title: Terry Yorath

text: In June 2008, Yorath returned to football when he was appointed the director of football at Isthmian League Premier Division side Margate, where his brother Dai and nephew Dean had both played. On 21 November 2008, he was appointed manager of the club after Barry Ashby was sacked. However, Yorath resigned as Margate manager on 24 September 2009 following a run of disappointing results, leaving Neville Southall in temporary charge of the team.


title: Mister Peabody

text: Hector J. Peabody, simply referred to as Mr. Peabody, is an anthropomorphic cartoon dog who appeared in the late 1950s and early 1960s television animated series "The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle and Friends", produced by Jay Ward. Peabody appeared in the "Peabody's Improbable History" segments created by Ted Key, and was voiced by Bill Scott. In 2014, he was featured in a computer-animated film, "Mr. Peabody & Sherman". From 2015 to 2017, he appeared in a television series based on the film.


title: Mister Peabody

text: Mr. Peabody's first name is never given or referred to in the cartoons, but in an animated promotion for the "Rocky & Bullwinkle" Savings Stamp Club, he tells Sherman that it is "Hector".


title: Mister Peabody

text: The cartoons are about Peabody, who is the smartest being in existence, having graduated from Harvard when he was 3 years old. ("Wagna cum Laude"). Peabody has accomplished many things in his life as a business magnate, inventor, scientist, Nobel laureate, gourmand, and two-time Olympic medalist.


title: Mister Peabody

text: An animated feature film based on the characters of Mister Peabody and Sherman had been in development at DreamWorks Animation since 2007. The feature was directed by Rob Minkoff, who is known for co-directing "The Lion King" for Disney. In January 2011, it was announced that a 3-D computer animated film titled "Mr. Peabody & Sherman" would be released on March 14, 2014. Robert Downey Jr. was announced to voice Mr. Peabody, but in March 2012, was replaced by Ty Burrell. Max Charles, the actor who plays young Peter Parker in "The Amazing Spider-Man" voiced Sherman. In June 2012, it was reported that "Mr. Peabody & Sherman"'s release date had been moved up to November 8, 2013. Stephen Colbert voiced Paul Peterson, Penny's father; Leslie Mann voiced Peterson's wife, Patty, and Ariel Winter (Burrell's "Modern Family" co-star) voiced their daughter Penny. Also joining the cast were Allison Janney and Stephen Tobolowsky. In September 2012, the release date was moved up for a week to November 1, 2013. It finally had an official release on March 7, 2014. The film was produced by Alex Schwartz and Denise Cascino, and written by Craig Wright.


title: Mister Peabody

text: The film focused much more on Mr. Peabody and Sherman's personal lives that prompt a series of time-traveling mishaps with the WABAC machine, forcing the pair to put things on track before the space-time continuum is irreparably destroyed.


title: Mister Peabody

text: Unlike the show, Mr. Peabody treats Sherman as a beloved son, whom he adopted as an infant rather than as a pet and assistant, and the machine is more futuristic with an autonomous aircraft function. Also, a third member of the team is introduced, Penny, who is Sherman's rival and later, best friend and love interest.


title: Mister Peabody

text: An animated television series, starring Mr. Peabody and Sherman, premiered in October 2015, on Netflix. It takes the form of a talk show named "The Mr. Peabody & Sherman Show", with Mr. Peabody and Sherman hosting historical guests. The series is inspired by the 1960s short segments, including their hand-drawn animation and comedy, and it also integrates some elements from the 2014 film. Mr. Peabody is voiced by Chris Parnell, while Max Charles reprises his role as Sherman from the film. In this series, Peabody's family is further explored, with his foster parents appearing in the first season's episode nine, and his distant Uncle Duke appearing in a time travel adventure in the fourth season's episode six.


title: Mostly Harmless

text: Mostly Harmless is a 1992 novel by Douglas Adams and the fifth book in the "Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy" series. It is described on the cover of the first edition as "The fifth book in the increasingly inaccurately named Hitchhikers Trilogy". It was the last "Hitchhiker's" book written by Adams and his final book released in his lifetime.


title: Mostly Harmless

text: The title derives from a joke early in the series, when Arthur Dent discovers that the entry for Earth in "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy" consists, in its entirety, of the word "Harmless". His friend Ford Prefect, a contributor to the "Guide", assures him that the next edition will contain the article on Earth that Ford has spent the last 15 years researching — somewhat cut due to space restrictions, but still an improvement. The revised article, he eventually admits, will simply read ""Mostly" harmless". Ford had written an extensive entry covering life and recreation on Earth, but the "Guide" editors cut it back to "Harmless". Later in the series, Ford is surprised to find that the entry on Earth has been updated to include all of his original material, prompting him to hitchhike across the galaxy and reunite with Arthur on the alternate Earth in "So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish".


title: Mostly Harmless

text: In an interview reprinted in "The Salmon of Doubt", Adams expressed dissatisfaction with the tone of this book, which he blamed on personal problems, saying "for all sorts of personal reasons that I don't want to go into, I just had a thoroughly miserable year, and I was trying to write a book against that background. And, guess what, it was a rather bleak book!"


title: Mostly Harmless

text: Arthur Dent plans to sightsee across the Galaxy with his girlfriend Fenchurch, but she disappears during a hyperspace jump, a result of being from an unstable sector of the Galaxy. Depressed, Arthur continues to travel the galaxy using samples of his bodily tissues/fluids to fund his travels, assured of his safety until he visits Stavromula Beta, having killed an incarnation of Agrajag at some point in the future at said planet. During one trip, he ends up stranded on the homely planet Lamuella, and decides to stay to become a sandwich maker for the local population.


title: Mostly Harmless

text: Meanwhile, Ford Prefect has returned to the offices of the Hitchhiker's Guide, and is annoyed to find out the original publishing company, Megadodo Publications, has been taken over by InfiniDim Enterprises, which are run by the Vogons. Fearing for his life, he escapes the building, along the way stealing the yet-unpublished, seemingly sentient Hitchhiker's Guide Mk. II. He goes into hiding after sending the Guide to himself, care of Arthur, for safekeeping.


title: Mostly Harmless

text: On Lamuella, Arthur is surprised by the appearance of Trillian with a teenage daughter, Random Dent. Trillian explains that she wanted a child, and used the only human DNA she could find, thus claiming that Arthur is Random's father. She leaves Random with Arthur to allow her to better pursue her career as an intergalactic reporter. Random is frustrated with Arthur and life on Lamuella; when Ford's package to Arthur arrives, she takes it and discovers the Guide. The Guide helps her to escape the planet on Ford's ship after Ford arrives on the planet looking for Arthur. Discovering Random, the Guide, and Ford's ship missing, the two manage to find a way to leave Lamuella and head for Earth, where they suspect Random is also heading to find Trillian. Ford expresses concern at the Guide's manipulation of events, noting its "Unfiltered Perception" and fearing its potence and ultimate objective.


title: Mostly Harmless

text: Reporter Tricia McMillan is a version of Trillian living on an alternate Earth who never took Zaphod Beeblebrox's offer to travel in space. She is approached by an extraterrestrial species, the Grebulons, who have created a base of operations on the planet Rupert, a recently discovered tenth planet in the Solar System. However, due to damage to their ship in arriving, they have lost most of their computer core and their memories, with the only salvageable instructions being to observe something interesting with Earth. They ask Tricia's help to adapt astrology charts for Rupert in exchange for allowing her to interview them. She fulfills their request and conducts the interview, but the resulting footage looks so fake that she fears it will destroy her reputation if broadcast. She is called away from editing the footage to report on a spaceship landing in the middle of London.


title: Mostly Harmless

text: As Tricia arrives at the scene, Random steps off the ship and begins to yell at her, mistaking Tricia for her mother. Arthur, Ford, and Trillian arrive and help Tricia to calm Random. They remove her from the chaos surrounding the spacecraft and take her to a bar. Trillian tries to warn the group that the Grebulons, having become bored with their mission, are about to destroy the Earth. Random disrupts the discussion by producing a laser gun she took from her ship. Arthur, still believing he cannot die, tries to calm Random, but a distraction causes her to fire the weapon, sending the bar into a panic. Arthur tends to a man hit by the blast, who drops a matchbook with the name of the bar - "Stavro Mueller – Beta" - and Arthur realizes that this is the scene of Agrajag's final death. He sees Ford laughing wildly at this turn of events and experiences a "tremendous feeling of peace".


title: Mostly Harmless

text: The Grebulons destroy the Earth, believing that their horoscopes will improve if it is removed from their astrological charts. It is revealed that the Vogons designed the Guide Mk. II to achieve their desired outcome by manipulating temporal events. As a result, every version of the Earth in all realities is obliterated, fulfilling the demolition order that was issued in the first novel. Its mission complete, the Guide collapses into nothingness.


title: Mostly Harmless

text: Unlike the previous books in the series, "Mostly Harmless" received mixed reviews noting its darker tone. Nicholas Lezard in "The Guardian" wrote: "I doubt there is a comedy sci-fi work bleaker than "Mostly Harmless"". "The Independent" concluded ""Mostly Harmless" has all the wit and inventiveness of vintage Douglas Adams, though its loose ends are not tied together as comprehensively as in previous "Hitch-Hiker" books". David Edelman in the "Baltimore Evening Sun" wrote: "Somewhere buried in the mess is a moral about learning how to feel at home in a chaotic universe. Unfortunately, Adams' skills at conveying serious messages are nowhere near on a level with his skill at conjuring up non sequiturs, and the idea gets buried".


title: Mostly Harmless

text: Dirk Maggs adapted the book as the "Quintessential Phase" of the radio series, and it was broadcast in June 2005. The radio version has an entirely new, upbeat ending, appended to the existing story.


title: Mostly Harmless

text: In the alternate ending, after the destruction of Earth, the description of the Babel fish from the earlier series is replayed with an additional section, which states that dolphins and Babel fish are acquainted, and that the dolphins' ability to travel through possibility space (first mentioned in "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy" and elaborated on in "So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish") is shared by the Babel fish as well. During the ending, Ford explains that the dolphins got taught this skill from the Babel fish in exchange for knowing a good place to have parties. All the major characters are carrying Babel fish in their ears, which rescue them at the moment of Earth's destruction by transporting them to the Restaurant at the End of the Universe. It's also revealed that Fenchurch was transported here when she vanished and has been patiently waiting for Arthur to show up. The characters are reunited with Marvin, and it is revealed that beyond the Restaurant (and beyond the car park in which Marvin works) lies an endless series of blue lagoons — the final destination of the dolphins. The series ends with Arthur asking Fenchurch, "Will you come flying with me?", and her reply, "Always."


title: Mostly Harmless

text: The version released on CD contains an even longer set of alternate endings, including one set after the events of the twelfth radio episode (with Arthur Dent and Lintilla), and on an alternate Earth where Arthur Dent and Fenchurch engage together in a stand-off against Mr Prosser.


title: Mostly Harmless

text: There have been four unabridged audiobook recordings of the novel. In 1992, Adams himself recorded an edition, later re-released by New Millennium Audio in the United States and available from BBC Audiobooks in the United Kingdom. In 2006, actor Martin Freeman, who had played Arthur Dent in the 2005 movie, recorded a new edition of the audiobook. This is the only book in the five novel series not to have also had a prior, abridged edition read by Stephen Moore.


title: Mostly Harmless

text: In addition, the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped released a version of the book, narrated by George Guidall-Shapiro, on 4-track cassette tape in 1993.


title: The Cry of Love

text: The Cry of Love is a posthumous album by American rock singer-songwriter and guitarist Jimi Hendrix. Recorded primarily in 1970, it features new material that Hendrix was working on for his planned fourth studio album before his death later that year. While most of the songs were included on proposed track listings by Hendrix, the final selection was made by recording engineer Eddie Kramer and drummer Mitch Mitchell, with input from manager Michael Jeffery. Hendrix, Kramer, and Mitchell are credited as the album's producers, with Jeffery as the executive producer.


title: The Cry of Love

text: Released on March 5, 1971, by Reprise Records in the United States and Track Records in the United Kingdom, "The Cry of Love" was successful on the record charts in both countries and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) in 1998. Critics responded favorably to the album, viewing it as an impressive tribute to Hendrix. Several of its songs were later featured on other efforts to recreate the album Hendrix had been working on, including "Voodoo Soup" in 1995 and "First Rays of the New Rising Sun" in 1997.


title: The Cry of Love

text: "The Cry of Love" featured songs Hendrix had been working on at the time of his death and was the first attempt at presenting his planned first studio recording since the breakup of the Jimi Hendrix Experience. "The Cry of Love" is composed mostly of songs which Hendrix recorded in 1970 at his new Electric Lady Studios in New York City with drummer Mitch Mitchell and bassist Billy Cox.


title: The Cry of Love

text: About half of the album's ten songs were nearly completed with mixes prepared by Hendrix. The balance were in varying stages of development and were mixed (and some overdubbed with new parts) after his death. Two songs originally planned for "The Cry of Love", "Dolly Dagger" and "Room Full of Mirrors", were instead held for the next planned Hendrix release, "Rainbow Bridge"; they were replaced by "Straight Ahead" and "My Friend".


title: The Cry of Love

text: The album credits Hendrix as a producer, as well as long-time recording engineer Eddie Kramer and Mitchell, who prepared the final mixes and track selection, with input from manager Michael Jeffery.


title: The Cry of Love

text: Seven of the songs on "The Cry of Love" were later included on "Voodoo Soup", the 1995 attempt by producer Alan Douglas to present Hendrix's planned album. In 1997, all were included on "First Rays of the New Rising Sun", along with seven other songs, in Kramer's most realized effort to complete Hendrix's last studio album.


title: The Cry of Love

text: According to music journalist Peter Doggett, the album was "accepted for years as an authentic Hendrix album rather than a posthumous compilation." Doggett himself described "The Cry of Love" as "Kramer's concoction", while other music writers have identified it as being authorized or sanctioned by Hendrix himself. Music historian Martin Huxley, "The Guardian"s Jeremy Allen, and rock music journalist Eduardo Rivadavia call it a compilation album; music writers Phil Hardy, Frank N. Magill, and Richard Kienzle identify it as a "authorized", "true", or "formal" studio album. "Guitar World" journalist Alan di Perna describes it as a "half-finished studio album".


title: The Cry of Love

text: In Ritchie Unterberger's opinion: "although many songs had been laid down in a state of near-completion, there's no telling what Jimi might have added, erased, or otherwise changed, especially bearing in mind his perfectionist nature ... The biggest compromise, however, was the decision to make the record a single disc, rather than the double LP that Hendrix had envisioned. ... For these reasons, ["The Cry of Love"] can't be considered to be the fourth studio album Hendrix would have released had he survived, whether it would have ended up being called "First Rays of the Rising Sun" or something else."


title: The Cry of Love

text: However, Billy Cox said: "we [Hendrix and I] discussed the possibility of doing a single or double LP, but it really didn't make that much of a difference. You must remember even though they [record label and management] gave him a lot of freedom in the studio, when the record deal itself came about, he did not have the last say-so."


title: The Cry of Love

text: "The Cry of Love" was released on March 5, 1971. The album entered "Billboard's" Top LP's chart in the US at number 17 on March 6 and eventually reached number three. By April, it had sold 500,000 copies, and, in 1998, the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) certified the album platinum, which indicated sales of one million copies. In the UK, it entered the UK Albums Chart on April 3, where it peaked at number two.


title: The Cry of Love

text: Reviewing for "Rolling Stone" in 1971, Lenny Kaye hailed "The Cry of Love" as the authentic posthumous Hendrix album, his last work, and "a beautiful, poignant testimonial, a fitting coda to the career of a man who was clearly the finest electric guitarist to be produced by the Sixties, bar none". That same year, Robert Christgau wrote in "The Village Voice" that the album is an "excellent testament" and may be Hendrix's best record behind "Electric Ladyland" (1968) because of its quality as a whole rather than its individual songs. Years later, he said the album as whole is free-flowing, devoid of affectations, and "warmer than the three Experience LPs", while writing in "" (1981):


title: The Cry of Love

text: In the "Encyclopedia of Popular Music" (2006), Colin Larkin called "The Cry of Love" a "fitting tribute" to Hendrix, and Paul Evans wrote in "The Rolling Stone Album Guide" (1992) that it "showed the master, playing with Cox and Mitchell, at his most confident: 'Ezy Rider' and 'Angel' are the tough and tender faces of the genius at his most appealing." In 2014, VH1 deemed "The Cry of Love" "the greatest posthumous classic rock record of all time". That same year, it was reissued in both CD and LP formats by Experience Hendrix. Reviewing the reissue for "Classic Rock" magazine, Hugh Fielder acknowledged the "glories" of the original album's songs but questioned its value given their inclusion on 1997's "First Rays of the New Rising Sun". However, Dan Bigna from "The Sydney Morning Herald" said in his review that, although all of the songs had been compiled on the more comprehensive "First Rays" collection, "there is something satisfying about having this first posthumous Hendrix release as a distinct object that illuminates the brush strokes of a genius".


title: The Cry of Love

text: From the original Reprise LP liner notes (supplemented with details from the "First Rays of the New Rising Sun" CD booklet):


title: Jonathan Osorio

text: Jonathan Osorio (born June 12, 1992) is a Canadian professional soccer player who plays as a midfielder for Major League Soccer club Toronto FC and the Canada national team. He holds the Toronto FC club record for most appearances. Osorio also made three appearances for Canada in the 2022 FIFA World Cup.


title: Jonathan Osorio

text: Osorio began playing soccer with the Brampton Youth Soccer at age 10. When he was 15, he moved to Clarkson Sheridan SC and graduated from St. Edmund Campion Secondary School. In 2010, he went to Uruguay to play with Nacional's academy, where he played with his future teammate on the Canadian national team Lucas Cavallini.


title: Jonathan Osorio

text: Osorio began his career with SC Toronto in the Canadian Soccer League in 2012, where he had a successful season finishing as the club's second highest goalscorer, and helped Toronto finish third in the overall standings, which secured a postseason berth for the club. He featured in the playoff quarterfinal match against the Serbian White Eagles, but were eliminated from playoff contention after losing the match by a score of 1–0. For his successful debut season he was awarded the CSL Rookie of the Year.


title: Jonathan Osorio

text: Osorio has been with TFC first team since 2013. He began training with the Toronto FC Academy in September 2012 and was invited to train with the First Team, during the preseason, impressing coach Ryan Nelsen and earning a first team contract. Osorio made his debut for Toronto FC in Major League Soccer on March 9, 2013, against Sporting Kansas City, coming on for Terry Dunfield. He scored his first goal against the Los Angeles Galaxy in a substitute appearance, in the 78th minute, on March 30, 2013. Osorio scored his second goal against New York Red Bulls on April 27 after coming on in the final eleven minutes as a sub he was able to equalize the game; however, the match finished in a 2–1 defeat with Tim Cahill scoring the winning goal. He was awarded MLS Goal of the Week 9 for the goal against New York, he narrowly beat out Andrés Romero for the award. After the 2013 season Osorio spent his off season training with Championship side Huddersfield Town and Bundesliga's Werder Bremen.


title: Jonathan Osorio

text: In the 2017 season, Osorio saw a decrease in playing time; largely appearing off the bench as a result of the signing of Víctor Vázquez. However he started both legs of the MLS Eastern Conference Final against the Columbus Crew, as well as the 2017 MLS Cup, a game which Toronto won 2–0 over the Seattle Sounders at BMO Field, on December 9. After a strong start to the 2018 season, it was reported that Osorio had received interest from clubs in Europe and Mexico. He went on to win the golden boot of the 2018 CONCACAF Champions League netting 4 goals in the process. In the first leg of the 2018 Canadian Championship final, held on August 8, Osorio scored in a 2–2 away draw against Vancouver Whitecaps. In the second leg, on August 15, his 200th appearance for the club, he set-up Sebastian Giovinco's goal in a 5–2 home win, which enabled Toronto to win the title 7–4 on aggregate. Osorio was awarded the George Gross Memorial Trophy as the most valuable player of the tournament, having scored three goals in four games in the competition. He signed a multi-year contract extension with Toronto on August 30, 2018, which made him one of the highest paid Canadian players in the world.


title: Jonathan Osorio

text: On November 10, 2019, Osorio featured for Toronto in a 3–1 away defeat to Seattle Sounders in the 2019 MLS Cup Final; the opening goal, which was scored by Kelvin Leerdam, was surrounded by controversy, however, as Osorio had lost possession in the lead-up to the goal, after being involved in a collision with Cristian Roldan, which went unpunished by the referee; Osorio later accused Roldan of obstructing him. Upon completion of the 2021 season, Osorio's option for the 2022 season would be picked up by Toronto.


title: Jonathan Osorio

text: On April 24, 2022, in a regular-season match against New York City FC, Osorio reached 300 appearances for Toronto, becoming the first player ever to do so for the club. At the conclusion of the season, Osorio's contract with Toronto FC expired, with the player confirming that "Everything's an option at this point" in regards to his next move.


title: Jonathan Osorio

text: In December 2022, Toronto announced Osorio had agreed to a new three-year contract, with an option for 2026.


title: Jonathan Osorio

text: When he was 18 he made his debut with the Canadian national program, representing Canada at the 2011 CONCACAF under-20 championship in Guatemala. Osorio has represented Canada at various youth levels.


title: Jonathan Osorio

text: On May 23, 2013, Osorio earned his first called up to the Canadian senior team for a friendly in the following week against Costa Rica. Osorio made his senior international debut on May 28, 2013, coming on as a second-half substitute for Samuel Piette in a 1–0 defeat to Costa Rica at Commonwealth Stadium. On June 27, 2013, Osorio was listed as a part of the confirmed 23-man squad for Colin Miller's Canada squad for 2013 CONCACAF Gold Cup. He would also represent Canada at the 2015 CONCACAF Gold Cup, where Canada was eliminated in the group stage.


title: Jonathan Osorio

text: Osorio scored his first goal for Canada against Bermuda in a friendly on January 22, 2017. Osorio was named to Canada's 2017 CONCACAF Gold Cup squad on June 27, 2017. Osorio was named to his fourth Gold Cup squad on May 30, 2019, ahead of the 2019 edition. In July 2021 Osorio was named to the squad for the 2021 CONCACAF Gold Cup.


title: Jonathan Osorio

text: On October 7, 2021, during a 2022 FIFA World Cup qualification match, Osorio scored a goal against Mexico in an eventual 1–1 draw. The goal was the first that Canada had scored against Mexico at Estadio Azteca since 1980. In November 2022, Osorio was named to Canada's 26-man squad for the 2022 FIFA World Cup. He made his debut as a substitute in Canada's opening game, a 1-0 defeat to Belgium.


title: Jonathan Osorio

text: Osorio's parents are Colombian – his father is a native of Cali, while his mother was born in Medellín. Osorio's younger brothers, Anthony and Nicholas, previously played for Toronto FC II.


title: Runaway greenhouse effect

text: A runaway greenhouse effect occurs when a planet's atmosphere contains greenhouse gas in an amount sufficient to block thermal radiation from leaving the planet, preventing the planet from cooling and from having liquid water on its surface. A runaway version of the greenhouse effect can be defined by a limit on a planet's outgoing longwave radiation which is asymptotically reached due to higher surface temperatures evaporating a condensable species (often water vapor) into the atmosphere, increasing its optical depth. This positive feedback means the planet cannot cool down through longwave radiation (via the Stefan–Boltzmann law) and continues to heat up until it can radiate outside of the absorption bands of the condensable species.


title: Runaway greenhouse effect

text: The runaway greenhouse effect is often formulated with water vapor as the condensable species. In this case the water vapor reaches the stratosphere and escapes into space via hydrodynamic escape, resulting in a desiccated planet. This may have happened in the early history of Venus.


title: Runaway greenhouse effect

text: While the term was coined by Caltech scientist Andrew Ingersoll in a paper that described a model of the atmosphere of Venus, the initial idea of a limit on terrestrial outgoing infrared radiation was published by George Simpson in 1927. The physics relevant to the, later-termed, runaway greenhouse effect was explored by Makoto Komabayashi at Nagoya university. Assuming a water vapor-saturated stratosphere, Komabayashi and Ingersoll independently calculated the limit on outgoing infrared radiation that defines the runaway greenhouse state. The limit is now known as the Komabayashi–Ingersoll limit to recognize their contributions.


title: Runaway greenhouse effect

text: The runaway greenhouse effect is often formulated in terms of how the surface temperature of a planet changes with differing amounts of received starlight. If the planet is assumed to be in radiative equilibrium, then the runaway greenhouse state is calculated as the equilibrium state at which water cannot exist in liquid form. The water vapor is then lost to space through hydrodynamic escape. In radiative equilibrium, a planet's outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) must balance the incoming stellar flux.


title: Runaway greenhouse effect

text: The Stefan–Boltzmann law is an example of a negative feedback that stabilizes a planet's climate system. If the Earth received more sunlight it would result in a temporary disequilibrium (more energy in than out) and result in warming. However, because the Stefan–Boltzmann response mandates that this hotter planet emits more energy, eventually a new radiation balance can be reached and the temperature will be maintained at its new, higher value. Positive climate change feedbacks amplify changes in the climate system, and can lead to destabilizing effects for the climate. An increase in temperature from greenhouse gases leading to increased water vapor (which is itself a greenhouse gas) causing further warming is a positive feedback, but not a runaway effect, on Earth. Positive feedback effects are common (e.g. ice–albedo feedback) but runaway effects do not necessarily emerge from their presence. Though water plays a major role in the process, the runaway greenhouse effect is not a result of water vapor feedback.


title: Runaway greenhouse effect

text: The runaway greenhouse effect can be seen as a limit on a planet's outgoing longwave radiation that, when surpassed, results in a state where water cannot exist in its liquid form (hence, the oceans have all "boiled away"). A planet's outgoing longwave radiation is limited by this evaporated water, which is an effective greenhouse gas and blocks additional infrared radiation as it accumulates in the atmosphere. Assuming radiative equilibrium, runaway greenhouse limits on outgoing longwave radiation correspond to limits on the increase in stellar flux received by a planet to trigger the runaway greenhouse effect. Two limits on a planet's outgoing longwave radiation have been calculated that correspond with the onset of the runaway greenhouse effect: the Komabayashi–Ingersoll limit and the Simpson–Nakajima limit. At these values the runaway greenhouse effect overcomes the Stefan–Boltzmann feedback so an increase in a planet's surface temperature will not increase the outgoing longwave radiation.


title: Runaway greenhouse effect

text: The Komabayashi–Ingersoll limit was the first to be analytically derived and only considers a grey stratosphere in radiative equilibrium. A grey stratosphere (or atmosphere) is an approach to modeling radiative transfer that does not take into account the frequency-dependence of absorption by a gas. In the case of a grey stratosphere or atmosphere, the Eddington approximation can be used to calculate radiative fluxes. This approach focuses on the balance between the outgoing longwave radiation at the tropopause,formula_1, and the optical depth of water vapor, formula_2, in the tropopause, which is determined by the temperature and pressure at the tropopause according to the saturation vapor pressure. This balance is represented by the following equationsformula_3Where the first equation represents the requirement for radiative equilibrium at the tropopause and the second equation represents how much water vapor is present at the tropopause. Taking the outgoing longwave radiation as a free parameter, these equations will intersect only once for a single value of the outgoing longwave radiation, this value is taken as the Komabayashi–Ingersoll limit. At that value the Stefan–Boltzmann feedback breaks down because the tropospheric temperature required to maintain the Komabayashi–Ingersoll OLR value results in a water vapor optical depth that blocks the OLR needed to cool the tropopause.


title: Runaway greenhouse effect

text: The Simpson–Nakajima limit is lower than the Komabayashi–Ingersoll limit, and is thus typically more realistic for the value at which a planet enters a runaway greenhouse state. For example, given the parameters used to determine a Komabayashi–Ingersoll limit of 385 W/m, the corresponding Simpson–Nakajima limit is only about 293 W/m. The Simpson–Nakajima limit builds off of the derivation of the Komabayashi–Ingersoll limit by assuming a convective troposphere with a surface temperature and surface pressure that determines the optical depth and outgoing longwave radiation at the tropopause.


title: Runaway greenhouse effect

text: Because the model used to derive the Simpson–Nakajima limit (a grey stratosphere in radiative equilibrium and a convecting troposphere) can determine the water concentration as a function of altitude, the model can also be used to determine the surface temperature (or conversely, amount of stellar flux) that results in a high water mixing ratio in the stratosphere. While this critical value of outgoing longwave radiation is less than the Simpson–Nakajima limit, it still has dramatic effects on a planet's climate. A high water mixing ratio in the stratosphere would overcome the effects of a cold trap and result in a "moist" stratosphere, which would result in the photolysis of water in the stratosphere that in turn would destroy the ozone layer and eventually lead to a dramatic loss of water through hydrodynamic escape. This climate state has been dubbed the moist greenhouse effect, as the end-state is a planet without water, though liquid water may exist on the planet's surface during this process.


title: Runaway greenhouse effect

text: The concept of a habitable zone has been used by planetary scientists and astrobiologists to define an orbital region around a star in which a planet (or moon) can sustain liquid water. Under this definition, the inner edge of the habitable zone (i.e., the closest point to a star that a planet can be until it can no longer sustain liquid water) is determined by the outgoing longwave radiation limit beyond which the runaway greenhouse process occurs (e.g., the Simpson–Nakajima limit). This is because a planet's distance from its host star determines the amount of stellar flux the planet receives, which in turn determines the amount of outgoing longwave radiation the planet radiates back to space. While the inner habitable zone is typically determined by using the Simpson–Nakajima limit, it can also be determined with respect to the moist greenhouse limit, though the difference between the two is often small.


title: Runaway greenhouse effect

text: Calculating the inner edge of the habitable zone is strongly dependent on the model used to calculate the Simpson–Nakajima or moist greenhouse limit. The climate models used to calculate these limits have evolved over time, with some models assuming a simple one-dimensional, grey atmosphere, and others using a full radiative transfer solution to model the absorption bands of water and carbon dioxide. These earlier models that used radiative transfer derived the absorption coefficients for water from the HITRAN database, while newer models use the more current and accurate HITEMP database, which has led to different calculated values of thermal radiation limits. More accurate calculations have been done using three-dimensional climate models that take into account effects such as planetary rotation and local water mixing ratios as well as cloud feedbacks. The effect of clouds on calculating thermal radiation limits is still in debate (specifically, whether or not water clouds present a positive or negative feedback effect).


title: Runaway greenhouse effect

text: A runaway greenhouse effect involving carbon dioxide and water vapor may have occurred on Venus. In this scenario, early Venus may have had a global ocean if the outgoing thermal radiation was below the Simpson–Nakajima limit but above the moist greenhouse limit. As the brightness of the early Sun increased, the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere increased, increasing the temperature and consequently increasing the evaporation of the ocean, leading eventually to the situation in which the oceans boiled, and all of the water vapor entered the atmosphere. This scenario helps to explain why there is little water vapor in the atmosphere of Venus today. If Venus initially formed with water, the runaway greenhouse effect would have hydrated Venus' stratosphere, and the water would have escaped to space. Some evidence for this scenario comes from the extremely high deuterium to hydrogen ratio in Venus' atmosphere, roughly 150 times that of Earth, since light hydrogen would escape from the atmosphere more readily than its heavier isotope, deuterium. Venus is sufficiently strongly heated by the Sun that water vapor can rise much higher in the atmosphere and be split into hydrogen and oxygen by ultraviolet light. The hydrogen can then escape from the atmosphere while the oxygen recombines or bonds to iron on the planet's surface. The deficit of water on Venus due to the runaway greenhouse effect is thought to explain why Venus does not exhibit surface features consistent with plate tectonics, meaning it would be a stagnant lid planet. Carbon dioxide, the dominant greenhouse gas in the current Venusian atmosphere, owes its larger concentration to the weakness of carbon recycling as compared to Earth, where the carbon dioxide emitted from volcanoes is efficiently subducted into the Earth by plate tectonics on geologic time scales through the carbonate–silicate cycle, which requires precipitation to function.


title: Runaway greenhouse effect

text: Early investigations on the effect of atmospheric carbon dioxide levels on the runaway greenhouse limit found that it would take orders of magnitude higher amounts of carbon dioxide to take the Earth to a runaway greenhouse state. This is because carbon dioxide is not anywhere near as effective at blocking outgoing longwave radiation as water is. Within current models of the runaway greenhouse effect, carbon dioxide (especially anthropogenic carbon dioxide) does not seem capable of providing the necessary insulation for Earth to reach the Simpson–Nakajima limit.


title: Runaway greenhouse effect

text: Debate remains, however, on whether carbon dioxide can push surface temperatures towards the moist greenhouse limit. Climate scientist John Houghton wrote in 2005 that "[there] is no possibility of [Venus's] runaway greenhouse conditions occurring on the Earth". However, climatologist James Hansen stated in "Storms of My Grandchildren" (2009) that burning coal and mining oil sands will result in runaway greenhouse on Earth. A re-evaluation in 2013 of the effect of water vapor in the climate models showed that James Hansen's outcome would require ten times the amount of CO we could release from burning all the oil, coal, and natural gas in Earth's crust.


title: Runaway greenhouse effect

text: As with the uncertainties in calculating the inner edge of the habitable zone, the uncertainty in whether CO can drive a moist greenhouse effect is due to differences in modeling choices and the uncertainties therein. The switch from using HITRAN to the more current HITEMP absorption line lists in radiative transfer calculations has shown that previous runaway greenhouse limits were too high, but the necessary amount of carbon dioxide would make an anthropogenic moist greenhouse state unlikely. Full three-dimensional models have shown that the moist greenhouse limit on surface temperature is higher than that found in one-dimensional models and thus would require a higher amount of carbon dioxide to initiate a moist greenhouse than in one-dimensional models.


title: Runaway greenhouse effect

text: Other complications include whether the atmosphere is saturated or sub-saturated at some humidity, higher CO levels in the atmosphere resulting in a less hot Earth than expected due to Rayleigh scattering, and whether cloud feedbacks stabilize or destabilize the climate system.


title: Runaway greenhouse effect

text: Complicating the matter, research on Earth's climate history has often used the term "runaway greenhouse effect" to describe large-scale climate changes when it is not an appropriate description as it does not depend on Earth's outgoing longwave radiation. Though the Earth has experienced a diversity of climate extremes, these are not end-states of climate evolution and have instead represented climate equilibria different from that seen on Earth today. For example, it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian–Triassic extinction event or Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum. Additionally, during 80% of the latest 500 million years, the Earth is believed to have been in a greenhouse state due to the greenhouse effect, when there were no continental glaciers on the planet, the levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases (such as water vapor and methane) were high, and sea surface temperatures (SSTs) ranged from 40 °C (104 °F) in the tropics to 16 °C (65 °F) in the polar regions.


title: Runaway greenhouse effect

text: Most scientists believe that a runaway greenhouse effect is inevitable in the long term, as the Sun gradually becomes more luminous as it ages, and spell the end of all life on Earth. As the Sun becomes 10% brighter about one billion years from now, the surface temperature of Earth will reach , causing the temperature of Earth to rise rapidly and its oceans to boil away until it becomes a greenhouse planet, similar to Venus today.


title: Runaway greenhouse effect

text: According to the astrobiologists Peter Ward and Donald Brownlee in their book "The Life and Death of Planet Earth", the current loss rate is approximately one millimeter of ocean per million years, but the rate is gradually accelerating, as the sun gets warmer, to perhaps as fast as one millimeter every 1000 years. Ward and Brownlee predict that there will be two variations of the future warming feedback: the "moist greenhouse" in which water vapor dominates the troposphere and starts to accumulate in the stratosphere and the "runaway greenhouse" in which water vapor becomes a dominant component of the atmosphere such that the Earth starts to undergo rapid warming, which could send its surface temperature to over , causing its entire surface to melt and killing all life, perhaps about three billion years from now. In both cases, the moist and runaway greenhouse states the loss of oceans will turn the Earth into a primarily-desert world. The only water left on the planet would be in a few evaporating ponds scattered near the poles as well as huge salt flats around what was once the ocean floor, much like the Atacama Desert in Chile or Badwater Basin in Death Valley. The small reservoirs of water may allow life to remain for a few billion more years.


title: Runaway greenhouse effect

text: As the Sun brightens, CO levels should decrease due to an increase of activity in the carbon-silicate cycle corresponding to the increase of temperature. That would mitigate some of the heating Earth would experience because of the Sun's increase in brightness. Eventually, however, as the water escapes, the carbon cycle will cease as plate tectonics come to a halt because of the need for water as a lubricant for tectonic activity.


The Death and Life of Great American Cities is a 1961 book by writer and activist Jane Jacobs. The book is a critique of 1950s urban planning policy, which it holds responsible for the decline of many city neighborhoods in the United States. The book is Jacobs' best-known and most influential work.


title: The Death and Life of Great American Cities

text: Jacobs was a critic of "rationalist" planners of the 1950s and 1960s, especially Robert Moses, as well as the earlier work of Le Corbusier. She argued that modernist urban planning overlooked and oversimplified the complexity of human lives in diverse communities. She opposed large-scale urban renewal programs that affected entire neighborhoods and built freeways through inner cities. She instead advocated for dense mixed-use development and walkable streets, with the "eyes on the street" of passers-by helping to maintain public order.


text: Jacobs begins the work with the blunt statement that: "This book is an attack on current city planning and rebuilding." She describes a trip to Boston's North End neighborhood in 1959, finding it friendly, safe, vibrant and healthy, and contrasting her experience against her conversations with elite planners and financiers in the area, who lament it as a "terrible slum" in need of renewal. Branding the mainstream theory of cities as an "elaborately learned superstition" that had now penetrated the thinking of planners, bureaucrats, and bankers in equal measure, she briefly traces the origins of this "orthodox urbanism."


text: In summarizing the development of contemporary city planning theory, she begins with the Garden City of Ebenezer Howard. The Garden City was conceived as a new master-planned form, a self-sufficient town removed from the noise and squalor of late 19th century London, ringed by agriculture green belts, with schools and housing surrounding a highly prescribed commercial center. The Garden City would allow a maximum of 30,000 residents in each town, and called for a permanent public authority to carefully regulate land use and ward off the temptation to increase commercial activity or population density. Industrial factories were allowed on the periphery, provided they were masked behind green spaces. The Garden City concept was first embodied in the UK by the development of Letchworth and Welwyn Garden City, and in the US suburb of Radburn, NJ.


text: Jacobs tracks Howard's influence through American luminaries Lewis Mumford, Clarence Stein, Henry Wright, and Catherine Bauer, a collection of thinkers that Bauer referred to as "Decentrists." The Decentrists proposed to use regional planning as a means to ameliorate the woes of congested cities, attracting residents to a new life in lower-density fringes and suburbs and thereby thinning out the crowded urban core. Jacobs highlights the anti-urban biases of the Garden City advocates and the Decentrists, especially their shared intuitions that communities should be self-contained units; that commingled land use created a chaotic, unpredictable, and negative environment; that the street was a bad locus for human interactions; that houses should be turned away from the street toward sheltered green spaces; that super-blocks fed by arterial roads were superior to small blocks with overlapping cross-roads; that any significant details should be dictated by permanent plan rather than shaped by organic dynamism; and that population density should be discouraged, or at least disguised to create a sense of isolation.


text: Jacobs continues her survey of orthodox urbanism with Le Corbusier, whose Radiant City concept envisioned twenty-four towering skyscrapers within a Great Park. Superficially at odds with the low-rise, low-density ideals of the Decentrists, Le Corbusier presented his vertical city, with its 1,200 inhabitants per acre, as a way of extending the primary Garden City concepts – the super-block, regimented neighborhood planning, easy automobile access, and the insertion of large grassy expanses to keep pedestrians off the streets – into the city itself, with the explicit goal of reinventing stagnant downtowns. Jacobs concludes her introduction with a reference to the City Beautiful movement, which dotted downtown areas with civic centers, baroque boulevards, and new monument parks. These efforts borrowed concepts from other contexts, such as single-use public space disconnected from natural walking routes and the imitation of the exposition grounds at the World's Fair in Chicago.


text: Jacobs admits that the ideas of the Garden City and the Decentrists made sense on their own terms: a suburban town appealing to privacy-oriented, automobile-loving personalities should tout its green space and low-density housing. Jacobs' anti-orthodox frustration stems from the fact that their anti-urban biases somehow became an inextricable part of the mainstream academic and political consensus on how to design " cities themselves", enshrined in course curricula and federal and state legislation affecting, "inter alia", housing, mortgage financing, urban renewal, and zoning decisions. "This is the most amazing event in the whole sorry tale: that finally people who sincerely wanted to strengthen great cities should adopt recipes frankly devised for undermining their economies and killing them." She is less sympathetic toward Le Corbusier, noting with dismay that the dream city, however impractical and detached from the actual context of existing cities, "was hailed deliriously by architects, and has gradually been embodied in scores of projects, ranging from low-income public housing to office building projects." She expresses further concern that, in seeking to avoid becoming contaminated by "the workaday city," isolated City Beautiful efforts dismally failed to attract visitors, were prone to unsavory loitering and dispirited decay, and ironically hastened the pace of urban demise.


text: Jacobs frames the sidewalk as a central mechanism in maintaining the order of the city. "This order is all composed of movement and change, and although it is life, not art, we may fancifully call it the art form of the city and liken it to the dance." To Jacobs, the sidewalk is the quotidian stage for an "intricate ballet in which the individual dancers and ensembles all have distinctive parts which miraculously reinforce each other and compose an orderly whole."


text: Jacobs posits cities as fundamentally different from towns and suburbs principally because they are full of strangers. More precisely, the ratio of strangers to acquaintances is necessarily lopsided everywhere one goes in the city, even outside their doorstep, "because of the sheer number of people in small geographical compass." A central challenge of the city, therefore, is to make its inhabitants feel safe, secure, and socially integrated in the midst of an overwhelming volume of rotating strangers. The healthy sidewalk is a critical mechanism for achieving these ends, given its role in preventing crime and facilitating contact with others.


text: Jacobs emphasizes that city sidewalks should be considered in combination with physical environment surrounding sidewalks. As she put it, "A city sidewalk by itself is nothing. It is an abstraction. It means something only in conjunction with the buildings and other uses that border it, or border other sidewalks very near it."


text: Jacobs argues that city sidewalks and people who use sidewalks actively participate in fighting against disorder and preserving civilization. They are more than "passive beneficiaries of safety or helpless victims of danger". The healthy city sidewalk does not rely on constant police surveillance to keep it safe, but on an "intricate, almost unconscious, network of voluntary controls and standards among the people themselves, and enforced by the people themselves." Noting that a well-used street is apt to be relatively safe from crime, while a deserted street is apt to be unsafe, Jacobs suggests that a dense volume of human users deters most violent crimes, or at least ensures a critical mass of first responders to mitigate disorderly incidents. The more bustling a street, the more interesting it is for strangers to walk along or watch from inside, creating an ever larger pool of unwitting deputies who might spot early signs of trouble. In other words, healthy sidewalks transform the city's high volume of strangers from a liability to an asset. The self-enforcing mechanism is especially strong when the streets are supervised by their "natural proprietors," individuals who enjoy watching street activity, feel naturally invested in its unspoken codes of conduct, and are confident that others will support their actions if necessary. They form the first line of defense for administering order on the sidewalk, supplemented by police authority when the situation demands it. She further concludes three necessary qualities that a city street needs to maintain safety: 1) a clear demarcation between public and private space; 2) eyes upon the street and sufficient buildings facing streets; 3) continuous eyes on the street to guarantee effective surveillance. Over time, a considerable number of criminological studies have applied the concept of "eyes on the street" in crime prevention.


text: Jacobs contrasts the natural proprietors to the "birds of passage", the transient and uninvested block dwellers who "have not the remotest idea of who takes care of their street, or how." Jacobs warns that, while neighborhoods can absorb a large number of these individuals, "if and when the neighborhood finally "becomes" them, they will gradually find the streets less secure, they will be vaguely mystified about it, and...they will drift away."


text: Jacobs draws a parallel between empty streets and the deserted corridors, elevators, and stairwells in high-rise public housing projects. These "blind-eyed" spaces, modeled after the upper-class standards for apartment living but lacking the amenities of access control, doormen, elevator men, engaged building management, or related supervisory functions, are ill-equipped to handle strangers, and therefore the presence of strangers becomes "an automatic menace." They are open to the public but shielded from public view, and thus "lack the checks and inhibitions exerted by eye-policed city streets," becoming flash points for destructive and malicious behavior. As residents feel progressively unsafe outside their apartments, they increasingly disengage from the life of the building and exhibit tendencies of birds of passage. These troubles are not irreversible. Jacobs claims that a Brooklyn project successfully reduced vandalism and theft by opening the corridors to public view, equipping them as play spaces and narrow porches, and even letting tenants use them as picnic grounds.


text: Building on the idea that a bustling pedestrian environment is a prerequisite for city safety in the absence of a contracted surveillance force, Jacobs recommends a substantial quantity of stores, bars, restaurants, and other public places "sprinkled along the sidewalks" as a means to this end. She argues that if city planners persist in ignoring sidewalk life, residents will resort to three coping mechanisms as the streets turn deserted and unsafe: 1) move out of the neighborhood, allowing the danger to persist for those too poor to move anywhere else, 2) retreat to the automobile, interacting with the city only as a motorist and never on foot, or 3) cultivate a sense of neighborhood "Turf", cordoning off upscale developments from unsavory surroundings using cyclone fences and patrolmen.


text: Sidewalk life permits a range of casual public interactions, from asking for directions and getting advice from the grocer, to nodding hello to passersby and admiring a new dog. "Most of it is ostensibly trivial but the sum is not trivial at all." The sum is "a web of public respect and trust," the essence of which is that it ""implies no private commitments"" and protects precious privacy. In other words, city dwellers know that they can engage in sidewalk life without fear of "entangling relationships" or oversharing the details of one's personal life. Jacobs contrasts this to areas with no sidewalk life, including low-density suburbia, where residents must either expose a more significant portion of their private lives to a small number of intimate contacts or else settle for a lack of contact altogether. In order to sustain the former, residents must become exceedingly deliberate in choosing their neighbors and their associations. Arrangements of this sort, Jacobs argues, can work well "for self-selected upper-middle-class people," but fails to work for anyone else.


text: Residents in places with no sidewalk life are conditioned to avoid basic interactions with strangers, especially those of a different income, race, or educational background, to the extent that they cannot imagine having a deep personal relationship with others so unlike themselves. This is a false choice on any bustling sidewalk, where everyone is afforded the same dignity, right of way, and incentive to interact without fear of compromising one's privacy or creating new personal obligations. In this way, suburban residents ironically tend to have "less" privacy in their social lives than their urban counterparts, in addition to a dramatically reduced volume of public acquaintances.


text: Sidewalks are great places for children to play under the general supervision of parents and other natural proprietors of the street. More importantly, sidewalks are where children learn the "first fundamental of successful city life: People must take a modicum of public responsibility for each other even if they have no ties to each other." Over countless minor interactions, children absorb the fact that the sidewalk's natural proprietors are invested in their safety and well-being, even lacking ties of kinship, close friendship, or formal responsibility. This lesson cannot be institutionalized or replicated by hired help, as it is essentially an organic and informal responsibility.


text: Jacobs states that sidewalks of thirty to thirty-five feet in width are ideal, capable of accommodating any demands for general play, trees to shade the activity, pedestrian circulation, adult public life, and even loitering. However, she admits that such width is a luxury in the era of the automobile, and finds solace that twenty-foot sidewalks – precluding rope jumping but still capable of lively mixed use – can still be found. Even if it lacks proper width, a sidewalk can be a compelling place for children to congregate and develop if the location is convenient and the streets are interesting.


text: Orthodox urbanism defines parks as "boons conferred on the deprived populations of cities." Jacobs challenges the reader to invert this relationship, and "consider city parks deprived places that need the boon of life and appreciation conferred on "them"." Parks become lively and successful for the same reason as sidewalks: "because of functional physical diversity among adjacent uses, and hence diversity among users and their schedules." Jacobs offers four tenets of good park design: intricacy (stimulating a variety of uses and repeat users), centering (a main crossroads, pausing point, or climax), access to sunlight, and enclosure (the presence of buildings and a diversity of surroundings).


text: The fundamental rule of the neighborhood sidewalk also applies to the neighborhood park: "liveliness and variety attract more liveliness; deadness and monotony repel life." Jacobs admits that a well-designed park in a focal point of a lively neighborhood can be an enormous asset. But with so many worthy urban investments going unfunded, Jacobs warns against "frittering away money on parks, playgrounds and project land uses too large, too frequent, too perfunctory, too ill-located, and hence too dull or too inconvenient to be used."


text: Jacobs also criticizes orthodox urbanism for viewing the city neighborhood as a modular, insulated grouping of roughly 7,000 residents, the estimated number of persons to populate an elementary school and support a neighborhood market and community center. Jacobs instead argues that a feature of a great city is the mobility of residents and fluidity of use across diverse areas of varying size and character, not modular fragmentation. Jacobs' alternative is to define neighborhoods at three levels of geographic and political organization: city-level, district-level and street-level.


text: The city of New York as a whole is itself a neighborhood. The key local government institutions operate at the city-level, as do many social and cultural institutions – from opera societies to public unions. At the opposite end of the scale, individual streets – such as Hudson Street in Greenwich Village – can also be characterized as neighborhoods. Street-level city neighborhoods, as argued elsewhere in the book, should aspire to have a sufficient frequency of commerce, general liveliness, use and interest so as to sustain public street life.


text: Finally, the district of Greenwich Village is itself a neighborhood, with a shared functional identity and common fabric. The primary purpose of the district neighborhood is to intermediate between the needs of the street-level neighborhoods and the resource allocation and policy decisions made at the city-level. Jacobs estimates the maximum effective size of a city district to be 200,000 people and 1.5 square miles, but prefers a functional definition over a spatial definition: "big enough to fight city hall, but not so big that street neighborhoods are unable to draw district attention and to count." District boundaries are fluid and overlapping, but are sometimes defined by physical obstructions such as major roadways and landmarks.


text: Jacobs ultimately defines neighborhood quality as a function of how well it can govern and protect itself over time, employing a combination of residential cooperation, political clout, and financial vitality. Jacobs recommends four pillars of effective city neighborhood planning:


text: Jacobs is particularly critical of urban renewal programs that demolished entire neighborhoods such as the case in San Francisco's Fillmore district, creating a diaspora of its displaced poor residents. She claims these policies destroy communities and innovative economies by creating isolated, unnatural urban spaces. (see non place and hyperreality)


text: In their place Jacobs described "four generators of diversity" that "create effective economic pools of use":


text: Her aesthetic can be considered opposite to that of the modernists, upholding redundancy and vibrancy against order and efficiency. She frequently cites New York City's Greenwich Village as an example of a vibrant urban community. The Village, like many similar communities, may well have been preserved, at least in part, by her writing and activism.


text: The book continues to be Jacobs' most influential, and is still widely read by both planning professionals and the general public. It has been translated into six languages and has sold over a quarter-million copies. Urban theorist Lewis Mumford, while finding fault with her methodology, encouraged Jacobs' early writings in the "New York Review of Books". Samuel R. Delany's book "Times Square Red, Times Square Blue" relies heavily on "The Death and Life of Great American Cities" in its analysis of the nature of social relations within the realm of urban studies.


text: The book played a major role in turning public opinion against modernist planners, notably Robert Moses. Robert Caro has cited Jacobs' book as the strongest influence on "The Power Broker", his biography of Robert Moses. It also helped slow the rampant redevelopment of Toronto, Ontario, Canada, where Jacobs was involved in the campaign to stop the Spadina Expressway.


title: Air changes per hour

text: Air changes per hour, abbreviated ACPH or ACH, or air change rate is the number of times that the total air volume in a room or space is completely removed and replaced in an hour. If the air in the space is either uniform or perfectly mixed, air changes per hour is a measure of how many times the air within a defined space is replaced each hour. Perfectly mixed air refers to a theoretical condition where supply air is instantly and uniformly mixed with the air already present in a space, so that conditions such as age of air and concentration of pollutants are spatially uniform.


title: Air changes per hour

text: In many air distribution arrangements, air is neither uniform nor perfectly mixed. The actual percentage of an enclosure's air which is exchanged in a period depends on the airflow efficiency of the enclosure and the methods used to ventilate it. These systems range from a conceptual system of perfect displacement, which removes and replaces all air in a space, to a short circuit flow in which very little of the existing air is replaced. The actual amount of air changed in a well mixed ventilation scenario will be 63.2% after 1 hour and 1 ACH. In order to achieve equilibrium pressure, the amount of return air (air leaving the space) and the amount of supply air (air entering the space) must be the same.


title: Air changes per hour

text: Ventilation rates are often expressed as a volume rate per person (CFM per person, L/s per person). The conversion between air changes per hour and ventilation rate per person is as follows:


title: Air changes per hour

text: Air change rates are often used as rules of thumb in ventilation design. However, they are seldom used as the actual basis of design or calculation. For example, residential ventilation rates are calculated based on area of the residence and number of occupants. Non-residential ventilation rates are based on floor area and number of occupants, or a calculated dilution of known contaminants. Hospital design standards use air changes per hour. Recommended air changes rates can be found in relevant standards.


title: Air changes per hour

text: Air changes per hour is a measurement intended to communicate the air change effectiveness of a space’s ventilation system. Discussion around the ASHRAE standard 62, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality led to the development of a more direct method of measuring air change effectiveness with the use of a tracer gas. A tracer gas is a small amount of easily-detected gas which is mixed with air in order to study airflow patterns.


title: Air changes per hour

text: This method directly compares the age of the air where occupants breathe to the age of air that would occur were the air of the space perfectly mixed. The method is designed to more accurately understand the effects of air-flow patterns within a space, to identify or avoid such occurrences as short-circuiting airflow patterns, in which most of the supply air goes directly to the exhaust, and fails to mix with the air already present.


title: Air changes per hour

text: There are two ways to apply this method; the most commonly used technique, Tracer Gas Decay (step-down), consists of a short burst of gas injected into the space to establish a constant concentration within the building, then injection is stopped and concentration decay at a certain position is recorded, and second Tracer Gas Step-Up,where tracer gas is injected at a constant rate and the concentration response at a certain position is recorded


title: Air changes per hour

text: The most common technique to measure airtightness is the fan pressurization method, also known as the blower door test. It is measured by the number of air changes per hour (ACH) that occur when there is a differential pressure of 50 pascals between outside and inside the building. If an air volume equal to the inside volume of the building flows across the envelope in one hour, then ACH = 1. Airtightness improves buildings' energy performance since low airtightness levels imply high infiltration rates, draughts, risk of condensation, and moisture accumulation, and other effects. For this reason, the Passive House standard established performance requirements for airtightness requiring be less than 0.6 ACH with a pressure difference between inside and outside of 50 Pa.


title: Air changes per hour

text: Forced ventilation to increase ACH becomes a necessity to maintain acceptable air quality as occupants become reluctant to open windows due to behavioural changes such as keeping windows closed for security.


title: Air changes per hour

text: Air changes are often cited as a means of preventing condensation in houses with forced ventilation systems often rated from 3 - 5 ACH though without referencing the size of the house. However, where ACH is already greater than 0.75 a forced ventilation system is unlikely to be of use at controlling condensation and instead insulation or heating are better remedies. Seven out of eight houses studied in NZ in 2010 had an ACH (corrected for ventilation factors) of 0.75 or greater. The presence of forced ventilation systems has been shown in some cases to actually increase the humidity rather than lower it. By displacing air inside a dwelling with infiltrated air (air brought in from outside the dwelling), positive pressure ventilation systems can increase heating (in winter) or cooling (in summer) requirements in a house. For example, to maintain a 15 °C temperature in a certain dwelling about 3.0 kW of heating are required at 0 ACH (no heat loss due to warmed air leaving the dwelling, instead heat is lost due to conduction or radiation), 3.8 kW at 1 ACH and 4.5 kW are required at 2 ACH. The use of roof space for heating or cooling was seen as ineffectual with the maximum heating benefits occurring in winter in more southerly regions (being close to the South Pole in these southern hemisphere reports) but being equivalent only to about 0.5 kW or the heating provided by about five 100 W incandescent light bulbs; cooling effects in summer were similarly small and were more pronounced for more northerly homes (being closer to the equator); in all cases the values assumed that the ventilation system automatically disengaged when the infiltrating air was warmer or cooler (as appropriate) than the air already in the dwelling as it would otherwise exacerbate the undesirable conditions in the house.


title: 2019 Virginia Beach shooting

text: On May 31, 2019, a mass shooting occurred at a municipal building in the Princess Anne area of Virginia Beach, Virginia. The gunman, DeWayne Craddock, who was a disgruntled city employee, fatally shot 12 people and wounded four others. He was then shot dead by responding police officers.


title: 2019 Virginia Beach shooting

text: The perpetrator fatally shot a person in a car in the parking lot of Building 2 of the Virginia Beach Municipal Center and one person on the steps before entering the building and shooting people on all three floors. The building housed the city's public works, utilities, and planning departments in an open-government facility with no additional security to enter but security passes required for accessing employee areas and conference rooms. He fired indiscriminately and there was no immediate indication that he had targeted anyone in particular. He was fatally shot during a prolonged gunfight with police who responded to the scene.


title: 2019 Virginia Beach shooting

text: Some members of the public and employees were initially unaware of the shooter, and many were alerted by phone calls, text messages, or word of mouth to shelter in place or evacuate the location. The confusion was in part due to renovations that were underway at the time leading many to believe the shots were from a nail gun or another tool. An active shooter situation at the municipal center was confirmed by an email from the Communications Office at 4:22 pm and the city manager around 4:40 p.m.


title: 2019 Virginia Beach shooting

text: Police response to the shooting was slowed down due to electronic security doors that require a badge to open. The FBI, the ATF, and the United States Department of Homeland Security responded to assist local and state police. Two semi-automatic pistols, a suppressor, and multiple extended magazines were found at the scene. The perpetrator had purchased the firearms legally within the last three years.


title: 2019 Virginia Beach shooting

text: The shooter killed twelve people. Eleven were city employees and one was a contractor in the building to obtain a permit. The employees had a combined 150 years of service, one having worked there for 41 years. Six employees worked in the public utilities department, alongside their killer. Four other people were injured and hospitalized, with three in critical condition; in addition, a police officer was shot in his ballistic vest.


title: 2019 Virginia Beach shooting

text: According to her family's attorney, one of the victims contemplated bringing a pistol with her to work the night prior to the shooting but did not do so due to a city policy forbidding it.


title: 2019 Virginia Beach shooting

text: The perpetrator was identified by the police as 40-year-old DeWayne Antonio Craddock (born DeWayne Antonio Hamilton; October 15, 1978 May 31, 2019). He worked as an engineer in the city's public utilities department until tendering his resignation in an email he sent to city management a few hours before the attack. Having resigned "within good standing in his department", Craddock still possessed a security pass to enter employee work spaces within the building at the time of the attack. In the days prior to the shooting, he was alleged to have been involved in physical scuffles with fellow city employees and threatened with disciplinary action. However, the city manager said that when Craddock resigned, he "had no issues of discipline ongoing".


title: 2019 Virginia Beach shooting

text: Within the span of at least three years prior to the shooting, Craddock had legally acquired six firearms, five of which are chambered in .45 ACP. Two .45-caliber pistols (a Glock 21 and an H&K USP Compact Tactical equipped with a suppressor) were used in the shooting and three more weapons were found at his home, including one Bond Arms Backup Derringer in .45-caliber, one Just Right Carbine in .45-caliber, and another Glock 21 pistol in .45-caliber. The sixth weapon was an unidentified Ruger rifle the suspect purchased on April 12.


title: 2019 Virginia Beach shooting

text: Craddock graduated in 1996 from Denbigh High School in Newport News. Between 1996 and 2002, he served in the Virginia Army National Guard in Norfolk as a cannon crew member with the First Battalion, 111th Field Artillery Regiment. At the time of his discharge he held the rank of Specialist (E-4) and had not been deployed for combat service. In 2002, he graduated from Old Dominion University with a degree in civil engineering.


title: 2019 Virginia Beach shooting

text: Prior to the shooting, Craddock did not have a criminal record with the exception of minor traffic violations.


title: 2019 Virginia Beach shooting

text: Multiple vigils were organized for the victims of the shooting by churches and other organizations. Members of the Courthouse Community United Methodist Church prepared food for police at the scene, after it was secured.


title: 2019 Virginia Beach shooting

text: The day after the shooting, Virginia Beach police held a news conference which included a detailed presentation on the names, photos, and job titles of the twelve victims who were killed, including the towns in which they lived. They announced the perpetrator's name only once, vowing that it would be the only time they would ever do so.


title: 2019 Virginia Beach shooting

text: On July 2, 2019, the Virginia Beach City Council voted to order an independent investigation of the circumstances that led to the mass shooting. The decision came after the families of some of the victims expressed dissatisfaction with the information released by the authorities.


title: 2019 Virginia Beach shooting

text: Virginia Governor Ralph Northam tweeted, "My heart breaks for the victims of this devastating shooting, their families, and all who loved them." Virginia Attorney General Mark Herring said, "In recent years there have been mass shootings at American elementary schools, colleges, government buildings, offices, concerts, movie theaters, nightclubs and even places of worship, like churches, mosques, and synagogues. We have to do more to stop this kind of violence." Virginia Beach Mayor Bobby Dyer said, "This is the most devastating day in the history of Virginia Beach." He tried to quell both sides of the gun control debate, asking all to avoid "knee jerk reaction" and "bipartisan bureaucratic malpractice."


title: 2019 Virginia Beach shooting

text: Virginia's junior U.S. Senator, Tim Kaine, promised to "keep pushing for Congress to take action to prevent the daily scourge of gun violence in America." Virginia's senior U.S. Senator, Mark Warner, thanked police for their response. U.S. Representative Elaine Luria, who represents Virginia Beach, offered sympathies and thanked "first responders and law enforcement for risking their lives to bring a suspect into custody." She further said that the incident "is more proof Congress must act to prevent gun violence." U.S. President Donald Trump also offered condolences, as did House Speaker Nancy Pelosi.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: The Demographics of Montreal concern population growth and structure for Montreal, Quebec, Canada. The information is analyzed by Statistics Canada and compiled every five years, with the most recent census having taken place in 2016.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: According to Statistics Canada, at the time of the 2011 Canadian census the city of Montreal proper had 1,649,519 inhabitants. A total of 3,824,221 lived in the Montreal Census Metropolitan Area (CMA) at the same 2011 census, up from 3,635,556 at the 2006 census (within 2006 CMA boundaries), which means a population growth rate of +5.2% between 2006 and 2011. Montreal's 2012-2013 population growth rate was 1.135%, compared with 1.533% for all Canadian CMAs.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: In the 2006 census, children under 14 years of age (621,695) constituted 17.1%, while inhabitants over 65 years of age (495,685) numbered 13.6% of the total population.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: The current estimate of the Montreal CMA population, as of July 1, 2013, according to Statistics Canada is 3,981,802.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: According to StatsCan, by 2030, the Greater Montreal Area is expected to number 5,275,000 with 1,722,000 being visible minorities.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: Some 34.2% of the population of Montreal and 22.6% that of Greater Montreal, are members of a visible minority (non-white) group. Blacks contribute to the largest minority group, with Montreal having the 2nd highest number of black people in Canada after Toronto, as well as having the highest concentrations of black people amongst major Canadian cities. Other groups, such as Arabs, Latin Americans, South Asians, and Chinese are also large in number. " Visible minorities are defined by the Canadian Employment Equity Act as "persons, other than Aboriginals, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour."


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: Montreal is the cultural centre of Quebec, French-speaking Canada and French-speaking North America as a whole, and an important city in the Francophonie. The majority of the population is francophone. Montreal is the largest French-speaking city in North America, and second in the world after Paris when counting the number of native-language Francophones (third after Paris and Kinshasa when counting second-language speakers). The city is a hub for French language television productions, radio, theatre, circuses, performing arts, film, multimedia and print publishing.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: Montreal plays a prominent role in the development of French-Canadian and Québécois culture. Its contribution to culture is therefore more of a society-building endeavour rather than limited to civic influence. The best talents from French Canada and even the French-speaking areas of the United States converge in Montreal and often perceive the city as their cultural capital. Montreal is also the most important stop in the Americas for Francophone artists from Europe, Africa and Asia.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: The cultural divide between Canada's Francophone and Anglophone culture is strong and was famously referred to as the "Two Solitudes" by Canadian writer Hugh MacLennan. Reflecting their deep-seated colonial roots, the Solitudes were historically strongly entrenched in Montreal, splitting the city geographically at Saint Laurent Boulevard.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: Montreal is the focal point of Quebec's English-speaking community. Arriving in waves from the United Kingdom and eventually the entire British Commonwealth, the historical English-speaking community in Montreal includes Quebecers of English, Scottish, and Irish origin (as reflected in the city's flag) as well as Loyalists, escaped slaves, and immigrants from the Caribbean and the Indian subcontinent.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: With the advent of mass migration from beyond the confines of the British Empire, the English-speaking community in Montreal expanded to include a huge array of different cultures and ethnic groups. Since Chinese, Jewish, Greek, and other non-Catholic immigrants were barred from attending French-language Catholic schools under the Confessional school system, they attended English-language Protestant schools instead and became acculturated into the English-speaking community. This trend was boosted by the Catholic Church's policy, called "la Revanche des berceaux" or the "Revenge of the Cradle", of encouraging French-Canadians to maintain a very high birth-rate in order to bolster the community's demographic weight in Canada. This policy, along with the Church's traditional mistrust of entrepreneurship and the business world, caused French-Canadians in Quebec to remain largely poor and rural while shunning immigration in an attempt to resist assimilation. Immigrants who arrived prior to the Quiet Revolution therefore largely assimilated into the increasingly diverse English-speaking community in Montreal, while the city's French-speaking community remained largely white, French, and Catholic, growing through high birth rates and migration from the countryside rather than immigration.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: During the Quiet Revolution, French Quebecers left the Church "en masse" and birth rates fell drastically as they began to question the Duplessis-era establishment's legitimacy. This awakening coincided with the arrival of a massive wave of Italian immigrants who, despite being Catholic, demanded English-language training and bilingual schools for their children. This community's desire to see its children, like those of fellow immigrant groups and the English community, educated in the majority language of Canada rather than the language of an insular minority clashed directly with Quebec francophones' emergent self-image as a majority community within Quebec rather than a national minority within Canada. With birth-rates declining dramatically, French Quebecers wished to tap into immigration to maintain their share of the population and the government set its sights on the Italian community, leading to the Saint-Leonard Conflict in which the Italian community sought to maintain freedom of choice in education in the face of the government's demands that they send their children to French-language schools. The Government of Quebec intended to allow English-language schooling only for Quebec's "historical English minority", a move which the Italian community viewed as discriminatory. The matter was eventually settled with the advent of Bill 101, which allowed anyone who arrived before 1976 to continue school in the language of their choice while requiring all new immigrants from outside Quebec (including English-speaking Canadians) to attend school in French; this last requirement, the so-called Quebec clause was eventually struck down by the Supreme Court and expanded to allow anyone who received the better part of their schooling in English in Canada to send their children to English school in Quebec (in practice, this complex formula was designed so as not to bestow a right to English education on anyone who was educated in an English-speaking country and later became a Canadian citizen).


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: Because of these developments, Montreal's English-speaking community today includes people of English and Commonwealth ancestry, as well as specific groups who arrived in waves before the advent of Bill 101. It is a highly diverse community, with many members having a complex and multi-layered sense of identity that does not easily conform to the Government's definitions of "anglophone", "allophone", and "francophone".


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: The community is served by one daily newspaper, "The Gazette", as well as a number of weeklies including "The Suburban". Another major daily, the "Montreal Star", was Canada's foremost English-language daily until it ceased publication in 1979 due to a labour dispute. The most-watched television news channel is "CTV Montreal", formerly "CFCF 12", and the community is also served by local desks at the CBC, Global, Citytv, and MaTV.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: The English-speaking community in Montreal has traditionally been very pro-active in building up institutions in the areas of education and healthcare, most notably McGill and Concordia Universities and the McGill University Health Centre. With the advent of Bill 101, which made French the sole language of work, these institutions came to play a key role in maintaining the vitality and viability of the English-speaking community. Alliance Quebec, an advocacy group created to give voice to the concerns of the English-speaking community in the turbulent times following the election of the Parti Québécois in 1976, fought to give English-speakers the right to work as well. In a compromise, the government made provisions in Bill 101 for so-called "bilingual institutions", namely school boards, colleges and universities, and hospitals serving primarily the English-speaking community, which would be required only to ensure the provision of services in French without having to operate entirely in French as otherwise required by Bill 101. In effect, this allowed English speakers to maintain access to the workforce by giving them non-client-facing jobs, so long as the organization could still provide services in French. Because of this historical development, English-speaking Montrealers' identity is deeply entwined with the community's historical institutions. Along similar lines, the Jewish General Hospital was founded by the largely-English speaking Jewish Community to provide jobs and ensure quality healthcare for the Jewish community (notably whilst serving any and all, regardless of race, religion, or creed) at a time when Jews were routinely excluded from the medical profession and discriminated against as patients within a denominational healthcare system., which actually occurred before the Quiet Revolution during English rule in Montreal (and indeed all of Quebec at the time).


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: Prominent venues in Montreal's English-speaking community include the Centaur Theatre and the Segal Centre for Performing Arts. Notable English-speaking Montrealers include Oliver Jones, Leonard Cohen, Oscar Peterson, William Shatner, Nick Auf der Maur, Melissa Auf der Maur, Mike Bossy, and Mordecai Richler.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: The English-speaking community in Montreal is geographically fragmented along its diverse ethnic lines, with much of the English-speaking population concentrated in the suburban communities of the West Island. Traditionally, the city of Westmount and Montreal's Golden Square Mile were the home of the wealthy English merchant class. Other wealthy, largely English-speaking suburbs include the towns of Hampstead and Mount Royal, as well as the more middle class city of Côte-Saint-Luc, which is traditionally associated with the city's Jewish community. The working-class Irish community was associated with the rough neighborhoods of Pointe-Saint-Charles, Verdun and Saint-Henri, which continue to host successive waves of immigrant groups as they arrive and eventually spread throughout the city. Saint Laurent Boulevard is the traditional dividing line between the so-called Two Solitudes, with the English-speaking community to the West and the French-speaking community to the East, although these lines continue to blur. Along its length, St. Laurent (also known as "The Main") has hosted a wide variety of groups that eventually came to form the city's English-speaking community, from Chinatown in the South, through Little Portugal, where Leonard Cohen had his house, and into the Mile End, which housed the Jewish community upon its first arrival and also contained numerous factories in the Schmata Industry, as described by Mordecai Richler in his work, "St. Urbain's Horseman". The Greek community settled further up The Main near Outremont and the Park Extension neighbourhood near Jean Talon Street (an area which today boasts a large South Asian community), while the Italian community settled first into the neighbourhood of Ahuntsic and later, St. Leonard, Montreal North, and Riviere des Prairies.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: All of these groups have English as their first language of use and may partake in the English-language or other minority school systems, but they also maintain separate cultural traditions and institutions and often operate in French at work, making it difficult to pinpoint exactly where the boundaries of Montreal's English-speaking community lie. Montréal’s English-speaking population became more diverse in the 20th century. Jewish migrants from Eastern Europe arrived in large numbers in the late 19th century, followed by Italians, both groups largely aligning with the English-speaking community. Less numerous, but also important, were the many black, Chinese and South Asian migrants who increased the visible minority proportion of anglophones; today, 24.2 per cent of anglophones are visible minorities. Moreover, most anglophones in Québec are now of non-English origin.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: Montreal's Italian community is one of the largest in Canada, second only to Toronto. With 250,000 residents of Italian ancestry, Montreal has many Italian districts, such as Little Italy, Saint-Leonard (Città Italiana), R.D.P., and LaSalle. Italian is the 3rd most spoken language in Montreal and in the province of Quebec.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: Additional West Indian women, from both the Francophone and Anglophone Caribbean, came to Montreal after the Domestic Immigration Program of 1955 was established. Most settled in Little Burgundy.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: Montreal's Haitian community of 100,000 people is the largest in Canada. Large percentages of Haitians live in Montréal-Nord,


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: Saint-Michel and R.D.P. Today, Haitian Creole is the sixth most spoken language in Montreal and the seventh most spoken language in the province of Quebec.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: The term Indo-Canadian is typically used in Canada to refer to people from the many ethnic groups of the Republic of India, and other South Asian countries including Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. Sometimes you will also hear the term ‘East Indian.’


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: As of 1985 there were 9,000 Sikhs in the Montreal area. Around 35 of Air India Flight 182's passengers were Sikhs from Greater Montreal. A memorial to AI182, located in Lachine, Montreal, opened in 2010.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: According to CH (Montreal's multicultural channel) there are now over 117,000 people of Arab origin in Montreal. Montreal has sizeable communities of Lebanese, Syrian and Egyptian origin. The main Arab district is the borough of Saint-Laurent, which contains an Arab population of about 32,000 (52 percent of the population).


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: According to the 2011 Census there were 190,275 Canadians who claimed Lebanese ancestry, with the largest concentration in Montreal, making them by far the largest group of people with Arabic-speaking roots.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: As of the 2001 Canadian Census there were over 16,000 Canadians of Moroccan descent in Montreal, about 75% of the total Moroccan population of Canada.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: In 1931 the largest non-French, non-British ethnic group in St. Eusebe and St. Gabriel was the Poles.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: There are Armenian community institutions such as schools, youth organizations, and churches. The authors of "The Chameleon Character of Multilingual Literacy Portraits: Researching in "Heritage" Language Places and Spaces" wrote that in Montreal "there is no recognizable materially bounded Armenian neighborhood". As of 2005 there are three Armenian schools in Montreal, one of which is a day school, L'École Arménienne Sourp Hagop.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: The Armenians first settled Canada in 1880. The first Armenian community in Montreal originally had 225 people.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: As of 2005 there were an estimated 2,360 ethnic Japanese in Montreal. As of 2003 there was no particular place where ethnic Japanese were concentrated, E. Bourgault wrote in "Perspectives on the Japanese Canadian Experience in Quebec" ("Repartir a Zero; Perspectives sur/ L’Experience des Canadiens d’Origine Japonaise au Quebec") that Japanese in Montreal historically "lived relatively anonymously" and that they "have avoided visible concentration as a collective, hoping to blend in, unnoticed into the larger population."


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: Greek is the eighth language in importance. The Greek community remains vibrant: several neighbourhoods contain a number of Greek-owned businesses and local festivals and churches add to the multicultural character of the city. The neighbouring city of Laval also has a sizable Greek community, predominantly residing in the borough of Chomedey.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: As of 2006 Montreal has Canada's third largest ethnic Chinese population at 72,000 members. As of 2005 there is an estimate of 42,765 ethnic Chinese in Montreal. Of the ethnic minorities, the Chinese are the fourth largest. National origins include Hong Kong, Taiwan, Southeast Asia, and Singapore.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: The South Shore suburb of Brossard in particular has a high ethnic Chinese population, at 12% of its population. Montreal also has a small Chinatown sandwiched in between Old Montreal, the Quartier international and downtown.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: As of 2005 "Sinoquebec" is the newest Chinese-language newspaper in Montreal. Others are "Les Presses Chinoises" and "Sept Days".


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: Several Chinese-language special schools are in Montreal. The Montreal Chinese Hospital is located in the city.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: Montreal is host to the second largest Latin American community in Canada at 75,400 (Toronto ranks first, with 99,290), but amongst major Canadian cities, has the highest Latin American concentration at 4.1% in comparison to Toronto's Latin American concentration of 2.9% as well as the highest concentration amongst major Canadian metro areas at 2.7% to Toronto GMA's 2.3% as of 2016. The majority of Latin American Canadians are recent immigrants arriving in the late 20th century who have come from El Salvador, Colombia, Mexico, Chile and Guatemala with relatively smaller communities from the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Venezuela, Nicaragua and Ecuador. Spanish is currently the fifth most spoken language in Montreal.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: On the other hand, the city is also home to 4,425 Brazilians who are part of the Portuguese-speaking community of Montreal.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: Especially from Algeria and Morocco, this immigration is recent and almost 90,000 Berbers live in Montreal.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: As of 1999 the Communauté Khmere du Canada (Khmer Community Association) and the Pagode Khmer du Canada (Khmer Buddhist Temple) cooperate with one another.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: As of 1999 in Montreal "duan chee" give active help in resolving emotional issues with Khmer women, while this is not the case with "duan chee" in Toronto.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: Montreal's Jewish community is one of the oldest and most populous in the country, formerly first but now second to Toronto and numbering about 100,000 according to the 2001 census. The community is quite diverse, and is composed of many different Jewish ethnic divisions that arrived in Canada at different periods of time and under differing circumstances.


title: Demographics of Montreal

text: In terms of mother language (first language learned), the 2006 census reported that in the Greater Montreal Area, 66.5% spoke French as a first language, followed by English at 13.2%, while 0.8% spoke both as a first language. The remaining 22.5% of Montreal-area residents are allophones, speaking languages including Italian (3.5%), Arabic (3.1%), Spanish (2.6%), Haitian Creole (1.3%), Chinese (1.2%), Greek (1.2%), Portuguese (0.8%), Romanian (0.7%), Vietnamese (0.7%), and Russian (0.5%). In terms of additional languages spoken, a unique feature of Montreal among Canadian cities, noted by Statistics Canada, is the working knowledge of both French and English possessed by most of its residents.