 by J. E. Purkinje for the material of the animal embryo. Later, in 1846 Hugo von Mohl redefined the term (also named as "Primordialschlauch", "primordial utricle") to refer to the "tough, slimy, granular, semi-fluid" substance within plant cells, to distinguish this from the cell wall and the cell sap ("Zellsaft") within the vacuole. Max Schultze in 1861 proposed the "Protoplasm Doctrine" which states that "all living cells are made of a living substance called Protoplasm". Thomas Huxley (1869) later referred to it as the "physical basis of life" and considered that the property of life resulted from the distribution of molecules within this substance. The protoplasm became an "epistemic thing". Its composition, however, was mysterious and there was much controversy over what sort of substance it was.


title: Protoplasm

text: In 1872, Beale created the vitalist term "bioplasm", to contrast with the materialism of Huxley. In 1880, term protoplast was proposed by Hanstein (1880) for the entire cell, excluding the cell wall, and some authors like Julius von Sachs (1882) preferred that name instead of cell.


title: Protoplasm

text: By the time Huxley wrote, a long-standing debate was largely settled over the fundamental unit of life: was it the cell or was it protoplasm? By the late 1860s, the debate was largely settled in favor of protoplasm. The cell was a container for protoplasm, the fundamental and universal material substance of life. Huxley's principal contribution was to establish protoplasm as incompatible with a vitalistic theory of life. Attempts to investigate the origin of life through the creation of synthetic "protoplasm" in the laboratory were not successful.


title: Protoplasm

text: The idea that protoplasm of eukaryotes is simply divisible into a ground substance called "cytoplasm" and a structural body called the cell nucleus reflects the more primitive knowledge of cell structure that preceded the development of electron microscopy, when it seemed that cytoplasm was a homogeneous fluid and the existence of most sub-cellular compartments, or how cells maintain their shape, was unknown. Today, it is known that the cell contents are structurally very complex and contain multiple organelles, the cytoskeleton and biomolecular condensates.the word protoplasm is mainly divided in to two parts cytoplasm and nucleus.


title: Protoplasm

text: Protoplasm is physically translucent, granular slimy, semifluid or viscous. In it, granules of different shapes and sizes are suspended in solution. It may exist in two interchangeable states which are more liquid-like sol state and more solid-like gel state which is like jelly. The constituent molecules are free to move in sol state, while in gel state, the constituent molecules are compactly arranged. Protoplasm becomes opaque when it is heated. It also coagulates on heating. It occurs everywhere in the cell. In eukaryotes, the portion of protoplasm surrounding the cell nucleus is known as the cytoplasm and the portion inside the nucleus as the nucleoplasm. In prokaryotes the material inside the plasma membrane is the bacterial cytoplasm, while in Gram-negative bacteria the region outside the plasma membrane but inside the outer membrane is the periplasm.


title: Protoplasm

text: There are about 35 elements, like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, sulphur, calcium and many others which are identified in protoplasm of different cells. They form compounds, like water (75-95%), carbohydrates, ions, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids (DNA and RNA), fatty acids, glycerol, nucleotides, nucleosides and minerals. They are living as long as they are part of protoplasm. They are not able to perform functions of life independently. The composition of protoplasm is inconsistent and continuous changes take place in it.


title: University of Ljubljana

text: The University of Ljubljana (, , ), often referred to as UL, is the oldest and largest university in Slovenia. It has approximately 39,000 enrolled students.


title: University of Ljubljana

text: Although certain academies (notably of philosophy and theology) were established as Jesuit higher education in what is now Slovenia as early as the seventeenth century, the first university was founded in 1810 under the "Écoles centrales" of the French imperial administration of the Illyrian provinces. The chancellor of the university in Ljubljana during the French period was Joseph Walland (a.k.a. , 1763–1834), born in Upper Carniola. That university was disbanded in 1813, when Austria regained territorial control and reestablished the Imperial Royal Lyceum of Ljubljana as a higher-education institution.


title: University of Ljubljana

text: During the second half of the 19th century, several political claims for the establishment of a Slovene-language university in Ljubljana were made. They gained momentum in the fin de siècle era, when a considerable number of renowned Slovene academians worked throughout Central Europe, while ever more numerous Slovenian students were enrolled in foreign-language universities of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, particularly in the Austrian and Czech lands. Notable examples are the Charles University in Prague and the University of Olomouc, the latter of which Slovene philosopher Franc Samuel Karpe became the chancellor of in 1781. In the 1890s, a unified board for the establishment of a Slovenian university was founded, with Ivan Hribar, Henrik Tuma, and Aleš Ušeničnik as its main leaders. In 1898, the Carniolan regional parliament established a scholarship for all students who were planning a habilitation under the condition that they would accept a post at Ljubljana University when founded. In this way, a list of suitable members of faculty started to emerge.


title: University of Ljubljana

text: Nevertheless, unfavorable political circumstances prevented the establishment of the university until the fall of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. With the establishment of the short-lived State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (Kingdom of Yugoslavia) in 1918, the founding of the university became possible. On November 23, 1918, the first meeting of the Founding Board of Ljubljana University was called, presided over by Mihajlo Rostohar, professor of psychology at the Charles University in Prague. Together with Danilo Majaron, Rostohar convinced the central government of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in Belgrade to pass a bill formally establishing the university. The bill was passed on July 2, 1919; in late August, the first professors were appointed, and on September 18, the full professors established the University Council, thus starting the normal functioning of the institution. The first lectures started on December 3 of the same year.


title: University of Ljubljana

text: In 1919, the university comprised five faculties: law, philosophy, technology, theology and medicine. The seat of the university was in the central Congress Square of Ljubljana in a building that had served as the State Mansion of Carniola from 1902 to 1918. The building was first designed in 1902 by Jan Vladimír Hráský, and was later remodelled by a Czech architect from Vienna, Josip Hudetz.


title: University of Ljubljana

text: In the mid-1920s, the university was renamed the "King Alexander University in Ljubljana" ("Universitas Alexandrina Labacensis") and continued to grow despite financial troubles and constant pressure from Yugoslav governments’ centralist policies. In 1941, Jože Plečnik's National and University Library was completed, as one of the major infrastructure projects of the university in the interwar period.


title: University of Ljubljana

text: After the invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941, the university continued to function under the Italian and Nazi German occupation, despite numerous problems and interference in its autonomous operation. Several professors were arrested or deported to Nazi concentration camps and large numbers of students joined either the Liberation Front of the Slovenian People or the Slovenian Home Guard.


title: University of Ljubljana

text: Following the end of the Second World War, the first and only foreigner elected to hold the office of chancellor was the Czech professor Alois Král, who had lectured at Faculty of Technical Sciences since 1920 and also held the position of dean thereof four times. After the establishment of Communist Yugoslavia in 1945, the university was again put under political pressure: numerous professors were dismissed, some were arrested and tried, and the theological faculty was excluded from the university. Some of the most brilliant students emigrated. Nevertheless, the university maintained its educational role and regained a limited degree of autonomy from the mid-1950s onward. It suffered a serious setback in autonomy from the mid-1970s to the early 1980s, when some professors were again dismissed by the authorities. In 1979 it was renamed "Edvard Kardelj University in Ljubljana" after the Communist leader. In 1990, with the fall of Yugoslavia, it was regiven its original name.


title: University of Ljubljana

text: The university was initially located in the centre of Ljubljana where the central university building and the majority of its faculties are located. Later on, some new, modern buildings and a small scale campus were constructed in other parts of the city (Bežigrad, Vič, Brdo).


title: University of Ljubljana

text: The University of Ljubljana has two university libraries. The National and University Library of Slovenia is the national library of Slovenia and the university library of the University of Ljubljana. It contains about 1,307,000 books and numerous text, visual and multimedia resources.


title: University of Ljubljana

text: Another university library is the Central Technological Library, which is also the national library and information hub of natural sciences and technology. There are over 30 libraries at individual faculties, departments, and institutes of the University of Ljubljana. The largest among them are the Central Humanist Library in the field of humanities, the Central Economic Library in the field of economics, the Central Medical Library in the field of medical sciences, and the Libraries of the Biotechnical Faculty in the field of biology and biotechnology.


title: University of Ljubljana

text: The University of Ljubljana practices research in science and the arts, such as the humanities, social sciences, linguistics, arts, medicine, natural sciences and technology.


title: University of Ljubljana

text: The University of Ljubljana used to house the permanent seat of the International Association for Political Science Students (IAPSS), an international academic group consisting of 10,000 political science graduate and undergraduate students worldwide from 2004 to 2013. In March 2013 the Permanent Seat was relocated to Nijmegen (Netherlands).


title: University of Ljubljana

text: Slavoj Žižek is a Slovenian psychoanalytic philosopher, cultural critic, and Hegelian Marxist. He attended Ljubljana and attained a Master of Arts in philosophy in 1975, and is a senior researcher at the Institute for Sociology and Philosophy at the University of Ljubljana.


title: Cumulant

text: In probability theory and statistics, the cumulants of a probability distribution are a set of quantities that provide an alternative to the "moments" of the distribution. Any two probability distributions whose moments are identical will have identical cumulants as well, and vice versa.


title: Cumulant

text: The first cumulant is the mean, the second cumulant is the variance, and the third cumulant is the same as the third central moment. But fourth and higher-order cumulants are not equal to central moments. In some cases theoretical treatments of problems in terms of cumulants are simpler than those using moments. In particular, when two or more random variables are statistically independent, the -th-order cumulant of their sum is equal to the sum of their -th-order cumulants. As well, the third and higher-order cumulants of a normal distribution are zero, and it is the only distribution with this property.


title: Cumulant

text: Just as for moments, where "joint moments" are used for collections of random variables, it is possible to define "joint cumulants".


title: Cumulant

text: The cumulants of a random variable are defined using the cumulant-generating function , which is the natural logarithm of the moment-generating function:


title: Cumulant

text: This expansion is a Maclaurin series, so the -th cumulant can be obtained by differentiating the above expansion times and evaluating the result at zero:


title: Cumulant

text: If the moment-generating function does not exist, the cumulants can be defined in terms of the relationship between cumulants and moments discussed later.


title: Cumulant

text: Some writers prefer to define the cumulant-generating function as the natural logarithm of the characteristic function, which is sometimes also called the "second" characteristic function,