title: Information processing

text: Information processing has been described as "the sciences concerned with gathering, manipulating, storing, retrieving, and classifying recorded information". According to the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model or multi-store model, for information to be firmly implanted in memory it must pass through three stages of mental processing: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.


title: Information processing

text: An example of this is the working memory model. This includes the central executive, phonologic loop, episodic buffer, visuospatial sketchpad, verbal information, long-term memory, and visual information (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012). The central executive is like the secretary of the brain. It decides what needs attention and how to respond. The central executive then leads to three different subsections. The first is phonological storage, subvocal rehearsal, and the phonological loop. These sections work together to understand words, put the information into memory, and then hold the memory. The result is verbal information storage. The next subsection is the visuospatial sketchpad which works to store visual images. The storage capacity is brief but leads to an understanding of visual stimuli. Finally, there is an episodic buffer. This section is capable of taking information and putting it into long-term memory. It is also able to take information from the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad, combining them with long-term memory to make "a unitary episodic representation (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012).


title: Information processing

text: In order for these to work, the sensory register takes in via the five senses: visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, and taste. These are all present since birth and are able to handle simultaneous processing (e.g., food – taste it, smell it, see it). In general, learning benefits occur when there is a developed process of pattern recognition. The sensory register has a large capacity and its behavioral response is very short (1–3 seconds).


title: Information processing

text: Within this model, sensory store and short term memory or working memory has limited capacity. Sensory store is able to hold very limited amounts of information for very limited amounts of time. This phenomenon is very similar to having a picture taken with a flash. For a few brief moments after the flash goes off, the flash it seems to still be there. However, it is soon gone and there is no way to know it was there (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012). Short term memory holds information for slightly longer periods of time, but still has a limited capacity. According to Linden (2007), "The capacity of STM had initially been estimated at "seven plus or minus two" items (Miller 1956), which fits the observation from neuropsychological testing that the average digit span of healthy adults is about seven (Cowan and others 2005). However, it emerged that these numbers of items can only be retained if they are grouped into so-called chunks, using perceptual or conceptual associations between individual stimuli." Its duration is of 5–20 seconds before it is out of the subject's mind. This occurs often with names of people newly introduced to. Images or information based on meaning are stored here as well, but it decays without rehearsal or repetition of such information.


title: Information processing

text: On the other hand, long-term memory has a potentially unlimited capacity (Sternberg & Sternberg, 2012) and its duration is as good as indefinite. Although sometimes it is difficult to access, it encompasses everything learned until this point in time. One might become forgetful or feel as if the information is on the tip of the tongue.


title: Information processing

text: Another approach to viewing the ways in which information is processed in humans was suggested by Jean Piaget in what is called the "Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory" (Presnell, 1999). Piaget developed his model based on development and growth. He identified four different stages between different age brackets characterized by the type of information and by a distinctive thought process. The four stages are: the sensorimotor (from birth to 2 years), preoperational (2–6 years), concrete operational (6–11 years), and formal operational periods (11 years and older). During the sensorimotor stage, newborns and toddlers rely on their senses for information processing to which they respond with reflexes. In the preoperational stage, children learn through imitation and remain unable to take other people's point of view. The concrete operational stage is characterized by the developing ability to use logic and to consider multiple factors to solve a problem. The last stage is the formal operational, in which preadolescents and adolescents begin to understand abstract concepts and to develop the ability to create arguments and counter arguments.


title: Information processing

text: Furthermore, adolescence is characterized by a series of changes in the biological, cognitive, and social realms. In the cognitive area, it is worth noting that the brain's prefrontal cortex as well as the limbic system undergoes important changes. The prefrontal cortex is the part of the brain that is active when engaged in complicated cognitive activities such as planning, generating goals and strategies, intuitive decision-making, and metacognition (thinking about thinking). This is consistent with Piaget's last stage of formal operations (McLeod, 2010). The prefrontal cortex becomes complete between adolescence and early adulthood. The limbic system is the part of the brain that modulates reward sensitivity based on changes in the levels of neurotransmitters (e.g., dopamine) and emotions.


title: Information processing

text: In short, cognitive abilities vary according to our development and stages in life. It is at the adult stage that we are better able to be better planners, process and comprehend abstract concepts, and evaluate risks and benefits more aptly than an adolescent or child would be able to.


title: Information processing

text: In computing, "information processing" broadly refers to the use of algorithms to transform data—the defining activity of computers; indeed, a broad computing professional organization is known as the International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP). It is essentially synonymous with the terms data processing or computation, although with a more general connotation.


title: Residential area

text: A residential area is a land used in which housing predominates, as opposed to industrial and commercial areas.


title: Residential area

text: Housing may vary significantly between, and through, residential areas. These include single-family housing, multi-family residential, or mobile homes. Zoning for residential use may permit some services or work opportunities or may totally exclude business and industry. It may permit high density land use or only permit low density uses. Residential zoning usually includes a smaller FAR (floor area ratio) than business, commercial or industrial/manufacturing zoning. The area may be large or small.


title: Residential area

text: In certain residential areas, especially rural, large tracts of land may have no services whatever, such that residents seeking services must use a motor vehicle or other transportation, so the need for transportation has resulted in land development following existing or planned transport infrastructure such as rail and road. Development patterns may be regulated by restrictive covenants contained in the deeds to the properties in the development and may also result from or be reinforced by zoning. Restrictive covenants are not easily changed when the agreement of all property owners (many of whom may not live in the area) is required. The area so restricted may be large or small.


title: Residential area

text: Residential areas may be subcategorized in the concentric zone model and other schemes of urban geography.


title: Residential area

text: Residential development is real estate development for residential purposes. Some such developments are called a subdivision, when the land is divided into lots with houses constructed on each lot. Such developments became common during the late nineteenth century, particularly in the form of streetcar suburbs.


title: Residential area

text: In previous centuries, residential development was mainly of two kinds. Rich people bought a townlot, hired an architect and/or contractor, and built a bespoke / customized house or mansion for their family. Poor urban people lived in shantytowns or in tenements built for rental. Single-family houses were seldom built on speculation, that is for future sale to residents not yet identified. When cities and the middle class expanded greatly and mortgage loans became commonplace, a method that had been rare became commonplace to serve the expanding demand for home ownership.


title: Residential area

text: Post–World War II economic expansion in major cities of the United States, especially New York City and Los Angeles produced a demand for thousands of new homes, which was largely met by speculative building. Its large-scale practitioners disliked the term "property speculator" and coined the new name "residential development" for their activity. Entire farms and ranches were subdivided and developed, often with one individual or company controlling all aspects of entitlement (permits), land development (streets and grading), infrastructure (utilities and sewage disposal), and housing. Communities like Levittown, Long Island or Lakewood south of Los Angeles saw new homes sold at unprecedented rates—more than one a day. Many techniques which had made the automobile affordable made housing affordable: standardization of design and small, repetitive assembly tasks, advertising, and a smooth flow of capital. Mass production resulted in a similar uniformity of product, and a more comfortable lifestyle than cramped apartments in the cities. With the advent of government-backed mortgages, it could actually be cheaper to own a house in a new residential development than to rent.


title: Residential area

text: As with other products, continual refinements appeared. Curving streets, greenbelt parks, neighborhood pools, and community entry monumentation appeared. Diverse floor plans with differing room counts, and multiple elevations (different exterior "looks" for the same plan) appeared. Developers remained competitive with each other on everything, including location, community amenities, kitchen appliance packages, and price.


title: Residential area

text: Today, a typical residential development in the United States might include traffic calming features such as a slowly winding street, dead-end road, or looped road lined with homes.


title: Residential area

text: Suburban developments help form the stereotypical image of a "suburban America" and are generally associated with the American middle-class. Most offer homes in a narrow range of age, price, size and features, thus potential residents having different needs, wishes or resources must look elsewhere. Some residential developments are gated communities or residential communities.


title: Nabi Musa

text: Nabi Musa (, meaning "The Prophet Moses", also transliterated as Nebi Musa) is a mosque and a Palestinian locality in the Jericho Governorate of Palestine, in the West Bank, believed to contain the tomb of Moses (Musa, in Islam) according to tradition. It is also the name of a seven-day long religious festival that was celebrated annually by Palestinian Muslims, beginning on the Friday before Good Friday in the Orthodox calendar used by the Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem. Considered in the political context of 1920 as "the most important Muslim pilgrimage in Palestine", the festival centered on a collective pilgrimage from Jerusalem to what was understood to be the Tomb of Moses, near Jericho. A great building with multiple domes marks the mausoleum of Moses.


title: Nabi Musa

text: The Palestinian locality of Nabi Musa is defined as an administrative area of c. 113 km² south of Jericho, in which 66 Palestinian households were counted in 2007, a population defined in 2012 as "nomads".


title: Nabi Musa

text: The shrine of Nabi Musa lies south of Jericho and east of Jerusalem, in the Judaean Desert. A side road to the right of the main Jerusalem-Jericho road, about beyond the sign indicating sea level, leads to the site.


title: Nabi Musa

text: The biblical book of Deuteronomy records that Moses "was buried in a valley in the land of Moab, opposite Beth-peor" (east of the Jordan River) and that "no one knows the place of his burial to this day" ().


title: Nabi Musa

text: In Islam however, in a hadith narrated by Abu Hurairah (603–681), when Moses chooses the time of his death, he asks Allah to


title: Nabi Musa

text: "let him [Moses] die close to the Sacred land so much so that he would be at a distance of a stone's throw from it."


title: Nabi Musa

text: "Allah's Messenger, peace and blessings be upon him, said, "If I were there, I would show you his grave below the red sand hill on the side of the road.""


title: Nabi Musa

text: In Islam, Moses' burial place is also considered to be unknown. However, local Muslim tradition places the "Tomb of Moses" at the "maqam" (Muslim shrine) of Nabi Musa ("Prophet Moses"). It is not known when this tradition has first emerged. The Jerusalem-Jericho road was one of the primary routes used by Mediterranean Arabs to make a pilgrimage to Mecca. The site where the shrine stands since the 13th century is located at what would be have marked the end of the first day's march in that direction. Originally, it was simply a point from which pilgrims could rest, look across the Jordan Valley, catch a glimpse of Mount Nebo where (as suggested by the Hebrew Bible) the tomb of Moses used to be, and worship it from this spot.


title: Nabi Musa

text: It seems that by the time when Mamluk sultan Baibars visited the site in 1269 while returning from his hajj, "there must have been some association", since he set about building an extensive shrine. Murphy-O'Connor considers that gradually, the lookout point for Moses' distant gravesite beyond the Jordan was confused with Moses' tomb itself, laying the ground for the cultic importance Nabi Musa was to acquire in the Sunni reverence of saints ("walis"). According to Uri M. Kupferschmidt, it appears to have become a fixed point in the local Muslim calendar from the time of Saladin. In any case, tradition holds that the spot where the shrine now stands was shown to Saladin in a dream, which prompted him to built a mosque at the site, later expanded by Baibars.


title: Nabi Musa

text: The Arab geographer Mujir al-Din from Jerusalem, writing in the 1490s, admits that the tradition has only a weak chance of authenticity, but that Nabi Musa still is the most popular among several sites with similar claims.


title: Nabi Musa

text: Although being a religious Muslim festival, its date is set in relation to the Greek Orthodox calendar: the main event, which took one week, always started on the Friday preceding Good Friday. Starting in the mid-19th century, the participants gathered in Jerusalem already in the week before that, and prayers were held in the city. Then followed the week-long celebrations at the shrine, and after that, the pilgrims returned to Jerusalem on the day the Orthodox Christians celebrated Holy Thursday. The next day, on Friday, which coincided with Orthodox Good Friday, the Muslim crowds went in procession to Al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock. On that Friday and the following Saturday (Orthodox Easter Eve), the participants left Jerusalem with flags and music.


title: Nabi Musa

text: Popular Palestinian tradition holds that the festival was inaugurated in the time after Saladin's recapture of Jerusalem from the Crusaders in 1187. The mainstream opinion among historians is that the shrine was built by Baibars some eight decades later, and that the Saladin myth is a 19th-century reaction to Western encroachment; this, however, doesn't preclude some scholars from finding merit in the Saladin narrative. In modern times, the holiday has been popularly associated with Saladin as a symbol for the victorious struggle against the West, embodied by the Crusaders. It is claimed that Saladin, after defeating the Europeans, wanted to ensure that future Crusades wouldn't take advantage of the large annual Easter pilgrimage to Jerusalem in order to again wrestle the Holy City from the Muslims. To this end, the participants in the Nabi Musa "mawsim", or celebrations, would ensure the city's protection. This is however not documented.


title: Nabi Musa

text: In 1269, the Mamluk sultan Baibars al-Bunduqdari built a small shrine there, as part of a general policy he adopted after conquering towns and rural areas from Lebanon down to Hebron from the Crusaders. The shrines were mostly dedicated to biblical prophets and the companions of Mohammed, and their maintenance was funded by an "waqf", an endowment from properties that formerly belonged to the Latin Church. In the case of Nabi Musa, the waqf fund was secured from ecclesiastical assets expropriated in nearby Jericho.


title: Nabi Musa

text: Baibars' construction inscription is still to be seen, and it indicates the year the shrine was built, AH 668 (1269-70 CE), and the fact that he "ordered the building of this noble sacred place over the tomb of Moses" while he was on his way from Mecca, where he had performed his hajj, towards Jerusalem. Although the sultan's secretary doesn't mention the construction, one of his biographers, Ibn Shaddad al-Halabi, does so, be it with little detail. The inscription is full of praise for Baibars' military prowess and, other than other similar plaques of its age, is written in easily legible script and placed low enough as to be read by the visitor, letting everyone know about Baibars' might and piety.


title: Nabi Musa

text: Baibars al-Bunduqdari's constructive piety set a precedent for others. Over the late medieval period, hostels for travellers were built adjacent to the shrine, and the hospice in its present form was completed in the decade between 1470 and 1480.


title: Nabi Musa

text: During Ottoman rule, Nabi Musa would be visited by Muslim pilgrims returning from the Hajj in Mecca on their way to Syria. Pilgrims visiting the shrine would have departed from the main body of the caravan east of the Jordan to visit Jerusalem and stopped in Nabi Musa en route to the city. The Nabi Musa site effectively served as a halting station for such pilgrims. Its permanent staff provided pilgrims with food and supplies, as well as religious services and information about the safety conditions of the route to Jerusalem, which was often subject to raids or robberies by the Bedouin present in the area. In the mid-16th century, Muhammad Celebi al-Naqqash, the Ottoman official charged with restoring the walls of Jerusalem, was assigned with rehabilitating the Nabi Musa complex.


title: Nabi Musa

text: Around 1820, the Ottoman authorities had to almost fully rebuild the shrine complex, which had, over the previous centuries, fallen into a grave state of dilapidated disrepair. In addition, they promoted a festive pilgrimage to the shrine that would always coincide with the Orthodox Christian celebration of Easter, creating a counter-balance to the Christian ceremonial activity in the city. This 'invention of tradition', as such imaginative constructs are called, made the pageantry of the Nabi Musa pilgrimage a potent symbol of both political and religious identity among Muslims from the outset of the modern period.


title: Nabi Musa

text: Over the 19th century, thousands of Muslims would assemble in Jerusalem, trek to Nabi Musa, and pass three days in feasting, prayer, games and visits to the nearby tomb of Moses' shepherd, Hasan er-Rai. They were then entertained, as guests of the waqf, before returning on the seventh day triumphantly back to Jerusalem.


title: Nabi Musa

text: James Finn, the British Consul in Jerusalem (1846–1863), described the "Neby Moosa pilgrimage" as follows:


title: Nabi Musa

text: The Neby Moosa pilgrimages—to the reputed tomb of the prophet Moses, near the Dead Sea (on the West)—have been instituted so as to coincide with the Christian pilgrimages to the Holy Sepulchre, and the influx of devout Moslems was doubtless intended to counterbalance the effect of so many thousands of sturdy Christians being present in Jerusalem. The Moslems come from every part of the Mohammedan world—from India, Tartary, even to the confines of China, from all the countries of Central Asia, and also from Egypt, Nubia, Morocco, the Eastern shores of Africa, as well as from Arabia proper and the Turkish provinces in Europe and Asia.<br> These pilgrims—for the most part extremely fanatical, and in a high state of religious excitement—are a formidable and dangerous body of men. During the continuance of the Russian war these Moslem pilgrims were wrought up to an extra pitch of fervour and ostentatious demonstration. There was always danger lest, in the crowded streets and bazaars, through which they forced their processions, they might come into collision with some equally fervid pilgrims on the Christian side. In this case a passing fray might, in the twinkling of an eye, be turned into downright fight, and fight could scarcely end otherwise than in massacre. We always breathed more freely when the Moslem pilgrimages were over, and when their noisy drumming and shouting were at an end, and the usual quiet of Jerusalem was restored.


title: Nabi Musa

text: As part of the mid-19th-century Ottoman modernisation and reform period, the newly created local council for Jerusalem was put in charge of organising the Nabi Musa festivities. Its members, all of which belonged to the rich and influential families of the city, changed the main emphasis from the desert shrine to Jerusalem. The festival had taken its traditional shape since the start of the Ottoman era in the 16th century, but now it was restructured, with the main events focusing on the Haram ash-Sharif (the Muslim holy site on the Temple Mount), with the district mufti of Jerusalem already playing a distinct role which would only increase later on.


title: Nabi Musa

text: In the late 19th century, the Ottomans appointed the al-Husayni family as official custodians of the shrine and hosts of the festival, though their connection with the cult may date back to the previous century. According to Yehoshua Ben-Aryeh, the governor of Jerusalem Rauf Pasha (1876–1888), was the first to attempt to exploit the festival to incite Muslims against Christians. Ilan Pappé offers a different view:


title: Nabi Musa

text: 'It is more likely, however, that the governor and his government were rather apprehensive of such an anti-Christian uprising as it could stir instability and disorder at a time when the central government was trying to pacify the Empire. This had been indeed the impression of the engineer (seconded to the Palestine Exploration Fund) Claude Conder. The Hebrew paper, "Ha-havazelet", at the time blessed the Ottoman government for imposing law and order in the Nabi Musa affair. The travelogues of Francis Newton testify as well to a peaceful execution of the ceremonies. Indeed, the Turkish government must have acted here against popular feelings, shared by the Husaynis as the masters of the ceremony that Nabi Musa was celebrated in the most unfavourable conditions for the Muslims. It was the iron fist imposed by the Turks that prevented the situation from deteriorating into an all out riot.'


title: Nabi Musa

text: The procession moved off from Jerusalem under a distinctive Nabi Musa banner which the Husaynis conserved for the annual occasion in their "al-Dar al-Kabira" (the Great House). On arriving at the shrine, the al-Husaynis and another rising Jerusalem family of notables ("A'ayan"), the Yunis clan, were required to provide two meals a day over the week for all worshippers. Once their vows were taken, or vows previously taken were renewed, they were offered to the festival. The priestly family conducting events would provide about twelve lambs, together with rice, bread, and Arab butter, for a communal meal every day. It was customary to bring young boys aged five, six or older to the two major Palestinian annual pilgrimage sites of Nebi Musa and Nebi Rubin, where they would be circumcised. Sheep were sacrificed in front of the maqam door, and the blood of the victim was smeared on the threshold.


title: Nabi Musa

text: Writing in the early 20th century, Samuel Curtiss recorded that an estimated 15,000 people from all over the country attended the Nabi Musa festival every year.


title: Nabi Musa

text: For some years from 1919 onwards, pilgrims made their trek back from Jericho to Jerusalem to the sound of English military music.


title: Nabi Musa

text: The anti-Jewish and anti-British 1920 Nebi Musa riots took their starting point during that year's Nebi Musa pilgrimage, with Arabs attacking Jews in the Old City of Jerusalem and causing several deaths. The young Hajj Amin al-Husseini, who had held an anti-Zionist speech to the masses before the riots broke out, was pointed out by the British authorities as the principal instigator, which only helped him gain in popularity among the Arabs. After analysing the situation, the British took steps to appoint him Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, in the hope that he would help them maintain order in the future.


title: Nabi Musa

text: In 1921, while in the process of becoming Grand Mufti, Amin al-Husseini started redesigning the festival according to his view of the national interest of the Palestinian Arabs. A representative of the Jerusalem elites, he pursued a balancing act, avoiding direct confrontation with the British authorities, while transforming the festival from a religious one focused on the area between Nablus north of Jerusalem, and Hebron to its south, to a nationalist event of the entire British-ruled Palestine. By detaching Palestine from the Ottoman Empire and uniting several former distinct provinces under this new name, for which they organised both a civilian representation for its Arab inhabitants, and a religious one for the Muslim majority, the British had created the base and institutions for the development of a burgeoning national identity. Even Palestinian Christians came to Jerusalem during the festival to support the nationalist cause. Hajj Amin al-Husseini, as custodian of the Nabi Musa pilgrimage and as the head of the Supreme Muslim Council, became the architect of a new concept for the Nabi Musa festival, which he very energetically used as a tool for his national and political plans.


title: Nabi Musa

text: In 1937, during the Arab revolt in Palestine, Hajj Amin al-Husseini had to flee the country. With the Mufti abroad and the revolt suppressed by the British Army, the festival shrunk in scale and lost the political dimension it had gained in the previous decades. The 1937 decline has not been reverted until the present day.


title: Nabi Musa

text: During the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, Jordan took over and eventually annexed the West Bank in 1950. The Jordanian authorities were aware of the potential of the Nabi Musa festival of stirring Palestinian nationalist feelings and riots, and immediately after the 1951 assassination of King Abdullah I by a Palestinian Arab connected to the powerful al-Husayni family, which were also the custodians of Nabi Musa, they suspended the mass gathering in Jerusalem and the procession, allowing only for the celebrations at the desert sanctuary to be held.


title: Nabi Musa

text: After the 1967 Six-Day War, Israel occupied the West Bank. In 1987 the pilgrimage from Jerusalem to Nabi Musa was authorised again, but after the outbreak of the First Intifada in December, the festival was again prohibited.


title: Nabi Musa

text: After the Oslo Accords (1993, 1995), the Palestinian Authority took charge of organising the pilgrimage, but without any events taking place in Jerusalem. The festivities combine a nationalist and political, as well as a religious and traditional character.


title: Nabi Musa

text: Between 1997 and 2000 the festival did take place, but after the September 2000 outbreak of the Second Intifada, Israeli authorities banned it again until it being renewed in 2007.


title: Nabi Musa

text: After 1967, Israel has constructed near Nabi Musa several Jewish settlements, in addition to tourist sites, using Nabi Musa-owned land:


title: Nabi Musa

text: After the 1995 accords, 1.7% of Nabi Musa's land was classified as Area A, the remaining 98.3% as Area C.


title: Nabi Musa

text: The large tomb two kilometres south of the maqam is traditionally identified as that of Moses' shepherd, Hasan er-Rai.


title: Nabi Musa

text: Negev Bedouin tribes produced oil from the bituminous shale rocks found in the area around the shrine to Moses which they called "Moses rocks" (). The Bedouin not only shared in the belief surrounding the sanctity of the site, but further believed that God had blessed this place where Moses was buried with 'fire rocks' and water wells. Tawfiq Canaan, in his work "Mohammedan Saints and Sanctuaries" (1927), noted that the black rocks around the shrine would burn when placed in fire and were also used as amulets after being cut into square and triangular forms and inscribed with protective texts.


title: Nabi Musa

text: The journalist Philip Perceval Graves, the brother of the poet and mythographer Robert Graves, gave a vivid description of the colorful re-entry of worshipers back from the countryside into Jerusalem as they passed through the Jaffa Gate in a book published in 1923:


title: Nabi Musa

text: As they entered the old city, the enthusiasm of the crowds reached its highest intensity. Men with the set blank stare of extreme excitement danced round and round, bareheaded, their long locks flying wildly as they revolved. . . Last came the green banner of Hebron surrounded by a guard of ten wiry swordsmen. Proudly they walked with their flag, until they came to where the narrow Street of David plunges down into the labyrinth of the old city. For the last time they whirled their bright blades above their heads and disappeared into the shadows of the streets.


title: Nabi Musa

text: In "Letters from Jerusalem: During the Palestine Mandate" (1922-25), Eunice Holliday describes the procession to the Tomb of Moses in a letter to her mother as follows:


title: Nabi Musa

text: "The procession was the queerest thing I have ever seen, a more disorganised affair you could not imagine, but then that is typical of the country. The people came along in batches, just a crowd with banner of silk, of all colours, then a crowd dancing - Arabic dancing is a joke - then a crowd singing and waving swords or sticks and, interspersed, groups of mounted police and soldiers to see there was no fighting. Quite the nicest part of the day was to see all the fellaheen (peasants from the villages) in their new clothes. The colours were wonderful, bright pink, purple or blue velvet coats, yellow dresses with embroideries in red and green et cetera, and all wore a white veil. It was a gorgeous sight [...]"


title: Nabi Musa

text: The census conducted in 1931 by the British Mandate authorities counted at Nabi Musa a population of three males in one house.


title: Nabi Musa

text: The 2007 census undertaken by the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) registered a residential population of 309 in 65 housing units, a rise from 45 in 1997 and constituting a "Palestinian local development committee".


title: Nabi Musa

text: In 2012, Nabi Musa has been defined as a "Palestinian locality in the Jericho Governorate" which "has no local authority; as the residents of the locality are nomads who keep moving from one area to another."


title: Trey Miguel

text: Trey McBrayer (born August 30, 1994) is an American professional wrestler currently signed to Impact Wrestling, where he performs under the ring name Trey Miguel, and is the current Impact X Division Champion in his second reign.


title: Trey Miguel

text: McBrayer began training sometime in 2009 at the Glass City Pro Wrestling School until he eventually moved to Dayton, Ohio where he studied under the tutelage of Dave Crist.


title: Trey Miguel

text: On July 8, 2017, Miguel teamed with his future partners Dezmond Xavier and Zachary Wentz for the first time to defeat Ohio Is 4 Killers (Dave Crist, Jake Crist and Sami Callihan) in a doors match at CZW's iPPV "EVILution". On April 17, 2018, at CZW's "Welcome to the Combat Zone", Miguel was introduced as the newest member of The Rascalz alongside Myron Reed. After this, Miguel and Reed began teaming across the entire independent circuit as Wentz and Xavier, the other two Rascalz members teamed as well. Together, Miguel and Reed won the IWA Mid-South Tag Team Championship once on March 8 and the Rockstar Pro Trios Championship twice (once with Alex Colon and Dustin Rayz), on May 4 and May 9 respectively.


title: Trey Miguel

text: On September 1, 2017, Miguel defeated Jeremiah for the Rockstar Pro Championship, a title which he held for 91 days before dropping it to Jake Crist. Miguel then regained the title on February 2, 2018, defeating Crist but later that same night he lost the title to Jon Murray.


title: Trey Miguel

text: At a cross promotional event for Fight Club: PRO and Destiny Wrestling on April 4, 2019, Miguel defeated Penelope Ford, Kip Sabian, and Jake Atlas for the vacant Destiny Wrestling Next Generation Championship. He then made his first title defense on August 9, against Aiden Prince, Kevin Blackwood, Lionel Knight and Ryan Wright in a successful attempt.


title: Trey Miguel

text: On May 12, 2019, Miguel and Wentz won the WC Big Top Tag Team Championship at WrestleCircus event "Encore" by defeating The Dirty Devils (Andy Dalton and Isaiah James) and The Riegel Twins (Logan and Sterling) in a three-way match. After a successful title defense against Riegel Twins and Private Party at "Big Top Revival", Miguel and Wentz vacated the titles on July 25.


title: Trey Miguel

text: Before being officially signed to Impact Wrestling, Miguel competed in a few "tryout" matches. The first being on the August 20, 2017 episode of "Impact!", teaming with Jon Bolen where they lost to Ohio Versus Everything (Jake and Dave Crist). The latter being Miguel's trainer and the guy who helped break him into the company. On the September 6, 2018 episode of "Impact!", Miguel made his second appearance by teaming with Zachary Wentz and Ace Austin as enhancement talents again against Ohio Versus Everything (Dave Crist, Jake Crist, and Sami Callihan) in a losing effort.


title: Trey Miguel

text: A vignette aired promoting the debut of Rascalz on the November 15 episode of "Impact!". On the November 29 episode of "Impact!", Miguel made his official debut alongside Dezmond Xavier and Zachary Wentz as the trio known as The Rascalz, accompanying them ringside when Xavier and Wentz competed in a tag team match against Chris Bey and Mike Sydal. In mid-2019, Trey and the Rascalz began a feud against Moose, which led to all the Rascalz making their pay-per-view debut against Moose and The North in a six-man tag team match at Rebellion, which Rascalz lost. During the match, the ring names of Xavier, Miguel and Wentz were shortened to Dez, Trey and Wentz respectively.


title: Trey Miguel

text: On the November 13, 2019 episode of "Impact", Trey became the number one contender for the X Division Championship by pinning Petey Williams in a six-way match, but failed to win the title from Ace Austin at Hard to Kill. At Slammiversary, Trey received his first shot at the vacant Impact World Championship in a five-way elimination match against Ace Austin, Eddie Edwards, Rich Swann, and the returning Eric Young, but was eliminated first by Young. On November 11, it was revealed that The Rascalz would soon be leaving Impact and had interest from both WWE and All Elite Wrestling. During the November 17 tapings, The Rascalz were given a "send-off" by the Impact locker room. Trey confirmed the following day that he, Dez and Wentz were in fact done appearing on Impact Wrestling. Dez and Wentz went on to sign with WWE while Miguel remained a free agent.


title: Trey Miguel

text: Miguel made a surprise return to Impact Wrestling on the January 26, 2021 episode of "Impact", teaming with Tommy Dreamer, Rich Swann, and Willie Mack to defeat Chris Bey, Moose, Ken Shamrock, and Sami Callihan. During his return match, Trey's ring name was reverted to Trey Miguel. After many various low level feuds, Miguel began a heated high level feud with Callihan based on Callihan's theory that Miguel couldn't survive without Dez and Wentz. Throughout the deeply personal feud, Miguel would get tormented by Callihan in many ways including being forced to watch his trainee Sam Beale get beat down and be constantly told he "lost his passion". After weeks of back and forth attacks and mind games, the feud culminated in a last man standing match at Rebellion, which Miguel won.


title: Trey Miguel

text: In September, Miguel entered a tournament to determine a new X Division Champion, where he defeated Alex Zayne and Laredo Kid in the first round. At Bound for Glory, Miguel defeated El Phantasmo and Steve Maclin in the final to win the Impact X Division Championship. On the October 28 episode of "Impact!", Miguel made his first successful title defense against New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) talent Rocky Romero. Miguel then retained his title against Laredo Kid and Steve Maclin at Turning Point, against Maclin at Hard To Kill, and against Jake Something at Sacrifice. On April 1, 2022, at Multiverse of Matches, Miguel successfully defended his X Division Championship against Blake Christian, Chris Bey, Jordynne Grace, Rich Swann, and Vincent in an Intergender Ultimate X match. At Rebellion, he lost the title to Ace Austin in a three-way match involving Mike Bailey, ending his reign at 182 days. Two weeks later, he failed to regain the title in a rematch at Under Siege.


title: Trey Miguel

text: On the May 12 episode of "Impact!", Miguel competed in a Gauntlet for the Gold to determine the number one contender to Josh Alexander's Impact World Championship at Slammiversary, but was eliminated by Steve Maclin. On the May 26 episode of "Impact!", Miguel defeated Alex Shelley to qualify for the Ultimate X match for the X Division Championship at Slammiversary. At the event, he failed to capture the title that was won by Mike Bailey. On the June 30 episode of "Impact!", Miguel won a four-way match to get a shot at the X Division title. A day later, at Against All Odds, he failed to beat Bailey for the title.


title: Trey Miguel

text: On September 23, at Victory Road, Miguel competed in an Intergender Triple Threat Revolver to determine the number one contender for the X Division Championship, but was eliminated by eventual winner Frankie Kazarian. He later took part in a tournament to crown a new X Division Champion, defeating Alan Angels in the quarterfinals and Mike Bailey in the semifinals. On November 18, at Over Drive, Miguel defeated Black Taurus in the final by turning heel after blinding him with spray paint, and won the vacant title for a second time. On the December 1 episode of "Impact!", Miguel explained what he needed to do to regain the title and sprayed green paint on it.


title: Logan Ryan

text: Logan Daniel Ryan (born February 9, 1991) is an American football strong safety for the Tampa Bay Buccaneers of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Rutgers as a cornerback and was drafted by the New England Patriots in the third round of the 2013 NFL Draft. He has also played for the Tennessee Titans and New York Giants.


title: Logan Ryan

text: A native of Berlin, New Jersey, Ryan attended Eastern Regional High School in Voorhees, New Jersey, and played for the Eastern Vikings high school football team. He was an all-state selection at both cornerback and quarterback. Regarded as a four-star recruit by Rivals.com, Ryan was ranked the No. 32 cornerback prospect in his class.


title: Logan Ryan

text: Ryan played for the Rutgers Scarlet Knights football team from 2010 to 2012. He was a second-team All-Big East Conference selection as a sophomore in 2011 and was a first-team All-Big East selection as a junior in 2012.


title: Logan Ryan

text: On December 31, 2012, Ryan announced that he would forgo his senior year at Rutgers and declared for the 2013 NFL Draft.


title: Logan Ryan

text: Coming out of Rutgers, Ryan was projected to be a third round by the majority of NFL draft experts and scouts. He attended the NFL combine and completed all of the required combine and positional drills. On March 13, 2013, Ryan participated at Rutger's pro day along with Marcus Cooper, Duron Harmon, Steve Beauharnais, Mark Harrison, Brandon Jones, Jawan Jamison, Khaseem Greene, and seven others. NFLDraftScout.com ranked him the 13th best cornerback prospect in the draft.


title: Logan Ryan

text: The New England Patriots selected Ryan in the third round (83rd overall) of the 2013 NFL Draft. He was the 14th cornerback drafted in 2013.


title: Logan Ryan

text: On May 16, 2013, the New England Patriots signed Ryan to a four-year, $2.77 million contract that includes a signing bonus of $563,252.


title: Logan Ryan

text: Ryan competed for a starting cornerback job behind Alfonzo Dennard, Aqib Talib, Kyle Arrington, and Ras-I Dowling. Head coach Bill Belichick named him the fourth cornerback on the Patriots' depth chart to begin the 2013 season, behind Dennard, Talib, and Arrington.


title: Logan Ryan

text: Ryan made his NFL debut in the Patriots' season-opening 23–21 victory over the Buffalo Bills. During Week 6 against the New Orleans Saints, Ryan made his first NFL start, helping the Patriots earn a 30–27 victory. On October 20, 2013, Ryan made four solo tackles, a pass deflection, and his first NFL interception off a pass from New York Jets quarterback Geno Smith during a 27–30 loss. He returned the interception for a 79-yard touchdown, marking the first of his career. The following week, he recorded a season-high four solo tackles, defended a pass, forced a fumble, and was credited with the first 1 sacks of his career after taking down Ryan Tannehill in a 27–17 victory over the Miami Dolphins.


title: Logan Ryan

text: On November 24, 2013, Ryan was named the starter over Alfonzo Dennard, who had been battling a knee injury. He recorded four combined tackles, a pass deflection, and intercepted a pass by Peyton Manning during a 34–31 victory over the Denver Broncos. The following week, he started in place of Dennard, who was inactive, and recorded three solo tackles, two pass deflections, and intercepted a pass attempt by Case Keenum during the Patriots' 34–31 victory over the Houston Texans. On December 22, 2013, he recorded a tackle, a season-high two pass deflections, and intercepted Joe Flacco twice, as the Patriots defeated the Baltimore Ravens 41–7.


title: Logan Ryan

text: Ryan finished his rookie year with 35 combined tackles (29 solo), 1.5 sacks, five interceptions, ten passes defended, and a forced fumble in 16 games and seven starts.


title: Logan Ryan

text: Ryan competed against Alfonzo Dennard, Darrelle Revis, Kyle Arrington, and Brandon Browner for the vacant starting cornerback position left by the departure of Aqib Talib. He was named the third cornerback on the Patriots' depth chart to begin the regular season.


title: Logan Ryan

text: On September 14, 2014, Ryan earned his first start of the season after Dennard was unable to play due to a shoulder injury. Ryan recorded three combined tackles, defended two passes, and intercepted Teddy Bridgewater during a 30–7 victory over the Minnesota Vikings. In the next game, he recorded a season-high four solo tackles and deflected a pass during a 16–9 win against the Oakland Raiders. In the regular-season finale, Ryan collected a season-high five combined tackles during a 9–17 loss to the Buffalo Bills. He was named the starter after Alfonzo Dennard suffered a hamstring injury earlier in the week.


title: Logan Ryan

text: Ryan finished his second professional season with 42 combined tackles (29 solo), six pass deflections, and two interceptions in 16 games and six starts.


title: Logan Ryan

text: The Patriots finished the season atop the AFC East with a 12–4 record. On January 10, 2015, Ryan played in his first career playoff game and made one tackle and forced a fumble in a 35–31 victory over the Baltimore Ravens. On February 1, 2015, Ryan appeared in Super Bowl XLIX and made a tackle and pass deflection in a 28–24 victory over the Seattle Seahawks.


title: Logan Ryan

text: Ryan competed with Malcolm Butler, Justin Green, Bradley Fletcher, and Tarell Brown for the vacant starting cornerback positions throughout training camp after Darrelle Revis, Alfonzo Dennard, Kyle Arrington, and Brandon Browner left during the off season. Head coach Bill Belichick named him the third cornerback on the depth chart behind Malcolm Butler and Tarell Brown to start the season.


title: Logan Ryan

text: During Week 2 against the Buffalo Bills, Ryan recorded four combined tackles, deflected a pass, and intercepted a pass attempt by Tyrod Taylor as the Patriots won 40–32. The following week, he was named the starting cornerback after Tarell Brown was unable to play due to a foot injury. Ryan made four combined tackles during the 51–17 win against the Jacksonville Jaguars. During Week 5 against the Dallas Cowboys, Ryan recorded three combined tackles, a pass deflection, and intercepted a pass attempt by quarterback Brandon Weeden during a 30–6 road victory. In the next game, he recorded a season-high nine combined tackles and defended the pass during a 34–27 victory over the Indianapolis Colts. He was named the indefinite starting cornerback for the remainder of the season after the game, replacing Tarell Brown who was placed on injured reserve.


title: Logan Ryan

text: Ryan finished the 2015 season with 74 combined tackles (58 solo), a then career-high 14 pass deflections, and four interceptions in 16 games and 14 starts.


title: Logan Ryan

text: The Patriots finished atop the AFC East with a 12–4 record and earned a playoff berth. On January 16, 2016, he made his first NFL postseason start and recorded nine combined tackles during a 27–20 victory over the Kansas City Chiefs. The following week, he made five solo tackles and defended a pass, as the Patriots lost on the road 18–20 to the Denver Broncos in the AFC Championship.


title: Logan Ryan

text: On October 2, 2016, Ryan recorded a career-high 17 combined tackles in the Patriots' 0–16 loss to the Buffalo Bills. Ryan was delegated to the third cornerback on the depth chart for Weeks 7-8 after Eric Rowe emerged as the starter after being inactive for the first five games while rehabbing an ankle injury. During Week 11, Ryan was moved to starting nickelback after struggling against receivers as the starting outside cornerback. Rowe replaced starting outside cornerback as Ryan took over slot coverage duties from Patrick Chung. He developed into a viable starting nickelback and gave up only four receptions on 11 targets through Weeks 11-12. Through Weeks 11-16, he was called for one penalty and allowed no touchdown receptions and only 11 catches on 30 pass attempts.


title: Logan Ryan

text: On December 18, 2016, Ryan recorded seven solo tackles, deflected a pass, and intercepted quarterback Trevor Siemian as the Patriots defeated the Denver Broncos on the road by a score of 16–3. In the regular-season finale, Ryan made seven combined tackles, defended a pass, and intercepted Ryan Tannehill during a 35–14 victory over the Miami Dolphins.


title: Logan Ryan

text: Ryan finished the season with a then-career-high 92 combined tackles (74 solo), 11 pass deflections, two interceptions, a sack, and a forced fumble while appearing in all 16 games and starting 13. He started six games as the outside cornerback with Malcolm Butler and started seven games as nickelback.


title: Logan Ryan

text: The Patriots finished atop the AFC East with a 14–2 record. On January 14, 2017, he started at nickelback in the Divisional Round of the playoffs against the Houston Texans and collected seven combined tackles, three pass deflections, a sack, and intercepted a pass attempt by quarterback Brock Osweiler in the 34–16 victory. On February 5, 2017, Ryan started in the Super Bowl LI — the first Super Bowl start of his career — and recorded six combined tackles as the Patriots defeated the Atlanta Falcons 34–28 in overtime after trailing by 25 points in the third quarter.


title: Logan Ryan

text: On March 10, 2017, the Tennessee Titans signed Ryan to a three-year, $30 million contract with $12 million guaranteed and a signing bonus of $2 million.


title: Logan Ryan

text: Ryan was named the Titans' starting cornerback, opposite Adoree' Jackson, to begin the regular season. Ryan made his Titans' debut in the season-opener against the Oakland Raiders and recorded a tackle and forced a fumble during a 16–26 loss. Two weeks later, he earned a season-high six solo tackles and a season-high three pass deflections, as the Titans defeated the Seattle Seahawks 33–27.


title: Logan Ryan

text: Ryan finished his first season with the Titans with 62 tackles, a forced fumble, and 11 pass deflections.


title: Logan Ryan

text: The Titans finished second in the AFC South with a 9–7 record and qualified for the playoffs. In the , the Titans played the Kansas City Chiefs. In a 22–21 road victory, Ryan had three solo tackles. In the against the New England Patriots, he had 12 tackles (10 solo) in the 35–14 road loss.


title: Logan Ryan

text: Ryan entered the 2018 season as a starting cornerback alongside Adoree' Jackson and former Patriots teammate Malcolm Butler. He started the first 14 games before suffering a broken fibula in a Week 15 17–0 road victory against the New York Giants. He was placed on injured reserve on December 18, 2018.


title: Logan Ryan

text: Ryan finished the season with 76 tackles, eight passes defensed, no interceptions, and a career-high four sacks, which led all defensive backs at the time of his injury.


title: Logan Ryan

text: Ryan returned from his injury in time for the Titans' season opener against the Cleveland Browns. In that game, he made eight tackles, sacked Baker Mayfield 1.5 times, and intercepted a pass from him once as the Titans won 43–13. In the next game against the Indianapolis Colts, he intercepted former Patriots teammate Jacoby Brissett once as the Titans narrowly lost 19–17. During Week 5 against the Buffalo Bills, Ryan recorded a team high nine tackles and sacked Josh Allen once in the 14–7 loss. During Week 10 against the Kansas City Chiefs, he recorded a team high 13 tackles and three passes defended in the narrow 35–32 victory.


title: Logan Ryan

text: Ryan finished the season setting career-highs in tackles with 113, sacks with 4.5, pass deflections with 18, and forced fumbles with four. He also had four interceptions.


title: Logan Ryan

text: On January 4, 2020, the Titans played in the Wild Card Round of the playoffs where they faced Ryan's former team, the New England Patriots. In the waning seconds of the game with the Titans leading 14–13, and New England on their own 1-yard line, Ryan intercepted a deflected pass from former teammate Tom Brady (which turned out to be Brady's final pass as a Patriot, as he would not return to the Patriots the following season) and returned it for a 9-yard touchdown. The score secured a 20–13 upset in Foxborough, allowing the Titans to play in the Divisional Round of the playoffs for the second time in three years. In the Divisional Round against the Baltimore Ravens, Ryan recorded a team-high 13 tackles during the 28–12 road victory.


title: Logan Ryan

text: On September 5, 2020, Ryan signed a one-year, $7.5 million contract with the New York Giants. This was the first season, Ryan chose to switch positions from cornerback to safety.


title: Logan Ryan

text: In Week 5 against the Dallas Cowboys, Ryan recorded a tackle on quarterback Dak Prescott that caused Prescott's right ankle to compound fracture and dislocate.


title: Logan Ryan

text: In Week 9 against the Washington Football Team, one day after his wife suffered an ectopic pregnancy, Ryan recorded his first interception of the season off quarterback Alex Smith with less than two minutes in the 4th quarter to secure a 23–20 Giants' win.


title: Logan Ryan

text: On December 25, 2020, Ryan signed a three-year, $31 million contract extension with $20 million guaranteed.


title: Logan Ryan

text: On November 20, 2021, Ryan was placed on the reserve/COVID-19 list ruling him out for Week 11 and Week 12 games against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers and the Philadelphia Eagles. On November 30, 2021, Ryan was activated off of the reserve/COVID-19 list.


title: Logan Ryan

text: On March 24, 2022, Ryan signed with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. He suffered a foot injury in Week 4 and was placed on injured reserve on October 18. He was activated on December 5.


title: Logan Ryan

text: Ryan and his wife, Ashley, have two kids, Avery and Otto, and are the founders of The Ryan Animal Rescue Foundation (RARF.org). RARF works with animal welfare organizations to promote adoption and provide grants and educational opportunities. Every month on the 26th—the day corresponding to his jersey number—Ryan posts a photo on social media with a dog that is in need of adoption along with the hashtag #ryansmonthlyrescue. Ryan's older brother, Jordan, attended Drexel University and is now an engineer.


title: Agricultural marketing

text: Efforts to develop agricultural marketing have, particularly in developing countries, intended to concentrate on a number of areas, specifically infrastructure development; information provision; training of farmers and traders in marketing and post-harvest issues; and support to the development of an appropriate policy environment. In the past, efforts were made to develop government-run marketing bodies but these have tended to become less prominent over the years.


title: Agricultural marketing

text: Efficient marketing infrastructure such as wholesale, retail and assembly markets and storage facilities is essential for cost-effective marketing, to minimize post-harvest losses and to reduce health risks. Markets play an important role in rural development, income generation, food security, and developing rural-market linkages. Experience shows that planners need to be aware of how to design markets that meet a community's social and economic needs and how to choose a suitable site for a new market. In many cases sites are chosen that are inappropriate and result in under-use or even no use of the infrastructure constructed. It is also not sufficient just to build a market: attention needs to be paid to how that market will be managed, operated and maintained.


title: Agricultural marketing

text: Rural assembly markets are located in production areas and primarily serve as places where farmers can meet with traders to sell their products. These may be occasional (perhaps weekly) markets, such as haat bazaars in India and Nepal, or permanent. Terminal wholesale markets are located in major metropolitan areas, where produce is finally channelled to consumers through trade between wholesalers and retailers, caterers, etc. The characteristics of wholesale markets have changed considerably as retailing changes in response to urban growth, the increasing role of supermarkets and increased consumer spending capacity. These changes may require responses in the way in which traditional wholesale markets are organized and managed.


title: Agricultural marketing

text: Retail marketing systems in western countries have broadly evolved from traditional street markets through to the modern hypermarket or out-of-town shopping center. In developing countries, there remains scope to improve agricultural marketing by constructing new retail markets, despite the growth of supermarkets, although municipalities often view markets primarily as sources of revenue rather than infrastructure requiring development. Effective regulation of markets is essential. Inside a market, both hygiene rules and revenue collection activities have to be enforced. Of equal importance, however, is the maintenance of order outside the market. Licensed traders in a market will not be willing to cooperate in raising standards if they face competition from unlicensed operators outside who do not pay any of the costs involved in providing a proper service.


title: Agricultural marketing

text: Efficient market information can be shown to have positive benefits for farmers and traders. Up-to-date information on prices and other market factors enables farmers to negotiate with traders and also facilitates spatial distribution of products from rural areas to towns and between markets. Most governments in developing countries have tried to provide market information services to farmers, but these have tended to experience problems of sustainability. Moreover, even when they function, the service provided is often insufficient to allow commercial decisions to be made because of time lags between data collection and dissemination. Modern communications technologies open up the possibility for market information services to improve information delivery through SMS on cell phones and the rapid growth of FM radio stations in many developing countries offers the possibility of more localised information services. In the longer run, the internet may become an effective way of delivering information to farmers. However, problems associated with the cost and accuracy of data collection still remain to be addressed. Even when they have access to market information, farmers often require assistance in interpreting that information. For example, the market price quoted on the radio may refer to a wholesale selling price and farmers may have difficulty in translating this into a realistic price at their local assembly market. Various attempts have been made in developing countries to introduce commercial market information services but these have largely been targeted at traders, commercial farmers or exporters. It is not easy to see how small, poor farmers can generate sufficient income for a commercial service to be profitable although in India a new service introduced by Thomson Reuters was reportedly used by over 100,000 farmers in its first year of operation. Esoko in West Africa attempts to subsidize the cost of such services to farmers by charging access to a more advanced feature set of mobile-based tools to businesses.


title: Agricultural marketing

text: Farmers frequently consider marketing as being their major problem. However, while they are able to identify such problems as poor prices, lack of transport and high post-harvest losses, they are often poorly equipped to identify potential solutions. Successful marketing requires learning new skills, new techniques and new ways of obtaining information. Extension officers working with ministries of agriculture or NGOs are often well-trained in agricultural production techniques but usually lack knowledge of marketing or post-harvest handling.


title: Agricultural marketing

text: Agricultural marketing needs to be conducted within a supportive policy, legal, institutional, macro-economic, infrastructural and bureaucratic environment. Traders and others are generally reluctant to make investments in an uncertain policy climate, such as those that restrict imports and exports or internal produce movement. Businesses have difficulty functioning when their trading activities are hampered by excessive bureaucracy. Inappropriate law can distort and reduce the efficiency of the market, increase the costs of doing business and retard the development of a competitive private sector. Poor support institutions, such as agricultural extension services, municipalities that operate markets inefficiently and inadequate export promotion bodies, can be particularly damaging. Poor roads increase the cost of doing business, reduce payments to farmers and increase prices to consumers. Finally, corruption can increase the transaction costs faced by those in the marketing chain.


title: Agricultural marketing

text: Most governments have at some stage made efforts to promote agricultural marketing improvements. In the United States the Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS) is a division of USDA and has programs that provide testing, support standardization and grading and offer market news services. AMS oversees marketing agreements and orders research and promotion programs. It also purchases commodities for federal food programs. USDA also provides support to agricultural marketing work at various universities. In the United Kingdom, support for marketing of some commodities was provided before and after the Second World War by boards such as the Milk Marketing Board and the Egg Marketing Board. These boards were closed down in the 1970s. As a colonial power, Britain established marketing boards in many countries, particularly in Africa. Some continue to exist although many were closed at the time of the introduction of structural adjustment measures in the 1990s.


title: Agricultural marketing

text: Several developing countries have established government-sponsored marketing or agribusiness units. South Africa, for example, started the National Agricultural Marketing Council (NAMC), as a response to the deregulation of the agriculture industry and closure of marketing boards in the country. India has the long-established National Institute of Agricultural Marketing. These are primarily research and policy organizations, but other agencies provide facilitating services for marketing channels, such as the provision of infrastructure, market information and documentation support. Examples from the Caribbean include the National Agricultural Marketing Development Corporation, in Trinidad and Tobago and the New Guyana Marketing Corporation in Guyana.


title: Agricultural marketing

text: New marketing linkages between agribusiness, large retailers and farmers are gradually being developed, e.g. through contract farming, group marketing and other forms of collective action.


title: Agricultural marketing

text: Donors and NGOs are paying increasing attention to ways of promoting direct linkages between farmers and buyers within a value chain context. More attention is now being paid to the development of regional markets (e.g. East Africa) and to structured trading systems that should facilitate such developments. The growth of supermarkets, particularly in Latin America and East and South East Asia, is having a significant impact on marketing channels for horticultural, dairy and livestock products. Nevertheless, “spot” markets will continue to be important for many years, necessitating attention to infrastructure improvement such as for retail and wholesale markets.


title: 1980 European Cup Final

text: The 1980 European Cup Final was a football match held at the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium in Madrid, Spain on 28 May 1980, to determine the winner of the 1979–80 European Cup. The final saw defending champions Nottingham Forest of England defeat Hamburg of West Germany by a score of 1–0. In the 21st minute, John Robertson squeezed a shot past Hamburg keeper Rudi Kargus for the only goal of the game, and Forest then defended solidly, to give Nottingham Forest back-to-back European Cup titles.


title: Wristcutters: A Love Story

text: Wristcutters: A Love Story is a 2006 comedy film written and directed by Goran Dukić. It stars Patrick Fugit, Shea Whigham, and Shannyn Sossamon as denizens of a strange afterlife way-station that has been reserved for people who committed suicide. It is based on Etgar Keret's short story "Kneller's Happy Campers." A graphic novel version was titled "Pizzeria Kamikaze." The film was produced on an estimated budget of $1 million. It premiered at the 2006 Sundance Film Festival and was distributed in limited release on October 19, 2007, before being expanded into wide release on November 2, 2007. Lionsgate Home Entertainment released it on DVD on March 25, 2008. The film received positive reviews and has since garnered a cult following.


title: Wristcutters: A Love Story

text: After Zia takes his own life, he finds himself in an afterlife limbo much the same as life, but slightly worse. The color is dim, there are no stars, and no one can smile. This strange realm is populated by people who have died by suicide, such as Eugene, a Russian musician who lives with his mother, father, and brother – all suicide victims. Together they waste most of their afterlives in bars, until Zia learns from a friend, Brian, that his ex-girlfriend, Desiree, took her own life shortly after Zia's death. He and Eugene take to the road to find her in Eugene's rundown car. Early on, it is revealed that Eugene's car has two idiosyncrasies, a black hole underneath the passenger seat where items that are dropped disappear forever, and broken headlights that cannot be fixed by even the most adept mechanics. On their trip, they pick up a hitchhiker, Mikal, who insists she has arrived by mistake, and is seeking the "people in charge" (a.k.a. the PIC) in order to be sent back.


title: Wristcutters: A Love Story

text: After a few adventures across the countryside, as the trio journey along a desolate highway, Mikal pushes a button, miraculously activating the broken headlights on Eugene's car. Shortly thereafter, they come upon a man lying in the middle of the dark highway, forcing them to veer off the road in order to avoid hitting him and wrecking the car in the process.


title: Wristcutters: A Love Story

text: They discover the man, Kneller, an eccentric commune leader, had fallen asleep while looking for his dog. Kneller invites them back to his camp, where they quickly discover that minor "miracles" occur, as long as the campers remain apathetic about the result. The group stays with the camp longer than intended, and Zia begins to obsess over the miracles and his inability to perform them. When contrasting this to Mikal's obsession with the people in charge, she reveals that her death was an accidental overdose. Eugene meets a young woman, Nanuk, whom he romances. Just as Mikal and Zia discuss their plans to leave Kneller's camp, another camper, Yan, emerges from the woods with news that Kneller's dog has been abducted by a cult leader called "Messiah King". Kneller, Zia, Mikal, and Yan set off in search of King and Kneller's dog.


title: Wristcutters: A Love Story

text: The group soon find themselves lost and decide to make camp for the night. Unable to sleep, Mikal and Zia discover a nearby ocean shore, where they kiss and spend the night together. In the morning, Kneller discovers them lying among a seashore of used condoms and hypodermic needles. The group eventually reaches King's camp, where they discover that King is readying himself for a "real" miracle – to separate his soul from his body. As Kneller confronts King, Zia discovers that Desiree is a devout cult follower, having taken her own life for the purpose of following King into the afterlife.


title: Wristcutters: A Love Story

text: As King is about to perform public, ritual suicide, Kneller reveals himself to be an undercover agent for the people in charge. King and Desiree are taken away, while Mikal leaves with them, promising Zia that she'll return. As Zia waits, Eugene and Nanuk arrive, explaining that Mikal has been returned to life and Kneller's camp has been shut down. They depart together on a train, giving Eugene's car to Zia. After finally performing a miracle – creating a star in the sky with a lit match next to one that Mikal had created earlier – Zia decides to take the car and wander. While he is turning over the cassette tape to place in the stereo it accidentally falls into the passenger side feet area. He reaches for it and enters the black hole under the car seat.


title: Wristcutters: A Love Story

text: In a large warehouse filled with halls of boxes, Kneller picks up Zia's file from a box, places it into his inside breast pocket, and comments on how fortunate it is to know people in high places. Zia wakes up in a hospital bed. He turns his head, seeing his parents outside talking to doctors. When he looks at the person in the bed next to his, he sees Mikal. Both look at each other and smile.


title: Wristcutters: A Love Story

text: The film was originally intended to be shot on super-16 color infrared film, which was produced specially by Kodak. The color-shifts inherent in using this kind of film were thought to enhance the parallel world feel to the action. In the end, it proved to be too time-consuming and the film was shot using normal filmstock manipulated in post-processing.


title: Wristcutters: A Love Story

text: Gogol Bordello's music is used throughout the film; the character Eugene is partly based on the band's lead singer, Eugene Hütz. Tom Waits, who plays Kneller in the film, also appears on the soundtrack with the song "Dead and Lovely" (from his 2004 album "Real Gone") in the opening credits. Joy Division's "Love Will Tear Us Apart" and Christian Death's "Deathwish" can be heard in the background of the first bar scene of the film (both bands were fronted by singers who died by suicide), and an arrangement of "Gloomy Sunday" can be heard at a later point, songs about or associated with suicide.


title: Wristcutters: A Love Story

text: As of March 2015, the film has a 67% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes. The consensus reads, ""Wristcutters: A Love Story" sounds like a normal enough indie flick. Boy meets girl. Boy gets separated from girl. Boy goes on a road trip with friends to find girl and gains a new perspective on life. Except everybody’s dead." On Metacritic, it has a rating of 62/100, which the site labels as "generally favorable reviews". The film received a positive review in "The New York Times", which named it a "Critics' Pick" and said in part that it "has an offbeat, absurdist charm that turns a potentially creepy concept into an odd, touching adventure."


title: Carol White

text: She achieved a public profile with her performances in the television play "Cathy Come Home" (1966) and the films "Poor Cow" (1967) and "I'll Never Forget What's 'isname" (1967), but alcoholism and drug abuse damaged her career, and from the early 1970s she worked infrequently.


title: Carol White

text: White, the daughter of a scrap merchant, was born in Hammersmith, London, and attended the Corona Stage Academy. She played minor roles in films from 1949 until the late 1950s, when she began to play more substantial supporting roles in films such as "Carry on Teacher" (1959) and "Never Let Go" (1960) in which she played the girlfriend of Peter Sellers. She also acted the part of Evelyn May, a ‘girl in the bar’ and court witness in Sidney J Furie’s “The Boys” (1962)


title: Carol White

text: She continued working regularly, and drew attention for her performances in the television version of Nell Dunn's "Up the Junction" (1965). She followed this success with roles in "Cathy Come Home" (1966) and the films "Poor Cow" (1967), based on another Nell Dunn book, and "I'll Never Forget What's'isname" (1967). "Up the Junction", "Cathy Come Home" and "Poor Cow" were all directed by Ken Loach.


title: Carol White

text: White starred opposite Alan Bates, Dirk Bogarde and Ian Holm in the film adaptation of Bernard Malamud's "The Fixer" (1968) and then travelled to Hollywood in 1968 to make "Daddy's Gone A-Hunting" (1969). She appeared in a Dean Martin western film, "Something Big" (1971), and had major roles in "Dulcima, starred alongside Sir John Mills and Stuart Wilson" (1971) and "Made" (1972), with the singer Roy Harper. During the late 1960s, White was considered one of the most promising actresses in British cinema, but her alcoholism and substance abuse, as well as unhappy relationships with male stars such as Richard Burton, Frank Sinatra, Oliver Reed and Paul Burke, hindered her career. She did, however, have a prominent role as a hostage in "The Squeeze" (1977).


title: Carol White

text: After living in Hollywood for several years, White returned to London to star in Nell Dunn's play "Steaming" at the West End's Comedy Theatre, filming "Nutcracker" at the same time. Despite receiving excellent reviews for "Steaming", she was often late, missed performances, and was finally sacked. In 1982, a biography, "Carol Comes Home", by Clifford Thurlow, was published. Although White received publicity for the play and the biography, she was unable to revive her career. She returned to the United States, where she lived for the remainder of her life.


title: Carol White

text: White died in 1991 in Florida, at the age of 48. The cause of her death is disputed, with some sources claiming she took a drug overdose, and others ("The Sunday Times" in 1991 and Upton writing in 2004) suggesting she succumbed to liver disease from chronic alcoholism. She had two sons from her first marriage.


title: Carol White

text: A television film of her life, "The Battersea Bardot", was shown in 1994, with White portrayed by Wendy Morgan.


title: Hamilton-class cutter

text: The "Hamilton"-class cutter was the largest class of vessel in the United States Coast Guard until replaced by the Legend-class cutter, aside from the . The hull classification symbol is prefixed WHEC. The cutters are called the "Hamilton" class after their lead ship, or the "Secretary class" because most of the vessels in the class were named for former Secretaries of the Treasury (with the exception of the "Hero-class cutters" "Jarvis", "Munro" and "Midgett").


title: Hamilton-class cutter

text: The "Hamilton"-class cutters were designed to be a highly versatile platform capable of performing various operations, including maritime law enforcement, search and rescue, oceanographic research, and defense operations. Because of their endurance and capabilities, the "Hamilton"-class cutters commonly deployed with Carrier Battle Groups. They were built with a welded steel hull and aluminum superstructure. The "Hamilton"-class cutters' hull was designed with a V cross section, and through tank testing the hull was expected to survive and stay afloat longer after suffering damage. They are powered by a Combined Diesel or Gas (CODOG) system consisting of two diesel engines and two gas turbines, and have controllable-pitch propellers, they were the first U.S. military vessels with combination diesel or gas turbine operation. Equipped with a helicopter flight deck, retractable hangar, and the facilities to support helicopter deployment.


title: Hamilton-class cutter

text: The "Hamilton"-class cutters were designed and built during the Cold War, due to this they were originally equipped for anti-submarine warfare (ASW), with the capability to find, track and destroy enemy submarines. When constructed, they were armed with a 5"/38 naval gun, two 81 mm mortars, two .50 caliber machine guns, two MK 10 Hedgehogs, two MK 32 torpedo tube systems, and Nixie torpedo countermeasures.


title: Hamilton-class cutter

text: During the 1980s and 1990s the cutters were modernized under the Fleet Rehabilitation and Modernization (FRAM) program. The FRAM program replaced the 5"/38 gun with the MK 75 76 mm naval gun, upgraded the MK 32 Surface Vessel Torpedo Tubes to Mod 7, installed MK 36 SRBOC launchers and the AN/SLQ-32 electronic warfare suite, and upgraded the cutters' sonar and their air and surface search radars. During the modernization of the cutters the U.S. Navy saw the program as a low cost and easy way to use the cutters as a valuable force multiplier with trained crews that could be called upon during war. After the completion of FRAM, a joint Navy/USCG board decided further upgrades to the cutters' armament would be implemented, including the installation of Harpoon anti-ship missiles and a MK 15 Phalanx CIWS. The Harpoon anti-ship missiles were fitted to multiple cutters of the class but only one cutter, the USCGC "Mellon", ever fired a Harpoon missile (in January 1990). After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the joint Navy/USCG board decided there was no military threat to require the installation of anti-ship missiles and anti-submarine weapons on board cutters, and subsequently removed the weapons.


title: Hamilton-class cutter

text: After the removal of the ASW weapons, the Coast Guard installed MK 38 25 mm chain guns on both sides of each cutter. Currently the "Hamilton"-class cutters are equipped with the Coast Guard's SeaWatch command and control system, which combines navigational, tactical, surveillance and communications into one situational awareness picture, replacing the cutters' outdated Shipboard Command and Control System. Missile defense is handled by the MK 36 launchers and the Phalanx CIWS.


title: Hamilton-class cutter

text: The 378-foot WHEC cutter program which created the "Hamilton" class was initiated in the 1960s. The "Hamilton"-class cutters were intended to fulfill both the peacetime and wartime requirements of the Coast Guard. Construction at Avondale Shipyards on the lead ship, the "Hamilton", began in the 1960s and the cutter was commissioned on March 18, 1967. Originally the Coast Guard planned to build 36 "Hamilton"-class cutters, but due to the termination of the ocean stations program they reduced the number of planned cutters to 12.


title: Hamilton-class cutter

text: During the Vietnam War multiple "Hamilton"-class cutters supported Operation Market Time. The cutters patrolled the South Vietnamese coastline, boarded and inspected suspected North Vietnamese and Viet Cong vessels, conducted naval gunfire support missions, and provided medical assistance to Vietnamese civilians. Throughout their service cutters would also participate in other conflicts and military operations such as Operation Urgent Fury, Operation Vigilant Sentinel, Operation Deny Flight, and Operation Iraqi Freedom.


title: Hamilton-class cutter

text: Beginning in the 1980s and ending in 1992, the entire class was modernized through the FRAM program. The program included updates and changes to the cutters weapons, sensors, addition of a helicopter hangar, engine overhauls, and improved habitability.


title: Hamilton-class cutter

text: Cutters "Midgett" and "Munro" were renamed to "John Midgett" and "Douglas Munro" to allow the new Legend-class cutters "Midgett" and "Munro" to assume the former names of the two "Hamilton"-class cutters.


title: Hamilton-class cutter

text: In March 2007, cutters "Hamilton" and "Sherman" intercepted the Panamanian-flagged fishing vessel "Gatun" in international waters and were able to recover of cocaine, with an estimated street value of $600 million retail. The seizure was at that time the largest at-sea drug bust in US history.


title: Derek Phillips (actor)

text: Derek Phillips (born April 18, 1976) is an American actor. He is best known for his role as Billy Riggins in the NBC sports drama series "Friday Night Lights", as well as providing the voice and motion capture of Jerry Anderson in the action-adventure survival horror video game "The Last of Us Part II". He has also voiced characters in video games such as "Dishonored", "The Last of Us", "Life Is Strange", "Battlefield Hardline", "Fallout 4", and "Rise of the Tomb Raider". He currently voices Heron on the Netflix animated series "Blood of Zeus".


title: Derek Phillips (actor)

text: Phillips was born in Miami, Florida, on April 18, 1976. He attended Westminster Christian School in Palmetto Bay, Florida, where he played football alongside future MLB baseball players Alex Rodriguez and Doug Mientkiewicz. He later attended Baylor University in Waco, Texas, where he received a BFA in acting.


title: Derek Phillips (actor)

text: Upon graduating, Phillips moved to New York City to look for acting roles. He performed throughout the country in numerous plays, including "The Winter's Tale" at the Baltimore Center Stage, "Of Mice and Men" at the Dallas Theater Center, "The Glass Menagerie" at the Virginia Stage Company, and "King o' the Moon" at the Capital Repertory Theatre. He is also an actor, associate producer, and assistant director at the award-winning ensemble theater company Second Thought, with whom he has performed in Douglas Post's "Earth and Sky", the regional premiere of Eric Bogosian's "Humpty Dumpty", and the world premiere of Steven Walters' "Pluck the Day".


title: Derek Phillips (actor)

text: After years of regional theater and recurring roles on the television series "Guiding Light", "As the World Turns", and "All My Children", Phillips had his breakout role as Billy Riggins on the NBC sports drama series "Friday Night Lights". When the series ended, he went on to voice characters in video games such as "Dishonored", "", "The Last of Us", "Life Is Strange", "Battlefield Hardline", "Fallout 4", "Rise of the Tomb Raider", and "". He received more attention for providing the voice and motion capture of Jerry Anderson in the action-adventure survival horror video game "The Last of Us Part II", and currently voices Heron on the Netflix animated series "Blood of Zeus". He currently hosts the Friday Night Lights rewatch podcast "Clear Eyes, Full Hearts" with Stacey Oristano, who played Mindy Collette-Riggins (Tyra Collette's older sister, whom Billy eventually married).


title: Salvatore Ferragamo S.p.A.

text: Salvatore Ferragamo S.p.A., rebranded in September 2022 as Ferragamo, () is an Italian high-end luxury goods company headquartered in Florence. It specializes in designing and manufacturing footwear and leather goods, which together account for over 86% of its revenue. The remaining products include ready-to-wear, silk products, fashion accessories, and licensed eyewear, watches, and perfumes. It operates 447 mono-brand stores worldwide as of September 2022.


title: Salvatore Ferragamo S.p.A.

text: The company was founded in 1927 by Salvatore Ferragamo in Florence, Italy. It went public on the Milan stock exchange in 2011, but the Ferragamo family has remained majority shareholders with approximately 65% stakes in the company. British designer Maximilian Davis has been the creative director of Ferragamo since March 2022.


title: Salvatore Ferragamo S.p.A.

text: In 1915, Salvatore Ferragamo emigrated from southern Italy to the United States to join his siblings who had already emigrated to the U.S. He briefly worked at Thomas G. Plant Shoe Factory in Boston, Massachusetts, before moving to Santa Barbara, California, to join his brothers. He opened the Hollywood Boot Shop in 1923 and made shoes for movie stars, such as Joan Crawford and Gloria Swanson, as well as for films, such as Cecil B. DeMille's feature film "The Ten Commandments".


title: Salvatore Ferragamo S.p.A.

text: Following his success in California, Ferragamo returned to Florence, Italy, in 1927 to incorporate his eponymous label and open a factory to produce his shoes, due to a lack of artisan shoemakers in the U.S. His factory combined the city's artisanal techniques with the efficient production system of American factories, which became a training ground for apprentices.


title: Salvatore Ferragamo S.p.A.

text: As a result of the Great Depression and the company's reliance on businesses in the U.S., Ferragamo struggled financially and filed for bankruptcy in 1933. By 1938, he had recovered financially and purchased Palazzo Spini Feroni in Florence, which has housed the company's headquarters, flagship store, and Salvatore Ferragamo Museum since. In 1948, the company opened its first directly operated store in the U.S. at 424 Park Avenue in New York City.


title: Salvatore Ferragamo S.p.A.

text: Salvatore Ferragamo died in August 1960, leaving control of the growing company to his wife, Wanda Ferragamo. She expanded its operations to include silk scarves, fragrances, leather handbags, ready-to-wear, and small leather goods.


title: Salvatore Ferragamo S.p.A.

text: Despite several changes of leaderships and growth, the company remained privately held by the Ferragamo family until it went public on the Milan stock exchange in 2011. As of 2022, members of the Ferragamo family remain majority shareholders with approximately 65% combined stakes in the company, which is chaired by Leonardo Ferragamo, the fifth son of Salvatore and Wanda Ferragamo.


title: Salvatore Ferragamo S.p.A.

text: Marco Gobbetti, former CEO of Burberry, has been the CEO of the company since January 2022, succeeding Micaela le Divelec, who led the company since July 2018.


title: Salvatore Ferragamo S.p.A.

text: On March 14, 2022, British designer Maximilian Davis was named new creative director in an effort to revitalize Ferragamo's ready-to-wear line.


title: Salvatore Ferragamo S.p.A.

text: In September 2022, in an effort to modernize the brand, Salvatore Ferragamo was rebranded as "Ferragamo" (stylized as FERRAGAMO) and debuted a new logo ahead of its SS23 show during Milan Fashion Week. The show was the first under the creative direction of Maximilian Davis and was met with generally favorable responses, with critics noting the modernized tailoring. Davis described the collection as being about "ease and sensuality".


title: Salvatore Ferragamo S.p.A.

text: Throughout its history, the company has been known for innovative designs and use of materials; in California, Salvatore studied human anatomy in effort to make more comfortable shoes. Notable innovations include the wedge heel; the shell-shaped sole; the ‘invisible’ sandal; metal heels and soles, made famous by Marilyn Monroe; the 18-carat gold sandal; the sock-shoe; sculpture heels; and the gloved arch shoe, created for the Maharani of Cooch Behar in 1938. The company is also known for its ‘Gancini’ decoration, the ‘Vara’ patent ballet pump, the Salvatore bag, and its use of patchwork.


title: Salvatore Ferragamo S.p.A.

text: Footwear and leather goods are the focus of the brand, representing over 86% of its revenue in 2021. It also has an extensive range of women's and men's footwear, from formal, evening, to leisure wear. Men's footwear is manufactured using several techniques, including lasted, tubular, stitched, and "Tramezza" stitched welting. Leather goods, such as handbags, suitcases, belts, and wallets often feature the distinctive and signature "Gancino" clasp, which was originally designed as a handbag fastening. The company also offers made-to-order products for customers seeking unique designs not found in stores.


title: Salvatore Ferragamo S.p.A.

text: Other products include men and women's ready-to-wear and the brand's signature silk products, including ties, foulards, pocket square, and scarves. Ferragamo fragrances are produced and distributed by Inter Parfums, Inc. through an exclusive licensing agreement. The company also produces licensed eyewear and Swiss-made watches in partnership with Marchon and Timex Group. In 2014, Ferragamo began adding NFC tags to their products in an effort to discourage counterfeits.


title: Salvatore Ferragamo S.p.A.

text: Salvatore worked with film stars and celebrities from his earliest days in Hollywood. Clients over the years included Audrey Hepburn, Sophia Loren, and Greta Garbo, as well as Andy Warhol, Seulgi, Grace Mugabe, Princess Diana, and Namal Rajapaksha. The company made handbags for Margaret Thatcher and boots for Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck during his coronation on November 6, 2008, in Thimpu, Bhutan.


title: Punjabi Hindus

text: Punjabi Hindus are adherents of Hinduism who identify linguistically, culturally, and genealogically as Punjabis. While Punjabi Hindus are mostly found in the Indian state of Punjab today, many have ancestry from the greater Punjab region, an area that was partitioned between India and Pakistan in 1947.


title: Punjabi Hindus

text: The Punjabi people first practiced proto-Hinduism, the oldest recorded religion in the Punjab region. The historical Vedic religion constituted the religious ideas and practices in the Punjab during the Vedic period (1500–500 BCE), centered primarily in the worship of Indra.


title: Punjabi Hindus

text: The bulk of the Rigveda was composed in the Punjab region between circa 1500 and 1200 BCE, while later Vedic scriptures were composed more eastwards, between the Yamuna and Ganges rivers. An ancient Indian law book called the Manusmriti, developed by Brahmin Hindu priests, shaped Punjabi religious life from 200 BCE onward.


title: Punjabi Hindus

text: Prominent Indian nationalists from Punjab, such as Lala Lajpat Rai, belonged to the Arya Samaj. The Arya Samaj, a Hindu reformist sect was active in propagating their message in Punjab.


title: Punjabi Hindus

text: In the early part of the 20th century, the Samaj and organisations inspired by it, such as Jat Pat Todak Mandal, were active in campaigning against caste discrimination. Other activities in which the Samaj engaged included campaigning for the acceptance of widow remarriage and women's education.


title: Punjabi Hindus

text: During the colonial era, the practice of religious syncretism among Punjabi Hindus and Punjabi Muslims was noted and documented by officials in census reports:


title: Punjabi Hindus

text: Approximately 3 million Punjabi Hindus migrated from West Punjab and North-West Frontier Province (present-day Pakistan) to East Punjab and Delhi (present-day India) during the Partition.


title: Punjabi Hindus

text: This split the former British province of Punjab between the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. The mostly Muslim western part of the province became Pakistan's Punjab province; the mostly Sikh and Hindu eastern part became India's East Punjab state (later divided into the new states of Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh). Many Hindus and Sikhs lived in the west, and many Muslims lived in the east, and the fears of all such minorities were so great that the Partition saw many people displaced and much intercommunal violence. Some have described the violence in Punjab as a retributive genocide.


title: Punjabi Hindus

text: The newly formed governments had not anticipated, and were completely unequipped for, a two-way migration of such staggering magnitude, and massive violence and slaughter occurred on both sides of the new India-Pakistan border. Estimates of the number of deaths vary, with low estimates at 200,000 and high estimates at 2,000,000. The worst case of violence among all regions is concluded to have taken place in Punjab.


title: Punjabi Hindus

text: After Partition, Sikh leaders and political parties demanded a "Punjabi Suba" (Punjabi Province) where Punjabi language written in the Sikh Gurumukhi script would be the language of the state in North India.


title: Punjabi Hindus

text: At the instigation of the Arya Samaj, many Punjabi Hindus in present-day Ambala, Una, and Sirsa stated Hindi as their mother tongue in the censuses of 1951 and 1961. Some areas of the erstwhile East Punjab state where Hindi, Haryanvi and Western Pahari speaking Hindus formed the majority became part of the newly created states of Haryana and Himachal Pradesh where Hindi was declared the state language. This was in contrast with the primarily Punjabi-speaking locals in some regions of the newly created states. A direct result of the trifurcation of East Punjab into three states made Punjab a Sikh-majority state in India. Today, Punjabi Hindus make up approximately 38.5% population of present Punjab State of India.


title: Punjabi Hindus

text: In the Indian state of Punjab, Punjabi Hindus make up approximately 38.5% of the state's population and are a majority in the Doaba region. Punjabi Hindus forms majority in five districts of Punjab, namely, Pathankot, Jalandhar, Hoshiarpur, Fazilka and Shaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar districts.


title: Punjabi Hindus

text: During the 1947 partition, many Hindus from West Punjab and North-West Frontier Province settled in Delhi. Determined from 1991 and 2015 estimates, Punjabi Hindus form approximately 24 to 35 per cent of Delhi's population; based on 2011 official census counts, this amounts to between 4,029,106 and 5,875,779 people.


title: Punjabi Hindus

text: Following the large scale exodus that took place during the 1947 partition, there remains a small Punjabi Hindu community in Pakistan today. According to the 2017 Census, there are about 200,000 Hindus in Punjab province, forming approximately 0.2% of the total population. Much of the community resides in the primarily rural South Punjab districts of Rahim Yar Khan and Bahawalpur where they form 3.12% and 1.12% of the population respectively, while the rest are concentrated in urban centres such as Lahore.


title: Punjabi Hindus

text: Large diaspora communities exist in many countries including in Canada, Australia, the United States, and the United Kingdom.


title: Punjabi Hindus

text: Hinduism in Punjab, as in many other parts of India, has adapted over time and has become a synthesis of culture and history. It centres on using Dharma to purify the soul ("Atman") and to connect with a greater "eternal energy" ("Paramātmā").


title: Punjabi Hindus

text: As Hindus believe that Dharma is universal and evolves with time, many Hindus also value other spiritual paths and religious traditions. They believe that any traditions that are equally able to nurture one's "Atman" should be accepted and taught. Hinduism itself encourages any being to reach their own self-realization in their own unique way either through Bhagavan or through other means of devotion and meditation.


title: Punjabi Hindus

text: The Punjabi Hindus continue heterogeneous religious practices in spiritual kinship with Sikhism. This not only includes veneration of the Sikh Gurus in private practice, but also visits to Sikh Gurdwaras in addition to Hindu temples.


title: Punjabi Hindus

text: Udasi is a religious sect of ascetic sadhus centered in Punjab Region. The Udasis were key interpreters of the Sikh philosophy and the custodians of important Sikh shrines until the Akali movement. They brought many converts into the Sikh fold during the 18th and the early 19th centuries. However, their religious practices border on a syncretism of Sikhism and Hinduism. When the Singh Sabha, dominated by Tat Khalsa Sikhs, redefined the Sikh identity in the early 20th century, the Udasi mahants were expelled from the Sikh shrines. Since then, the Udasis have increasingly regarded themselves as Hindus rather than Sikhs.


title: Computational neuroscience

text: Computational neuroscience (also known as theoretical neuroscience or mathematical neuroscience) is a branch of neuroscience which employs mathematical models, computer simulations, theoretical analysis and abstractions of the brain to understand the principles that govern the development, structure, physiology and cognitive abilities of the nervous system.


title: Computational neuroscience

text: Computational neuroscience employs computational simulations to validate and solve mathematical models, and so can be seen as a sub-field of theoretical neuroscience; however, the two fields are often synonymous. The term mathematical neuroscience is also used sometimes, to stress the quantitative nature of the field.


title: Computational neuroscience

text: Computational neuroscience focuses on the description of biologically plausible neurons (and neural systems) and their physiology and dynamics, and it is therefore not directly concerned with biologically unrealistic models used in connectionism, control theory, cybernetics, quantitative psychology, machine learning, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence and computational learning theory; although mutual inspiration exists and sometimes there is no strict limit between fields, with model abstraction in computational neuroscience depending on research scope and the granularity at which biological entities are analyzed.


title: Computational neuroscience

text: Models in theoretical neuroscience are aimed at capturing the essential features of the biological system at multiple spatial-temporal scales, from membrane currents, and chemical coupling via network oscillations, columnar and topographic architecture, nuclei, all the way up to psychological faculties like memory, learning and behavior. These computational models frame hypotheses that can be directly tested by biological or psychological experiments.


title: Computational neuroscience

text: The term 'computational neuroscience' was introduced by Eric L. Schwartz, who organized a conference, held in 1985 in Carmel, California, at the request of the Systems Development Foundation to provide a summary of the current status of a field which until that point was referred to by a variety of names, such as neural modeling, brain theory and neural networks. The proceedings of this definitional meeting were published in 1990 as the book "Computational Neuroscience". The first of the annual open international meetings focused on Computational Neuroscience was organized by James M. Bower and John Miller in San Francisco, California in 1989. The first graduate educational program in computational neuroscience was organized as the Computational and Neural Systems Ph.D. program at the California Institute of Technology in 1985.


title: Computational neuroscience

text: The early historical roots of the field can be traced to the work of people including Louis Lapicque, Hodgkin & Huxley, Hubel and Wiesel, and David Marr. Lapicque introduced the integrate and fire model of the neuron in a seminal article published in 1907, a model still popular for artificial neural networks studies because of its simplicity (see a recent review).


title: Computational neuroscience

text: About 40 years later, Hodgkin and Huxley developed the voltage clamp and created the first biophysical model of the action potential. Hubel and Wiesel discovered that neurons in the primary visual cortex, the first cortical area to process information coming from the retina, have oriented receptive fields and are organized in columns. David Marr's work focused on the interactions between neurons, suggesting computational approaches to the study of how functional groups of neurons within the hippocampus and neocortex interact, store, process, and transmit information. Computational modeling of biophysically realistic neurons and dendrites began with the work of Wilfrid Rall, with the first multicompartmental model using cable theory.