title: General Public

text: Later in the year, the band fared even better in North America, where their second single "Tenderness" was a Top 30 hit in Canada (No. 11) and the US (No. 27). The song's success benefited from appearing in the John Hughes films "Sixteen Candles" (1984) and "Weird Science" (1985) from the time period, and it would later appear in Amy Heckerling's "Clueless" (1995) and in the horror film "Devil's Due" (2014). Meanwhile, another General Public song, "Taking the Day Off" was featured in "Ferris Bueller's Day Off" (1986).


title: General Public

text: For the follow-up album, White and Stoker were replaced by brothers Gianni and Mario Minardi on guitar and drums, respectively. "Hand to Mouth" was significantly less successful than their debut album, and the band dissolved soon after its release. The 1993 reissue of the album includes "Taking the Day Off" and other non-album songs and remixes.


title: General Public

text: Roger and Wakeling worked on various solo projects for the next few years, before reconstituting General Public in 1994 to perform a cover version of the Staple Singers' hit "I'll Take You There" for the "Threesome" film soundtrack. The new General Public line-up retained only vocalists Wakeling and Roger from previous incarnations; the vocal duo was now backed by Michael Railton (keyboards), Randy Jacobs (guitars), Wayne Lothian (bass), Thomas White (drums), and Norman Jones (percussion).


title: General Public

text: "I'll Take You There" was a Top 40 hit in the US and Canada and a minor hit in the UK (No. 73). Jacobs and White then left the group, and new drummer Dan Chase was brought in. The sextet released the album "Rub It Better" for Epic Records in 1995, recorded in the US with the aid of Jerry Harrison, the former keyboardist and guitarist for Talking Heads producing. Guests on the album included former bandmate Mick Jones, Saxa, Pato Banton, and Chris Spedding; ex-band members Horace Panter and Stoker also participated in the album's creation, co-writing one song apiece. (Stoker also received an "additional recording" credit.) The single "Rainy Days" met with limited success in the US, but fared better in some international markets, notably Brazil. Sales were less than earlier albums, however, and Roger became tired of traveling to America, and they soon broke up again.


title: General Public

text: Since 2004, Dave Wakeling has toured the US with a full backing band as the English Beat. They often perform General Public tracks.


title: Swords to ploughshares

text: Swords to ploughshares (or plowshares) is a concept in which military weapons or technologies are converted for peaceful civilian applications.


title: Swords to ploughshares

text: The "ploughshare" ( "’êṯ", also translated "coulter") is often used to symbolize creative tools that benefit humankind, as opposed to destructive tools of war, symbolized by the "sword" ( "ḥereḇ"), a similar sharp metal tool with an arguably opposite use.


title: Swords to ploughshares

text: In addition to the original Biblical Messianic intent, the expression "beat swords into ploughshares" has been used by disparate social and political groups.


title: Swords to ploughshares

text: An ongoing example as of 2013 is the dismantling of nuclear weapons and the use of their contents as fuel in civilian electric power stations, the Megatons to Megawatts Program. Nuclear fission development, originally accelerated for World War II weapons needs, has been applied to many civilian purposes since its use at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, including electricity and radiopharmaceutical production.


title: Swords to ploughshares

text: Beyond the above usage in the Book of Isaiah, this analogy is used twice more in the Old Testament/Tanakh, in both directions:


title: Swords to ploughshares

text: An expression of this concept can be seen in a bronze statue in the United Nations garden called "Let Us Beat Swords into Plowshares", a gift from the Soviet Union sculpted by Evgeniy Vuchetich, representing the figure of a man hammering a sword into the shape of a plowshare.


title: Swords to ploughshares

text: James Legge's translation of Analects of Confucius includes a story of Confucius asking his disciples to list their aims, resulting in praise for the virtue of Yan Hui:


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: James Myers Thompson (September 27, 1906 – April 7, 1977) was an American prose writer and screenwriter, known for his hardboiled crime fiction.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: Thompson wrote more than thirty novels, the majority of which were original paperback publications, published from the late-1940s through mid-1950s. Despite some positive critical notice—notably by Anthony Boucher in "The New York Times"—he was little-recognized in his lifetime. Only after death did Thompson's literary stature grow. In the late 1980s, several of his novels were re-published in the "Black Lizard" series of re-discovered crime fiction.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: His best-regarded works include "The Killer Inside Me", "Savage Night", "A Hell of a Woman" and "Pop. 1280." In these works, Thompson turned the derided crime genre into literature and art, featuring unreliable narrators, odd structure, and the quasi-surrealistic inner narratives of the last thoughts of his dying or dead characters. A number of Thompson's books were adapted as popular films, including "The Getaway" and "The Grifters".


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: The writer R.V. Cassill has suggested that of all crime fiction, Thompson's was the rawest and most harrowing; that neither Dashiell Hammett nor Raymond Chandler nor Horace McCoy ever "wrote a book within miles of Thompson". Similarly, in the introduction to "Now and on Earth", Stephen King says he most admires Thompson's work because "The guy was over the top. "The guy was absolutely over the top." Big Jim didn't know the meaning of the word stop. There are three brave 'lets' inherent in the foregoing: He let himself see everything, he let himself write it down, then he let himself publish it."


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: Thompson was called a "Dimestore Dostoevsky" by writer Geoffrey O'Brien. Film director Stephen Frears, who directed an adaptation of Thompson's "The Grifters" in 1990, also identified elements of Greek tragedy in his themes.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: Thompson's life was nearly as colorful as his fiction. His novels were considered semi-autobiographical, or, at least, inspired by his experiences. Thompson's father was sheriff of Caddo County, Oklahoma. He ran for the state legislature in 1906, but was defeated. Soon after he left the sheriff's office under a cloud due to rumors of embezzlement. The Thompson family moved to Texas. (The theme of a once-prominent family overtaken by ill-fortune was featured in some of Thompson's works.)


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: Thompson was born in Anadarko, Oklahoma Territory, and began writing early, and he published a few short pieces while still in his mid-teens. He was intelligent and well-read, but had little interest in or inclination towards formal education. For about two years during prohibition in Fort Worth, Texas, Thompson worked long and often wild nights as a bellboy while attending school in the day. He worked at the Hotel Texas. One biographical profile reports that "Thompson quickly adapted to the needs of the hotel's guests, busily catering to tastes ranging from questionable morality to directly and undeniably illegal." Bootleg liquor was ubiquitous, and Thompson's brief trips to procure heroin and marijuana for hotel patrons were not uncommon. He was soon earning up to $300 per week more than his official $15 monthly wage.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: He smoked and drank heavily, and at 19, he suffered a nervous breakdown. In 1926, Thompson began working as an oilfield laborer. In the oil fields, he met Harry McClintock, a musician, as well as a member and organizer for Industrial Workers of the World, who recruited him into the union. With his father he began an independent oil drilling operation that was ultimately unsuccessful. Thompson returned to Fort Worth, intending to attend school and to write professionally.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: Thompson's autobiographical "Oil Field Vignettes" was published in 1929 (found in March 2010 by history recovery specialist Lee Roy Chapman). He began attending the University of Nebraska the same year as part of a program for gifted students with "untraditional educational backgrounds." By 1931, however, he dropped out of school.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: For several years, Thompson occasionally wrote short stories for various true crime magazines. Generally, he wrote about murder cases about which he had read in newspapers, but using a first person voice. In this era, he wrote other pieces for various newspapers and magazines, usually as a freelancer, but occasionally as a full-time staff writer. His 1936 "Ditch of Doom," published in "Master Detective" magazine, was selected by the Library of America in the early 21st century for inclusion in its two-century retrospective of American writing for true crime.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: In the early 1930s, Thompson worked as the head of the Oklahoma Federal Writers Project, one of several New Deal programs intended to provide work for Americans during the Great Depression. Louis L'Amour, among others, worked under Thompson's direction in this project. Thompson joined the Communist Party in 1935 but left the group by 1938.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: In the early stages of World War II, Thompson worked at an aircraft factory. He was investigated by the FBI because of his early Communist Party affiliation. These events were fodder for his semi-autobiographical debut novel "Now and on Earth" (1942). It established his bleak, pessimistic tone, and it was positively reviewed but sold poorly. It featured little of the violence and crime that later permeated his writing. In his second novel "Heed the Thunder" (1946), Thompson centered it on crime. It explores a warped and violent Nebraska family, partly modeled on his own extended clan.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: Gaining little attention, Thompson gravitated to the less-prestigious but more lucrative crime fiction genre with "Nothing More Than Murder." He afterwards moved to Lion Books, a small paperback publisher. Lion's Arnold Hano was his ideal editor, offering the writer essentially free rein about content, yet expecting him to be productive and reliable. Lion published most of Thompson's best-regarded works.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: To support his family while writing novels, Thompson took a job as a reporter with the "Los Angeles Mirror", a tabloid newspaper owned by the "Los Angeles Times", shortly after the "Mirror" was founded in 1948. He wrote for the "Mirror" until 1949.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: In 1952, Thompson published "The Killer Inside Me". The narrator, Lou Ford, is a small-town deputy sheriff who appears amiable, pleasant and slightly dull-minded. Ford is actually very intelligent and fighting a nearly-constant urge to act violently; Ford describes his urge as "the sickness" (always italicised). Lion Books tried to have "The Killer Inside Me" nominated for a National Book Award. It was eponymously adapted for the cinema in 1976 (by director Burt Kennedy, with Stacy Keach as Lou Ford) and again in 2010 (by director Michael Winterbottom, with Casey Affleck as Ford and co-starring Kate Hudson and Jessica Alba). After "The Killer Inside Me" was published, Thompson began producing novels at a furious pace. He published another novel in 1952, then five novels a year in 1953 and 1954.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: "Savage Night," published in 1953, is generally ranked as one of his best novels. It is also one of his oddest literary offerings. Its narrator, Charlie "Little" Bigger (also known as Carl Bigelow), is a small, tubercular hitman whose mind is deteriorating with his body. In reviewing "Savage Night", Boucher said it was "written with vigor and bite, but sheering off from realism into a peculiar surrealist ending of sheer Guignol horror. Odd that a mass-consumption paperback should contain the most experimental writing I've seen in a suspense novel of late". "Savage Night" contains an interlude—whether or not it is fantasy or dream, hallucination or flashback is unclear—when Bigger meets a poor, verbose writer who, much like Thompson, has a penchant for booze and makes a living writing pulp fiction to be sold alongside pornography. The writer also claims to operate a "farm" where he grows vaginas as a metaphor for the material he writes.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: After his film work, Thompson remained a resident of California for the rest of his life. From the mid-1950s through the late 1960s, Thompson continued to write fiction, although not at the same torrid pace of 1952 to 1954. During this era, Thompson usually completed one novel a year, but he gradually drifted away from writing his increasingly unpopular novels, abandoning the medium completely by the end of the 1960s. In 1967, he published "South of Heaven", about a young migrant laborer working on an oil pipeline in Texas.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: With his novels providing scant income, Thompson turned to other forms of writing to pay the bills. Beginning in 1959, and continuing through the mid-1960s, Thompson also began writing television programs, including episodes of the action/adventure shows "Mackenzie's Raiders" (1959), "Cain's Hundred" (1961) and "Convoy" (1965). TV work seemingly dried up for Thompson after this point, so he turned to writing tie-in novels based on produced TV shows and screenplays: this work paid a flat fee, and could be completed quickly. Thompson's tie-ins include an original novel based on the television series "Ironside" (1967), as well as screenplay novelizations of the films "The Undefeated" (1969) and "Nothing But a Man" (1970).


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: In the late 1960s, Thompson wrote his two final original books, "King Blood" and "Child of Rage" (its provisional title was "White Mother, Black Son"), neither of which were published until the early 1970s, the latter in the UK.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: In 1970, Thompson was flown to Robert Redford's Utah residence. Redford hired him to write a motion picture script about the life of a hobo during the Great Depression. Thompson was paid $10,000 for his script "Bo", though it never was produced.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: Motion picture writer/director Sam Fuller expressed an interest in adapting "The Getaway" for the screen, and Thompson's biographer Robert Polito, in the biography "Savage Art", notes that Fuller so admired the novel that he quipped, half-seriously, that he could use the novel as a shooting script. Eventually, Sam Peckinpah was slated to direct "The Getaway."


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: In many regards, "The Getaway" was a frustrating repeat of his earlier experience collaborating with director Stanley Kubrick on the screenplay of the 1956 film "The Killing". Thompson wrote a script, but Steve McQueen (who was cast in the movie's lead role of Doc McCoy) rejected it as too reliant on dialogue, with not enough action. Though Walter Hill was given the sole script credit, Thompson insisted that much of his script ended up in the film. Thompson sought Writers Guild arbitration but the Guild ultimately ruled against him. In the end, the film was heavily bowdlerized from Thompson's original vision and as Stephen King writes, "if you have seen only the film version of "The Getaway", you have no idea of the existential horrors awaiting Doc and Carol McCoy at the point where Sam Peckinpah ended the story."


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: Thompson actually appeared in the 1975 movie "Farewell, My Lovely", starring Robert Mitchum. He played the character Judge Baxter Wilson Grayle. When Thompson's fortunes were fading, he made the acquaintance of writer Harlan Ellison who had long admired Thompson's books. Though Thompson still drank heavily (preferring to meet at the famed writer's haunt, the Musso & Frank Grill) and Ellison was a teetotaler (preferring fast food restaurants), they often met for meals and conversation.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: Though Thompson's books were falling out of print in the United States, the French had discovered his works. Though they were not runaway bestsellers in France, his books did sell well enough in that country to keep a trickle of royalties flowing towards Thompson. Incidentally, Polito also debunks the myth that Thompson was not paid well for his works: Thompson's pay, he notes, was roughly in line with what writers of similar works received during that era.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: Thompson died in Los Angeles, aged 70, after a series of strokes aggravated by his long-term alcoholism. He refused to eat for some time before his death, and this self-inflicted starvation contributed greatly to his demise. At the time of his death, none of his novels was in print in his home country.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: Thompson's stories are about grifters, losers, sociopaths and psychopaths—some at the fringe of society, some at its heart—their nihilistic world-view being best-served by first-person narratives revealing a frighteningly deep understanding of the warped mind. There are few good guys in Thompson's literature: most of his characters are abusive or simply biding time until an opportunity presents itself, though many also have decent impulses.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: Despite some positive critical notice, only after his best years as a writer did Thompson achieve a measure of fame. Yet that neglect might stem from his style: the crime novels are fast-moving and compelling but sometimes sloppy and uneven. Thompson wrote quickly (many novels were written in a month); using his newspaper experience to write concise, evocative prose with little editing.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: Yet at his best his novels were among the most effectively and memorably written genre pieces. He also managed unusual and highly successful literary tricks: halfway through "A Hell of a Woman", the first-person narrator Frank "Dolly" Dillon has a mental breakdown; the sides of his personality then take turns narrating the chapters, alternately violently psychotic (telling the sordid tale that happened) or sweet-natured and patient (telling the idealized fantasy that did not happen). In the final page of the original manuscript the two sides of Dillon's broken personality appear together as two columns of text. The publisher disliked that and instead alternated the two narrations in a long paragraph, alternating standard Roman type and italicized type. Thompson disliked the change, thinking it confusing and difficult for the reader.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: For most of his life Thompson drank heavily; the effects of alcoholism often featured in his works, most prominently in "The Alcoholics" (1953) which is set in a detoxification clinic. Donald E. Westlake, who adapted "The Grifters" for the screen, observed that alcoholism had a great role in Thompson's literature, but it tended to be tacit and subtle. Westlake described typical personal relationships in Thompson novels as pleasant in the morning, argumentative in the afternoon and abusive at night—behavior common to the alcoholic Thompson's style of life but which he elided from the stories.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: Two of Thompson's books ("The Getaway" and "The Killer Inside Me") were adapted as Hollywood motion pictures during his lifetime receiving relatively poor reviews. However, Polito argues that neither adaptation was ultimately true to Thompson's spirit. A second, more faithful adaptation of "The Killer Inside Me" was released in 2010, starring Casey Affleck and directed by Michael Winterbottom.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: French director Bertrand Tavernier adapted "Pop. 1280" for his 1981 film "Coup de Torchon", changing the setting from the American South to a French colony in West Africa of the 1930s. Aside from shift in setting, Polito argues that "Coup de Torchon" was remarkably faithful to the plot and the spirit of the novel, and -- along with the 1990 film "The Grifters" -- remains arguably the most authentic adaptation of any of Thompson's work.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: "A Hell of a Woman" was adapted in French as "Série noire" (1979) by Alain Corneau, with dialogue by French Oulipo writer Georges Pérec. This noir masterpiece set in the grim Paris outskirts features a 16-year-old Marie Trintignant's debut performance as well as what is generally agreed to be Patrick Dewaere's finest performance. Dewaere conveys a tragic dimension to his manic portrayal of a mediocre door-to-door salesman, at one point repeatedly bashing his head against a car in an effort to exorcise his angst and guilt.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: In the early 1990s, Hollywood resumed its interest in Thompson's writing and several of his novels were re-published. Three novels were adapted for new film treatments during that period: "The Kill-Off"; "After Dark, My Sweet"; and "The Grifters", which garnered four Academy Award nominations.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: "The Getaway" was remade in 1994 with Alec Baldwin and Kim Basinger in the lead roles; the film retained the happy ending of the earlier film and received comparably poor reviews.


title: Jim Thompson (writer)

text: In 1996, "A Swell-Looking Babe" was released as "Hit Me," and 1997 saw the release of "This World, Then the Fireworks" from Thompson's short story of that name. The latter film starred Billy Zane and Gina Gershon as a pair of twisted siblings.


title: Faux Cyrillic

text: Faux Cyrillic, pseudo-Cyrillic, pseudo-Russian or faux Russian typography is the use of Cyrillic letters in Latin text, usually to evoke the Soviet Union or Russia, though it may be used in other contexts as well. It is a common Western trope used in book covers, film titles, comic book lettering, artwork for computer games, or product packaging which are set in or wish to evoke Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union, or Russia. A typeface designed to emulate Cyrillic is classed as an ethnic typeface.


title: Faux Cyrillic

text: Letters are substituted regardless of phonetic matching. For example, "R" and "N" in "RUSSIAN" may be replaced with Cyrillic Я ("ya") and И ("i") to form the faux-cyrillic "ЯUSSIAИ" . Other examples include the use of Ш for W, Ц for U, Я/Г for R/backwards and upside-down L, Ф for O, Д for A, Б, Ь, or Ъ for B/b, З, Э, or Ё for E, Ч or У for Y. Outside the Russian alphabet, Џ (from Serbian) can act as a substitute for U, Ғ (from Turkic languages) for F, Ә (from Turkic languages, Abkhaz, Dungan, Itelmen, Kalmyk and Kurdish) or Є (from Ukrainian) for E, Ө (from Turkic, Mongolic and Uralic languages) for O, Һ (from Turkic and Mongolic languages and Kildin Sámi) for H, and Ћ (Serbian) for Th. A reversed ☭ is also sometimes used for G. A common substitution is $ for S. Further variants include an inverted K (ꓘ), which is not used in any language.


title: Faux Cyrillic

text: This effect is usually restricted to text set in all caps, because Cyrillic letter-forms do not match well with lower case Latin letters. In Cyrillic typography, most upright lower case letters resemble smaller upper case letters, unlike the more distinctive forms of Latin-alphabet type. Cursive Cyrillic upper and lower case letters are more differentiated. Most Cyrillic letter-forms were derived from the Greek alphabet in the 9th century, but the modern forms have more closely resembled those in the Latin alphabet since Peter the Great's civil script reform of 1708.


title: Faux Cyrillic

text: Many versions of Tetris, including those by Atari/Tengen and Spectrum Holobyte, used faux Cyrillic to spell the name as TETЯIS to emphasize the game's Russian origins. The mockumentary film "Borat" (stylized as BORДT) makes use of faux cyrillic; in Russian the word would be spelt Борат.


title: Faux Cyrillic

text: The letters А, В, Е, Ѕ*, І*, Ј*, К, М, Н, О, Р, С, Т, Ү*, У, Ғ*, Ѵ*, and Х are strongly homoglyphic or related to Latin letters, depending on intended sound values to the point that their substitution may not be noticed, unlike those listed above. If compatibility issues arise that limit mixing of scripts, these can be used with faux Cyrillic letters in lieu of their Latin counterparts.


title: Marcello Gandini

text: Marcello Gandini (born 26 August 1938) is an Italian car designer, known for his work with the automotive design house Gruppo Bertone, including his designs of the Lamborghini Miura, Countach, and the Lamborghini Diablo.


title: Marcello Gandini

text: In a 2009 interview with Robert Cumberford, editor at Automobile Magazine, Gandini indicated, "his design interests are focused on vehicle architecture, construction, assembly, and mechanisms – not appearance."


title: Marcello Gandini

text: In 1963, he approached Nuccio Bertone, head of the Gruppo Bertone company, for work. However, Giorgetto Giugiaro, then Bertone's chief designer, opposed him being hired. When Giugiaro left Bertone two years later, Gandini was hired, and worked for the company for fourteen years.


title: Marcello Gandini

text: Creator of Stile Bertone in Caprie, Gandini served as general manager of the styling house, designing show cars as well as managing the construction of prototype automobiles.


title: Marcello Gandini

text: Gandini designed Lamborghini's groundbreaking mid-engined Miura and extreme Countach in 1973, as well as many practical cars such as the Citroën BX, the first-generation BMW 5 Series (E12), the Innocenti Mini, and the Renault Supercinq. He introduced the concept of scissor doors with the Alfa Romeo 33 Carabo prototype, while the Lancia Stratos sports car was another Gandini design.


title: Marcello Gandini

text: Gandini has worked in other areas, including home architecture, the design of a nightclub interior, and the body styling of the Heli-Sport CH-7 helicopter.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: Christianity in Russia is the most widely professed religion in the country. The largest tradition is the Russian Orthodox Church. According to official sources, there are 170 eparchies of the Russian Orthodox Church, 145 of which are grouped in metropolitanates. There are from 500,000 to one million Old Believers, who represents an older form of Russian Orthodox Christianity, and who separated from the Orthodox Church in the 17th century as a protest against Patriarch Nikon's church reforms.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: The Catholic Church estimates that there are from 600,000 to 1.5 million Catholics in the country, exceeding government estimates of about 140,000. There is one Catholic Archdiocese, Mother of God at Moscow, with three suffragan dioceses (Saint Clement at Saratov, Saint Joseph at Irkutsk, Transfiguration at Novosibirsk) and the Apostolic Prefecture of Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk. According to the Slavic Center for Law and Justice, Protestants make up the second or third largest group of Christians in Russia, with approximately 3,500 organizations and more than 1 million followers. A large number of missionaries operating in the country are from Protestant denominations.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: Christianity was the religious self-identification of 47.1% of the Russian population in 2012. Other polls give different results: In the same year 2020 the Levada Center estimated that 63% of Russians were Christians; in 2020 the Public Opinion Foundation estimated that 63% of the population was Christian; in 2011 the Pew Research Center estimated that 71% of Russians were Christians; in 2011 Ipsos MORI estimated that 69% of Russians were Christians; and in 2021 the Russian Public Opinion Research Center (VCIOM) estimated that ~67% of Russians were Christians.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: The Russian "law on non-governmental organizations" that took effect in April 2007 requires non-governmental organizations (NGOs), including Christian churches, to register with state agencies, list their funding sources, and provide records of all meetings. In June 2016, Russia passed an anti-terrorism law that bans proselytizing and missionary activities. On July 8, 2016 the U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF) strongly condemned these measures stating, "Under the guise of confronting terrorism, they would grant authorities sweeping powers to curtail civil liberties, including setting broad restrictions on religious practices that would make it very difficult for religious groups to operate."


title: Christianity in Russia

text: An article in "The Christian Post", discussing the ban on proselytizing stated, "Human rights and religious freedom advocates argue that the law 'doesn't do that much to defend from terrorism and only prevents Christians and others who are not Orthodox from preaching and proselytizing.'" In 2017, the USCIRF reclassified Russia as one of the world's worst violators of religious liberty, recommending that the US government deem Russia a "country of particular concern" under the International Religious Freedom Act. Since 2016, Russian Christians face increased restrictions on public and private evangelism as a result of the Yarovaya law.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: According to a 2012 survey held in Russia by Sreda Arena, 66,840,000 people in the country (47.4% of the total population) identify as Christians.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: The Russian Orthodox Church is organized in a hierarchical structure. Each church and its attendees constitute a parish ("prikhod"). All parishes in a geographical region belong to an eparchy ("eparkhiya"—equivalent to a Western diocese). Eparchies are governed by bishops ("episkope" or "archierey"). There are around 130 Russian Orthodox eparchies worldwide. As of February 2, 2010, the Russian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) has 160 dioceses including 30,142 parishes served by 207 bishops, 28,434 priests and 3,625 deacons. There are 788 monasteries, including 386 for men and 402 for women.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: Some eparchies are organized into exarchates, or autonomous churches. These include the Belarusian, Latvian, Moldovan and Estonian Orthodox churches. The Chinese and Japanese Orthodox Churches were granted full autonomy by the Moscow Patriarchate, but this autonomy is not universally recognized. Smaller eparchies are usually governed by a single bishop. Larger eparchies, exarchates, and autonomous churches are governed by Metropolitan archbishops and sometimes have one or more bishops assigned to them. The highest level of authority in the Church is represented by the Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia, head of the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church. The Holy Synod is the governing body of the Church between the Bishops' Councils.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: According to Saint Tikhon's Orthodox University and other researchers, up to several hundred thousands of Orthodox believers were repressed for their faith in the Soviet period.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: Old Believers are Russian Orthodox Christians who maintain the liturgical and ritual practices of the Eastern Orthodox Church as they were before the reforms of Patriarch Nikon of Moscow. They split from the mainstream Russian Orthodox Church in the 17th century.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: In 1971, the Moscow Patriarchate revoked the anathemas placed on the Old Believers in the 17th century, but most Old Believer communities have not returned to Communion with other Orthodox Christians.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: As of 2006, the total number of Old Believers is estimated from 500,000 to 1 million, some living in isolated communities to which they fled centuries ago to avoid persecution. An Old Believer parish in the United States has entered into communion with the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia. Old-Believer churches in Russia have begun the restoration of their property, although Old Believers face many difficulties in claiming restitution rights for their churches. Moscow has churches for the most important Old Believer branches: Rogozhskaya Zastava (Popovtsy of the Belokrinitskaya hierarchy official center), a cathedral for the Novozybkovskaya hierarchy in Zamoskvorech'ye and Preobrazhenskaya Zastava where Pomortsy and Fedoseevtsy coexist.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: Long historical ties with Armenia have resulted in a significant presence of Armenian diaspora in Russia. Most of ethnic Armenians in Russia are adherents of the Armenian Apostolic Church, one of the main churches of the Oriental Orthodoxy, distinctive from Eastern Orthodoxy in terms of miaphysite christology. In spite of some theological differences, relations between Armenian Apostolic Church and the Russian Orthodox Church are very good. There are Armenian eparchies (dioceses), and many churches on the territory of Russia (see: List of Armenian churches in Russia).


title: Christianity in Russia

text: As of 2008, the Catholic Church in Russia had one Archdiocese of Mother of God at Moscow (headed by Archbishop Pavel Pezzi), three dioceses (Saint Clement at Saratov, Saint Joseph at Irkutsk, Transfiguration at Novosibirsk), one Apostolic Exarchate and one Apostolic Prefecture in Yuzhno Sakhalinsk. The Catholic Archbishop of Moscow has voiced his support for religious education in state sponsored schools, citing the examples of other countries.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: Relations with the Russian Orthodox church have been difficult for nearly a millennium, and attempts at re-establishing Catholicism have met with opposition. Pope John Paul II expressed a desire to visit Russia, but the Russian Orthodox Church resisted. In April 2002, Bishop Jerry Mazur of Eastern Siberia was stripped of his visa, forcing the appointment of a new bishop for that diocese. In 2002, five foreign Catholic priests were denied visas to return to Russia, construction of a new cathedral was blocked in Pskov, and a church in southern Russia was shot at. On December 25, 2005, Russian Orthodox activists planned to picket outside of Moscow's Catholic Cathedral, but the picket was cancelled. Despite easing of relations with the election of Pope Benedict XVI, there remain issues such as the readiness of the police to protect Catholics and other minorities from persecution.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: One thousand Russian Catholics gathered in the Virgin Mary's Immaculate Conception Cathedral in Moscow to watch the funeral of Pope John Paul II in 2005. He had previously given an 18th-century copy of the famous Our Lady of Kazan icon to the Russian Orthodox Church.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: There are also Byzantine Rite Catholic Church communes in Russia (in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Omsk and Nizhnevartovsk), which are in full communion with, and subject to, the authority of the Pope as defined by Eastern canon law. That tradition is closely connected with the ideas of philosopher and poet Vladimir Sergeyevich Solovyov.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: Baptists, Evangelical Christians, Lutherans, Pentecostals, Adventists, Methodists, Quakers and many other Protestant denominations are present in Russia, and some observers believe Russia will experience a Protestant revival in the future. There is particular growth among the Korean and German minorities. Baptists have been historically the largest Protestant group in Russia.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: Some Protestants, especially at the provincial level, report government restrictions and obstruction of their activities by local authorities. In April 2007, the European Court of Human Rights obliged Russia to pay €10,000 as non-pecuniary damages for the refusal to register the Moscow branch of the Salvation Army. One Baptist missionary and the minister said, "every religion outside Russian Orthodoxy is considered a cult, including Protestantism."


title: Christianity in Russia

text: According to Evangelical Christians Baptists who conducted a bicycle missionary expedition in July – August 2007, they faced serious obstacles and suspicious attitude from local authorities in several regions of Russia. Their services were banned several times in public parks. According to Yuri Sipko, president of the Union of Evangelical Christians-Baptists of Russia, the goal of the tour was to, "fight their way through on foot or on bicycles to reach even the most remote village and the most despairing person in order to convert them." These words are what caused most hostility towards Protestants.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: Certain Christian denominations consider themselves to have restored primitive Christianity and do not consider themselves part of Protestantism. Some Orthodox scholars view these denominations as 'totalitarian sects'. The largest of these denominations are Jehovah's Witnesses and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: "Zion's Watch Tower" (now called "The Watchtower", the primary journal of the Watch Tower Society) had subscribers in Russia as early as 1887. In 1935, the Watch Tower Society unsuccessfully attempted to establish a branch office in the Soviet Union to support members already there. By 1939, thousands of Jehovah's Witnesses were residing in the Baltic states when the Soviet Union absorbed those formerly independent countries. In the 1940s, the Soviet government forcibly dispersed thousands of Witnesses, in a program named Operation North, later described by Dr. N. S. Gordienko, a professor at Herzen University as having "just the opposite of what was expected; they wanted to weaken the organization of Jehovah's Witnesses in the USSR, but in fact, they only strengthened it". In the 1950s and 1960s, Jehovah's Witnesses were tracked, infiltrated, harassed, and persecuted by the Soviet government. By 1971, there were more than 4,500 Witnesses in the Soviet Union. When the denomination was formally recognized in March 1991, the organization reported 15,987 members in Russia. Beginning in 1993, Witness missionaries from Germany were assigned to Russia to support the local members. By 2014, Jehovah's Witnesses reported over 170,000 members in Russia.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: On March 23, 2017, the Russian News Agency TASS reported that Russia's Justice Ministry had suspended the activities of the Administrative Center of Jehovah's Witnesses in Russia due to extremist activities. On April 4, 2017 UN Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Opinion and Expression David Kaye, UN Special Rapporteur on Freedoms of Peaceful Assembly and Association Maina Kiai, and UN Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion and Belief Ahmed Shaheed condemned Russia's desire to ban Jehovah's Witnesses. However, on April 20, 2017, the Supreme Court of Russia issued a verdict upholding the claim from the country's Justice Ministry that Jehovah's Witnesses' activity violated laws on "extremism". The ruling liquidates the group's Russian headquarters in St. Petersburg and all of its 395 local religious organizations, ordering their property to be seized by the state. According to Forum 18, this is the first time that a court has ruled that a registered national centralized religious organization is "extremist" and banned. Various countries and international organizations have spoken out against Russia's religious abuses of Jehovah's Witnesses. An article in Newsweek stated, "Russia's decision to ban Jehovah's Witnesses in the country shows the 'paranoia' of Vladimir Putin's government, according to the chair of the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF)." The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum also expressed deep concern over Russia's treatment of Jehovah's Witnesses.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: In 1855 in the Novouzensk region, Ivan Grigorev Kanygin founded religious communities involving untraditional marriage and communal practices based on their interpretations of the New Testament. Although they called themselves Communists or Methodists (due to a claimed association with Methodism), an Orthodox priest named Khrisanf Rozhdestvenskiy labeled them "Mormons" in 1869 after the contemporaneous American movement, and the term was thereafter applied pejoratively to such adherents. In the 1870s, a separate community developed near the Volga city of Samara whose members avoided alcohol, tobacco and swearing, cooperated in commercial enterprises, and were governed by "apostles" and "prophets". Adherents refused to discuss their theological beliefs with outsiders, and their beliefs were mistakenly identified with Mormonism. The "Samara Mormons" came to tolerate the name into the 20th century, though they were not aware of the actual Latter Day Saint movement.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints had primitive beginnings in the Russian Empire. Joseph Smith called George J. Adams and Orson Hyde as missionaries to Russia in 1843, 13 years after the Church's creation. However, the death of Smith occurred, and Adams and Hyde never traveled to Russia. The first Russian converts were baptized in the nation in 1895. They were then imprisoned after the October Revolution in 1918. The Church had some contact with the Soviet Union, such as Ezra Taft Benson visiting Moscow in 1959 and Yuri Dubinin visiting Utah and the Brigham Young University campus in April 1990. The Book of Mormon was translated into Russian and published in 1981. The Church was able to reestablish its presence in Russia in 1990, and the Russian government officially recognized the Church in May 1991. Membership grew in the 1990s and early 2000s, and by 2009, the Church reported membership of 19,946 in 129 congregations in Russia. According to the Church's website, no membership statistics are currently available. The Church's proselyting efforts were impacted by the 2019 Yarovaya law; missionaries are now referred to as "volunteers" and cannot speak openly about the Church outside of official Church sites. In 2018, Russell M. Nelson announced at the April General Conference of the Church that a temple would be constructed in a major city in Russia.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: Translation of the Bible into Russian began in the 16th and 17th centuries. However, the works (by deacon of Posolsky Prikaz Avraamiy Firsov, pastor E. Gluk, and archbishop Methodiy (Smirnov)) were lost during political turbulence and wars.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: Full-scale translation of the Bible into Russian began in 1813, with the establishment of the Russian Bible Society. The complete Bible comprising the Old Testament and New Testament was published in 1876. This work, called the Russian Synodal Bible, is widely used by Protestant communities in Russia and former Soviet countries. From 1813 until 1826, the Russian Bible Society distributed more than 500,000 Bible-related books in 41 languages. During the 19th and 20th centuries, activities of the Society were stopped by reactionary policies of the Russian government, but were restored in 1990–1991 when Soviet regime restrictions eased.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: The opening ceremony of the Russian Bible Society in Moscow was visited by representatives of Orthodox, Catholic and Protestant churches, who combined their Bible translation and distribution efforts. The Russian Bible Society produces over 1,000,000 Bible-related books per year. The Society also translates the Bible into the languages and dialects of various ethnic groups throughout Russia.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: Mikhail Iakovlevich Glukharev, known as Archimandrite Makarios, was a Russian Orthodox missionary who translated most of the Old Testament between 1839 and 1847, while a contemporary associate named Gerasim Petrovich Pavsky translated Psalms. Makarios was unable to publish his translation, but a journal called "Orthodox Review" acquired and published the "Makarios Bible" in installments between 1860 and 1867, under the title "An Experiment of Translation Into the Russian Language". The magazines were rediscovered in 1993 in the rare-books section of the Russian National Library, which gave permission for the works to be published. In January 1997, the Watch Tower Society arranged for publication and distribution of the translation throughout Russia.


title: Christianity in Russia

text: In 2002, the Watch Tower Society released the "Holy Bible (with New World Translation of the Christian Greek Scriptures)" in Russian. The complete "New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures" in Russian was released in 2007.


title: The Chronicles of Narnia (TV series)

text: The Chronicles of Narnia is a British BBC-produced television serial that was aired from 13 November 1988 to 23 December 1990 and is based on four books of C. S. Lewis's "The Chronicles of Narnia" series. The first series aired was "The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe" in 1988, the second series aired was "Prince Caspian" and "The Voyage of the Dawn Treader" in 1989 and the third series aired was "The Silver Chair" in 1990. This television serial was produced by Paul Stone, with the teleplay by Alan Seymour. "The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe" was directed by Marilyn Fox, while "Prince Caspian, The Voyage of the Dawn Treader" and "The Silver Chair" were directed by Alex Kirby.


title: The Chronicles of Narnia (TV series)

text: Peter, Susan, Edmund and Lucy Pevensie are siblings who are evacuated from London because of the air raids in World War II. Soon after arriving at their temporary home, the four children discover that a wardrobe in a spare room contains a portal to the magical land of Narnia. There, they become involved in a war against the White Witch, and help restore the true ruler, a lion called Aslan, serving as kings and queens under him for many years before returning to their own world through the wardrobe.


title: The Chronicles of Narnia (TV series)

text: The four Pevensie children are waiting at a train station when a magical force pulls them back into Narnia, where they help Prince Caspian overthrow his evil uncle, King Miraz, and take the throne.


title: The Chronicles of Narnia (TV series)

text: Back in England, Edmund and Lucy visit their cousin Eustace Scrubb. All three are sucked into a painting of Prince Caspian's ship, the Dawn Treader. Caspian, who has grown into a young man since they last saw him, explains that he is on a quest to find seven lords who were friends of his late father. The quest requires them to sail through dangerous waters, encountering new islands where things are not what they seem, and finally to sail to the end of the world.


title: The Chronicles of Narnia (TV series)

text: Eustace Scrubb, cousin of the Pevensies, is at a boarding school with a girl named Jill Pole. While running away from bullies, they pass through a doorway into Aslan's country. Eustace accidentally falls off a cliff, but is blown to Narnia. Alone, Jill encounters Aslan, who explains that in Narnia, King Caspian's only son and heir, Prince Rilian, disappeared some years earlier. Jill is told to memorise four signs that will lead her and Eustace to Rilian. Aslan sends Jill to Narnia, where she is reunited with Eustace near the castle of Cair Paravel and the two follow the four signs as they search for the lost prince. They finally rescue Rilian and return to Narnia with him shortly before the elderly Caspian dies.


title: The Chronicles of Narnia (TV series)

text: The series were nominated for a total of 16 awards, including a nomination for an Emmy in the category of "Outstanding Children's Program". The series won the BAFTA Award for "Best Video Lighting" (1988), and was nominated for "Best Children's Programme (Entertainment / Drama)" (1988, 1989, 1990), "Best Video Lighting" (1989, 1990), "Best Make Up" (1988, 1989, 1990), "Best Costume Design" (1988, 1989), "Best Design" (1989, 1990), and "Best Video Cameraman" (1989, 1990).


title: The Chronicles of Narnia (TV series)

text: In Australia the first DVD release was 1 October 2005 as the 'Collector's Edition' Box Set which was a fold out package with 4 discs. Features Behind the scenes, Narnia trivia and more. There have been several later issues.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: The Santa Monica Mountains is a coastal mountain range in Southern California, next to the Pacific Ocean. It is part of the Transverse Ranges. Because of its proximity to densely populated regions, it is one of the most visited natural areas in California. The Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area encompasses this mountain range.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: The range extends approximately east-west from the Hollywood Hills in Los Angeles to Point Mugu in Ventura County. The western mountains, separating the Conejo Valley from Malibu, suddenly end at Mugu Peak as the rugged, nearly impassible shoreline gives way to tidal lagoons and coastal sand dunes of the alluvial Oxnard Plain. The mountain range contributed to the isolation of this vast coastal plain before regular transportation routes reached western Ventura County. The eastern mountains form a barrier between the San Fernando Valley and the Los Angeles Basin, separating "the Valley" on the north and west-central Los Angeles on the south. The Santa Monica Mountains are parallel to the Santa Susana Mountains, which are located directly north of the mountains across the San Fernando Valley.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: The range is of moderate height, with no particularly craggy or prominent peaks outside the Sandstone Peak and Boney Mountains area. While often rugged and wild, the range hosts a substantial amount of human activity and development. Houses, roads, businesses, and recreational centers are dotted throughout the Santa Monica Mountains.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: A number of creeks in the Santa Monica Mountains are part of the Los Angeles River watershed. Beginning at the western end of the San Fernando Valley, the river runs to the north of the mountains. After passing between the range and the Verdugo Mountains it flows south around Elysian Park, defining the easternmost extent of the mountains.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: The Santa Monica Mountains have more than 1,000 archeology sites of significance, primarily from the cultures of the Tongva and Chumash people. The mountains were part of their regional homelands for over eight thousand years before the arrival of the Spanish. The Spanish mission system had a dramatic impact on their culture, and by 1831 their population had dropped from over 22,000 to under 3,000.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: Geologists consider the northern Channel Islands to be a westward extension of the Santa Monicas into the Pacific Ocean. The range was created by repeated episodes of uplifting and submergence by the Raymond Fault, which created complex layers of sedimentary rock, some containing fossils of invertebrates and fish. Volcanic intrusions have been exposed, including the poorly named andesitic "Sandstone Peak", which is the highest point in the range at . Malibu Creek, which eroded its own channel while the mountains were slowly uplifted, bisects the mountain range.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: The Santa Monica Mountains have dry summers with frequent coastal fog on the ocean (south) side of the range and rainy, cooler winters. In the summer, the climate is quite dry (except for the coastal fog), which makes the range prone to wildfires, especially during dry "Santa Ana" wind events.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: Snow is unusual in the Santa Monica Mountains, since they are not as high as the nearby San Gabriel Mountains. The lower slopes of the range average between of rain per year, while the higher slopes of the central and western Santa Monica Mountains average of rain per year. The bulk of the rain falls between November and March. The higher rainfall in the central and western parts of the range results in more widespread woodlands (with oak, sycamore, walnut, bay laurel, alder and other trees) than the eastern part of the range, where trees are usually restricted to the stream courses.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: On January 17, 2007, an unusually cold storm brought snow in the Santa Monica Mountains. The hills above Malibu picked up three inches (eight centimeters) of snow - the first measurable snow in fifty years. Snow was reported on Boney Peak in the winter of 2005; and in March 2006, snow also fell on the summit of the mountain. Snow also fell on the peak of Boney Peak in late December 2008. The latest recorded snowfall in the area was in February 2019, when an unusual amount of snowfall accumulated in low passes in the mountains. That storm system also brought rare snowfall to the Los Angeles area. Heavy graupel was recorded in Malibu Canyon on January 23, 2021. It accumulated as low as 400 feet in elevation.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: In the Santa Monica Mountains, when the fuels, seasonal drought, wind, and terrain combine with an ignition, a major wildfire occurs. These fires are large, wind-driven canopy fires that consume the above ground vegetation and often cause major property damage and home losses.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: In 2018, the Woolsey Fire burned through 88% of the federal parkland resulting in trails being closed for months. The fire, which was three times larger than the biggest fire ever before in the mountains, burned over 40% of the natural area in the Santa Monicas. A restoration plan was developed to plant 100,000 trees, shrubs and grasses of 25 different species.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: Much of the mountains are located within the Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area. Preservation of lands within the region are managed by the Santa Monica Mountains Conservancy, the National Park Service, the California State Parks, and County and Municipal agencies. The Santa Monica Mountains face pressure from local populations as a desirable residential area, and in the parks as a recreational retreat and wild place that's increasingly rare in urban Los Angeles. In 2014 the California Coastal Commission and the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors approved the Santa Monica Mountains Local Coastal Program, a land-use plan that will distinguish between the private lands that need strict protection and property that could be developed in strict conformance with this detailed plan.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: Over twenty individual state and municipal parks are in the Santa Monica Mountains, including: Topanga State Park, Leo Carrillo State Park, Malibu Creek State Park, Point Mugu State Park, Will Rogers State Historic Park, Point Dume State Beach, Griffith Park, Marvin Braude Mulholland Gateway Park, Charmlee Wilderness Park, Franklin Canyon Park, Runyon Canyon Park, King Gillette Ranch Park, and Paramount Ranch Park.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: The Satwiwa Native American Indian Culture Center in Newbury Park, California is located within the Santa Monica Mountains National Recreation Area. The area was purchased by the U.S. National Park Service in 1980. The Rosewood Trail near Stagecoach Inn, which leads to Angel Vista is an access point in Newbury Park.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: At the eastern end of the Santa Monica Mountains are Griffith Park and Elysian Park. Griffith Park is separated from the rest of the Santa Monica Mountains to the west by the Cahuenga Pass, over which the 101 Freeway (also called the Hollywood Freeway) passes from the San Fernando Valley into Hollywood. Elysian Park is in the easternmost part of the mountains and is bordered by the Los Angeles River to the east and Downtown Los Angeles nearby to the south.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: The Rim of the Valley Trail is a plan in progress for accessing and connecting the parkland and recreational areas of the mountains surrounding the Conejo, San Fernando, Simi, and Crescenta Valleys. With trailheads in the mountains and valleys, it would link them through existing and new: walking, hiking, equestrian, and mountain biking trails; parklands; and conservation easements. The Rim of the Valley project also has the goal to protect flora and fauna habitats and wildlife corridors between the Santa Monica Mountains and the inland ranges.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: The range is host to a variety of wildlife. A common cause of bobcat fatalities is being struck by vehicles. Their main cause of death is mange, a skin disease often found in animals that have ingested rat poison.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: The mountain lions population is challenged because the Santa Monica Mountains are isolated and not big enough for weaned cubs to find their own territory. The primary cause of the decline is due to a combination of traffic-related mortality, anti-coagulants ingested from human poisoned prey, and attacks by other, more dominant mountain lions. The Wallis Annenberg Wildlife Crossing will bridge the Ventura Freeway which acts as a barrier in the wildlife corridor between the Simi Hills to the north and the Santa Monica Mountains to the south. The National Park Service has recorded a dozen mountain lions struck and killed by motorists on this section of freeway since 2002 when they began a study. Mountain lions approach this particular area and turn back without attempting the hazardous crossing of the freeway as shown by GPS tracking collars fitted to them by the researchers. In 2020, wildlife biologists found the first evidence of physical abnormalities in the isolated population. Newcomers would bring new genetic material into the mountains where the lack of genetic diversity is a serious threat to their long-term survival. It would allow young mountain lions, born in the Santa Monicas, a chance to find a new territory before possibly being killed by one of the more dominant, older males. P-22 was a wild mountain lion residing in Griffith Park in the eastern end of the range.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: Snakes are common but only occasionally seen: the Southern Pacific rattlesnake (the only venomous species), mountain kingsnake, California kingsnake, gopher snake, and garter snake. The mountains are also home to the western fence lizard and the coastal whiptail. Also the endangered Southern California Distinct Population Segment of steelhead is found here.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: The population of red-legged frogs is small and isolated, and was impacted by the Woolsey Fire swept through the area in November 2018.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: The Santa Monica Mountains are in the California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion, and includes the California oak woodland and southern coastal sage scrub plant community, and are covered by hundreds of local plant species, some of which are very rare or endemic, and others which are widespread and have become popular horticultural ornamentals. Dudleya verityi is a rare species of succulent plant known by the common name Verity's liveforever. Endemic to Ventura County, this species is only found on one edge of the Santa Monica Mountains, where it occurs in coastal sage scrub habitat. The most common trees in the mountains are oak and sycamore. The California black walnut, endemic to California, grows on the northern side of the mountains in the Valley and Griffith Park. Other species include willow and alder (along stream courses) and bay laurel. Several species of ferns (including large sword ferns) are found in wetter, shady areas throughout the range, especially near streams.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: Many invasive weeds have colonized the mountain habitats which can bring about significant changes in the ecosystems by altering the native plant communities and the processes that support them. These non-native plants include annual Mediterranean grasses, Spanish broom ("Genista juncea"), and yellow starthistle ("Centaurea solstitialis"). In creekside riparian habitats are found plants such as giant cane ("Arundo donax"), German ivy ("Delairea odorata"), blue periwinkle ("Vinca major"), and ivy ("Hedera spp.").


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: More frequent fires have created conditions favorable to invasive plants. The 2018 Woolsey Fire burned through 88% of the federal parkland. The fire, which was three times larger than the biggest fire ever before in the mountains, burned over 40% of the natural area in the Santa Monicas. The fire created a challenge to native plants as black mustard with bright yellow flowers quickly established itself as a wet winter followed the fire. The mustard plants will also provide fuel for the next fires.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: The New Zealand mud snail is an invasive species found in the Santa Monica Mountains, that pose a serious threat to native species, complicating efforts to improve stream-water quality for the endangered steelhead. Within a period of four years, the snails expanded from their first known population in Medea Creek in Agoura Hills to nearly 30 other stream sites. Researchers at the Santa Monica Bay Restoration Commission believe the snails' expansion may have been expedited after the mollusks traveled from stream to stream on the gear of contractors and volunteers.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: Cahuenga Pass, present-day site of U.S. Route 101, is the easiest pass through the range connecting the Los Angeles Basin to the San Fernando Valley. In the 1800s, two battles were fought there, and the Treaty of Cahuenga was signed nearby. In Hollywood's heyday, movie studios were found clustered on both sides of the highway.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: Sepulveda Pass is the main north–south pass to the west, connecting the Westside to Sherman Oaks via the San Diego Freeway (I-405) and Sepulveda Boulevard.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: Minor passes between the Sepulveda and Cahuenga passes include: Laurel Canyon Boulevard, Coldwater Canyon Avenue, and Beverly Glen Boulevard. Further west of the Sepulveda Pass are Topanga Canyon Boulevard (SR 27), Malibu Canyon Road and Kanan Dume Road.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: Mulholland Drive runs much of the length of the Santa Monica Mountains, from Cahuenga Pass to Woodland Hills, although it is not open to motor vehicles west of Encino. The Mulholland Highway runs from Woodland Hills to Sequit Point at the Pacific Ocean.


title: Santa Monica Mountains

text: The eastern end of the range, located in the City of Los Angeles, is more intensively developed than the western end. The city of Malibu runs between the coast and the leading mountain ridge, from Topanga Canyon in the east to Leo Carrillo State Park in the west.


title: Attack on Titan 2

text: , known in PAL regions as A.O.T. 2, is an action hack and slash video game based on Hajime Isayama's manga series of the same name released for Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 4, PlayStation Vita, Xbox One, Microsoft Windows and Stadia.


title: Attack on Titan 2

text: The game covers the plot of the first 50 chapters of "Attack on Titan" (also covered by the first two seasons of the anime adaptation), allowing the player to create an original character and interact with the characters of the manga.


title: Attack on Titan 2

text: The DLC "Final Battle" covers chapters 51 to 90 of the manga (also covered by the third season of the anime).


title: Attack on Titan 2

text: The game features cel-shaded graphics and features the player defeating the titans in large, open areas. Key new features over the first title include a story-mode that's entirely playable in co-op, as well as a character creator.


title: Attack on Titan 2

text: Developed by Omega Force and published by Koei Tecmo, development launched shortly after completion of the first title. In an interview with Polygon, producer Hisashi Koinuma and Omega Force CEO Hideo Suzuki mentioned that a key focus was on making the AI more intelligent, as well as making the game more difficult in comparison to the first title. They've also worked closely with the manga's publisher Kodansha and writer Hajime Isayama in the creation of additional elements to the story. Initially the English voice cast were going to record dialogue but this was not realised due to time constraints, very much like the first game. A demo of the game was released in Japan on April 26, 2019 and worldwide on May 7, 2019 and it was distributed til July 31, 2019. The DLC "The Final Battle" was released on July 4, 2019 in Japan and on July 5 in North America and Europe.


title: Attack on Titan 2

text: "Attack on Titan 2" sold 28,480 copies on PlayStation 4 within its first week on sale in Japan, which placed it at number three on the all format sales chart. The Nintendo Switch version sold 22,941 in the same week, whilst the PlayStation Vita version sold 15,621 copies.


title: Attack on Titan 2

text: The game was nominated for "Sound Editing in a Game Cinema" at the National Academy of Video Game Trade Reviewers Awards.


title: Stephen Pagliuca

text: Stephen Gerard Pagliuca (born January 16, 1955) is an American private equity investor, co-chairman of Bain Capital, and co-owner of the Boston Celtics of the National Basketball Association (NBA) and Atalanta of Italian Serie A association football league.


title: Stephen Pagliuca

text: Raised in the Basking Ridge section of Bernards Township, New Jersey, Pagliuca graduated from Ridge High School in 1973. He attended Duke University where he played freshman basketball before receiving a BA in 1977. He has served on Duke's Trinity Board of Investors from 2001 to 2008, chairing the board from 2005 to 2007. He is a member of the Campaign Steering Committee and also serves on the board of trustees, serving on the Audit Committee and the Institutional Advancement Committee.


title: Stephen Pagliuca

text: Pagliuca received an MBA from Harvard Business School (HBS) in 1982. He is member of the HBS Board of Dean's Advisors, the University Board of Overseers Committee on University Resources and the HBS Healthcare Initiative Advisory Board. He serves on the MGH President's Council and co-chairs the HBS Fund.


title: Stephen Pagliuca

text: Pagliuca started his career as a senior accountant and international tax specialist at Peat Marwick Mitchell & Company in the Netherlands (Peat Marwick is today KPMG).


title: Stephen Pagliuca

text: Following this, he joined Bain & Company, a global consulting firm, in 1982 where he managed client relationships in the information services and healthcare industries. Pagliuca also was involved in the creation of Bain & Company's turnaround practice. He then founded the Information Partners Venture Capital Fund and joined Bain Capital in 1989, where he began investing in numerous companies in the media, technology, financial services and healthcare industries. In 2016, he was named co-chairman of the firm.


title: Stephen Pagliuca

text: He is a former member of the Board of Directors of Burger King, Warner Chilcott, Gartner Group and the Hospital Corporation of America.


title: Stephen Pagliuca

text: In 2009, Pagliuca was a Democratic candidate for the U.S. Senate position formerly occupied by Ted Kennedy. He is a member of Congressman Joe Kennedy's Finance Committee, the Campaign to Fix the Debt and the Democratic National Advisory Committee.


title: Stephen Pagliuca

text: Pagliuca is the managing general partner and member of the executive committee of the Boston Celtics and serves as a member of the Board of Governors and the Competition Committee for the National Basketball Association.


title: Stephen Pagliuca

text: On 19 February 2022, Pagliuca, together with a number of other investors, acquired a 55% stake of Italian Serie A association football club Atalanta. Under the new agreement, Pagliuca was named co-chairman of the club.


title: Stephen Pagliuca

text: Pagliuca is co-chair of the Boston 2024 Olympics Finance Committee. Earlier this year Boston's bid for the 2024 Olympics was thrown out by the IOC. He also is a member of HBS’ Board of Dean's Advisors, Harvard University's Board of Overseers’ Committee on University Resources, the HBS Healthcare Initiative Advisory Board and co-chair of the HBS Fund. He is a member of Duke University's board of trustees and serves on Massachusetts General Hospital's President's Council.


title: Stephen Pagliuca

text: In 2005, Pagliuca received the Bright Star Award as recognition for his charitable activities from Bill Clinton. In 2010, Habitat Humanity presented him with the American Dream Award for outstanding contributions to the Greater Boston Community.


title: Ertuğrul Osman

text: Şehzade Ertuğrul Osman Efendi (), also known as Osman Ertuğrul Osmanoğlu with a surname as required by the Turkish Republic (18 August 1912 – 23 September 2009), was a Prince of the Ottoman Empire and the 43rd Head of the Imperial House of Osman from 1994 until his death.


title: Ertuğrul Osman

text: Until the abolition of the monarchy on 1 November 1922, Osman was addressed as His Imperial Highness Şehzade Ertuğrul Osman Efendi Hazretleri, Imperial Prince of the Ottoman Empire. He is known in Turkey as "the Last Ottoman".


title: Ertuğrul Osman

text: Şehzade Ertuğrul Osman was born on 18 August 1912 in Istanbul, in Nişantaşı Palace. He was the second, and youngest son of Şehzade Mehmed Burhaneddin (Yıldız Palace, 19 December 1885 – New York City, United States, 15 June 1949, and buried in Damascus). His father served as a Captain of the Ottoman Army. Ertuğrul Osman's mother was Burhaneddin's second consort, Aliye Melek Nazlıyar Hanım (Adapazarı, 13 October 1892 – Ankara, 31 August 1976), daughter of Huseyin Bey. They married at Nişantaşı, Nişantaşı Palace, Pera (today Beyoğlu) on 7 June 1909 and divorced in 1919. Osman's paternal grandparents were Sultan Abdul Hamid II and Mezidemestan Kadın.


title: Ertuğrul Osman

text: In 1924, while studying in Vienna, Austria, he received news that all members of the Sultan's family were to be exiled. He lived in the United States from 1933 and later resided in New York City. He was educated in mining engineering. He worked as consultant for a Canadian company Wells Overseas which often sent him to South America.


title: Ertuğrul Osman

text: Osman lived modestly in Manhattan after 1945, residing in a two-bedroom apartment above a restaurant. He returned to Turkey in 1992, having been invited by the country's government. At that time, he observed, "Democracy works well in Turkey." He became the 43rd Head of the Imperial House of Osman in 1994.


title: Ertuğrul Osman

text: He died aged 97 on 23 September 2009. The Turkish Ministry of Culture announced that Ertuğrul had died in his sleep as a result of kidney failure. His wife, who was by his side, when he died, also confirmed the cause of death. The Prince had spent one week in Istanbul's Memorial hospital at the time of his death. Osman's funeral was held at the Sultan Ahmed Mosque in Istanbul on 26 September. His body was interred next to his grandfather Sultan Abdul Hamid II in Istanbul's Çemberlitaş neighborhood. His coffin was draped with the Imperial Ottoman Standard and his funeral was attended by Turkish Government Ministers. The Prime Minister of the Republic of Turkey and the President of the Republic of Turkey both sent condolences to the Imperial family. The Prime Minister also later visited Osman's widow at a former Imperial Palace to express his condolences.


title: Ertuğrul Osman

text: He was married twice, first in New York City, New York, on 20 January 1947 to Gulda Twerskoy (Johannesburg, South Africa, 20 March 1915 – New York City, 16 September 1985), without issue. His second wife, whom he married on a football pitch, on 27 September 1991, also without issue, Zeynep Tarzi (born Istanbul, 16 December 1940), is the daughter of Abdulfettah Tarzi, nephew-in-law of the former King of Afghanistan, Amanullah Khan, and of Pakize Tarzi, a pioneering Turkish gynaecologist from a deep-rooted Ottoman family. He was married to Zeynep until his death at 97 years of age.


title: Isabella of Mar

text: Isabella of Mar (fl. c. 1277 – 12 December 1296) was the first wife of Robert Bruce VII, Earl of Carrick. Isabella died before her husband was crowned (as Robert I) King of Scotland. She and her husband were the grandparents of Robert II, King of Scotland, founder of the Royal House of Stuart.


title: Isabella of Mar

text: Isabella was the daughter of Domhnall I, Earl of Mar (died 1297 - 1302) and Elena, daughter of Llywelyn the Great (died after 1295). Isabella's father was evidently an adherent of Robert Bruce V, Lord of Annandale (died 1295), a man who staked a claim to the Scottish throne. The close relationship between Domhnall's family and the Bruces is evidenced by two marriages; the first between Isabella and Robert, and the second between Domhnall's son and comital successor, Gartnait (died c.1302), and a sister of Robert Bruce VII.


title: Isabella of Mar

text: The marriage of Robert Bruce VII and Isabella probably took place in the 1290s. The union produced a single child, a daughter named Marjorie (died 1316), who was born in about 1296. Robert and Isabella's daughter, Marjorie, married Walter Stewart, Steward of Scotland, and their son eventually reigned as Robert II, King of Scotland (died 1390).


title: Isabella of Mar

text: Six years after Isabella's death in childbirth, Robert Bruce VII married his second wife, Elizabeth de Burgh (died 1327).


title: Isabella of Mar

text: As the daughter of an Earl, Isabella's life was deeply entwined with the politics of her kingdom. In 1286, a few years after her birth, King Alexander III was found dead on the shores near Kinghorn. His heir, Margaret of Norway, was too young to take the throne at this time, but four years later in 1290, she made her way to Orkney, where she died an infant. What followed was Scotland's most notorious succession dispute, one that eventually led to Bruce's ascension and the Scottish Wars of Independence. After Margaret's death, the Scottish nobles formed factions in support of the two primary families vying for the throne, the House of Balliol and the House of Bruce. The fate of Isabella, her kingdom, and the future Stewart dynasty all hinged on these two houses.


title: Isabella of Mar

text: At around the same time, Isabella's father, Domhnall I, Earl of Mar, was seeking a strong ally that could protect his clan from covetous neighbors. When the succession crisis first arose, Domhnall was already amid a clan dispute with John Comyn of Badenoch. Domhnall claimed that the Comyns had pillaged his lands, and he was thus eager for an excuse to take up arms against this powerful neighbor. As the Comyns were staunch supporters of John Balliol’s claim to the throne, Domhnall found a natural ally in Clan Bruce. As the chronicler, John of Fordun, wrote “all the Comyns and their whole abettors stood by Balliol; but the earls of Mar and Atholl, with the whole strength of their power, cleaved, in the firm league of kinship, to the side of Robert of Bruce.” Domhnall summoned an army within a mere fortnight of Margret's death, eager and ready to support his newfound ally. This succession dispute, or “Great Cause,” was what initially brought Isabella's Clan Mar and the House of Bruce together as allies.


title: Isabella of Mar

text: Isabella's father sought to use Isabella to strengthen ties with the powerful Bruce family. And though Clan Mar had no shortage of enemies prior to Margret's death, the succession dispute and their siding with Bruce had brought them new opponents. There was thus a great pressure on the part of Domhnall to sow a strong bond with new allies who could protect the Mars from their growing list of enemies, and in this age of diplomatic marriage, that meant that Isabella was to wed into an allied clan. The premier choice for Isabella's spouse was the young Robert the Bruce, the Earl of Carrick and future King of Scots—and also the grandson of Robert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale, who was vying for the throne at that time. In the late thirteenth century, the 5th Lord of Annandale was nearing the end of his life, and thus, Domhnall saw the young Earl of Carrick as a potential future king. By pursuing a marriage between Isabella and Bruce, Domnall was not only strengthening his bond with allies, which was his primary goal, but was also marrying into a powerful family that might one day rule the kingdom. Isabella, like many European noblewomen in the medieval age, was used as a diplomatic pawn by her ambitious father.


title: Isabella of Mar

text: The House of Bruce's interest in Isabella was politically motivated as well, though their interest existed before the succession dispute. To the North of the Earldom of Mar laid the lordship of Garioch. Garioch was a land divided between four different co-heirs, including the House of Bruce. Two of the other co-heirs were John Balliol and John Hastings, who would later fight Bruce for the throne. In April 1290, Bruce made an agreement with Nichlas Biggar, a minor nobleman who held a legal claim to Garioch. This arrangement granted Bruce the two-thirds of the lordship which Balliol and Hastings held; yet, in the end, the arrangement was insubstantial for attaining the lordship, so Bruce turned his eyes south to Clan Mar. As historian Michael Brown wrote:As Earl Donald's [Domnall’s] earldom bordered the Garioch and since he held lands in the lordship as Balliol's vassal, Donald had a direct interest in the process. These overlapping landed concerns may have fuelled the growing political alignment between Mar and Bruce which was, once again, formalised through marriage.Even before the succession dispute, the House of Bruce sought a marriage with Clan Mar to strengthen their claim on the lordship of Garioch. Their interests would only “overlap” further with Margret's death and Balliol's rival claim. The marriage between Isabella and Bruce was thus politically motivated—the two clans shared enemies and sought to strengthen their political ties through the marriage.


title: Isabella of Mar

text: Isabella died shortly after her marriage with Robert the Bruce, but not before delivering her daughter, Marjorie Bruce. The details of Isabella's death, like her life, are obscured by our lack of primary sources; however, it is likely she died during-—or shortly after—Majorie's birth in 1296. Death during childbirth was far from uncommon in the medieval age. As medievalist, Jennifer Edwards, has noted, childbirth in the medieval age was “dangerous for all women […] Pregnancy and childbirth were recognized as perilous, as well as uncomfortable, times.” However, Isabella's early death—at around the age of 19—was atypical, even for the medieval age. Most women who died during childbirth were much older than Isabella; as a point of comparison, modern scholars have estimated that the average age of Norwich women in the 11th century was only 33. This was due to the frequency of childbirth—as Edwards explained, “this statistic does correlate with the time when women were most likely on a second, third, or subsequent pregnancy and thus most at risk of death in childbirth.” So, while death during child birth was not unusual, Isabella's death during her "first" pregnancy was premature, even for the time.


title: Isabella of Mar

text: The year of Marjorie's birth (1296) was a chaotic time for her father, as on March 26, 1296, seven Scottish earls loyal to Comyn launched a surprise attack on Carlisle, Bruce's principal residence at the time. The attack failed, but it proved to be a catalyst to English King Edward's growing frustration with the Scots. In 1296, John Balliol successfully beat Bruce to the throne after being elected by a group of noblemen selected by Edward. But Balliol did not remain loyal to Edward for long, and soon made an alliance with his most powerful enemy—the French. Edward saw the creation of this “Auld Alliance” as a betrayal, and with the recent attack on Carlisle—which Edward considered an attack on England itself—he lost all patience with the Scots. He marched his armies north in March 1296, beginning the Scottish Wars of Independence, and winning substantial victories at Berwick and Dunbar, eventually deposing the then King of Scots, John Balliol. By July 1297, Bruce had joined in the revolt, fighting the English and coaxing Edward towards negotiations. After numerous defeats, Edward signed a treaty in exchange for an oath of allegiance, and due to Bruce's habit of turning coat, Edward ordered that Bruce provide the infant Marjorie as a hostage—as collateral for her father's loyalty. The details of what occurred next are unfortunately sparse. We know that Bruce never delivered Marjorie, but why Edward did not retaliate against this blatant disobedience remains a mystery. Perhaps Edward simply more important issue to tend to. The Guardian of Scotland at that time, William Wallace, did not sign the treaty and was still in open revolt. Wallace received a devastating loss from Edward at Falkirk, and with that, the revolt was extinguished. Edward then marched back to England, seemingly content with his victories and made no further demands for Marjorie.


title: Isabella of Mar

text: Bruce remained nominally loyal to Edward until February 10, 1306, when he murdered his rival, John Comyn, at the high alter of the Chapel of Greyfriars Monastery in Dumfries. With his rival defeated, Bruce broke his allegiance to Edward and attacked the English garrisoned at Dumfries Castle. Later that year, on March 25, 1306, Bruce was officially crowned King of Scots. Edward marched North that spring to depose his former ally.


title: Isabella of Mar

text: Though Bruce lost most of his initial battles as King, he remained elusive and escaped Edward's grasp time and time again. In June 1306, Edward's forces dealt Bruce a devastating defeat at the Battle of Methven. To keep his family out of Edward's hands, Bruce sent word to his brother, Neil, and to the Earl of Atholl requesting that they take Marjorie and his wife to Kildrummy Castle until it was safe. They lived there briefly for a few months until September 1306, when Edward II, Prince of Wales, personally led an assault on the castle. The outnumbered Scots received yet another devastating defeat, but this time there was nowhere to run and the Scottish lords at Kildrummy were captured and executed, including Neil Bruce. The quick-thinking Earl of Atholl, however, managed to escape and took Robert's wife, his sister, and Marjorie into hiding. They were betrayed days after their flight by Uilleam II, Earl of Ross, a fervent supporter of Balliol who handed Atholl and the Bruces over to the English. The Earl of Atholl was executed, but Queen Elizabeth and the twelve-year-old Marjorie and were taken alive and held hostage for nearly a decade.


title: Isabella of Mar

text: The details of Marjorie's captivity are once again sparse, though we know that a cage was built for her outside the Tower of London. This cage was likely designed for the same purpose as the one made for Isabella MacDuff, the Countess of Buchan who oversaw Bruce's coronation. MacDuff's cage was set in the public's view outside Berwick Castle as a warning to rebels and, possibly, as a ploy to coax Bruce out of hiding. According to the chronicle, "Flores Historiarum", Edward ordered:Because she has not struck with the sword, she shall not die by the sword; but, on account of the unlawful coronation which she performed, let her be closely confined in an abode of stone and iron, made in the shape of a crown, and let her be hung up out of doors in the open air at Berwick, that both in her life and after her death she may be a spectacle and eternal reproach to travellers.Marjorie's aunt, Mary Bruce, was held in a similar cage outside Roxburgh Castle, and endured exposure and public humiliation as MacDuff did. Marjorie however, in the end, was spared this ordeal. Perhaps Edward felt Mary's and MacDuff's humiliation sufficed enough, though, there is no evidence to definitively say why Edward decided to spare Marjorie from her cage; instead, Edward sent her to the Gilbertine convent in Watton, where she lived in virtual isolation for the next seven years.


title: Isabella of Mar

text: Bruce fought another seven hard years for his family and crown, culminating in the famous Battle of Bannockburn which saw a Scottish victory over an English army more than triple their size. During the fight, the English Humphrey de Bohun, 4th Earl of Hereford, was captured. Bruce leveraged this powerful Earl for Marjorie's release, and on October 1314, the two sides met and exchanged the English Earl for the Scottish Princess. Of course, Bruce himself was not there for the exchange; instead, he sent the young Walter Stewart—the 6th High Steward of Scotland and hero of Bannockburn—in his stead to the Anglo-Scottish border to retrieve Marjorie and her family. Walter and Marjorie—who were about the same age—evidently took a liking to each other, as the following year (1315), the two married; and with that, the lines of Bruce and Stewart merged.


title: Isabella of Mar

text: Marjorie conceived a child shortly after her marriage with Walter Stewart, but she would not live to see her child grow. There are different accounts of what followed, with the traditional one being that Marjorie was taking a ride to Renfrewshire in the latter stages of her pregnancy when her horse spontaneously bucked her off and onto the road, sending Marjorie into premature labor and, like her mother, to her untimely demise at the young age of twenty. However her child, Robert II, was alive and healthy.


title: Isabella of Mar

text: While Robert the Bruce did remarry to Elizabeth de Burgh and fathered a young son with her, David II, David was last of the House of Bruce to hold the crown. Though David married several women during his reign and had even more mistresses, he died without children in the year 1371. Since David was the only male heir of Robert's, Isabella's descendants became the next in line for the throne. The grandson of Isabella and son of Marjorie Bruce, Robert II, succeeded to the throne in place of his childless uncle, continuing the Bruce lineage as the first Stewart to hold the crown.


title: Roosevelt Corollary

text: In the history of United States foreign policy, the Roosevelt Corollary was an addition to the Monroe Doctrine articulated by President Theodore Roosevelt in his State of the Union address in 1904 after the Venezuelan crisis of 1902–1903. The corollary states that the United States could intervene in the internal affairs of Latin American countries if they committed flagrant and chronic wrongdoings.


title: Roosevelt Corollary

text: Roosevelt tied his policy to the Monroe Doctrine, and it was also consistent with his foreign policy included in his Big Stick Diplomacy. Roosevelt stated that in keeping with the Monroe Doctrine, the United States was justified in exercising "international police power" to put an end to chronic unrest or wrongdoing in the Western Hemisphere. President Herbert Hoover in 1930 endorsed the Clark Memorandum that repudiated the Roosevelt Corollary in favor of what was later called the Good Neighbor policy.


title: Roosevelt Corollary

text: The Roosevelt Corollary was articulated in the aftermath of the Venezuela Crisis of 1902–1903. In late 1902, Britain, Germany, and Italy imposed a naval blockade of several months against Venezuela after President Cipriano Castro refused to pay foreign debts and damages suffered by European people in a recent Venezuelan civil war. The dispute was referred to an international court for arbitration, which concluded on 22 February 1904 that the blockading powers involved in the Venezuela crisis were entitled to preferential treatment in the payment of their claims. This left a number of other countries which did not take military action, including the United States, with no recourse. The U.S. disagreed with the outcome in principle, and feared it would encourage future European intervention to gain such advantage. To preclude European intervention, in December the Roosevelt Corollary asserted a right of the United States to intervene in order to "stabilize" the economic affairs of small states in the Caribbean and Central America if they were unable to pay their international debts..


title: Roosevelt Corollary

text: While the Monroe Doctrine had warned European powers to keep their hands off countries in the Americas, President Roosevelt was now saying that "since the United States would not permit the European powers to lay their hands on, he had an obligation to do so himself."


title: Roosevelt Corollary

text: Though the Roosevelt Corollary was an addition to the Monroe Doctrine, it could also be seen as a departure. While the Monroe Doctrine said European countries should stay out of Latin America, the Roosevelt Corollary took this further to say the United States had the right to exercise military force in Latin American countries to keep European countries out. Historian Walter LaFeber wrote:


title: Roosevelt Corollary

text: Roosevelt first used the Corollary to act in the Dominican Republic in 1904, which at the time was severely indebted and becoming a failed state. The United States dispatched two warships and demanded the customs house be turned over to U.S. negotiators, who then used a percentage of the proceeds to pay foreign creditors. This model—in which United States advisors worked to stabilize Latin American nations through temporary protectorates, staving off European action—became known as "dollar diplomacy". The Dominican experiment, like most other "dollar diplomacy" arrangements, proved temporary and untenable, and the United States launched a larger military intervention in 1916 that lasted to 1924.


title: Roosevelt Corollary

text: U.S. Presidents also cited the Roosevelt Corollary as justification for U.S. intervention in Cuba (1906–1909), Nicaragua (1909–1910, 1912–1925 and 1926–1933), Haiti (1915–1934), and the Dominican Republic (1916–1924).


title: Roosevelt Corollary

text: In 1928, President Calvin Coolidge issued the Clark Memorandum, often seen as a partial repudiation of the Roosevelt Corollary, which stated that the US did not have the right to intervene when there was a threat by European powers. Herbert Hoover also helped to move the US away from the imperialist tendencies of the Roosevelt Corollary by going on good-will tours, withdrawing troops from Nicaragua and Haiti, and abstaining from intervening in the internal affairs of neighboring countries.


title: Roosevelt Corollary

text: In 1934, President Franklin D. Roosevelt further renounced interventionism and established his "Good Neighbor policy" that led to the annulment of the Platt Amendment by the Treaty of Relations with Cuba in 1934, and the negotiation of compensation for Mexico's nationalization of foreign-owned oil assets in 1938. Indeed, leaving unchallenged the emergence of dictatorships like that of Fulgencio Batista in Cuba, Rafael Leonidas Trujillo in the Dominican Republic, Anastasio Somoza in Nicaragua, and François Duvalier in Haiti were each considered to be "Frankenstein dictators" due to the mishandlings of the American occupations in the countries.


title: Roosevelt Corollary

text: The era of the Good Neighbor policy ended with the start of the Cold War in 1945, as the United States felt there was a greater need to protect the Western Hemisphere from Soviet influence.


title: Roosevelt Corollary

text: In 1954, Secretary of State John Foster Dulles invoked the Monroe Doctrine and the Roosevelt Corollary at the Tenth Pan-American Conference in Caracas, denouncing the intervention of Soviet communism in Guatemala. This was used to justify Operation PBSuccess that deposed the democratically elected president Jacobo Árbenz and installed the military regime of Carlos Castillo Armas, the first in a series of military dictators in the country.


title: Roosevelt Corollary

text: The argument made by Mitchener and Weidenmier in 2006 in support of the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine has been criticized on the grounds that it "represent[s] the one-sided approach that some scholars bring to the study of imperialistic and hegemonic interventions and also highlight how arguments for the general utility of imperialism are increasingly made and accepted." Christopher Coyne and Stephen Davies argue that a foreign policy modeled on the Roosevelt Corollary leads to negative consequences both in national security terms and in terms of its effect on domestic politics.


title: Roosevelt Corollary

text: Critics, such as linguist Noam Chomsky, have argued that the Roosevelt Corollary was merely a more explicit imperialist threat, building on the Monroe Doctrine, indicating that the US would not only intervene in defense of South America in the face of European imperialism but also use its muscle to obtain concessions and privileges for American corporations. Frenchman Serge Ricard of the University of Paris goes even further and states that the Roosevelt Corollary was not merely an addendum to the earlier Monroe Doctrine through which the US pledged to protect the Americas from European imperialist interventions. Rather, the Roosevelt Corollary was "an entirely new diplomatic tenet that epitomized his 'big stick' approach to foreign policy." In other words, while the Monroe Doctrine sought to bar entry to the European empires, the Roosevelt Corollary arguably indicated the United States' intention to take their place.


title: History of the Italian Republic

text: The history of the Italian Republic concerns the events relating to the history of Italy that have occurred since 1946, when Italy became a republic. The Italian republican history is generally divided into two phases, the so-called First and Second Republic.


title: History of the Italian Republic

text: After the fall of the Fascist regime in Italy and the end of World War II, Italian politics and society were dominated by Christian Democracy (DC), a broad-based Christian political party, from 1946 to 1994. From the late 1940s until 1991, the opposition was led by the Italian Communist Party (PCI). Christian Democracy governed uninterrupted during this period, dominating every cabinet and providing nearly every Prime Minister. It governed primarily with the support of an array of minor parties from the centre-left to the centre-right, including the Italian Socialist Party (PSI), Italian Democratic Socialist Party (PSDI), Italian Republican Party (PRI), and Italian Liberal Party (PLI). The Communist Party was excluded entirely from government, with the partial exception of the short-lived Historic Compromise, in which the PCI provided external support to a DC minority government from 1976 to 1979.


title: History of the Italian Republic

text: The political situation was radically transformed in the early 1990s due to two major shocks: the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 and the wide-reaching "Tangentopoli" corruption scandal from 1992 to 1994. The former caused the dissolution and split of the PCI and splintering of the opposition, while the latter led to the collapse of nearly every established political party in Italy, including Christian Democracy, the PSI, PSDI, PRI, PLI, and others. Anti-establishment sentiment resulted in a 1993 referendum enabling the reform of the electoral system from pure proportional representation to a majoritarian-leaning mixed system.


title: History of the Italian Republic

text: Media magnate Silvio Berlusconi entered politics with his conservative Forza Italia party and won the 1994 general election, forming the short-lived Berlusconi I Cabinet. He went on to become one of Italy's most important figures over the next two decades, serving as Prime Minister again from 2001 to 2006 and 2008 to 2011. The rise of the new conservative right saw the old centre and left consolidate into the Olive Tree coalition, comprising the post-Communist Democrats of the Left and Christian democratic The Daisy, which together founded the Democratic Party (PD) in 2007. They competed against Berlusconi's centre-right coalition, comprising Forza Italia, the right-wing National Alliance, and northern Italian regionalist Northern League.


title: History of the Italian Republic

text: The collapse of Berlusconi's fourth cabinet in 2011 resulted in the formation of the technocratic Monti Cabinet until 2013. Enduring dissatisfaction saw the rise of the populist Five Star Movement (M5S) and the Northern League (rebranded League, "Lega"). After the Italian general elections of 2013 and 2018, grand coalition governments were formed, this time with the participation of populist parties. The economic and pandemic crisis of the COVID-19 pandemic brought about a government of national unity led by former President of the European Central Bank Mario Draghi.


title: History of the Italian Republic

text: In the final phases of World War II, King Victor Emmanuel III, tainted by his former support for the Fascist Regime, had tried to save the monarchy by nominating his son and heir Umberto "general lieutenant of the kingdom"; the king promised that after the end of the war the Italian people could choose its form of government through a referendum. In April 1945, the Allies of World War II advanced in the Po plain supported by the Italian resistance movement, and defeated the fascist Italian Social Republic, a puppet state instituted by Nazi Germany and headed by Benito Mussolini. Mussolini was killed by resistance fighters in April 1945. Much like Japan and Germany, the aftermath of World War II left Italy with a destroyed economy, a divided society, and anger against the monarchy for its endorsement of the Fascist regime for the previous twenty years. These frustrations contributed to a revival of the Italian republican movement.


title: History of the Italian Republic

text: Victor Emmanuel formally abdicated on 9 May 1946; his son became king as Umberto II of Italy. A constitutional referendum was held on 2 June 1946. The republican side won 54% of the vote and Italy officially became a republic. The Kingdom of Italy was no more. The House of Savoy, the Italian royal family, was exiled. Victor Emmanuel left for Egypt, where he died in 1947. Umberto, who had been king for only a month, moved to Portugal. The referendum at the origin of the Italian republic was, however, the subject of some controversy, not least because of some contested results and because of a geographical divide between the North, where the Republic won a clear majority, and the South, where the monarchists were in a majority.