title: 2022–23 ICC Men's T20 World Cup Europe Qualifier

text: The sub-regional phase of European qualification for the previous T20 World Cup was eventually cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result, only four teams had the opportunity to qualify from a regional finals event. Jersey and Germany progressed from that event and thereby gained a bye through the sub-regional stage in the process for the 2024 T20 World Cup. Since Scotland and Ireland did not qualify directly for the 2024 ICC Men's T20 World Cup, they will also play in the Europe Regional Final.


text: In this cycle, twenty-eight countries from the European region competed in the sub-regional phase of the tournament, divided into three events being played in June and July 2022. Qualifier C was the first event played, which took place in Belgium between 28 June and 4 July 2022. Qualifiers A and B followed, with both of them hosted in Finland between 12 and 31 July 2022. The winner of each sub-regional qualifier progressed to the regional final, from which two teams will qualify for the 2024 ICC Men's T20 World Cup.


text: Denmark became the first team to advance to the regional final, after they beat Portugal by nine wickets in the final of sub-regional Qualifier C. Italy were the second team to progress to the regional final, when they beat the Isle of Man by seven wickets in the final of sub-regional Qualifier A. Austria were the last team to qualify from the sub-regional matches, after beating Norway in the final of the sub-regional Qualifier B.


text: Following a car accident on 1 July 2022 that involved three match officials, the ICC rescheduled the consolation play-off matches.


title: FC Barcelona in international football

text: Futbol Club Barcelona is a Spanish professional football club based in Barcelona. The club first participated in a European competition in 1910, and from 1955 onwards spent every season in one or more European competitions. The first international cup they took part in was the Pyrenees Cup. The competition lasted from 1910 to 1914 and Barcelona won four out of five editions. From 1914 to the beginning of the Latin Cup in 1949, Barcelona did not participate in any international competitions. From the 1955–56 season onward, with the exception of 1956–57 (during the first Fairs Cup, because a Vienna XI withdrew from the competition), they are the only team to have played in the European competitions every year to date.


title: FC Barcelona in international football

text: Barcelona has won the now defunct Cup Winners' Cup four times and Inter-Cities Fairs Cup three times, both tournament records. They also took part in the Latin Cup twice as champions of Spain, winning on both occasions, a record shared with Real Madrid and Milan. Though they did not manage to win the premier European Cup, now the UEFA Champions League, during the early years of the competition, they have since won the trophy five times, with their first triumph in 1992.


title: FC Barcelona in international football

text: Barcelona is second in the ranking of Europe's most successful clubs in terms of international trophies won, behind Real Madrid. With the 2015 UEFA Super Cup victory in Tbilisi against Sevilla and the 2015 FIFA Club World Cup victory in Yokohama against River Plate, the Catalans raised their trophy haul to 20 international titles, the second largest output behind Real Madrid's 27. In the tables, "(H)" denotes home ground, "(A)" denotes away ground and "(N)" symbolises neutral ground. The first score is always Barcelona's.


title: FC Barcelona in international football

text: Barcelona began to play friendly games against teams from the neighbouring regions in France in 1904. Club president Arthur Witty organised the club's first trip abroad, which resulted in their first game against a non-Spanish team. On 1 May 1904, Barcelona defeated the French team Stade Olympien des Étudiants Toulousains.


title: FC Barcelona in international football

text: By 1910, the international friendlies evolved into the Pyrenees Cup, a competition featuring teams from Languedoc, Le Midi, Aquitaine, Catalonia, and the Basque Country. At that time it was considered the finest competition open for participation. Five editions were played in total, with FC Barcelona winning four consecutive trophies from 1910 to 1913.


title: FC Barcelona in international football

text: In 1949, the football federations of Spain, Italy, France, and Portugal, came together and launched their own club competition, the Latin Cup, which was staged at the end of every season in a single host country. The competition featured two semi-finals, a third place play-off and a final. As La Liga champions in 1949, Barça represented Spain in the inaugural competition. They beat Reims 5–0 in their semi-final at Les Corts, before beating Sporting Lisbon 2–1 in the final at the Estadio Chamartín. Barça also played in and won the 1952 competition in Paris, beating Juventus 4–2 in the semi-final and then Nice 1–0 in the final. After the introduction of the European Cup, the Latin Cup was gradually discontinued and nowadays, while it is not considered an official tournament by UEFA, it is recognized by FIFA.


title: FC Barcelona in international football

text: The European Cup was inaugurated in 1955, with Barcelona's arch-rivals Real Madrid winning the first five editions. In 1959, Barcelona entered this competition for the first time, after winning the 1958–59 La Liga season. Until the 1990s, the club had little success, apart from their runner-up places in 1961 and 1986. In 1992, Johan Cruyff's "Dream Team" won their first European Cup with a 1–0 win against Sampdoria. Since then, Barcelona has won the competition four additional times, in 2006, 2009, 2011 and 2015. Barcelona has established itself as one of the strongest sides in European competition, when measured in UEFA coefficients.


title: FC Barcelona in international football

text: The Cup Winners' Cup started in 1960, but it took three years until Barcelona participated for the first time. In their first edition, they were eliminated in the first round by Hamburg SV. In 1969, Barcelona's second participation, they advanced to the final, but were beaten by Czechoslovakian side Slovan Bratislava. The first success came in 1979 when Barça defeated Fortuna Düsseldorf in the final 4–3 after extra time. This maiden success was emulated in 1982, 1989, and in their last participation in 1997, after another runner-up place in 1991, before the cup was re-organised into the UEFA Cup in 1999–2000. Barcelona's four victories are the competition's record.


title: FC Barcelona in international football

text: The Inter-Cities Fairs Cup was established on 18 April 1955, two weeks after the European Cup, to promote trade fairs by playing various cities against each other. However, the city of Barcelona participated with a squad composed entirely of Barcelona players. From 1958 onwards, the organisers reverted to club participation, but the teams still had to come from cities staging trade fairs. Barcelona would go on to win the Fairs Cup a record three times, with also a runner-up place, before the tournament was subsumed into the UEFA Cup in 1971.


title: FC Barcelona in international football

text: The Inter-Cities Fairs Cup is considered to be the forerunner of the UEFA Cup / Europa League, but it is not recognized as a UEFA competition. Consequently, Fairs Cup wins do not count toward the tally of Europa League wins.


title: FC Barcelona in international football

text: In the UEFA Cup, Barcelona has lost four semi-finals, in 1975–76, 1977–78, 1995–96 and 2000–01. They lost twice to Liverpool (in 1976 and 2001), once to PSV Eindhoven (in 1978) and once to Bayern Munich (in 1996). In all four cases, the team that had eliminated Barcelona ultimately won the competition. Barcelona participated in the re-branded Europa League for the first time in 2022, going out at the hands of ultimate winners Eintracht Frankfurt in the quarter-finals.


title: FC Barcelona in international football

text: The Super Cup was inaugurated in 1973 as a way of determining the best team in Europe, by pitting the holders of the first-tier European Cup against the winners of the second-tier Cup Winners' Cup. Barcelona first participated in the 1979 edition, after they won the 1978–79 Cup Winners' Cup. They lost 1–2 on aggregate to Nottingham Forest, having drawn 1–1 in Camp Nou after losing 0–1 at the City Ground in Nottingham. The first victory came in the 1992 edition, when Barça defeated Werder Bremen 3–2 on aggregate. Since then, Barcelona has won the competition four additional times (in 1997, 2009, 2011 and 2015) and now shares the record for victories in the competition (five) with Milan and Real Madrid.


title: FC Barcelona in international football

text: In 1960, UEFA and their South-American equivalent, the South American Football Confederation (CONMEBOL), created the Intercontinental Cup as a way of determining the best team in the world, by pitting the winners of the European Cup and the South American Copa Libertadores against each other. Barcelona have made only one appearance in the Intercontinental Cup, losing 2–1 against São Paulo in December 1992. In 2000, FIFA launched their international club competition called the FIFA Club World Cup, featuring teams from all of its member associations. In the second edition of the Club World Cup, in 2005, FIFA took over the Intercontinental Cup, subsuming it into its own competition. Barcelona has won the FIFA Club World Cup three times (in 2009, 2011 and 2015) and was runner-up once (in 2006).


title: Bettino Craxi

text: Benedetto "Bettino" Craxi ( , , ; 24 February 1934 – 19 January 2000) was an Italian politician, leader of the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) from 1976 to 1993, and the 45th prime minister of Italy from 1983 to 1987. He was the first PSI member to become prime minister and the third from a socialist party to hold the office. He led the third-longest government in the Italian Republic and he is considered one of the most powerful and prominent politicians of the First Italian Republic.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: Craxi was involved in investigations conducted by "Mani Pulite" judges in Milan, eventually being convicted for political corruption and illicit financing of the PSI. He always rejected the charges of corruption while admitting to the illegal funding that permitted costly political activity, the PSI being less financially powerful than the two larger parties, Christian Democracy (DC) and the Italian Communist Party (PCI). Craxi's government and party were also supported by future Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi, a media magnate and personal friend of Craxi.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: Craxi maintained strong links with many leaders of the European left, including François Mitterrand, Felipe González, Andreas Papandreou, and Mário Soares, and was one of the main representatives of Mediterranean or South European socialism. Craxi's supporters especially praised his foreign policy, which was assertive and often led to confrontations with the United States, on issues such as Palestinian territories, terrorism, and Craxi's close relations with Arab socialist governments.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: Craxi was often nicknamed by his detractors "il Cinghialone" ("The Big Boar") due to his physical size. This name was given him by his long-time ally and rival at the same time, DC leader Giulio Andreotti.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: Craxi was born in Milan on 24 February 1934. His father Vittorio Craxi was a Sicilian lawyer and anti-fascist who was persecuted by the regime of Benito Mussolini while his mother Maria Ferrari was a housewife from Sant'Angelo Lodigiano. During World War II, the young Craxi was sent to the Catholic college Edmondo De Amicis due to his unruly character and to protect him from fascist violence in retaliation for his father's anti-fascist activities.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: After the war, his father assumed the role of vice-prefect in Milan and then the prefect in Como, where he moved with his family in 1945. A few months later, Craxi returned to college, first in Como and then in Cantù, where he thought to enter the seminary. Craxi's father stood in the 1948 Italian general election for the Popular Democratic Front, a political alliance between the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) and the Italian Communist Party (PCI). He campaigned for his father and later joined the PSI at the age of 17.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: Craxi was precocious and rose to many levels of public office at an early age. Meanwhile, he attended the faculty of Law in University of Milan and then the faculty of Political Science in Urbino, Craxi founded the "Socialist University Nucleus" joining the "New University" group and adhering to the CUDI (Italian Democratic University Centre), the student group that supported the left-wing forces.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: During this period he engaged for the first time in public speaking, organizing conferences, debates, film screenings, and in 1956 he became part of the PSI Provincial Committee in Milan, and leader of the Socialist Youth Federation.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: In 1956, following the Soviet invasion of Hungary, Craxi with a group of loyalists committed himself to the detachment of the Socialist Party from its pro-Communist policy, but he failed: his proposal to associate the Socialist Youth Movement with the International Organisation of Democratic Youth was rejected.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: In November 1956 he was elected town councilor in Sant'Angelo Lodigiano (birthplace of his mother) from, and in 1957 he was elected to the Central Committee of the PSI representing the autonomist current of Pietro Nenni.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: In 1958 the party sent him to Sesto San Giovanni as a responsible of the organization; in November 1960 he was elected city councilor in Milan with more than 1,000 preferences and became assessor in the junta of Gino Cassinis.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: In 1961 he was excluded from the Central Committee of the Socialist Party by the new Secretary Francesco De Martino. In 1963 he was appointed leader of the Milan Provincial Secretariat of the PSI and in 1965 Craxi became a member of the National Leadership. Meanwhile, in November 1964, he was re-elected city councilor in Milan, continuing his public commitment as assessor for Charity and Assistance in the council of Pietro Bucalossi.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: In 1966, with the formation of the Unified Socialist Party, a political alliance between the Socialist Party and the Social Democratic Party, Craxi became provincial secretary of the PSU in Milan, along with by the social democrat Enrico Rizzi and Renzo Peruzzotti.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: In 1968 general election Craxi was elected for the first time at the Chamber of Deputies with 23,788 votes, in the constituency of Milan–Pavia. In 1970 after the end of the PSU alliance, Craxi became Vice Secretary of the PSI, as proposed by Giacomo Mancini.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: During this period he was a strong supporters of the Organic Centre-left coalition, between the Christian Democrats of Aldo Moro and Amintore Fanfani, the Socialists of Pietro Nenni, the Social Democrats of Giuseppe Saragat and the Republicans of Ugo La Malfa.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: In 1972 with the re-election of Francesco De Martino as National Secretary of the Socialist Party during the Genoa Congress, Craxi was confirmed with Giovanni Mosca in the role of Deputy Secretary, receiving the commission to treat the international relations of the party. As representative of PSI at the Socialist International, Craxi formed ties with some of the main European future leaders, like Willy Brandt, Felipe González, François Mitterrand, Mário Soares, Michel Rocard and Andreas Papandreou.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: As responsible of the PSI foreign policy he supported, also financially, some socialist parties banned by the dictatorships of their respective countries, including the Spanish Socialist Workers Party, the Panhellenic Socialist Movement and the Chilean Socialist Party of Salvador Allende, of whom Craxi was a personal friend.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: In 1976 the Secretary Francesco De Martino wrote an article in the Socialist newspaper "Avanti!" that caused the fall of the government Aldo Moro and the subsequent snap election, which saw an impressive growth of the Italian Communist Party led by a young leader, Enrico Berlinguer, while the Christian Democracy managed to remain the majority party on just a few votes. Instead for the PSI those elections were a crushing defeat: the votes went down under the threshold of 10%. De Martino, pointing to a new alliance with the Communists, was forced to resign and opened a serious crisis within the party.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: Craxi was appointed to the vacant position of National Secretary of the party, ending years of factional fighting within the PSI. Ironically, the "old guard" saw him as short-lived leader, allowing each faction time to regroup. However, he was able to consolidate power and implement his policies. In particular, he sought and managed to distance the party from the Communists, bringing it into an alliance with Christian Democracy and other centrist parties, while maintaining a leftist and reformist profile.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: Craxi always opposed the Historic Compromise policy of Moro and Berlinguer, a political alliance and an accommodation between the Christian Democrats and the Communists; the alliance would inevitably make the Socialists politically irrelevant. He outlined for a line of alternation between the DC and the left-wing, represented by his party, due to the close relations between the PCI and the Soviet Union.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: On the morning of 16 March 1978, the day on which the new cabinet led by Giulio Andreotti was supposed to have undergone a confidence vote in the Italian Parliament, the car of Aldo Moro, former prime minister and then president of DC was assaulted by a group of Red Brigades terrorists in Via Fani in Rome. Firing automatic weapons, the terrorists killed Moro's bodyguards and kidnapped him. Craxi was the only political leader, together with Amintore Fanfani and Marco Pannella, to declare himself available to a "humanitarian solution" that would allow the liberation of Christian Democrat statesman, drawing heavy criticism on the so-called "party of firmness", primarily driven by the Communists. On 9 May 1978 Moro's body was found in the trunk of a Renault 4 in Via Caetani after 55 days of imprisonment, during which Moro was submitted to a political trial by the so-called "people's court" set up by the Brigate Rosse and the Italian government was asked for an exchange of prisoners.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: In 1978 Craxi decided to change the party logo. He chose a red carnation to represent the new course of the party, in honour of the Carnation Revolution in Portugal. The party shrank the size of the old hammer and sickle in the lower part of the symbol. It was eventually eliminated altogether in 1985.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: In July 1978, following the resignation of President Giovanni Leone, after a lengthy parliamentary battle, Craxi was able to bring together a large number of votes, electing Sandro Pertini, as new President; Pertini was the first Socialist to hold this position. Pertini was also supported by the Communists, which considered the old Socialist partisan not conducive to the "new course" of Craxi.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: Craxi, on the one hand explicitly distanced himself from Leninism referring to forms of authoritarian socialism, and on the other he showed supports to the civil society movements and to the battles for civil rights, mainly proposed by the Radical Party, he oversaw its image through the media.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: As leader of PSI, he tried to undermine the Communist Party, which until then had been continuously increasing its votes in elections, and to consolidate the PSI as a modern, strongly pro-European reformist social-democratic party, with deep roots in the democratic left-wing. This strategy called for ending most of the party's historical traditions as a working-class trade union based party and attempting to gain new support among white-collar and public sector employees. At the same time, the PSI increased its presence in the big state-owned enterprises, and became heavily involved in corruption and illegal party funding which would eventually result in the "Mani pulite" investigations.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: Even if the PSI never became a serious electoral challenger either to the PCI or the Christian Democrats, its pivotal position in the political arena allowed it to claim the post of Prime Minister for Craxi after the 1983 general election. The electoral support for the Christian Democrats was significantly weakened, leaving it with 32.9% of the vote, compared to the 38.3% it gained in 1979. The PSI, that had obtained only 11%, threatened to leave the parliamentary majority unless Craxi was made Prime Minister. The Christian Democrats accepted this compromise to avoid a new election. Craxi became the first Socialist in the history of the Italian Republic to be appointed Prime Minister.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: Craxi led the third longest-lived government of Italy during the republican era (after the II and IV Silvio Berlusconi cabinets) and had strong influence in Italian politics throughout the 1980s; for a time, he was a close ally of two key figures of Christian Democracy, Giulio Andreotti and Arnaldo Forlani, in a loose cross-party alliance often dubbed CAF (from the first letter of the surname "C"raxi-"A"ndreotti-"F"orlani). Craxi had a firm grasp on a party previously troubled by factionalism, and tried to distance it from the Communists and to bring it closer to Christian Democrats and other parties; his objective was to create an Italian version of European reformist socialist parties, like the German SPD or the French Socialist Party. The Italian Socialist Party reached its post-war apex when it increased its share of votes in the general election of 1987. However, the Italian Socialist Party never outgrew the much larger Italian Communist Party, whose highly charismatic leader, Enrico Berlinguer, was a fierce adversary of Craxi's policies through the years.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: The main dynamic of Italian post-war politics was to find a way to keep the Italian Communist Party out of power. This led to the constant formation of political alliances between parties keen on keeping the Communists at bay. Things were further complicated by the fact that many parties had internal currents that would have welcomed the Communists in the governing coalition, in particular, within Christian Democracy, the largest party in Italy from 1945 until the end of the First Republic.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: During Craxi's tenure as Prime Minister, Italy became the fifth largest industrial nation and gained entry into the G7 Group of most industrialised nations. However, inflation was often in the double digits. Against trade union resistance, the Craxi government reacted by abolishing wage-price indexation (a mechanism known as "scala mobile" or "escalator"), under which wages had been increased automatically in line with inflation. Abolishing the escalator system did help reduce inflation, which was also falling in other major countries, but in the long term it inevitably increased industrial action as workers had to bargain for better salaries. In any event, the victory of the "No" campaign in the referendum called by the Italian Communist Party was a major victory for Craxi. During his premiership the Socialist Party gained popularity. He successfully boosted the country's GNP and controlled inflation.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: In domestic policy, a number of reforms were initiated during Craxi's time in office. In 1984, solidarity contracts (work-sharing arrangements to avoid redundancies) were introduced, while restrictions on part-time employment were relaxed. In the field of family welfare, legislation was enacted in 1984 and 1986 that changed the family allowance system "so that people most in need received larger amounts and coverage was progressively reduced to the point of termination once certain income levels were exceeded."


title: Bettino Craxi

text: In 1984, Craxi signed an agreement with the Vatican City that revised the Lateran Treaty. Among other things, both sides declared: "The principle of the Catholic religion as the sole religion of the Italian State, originally referred to by the Lateran Pacts, shall be considered to be no longer in force". The Church's position as the sole state-supported religion of Italy was also ended, replacing the state financing with a personal income tax called the "otto per mille", to which other religious groups, Christian and non-Christian, also have access.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: The revised concordat regulated the conditions under which civil effects are accorded to church marriages and to ecclesiastical declarations of nullity of marriages. Abolished articles included those concerning state recognition of knighthoods and titles of nobility conferred by the Holy See, the undertaking by the Holy See to confer ecclesiastical honours on those authorized to perform religious functions at the request of the State or the Royal Household, and the obligation of the Holy See to enable the Italian government to present political objections to the proposed appointment of diocesan bishops.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: In the international arena, Craxi helped dissidents and Socialist parties throughout the world to organise and become independent. Notable recipients of his logistical help were the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) during Francisco Franco's dictatorship and dramatist Jiři Pelikan, in the former Czechoslovakia. Rare footage of Craxi trying to lay flowers at the tomb of Salvador Allende has been unearthed from RAI's (Radiotelevisione Italiana) archives.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: There is also evidence that part of Craxi's illegally earned money was given in secret to leftist political opposition in Uruguay during the military dictatorship, to Solidarity in the period of Jaruzelski rule in Poland and to Yasser Arafat and his Palestine Liberation Organization because of Craxi's sympathy for the Palestinian cause. He also played a role in the 1987 seizure of power in Tunisia by Zine el Abidine Ben Ali.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: Internationally, Craxi is perhaps best remembered for an incident in October 1985, when he refused the request of US President Ronald Reagan to extradite the hijackers of the cruise ship Achille Lauro. After protracted negotiations, the hijackers were given safe passage to Egypt by plane. Three United States Navy F-14's forced the plane down to the United States Naval Air Facility (NAF) of Sigonella. According to the version of political circles in Washington, Craxi first gave the United States Forces permission to detain the terrorists, but he later reneged on the deal. He ordered Italian troops to surround the US Forces protecting the plane.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: This move was supposedly dictated both by security concerns about terrorists targeting Italy if the United States had had it their way and by the Italian tradition of diplomacy with the Arab world. Craxi's decisive character may have been relevant in this resolution. Though the Americans demanded that the Italian authorities extradite Abu Abbas of the PLO, Craxi stood firm on the grounds that the crime had been perpetrated on Italian soil, over which the Italian Republic had sole jurisdiction. Craxi rejected the US extradition order and let Abu Abbas – chief of the hijackers, present on the plane – flee to Yugoslavia; the four hijackers were later found guilty, and sentenced to prison terms for hijacking and the murder of a Jewish American citizen, Leon Klinghoffer. Abbas was later also convicted in Italy "in absentia" and eventually died of "natural causes", shortly after being taken prisoner by American forces in the aftermath of the 2003 invasion of Iraq. This episode earned Craxi an article in "The Economist" titled "Europe's strong man" and a standing ovation in the Senate of the Republic, which included his Communist opponents.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: According to Giulio Andreotti, Italy's foreign minister at the time (and 42nd Prime Minister of Italy) and Abdel Rahman Shalgham (Libya's Foreign Minister from 2000 until 2009), Craxi was the person who telephoned Libyan leader Muammar al-Gaddafi to warn him of the impending American Operation El Dorado Canyon retaliatory air-strikes against Libya on 15 April 1986. This permitted Gaddafi and his family to evacuate their residence in the Bab al-Azizia compound moments before the bombs dropped. Shalgham's statement was also confirmed by Margherita Boniver, foreign affairs chief of Craxi's Socialist Party at the time.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: For the Libyan attack, Craxi's government denied the United States any rights of military overflight, as did France and Spain. For the United States, this precluded the use of European continental bases, forcing the US Air Force component to be flown around France and Spain, over Portugal and through the Straits of Gibraltar, adding 1,300 miles (2,100 km) each way and requiring multiple aerial refuelings.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: In April 1987, the Secretary of the Christian Democracy Ciriaco De Mita decided to drop his support for Craxi's government. This caused the immediate fall of the cabinet and the formation of a new government led by the long-time Christian Democratic politician Amintore Fanfani. Even though Fanfani was a close friend and ally of Craxi, he did not participate in the swearing in ceremony, sending the Undersecretary to the Presidency of the Council Giuliano Amato.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: In the 1987 general election the PSI won 14.3% of the vote, a good result but less good than what Craxi hoped, and this time it was the Christian Democrats' turn to govern. From 1987 to 1992 the PSI participated in four governments, allowing Giulio Andreotti to take power in 1989 and to govern until 1992. The Socialists held a strong balance of power, which made them more powerful than the Christian Democrats, who had to depend on it to form a majority in Parliament. The PSI kept tight control of this advantage.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: The alternative which Craxi had wanted so much was taking shape: the idea of a "Social Unity" with the other left-wing political parties, including the PCI, proposed by Craxi in 1989 after the fall of communism. He believed that the collapse of communism in eastern Europe had undermined the PCI and made Social Unity inevitable. In fact, the PSI was in line to become the Italy's second largest party and to become the dominant force of a new left-wing coalition opposed to a Christian Democrat-led one. This did not actually happen because of the rise of Lega Nord and the "Tangentopoli" scandals.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: The last main turning point of Craxi's career began in February 1992, when Socialist MP Mario Chiesa was arrested by police while taking a 7 million lira bribe from a cleaning service firm. Chiesa sought Craxi's protection for nearly a month; but Craxi accused him of casting a shadow on the "most honest party in Italy". Feeling marginalised and unjustly singled-out, Chiesa divulged everything he knew to the prosecutors. His revelations brought half of the Milan Socialists and industrialists under investigation; even Paolo Pillitteri, Craxi's own brother-in-law and mayor of Milan, was investigated despite his parliamentary immunity. As a consequence, a team of Milanese judges began investigating specifically the party's financing system.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: In July 1992, Craxi finally realised the situation was serious and that he himself was going to be hit by the unfolding scandal. He made an appeal before the Chamber of Deputies in which he claimed that everyone knew of the widespread irregularities in the public financing of Italian parties, accused the deputies of hypocrisy and cowardice, and called for all MPs to protect the Socialists from prosecution as a show of solidarity. However, his call was ignored.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: Craxi received his first prosecution notice in December 1992. More followed in January and February, at which point the Court of Milan explicitly asked Parliament to authorise Craxi's prosecution for bribery and corruption (at the time, Italian MPs were immune from prosecution unless authorised by Parliament). The authorisation was denied on 29 April 1993 after Craxi gave an emotional speech. However, upon coming out of the Hotel Raphael, where he lived, he received a salvo of coins that members of the Democratic Party of the Left and the right-wing Italian Social Movement threw at him as a sign of their disgust. From a traditional stadium chant, they started to jump and sing: "He who does not jump is a Socialist!" Some of the students waved 1,000-lire bills, singing "Bettino, do you want these too?" ("Bettino, vuoi pure queste?") to the tune of Guantanamera.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: In December 1993, after his prosecution was finally authorised, Craxi was called to testify alongside Cristian Democracy (DC) party secretary Arnaldo Forlani before Justice Antonio Di Pietro. Questions were asked about the so-called ENIMONT 'super-bribe' which the PSI and DC had jointly received and democratically shared. Forlani evasively asked what a bribe was while Craxi, after admitting to the charges brought against himself and other parties, stated that the bribes were "the cost of politics." Craxi, noting that the legal process had accelerated in his case, claimed that his prosecution was politically motivated.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: In May 1994, he fled to Tunis in order to escape jail. His political career ended in less than two years. Italy's entire political class, including people like Andreotti and Forlani, was to follow suit soon. The CAF (the Craxi-Andreotti-Forlani axis), which had made a pact to revive the Pentapartito (an alliance of five parties: DC, PSI, Italian Republican Party, Italian Liberal Party, Italian Democratic Socialist Party) of the 1980s and apply it to the 1990s, was doomed to be crushed by the popular vote as well as by the judges.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: The set of anti-corruption investigations carried out by the Milan judges came to be collectively called Mani pulite ("clean hands"). No party was spared but in some parties corruption had become more endemic than elsewhere, either because of more opportunity or internal ethics. To this day, some people, especially those who were close to Craxi argue that some parties like the Italian Communist Party (PCI) were left untouched, while the leaders of then ruling coalition and in particular Craxi were wiped off the political map.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: The judges in Milan were put under scrutiny several times by different governments, especially Silvio Berlusconi's first government in 1994, but no evidence of any misconduct was ever found. Furthermore, public opinion was much less concerned about foreign financing than about the misappropriation of their money by corrupt politicians. In the end, the Socialist party went from 14% of the vote to a virtual nil. An ironic note was that the disgraced remnant of the party was excluded from Parliament by the minimum 4% threshold introduced by Craxi himself during one of his previous governments.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: During the "Mani pulite" period, Craxi tried to use a daring defence tactic: he maintained that all parties needed and took money illegally, however they could get it, to finance their activities. His defence was therefore not to declare himself innocent, but everybody guilty. While this was basically the truth, most citizens distrusted politicians, and Craxi's defence got no sympathy by the citizens and may have even served to enrage them further. Some bribes didn't go to the parties at all. They went to the personal wallets of the politician who happened to take them.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: In 2012, Di Pietro admitted that Craxi was right when during the Enimont trials he accused the PCI to have received illegal funding from the Soviet Union. Craxi's sentences seemed to him "criminally relevant", but Di Pietro omitted to investigate that crime.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: Craxi's lifestyle was perceived to be inappropriate for the secretary of a party with so many alleged financial problems: he lived in the Raphael, an expensive hotel in Rome's centre, and had a large villa in Hammamet, Tunisia. As the Mani Pulite investigations were to uncover in the 1990s, personal corruption was endemic in Italian society; while many politicians, including Craxi, would justify corruption with the necessities of a democracy, political leaders at many levels enjoyed a lifestyle that should have been well out of their reach, while most parties continued having financial problems. Rino Formica, a prominent member of the Socialist Party in those years, wittily said that "the convent is poor, but the friars are rich".


title: Bettino Craxi

text: Furthermore, Craxi's arrogant character won him many enemies; one of his most condemned actions was blaming corruption in the socialist party on treasurer Vincenzo Balzamo, just after the latter's death, in order to clear himself of any accusation. Craxi's friends included Siad Barre, president of Somalia; Yasser Arafat, leader of PLO; and Ben Ali, president of Tunisia. The latter provided protection to Craxi when he escaped from Italy.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: Craxi's entourage was famously criticised by Formica as a "court of midgets and dancers" ("corte di nani e ballerine"), indicating the often ludicrous and immoral traits of a system based on personal acquaintance rather than merit. Among the friends of Craxi's to receive smaller and larger favours, Silvio Berlusconi is perhaps the most known: he received many favours, especially regarding his media empire, and had a decree named after him ("Decreto Berlusconi") long before he entered politics. Other figures were Craxi's mistresses Ania Pieroni, who owned a TV station in the Rome area, and Sandra Milo, who had a skyrocketing career in the state-owned TV channels RAI.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: Craxi was also known for never apologising, as a matter of principle; most Italians expected an apology after the corrupt system had been exposed. Craxi never apologised, stating he had done nothing that everybody else had not been doing, and that he was being unjustly singled out and persecuted.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: All three appeals by Craxi to the Strasbourg court complained that his defense was not able to refute in court the accusations made by various defendants of related crimes, in violation of the adversarial principle proclaimed in article 6, paragraph 3, letter d of the European Convention of Human Rights. The European Court ruled in his favor in the case of wiretapped conversations illegally made public.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: Craxi resigned as party Secretary in February 1993. Between 1992 and 1993, most members of the party left politics and three Socialist deputies committed suicide. Craxi was succeeded by two Socialist trade-unionists, first Giorgio Benvenuto and then by Ottaviano Del Turco. In the December 1993 provincial and municipal elections the PSI was virtually wiped out, receiving around 3% of the vote. In Milan, where the PSI had won 20% in 1990, the PSI received a mere 2%, which was not even enough to elect a councillor. Del Turco tried in vain to regain credibility for the party.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: In the 1994 general election, what was left of PSI allied itself to the Alliance of Progressives dominated by the post-communist incarnation of the PCI, the Democratic Party of the Left (PDS). Del Turco had quickly changed the party symbol to reinforce the idea of innovation. However, this did not stop the PSI gaining only 2.2% of the votes compared to 13.6% in 1992. The PSI got 16 deputies and 14 senators elected, down from 92 deputies and 49 senators of 1992. Most of them came from the left-wing of the party, as Del Turco himself did. Most Socialists joined other political forces, mainly Forza Italia, the new party led by Silvio Berlusconi, the Patto Segni and Democratic Alliance.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: The party was disbanded on 13 November 1994 after two years of agony, in which almost all of its longtime leaders, especially Craxi, were involved in Tangentopoli and decided to leave politics. The 100-year-old party closed down, partially thanks to its leaders for their personalisation of the PSI.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: "Craxism" (Italian: "Craxismo") was and to some extant remains an Italian political ideology based on Craxi's thought. It was the informal ideology of the PSI from 1976 to 1994.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: Although the term is considered derogatory today, Craxism was based on a synthesis of socialism, social democracy, and social liberalism, or the Italian liberal-socialist tradition. Under Craxi, the PSI supported Third-Worldism, was pro-Arab and environmentalist, and supported the modern welfare state, and was also pro-Atlanticist, pro-Europeanist, placed a strong defense of territorial sovereignty (e.g. the Sigonella crisis), and was more conservative on issues such as abortion and war on drugs.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: Under Craxi, the PSI moved closer to the centre-left and political centre, much to ally with Christian Democracy and other moderate parties that formed a coalition called "Pentapartito", which ensured a stable majority to govern.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: Today, Craxism is often considered a derogatory term describing a corrupt politician, although some welcome him in a favourable manner; this is the case of those who, following the dissolution of the PSI, joined the newly formed Forza Italia of Silvio Berlusconi (centre-right coalition) but also a part of those who formed the Italian Socialists, small party adhering to the Alliance of Progressives of Achille Occhetto (centre-left coalition).


title: Bettino Craxi

text: Craxism has led to the change of the whole of European socialism, together with Felipe González (PSOE), François Mitterrand (PS), and Helmut Schmidt (SPD) during the 1980s. In addition, along with these other figures, it inspired the overhaul and the policies of Tony Blair's Labour Party, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero's PSOE, and Andreas Papandreou's PASOK.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: In Italy, the main critics of Craxism, as well as the figure of Craxi, are the former Communists (including most members of the Democratic Party) and some left-leaning press media ("Il Fatto Quotidiano", "il manifesto", "L'Espresso", and "la Repubblica"), while the biggest supporters are on the centre-left the refounded Italian Socialist Party of Riccardo Nencini, which includes his son Bobo Craxi, and various politicians of the centre-right like Berlusconi, Renato Brunetta, Maurizio Sacconi, and Stefano Caldoro, including his daughter, Stefania Craxi.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: All this resulted in him being considered the symbol of political corruption. Craxi escaped the laws he had once contributed to make, by fleeing to Hammamet, Tunisia, in 1994; he remained a fugitive there, protected by the government of Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, his personal friend. He repeatedly declared himself innocent but never returned to Italy where he had been sentenced to 27 years in jail because of his corruption crimes; of these, 9 years and 8 months were upheld on appeal.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: Craxi died on 19 January 2000, at the age of 65, from complications of diabetes. Prime Minister and Democrats of the Left leader Massimo D'Alema proposed a state funeral, which was not accepted by Craxi's family who accused the government of preventing his return to Italy to undergo a delicate surgery at San Raffaele Hospital in Milan.


title: Bettino Craxi

text: Craxi's funeral took place at the Cathedral of St. Vincent de Paul in Tunis and saw a large participation of the local population. Former PSI militants and other Italians arrived in Tunisia to make the last greetings to their leader. His supporters came outside the Tunisian cathedral and targeted Lamberto Dini and Marco Minniti, representatives of the Italian government, by insults and a launch of coins. Craxi's tomb is in the small Christian cemetery in Hammamet. According to some sources it is orientated towards Italy; following a 2017 survey, this was revealed to be erroneous.


title: Carlos Bernard

text: Carlos Bernard Papierski (born October 12, 1962) is an American actor and director, best known for his role as Tony Almeida in "24", which he played from 2001 to 2006, and then reprised again in 2009, 2014 in "" and 2017 in "". He received a fine arts degree from American Conservatory Theater in San Francisco after receiving an undergraduate degree from Illinois State University.


title: Carlos Bernard

text: Bernard was born on October 12, 1962, in Evanston, Illinois and grew up in Chicago, Illinois, the youngest of three brothers. Of Polish and Spanish ancestry, his mother is originally from Madrid, Spain. Bernard graduated from New Trier High School in 1980, and showed signs of interest in acting while in his high school years. He then went to Illinois State University, graduating with a bachelor's degree in 1991 and shortly after received his Master of Fine Arts degree in San Francisco in the American Conservatory Theater. Bernard started out on stage but quickly progressed to television.


title: Carlos Bernard

text: At the Mark Taper Forum in Los Angeles, he performed in "Scenes From an Execution", with Frank Langella.


title: Carlos Bernard

text: Bernard has made guest appearances on "Walker, Texas Ranger", "Burn Notice", "", "Babylon 5", and "Silk Stalkings" and appeared as a regular on the daytime soap opera, "The Young and the Restless". He has appeared in the feature films "Alien Raiders", "Vegas, City of Dreams", "The Killing Jar", and the short film "The Colonel's Last Flight".


title: Carlos Bernard

text: Bernard has been married to actress Tessie Santiago since 2013. They have a son born in August 2018. He also has one child, who was born in August 2003, with ex-wife Sharisse Baker. He is friends with Kiefer Sutherland, Reiko Aylesworth and Mary Lynn Rajskub, with whom he starred in "24."


title: Lorenzo Ruiz

text: Lorenzo Ruiz (; ; ; November 28, 1594 – September 29, 1637), also called Saint Lorenzo of Manila, is a Filipino saint venerated in the Catholic Church. A Chinese-Filipino, he became his country's protomartyr after his execution in Japan by the Tokugawa Shogunate during its persecution of Japanese Christians in the 17th century.


title: Lorenzo Ruiz

text: Lorenzo Ruiz was born in Binondo, Manila, on 28 November 1594, to a Chinese father and a Filipino mother who were both Catholic. His father taught him Chinese while his mother taught him Tagalog.


title: Lorenzo Ruiz

text: Lorenzo served as an altar boy at the Binondo Church. After being educated by the Dominican friars for a few years, Lorenzo earned the title of "escribano" (scrivener) because of his skillful penmanship. He became a member of the "Cofradía del Santísimo Rosario" (Confraternity of the Most Holy Rosary). He married Rosario, a native, and they had two sons and a daughter. The Ruiz family led a generally peaceful, religious and content life.


title: Lorenzo Ruiz

text: In 1636, whilst working as a clerk for the Binondo Church, Lorenzo was falsely accused of killing a Spaniard. Lorenzo sought asylum on board a ship with three Dominican priests: Antonio Gonzalez, Guillermo Courtet, and Miguel de Aozaraza; a Japanese priest, Vicente Shiwozuka de la Cruz; and a lay leper Lázaro of Kyoto. Lorenzo and his companions sailed for Okinawa on 10 June 1636, with the aid of the Dominican fathers.


title: Lorenzo Ruiz

text: The Tokugawa Shogunate was persecuting Christians, because they feared that was how the Spanish invaded the Philippines by using religion by the time Lorenzo had arrived in Japan. The missionaries were arrested and thrown into prison, and after two years, they were transferred to Nagasaki to face trial by torture. The group endured many and various cruel methods of torture.


title: Lorenzo Ruiz

text: On 27 September 1637, Lorenzo and his companions were taken to Nishizaka Hill, where they were tortured by being hung upside-down over a pit. He died two days later on 29 September 1637, aged 42. This form of torture was known as "tsurushi" (釣殺し) in Japanese or "horca y hoya" ("gallows and pit") in Spanish. The method, alleged to have been extremely painful, had the victim bound; one hand was always left free so that the individual may signal their desire to recant, leading to their release. Despite his suffering, Lorenzo refused to renounce Christianity and died from eventual blood loss and suffocation. His body was cremated, with the ashes thrown into the sea.


title: Lorenzo Ruiz

text: According to Latin missionary accounts sent back to Manila, Lorenzo declared these words upon his death:


title: Lorenzo Ruiz

text: The "Positio Super Introductione Causae" or the cause of beatification of Lorenzo Ruiz was written by Spanish historian Fidel Villarroel. The central document found to exhibit Ruiz's martyrdom was an eyewitness account by two Japanese ex-priests from the Society of Jesus, rediscovered by Villaroel at the Jesuit Generalate archive in Rome, an unlikely location as Ruiz was of the Dominican order. Lorenzo was beatified during Pope John Paul II's papal visit to the Philippines in 1981. It was the first beatification ceremony to be held outside the Vatican in history. Lorenzo was canonized by the same pope in the Vatican City on October 18, 1987, among the 16 Martyrs of Japan, making him the first Filipino saint.


title: Lorenzo Ruiz

text: His canonization was supported by a miracle in October 1983, when Cecilia Alegria Policarpio of Calinog, Iloilo, was cured of brain atrophy (hydrocephalus) at the age of two, after her family and supporters prayed to Lorenzo for his intercession. She was diagnosed with the condition shortly after birth and was treated at University of the East Ramon Magsaysay Memorial Medical Center.


title: Lorenzo Ruiz

text: Lorenzo Ruiz is included in American painter John Nava's "Communion of Saints Tapestries", a depiction of 135 saints and "beati" which hangs inside the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels in Los Angeles, California.


title: Lorenzo Ruiz

text: On September 28, 2007, the Catholic Church celebrated the 20th anniversary of Lorenzo's canonization. Then-archbishop of Manila Cardinal Gaudencio Rosales said: ""Kahit saan nandoon ang mga Pilipino, ang katapatan sa Diyos ay dala-dala ng Pinoy"." ("Wheresoever Filipinos are, the Pinoy brings fidelity to God.")


title: Lorenzo Ruiz

text: On September 28, 2017, the 30th anniversary of Lorenzo's canonization was celebrated in the Archdiocese of Manila.


title: Shout (Isley Brothers song)

text: "Shout" is a popular song, written and originally recorded by American vocal group the Isley Brothers in 1959. Later versions include a UK Top 10 hit in 1964 by Scottish singer Lulu.


title: Shout (Isley Brothers song)

text: In performances around 1958, the Isley Brothers would typically end their shows with a cover version of Jackie Wilson's hit "Lonely Teardrops". At one performance at the Uptown Theater in Philadelphia, lead singer Ronald Isley could see the audience standing and yelling their approval, so he extended the song by improvising a call-and-response around the words "You know you make me wanna..." "Shout!". The group developed the song further in later performances and rehearsals, using a drawn out "We-eee-ll" copied from Ray Charles' "I Got a Woman". On returning to New York City at the end of their engagement, they suggested to record producers Hugo & Luigi that they record the "Shout!" climax of the performance as a separate song. The producers agreed and suggested that the band invite friends to the recording studio to generate a party atmosphere.


title: Shout (Isley Brothers song)

text: The recording took place on July 29, 1959, with Hugo and Luigi choosing the studio musicians and the Isley Brothers inviting organist Herman Stephens. Released in August 1959, with the song split over both sides of the record, the single reached number 47 on the "Billboard" Hot 100, becoming the group's first chart hit, and later the brothers' first gold single on the basis of its longevity. Ronald Isley later said that church groups wrote to radio stations asking them to stop playing the record, because of its use of a traditional black gospel sound.


title: Shout (Isley Brothers song)

text: In the Isley Brothers versions, they quote the "Say You Will" chorus from the song "Lonely Teardrops" by Jackie Wilson. The first bridge changes the rhythm from 2/4 to 6/8 before reverting to the 2/4 rhythm. A slow recitative portion, sung by the lead singer, beginning with "Now wait a minute", separates the faster portions of the song, with the other band members shouting and clapping with "Yeah, yeah". The second part of the song is noted for the repeated call and response lines: "A little bit softer/louder now", where both the lead singer and the backups first sing softly, and then loudly. This song ends with the repeated phrases: "Jump up and shout now" and the word "Shout" before the song's fade.


title: Shout (Isley Brothers song)

text: One month after the initial release, Johnny O'Keefe performed the song on his Australian TV show "Six O'Clock Rock". He released it as a single, which reached number 2 in Australia. His 1964 re-recording was only a minor hit at number 49. Joey Dee and the Starliters reached number 6 with their recording of the song in 1962. It begins with Joey Dee quietly speaking his suggestion to do a little bit of "Shout" before he begins singing, in which the group only covers the first part of the song, omitting the "Say you will" portions as well. They also reworked the chorus portion of the song into an even bigger hit, "Peppermint Twist", while the Isley Brothers' version re-charted that same year at number 94.


title: Shout (Isley Brothers song)

text: In 1964, in the U.K., a version by Scottish pop singer Lulu reached number 7 (attributed to Lulu and the Luvvers). She re-recorded the song in 1986, and it reached number 8. The Shangri-Las included a version of the song in their debut LP "Leader of the Pack" in 1965. Tommy James and the Shondells recorded a version of the song on their 1967 album, "I Think We're Alone Now".


title: Shout (Isley Brothers song)

text: The song was famously performed in its entirety, by Lloyd G. Williams (credited as Otis Day and the Knights), for the 1978 hit movie "National Lampoon's Animal House" during the frat house toga party sequence.


title: Shout (Isley Brothers song)

text: The Beatles recorded "Shout" in 1964 for a television special called "Around the Beatles". The recording was later released in 1996 on the Beatles archival album, "Anthology 1".


title: Shout (Isley Brothers song)

text: The National Football League (NFL)'s Buffalo Bills commissioned a version of "Shout" in 1987 with modified lyrics sung by jingle writer Scott Kemper. It has served as the team's official fight song ever since, except for a brief period in 1993 when Polaroid's worldwide licensing of the song led to a dispute over royalties, during which the team used a version of "Shout! Shout! (Knock Yourself Out)" by Ernie Maresca.


title: Shout (Isley Brothers song)

text: The song was prominently featured in "", but they could not afford to license the original recording, so it was covered by Larry Wright.


title: Shout (Isley Brothers song)

text: Louchie Lou & Michie One recorded a ragga/rap version of the song, titled "Shout (It Out)", which reached number 7 on the UK chart in 1993.


title: Shout (Isley Brothers song)

text: The original 1959 recording was featured in the 1982 film "Diner", and the "Cheers" season 4 episode "Suspicion".


title: Shout (Isley Brothers song)

text: Michael Jackson used the hook of "Shout" in 2001 for the song of the same title, which was the B-side to the UK single of "Cry" from the "Invincible" album.


title: Shout (Isley Brothers song)

text: "Rolling Stone" magazine ranked it at number 119 on its list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time".


title: Chess World Cup 2021

text: The Chess World Cup 2021 was a 206-player single-elimination chess tournament that took place in Sochi, Russia, beginning 12 July and ending 6 August 2021. It was the 9th edition of the Chess World Cup. The winner of this tournament was the Polish GM Jan-Krzysztof Duda, who won without losing any games either in classical chess or in the rapid tiebreakers.


title: Chess World Cup 2021

text: The two finalists (Duda and Sergey Karjakin) qualified for the Candidates Tournament 2022. The rest of the final eight, except Magnus Carlsen, qualified for the FIDE Grand Prix 2022.


title: Chess World Cup 2021

text: The tournament was an 8-round knockout event, with the top 50 seeds given a bye directly into the second round. The losers of the two semi-finals played a match for third place.


title: Chess World Cup 2021

text: The two finalists, Jan-Krzysztof Duda and Sergey Karjakin qualified for the Candidates Tournament 2022, which is a tournament to decide the next challenger for the World Championship. Moreover, all quarter-finalists, except for World Champion Magnus Carlsen, qualified for the FIDE Grand Prix 2022, giving them another chance to qualify for the Candidates.


title: Chess World Cup 2021

text: Each round consisted of classical time limit games on the first two days, plus tie-breaks on the third day if required. The time limits were as follows:


title: Chess World Cup 2021

text: Each round lasted three days: two for classical time limit games and a third, if necessary, for tie-breaks. Rounds 1 to 3 ran from July 12 to 20; July 21 was a rest day; Rounds 4 to 6 ran from July 22 to 30; July 31 was a rest day; and the last two rounds ran from August 1 to 6.


title: Chess World Cup 2021

text: The following is the list of participants. Players were seeded by their FIDE rating of June 2021, and all players were grandmasters unless indicated otherwise.


title: Chess World Cup 2021

text: The participants were seeded by their FIDE rating of June 2021. For the first time, a hybrid format of online chess under arbiter supervision was allowed to be a part of the qualification process, due to the difficulties caused by the COVID-19 pandemic in organizing over the board competition.


title: Chess World Cup 2021

text: The following are the players from the list of qualifiers who declined to play, and their replacements:


title: Chess World Cup 2021

text: In addition, six federations (Bosnia and Herzegovina, China, Japan, South Korea, Peru, Vietnam) did not nominate a player. Because of this and the two Zone 3.5 withdrawals, the number of presidential nominees (PN) increased from four to twelve, with the eight extra being:


title: Psyche (spacecraft)

text: Psyche is a planned orbiter mission to explore the origin of planetary cores by studying the metallic asteroid of the same name. Lindy Elkins-Tanton of Arizona State University is the principal investigator who proposed this mission for NASA's Discovery Program. NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) will manage the project.


title: Psyche (spacecraft)

text: 16 Psyche is the heaviest known M-type asteroid, and was once thought to be the exposed iron core of a protoplanet, the remnant of a violent collision with another object that stripped off its mantle and crust. Numerous recent studies have all but ruled that out. Radar observations of the asteroid from Earth indicate an iron–nickel composition. On January 4, 2017, the "Psyche" mission was selected for NASA's Discovery #14 mission, and launch was scheduled for no earlier than September 20, 2022. On June 24, 2022, the Psyche launch was postponed until at least 2023. As of October 2022, Psyche is scheduled to launch no earlier than October 10, 2023.


title: Psyche (spacecraft)

text: Psyche was submitted as part of a call for proposals for NASA's Discovery Program that closed in February 2015. It was shortlisted on September 30, 2015, as one of five finalists and awarded US$3 million for further concept development. One aspect of selection was enduring the "site visit" in which about 30 NASA personnel come and interview, inspect, and question the proposers and their plan.


title: Psyche (spacecraft)

text: On January 4, 2017, "Lucy" and "Psyche" were selected for the 13th and 14th Discovery missions, respectively, with launch for "Psyche" set for 2023. In May 2017, the launch date was moved up to target a more efficient trajectory, launching in July 2022 aboard a SpaceX Falcon Heavy launch vehicle and arriving on January 31, 2026, with a Mars gravity assist on May 23, 2023.


title: Psyche (spacecraft)

text: On June 24, 2022, NASA found that the late delivery of the testing equipment and flight software for the "Psyche" spacecraft did not give them enough time to complete the required testing given the remaining launch period ending on October 11, 2022, and decided to delay the launch. Future launch windows were available in 2023 and 2024 that would have rendezvoused with the asteroid in 2029 and 2030, respectively.


title: Psyche (spacecraft)

text: On October 28, 2022, NASA announced that Psyche was targeting a launch period opening on October 10, 2023, which would correspond with an arrival at the asteroid in August 2029.


title: Psyche (spacecraft)

text: The Psyche spacecraft is designed with solar electric propulsion, and the scientific payload includes a multispectral imager, a magnetometer, and a gamma-ray spectrometer.


title: Psyche (spacecraft)

text: The mission is targeting a launch no earlier than October 10, 2023, and arrival within six years to perform 21 months of science. The spacecraft was built by NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in collaboration with SSL (formerly Space Systems/Loral) and Arizona State University.


title: Psyche (spacecraft)

text: It was proposed that the rocket launch might be shared with a separate mission named "Athena", that would perform a single flyby of asteroid 2 Pallas, the third-largest asteroid in the Solar System. In May 2020, it was announced that the Falcon Heavy carrying Psyche would include two smallsat secondary payloads to study the Martian atmosphere and binary asteroids, named "EscaPADE" ("Escape and Plasma Acceleration and Dynamics Explorers") and "Janus" respectively, but in September 2020, the "EscaPADE" Mars atmosphere probe was removed from the plan. "Janus" was later removed from the Psyche mission as well on November 18, 2022, after an assessment determined that it would not be on the required trajectory to meet its science requirements as a result of Psyche’s new launch period.


title: Psyche (spacecraft)

text: Differentiation was a fundamental process in shaping many asteroids and all terrestrial planets, and direct exploration of a core could greatly enhance understanding of this process. The Psyche mission aims to characterize 16 Psyche's geology, shape, elemental composition, magnetic field, and mass distribution. It is expected that this mission will increase the understanding of planetary formation and interiors.


title: Psyche (spacecraft)

text: The spacecraft bus is the Space Systems Loral (SSL) 1300 platform. JPL added the command and data handling and telecom subsystems and all flight software.


title: Psyche (spacecraft)

text: This mission will use four of the model SPT-140 engine, a Hall-effect thruster utilizing solar electric propulsion, where electricity generated from solar panels is transmitted to an electric, rather than chemically powered, rocket engine. The thruster is nominally rated at 4.5 kW operating power, but it will also operate for long durations at about 900 watts. Psyche will be the first mission to use Hall-effect thrusters beyond lunar orbit.


title: Psyche (spacecraft)

text: The SPT-140 (SPT stands for "Stationary Plasma Thruster") is a production line commercial propulsion system that was invented in the USSR by OKB Fakel and developed by NASA's Glenn Research Center, Space Systems Loral, and Pratt & Whitney since the late 1980s. The SPT-140 thruster was first tested in U.S. as a 3.5 kW unit in 2002 as part of the Air Force Integrated High Payoff Rocket Propulsion Technology program.


title: Psyche (spacecraft)

text: Using solar electric thrusters will allow the spacecraft to arrive at 16 Psyche (at 3.3 astronomical units) much faster while consuming only 10% of the propellant it would need using conventional chemical propulsion.


title: Psyche (spacecraft)

text: Electricity will be generated by bilateral solar panels in an X-shaped configuration, with five panels on each side. Prior to the mission being moved forward with a new trajectory, the panels were to be arranged in straight lines, with only four panels on each side of the spacecraft.


title: Psyche (spacecraft)

text: The spacecraft will also test an experimental laser communication technology called Deep Space Optical Communications (DSOC). It is hoped that the device will be able to increase spacecraft communications performance and efficiency by 10 to 100 times over conventional means. Deep Space Optical Communications (DSOC) experiment is NASA's first demonstration of optical communications beyond the Earth-Moon system. DSOC is a system that consists of a flight laser transceiver, a ground laser transmitter, and a ground laser receiver. New technologies have been implemented in each of these elements. The transceiver is mounted on the "Psyche" spacecraft. The DSOC technology demonstration will begin shortly after launch and continue as the spacecraft travels from Earth to its gravity-assist flyby of Mars. DSOC operations are planned for one year after launch, with extended-mission opportunities to be evaluated. Palomar Observatory's Hale Telescope will receive the high-rate data downlink from the DSOC flight transceiver.


title: Psyche (spacecraft)

text: The Discovery program solicitation offered mission projects an extra $30 M if they would host and test the 25 kg DSOC unit which needs about 75 Watts. It is hoped to advance DSOC to TRL 6. DSOC tests should begin about 60 days after launch. The test-runs of the laser equipment will occur over distances of 0.1 to 2.5 astronomical units (AU) on the outward-bound probe.


title: Psyche (spacecraft)

text: Flight hardware: The DSOC flight laser transceiver will feature a near-infrared laser transmitter to send high-rate data to the ground system, and a sensitive photon-counting camera to receive a ground-transmitted laser. The transceiver's 8.6-inch (22-centimeter) aperture telescope is mounted on an assembly of struts and actuators that stabilizes the optics from spacecraft vibrations. The flight hardware is fitted with a sunshade and protrudes from the side of the spacecraft, making it one of "Psyche"'s easily identifiable features.


title: Psyche (spacecraft)

text: Ground systems: A high-power near-infrared laser transmitter at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory's Table Mountain facility near Wrightwood, California, will uplink a modulated laser beam to the flight transceiver and demonstrate the transmission of low-rate data. The uplink laser will also act as a beacon for the flight transceiver to lock onto. The downlink data sent back by the DSOC transceiver on Psyche will be collected by the 200-inch (5.1-meter) Hale Telescope at Caltech's Palomar Observatory in San Diego County, California, using a sensitive superconducting nanowire photon-counting receiver to demonstrate high-rate data transfer.


title: Psyche (spacecraft)

text: As of October 2022, Psyche is scheduled to launch no earlier than October 10, 2023, on a Falcon Heavy vehicle. The cost of the launch is US$117 million. "Psyche" will conduct a gravity assist maneuver at Mars in 2026, which will position the spacecraft for arrival at the target asteroid in August 2029.


title: Psyche (spacecraft)

text: "Psyche" is scheduled to enter orbit around 16 Psyche in August 2029. The spacecraft would orbit at decreasing altitudes or regimes. Its first regime, , would see the spacecraft enter a orbit for magnetic field characterization and preliminary mapping for a duration of 56 days. It would then descend to , set at altitude for 76 days, for topography and magnetic field characterization. It would then descend to , at altitude for 100 days to perform gravity investigations and continue magnetic field observations. Finally, the orbiter will enter , set at to determine the chemical composition of the surface using its gamma-ray and neutron spectrometers. It will also acquire continued imaging, gravity, and magnetic field mapping. The mission is expected to orbit the asteroid for at least 21 months.


title: Psyche (spacecraft)

text: The laser beams from the spacecraft will be received by a ground telescope at Palomar Observatory in California. Laser beams to the spacecraft will be sent from a smaller telescope at JPL Table Mountain Facility.


title: Psyche (spacecraft)

text: Testing began on the spacecraft in December 2021. These tests include but are not limited to electromagnetic testing and TVAC, or thermal vacuum chamber testing. The electromagnetic testing is conducted to ensure that the electronics and magnetic components that make up the spacecraft will not interfere with each other while conducting the mission. The TVAC testing was conducted inside the 85 by 25 foot vacuum chamber at JPL's facility in Southern California, which replicates the lack of air in space. This allows for the engineers and scientist to observe the effects of the space environment on the obiter. Inside the TVAC the JPL employees can observe how well the spacecraft reacts to harsh conditions. Without air surrounding the spacecraft the heating and cooling of the unit is affected. The spacecraft will be hot in the hours after launch, when it’s still close to Earth and facing the Sun, especially with its electronics running, and later, when the spacecraft gets farther from the Sun, it faces intense cold, especially when flying in Psyche's shadow. Vibration tests of the spacecraft by scientists and engineers ensure it can survive the extreme conditions of the rocket launch. They also performed shock testing to ensure the spacecraft could survive the shock of separation from the rocket's second stage. Finally, they performed acoustic testing on the craft. The sound of the launch can be so violent that it can damage the hardware, so intense acoustic testing was performed to ensure mission success.


title: Psyche (spacecraft)

text: NASA and Arizona State University have been working with numerous universities to engage students with a "Psyche"-inspired capstone project. Students in their final year of university participate in a project that uses their knowledge and skills to complete realistic "Psyche"-based missions, that range across a number of disciplines. The capstone projects have been underway from 2017. The schools that participate in the program are Arizona State University, Cleveland State University, Florida A&M University, Michigan State University, Michigan Technological University, Pennsylvania State University at Behrend, Rochester Institute of Technology, Seattle University, University of Arkansas, University of Illinois - Chicago, University of Texas - Tyler, and Virginia Commonwealth University.


title: Mitsubishi 4M4 engine

text: The Mitsubishi 4M4 engine is a range of four-cylinder diesel piston engines from Mitsubishi Motors, first introduced in the second generation of their Montero/Pajero/Shogun SUVs. They superseded the previous "4D5" engine family, main differences are enlarged displacements and the utilization of one or two over-head camshafts. Originally available only as a 2835 cc intercooled turbo, detail improvements in 1996 and a larger 3.2 litre option in 1999 served to improve power, torque, fuel economy and emissions. The final version has 3.0 litres swept volume and Common rail direct injection.


title: Mitsubishi 4M4 engine

text: Compression ratio 21.0:1, Zexel Electronically controlled or Mechanical controlled distributor type Injection Pump, at 4000 rpm, at 2000 rpm


title: Mitsubishi 4M4 engine

text: Compression ratio 17.0:1, Zexel Electronic control type distributor type pump (direct injection inside diesel tube) or Denso Common Rail direct injection, at 4000 rpm, at 2000-3000 rpm


title: Rüştü Reçber

text: Rüştü Reçber (; born 10 May 1973) is a Turkish former professional footballer and a current sports executive. During his professional career, he played as a goalkeeper for Antalyaspor, Fenerbahçe, Barcelona and Beşiktaş.


title: Rüştü Reçber

text: Rüştü was part of the Turkey national squad that reached the semi-finals at the 2002 FIFA World Cup and UEFA Euro 2008. At the former, where Turkey finished third, his performances saw him selected for the tournament's all-star team. He is Turkey's record appearance holder, having earned 120 caps. He made his debut against Iceland in 1994 and his final appearance came against Finland in 2012.


title: Rüştü Reçber

text: Rüştü was named the best goalkeeper in European competitions in 2002, selected for the 2002 UEFA Team of the Year by public vote. In 2004, he was selected to FIFA 100 by Pelé as one of the 125 best living footballers in the world.


title: Rüştü Reçber

text: Born in Korkuteli, Rüştü began his career at nearby Antalyaspor, having converted from a forward to a goalkeeper. Early in his career, he missed out on moves to two of the Istanbul-based Big Three of Turkish football: he rejected Galatasaray at the age of 17 because coach Mustafa Denizli wanted him to start off at the youth team, and in 1993 a move to Beşiktaş fell through when he was seriously injured in a car crash.


title: Rüştü Reçber

text: After debuting for Turkey under-21, Rüştü was told by national manager Fatih Terim in 1992 that he would become the greatest goalkeeper in the nation's history. In 1993 he joined the last remaining of the Big Three, Fenerbahçe, spending his first season back on loan at Antalyaspor. He gained his big break in October 1994, when club and national starting goalkeeper Engin İpekoğlu injured his foot against Kayserispor; he debuted against Petrol Ofisi and went on to make 240 appearances in his first spell, also becoming captain and winning the Süper Lig twice.


title: Rüştü Reçber

text: In July 2003, Rüştü was very close to signing for Arsenal, but he had a dispute with manager Arsène Wenger who he felt insulted his fitness. Instead, he joined La Liga club Barcelona. After manager Frank Rijkaard chose to play Víctor Valdés in the first two league matches because Rüştü's Spanish was still very weak. Rüştü was upset by this, saying "It is not normal for a goalkeeper of my history and caliber to be left out because I don't speak Spanish."


title: Rüştü Reçber

text: Rüştü made his debut on 15 October 2003 in the UEFA Cup first round second leg at home to Slovakia's MŠK Púchov, an 8–0 win. He totalled only seven games – four in the league, of which the first was a 3–1 win at RCD Espanyol in the Derbi barceloní on 13 December.


title: Rüştü Reçber

text: Having played just four league games (seven overall), Rüştü was loaned back to Fenerbahçe on 27 August 2004 for the season. On 28 July 2005, this was extended for another year. In his combined two spells, Rüştü is the Fenerbahçe goalkeeper with second-most appearances, with 294 games, following Volkan Demirel.


title: Rüştü Reçber

text: After winning the league title for a third time with Fenerbahçe in 2006–07, Rüştü moved to city rivals Beşiktaş on a three-year deal, along with teammate Mehmet Yozgatlı. Rüştü won the league with his new team in 2008–09. He also won 2010–11 Turkish Cup where he played all 120 minutes, including penalties, as the club won the tournament.


title: Rüştü Reçber

text: Turkey finished third in the 2002 FIFA World Cup in South Korea and Japan. Rüştü was one of two goalkeepers in the 16-man Team of the Tournament, alongside Germany's Oliver Kahn.


title: Rüştü Reçber

text: On 26 March 2005, captain Rüştü earned his 100th cap in a 2–0 home win over Albania in 2006 FIFA World Cup qualification.


title: Rüştü Reçber

text: With first choice goalkeeper Volkan Demirel suspended, Rüştü started the UEFA Euro 2008 quarter-final match against Croatia. A questionable foray from his goalmouth allowed Croatia to score the match's first goal with a minute remaining in extra time. Rüştü immediately made amends for his mistake though, assisting on Semih Şentürk's injury time goal in the 122nd minute. In the ensuing penalty shootout, he faced four kicks, saving the last one from Mladen Petrić to secure Turkey's victory in the shootout and enabling Turkey to progress to the Euro semi-finals for the first time ever.


title: Rüştü Reçber

text: In the aftermath of the 3–2 semi-final loss to Germany, a game in which he was captain, he announced his retirement from the national team. However, he was since called up against Spain for a 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifying match. He was called up for the last time for Turkey in a game against Finland on 26 May 2012, the last of his 120 caps.


title: Rüştü Reçber

text: Rüştü was renowned as a gifted shot-stopper, possessed an excellent positional sense. Using his height, he was also able to come up for high balls. He also possessed strong reflexes and good deflecting ability. Known as a penalty stopper, his shoot-out performance against Croatia in the UEFA Euro 2008 quarter-finals was described as "heroic" by UEFA in 2015. He was featured in a UEFA Training Ground series video under the title of "Rüştü's Turkish Delight", in which he was described as a "Master of Penalties". He was an eccentric goalkeeper, who also stood out for his charismatic personality. Physically, he was recognisable for his long hair and anti-glare paint under his eyes. He was also adept at taking goal kicks and clearing backpasses.


title: Rüştü Reçber

text: Rüştü is married to Işıl Reçber (née: "Kepe") and the couple have a son and a daughter. The couple first met in period when Rüştü just signed for Fenerbahçe from Antalyaspor, in 1994. Rüştü used to be a Galatasaray supporter in his childhood. His son, Burak, born in 2007, plays football at Galatasaray academy.


title: Rüştü Reçber

text: In March 2020, Reçber tested positive for COVID-19 amidst the COVID-19 pandemic. He was admitted to hospital for care where he was put under isolation. He was discharged in April.


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: The Aharonov–Bohm effect, sometimes called the Ehrenberg–Siday–Aharonov–Bohm effect, is a quantum mechanical phenomenon in which an electrically charged particle is affected by an electromagnetic potential (φ, A), despite being confined to a region in which both the magnetic field B and electric field E are zero. The underlying mechanism is the coupling of the electromagnetic potential with the complex phase of a charged particle's wave function, and the Aharonov–Bohm effect is accordingly illustrated by interference experiments.


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: The most commonly described case, sometimes called the Aharonov–Bohm solenoid effect, takes place when the wave function of a charged particle passing around a long solenoid experiences a phase shift as a result of the enclosed magnetic field, despite the magnetic field being negligible in the region through which the particle passes and the particle's wavefunction being negligible inside the solenoid. This phase shift has been observed experimentally. There are also magnetic Aharonov–Bohm effects on bound energies and scattering cross sections, but these cases have not been experimentally tested. An electric Aharonov–Bohm phenomenon was also predicted, in which a charged particle is affected by regions with different electrical potentials but zero electric field, but this has no experimental confirmation yet. A separate "molecular" Aharonov–Bohm effect was proposed for nuclear motion in multiply connected regions, but this has been argued to be a different kind of geometric phase as it is "neither nonlocal nor topological", depending only on local quantities along the nuclear path.


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: Werner Ehrenberg (1901–1975) and Raymond E. Siday first predicted the effect in 1949. Yakir Aharonov and David Bohm published their analysis in 1959. After publication of the 1959 paper, Bohm was informed of Ehrenberg and Siday's work, which was acknowledged and credited in Bohm and Aharonov's subsequent 1961 paper. The effect was confirmed experimentally, with a very large error, while Bohm was still alive. By the time the error was down to a respectable value, Bohm had died.


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: In the 18th and 19th centuries, physics was dominated by Newtonian dynamics, with its emphasis on forces. Electromagnetic phenomena were elucidated by a series of experiments involving the measurement of forces between charges, currents and magnets in various configurations. Eventually, a description arose according to which charges, currents and magnets acted as local sources of propagating force fields, which then acted on other charges and currents locally through the Lorentz force law. In this framework, because one of the observed properties of the electric field was that it was irrotational, and one of the observed properties of the magnetic field was that it was divergenceless, it was possible to express an electrostatic field as the gradient of a scalar potential (e.g. Coulomb's electrostatic potential, which is mathematically analogous to the classical gravitational potential) and a stationary magnetic field as the curl of a vector potential (then a new concept – the idea of a scalar potential was already well accepted by analogy with gravitational potential). The language of potentials generalised seamlessly to the fully dynamic case but, since all physical effects were describable in terms of the fields which were the derivatives of the potentials, potentials (unlike fields) were not uniquely determined by physical effects: potentials were only defined up to an arbitrary additive constant electrostatic potential and an irrotational stationary magnetic vector potential.


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: The Aharonov–Bohm effect is important conceptually because it bears on three issues apparent in the recasting of (Maxwell's) classical electromagnetic theory as a gauge theory, which before the advent of quantum mechanics could be argued to be a mathematical reformulation with no physical consequences. The Aharonov–Bohm thought experiments and their experimental realization imply that the issues were not just philosophical.


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: Because of reasons like these, the Aharonov–Bohm effect was chosen by the "New Scientist" magazine as one of the "seven wonders of the quantum world".


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: It is generally argued that the Aharonov–Bohm effect illustrates the physicality of electromagnetic potentials, "Φ" and A, in quantum mechanics. Classically it was possible to argue that only the electromagnetic fields are physical, while the electromagnetic potentials are purely mathematical constructs, that due to gauge freedom aren't even unique for a given electromagnetic field.


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: However, Vaidman has challenged this interpretation by showing that the Aharonov–Bohm effect can be explained without the use of potentials so long as one gives a full quantum mechanical treatment to the source charges that produce the electromagnetic field. According to this view, the potential in quantum mechanics is just as physical (or non-physical) as it was classically. Aharonov, Cohen, and Rohrlich responded that the effect may be due to a local gauge potential or due to non-local gauge-invariant fields.


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: Two papers published in the journal "Physical Review A" in 2017 have demonstrated a quantum mechanical solution for the system. Their analysis shows that the phase shift can be viewed as generated by a solenoid's vector potential acting on the electron or the electron's vector potential acting on the solenoid or the electron and solenoid currents acting on the quantized vector potential.


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: Similarly, the Aharonov–Bohm effect illustrates that the Lagrangian approach to dynamics, based on energies, is not just a computational aid to the Newtonian approach, based on forces. Thus the Aharonov–Bohm effect validates the view that forces are an incomplete way to formulate physics, and potential energies must be used instead. In fact Richard Feynman complained that he had been taught electromagnetism from the perspective of electromagnetic fields, and he wished later in life he had been taught to think in terms of the electromagnetic potential instead, as this would be more fundamental. In Feynman's path-integral view of dynamics, the potential field directly changes the phase of an electron wave function, and it is these changes in phase that lead to measurable quantities.


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: The Aharonov–Bohm effect shows that the local E and B fields do not contain full information about the electromagnetic field, and the electromagnetic four-potential, ("Φ", A), must be used instead. By Stokes' theorem, the magnitude of the Aharonov–Bohm effect can be calculated using the electromagnetic fields alone, "or" using the four-potential alone. But when using just the electromagnetic fields, the effect depends on the field values in a region from which the test particle is excluded. In contrast, when using just the four-potential, the effect only depends on the potential in the region where the test particle is allowed. Therefore, one must either abandon the principle of locality, which most physicists are reluctant to do, or accept that the electromagnetic four-potential offers a more complete description of electromagnetism than the electric and magnetic fields can. On the other hand, the Aharonov–Bohm effect is crucially quantum mechanical; quantum mechanics is well known to feature non-local effects (albeit still disallowing superluminal communication), and Vaidman has argued that this is just a non-local quantum effect in a different form.


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: In classical electromagnetism the two descriptions were equivalent. With the addition of quantum theory, though, the electromagnetic potentials "Φ" and A are seen as being more fundamental.


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: Despite this, all observable effects end up being expressible in terms of the electromagnetic fields, E and B. This is interesting because, while you can calculate the electromagnetic field from the four-potential, due to gauge freedom the reverse is not true.


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: The magnetic Aharonov–Bohm effect can be seen as a result of the requirement that quantum physics must be invariant with respect to the gauge choice for the electromagnetic potential, of which the magnetic vector potential formula_1 forms part.


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: Electromagnetic theory implies that a particle with electric charge formula_2 travelling along some path formula_3 in a region with zero magnetic field formula_4, but non-zero formula_1 (by formula_6), acquires a phase shift formula_7, given in SI units by


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: Therefore, particles, with the same start and end points, but travelling along two different routes will acquire a phase difference formula_9 determined by the magnetic flux formula_10 through the area between the paths (via Stokes' theorem and formula_11), and given by:


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: In quantum mechanics the same particle can travel between two points by a variety of paths. Therefore, this phase difference can be observed by placing a solenoid between the slits of a double-slit experiment (or equivalent). An ideal solenoid (i.e. infinitely long and with a perfectly uniform current distribution) encloses a magnetic field formula_4, but does not produce any magnetic field outside of its cylinder, and thus the charged particle (e.g. an electron) passing outside experiences no magnetic field formula_4. However, there is a (curl-free) vector potential formula_1 outside the solenoid with an enclosed flux, and so the relative phase of particles passing through one slit or the other is altered by whether the solenoid current is turned on or off. This corresponds to an observable shift of the interference fringes on the observation plane.


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: The same phase effect is responsible for the quantized-flux requirement in superconducting loops. This quantization occurs because the superconducting wave function must be single valued: its phase difference formula_9 around a closed loop must be an integer multiple of formula_17 (with the charge formula_18 for the electron Cooper pairs), and thus the flux must be a multiple of formula_19. The superconducting flux quantum was actually predicted prior to Aharonov and Bohm, by F. London in 1948 using a phenomenological model.


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: The first claimed experimental confirmation was by Robert G. Chambers in 1960, in an electron interferometer with a magnetic field produced by a thin iron whisker, and other early work is summarized in Olariu and Popèscu (1984). However, subsequent authors questioned the validity of several of these early results because the electrons may not have been completely shielded from the magnetic fields. An early experiment in which an unambiguous Aharonov–Bohm effect was observed by completely excluding the magnetic field from the electron path (with the help of a superconducting film) was performed by Tonomura et al. in 1986. The effect's scope and application continues to expand. Webb "et al." (1985) demonstrated Aharonov–Bohm oscillations in ordinary, non-superconducting metallic rings; for a discussion, see Schwarzschild (1986) and Imry & Webb (1989). Bachtold "et al." (1999) detected the effect in carbon nanotubes; for a discussion, see Kong "et al." (2004).


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: The magnetic Aharonov–Bohm effect is also closely related to Dirac's argument that the existence of a magnetic monopole can be accommodated by the existing magnetic source-free Maxwell's equations if both electric and magnetic charges are quantized.


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: A magnetic monopole implies a mathematical singularity in the vector potential, which can be expressed as a Dirac string of infinitesimal diameter that contains the equivalent of all of the 4π"g" flux from a monopole "charge" "g". The Dirac string starts from, and terminates on, a magnetic monopole. Thus, assuming the absence of an infinite-range scattering effect by this arbitrary choice of singularity, the requirement of single-valued wave functions (as above) necessitates charge-quantization. That is, formula_20 must be an integer (in cgs units) for any electric charge "q" and magnetic charge "q".


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: Like the electromagnetic potential A the Dirac string is not gauge invariant (it moves around with fixed endpoints under a gauge transformation) and so is also not directly measurable.


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: Just as the phase of the wave function depends upon the magnetic vector potential, it also depends upon the scalar electric potential. By constructing a situation in which the electrostatic potential varies for two paths of a particle, through regions of zero electric field, an observable Aharonov–Bohm interference phenomenon from the phase shift has been predicted; again, the absence of an electric field means that, classically, there would be no effect.


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: From the Schrödinger equation, the phase of an eigenfunction with energy "E" goes as formula_21. The energy, however, will depend upon the electrostatic potential "V" for a particle with charge "q". In particular, for a region with constant potential "V" (zero field), the electric potential energy "qV" is simply added to "E", resulting in a phase shift:


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: The initial theoretical proposal for this effect suggested an experiment where charges pass through conducting cylinders along two paths, which shield the particles from external electric fields in the regions where they travel, but still allow a time dependent potential to be applied by charging the cylinders. This proved difficult to realize, however. Instead, a different experiment was proposed involving a ring geometry interrupted by tunnel barriers, with a constant bias voltage "V" relating the potentials of the two halves of the ring. This situation results in an Aharonov–Bohm phase shift as above, and was observed experimentally in 1998, albeit in a setup where the charges do traverse the electric field generated by the bias voltage. The original time dependent electric Aharonov–Bohm effect has not yet found experimental verification.


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: The Aharonov–Bohm phase shift due to the gravitational potential should also be possible to observe in theory, and in early 2022 an experiment was carried out to observe it based on an experimental design from 2012. In the experiment, ultra-cold rubidium atoms in superposition were launched vertically inside a vacuum tube and split with a laser so that one part would go higher than the other and then recombined back. Outside of the chamber at the top sits an axially symmetric mass that changes the gravitational potential. Thus, the part that goes higher should experience a greater change which manifests as an interference pattern when the wave packets recombine resulting in a measurable phase shift. Evidence of a match between the measurements and the predictions was found by the team. Multiple other tests have been proposed.


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: In 1975 Tai-Tsun Wu and Chen-Ning Yang formulated the non-Abelian Aharonov–Bohm effect, and in 2019 this was experimentally reported in a system with light waves rather than the electron wavefunction. The effect was produced in two different ways. In one light went through a crystal in strong magnetic field and in another light was modulated using time-varying electrical signals. In both cases the phase shift was observed via an interference pattern which was also different depending if going forwards and backwards in time.


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: Nano rings were created by accident while intending to make quantum dots. They have interesting optical properties associated with excitons and the Aharonov–Bohm effect. Application of these rings used as light capacitors or buffers includes photonic computing and communications technology. Analysis and measurement of geometric phases in mesoscopic rings is ongoing. It is even suggested they could be used to make a form of slow glass.


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: Several experiments, including some reported in 2012, show Aharonov–Bohm oscillations in charge density wave (CDW) current versus magnetic flux, of dominant period "h"/2"e" through CDW rings up to 85 µm in circumference above 77 K. This behavior is similar to that of the superconducting quantum interference devices (see SQUID).


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: The Aharonov–Bohm effect can be understood from the fact that one can only measure absolute values of the wave function. While this allows for measurement of phase differences through quantum interference experiments, there is no way to specify a wavefunction with constant absolute phase. In the absence of an electromagnetic field one can come close by declaring the eigenfunction of the momentum operator with zero momentum to be the function "1" (ignoring normalization problems) and specifying wave functions relative to this eigenfunction "1". In this representation the i-momentum operator is (up to a factor formula_23) the differential operator formula_24. However, by gauge invariance, it is equally valid to declare the zero momentum eigenfunction to be formula_25 at the cost of representing the i-momentum operator (up to a factor) as formula_26 i.e. with a pure gauge vector potential formula_27. There is no real asymmetry because representing the former in terms of the latter is just as messy as representing the latter in terms of the former. This means that it is physically more natural to describe wave "functions", in the language of differential geometry, as sections in a complex line bundle with a hermitian metric and a U(1)-connection formula_28. The curvature form of the connection, formula_29, is, up to the factor i, the Faraday tensor of the electromagnetic field strength. The Aharonov–Bohm effect is then a manifestation of the fact that a connection with zero curvature (i.e. flat), need not be trivial since it can have monodromy along a topologically nontrivial path fully contained in the zero curvature (i.e. field free) region. By definition this means that sections that are parallelly translated along a topologically non trivial path pick up a phase, so that covariant constant sections cannot be defined over the whole field free region.


title: Aharonov–Bohm effect

text: Given a trivialization of the line-bundle, a non-vanishing section, the U(1)-connection is given by the 1-form corresponding to the electromagnetic four-potential "A" as formula_30 where "d" means exterior derivation on the Minkowski space. The monodromy is the holonomy of the flat connection. The holonomy of a connection, flat or non flat, around a closed loop formula_31 is formula_32 (one can show this does not depend on the trivialization but only on the connection). For a flat connection one can find a gauge transformation in any simply connected field free region(acting on wave functions and connections) that gauges away the vector potential. However, if the monodromy is nontrivial, there is no such gauge transformation for the whole outside region. In fact as a consequence of Stokes' theorem, the holonomy is determined by the magnetic flux through a surface formula_33 bounding the loop formula_31, but such a surface may exist only if formula_33 passes through a region of non trivial field: