title: Adventure Time (season 1)

text: According to series creator Pendleton Ward, the show's style was influenced by his time attending the California Institute of the Arts (CalArts) and his experiences working as a writer and storyboard artist on "The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack". In an interview with Animation World Network, Ward said he strives to combine the series' subversive humor with "beautiful" moments, using Hayao Miyazaki's film "My Neighbor Totoro" as inspiration. Ward has also named "Home Movies" and "Dr. Katz, Professional Therapist" as influences, largely because both shows are "relaxing" and feature "conversational dialogue that feels natural [and] not over the top [nor] cartoony and shrill". Ward described the show as a "dark comedy"; he said "dark comedies are my favorite, because I love that feeling – being happy and scared at the same time. It's my favorite way to feel – when I'm on the edge of my seat but I'm happy, that sense of conflicting emotions. And there's a lot of that in the show, I think." Executive producer Fred Seibert compared the show's animation style to that of Felix the Cat and various Max Fleischer cartoons, but said that its world is also equally inspired by "Dungeons and Dragons" and video games. Ward intended for the show's world to have a certain physical logic instead of "cartoony slapstick"; even though magic exists in the story, the show's writers tried to create an internal consistency in how the characters interact with the world.


title: Adventure Time (season 1)

text: Although the show is set in a post-apocalyptic setting, according to Ward, the original intention was for the Land of Ooo to simply be "magical". After making the episode "Business Time", in which an iceberg containing the bodies of reanimated business men floats to the surface of a lake, the show suddenly became post-apocalyptic, and Ward noted that the production crew "just ran with it." Ward later described the setting as "candyland on the surface and dark underneath".


title: Adventure Time (season 1)

text: The show began as a single stand-alone animated short titled "Adventure Time", which ran for seven minutes. It aired in January 2007 and again as part of Frederator Studios' "Random! Cartoons" on December 7, 2008. After its release, the short video became a viral hit on the internet. Frederator Studios then pitched an "Adventure Time" series to Nicktoons Network, but the network passed on it twice. The studio approached Cartoon Network, which said it would be willing to produce a series if Ward could prove the short could be expanded into a full series while maintaining elements of the original's pilot. Rob Sorcher, the chief content officer at Cartoon Network, was influential in getting the network to take a chance on the show; he recognized the series as "something that felt really indie ... comic book-y [and] really new". Ward quickly rethought the concept of the pilot; he wanted a potential series to be "fully realized", rather than be characterized by the "pre-school vibe" that permeated the original film. Ward's college friends Patrick McHale and Adam Muto helped him produce a rough storyboard that featured Finn and Princess Bubblegum going on a spaghetti-supper date. Cartoon Network was not happy with this story and asked for another. Ward then created a storyboard for the episode "The Enchiridion!", which was his attempt to emulate the style of the original Nicktoons short. Cartoon Network approved the first season in September 2008, and "The Enchiridion!" was the first episode to enter into production.


title: Adventure Time (season 1)

text: While many cartoons are based on script pitches to network executives, Cartoon Network allowed "Adventure Time" to "build their own teams organically" and communication through the use of storyboards and animatics. Rob Sorcher, Cartoon Network's chief content officer at the time, explained that the network allowed this because the company was "dealing with artists who are primarily visual people" and by using storyboards, the writers and artists could learn and grow "by actually doing the work." As such, Ward soon assembled a storyboarding team for the series, which was largely composed of "younger, inexperienced people" who had been found using the Internet. However, Cartoon Network, worrying about the status of the show and the inexperience of its production members, hired three veteran animators who had worked on "SpongeBob SquarePants" to help guide Ward and his team: Derek Drymon (who served as executive producer for the first season of "Adventure Time"), Merriwether Williams (who served as head story editors for the show's first and second seasons), and Nick Jennings (who became the series' long-serving art director). Thurop Van Orman, the creator of "The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack", was also hired on as a supervising producer, providing guidance for the series' first two seasons.


title: Adventure Time (season 1)

text: In addition to the 26 episodes created during the first season, several others were commissioned and storyboarded, but not produced. These include the episodes "Brothers in Insomnia" (written and storyboarded by Armen Mirzaian and Luther McLaurin, with revisions by Ako Castuera), "The Glorriors" (written and storyboarded by Joe Horne and Doug TenNapel), and "The Helmet of Thorogon" (outlined by Ward, Muto, McKeon, McHale, and Craig Lewis). "Brothers in Insomnia" had been pitched to the network, although it was later scrapped. "The Glorriors", according to Frederator Vice President Eric Homan, "was a casualty of jumping into production without having had any serious development time." "The Helmet of Thorogon", despite initially being assigned the production number 692-008 (which would eventually be taken by the episode "Freak City"), never made it to the storyboard stage, although several pieces of background art for the episode were designed by Ghostshrimp. The storyboards for "Brothers in Insomnia" and "The Glorriors" and the outline for "The Helmet of Thorogon" were later released on Fred Seibert's official Scribd page. Furthermore, the episode "What Have You Done" was given the production number 27, despite only 26 episodes being ordered. This is because the original sixth episode was scrapped during production, and "What Have You Done" took its place, but was given a different code. Due to this, some sources like The Futon Critic, give it the production number 692-006, whereas Frederator gave it the number 692-027.


title: Adventure Time (season 1)

text: All of the season's episodes began as simple two-to-three-page outlines that contained the necessary plot information. These outlines were then handed off to storyboard artists, who would then expand the rough outline into a full storyboard. The episodes' design and coloring were done at Cartoon Network Studios in Burbank, California. Animation was handled overseas in South Korea, by Rough Draft Korea and Saerom Animation. The season was storyboarded and written by Muto, Elizabeth Ito, Ward, Sean Jimenez, McHale, Luther McLaurin, Armen Mirzaian, Kent Osborne, Pete Browngardt, Niki Yang, Cole Sanchez, Tom Herpich, Bert Youn, Ako Castuera, and J. G. Quintel. Quintel, who would later go on to create the popular Cartoon Network series "Regular Show", co-wrote and boarded the episode "Ocean of Fear" after asking Ward if he wanted any freelance help for "Adventure Time". Quintel and Ward had previously worked together on "The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack".


title: Adventure Time (season 1)

text: The voice actors for the season include: Jeremy Shada (Finn the Human), John DiMaggio (Jake the Dog), Tom Kenny (The Ice King), Hynden Walch (Princess Bubblegum), and Olivia Olson (Marceline the Vampire Queen). Ward himself provides the voice for several minor characters, as well as Lumpy Space Princess. Former storyboard artist Niki Yang voices the sentient video game console BMO, as well as Jake's girlfriend Lady Rainicorn in Korean. Polly Lou Livingston, a friend of Pendleton Ward's mother, Bettie Ward, plays the voice of the small elephant Tree Trunks. The "Adventure Time" cast records their lines together as opposed to doing it individually. This is to capture more natural sounding dialogue among the characters. Hynden Walch has described these group session as akin to "doing a play reading—a really, really out there play."


title: Adventure Time (season 1)

text: The series also regularly employs guest voices for various characters. For instance, in the episode "Enchiridion!", John Moschitta, Jr., Mark Hamill, and Fred Tatasciore all lend their voices to various beings. In "Ricardio the Heart Guy", actor George Takei voices the titular villain. "Business Time" features Brian Posehn as one of the business men. Erik Estrada portrays King Worm in the episode "Evicted!" In "Memories of Boom Boom Mountain", Matt L. Jones voices the talking mountain. Andy Milonakis appears as the pie-throwing robot N.E.P.T.R. in the episode "What is Life?" Hamill reappears in the episode "Ocean of Fear", which also features opening and closing narration courtesy of Clancy Brown. Kerri Kenney-Silver portrays the Ice King's bride in the episode "When Wedding Bells Thaw". Michael Dorn portrays Gork in the episode "Freak City". Brown reappears in the episode "Dungeon" as a demon cat. Kevin Michael Richardson portrays the titular character in the episode "Donny". Finally, Lou Ferrigno plays the part of the being Billy in "His Hero".


title: Adventure Time (season 1)

text: Various other characters are voiced by Tom Kenny, Dee Bradley Baker, Maria Bamford, and Steve Little.


title: Adventure Time (season 1)

text: The episodes "Business Time" and "Evicted!" each were "previewed" on Cartoon Network before the official series launch date, on March 11 and 18, respectively. The series officially premiered on April 5, 2010. It debuted with the episodes "Slumber Party Panic" and "Trouble in Lumpy Space". The episode was watched by 2.5 million viewers. The episode was a ratings smash; according to a press release sent out by Cartoon Network, the episode's timeslot saw triple digit percentage increases from the time period of the previous year. For instance, the entry was viewed by 1.661 million kids aged 2–11, which marked a 110 percent increase from the previous year. Furthermore, it was watched by 837,000 kids aged 9–14, which saw a 239 percent increase. This also made it the most-watched episode of the first season. The season finale, "Gut Grinder", was watched by 1.77 million viewers. Originally, the first ten episodes were bundled into 30-minute airings. This means two of the eleven-minute segments were combined into one. Starting with the eleventh episode, "Wizard", the episodes dropped to only one, eleven-minute segment. The first season aired on Mondays at 8:00 pm.


title: Adventure Time (season 1)

text: The season has received largely positive reviews from critics. Television critic Robert Lloyd, in an article for the "LA Times", said it "strikes [him] as a kind of companion piece to the network's [then] currently airing "Chowder" and "The Marvelous Misadventures of Flapjack". Each takes place in a fantastical land peopled with strange, somewhat disturbing characters and has at its center a young male person or person-like thing making his way in that world with the help of unusual, not always reliable, mentors." He went on to say that the show is "not unlike CN's earlier "Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends", about a boy and his imaginary friend, though darker and stranger and even less connected to the world as we know it." Lloyd also compared it to "the sort of cartoons they made when cartoons themselves were young and delighted in bringing all things to rubbery life."


title: Adventure Time (season 1)

text: After its release on DVD in 2012, the season received positive critical attention, although many reviewers initially expressed their unhappiness that the set was not initially released as a Blu-ray edition. Wired wrote positively of the set, and applauded the release's bonus features. R.L. Shaffer of IGN awarded the set a 7 out of 10, denoting a "good" release. He called the show a "rare treat", but was critical of the release's packaging, noting that "a few too many episodes are crammed onto the discs, leaving little room for these transfers to breathe" and that the video compression left something to be desired. Tyler Foster of DVD Talk "highly recommended" the set, and wrote that the series is "bursting with imagination, sweetness, and a ridiculous sense of humor". Foster was particularly pleased with the characters, citing Ricardio and Marceline as highlights of the season. Furthermore, he wrote that "even the worst episode in this [season]—and I'm hard-pressed to pick one—is beautifully designed and packs at least one or two killer gags."


title: Adventure Time (season 1)

text: The episode "My Two Favorite People" was nominated for a 2010 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Short-format Animated Program, although the episode did not win.


title: Adventure Time (season 1)

text: Warner Home Video released multiple DVDs, consisting of region 1 and region 2 formats. "My Two Favorite People", "It Came from the Nightosphere", "Jake vs. Me-Mow", "The Suitor", "Frost & Fire", and "The Enchiridion" were created for Region 1 markets containing some episodes of the first season. All DVD releases can be purchased on the Cartoon Network Shop, and the individual episodes can be downloaded from both the iTunes Store and Amazon.com.


title: Adventure Time (season 1)

text: The full season set was released on DVD on July 10, 2012. By July 29, 2012, the DVD set had sold 151,535 copies. A Blu-ray edition was released on June 4, 2013.


title: Caloric deficit

text: A calorie deficit (British English: calorific deficit) is any shortage in the number of calories consumed relative to the number of calories needed for maintenance of current body weight (energy homeostasis).


title: Caloric deficit

text: A deficit can be created by decreasing calories consumed by lower food intake, such as by swapping high-calorie foods for lower calorie options or by reducing portion sizes. A deficit can also be created by increasing output (burning calories) without a corresponding increase in input. Increased output is created by increasing physical activity, from increased caloric requirements necessary to heal an injury, or from growth. There are also some substances, including caffeine, which can create a small (3-5%) increase in caloric expenditure, via a variety of pathways that include increasing physical activity levels and increasing thermogenesis (heat output), and/or by reducing caloric input via appetite suppression. Drugs and herbal treatments creating a more extreme metabolic effect exist; however, they cause extreme increases of heart rate and thermogenesis that can cause death in even very healthy and athletic individuals, and these drugs are not widely sold.


title: Caloric deficit

text: As the calories required for energy homeostasis decreases as the organism's mass decreases, if a moderate deficit is maintained eventually a new (lower) weight will be reached and maintained, and the organism will no longer be at caloric deficit. A permanent severe deficit, on the other hand, which contains too few calories to maintain a healthy weight level, will eventually result in starvation and death.


title: Steyr Arms

text: Steyr Arms () is a firearms manufacturer based in Sankt Peter in der Au, Austria. Originally part of Steyr-Daimler-Puch, it became independent when the conglomerate was broken up in 1989. Prior to 1 January 2019, the company was named Steyr Mannlicher AG ().


title: Steyr Arms

text: Steyr has been on the "iron road" to the nearby Erzberg mine since the days of the Styrian Otakar dukes and their Babenberg successors in the 12th and 13th century, and has been known as an industrial site for forging weapons. The privilege of iron and steel production, particularly for knives, was renewed by the Habsburg duke Albert of Austria in 1287. After the Thirty Years' War, thousands of muskets, pistols, and carbines were produced annually for the Habsburg Imperial Army.


title: Steyr Arms

text: In 1821, Leopold Werndl (1797–1855), a blacksmith in Steyr, began manufacturing iron parts for weapons. After his father's death, 24-year-old Josef Werndl (1831–1889) took over his factory. On April 16, 1864, he founded the "Josef und Franz Werndl & Comp. Waffenfabrik und Sägemühle in Oberletten" (Josef and Franz Werndl & Partners Weapons Factory and Sawmill in Oberletten), from which later emerged the "Österreichische Waffenfabriksgesellschaft" (ŒWG, Austrian Arms-Manufacturing Company), a stock company ("AG") since 1869, of which the Steyr Mannlicher firearm production was a part.


title: Steyr Arms

text: Werndl's cooperation with engineer Ferdinand Mannlicher (1848–1904), who had patented an advanced repeating rifle in use by the Austro-Hungarian Army, made ŒWG one of the largest weapon manufacturers in Europe. First applied in 1890, the Mannlicher M1901, and the Steyr-Hahn M1912 became milestones in auto-loading pistol technology. At the beginning of World War I, with more than 15,000 employees, production output was 4,000 weapons per day.


title: Steyr Arms

text: The company introduced the world's first machine pistol, the "Steyr Repetierpistole" M1912/P16, during World War I; it was a machine pistol version of the Steyr M1912 pistol, and was manufactured as product model "Repetierpistole M1912/P16". It used a 16-round fixed magazine loaded via 8 round stripper clips, a detachable shoulder stock and a rather large exposed semi-auto/full-auto selector switch on the right side of the frame above the trigger (down = semi & up = full). It fired the 9×23mm Steyr cartridge, with a full-auto rate-of-fire of about 800 to 1,000 rounds per minute (RPM). It weighed about 2.6 pounds. Introduced in 1916, it is considered one of the world's first full-auto capable pistols. Only 960 M1912/P16 were made.


title: Steyr Arms

text: After the war, weapons production in Steyr was all but entirely prohibited according to the 1919 Treaty of Saint-Germain, and the company faced bankruptcy. To survive, the ŒWG converted their machinery to concentrate on producing Steyr automobiles under chief designers Hans Ledwinka and Ferdinand Porsche, as well as bicycles (colloquially called "Waffenräder" ("weapon bicycles")). In 1926 the company changed its name to "Steyr-Werke", in 1934 to Steyr Daimler Puch. The production of Steyr Daimler Puch weapons continued in cooperation with "Patronenfabrik Solothurn AG" at Zuchwil in neutral Switzerland.


title: Steyr Arms

text: After the Austrian "Anschluss" to Nazi Germany in 1938, the Steyr factories were incorporated into the "Reichswerke Hermann Göring" industrial conglomerate and the outbreak of World War II provided a brief revival in weapons production. Like many other companies, Steyr Daimler Puch relied on forced labour, employing from the Steyr-Münichholz subcamp of KZ Mauthausen.


title: Steyr Arms

text: During the 1950s the Mannlicher–Schönauer full stock rifle, designed in 1900, experienced a renaissance. Simultaneously, the re-emergence of the Austrian Armed Forces in the Second Republic was the base for new military weapons production.


title: Steyr Arms

text: In the 1970s, Steyr developed an innovative assault rifle, the StG 77. A bullpup design, the StG 77 extensively utilized synthetic materials, and integrated fixed optics. The export version became the Steyr AUG—"Armee Universal Gewehr" ("Universal Army Rifle"), eventually used by the armed forces of over 24 countries. It has been prominently featured in films such as "Octopussy", "Commando", and "Die Hard".


title: Steyr Arms

text: In 1989, after the partial dissolution of the Steyr Daimler Puch conglomerate, the weapon division was named Steyr Mannlicher in honour of the great Austro-Hungarian engineer Ferdinand Mannlicher, in 2019 Steyr Arms.


title: Steyr Arms

text: Steyr pistols are marked with a three-digit date code on the slide just forward of the ejection port.


title: Salem's Lot (2004 miniseries)

text: Salem's Lot is a 2004 American two-part television miniseries which first aired on TNT on June 20 and ended its run on June 21, 2004. It is the second television adaptation of Stephen King's 1975 vampire novel of the same name and a remake to the first version.


title: Salem's Lot (2004 miniseries)

text: Although the novel and original miniseries were both set in the 1970s, this version updates the story to take place in the 2000s. The story is still set in a small Maine town, but the miniseries was actually shot on location at Creswick and Woodend, in Central Victoria, Australia.


title: Salem's Lot (2004 miniseries)

text: Ben Mears attacks priest Donald Callahan in a homeless shelter in Detroit on Thanksgiving. As they corner each other in Callahan's office, the priest shoots Mears, who then shoves them both out a window onto the street (more specifically, onto a police car). In the hospital where he and Callahan are taken, Ben is asked by an orderly why, as a Christian himself, he shouldn't just let Ben die for attacking a priest. Ben then murmurs, "Jerusalem's Lot," and begins to tell his story.


title: Salem's Lot (2004 miniseries)

text: On the day of February 6 two years ago, Ben, then a successful writer, returns to his hometown, Jerusalem's Lot (also known as "Salem's Lot" to the locals) in Maine, intending to write a novel. He tells Susan Norton, a waitress and former art student, that when he was a child he accepted a dare to enter the house of Hubie Marsten, a Prohibition-era gangster. Local legend said that Marsten murdered children. Ben overheard Marsten begging for his life before seemingly committing suicide. Ben believes he heard Marsten's last victim crying for help, but Ben was too afraid to find or help him. Eventually, his aunt found him. Ben plans to rent the house to bring catharsis to himself and gather material for his novel, but discovers it has been sold by Larry Crockett to antique dealers Richard Straker and Kurt Barlow.


title: Salem's Lot (2004 miniseries)

text: Despite the picture perfect façade of the small town, Salem's Lot is rife with dark secrets: Crockett is an immoral businessman who sexually abuses his teenage daughter Ruth. When Ruth spends time with a disabled garbageman named Dud Rodgers, Crockett gets him fired. Eva Prunier, proprietor of the boarding house where Ben stays, played evil games with Marsten when she and her peers were teenagers. Charlie Rhodes, cruelty-obsessed Vietnam veteran and school bus driver, torments the children he transports. Trailer park residents Roy and Sandy McDougall physically abuse their baby, blackmailing Dr. Jimmy Cody after he has an affair with Sandy.


title: Salem's Lot (2004 miniseries)

text: Following Straker and Barlow's arrival, local child Ralphie Glick is murdered and his body is never found. His brother Danny sickens and dies after being visited by Ralphie, who has become a vampire. Barlow meets Dud Rodgers, offering him a chance to be free of his physical disability, which he accepts, becoming a vampire. Laborer Mike Ryerson buries Danny after his funeral, then also sickens and dies. He returns from the grave as a vampire to tempt gay high school teacher Matt Burke, who repels him but suffers a heart attack. Ben's blossoming relationship with Susan causes jealousy with her old boyfriend Floyd Tibbits. Floyd is bitten by Dud and slowly becomes a vampire. After starting a fight with Ben, Floyd and Ben spend the night in jail, and Floyd uses his vampire powers to crawl through the ventilation shaft to taunt Ben. Ben refuses to allow him to enter his cell, and Floyd is found dead in his own cell the following morning, having chewed open his wrists in an attempt to drink his own blood.


title: Salem's Lot (2004 miniseries)

text: Susan and schoolboy Mark Petrie are captured by Straker when they break into the Marsten house. Mark escapes, but Susan is taken to the cellar to meet Barlow. Ben, Mark, Callahan and Cody begin acting as vampire hunters. In the Marsten house, they find Straker's body hanging from the rafters, having been drained of blood by Barlow. They begin destroying the sleeping vampires in the cellar, but Ben discovers Susan has been turned. Instead of destroying her, Ben intends to find and destroy Barlow, hopeful Susan might be restored upon his destruction.


title: Salem's Lot (2004 miniseries)

text: After Barlow kills Mark's mother, Callahan tries saving Mark by confronting Barlow, but finds his religious faith is not strong enough. Callahan is forced to drink Barlow's blood, corrupting Callahan and turning him into Barlow's servant. Larry sees Ruth join Dud in the night, and despite his wish to be with her, is consumed by the vampires. The town's ranking police officer, Sheriff Parkins Gillespie, discovers what is going on in Salem's Lot and decides to leave.


title: Salem's Lot (2004 miniseries)

text: In the hospital, Burke is murdered by Callahan. Ben, Jimmy and Mark realize Barlow is hiding at Eva's boarding house, but as they arrive there, Jimmy is killed by a booby trap. Ben and Mark destroy Barlow, but not before he taunts Ben, likening Ben to himself as another parasite who preys on the tragedies of others. Destroying Barlow has not saved Susan, who arrives at the house. Susan tells Ben that the boy he failed to rescue was already dead; Ben was never to blame. When Susan turns to attack Mark, Ben destroys her. Ben and Mark set the Marsten House alight, and during a chase with Charlie, who was vampirized by the town's children, a gas station is damaged and explodes. As fires spread through the town, Callahan vows revenge against Ben while the town's remaining vampirized population flock to him.


title: Salem's Lot (2004 miniseries)

text: As Ben concludes his story, the orderly realizes Ben was not acting alone. The orderly finds Callahan dead, suffocated with a pillow by Mark. Mark slips into Ben's room and tells him the vampire hunt is over. Ben suffers a cardiac arrest. The orderly finds Mark at a locked exit to the hospital and tells Mark he can't believe the story, but lets him go, indicating he may be struggling with actually believing it. Doctors battle to keep Ben alive as he begins passing away, finally at peace.


title: Salem's Lot (2004 miniseries)

text: In his memoir, "Love Life", Rob Lowe stated that Rutger Hauer showed up on set and did not know his lines. Lowe said, "I once starred in a big miniseries that culminated with the villain giving a two-page monologue trying to goad me into killing him. The actor playing the bad guy wanted to ad lib his own version of the movie-ending speech. Although he was playing a vampire, he went into a soliloquy about being a cowboy. The director was not impressed. After a very tense negotiation, the actor was forced to shit-can his self-penned opus and stick to the original script. There was only one problem: He hadn't bothered to learn it." Lowe went on to state that cue cards were placed next to his head and Hauer read the lines to him.


title: Salem's Lot (2004 miniseries)

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the miniseries a 68% approval rating based on 25 reviews, with an average rating of 5.6/10. The website's critics consensus reads, ""Salem's Lot" is a bit anemic due to a dearth of proper scares, but its effectively creepy atmosphere and solid performances make for a respectable adaptation of Stephen King's revered novel." On Metacritic, the miniseries has a score of 65 out of 100, based on 17 critics, indicating "Generally favorable reviews"


title: Mrinalini Devi

text: Mrinalini Devi (1 March 1874 – 23 November 1902) was a translator and the wife of Nobel laureate poet, philosopher, author and musician Rabindranath Tagore. She was from the Jessor district, where her father worked at the Tagore estate. In 1883, at the age of nine, she married Tagore.


title: Mrinalini Devi

text: Mrinalini Devi was born to Benimadhob Roy Choudhury and Dakshayoni at Phultala village, in Jessor district of Bengal Presidency in British India (present-day Bangladesh). Her exact date of birth is not known. According to one estimate of a biographer, she was born on 1 March 1874. Another gave her birth as 1872. Before her marriage, Mrinalini Devi was known as Bhabatarini. However, it is unknown whether it was her formal name or nickname. She studied until Class I in the local village school. Her father worked at the Tagore estate.


title: Mrinalini Devi

text: The "paka dekha", a ritual in which members of the groom's family come to see the bride, was performed by Rabindranath Tagore’s elder brother Jyotirindranath Tagore, his sisters-in-law Jnanadanandini Devi and Kadambari Devi, and Rabindranath's nephew Surendranath Tagore. Although it is known that Rabindranath accompanied his family members from Jashore to Mrinalini Devi’s house, it is not known whether he participated in the ritual.


title: Mrinalini Devi

text: Unlike traditional marriage which takes place in the bride's house, Mrinalini Devi married Rabindranath Tagore at the Maharshi Bhavan in the Jorasanko Thakur Bari, in Calcutta (present-day Kolkata) at the wish of Rabindranath's father Devendranath Tagore. The marriage took place according to the rituals of the Brahmo Samaj. At the time of marriage she was 9 and Tagore was twenty-two years of age. They married on 24 Agrahayana 1290 in the Bengali calendar which is roughly 9 December 1883 in Gregorian calendar.


title: Mrinalini Devi

text: After her marriage, Rabindranath gave her the name "Mrinalini". Tagore biographers assume that the name was designed to rhyme with "Nalini", a name he had fondly assigned to Annapurna Turkhad (daughter of Atmaram Pandurang), who was his former love-interest.


title: Mrinalini Devi

text: Mrinalini Devi was not forced to do the household chores immediately after her marriage. Devendranath admitted her and Hemendranath Tagore's wife Kshinatanu to the Loreto House school to teach them English. He also bought them books, slates and school uniforms. After studying at the school for one year, Rabindranath appointed Pandit Herambachandra Bidyaratna, a home tutor, to teach her Sanskrit. His elder brother Birendranath's son Balendranath taught her English, Bengali and Sanskrit literature. Mark Twain became her favourite author. According to the diary of her younger daughter Mira, one incident is noted as:


title: Mrinalini Devi

text: A table lamp is burning in the second floor veranda of Shantiniketan. There is an English novel in my mother's hands. She is reading it and translating it to my grandmother.


title: Mrinalini Devi

text: Mrinalini Devi translated the "Shanti Parva" of the "Mahabharata" and "Katha Upanishad". The "Katha Upanishad" is currently kept at the Visva-Bharati University. Besides these, she also participated in the dramas which took place at the Thakur Bari. In the first ever dramatization of "Raja o Rani", she acted in the role of Narayani.


title: Mrinalini Devi

text: In 1902, Rabindranath established Brahmacharya Ashram, a school in Shantiniketan. Mrinalini Devi sold off most of her wedding jewellery to fund this school.


title: Mrinalini Devi

text: On 25 October 1890, Mrinalini Devi gave birth to her first child, a daughter named Madhurilata and nicknamed Bela. In 1892, she gave birth to a son, Rathindranath. In 1893, she gave birth to a daughter, Renuka, and three years later, she gave birth to another daughter, Mira. In 1896, her youngest child Shamindranath was born. On 15 June 1901, Mrinalini Devi married off Bela and on 9 August, she married off Renuka with Satyendranath Bhattacharya.


title: Mrinalini Devi

text: By the middle of 1902, Mrinalini Devi became seriously ill. Subsequently, she and Rabindranath moved from Shantiniketan to Calcutta on 12 September. Doctors failed to diagnose her disease. A homeopathy doctor was called; that too in vain. In the night of 23 November, Mrinalini Devi died.


title: Paul Elden Kingston

text: Paul Elden Kingston is an accountant and attorney who has served as the Trustee-in-Trust of the Davis County Cooperative Society (DCCS), a Mormon fundamentalist denomination, since 1987. The DCCS is a financial cooperative established by his uncle Elden Kingston in 1935.


title: Paul Elden Kingston

text: Kingston succeeded his father John Ortell Kingston as the Trustee-in-Trust of the DCCS upon his father's death in 1987. During his tenure, some members have continued the practice of plural, and intra-family marriage, although neither is practiced by the majority of members and the practice is not required to gain status in the group.


title: Paul Elden Kingston

text: Plural marriage is practiced by some members of the DCCS, and members make their own choice in who they marry. Plural marriages for individuals under 18 in the group are not allowed. For more than a decade, the group has publicly spoken out against child-bride marriages and the DCCS has a policy encouraging its members to marry within the legal age of consent. Members generally seek the blessing of parents and religious leaders before choosing to marry. Many consider Kingston the top man in the group. Records show he signed as a witness on 4 lawful teenage marriages over a 20 year period. There are thousands of members in the group.


title: Paul Elden Kingston

text: He is believed to have practiced polygamy in the past, potentially accruing as many as 40 wives and fathering up to 300 Children.


title: Haley Ramm

text: Haley Michelle Ramm (born March 26, 1992) is an American actress. She is known for her roles as Jen Long in the police procedural series "Without a Trace" (2007–2008), Brenna Carver in the ABC Family drama "Chasing Life" (2014–2015), and Violet Simmons in the supernatural thriller web series "Light as a Feather" (2018–2019).


title: Haley Ramm

text: Ramm was born in Collin County, Texas. At the age of three, she began dancing in local studios. At age nine, she began booking roles in indies and shorts. She has appeared in nationwide commercials for Hasbro and Dell Computers. She was featured on the May and June issues of "American Girl" in 2002. Ramm moved to Los Angeles at age 11 with her mother; her father and brother stayed behind in Texas for the first few years.


title: Haley Ramm

text: After moving to Los Angeles, Ramm booked guest roles on "" and "Yes, Dear", and landed the role of Brittany Loud in the 2005 film "Flightplan". She appeared in the 2005 film "Yours, Mine & Ours". The same year, Ramm was cast as a younger version of Jennifer Aniston's character in "Rumor Has It...", and while her scenes did not make the final cut after the script was rewritten, she can be seen in various still photographs throughout the film.


title: Haley Ramm

text: In 2006, she appeared in "" as the young Jean Grey. In 2007, Ramm was in the movie "Mr. Blue Sky" as Jessica Green, and appeared as Samantha Jensen in "". In 2007, she also appeared as the young Carine in the feature film "Into the Wild", and in the role of Gwen Tennyson in the television film "".


title: Haley Ramm

text: From 2007 to 2008, Ramm appeared in a recurring role on the series "Without a Trace", and again in a 2009 episode of "iCarly" with her real-life friend Miranda Cosgrove. Ramm appeared in the 2010 French horror film "Rubber" as Fiona. In 2011, Ramm was featured in the MTV television film "Worst. Prom. Ever.", and portrayed victim Jessica Hamilton in the video game L.A. Noire. In 2012, Ramm was cast in the film "Disconnect" playing the character of Jason Bateman's daughter.


title: Haley Ramm

text: In 2013, Ramm was cast in a main role on the ABC Family drama "Chasing Life", playing Brenna Carver, the younger sister of the lead character played by Italia Ricci. In 2015 she was cast as the witch Ariane who appeared in two episodes of "The Originals".


title: Jim Ward (voice actor)

text: Jim Ward (born May 19, 1959) is an American retired voice actor, radio personality, and camera operator.


title: Jim Ward (voice actor)

text: From 2004 to 2014, and again from 2015 to 2017, Ward was the co-host of "The Stephanie Miller Show", a nationally syndicated liberal radio talk show that features a number of his impersonations of political figures and other celebrities and news makers.


title: Jim Ward (voice actor)

text: Ward is known for his dozens of roles in animation and video games. During his long career, he has voiced Captain Copernicus Leslie Qwark in the "Ratchet & Clank" franchise, Mannimarco in The Elder Scrolls Online, Diamondhead in "Ben 10" and "", Henry Peter Gyrich in "", newscaster Chet Ubetcha and Doug Dimmadome, Owner Of The Dimmsdale Dimmadome on "The Fairly OddParents", Angus on "The Secret Files of the Spy Dogs", and Professor Xavier in "Wolverine and the X-Men".


title: Jim Ward (voice actor)

text: In 2006, Ward played Eyemore, Crusher, and Stoker on "Biker Mice from Mars", which was a remake of the 1990s show of the same name. The character Stoker had been played by Peter Strauss on the show, but after he left the series, Ward took over. In 2009, for his roles on the show, he was nominated and won the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program.


title: Jim Ward (voice actor)

text: In 2021, it was reported that Ward had developed symptoms of Alzheimer's disease and contracted a severe case of COVID-19, leaving him unable to continue voice acting.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: Jean Joseph Marie Gabriel de Lattre de Tassigny (2 February 1889 – 11 January 1952) was a French général d'armée during World War II and the First Indochina War. He was posthumously elevated to the dignity of Marshal of France in 1952.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: As an officer during World War I, he fought in combat in various battles, including Verdun, and was wounded five times, surviving the war with eight citations, the Legion of Honour and the Military Cross. During the Interwar period, he took part in the Rif War in Morocco, where he was wounded in action again. He then served in the Ministry of War and the staff of Conseil supérieur de la guerre, serving under the vice president, Général d'armée Maxime Weygand.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: Early in World War II, from May to June 1940, he was the youngest French general. He led his division during the Battle of France, in the battles of Rethel, Champagne-Ardenne, and Loire and until the Armistice of 22 June 1940. During the Vichy Regime, he remained in the Armistice Army, first in regional command posts, then as commander-in-chief of troops in Tunisia. After the disembarking of Allied forces in North Africa, on 11 November 1942, the Germans invaded the free zone; de Lattre, Commander of the 16th Military Division at Montpellier, refused the orders not to fight the Germans and was the only active general to order his troops to oppose the invaders. He was arrested but escaped and defected to Charles de Gaulle's Free France at the end of 1943. From 1943 to 1945 he was one of the senior leaders of the Liberation Army, commanding the forces which landed in the South of France on 15 August 1944, then fought up to the Rivers Rhine and Danube. He commanded large numbers of American troops when the US XXI Corps was assigned to his First Army during the battle of the Colmar Pocket. He was also the French representative at the signing of the German Instrument of Surrender in Berlin on 8 May 1945.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: He became Commander-in-Chief of French Forces in Germany in 1945, then Inspector General and Chief of Staff of the French Army. In March 1947 he became the vice-president of the Conseil supérieur de la guerre. From 1948 to 1950 he served as Commander-in-chief of the Western Union's ground forces. In 1951, he was the High Commissioner, commander-in-chief in Indochina and commander-in-chief of the French Far East Expeditionary Corps, winning several battles against the Việt Minh. His only son was killed there, and then illness forced him to return to Paris where he died of cancer in 1952. He was elevated to the dignity of Marshal of France posthumously in 1952 during his state funeral.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: Jean Joseph Marie Gabriel de Lattre de Tassigny was born on 2 February 1889 in Mouilleron-en-Pareds, Vendée, in the same village as World War I leader Georges Clemenceau. He was the son of Roger de Lattre de Tassigny and Anne-Marie Louise Henault, the daughter of the mayor of Mouilleron. Her grandfather had been his predecessor, assuming the office in 1817. In turn, Roger de Lattre succeeded his father-in-law as mayor in 1911, and still held the office forty years later. An ancestor had added the suffix "de Tassigny" to the family name in 1740, after the family property of Tassigny near Guise. He had an older sister, Anne-Marie, who later became the Comtesse de Marcé.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: From 1898 to 1904, de Lattre attended the College of Saint-Joseph in Poitiers, where his father had gone. He then decided that he would join the Navy, and to prepare he went to the College de Vaugirard, where Henri de Gaulle was a teacher. He passed the written examinations for the Navy, but missed the oral examination due to illness. He then went to the at Lycée privé Sainte-Geneviève in Versailles to prepare for the École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr, where he won a place in 1908. Before he entered, his father sent him to Brighton in England to improve his English. As was the custom in the French Army, he also served in the ranks for four months, in his case, with the at Provins, south east of Paris. He was a cadet at Saint-Cyr from 1909 to 1911 ("Mauritanie" promotion). One instructor expressed the hope that de Lattre was not related to the one who had raised the white flag of Henri, Count of Chambord over Saint-Cyr in 1873. This was his uncle, and henceforth de Lattre refused to have anything to do with the instructor. He ultimately graduated 201st out of 210 in his class, and was commissioned as a second lieutenant on 1 October 1910. He then went on to the Cavalry School in Saumur.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: De Lattre was assigned to the , which was stationed at Toul and Pont-à-Mousson near the frontier with Germany and still wore red riding breeches and a helmet with a plume. He was promoted to lieutenant on 1 October 1912. He was still serving there when the First World War broke out in August 1914. On 11 August 1914, he was wounded for the first time when he was hit in the knee by a shell fragment during a reconnaissance mission. On 14 September, he was wounded a second time, in an engagement with four Bavarian Uhlans during which he killed two with his sword, but a third struck him in the chest with a lance, perforating his lung. His troop sergeant took him to a cellar in Pont-à-Mousson, where they hid from German patrols until one from the 5th Hussar Regiment reached them. He received the Legion of Honour on 20 December 1914.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: In 1915, de Lattre responded to an appeal for cavalry officers to volunteer for service in the infantry, and he joined a Vendée regiment, the . He was promoted to captain on 18 December 1915, and was a company commander and then assistant battalion commander in its 3rd Battalion. As part of the 21st Infantry Division, the 93rd Infantry Regiment fought in the Battle of Verdun, where he was gassed in July 1916. The mustard gas affected his injured lung, necessitating time in hospital. He was back with the 21st Infantry Division in time to participate in the ill-fated Nivelle offensive in April 1917. In an attack on 5 May, his battalion suffered 300 casualties, but captured 500 prisoners. De Lattre received his eighth mention in despatches. He was hospitalised again that month, and did not return until December, when he became an intelligence officer on the 21st Infantry Division staff. The division was decimated in the Third Battle of the Aisne in May 1918, but it was reconstituted and fought in the Meuse-Argonne offensive later that year, during which de Lattre liaised with the staffs of three divisions of the United States Army.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: In February 1919, de Lattre was assigned to the 18th Military District section at Bordeaux, where his duties included providing recreation for American troops prior to their repatriation. At the end of the year he joined the , which was stationed at Bayonne. From 1921 to 1926, he was in Morocco, where he participated in the campaigns of the Rif War. He became the head of the Third Bureau (the staff section responsible for operations) of the Meknes area, and directed operations in Upper Moulouya. These normally involved two or more columns, each with between four and eight battalions of infantry and attached artillery and transport, converging on a locality. The following year operations moved on to the rugged Taza Province. De Lattre was critical of the tactics used by Marshal Philippe Pétain, which he regarded as slow, expensive and materialistic. He was slashed in the right cheek by an assailant wielding a dagger on 13 March 1924, resulting in a prominent scar, and he was wounded in the knee by a bullet on 26 August 1925 during a reconnaissance mission. He was promoted to the rank of chef de bataillon on 25 June 1926.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: De Lattre returned to France, where he spent several weeks with his parents at Mouilleron-en-Pareds. At a luncheon given by a deputy for Vendée, he met , the nineteen-year-old daughter of a Paris deputy. They met again at a party on the Île d'Yeu, an island off the Vendée coast. They were married on 22 March 1927, at Saint-Pierre-de-Chaillot in Paris. They had one child, Bernard de Lattre de Tassigny, who was born on 11 February 1928. De Lattre commanded a battalion of the 4th Infantry Regiment, which was stationed at Auxerre, and prepared for the entrance examination for the École de guerre, coached by Captain Augustin Guillaume, an officer he had met while serving in Morocco. He managed to pass the examinations, and entered the École de guerre as the senior officer of his year. One of the staff exercises involved command of an invading force tasked with capturing Cherbourg from the sea. After graduation in 1928, he was assigned to the at Coulommiers as a battalion commander.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: In 1931, de Lattre was assigned to the 4th Bureau of the Ministry of War, responsible for logistics. He was promoted to on 24 March 1932. On 20 June, he joined the staff of the Conseil supérieur de la guerre, serving under the vice president, Général d'armée Maxime Weygand. During this posting, he was tasked mainly with following foreign international policies, internal politics, and the challenges of complex military budget initiatives. He became embroiled in the Stavisky affair and had to appear before a parliamentary commission.With the retirement of Weygand, who had reached mandatory retirement age, de Lattre was retained on the general headquarters staff of Général Alphonse Joseph Georges. On 20 June 1935, he was promoted to colonel and appointed commander of the at Metz. Between 1937 and 1938, he studied at the Centre des hautes études militaires (CHEM), an advanced staff college for generals. In July 1938 he became Chief of Staff at the headquarters of the military governor of Strasbourg, Général d'armée . Hering retired in March 1939, and was succeeded by Général d'armée Victor Bourret. On 20 March, de Lattre was promoted to général de brigade.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: De Lattre became the chief of staff at general headquarters of the Fifth Army on 2 September 1939. The following day France declared war on Germany again. In January 1940, he was given command of the 14th Infantry Division, which was holding the sector between Sarreguemines and Forbach. On 14 May, four days after the main German offensive began, the 14th Infantry Division was ordered to move to Rheims, where it came under the command of André Corap's Ninth Army. He engaged the German forces around Rethel, where his division resisted for an entire month, repelling German assaults in front of the River Aisne. On 9 June, the German Twelfth Army launched a major assault on the 14th Infantry Division's positions. Although it managed to hold on, the divisions on its flanks could not, and de Lattre was forced to retreat to the Marne, and then the Loire. Part of his division was cut off at Chalons. Although it lost about two-thirds of its strength, the division retained its cohesion in the midst of chaos. When the Armistice of 22 June 1940 ended the fighting, the 14th Infantry Division was at Clermont-Ferrand.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: Following the armistice, de Lattre remained in the Army of Vichy France. He was made a Grand Officer of the Legion of Honour on 12 July for his handling of the 14th Infantry Division in the Battle of France, an award Weygand, to whom he remained loyal, conferred on him in person. De Lattre was appointed to command the 13th Military Division, the military district at Puy-de-Dôme in the Massif Central, where he established a training centre for officers and non-commissioned officers at Château d'Opme. He was promoted to général de division on 26 June 1941.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: In September 1941, Weygand, now the Delegate-General of The Vichy government in North Africa, summoned de Lattre to North Africa as the commander-in-chief of troops in the protectorate of Tunisia. De Lattre opened another military instruction centre there at Salammbô near Carthage, modelled on the one at Opme. He clashed with his superior, Général de Corps d'Armée Alphonse Juin over the best way to defend Tunisia against a British attack. De Lattre was determined to resist on the frontier, fearing that a fighting withdrawal might lead to the Germans and Italians occupying Vichy France; Juin, a native of North Africa, was more concerned with the security of Algeria. De Lattre may have also hoped the he would have been appointed head of the French forces in North Africa instead of Juin. Nonetheless, Juin recommended de Lattre for promotion. He was promoted to général de corps d'armée on 2 January 1942, but Weygand had been recalled to France in October 1941, and on 2 February 1942 de Lattre was also recalled.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: Returning to France, de Lattre took charge of the 16th Military Division, based in Montpellier. The post was a backwater, and one usually held by an officer of lower rank. Following the Allied landings in French North Africa on 8 November 1942, Germany and Italian troops occupied southern France and disbanded the Vichy Army. De Lattre received orders from Vichy that troops were to remain in their barracks, which he decided to disobey, instead carrying out a previously prepared plan to resist the German occupation. Staff officers informed de Lattre's superior in Avignon of his intentions. The troops did not move, and the Vichy Minister of War, Eugène Bridoux, ordered de Lattre's arrest. He was brought before a special State Tribunal on 9 January 1943, charged with treason and abandoning his post. The former charge was dropped, but he was found guilty of the latter and was sentenced to ten years' imprisonment.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: De Lattre was initially held at Montluc prison, but was later transferred to Riom. Simonne secured accommodation where the garden adjoined the prison wall, and worked with de Lattre's driver, Louis Roetsch, and accomplices inside the prison to plan an escape. They managed to smuggle in tools, including a hammer, screwdriver and gimlet, along with paint, a paintbrush, putty and a rope. De Lattre had noticed that the sentry underneath his window went to wake up his relief in the middle of the night instead of being relieved in place, leaving the window unguarded for up to ten minutes. He also found that with one of the bars on his window removed, he was able to squeeze through. On the night of 1 September 1943 he removed the window frame and one bar, squeezed through, and used the rope to descend, although it proved to be several feet too short. Bernard threw a rope ladder over the prison wall, allowing de Lattre to scale it. They then departed in two cars that Roetsch provided, along with false papers identifying de Lattre as Charles Dequenne, his headquarters clerk who had been killed in the fighting in June 1940. They hid on a farm near Compains until 1 October, when some of his prison break accomplices were arrested. De Lattre then made his way to a field near Pont-de-Vaux, from whence he and others, including Eugène Claudius-Petit, where whisked away by a British aircraft and taken to London. Simonne and Bernard moved to Paris, where they lived under false names.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: De Lattre was promoted to the rank of général d'armée by Général de Brigade Charles de Gaulle on 11 November 1943. Problems with his damaged lung led to de Lattre being admitted to Middlesex Hospital. He was discharged from hospital on 11 December, and on 19 December he flew from Glasgow Prestwick Airport to Algiers, where he met with de Gaulle. He then went to see the Commander-in-Chief of the French forces in North Africa, Général d'Armée Henri Giraud. On 26 December, Giraud appointed him the commander of the Second Army, which was renamed Army B on 23 January 1944. This put him in change of all the forces in North Africa being re-equipped by the Americans. Army B was as an amalgam of Free French forces, the Army of Africa forces and volunteers, with a strength of 256,000, including 5,000 women of the AFAT ( – Women's Auxiliary Army). In the first half of 1944 over 100,000 personnel departed for Italy, where they formed the French Expeditionary Corps (CEF) under Juin's command. This left de Lattre with just three divisions. Once again, he opened a cadre training centre, this time at Douéra in Algiers. His manner at this time gave rise to the sobriquet (King John).


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: On 17 April 1944, de Gaulle informed General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson's Allied Force Headquarters (AFHQ) in Algiers that de Lattre would be in command of all French forces participating in Operation Anvil, the projected Allied landings in Southern France. He was also placed in charge of Operation Brassard, the invasion of Elba. This involved landing a force of about 12,000 under Général de brigade Joseph Magnan, and largely drawn from his 9th Colonial Infantry Division on Corsica. Increases in the size of the German garrison, a need to provide more amphibious warfare training for the assault troops, and a desire to minimise casualties and maximise the chance of success led to de Lattre securing a postponement of the operation from 25 May to 17 June. The rapid advance of the Allied forces, which captured Rome on 5 June, caused the need for the operation to be questioned, but the Germans showed no sign of immediately withdrawing from the area north of Rome, nor from Elba. Operation Brassard therefore went ahead, although Wilson cancelled the planned parachute assault by the 1st Parachute Chasseur Regiment, as the required transport aircraft were committed to the Italian campaign. Operation Brassard was successful, liberating the island in two days of hard fighting between 17 and 19 June.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: As commander of Army B, de Lattre assisted in the preparations for Operation Anvil, which was renamed Operation Dragoon on 1 August 1944. He was successful in securing Allied agreement for an independent French command, although the II Corps, under Général de corps d'armée Edgard de Larminat, would operate as part of American Lieutenant General Alexander Patch's US Seventh Army in the initial stages, as would Army B until the American Sixth United States Army Group, under Lieutenant General Jacob L. Devers, became active. Juin handed over command of the CEF in Italy to de Lattre on 23 July, and its headquarters was absorbed into that of Army B, with Juin's chief of staff, General de brigade Marcel Carpentier, becoming de Lattre's. De Lattre embarked for France from Taronto on a Polish liner, the . Accompanying him was Bernard. Fearing that at age sixteen he would soon become eligible for forced labour in Germany, Simmone and Bernard had fled to Algiers via Spain. Bernard was then sent to Douera for training, becoming one of the youngest soldiers in de Lattre's army.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: The Operation Dragoon landings commenced on 15 August, and de Lattre came ashore the following evening. The American advance had proceeded faster than anticipated, and the 9e to arrive early. In a characteristically aggressive move, de Lattre moved immediately on Toulon and Marseille in the hope that they could be secured before the Germans could organise their defence. He sent General de division Joseph de Goislard de Monsabert's 3rd Algerian Infantry Division to encircle Toulon while General de brigade Diego Brosset's 1st Motorised Infantry Division attacked along the coast and Magnan's 9th Colonial Infantry Division, which had been landed early, attacked in the middle. Toulon was encircled on 21 August, and the port was taken by the 9th Colonial Infantry Division five days later. Meanwhile, de Lattre had already moved on Marseille, which was reached by General de brigade Aimé Sudre's Combat Command 1 of the 1st Armoured Division on 21 August. De Lattre had not intended to rush the city, but Sudre's arrival sparked a popular uprising, enabling Combat Command 1 to reach the old port. The progress of operations against Toulon allowed de Lattre to release the 3rd Algerian Infantry Division to participate in the Battle of Marseille. The German garrison surrendered on 28 August, and a thanksgiving ceremony was held at Notre-Dame de la Garde the following day.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: Lyon was taken by the 1st Motorised Infantry Division on 3 September, and on 12 September contact was made with Général de division Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque's 2nd Armoured Division, which had come from Normandy. This allowed Army B to officially become the French 1st Army on 25 September 1944. As summer turned to autumn and units moved into higher altitudes and latitudes of the Vosges, many of them still wearing summer uniforms, the troops began to feel the cold. This was especially true of the Army of Africa and Colonial Army units that made up the bulk of de Lattre's forces, which had come from warmer climates. Many of them had been fighting in Italy since early in the year, and had become exhausted by the rapid advance up the Rhône Valley. Equipment wore out even faster, and the French logistical system was stretched to its limit just to provide the army with its daily requirements of food, fuel and ammunition. On occasion they encountered an apathetic local population, and what de Lattre regarded as a dangerous sentiment arose among the North African troops that the French people should be making a bigger contribution.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: De Lattre sought to address this by incorporating units of the French Forces of the Interior (FFI) into the Army, which would enable him to replace his losses and relieve the burden on African units of his Army. The French authorities were eager to bring the estimated 200,000 armed men of the FFI under control as soon as possible, but this was no easy task; the soldiers were suspicious of the discipline and reliability of FFI units, and resented the ranks and titles its leaders had accorded themselves. The FFI were also suspicious of the army, but by the end of the year 137,000 had enlisted in the French Army for the duration of the war. Uniforms and equipment had to be provided by the Americans, but while they agreed to equip security battalions and five regiments to replace North African ones, they were reluctant to provide equipment for the activation of new divisions. Eventually they relented, and among the reactivated divisions in February 1945 was de Lattre's old command, the 14th Infantry Division. Once agan, he opened a training centre, this time at Rouffach near Colmar.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: The Americans envisaged a passive role for the First Army in view of its logistical difficulties, but de Lattre pressed for a more active role. A combination of stubborn German resistance and bad weather brought operations in Alsace to a halt in October. On the eve of the resumption of his offensive in November, de Lattre learned that the Provisional Government wanted to take the 1st Armoured Division and 1st Infantry Division from him for an operation to clear German forces from the Royan pocket on the Gironde Estuary and reopen the port of Bordeaux. De Lattre appealed to Devers, who agreed to seek a postponement of the Bordeaux operation. He ultimately managed to get it postponed until April 1945. De Lattre's attack went ahead on 14 November. Belfort was taken on 25 November, but his attempt at encircling the German forces did not cut off any many as he hoped, although 17,000 prisoners were taken.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: In December, the Battle of the Bulge briefly halted the Allied advance, and for a while it seemed they would have to abandon Alsace and Strasbourg. This was not a politically feasible option for de Gaulle, especially since Strasbourg had so recently been liberated. De Lattre assumed responsibility for the defence of Strasbourg on 5 January; he had already acted to save it on his own initiative and contrary to his orders. Despite heavy pressure from the advancing German forces, which came within of the city, he managed to hold it. The German offensive was finally halted by the US VI Corps in the north and the 1st Motorised Division in the south. De Lattre then moved to eliminate the Colmar Pocket. For this operation, Devers placed the four US divisions of Major General Frank W. Milburn's US XXI Corps under de Lattre's command. Colmar was liberated on 2 February 1945. On 11 February, de Gaulle visited the city and invested de Lattre with the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: The First Army breached the Siegfried Line on 19 March 1945. On 31 March 1945, it crossed the Rhine at Speyer and Germersheim and advanced through the Black Forest to Karlsruhe and Stuttgart. The Danube was crossed on 22 April. Ulm lay outside the First Army's zone, but meant a great deal to French people as the site of Napoleon's victory in the Battle of Ulm in 1805. On the way, they passed through Sigmaringen, to whence the heads of the Vichy government had fled in August 1944 to establish a government in exile in Germany, although de Lattre's forces did not reach it in time to capture Pétain or Pierre Laval. Ulm was taken by American and French units on 24 April, and they raised the tricolour over the city's old fort, as Napoleon had done. Devers ordered de Lattre to withdraw from the city, and with the mission accomplished, this was done. In a tribute to de Lattre on 13 May, Devers quipped: "For many months we have fought together – often on the same side."


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: On 8 May 1945, de Lattre flew to Berlin, where he went to headquarters of Marshal of the Soviet Union Georgy Zhukov for the official German surrender ceremony. Already there was Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder, General Carl Spaatz and Admiral Sir Harold Burrough. No preparations had been made for a French representative, but some Russian women improvised a tricolour from a flag of Nazi Germany, a white bed sheet and blue mechanic's boiler suit. Tedder championed de Lattre's right to sign the document as the French representative, and as a compromise it was signed by Zhukov and Spaatz with Tedder and de Lattre as witnesses. On the nine copies that Zhukov signed first de Lattre was first witness while Tedder signed as first witness on the nine that Spaatz signed first.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: On 15 June, de Lattre attended the first meeting of the Allied Control Council. The First Army was dissolved on 24 July, and he succeeded as Commander in Chief of the French Army of Occupation by Général de Corps d'Armée Marie-Pierre Koenig three days later. On 4 August 1945 de Lattre departed. Colour parties from each of the regiments of the First Army were drawn up along the banks of the Rhine at Kehl, and he saluted each one in turn.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: In July 1945, de Lattre was offered the position of Inspector General of the Army an honorific position he regarded as beneath the status that he had earned as commander of the First Army. He declined and asked to be retired instead. De Gaulle then offered to combine the position with that of the Chief of Staff of the French Army, and de Lattre accepted, assuming the post on 29 November 1945. His task was demobilising the wartime army and building a new one. Most of the officer corps had spent the war since 1940 in prisoner of war camps in Germany, and their training was out of date. To build a force that was both democratic and national, he resolved to create a conscript army rather than a professional one. To prepare the 1946 conscripts, de Lattre opened a dozen new training centres modelled on those he had created during the war at Opme, Douera and Rouffach, where they would be schooled in citizenship. To address the shortage of instructors, he devised a system whereby the national servicemen would train themselves. Careers in the post-war army would be open to the best regardless of their social status. In his personal selection, though, de Lattre tended to favour those who had served with the First Army.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: De Lattre was abruptly relieved of his responsibilities as Chief of Staff in March 1947, although he remained Inspector General, and was elevated to Inspector General of the Armed Forces in the spring of 1948, and on 2 June 1948 he was made vice president of the Conseil supérieur de la guerre. But these positions had little authority in peacetime. From September to November 1947, he led a diplomatic and economic mission to South America where he held numerous talks with presidents from Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, and Brazil and high-ranking ministers, including French communities there. He also took part in several related economic and diplomatic conferences.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: From 4 October 1948 to 13 December 1950, de Lattre was the first commander-in-chief of Western Union Defence Organisation ground forces in Western Europe. While in that post he often came into conflict with British Field Marshal Lord Montgomery, the Commander-in-Chief of the Western Union forces. The two clashed over many issues, the most important of which was whether the Allies were prepared to meet a Soviet attack on the Rhine, something Montgomery tried hard to get his government to accept. De Lattre insisted on speaking to Montgomery in French, although he had a good command of English. But on the occasion of Montgomery's 63rd birthday in November 1950, Montgomery invited de Lattre to tea. Montgomery cut his birthday cake and gave de Lattre an extra slice for Bernard, who was then serving in French Indochina. What was a spontaneous gesture touched de Lattre deeply.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: From December 1950 to November 1951, de Lattre commanded French troops in Indochina during the First Indochina War. He was highly regarded by both his French subordinates and Việt Minh adversaries and has been described as the "Gallic version of [General Douglas] MacArthur – handsome, stylish, sometimes charming, yet egocentric to the point of megalomania" and "brilliant and vain" and "flamboyant". After de Lattre's arrival in Vietnam, Việt Minh General Giap proclaimed that his army would face "an adversary worthy of its steel". De Lattre's arrival raised the morale of French troops significantly and inspired his forces to inflict heavy defeats on the Việt Minh. He won three major victories at Vĩnh Yên, Mạo Khê and Yen Cu Ha and successfully defended the north of the country against the Việt Minh. At the Battle of Vĩnh Yên, he defeated 2 Việt Minh divisions, totalling 20,000 men under Giap's personal command. He personally took charge of the outnumbered French forces, flying in reinforcements and mustering every available aircraft for airstrikes against the massive Việt Minh formation. Giap retreated after three fierce days of combat that killed 6,000 and wounded 8,000. De Lattre had anticipated Giap's attacks and had reinforced French defences with hundreds of cement blockhouses and new airfields.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: In March 1951, at the Battle of Mạo Khê near the port of Haiphong, de Lattre again defeated Giap, who had underestimated de Lattre's army's ability to deploy naval guns and to move reinforcements aboard assault boats on deep estuaries and canals. However, Bernard was killed in action in the Battle for Nam Định, in late May 1951. He had obeyed his father's orders to hold the town at all costs against three Việt Minh divisions. After three weeks of battle the French victory halted Giap's offensive in the Red River Delta. On 20 September 1951, de Lattre spoke at The Pentagon to request American aid and warned of the danger of the spread of communism throughout Southeast Asia if northern Vietnam fell completely to the Việt Minh. However, the United States was preoccupied with the Korean War. The US sent de Lattre some transport planes and trucks and other equipment: a "significant contribution" but "scarcely enough to turn the tide for France" in Vietnam.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: On 20 November 1951, illness forced de Lattre to return to Paris for medical treatment for prostate cancer. He entered the Clinique Maillot in Neuilly-sur-Seine on 18 December. His condition deteriorated in January. His last words before losing consciousness on 9 January were: "Where is Bernard?" He died on 11 January.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: De Lattre was posthumously elevated to the dignity of Marshal of France by the President of France, Vincent Auriol, on the day of his funeral procession, 15 January 1952 at Notre Dame de Paris, Les Invalides in presence of de Gaulle, Dwight D. Eisenhower, and Montgomery. He was buried in a state funeral lasting five days, in what "Life" magazine described as the "biggest military funeral France had seen since the death of Marshal Foch in 1929". His body was moved through the streets of Paris in a series of funeral processions, with the coffin lying in state at four separate locations: his home, the chapel at Les Invalides, the Arc de Triomphe and before Notre Dame. Those marching in the funeral procession includeds members of the French cabinet, judges, bishops and Western military leaders. The route included the Rue de Rivoli and the Champs-Élysées.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: The processions went from the Arc de Triomphe to Notre Dame and then from Notre Dame to Les Invalides. The stage of the journey from the Arc de Triomphe to Notre Dame took place in the evening, and cavalrymen from the "Garde républicaine" flanked the coffin on horseback bearing flaming torches. Walking behind the soldiers marching in the funeral processions was the lone figure of the Marshal's widow, Simonne de Lattre de Tassigny, who was dressed in black and prayed as she walked. Thousands of people lined the funeral route, forming crowds that were ten-deep. The pageantry included the tolling of bells, and flags being flown at half-mast. The final stage of the funeral was a journey of to his birthplace of Mouilleron-en-Pareds, in western France. There his 97-year-old father, Roger de Lattre, aged and blind, ran his hands over the ceremonial accoutrements on the coffin, which included the posthumously-awarded marshal's baton and his son's képi. The family line became extinct with his death. The coffin was lowered into the ground and the Marshal was laid to rest beside his only son, Bernard, who had been killed fighting under his father's command in Indochina about eight months earlier.


title: Jean de Lattre de Tassigny

text: An annual military service, involving serving soldiers, veteran associations, and ceremonial carriage of the Marshal's baton, takes place at the graves of his family in his birthplace, Mouilleron-en-Pareds.


title: Biretta

text: The biretta () is a square cap with three or four peaks or horns, sometimes surmounted by a tuft. Traditionally the three-peaked biretta is worn by Catholic clergy and some Anglican and Lutheran clergy. A four-peaked biretta is worn as academic dress (but not liturgically) by those holding a doctoral degree from a pontifical faculty or pontifical university or faculty. Occasionally the biretta is worn by advocates in law courts, for instance the advocates in the Channel Islands.


title: Biretta

text: The origins of the biretta are uncertain. It is mentioned as early as the tenth century. One possible origin is the academic cap of the high Middle Ages, which was soft and square. This is also the ancestor of the modern mortarboard used today in secular universities. The biretta seems to have become a more widely used as an ecclesiastical vestment after the synod of Bergamo, 1311, ordered the clergy to wear the "bireta on their heads after the manner of laymen." The tuft or pom sometimes seen on the biretta was added later; the earliest forms of the biretta (the cap) did not bear the device.


title: Biretta

text: The biretta may be used by all ranks of the Latin Church clergy, including cardinals and other bishops to priests, deacons, and even seminarians (who are not clergy, since they are not ordained). Those worn by cardinals are scarlet red and made of silk. After the Second Vatican Council the ceremony of giving the galero to cardinals was replaced with giving the biretta. The biretta of a bishop is amaranth in color, while those worn by priests, deacons, and seminarians are black. The pope does not make use of the biretta.


title: Biretta

text: The Tridentine Roman Missal rubrics on low Mass require the priest to wear the biretta while proceeding to the altar, to hand it to the server on arrival and to resume it when leaving. At solemn Mass the sacred ministers wear it also when seated.


title: Biretta

text: Cardinals bear no tuft or "pom" (they are given their birettas and zucchettos by the Pope who elevated them in a ceremony named a consistory – they will form a line, and kneel before him when receiving them), bishops bear a purple pom, priests who have been appointed as prelates to certain positions within the Vatican wear a black biretta with red pom, diocesan priests and deacons wear a black biretta with or without a black pom. It is often asserted that seminarians are only entitled to wear a biretta without a pom-pom, but there would seem to be no formal ruling on this point. Priests in monastic and mendicant religious orders that have their own habits (Benedictines, Franciscans, Dominicans, etc.) do not generally wear birettas: in most circumstances, even liturgical, the monastic hood took the place of the biretta. Canons Regular generally do—for instance the canons of the Order of Prémontré wear a white biretta. Clerks Regular (that is, post-Renaissance religious orders primarily dedicated to priestly ministry, for instance the Jesuits and Redemptorists) generally wear a black biretta with no tuft. Other priests who belong to various forms of community life, as the Congregation of the Oratory of St. Philip Neri for instance, generally also wear birettas, but without a pom. The Institute of Christ the King Sovereign Priest uses black birettas with a blue pom.


title: Biretta

text: The liturgical biretta has three peaks (four peaks however are the norm in Germany and the Netherlands), with the "peak-less" corner worn on the left side of the head. According to the 1913 "Catholic Encyclopedia", "It was formerly the rule that a priest should always wear it in giving absolution in confession, and it is probable that the ancient usage which requires an English judge assume the 'black cap' in pronouncing sentence of death is of identical origin."


title: Biretta

text: The use of the biretta has not been abolished as a result of changes in the regulation of clerical dress and vesture following the Second Vatican Council and still remains the correct liturgical headgear for those in Holy Orders whilst "in choir", but its use has been made optional. Its use is prevalent among bishops and cardinals, and less so among other clergy. Some priests wear it during outdoor services such as burials or processions and, as is intended, during the celebration of Mass and other liturgical services. The biretta is also worn by a priest, deacon, subdeacon, and bishop in attendance at a Mass offered according to the rubrics for the Roman Missal of 1962.


title: Biretta

text: Birettas are also occasionally worn by Anglo-Catholic Anglican clergy, though it is generally considered a Romanism. Canons and deans could wear a black biretta with a red pom.


title: Biretta

text: The Canterbury cap, which like the biretta, evolved from the medieval cap, although seldom used since the early 20th century, has been considered a more authentically Anglican alternative to the biretta. The Canterbury cap has a soft, square top rather than the rigid horns that developed on the biretta.


title: Biretta

text: In the medieval university, the ceremony by which a new master or doctor received his degree included the birretatio, or imposition of the biretta. This was often given with a token book in recognition of the person's scholarship. The academic biretta developed into various styles of academic headgear on the European continent and in the British Isles. Today some secular universities still use the term, if not the actual biretta, to name their academic cap.


title: Biretta

text: For those holding doctoral degrees from a pontifical university or faculty, whether ordained or lay, "the principal mark of a Doctor's dignity is the four horned biretta." In commencement ceremonies and other academic settings, doctors of the four ecclesiastical disciplines (Philosophy, Theology, Canon Law, and Sacred Scriptures) from pontifical faculties and universities have a canonical right to wear the doctoral biretta as stated in the Codex Iuris Canonici, 1917, can. 1378, and explained in commentary 262 of the Commentarium Codicis Iuris Canonici as follows: "262. Doctoratus ac Scentiae effectus canonici sic recensentur can. 1378...doctoribus seu gradum academicum in una ex quatuor supradictis facultatibus «vide 261: philosophia, theologia, ius canonicum, Sacra Scriptura» supremum obtinentibus, rite creatis, seu promotis regulariter post examen, iuxta "statuta a Sede Apostolica probata" (can. 1376, § 2) saltem quoad usum validum "facultatis ab eadem Aplca. Sede concessae" (can. 1377, § 1), deferendi, extra sacras functiones, (quarum nomine ad hunc eflectum non-venit ex usu sacra praedicatio), nisi aliunde amplietur eis hoc ius quoad a) annulum etiam cum gemma "ipsis a iure huius canonis concessum" (can. 136, § 2), b) et biretum doctorale, (idest: cum quatuor apicibus) utpote insigne huius gradus ac diverso colore ornatum pro Facultate.:


title: Biretta

text: The sections concerning the 1917 edition of Canon Law in relation to the academic biretta were abrogated by the updated edition in the 1983 Code of Canon Law. Nevertheless, the use of the academic biretta has continued to this day despite official recognition in the 1983 Code on the grounds that the new code did not intend to suppress its use but simply to divest itself of concern for academic regalia. Moreover, as it became socially acceptable for Catholic priests to study for post-ordination degrees at Protestant seminaries or secular universities, the four horned academic biretta with appropriately colored piping has similarly been employed by such priests earning doctoral degrees from even non-pontifical institutions.


title: Biretta

text: The color of the doctoral biretta given by ecclesiastical universities and faculties is normally black, with colored piping corresponding to the faculty of study in which the degree was granted:


title: Biretta

text: At one time, different universities had different practices concerning the color and style of the biretta itself. One author, nearly a century ago, reports that in his day the Roman universities gave a doctoral biretta in black silk, Louvain gave a biretta with a colored tuft according to the academic discipline in which the doctorate was awarded, and the Catholic University of America gave a velvet biretta with red tuft and trim to doctors of theology. The 'traditional' biretta at the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, "Angelicum", is white, to correspond to the white Dominican habit. Also, the academic senate of the "Angelicum" in its May 2011 meeting indicated that the black biretta may be used with trim and pom in the color of the particular faculty.


title: Biretta

text: A three-peaked black biretta with appropriately colored piping may be similarly used by those receiving the licentiate degree (S.T.L., Ph.L.).


title: Biretta

text: The doctoral biretta is sometimes seen in depictions of St. Teresa of Ávila, because she was declared a doctor by the University of Salamanca. This recognition is distinct from her status as a Doctor of the Church. The doctoral biretta has been borrowed for depictions of another doctor of the Church, St. Thérèse de Lisieux.


title: Biretta

text: The biretta was considered as possible headwear for female barristers in England and Wales. In 1922, immediately prior to the first lady being called to the Bar, there was discussion among the senior judges about what she should wear on her head. Darling J and Horridge J suggested the biretta, but were outvoted by the other nine judges present. As a result, female barristers wear the same unpowdered men's wig as male barristers, which completely covers the hair.


title: Units of information

text: In computing and telecommunications, a unit of information is the capacity of some standard data storage system or communication channel, used to measure the capacities of other systems and channels. In information theory, units of information are also used to measure information contained in messages and the entropy of random variables.


title: Units of information

text: The most commonly used units of data storage capacity are the bit, the capacity of a system that has only two states, and the byte (or octet), which is equivalent to eight bits. Multiples of these units can be formed from these with the SI prefixes (power-of-ten prefixes) or the newer IEC binary prefixes (power-of-two prefixes).


title: Units of information

text: In 1928, Ralph Hartley observed a fundamental storage principle, which was further formalized by Claude Shannon in 1945: the information that can be stored in a system is proportional to the logarithm of "N" possible states of that system, denoted . Changing the base of the logarithm from "b" to a different number "c" has the effect of multiplying the value of the logarithm by a fixed constant, namely .


title: Units of information

text: Therefore, the choice of the base "b" determines the unit used to measure information. In particular, if "b" is a positive integer, then the unit is the amount of information that can be stored in a system with "b" possible states.


title: Units of information

text: When "b" is 2, the unit is the shannon, equal to the information content of one "bit" (a portmanteau of binary digit). A system with 8 possible states, for example, can store up to bits of information. Other units that have been named include:


title: Units of information

text: The trit, ban, and nat are rarely used to measure storage capacity; but the nat, in particular, is often used in information theory, because natural logarithms are mathematically more convenient than logarithms in other bases.


title: Units of information

text: Historically, a byte was the number of bits used to encode a character of text in the computer, which depended on computer hardware architecture; but today it almost always means eight bits – that is, an octet. A byte can represent 256 (2) distinct values, such as non-negative integers from 0 to 255, or signed integers from −128 to 127. The IEEE 1541-2002 standard specifies "B" (upper case) as the symbol for byte (IEC 80000-13 uses "o" for octet in French, but also allows "B" in English, which is what is actually being used). Bytes, or multiples thereof, are almost always used to specify the sizes of computer files and the capacity of storage units. Most modern computers and peripheral devices are designed to manipulate data in whole bytes or groups of bytes, rather than individual bits.


title: Units of information

text: A group of four bits, or half a byte, is sometimes called a nibble, nybble or nyble. This unit is most often used in the context of hexadecimal number representations, since a nibble has the same amount of information as one hexadecimal digit.


title: Units of information

text: A group of two bits or a quarter byte was called a crumb, often used in early 8-bit computing (see Atari 2600, ZX Spectrum). It is now largely defunct.


title: Units of information

text: Computers usually manipulate bits in groups of a fixed size, conventionally called "words". The number of bits in a word is usually defined by the size of the registers in the computer's CPU, or by the number of data bits that are fetched from its main memory in a single operation. In the IA-32 architecture more commonly known as x86-32, a word is 16 bits, but other past and current architectures use words with 4, 8, 9, 12, 13, 16, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 42, 44, 48, 50, 52, 54, 56, 60, 64, 72 bits or others.


title: Units of information

text: Some machine instructions and computer number formats use two words (a "double word" or "dword"), or four words (a "quad word" or "quad").


title: Units of information

text: Computer memory caches usually operate on "blocks" of memory that consist of several consecutive words. These units are customarily called "cache blocks", or, in CPU caches, "cache lines".


title: Units of information

text: Virtual memory systems partition the computer's main storage into even larger units, traditionally called "pages".


title: Units of information

text: Terms for large quantities of bits can be formed using the standard range of SI prefixes for powers of 10, e.g., kilo = 10 = 1000 (as in kilobit or kbit), mega = 10 = (as in megabit or Mbit) and giga = 10 = (as in gigabit or Gbit). These prefixes are more often used for multiples of bytes, as in kilobyte (1 kB = 8000 bit), megabyte (1 MB = ), and gigabyte (1 GB = ).


title: Units of information

text: However, for technical reasons, the capacities of computer memories and some storage units are often multiples of some large power of two, such as 2 = bytes. To avoid such unwieldy numbers, people have often repurposed the SI prefixes to mean the nearest power of two, e.g., using the prefix "kilo" for 2 = 1024, "mega" for 2 = , and "giga" for 2 = , and so on. For example, a random access memory chip with a capacity of 2 bytes would be referred to as a 256-megabyte chip. The table below illustrates these differences.


title: Units of information

text: In the past, uppercase "K" has been used instead of lowercase "k" to indicate 1024 instead of 1000. However, this usage was never consistently applied.


title: Units of information

text: On the other hand, for external storage systems (such as optical discs), the SI prefixes are commonly used with their decimal values (powers of 10). There have been many attempts to resolve the confusion by providing alternative notations for power-of-two multiples. In 1998 the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) issued a standard for this purpose, namely a series of binary prefixes that use 1024 instead of 1000 as the main radix:


title: Units of information

text: The JEDEC memory standard JESD88F notes that the definitions of kilo (K), giga (G), and mega (M) based on powers of two are included only to reflect common usage.


title: Citizen Smith

text: Citizen Smith is a British television sitcom written by John Sullivan, first broadcast from 1977 to 1980.


title: Citizen Smith

text: It starred Robert Lindsay as Walter Henry "Wolfie" Smith, a young Marxist "urban guerrilla" in Tooting, south London, who is attempting to emulate his hero Che Guevara. Wolfie is a reference to the Irish revolutionary Wolfe Tone, who used the pseudonym "Citizen Smith" in order to evade capture by the British. Wolfie is the self-proclaimed leader of the revolutionary Tooting Popular Front (the TPF, merely a small bunch of his friends), the goals of which are "Power to the People" and "Freedom for Tooting". In reality, he is an unemployed slacker and petty criminal whose plans fail through his own laziness, cowardice and incompetence.


title: Citizen Smith

text: Wolfie dresses in a stereotypical fashion for rebellious students of the period: logoed T-shirt, denim jeans and Afghan coat. He supports Fulham F. C. and occasionally wears a Fulham scarf. He rides a scooter and spends most of the time at his girlfriend's house, which means he constantly clashes with her parents.


title: Citizen Smith

text: John Sullivan became a scenery shifter at the BBC in 1974 because of his desire to write a sitcom outline he had called "Citizen Smith"; fearing rejection if he sent the idea in, he decided it would be better to get a job, any job, at the BBC, learn more about the business and then meet someone who would actually take notice of his as yet unwritten script. After he approached producer Dennis Main Wilson, the first "Citizen Smith" script was written. Main Wilson loved the script, and saw the potential for a series; it was put into production almost immediately as a pilot for "Comedy Special" — a showcase for new talent, which had succeeded "Comedy Playhouse" — under the title "Citizen Smith". The pilot was a success, and four series and a Christmas special were produced between 1977 and 1980.


title: Citizen Smith

text: It has been claimed that the "Tooting Popular Front" — fictionally based near to writer John Sullivan's childhood home of Balham — was partly inspired by a real-life fellow-South London far-left group, the Brixton-based Workers' Institute of Marxism-Leninism-Mao Tsetung Thought, activities of which were reported in "The Times" diary of April 1977, the same month the pilot episode of "Citizen Smith" was broadcast.


title: Citizen Smith

text: The opening titles of each episode of the first two series always began in the same way with Wolfie emerging from Tooting Broadway Underground station, then with a shot of Wolfie kicking a can across a bridge until he is in close up, accompanied by a background rendition of the socialist anthem "The Red Flag". They always ended with him shouting "Power to the People" resulting in awkward consequences, for example, waking a sleeping baby or causing a vehicle to crash. From the third series, this was altered: in place of the shots of Wolfie on the bridge, the other cast members were now credited individually; their names were accompanied with an on-screen clip of them, rather than just the list of names that had been used before, and the reactions to Wolfie's shout were dropped entirely. Series 4 had a new title sequence, which began with Tucker's van driving past Tooting Broadway tube station with "The Revolution is Back" painted on it. The rest of the credits were backed by clips from the last episode of series three, "The Glorious Day", and Wolfie's shout is heard but he is not seen.


title: Citizen Smith

text: From episode three, "Abide with Me", Wolfie Smith (Robert Lindsay) lives, with his religious, teetotal friend Ken Mills (Mike Grady), in a flat in the house of his girlfriend's family — Shirley Johnson (Cheryl Hall, at the time Lindsay's wife); her affable but naïve mother, Florence, who mistakenly calls Wolfie "Foxy"; and her strict, right-wing father, Charlie, who disapproves of Smith's lifestyle and refers to him as a "flaming yeti" or "Chairman Mao". Shirley considers herself engaged to Wolfie, on account of a fake crocodile tooth necklace he gave her after she was asked when they would get engaged.


title: Citizen Smith

text: Other regular characters in the series are the other "urban guerrillas": Tucker (married to the ever-pregnant but never-seen June); Speed, the TPF's Warlord, and his girlfriend Desiree; and local gangster publican Harry Fenning (played by Stephen Greif), who refers to Wolfie as "Trotsky". Wolfie and the TPF frequent Harry's pub, The Vigilante, and are at times menaced by Harry's hired muscle Floyd and Cyril (played by Dana Michie and Barry Hayes), who are referred to by Florence as "Mr Fenning's foster children".


title: Citizen Smith

text: The closest Wolfie comes to legitimate political office is contesting the Tooting North constituency as the TPF candidate at a parliamentary by-election, whose election night declaration is televised; however, he gains only six votes, losing to the Conservative candidate David West. He and the gang attempt to kidnap the new MP from a victory celebration, only to mistakenly capture Harry Fenning (who was leaving the Conservative Club during the occasion) instead (Episode 6 - "The Hostage").


title: Citizen Smith

text: Series two consists of six episodes; however, owing to industrial action at the BBC on 22 December 1978, one episode ("Spanish Fly") had to be rescheduled as a special in August 1979.


title: Citizen Smith

text: "The Glorious Day", which Wolfie had always been plotting, comes at the end of the third series, in an episode of the same name, in which the Tooting Popular Front "liberate" a Scorpion tank and use it to invade the Houses of Parliament, only to find the place empty, owing to a parliamentary recess. During the TPF's "annual manoeuvres" on Salisbury Plain, Wolfie, Ken, Tucker and Speed decide to camp down after an evening of heavy drinking; unbeknownst to them, they are in the middle of a military live firing area. During the night, the British Army hold an exercise, and the Scorpion is "abandoned" by its crew after being declared "knocked out" by a "landmine" during a training exercise. When Wolfie and his comrades discover this, Wolfie comes up with his revolutionary plan. Speed states that he learned to drive a Scorpion during his time in the Territorial Army, at which point the group steal it and drive it back to London.


title: Citizen Smith

text: On returning, they hide it in Charlie Johnson's garage. Charlie comes home from work and opens the garage door to park his car. Curious as to the purpose of the Scorpion parked amongst the garden tools, he climbs down inside and accidentally steps on the machine-gun fire button. The result is that their neat garden is raked with heavy machine-gun fire, narrowly missing his wife Florence who is hanging out the washing, and annihilating their garden gnomes. This episode also includes a new song from John Sullivan and sung by Robert Lindsay — "We are the TPF. We are the People."


title: Citizen Smith

text: The series began with Wolfie and company being paroled, a brief flirtation at being pop stars on the back of their "fame" ended in disaster. While the TPF have been away, a new gangster, Ronnie Lynch, has usurped Fenning's position in Tooting, including his old pub. Wolfie hates him more than he did Fenning, and after various run-ins with Lynch (who constantly refers to Wolfie as "Wally"), the series was concluded in the penultimate episode, with Wolfie fleeing Tooting to escape a £6,000 contract put on his head by Ronnie Lynch after Lynch had caught Wolfie in his wife Mandy's bedroom. Closing with a shot mirroring the opening credits, Wolfie is seen entering Tooting Broadway tube station. Series four consisted of seven episodes and a Christmas special, "Buon Natale", in which Wolfie and Ken ride to Rimini on Wolfie's Lambretta to visit Shirley for the festive period, only to find that she has become romantically involved with an Italian named Paolo. This episode was shown after the series officially ended, but is set before the events of the last episode.


title: Citizen Smith

text: The first episode aired on 12 April 1977. This episode was a pilot. Over the next four years, a further four series and a Christmas special were aired, totalling thirty episodes. The last episode aired on 31 December 1980. There is a mythical episode called "Right to Work" which appears in some episode guides; the confusion may arise from the episode "Working Class Hero", which opens with Wolfie involved in a "right to work" protest.


title: Citizen Smith

text: The entire series was repeated on BBC1 in 1992–1993. The series has also been re-run on satellite channels UKGold/UKTV Drama and on Gold, though one episode has never been repeated – "A Story For Christmas" from 1977. All the episodes have been released on DVD.


title: Citizen Smith

text: "Citizen Smith", a novelisation of the first series written by Christopher Kenworthy, was published by Universal books, London in 1978.


title: Citizen Smith

text: In 2015, Lindsay was reported as saying he was very keen to reprise the role of Wolfie Smith, particularly with the rise of Jeremy Corbyn. However, it was also reported that the family of the by then deceased Sullivan, who own the rights, did not want to bring it back.


title: Citizen Smith

text: Playback released two DVD volumes of "Citizen Smith", each with two series. Series one and two (including the pilot) were released in 2003 followed by series three and four later that year.


title: Citizen Smith

text: Only two episodes have actually been cut: "Changes" – where Tucker and Wolfie miming to the Beatles tracks "Till There Was You" (and Tucker's line "I think they like us.") and "Help!" have been cut from the scene where Tucker serenades June; and "Prisoners" – where a short scene of Wolfie singing along to the Beatles track "She Loves You", which comes in between the shot of Speed throwing stones at Wolfie's window and the shot of the window breaking, has also been cut.


title: Citizen Smith

text: Cinema Club bought the rights to the series, and later released all four series in a complete series set on 17 July 2017.