title: Preemption (computing)

text: The earliest version of Windows to support a limited form of preemptive multitasking was Windows/386 2.0, which used the Intel 80386's Virtual 8086 mode to run DOS applications in virtual 8086 machines, commonly known as "DOS boxes", which could be preempted. In Windows 95, 98 and Me, 32-bit applications were made preemptive by running each one in a separate address space, but 16-bit applications remained cooperative for backward compatibility. In Windows 3.1x (protected mode), the kernel and virtual device drivers ran preemptively, but all 16-bit applications were non-preemptive and shared the same address space.


title: Preemption (computing)

text: Preemptive multitasking has always been supported by Windows NT (all versions), OS/2 (native applications), Unix and Unix-like systems (such as Linux, BSD and macOS), VMS, OS/360, and many other operating systems designed for use in the academic and medium-to-large business markets.


title: Preemption (computing)

text: Although there were plans to upgrade the cooperative multitasking found in the classic Mac OS to a preemptive model (and a preemptive API did exist in Mac OS 9, although in a limited sense), these were abandoned in favor of Mac OS X (now called macOS) that, as a hybrid of the old Mac System style and NeXTSTEP, is an operating system based on the Mach kernel and derived in part from BSD, which had always provided Unix-like preemptive multitasking.


title: Linda Calvey

text: Linda Calvey (born Linda E P Welford, 8 April 1948 in Ilford, Essex, England) is an English murderer, author and former armed robber, convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment for killing her lover Ronnie Cook. She was known as the "Black Widow" because all of her lovers ended up either dead or in prison. Calvey was released on parole in 2008.


title: Linda Calvey

text: Calvey continues to deny committing the murder, blaming it on her ex-lover, but her claims have been described as "cynical and self-serving".


title: Linda Calvey

text: Calvey began her criminal career as a lookout after being invited by her cousin to a party for armed robber Mickey Calvey, who at the time was on temporary home leave towards the end of his eight-year prison term, where she fell in love with him. She married him at 22 years old, with him having to be brought to the wedding from his prison by armed guard. She later became a getaway driver and eventually wielded guns herself during robberies. She went on to make £1 million in robberies, saying in 2002: "I loved the buzz of picking up a shotgun, confronting men in armoured vans and forcing them to hand over vast sums of money." She later said she always thought that the money was "rightfully hers". She was known to keep guns under her doormat.


title: Linda Calvey

text: Her first conviction in 1986 resulted in her being sentenced to 7 years imprisonment, of which she served about three years, half her sentence. Most of her sentence was served at HM Prison Holloway. As part of a criminal gang she had helped in a series of post office robberies, in which staff and customers were sprayed with dangerous ammonia. The judge commented in his sentencing remarks:


title: Linda Calvey

text: Calvey's brother Anthony Welford had allowed his house to be used as a base by the gang and was himself jailed for nine years for conspiracy to rob the post offices.


title: Linda Calvey

text: Calvey met Ronnie Cook after the death of her husband Mickey. He was one of Mickey's associates before his death, and provided money to Calvey to support herself after Mickey's death. According to Calvey, Cook soon became controlling, having say over what she wore and trailing her when she went out with friends. After Calvey declined Cook's proposal to her, she said he threatened to hurt her son. Cook was sentenced to 16 years in prison for taking part in an armed robbery at some point after.


title: Linda Calvey

text: Calvey was introduced to Daniel Reece by a friend of Cook, Brian Thorogood, who thought he could use the support after his son had been killed in a traffic accident while he was in prison. The friendship between the two then developed into a relationship. She also then cheated on Cook with Thorogood.


title: Linda Calvey

text: In late 1990, around 18 months after being paroled from her armed robbery sentence, Calvey paid criminal associate Daniel Reece £10,000 to kill Ronnie Cook. However, he lost his nerve at the last minute and Calvey picked up the gun herself, shooting the victim at point blank range, whilst he knelt in front of her. He suffered horrific injuries to the head on the second shot and the blast also broke his neck. A neighbour had heard Calvey shout "kneel" before a shot rang out. The story that Calvey had killed him was backed by Reece, as well as gangster Frankie Fraser, who said Calvey did it so Cook wouldn't find out she had been spending some of his money. At Calvey's trial, the prosecuting attorney said Cook's motive was to "simplify the rather dangerous and complex” state of her personal affairs — referring to her romance with both Reece and Thorogood. Cook was due for full release from prison at the time and so would soon have discovered how Calvey, on whom he had lavished gifts and money, had cheated on him and become the lover of Reece and Thorogood. He also would have found that she had spent the cash he had entrusted to her. Reece testified to police: "I couldn't kill him. I shot to his side. I froze. Linda took the gun from me. She shot him in the head." The claim that he had shot him to his side first was supported by the fact that Cook was found to have a bullet wound to the arm. Calvey's footprints were also found next to the body, indicating she was present in the room at the shooting. On the day of the murder, Calvey had driven to HM Prison Maidstone to pick up Cook, who was on day release at the end of his sentence, and took him to her home, knowing a gunman would be there to murder him. He was shot only about half an hour after he had been collected by Calvey from the prison.


title: Linda Calvey

text: At trial Calvey denied murder, saying the man she had cheated on and who was supposedly abusive to her had "meant everything to her" and she couldn't have killed him. However, the jury did not believe Calvey's story and found her guilty of murder. She showed no reaction when the jury announced their guilty verdict.


title: Linda Calvey

text: She spent 18 and a half years in prison before being paroled. During her imprisonment in 1995 a tribute was written to her by Charles Bronson, considered Britain's most violent prisoner, with Bronson saying that she was "a true lady, a real east London girl". Calvey herself sent a floral tribute to the funeral of gangster Ronnie Kray alongside her fellow inmate and criminal associate Tina Molloy, who was imprisoned aged 17 for the murder of Edna Phillips in 1992 soon after the infamous murder of James Bulger. Calvey and Molloy's tribute read: "To Ron, with love and affection from Linda Calvey, Tina Molloy, and the girls of H-wing".


title: Linda Calvey

text: Calvey denies murdering Cook despite being found guilty. First she attempted to blame a stranger hitman, saying she ran from the house screaming as she saw this mystery assassin shoot Cook in the kitchen. She claimed that, after they got home, "the door burst open and a man shouted, 'Get down. Police!'" before shooting him. "The People" newspaper described her story in 2000 as "cynical and self-serving" and said that "no-one" believed her story. In 2002 Calvey repeated this claim while represented legally by controversial lawyer and criminal Giovanni Di Stefano, who infamously defended Saddam Hussein and Slobodan Milošević and who is now banned from working in law in the UK. In 2013 Di Stefano made headlines for proudly declaring he would have represented Hitler if he had had the chance. Under Di Stefano's representation Calvey appealed to the Criminal Cases Review Commission, but they were unconvinced by her defence and rejected her appeal.


title: Linda Calvey

text: Calvey has since changed her story and now claims that when she picked up Cook and arrived home, Reece snuck in and shot him, claiming it was to avenge Mickey (as Cook had been a participant in the botched robbery that resulted in his death and alleged Cook knowingly put him in danger) and to protect Calvey's son. She also claimed that police had conducted gunshot residue tests on both her face and hands and eliminated her as a suspect, but returned a few days later, interviewed, and arrested her. In 2022, She was interviewed by UNILAD and stated the same thing: "I picked him (Cook) up, we went to my home and as we walked into my house, the door got kicked in and a gunman ran in and he (Cook) was shot dead. And when they (police) knew who I was, They then charged me with the murder." By this time she was no longer married to Reece, who as of 2017 was himself still imprisoned, with Calvey having married for a third time in 2008.


title: Linda Calvey

text: However, according to Kate Kray, the partner of infamous gangster Ronnie Kray, hardly any convicted gangsters like Calvey regard themselves as guilty, and so it is not surprising that Calvey claims she is innocent. Furthermore, despite claiming that Reece killed Cook, she later married Reece at HM Prison Durham in 1995. Reece's best man at the wedding was Mike Martin, the lover of Suzanne Capper torturer and murderer Bernadette McNeilly. Some of Calvey's guests were IRA terrorists Ella O'Dwyer and Martina Anderson. Calvey insisted in 2019 she is "different from the woman I was 30 years ago". Around this time she published a book about her life with the support of her family, one of whom – brother Anthony – had himself been imprisoned with her for housing Calvey's robbery gang.


title: Linda Calvey

text: Calvey has been married three times. Her first husband, Mickey Calvey, was an armed robber who died after being shot by police during a botched robbery on 9 December 1978. She was then briefly married to Danny Reece, the hitman she'd originally hired to kill Ronnie Cook. Their marriage took place at HM Prison Durham. Her third marriage, to millionaire George Ceasar, occurred in Dymchurch on 4 April 2009. He died in September 2015.


title: Linda Calvey

text: Calvey has two children with her first husband Mickey Calvey named Neil and Melanie, as well as several grandchildren and great-grandchildren.


title: Chris Hoy

text: Sir Christopher Andrew Hoy MBE (born 23 March 1976) is a former track cyclist and Racing driver from Scotland who represented Great Britain at the Olympic and World Championships and Scotland at the Commonwealth Games.


title: Chris Hoy

text: Hoy is eleven-times a world champion and six-times an Olympic champion. With a total of seven Olympic medals, six gold and one silver, Hoy is the second most decorated Olympic cyclist of all time. Between 2012 and 2021 he was the most successful British Olympian and the most successful Olympic cyclist of all time. In 2021 he finally ceded both records to erstwhile colleague and rival Sir Jason Kenny. His seventeen global titles across four disciplines makes Hoy the most successful track cyclist at the global level of all times.


title: Chris Hoy

text: With his three gold medals in 2008 Summer Olympics, Hoy became Scotland's most successful Olympian, the first British athlete to win three gold medals in a single Olympic Games since Henry Taylor in 1908, and the most successful Olympic cyclist of all time. After winning a further two gold medals (in the keirin and team sprint) at the 2012 Summer Olympics, Hoy has won the second most Olympic gold medals (six) of all British athletes, behind Jason Kenny, and more total medals (seven) than any except fellow cyclists Kenny and Sir Bradley Wiggins. Hoy has won Olympic gold medals in more separate events - four (team sprint (twice), match sprint, kierin (twice) and kilo) than any other Briton or any other cyclist.


title: Chris Hoy

text: The son of David and Carol Hoy. Chris Hoy grew up in the suburb of Murrayfield, Edinburgh, and was privately educated at George Watson's College, followed by two years at the University of St Andrews studying Mathematics and Physics until 1996. He subsequently transferred to the University of Edinburgh, from which he graduated BSc (Hons.) in Applied Sports Science in 1999.


title: Chris Hoy

text: Hoy, whose first bike cost £5, was inspired to cycle at age six by the 1982 film "E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial". Hoy says the BMX bike he saw in the film is what inspired him to start cycling. Before track cycling, Hoy raced BMX between the ages of 7 and 14 and was ranked second in Britain, fifth in Europe, and ninth in the world. He received sponsorship from Slazenger and Kwik-Fit, and was competing in Europe and the U.S. He first became aware of track cycling when he watched TV coverage of Scottish sprinter Eddie Alexander winning a bronze medal at the 1986 Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh. Hoy also represented the Scotland Junior Rowing Team and was second in the 1993 National Rowing Championships with Grant Florence in the coxless pairs. He played rugby as part of his school's team.


title: Chris Hoy

text: Hoy joined his first cycling club, Dunedin C.C., in 1990, aged 14, and began concentrating on track cycling in 1993, when he joined the City of Edinburgh Racing Club. In 1997, he and fellow Scottish sprinter Craig MacLean were tipped as medal prospects by Phil Liggett.


title: Chris Hoy

text: Hoy won silver in Berlin, at the 1999 UCI Track Cycling World Championships in the team sprint, riding at man one, Craig MacLean at 2 and Jason Quealley at 3. Regular teammates in the team sprint over the years have included Craig MacLean, Ross Edgar, Jamie Staff, Jason Queally, Matthew Crampton and Jason Kenny.


title: Chris Hoy

text: Following Jason Queally's gold medal in the Kilo TT early in the Games, Hoy joined with him and Craig MacLean to win his first Olympic Medal, a Silver in the Team Sprint or "Olympic Sprint" as it was then called. Although they were beaten by an excellent French team, the two medals won for GB were to become the start of a renaissance of British track cycling after the debacle of the Atlanta Games, for which he and track endurance contemporary Sir Bradley Wiggins would eventually become the figureheads along with road sprinter Mark Cavendish. All three would eventually win BBC Sports Personality of the Year as cycling became mainstream in Great Britain.


title: Chris Hoy

text: Hoy arrived in Athens in the form of his life. His main event was the Kilo Time Trial. He was ranked No 1 and was last man off. The sea level World Record was broken four times as he sat in the track centre waiting for his start. He had been involved in an accident in the athlete's village just a few days prior to competition where he came off his bike in front of a village bus, narrowly avoiding serious injury. As he came out of the starting gate, his scarred arms and legs showed how close he was to not competing.


title: Chris Hoy

text: The previous rider was Arnaud Tournant who set the fastest ever sea-level kilo. Chris came next and, cheered on by thousands of loyal British fans, he bettered the time on each lap, setting a new sea-level World and Olympic Record of 1.00.711. This was the first of his Olympic gold medals, but he suffered disappointment as Great Britain could only finish fifth in the Team Sprint.


title: Chris Hoy

text: Angered by the decision to remove his specialist event, the Kilo, from the Olympic programme after the 2004 games, Hoy sought to develop in other events. The first of these was the emerging keirin event This event involves between six and eight riders following a small motorbike (the Derny) around the 250m track for 5.5 laps, as the bike slowly builds up the speed. The bike pulls off with 2.5 laps to go and the riders race for the line. Hoy had previously competed at the keirin in various events but one of his first major successes was at the Manchester round of the World Cup Classics Series in 2007, shortly before the World Championships, where he also won, ahead of his teammate Ross Edgar.


title: Chris Hoy

text: This showed that Hoy was developing from just a pure power sprinter, in events like the Kilo and Team Sprint, into also being one of the best in the world at more tactical sprinting events such as the keirin and the individual sprint. His success in the new events, however, was still marked by Hoy's ability to generate extraordinary power.


title: Chris Hoy

text: On 12 May 2007, Hoy attempted the world record for the kilometre. He fell 0.005 seconds short, clocking 58.880. He set a record for the 500m flying start at 24.758 seconds, over a second less than the 25.850 set by Arnaud Duble. Hoy set the sea-level kilometre record of 1 minute 0.711 seconds by winning the Olympics in Athens in 2004. The outright record of 58.875 seconds is held by Arnaud Tournant (France), set during 2001 at altitude in La Paz, Bolivia, where Hoy also attempted to break the record. At the time, only 3 sub-60sec kilos had ever been ridden; Hoy recorded two of these over two days in La Paz.


title: Chris Hoy

text: Hoy's main achievement is his development in the individual sprint event considered to be the blue riband event of track cycling. Kilo riders like Hoy have historically not fared as well at this event, as they were less experienced in the tactical elements required for the sprint. Previously, Hoy had competed in the sprint at various World Cup events and Revolution meetings in Manchester, but it was not one of his main events and he did not compete in it at the World Championships or the Olympics.


title: Chris Hoy

text: In the semi finals Hoy defeated Italian veteran Roberto Chiappa 2–0, to set up a meeting in the final against France's Kévin Sireau. Sireau was the World Cup Classics points winner for the season and had defeated Hoy 2–0 in their previous meeting only a few weeks earlier. However, with the vocal Manchester crowd behind him Hoy was not to be denied victory and he completed the win 2–0, the first British man to win the sprint title in 52 years since Reg Harris.


title: Chris Hoy

text: Hoy became the first British Olympian for 100 years to claim three golds at one games at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing. This came when he won the men's keirin, the men's team sprint and also the men's individual sprint.


title: Chris Hoy

text: Hoy did not race at the first major event of the 2009/10 season, the World Cup Classics Event in Manchester on 4 October – 2 November. He instead made an appearance to sign autographs and commentate with the BBC.


title: Chris Hoy

text: He made his return to racing in the UK at the Revolution 22 event in Manchester in December. He received a standing ovation from the Manchester faithful at the start of the event when he was introduced to the crowd. At this event Hoy won both the Sprint and Keirin competitions, defeating likes of Jason Kenny, Jamie Staff, Ross Edgar, Matthew Crampton and Teun Mulder along the way. Hoy competed in the World Cup Classics series' final event in Copenhagen, Denmark in February, helping his team to a gold medal in the team sprint event. However, he crashed out during the men's Keirin final and was forced to miss the final day of competition, including the men's sprint. Although at first, his injury seemed minor, he returned to Manchester where, following a scan, he was diagnosed with a serious de-gloving injury which finished his season and kept him off his bike for almost 3 months. He was unable to compete as planned at the Revolution 24 event in Manchester the following weekend, he did however make an appearance at the event. He had to pull out of the World Championships in Poland at the end of March, where he would have attempted to defend 2 World titles, because of the hip injury.


title: Chris Hoy

text: Hoy started the 09/10 track season at the National Cycling Centre, Manchester, at the British National Championships where he took only his second (and third) ever individual national titles. He took gold medals in the Keirin, Sprint and was part of the Team Sprint Team representing team SKY along with Jamie Staff and Jason Kenny. Two weeks later, he raced in round one of the UCI World Cup at the same venue and took gold in the Men's Keirin. He then went into day 2 of the competition and took gold in the sprint event, beating fellow Brit Matthew Crampton in the final 2–0. A third World Cup gold came in the Team Sprint on the Sunday. Having ridden and won 12 events over the weekend, he withdrew from the International Japanese Keirin which was consequently won by Crampton.


title: Chris Hoy

text: At the 2010 UCI World Championships, Hoy was beaten in the quarter final of the men's sprint event by his German opponent, Robert Förstemann, who won after making an attack from the start line. He was part of the GB men's team sprint that took the bronze. In the Keirin event, Hoy won the gold medal, despite crashing in the heats, to take his tenth world title.


title: Chris Hoy

text: Hoy lost in the first round of the men's sprint at the European Championships to Ireland's Felix English. At the Manchester World Cup event in February 2011, Hoy lost in the semi-finals to Jason Kenny. Hoy took the match sprint title at the British National Championships in October 2011.


title: Chris Hoy

text: At the 2012 World Cup event held in the new London Velodrome, Hoy won three medals. He won gold in the keirin and bronze in the team sprint, before winning gold in the Men's Sprint, losing just one race in four rounds.


title: Chris Hoy

text: Hoy was an ambassador for the 2012 Olympic Games in London. Hoy led Team GB out as the team's flag carrier at the opening ceremony. He then went on to win gold in the team sprint with Jason Kenny and Philip Hindes, setting a new world record in the velodrome and becoming Team GB's joint gold record holder with Sir Steve Redgrave's tally of five gold medals with a total of six medals (5 gold, 1 silver).


title: Chris Hoy

text: On 7 August 2012 Hoy won gold in the Keirin to overtake Sir Steve Redgrave and become the most successful British olympian ever, winning a total of 6 gold medals. This also made him the joint holder of most medals won by any British athlete in the Olympic Games with fellow cyclist Sir Bradley Wiggins and Jason Kenny.


title: Chris Hoy

text: On 18 April 2013 Hoy announced his retirement from competitive cycling. He said he was very proud to have taken part in the transformation of the sport.


title: Chris Hoy

text: Hoy's interest in motorsport competition led him to contest the inaugural season of the Radical Sportscars SR1 Cup, scooping his first motorsport podium at Snetterton in the same season. Hoy has since contested selected rounds of the Radical SR3 Challenge and Radical European Masters in Radical's SR3 RS and SR8 RX open sportscars. On 8 April 2014 it was announced that Hoy would be joining the British GT championship driving a Nissan GT-R Nismo GT3 with a view to competing in the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 2016.


title: Chris Hoy

text: Hoy took his first victory in international competition at the opening round of the 2015 European Le Mans Series at Silverstone where he drove a Ginetta-Nissan to a class win alongside team-mate Charlie Robertson. The pairing took another two wins in the series' LMP3 class, including at the penultimate round at Circuit Paul Ricard, which clinched them the class title with a round to spare.


title: Chris Hoy

text: He subsequently competed at the 2015 Race of Champions at the London Olympic Stadium, receiving a late invitation to race as part of Team All Stars in the Nations Cup alongside Romain Grosjean as a replacement for Jorge Lorenzo after the motorcyclist suffered leg burns as a result of post-race celebrations on his motorbike when he clinched that season's MotoGP title.


title: Chris Hoy

text: However Hoy and Grosjean were knocked out in the first round by the Young Stars team of Pascal Wehrlein and Jolyon Palmer.


title: Chris Hoy

text: In March 2016 it was confirmed that Hoy would be entered for the 2016 Le Mans 24 Hours, sharing a Ligier JS P2-Nissan with Andrea Pizzitola and Michael Munemann. He was the first Summer Olympic medallist to compete at Le Mans, the ninth former Olympian to race there and the second Olympic champion to do so, after alpine skier Henri Oreiller.


title: Chris Hoy

text: Hoy unveiled the brand which bears his name in November 2012, three months after winning the double Olympic gold in London. The debut range included three road bikes and four city bikes, as well as a track bike. It was later extended by several other designs, including bicycles for children.


title: Chris Hoy

text: Hoy is married to Sarra Kemp, Lady Hoy, a lawyer from Edinburgh. They got married in 2010 at St Giles' Cathedral, Edinburgh. They have a son, Callum, and a daughter, Chloe.


title: Chris Hoy

text: Hoy's autobiography was published in 2009. Hoy's first two children's fiction books, about a young cyclist called Flying Fergus, were published in 2016. In 2020, Hoy published another children's book titled 'Be Amazing'.


title: Chris Hoy

text: In April 2013, Hoy accepted the appointment of ambassador to the Royal Air Force Air Cadets and assumed the rank of Honorary Group Captain RAFVR(T). He has since relinquished this role. In 2013, Hoy was appointed as an ambassador for UNICEF UK, having been an International Inspiration ambassador for UNICEF since 2009.


title: Chris Hoy

text: Hoy has been Ambassador for SAMH (Scottish Association for Mental Health) since 2009. In that time he has devoted many hours to raising awareness of and funds for the mental health cause.


title: Chris Hoy

text: In December 2016 and December 2017, Hoy supported the Scottish Social Enterprise Social Bite by sleeping out at their Sleep in the Park events to end homelessness in Scotland.


title: Powhatan (Native American leader)

text: Powhatan ( 1547 – c. 1618), whose proper name was Wahunsenacawh (alternately spelled Wahunsenacah, Wahunsunacock or Wahunsonacock), was the leader of the Powhatan, an alliance of Algonquian-speaking Native Americans living in Tsenacommacah, in the Tidewater region of Virginia at the time when English settlers landed at Jamestown in 1607.


title: Powhatan (Native American leader)

text: Powhatan, alternately called "King" or "Chief" Powhatan by English settlers, led the main political and military power facing the early colonists, and was probably the older brother of Opechancanough, who led attacks against the settlers in 1622 and 1644. He was the father of Matoaka (Pocahontas).


title: Powhatan (Native American leader)

text: In 1607, the English colonists were introduced to Wahunsenacawh as Powhatan and understood this latter name to come from Powhatan's hometown near the falls of the James River near present-day Richmond, Virginia.


title: Powhatan (Native American leader)

text: Seventeenth-century English spellings were not standardized, and representations were many of the sounds of the Algonquian language spoken by "Wahunsenacawh" and his people. Charles Dudley Warner, writing in the 19th century, but quoting extensively from John Smith's 17th-century writings, in his essay on Pocahontas states: "In 1618 died the great Powhatan, full of years and satiated with fighting and the savage delights of life. He had many names and titles; his own people sometimes called him Ottaniack, sometimes Mamauatonick, and usually in his presence Wahunsenasawk." Many variants are used in texts:


title: Powhatan (Native American leader)

text: Little is known of Powhatan's life before the arrival of English colonists in 1607. He apparently inherited the leadership of about 4-6 tribes, with its base at the Fall Line near present-day Richmond. Through diplomacy and/or force, he had assembled a total of about 30 tribes into the Powhatan Confederacy by the early 17th century. The confederacy was estimated to include 10,000-15,000 people.


title: Powhatan (Native American leader)

text: In December 1607, English explorer and pioneer John Smith, one of the Jamestown colony's leaders, was captured by a hunting expedition led by Opchanacanough, the younger brother of Powhatan. Smith was taken to Werowocomoco, Powhatan's capital along the York River. Smith recounted in 1624 that Pocahontas (whose given name was Matoaka), one of Powhatan's daughters, kept her father from executing him. However, since Smith's 1608 and 1612 reports omitted this account, many historians have doubted its accuracy. Some believe that the event Smith recounted as a prelude to his execution was an adoption ceremony by which Smith was ritually accepted as subchief of the town of Capahosic in Powhatan's alliance. As the historian Margaret Williamson Huber has written, "Powhatan calculated that moving Smith and his men to Capahosic would keep them nearby and better under his control."


title: Powhatan (Native American leader)

text: In January 1609, Smith recorded directing some of his men to build an English-style house for Powhatan at Werowocomoco, in exchange for food supplies for the hungry English colony. Both sides looked for opportunities to surprise one another. Smith proceeded to Opchanacanough's village. When ambushed, he held Powhatan at gunpoint before the warriors. When Smith returned to Werowocomoco, he found the house unfinished and the place abandoned. The men had deserted to the Powhatan side. At a village now called Wicomico in Gloucester County, the reconstructed ruins of what were traditionally believed to be the chimney and part of the building for Powhatan are known as Powhatan's Chimney.


title: Powhatan (Native American leader)

text: Since 2003, state officials and researchers have concluded the likely site of Werowocomoco is further west along the York River at Purtan Bay. There archeologists have found evidence of a large residential settlement dating to 1200, with major earthworks built about 1400. They have found extensive artifacts, including European goods, which indicate likely interaction with English colonists in the early 17th century. In 2006 the Werowocomoco Archeological Site was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Excavations continue by a team headed by the College of William and Mary.


title: Powhatan (Native American leader)

text: Powhatan made his next capital at Orapake, located about west in a swamp at the head of the Chickahominy River. The modern-day interchange of Interstate 64 and Interstate 295 is near this location. Sometime between 1611 and 1614, Powhatan moved further north to Matchut, in present-day King William County on the north bank of the Pamunkey River, near where his younger brother Opchanacanough ruled at Youghtanund.


title: Powhatan (Native American leader)

text: By the time Smith left Virginia in 1609, the fragile peace between colonists and Algonquians was already beginning to fray. Soon conflict led to the First Anglo-Powhatan War, and further English colonial settlement beyond Jamestown and into Powhatan's territory. The colonists effectively destroyed two subtribes, the Kecoughtan and the Paspahegh, at the beginning of this war. Powhatan sent Nemattanew to operate against English colonists on the upper James River, though they held out at Henricus. With the capture of Pocahontas by Captain Samuel Argall in 1613, Powhatan sued for peace. It came about after her alliance in marriage on April 5, 1614, to John Rolfe, a leading tobacco planter. John Rolfe was one of Pocahontas's many Jamestown teachers before their marriage; he instructed her in matters of the new culture she was being assimilated into, and he also taught her all about Christianity. According to various accounts, Pocahontas and John Rolfe did, in fact, fall in love with each other—it was a consensual relationship. This might, at least in part, explain Pocahontas's apparent willingness to assimilate, convert to Christianity and remain with the colonists: she wanted to be with Rolfe. Rolfe's longtime friend, Reverend Richard Buck, presided the wedding. Prior to the wedding, Reverend Alexander Whitaker converted Pocahontas and renamed her "Rebecca" at her baptism.


title: Powhatan (Native American leader)

text: Meanwhile, English colonists continued to expand along the James riverfront. The aged Powhatan's final years have been called "ineffectual" (Rountree 1990). Opchanacanough became the greater Native power in the region. Upon the death of Wahunsunacock in 1618, his next younger brother Opitchapam officially became paramount chief. However, Opchanacanough, the youngest brother, had achieved the greatest power and effectively became the Powhatan. By initiating the Indian Massacre of 1622, and attacks in 1644, he attempted to expel the colonists from Virginia. These attempts met with strong reprisals from the colonists, ultimately resulting in the near destruction of the tribe.


title: Powhatan (Native American leader)

text: Through his daughter Pocahontas (and her marriage to the English colonist John Rolfe), Wahunsunacock was the grandfather of Thomas Rolfe. In 1635 Rolfe returned to Virginia from England. Although Rolfe was raised as an Englishman, he did honor his Native American heritage and even visited his uncle, Opchanacanough, along with his aunt, “Cleopatra” upon returning to Jamestown. His true loyalty evidently remained with the colonists and he was made a commander of James Fort on the Chickahominy after the next war. Like his mother, Pocahontas, Thomas Rolfe was not a celebrity while he was alive. The numerous Rolfe family descendants comprised one of the First Families of Virginia, one with both English and Virginia Indian roots. The modern Mattaponi and Patawomeck tribes believe that Powhatan's line also survives through Ka-Okee, Pocahontas' daughter by her first husband Kocoum.


title: Powhatan (Native American leader)

text: According to one legend, Powhatan, returning homeward from a battle near what is now Philadelphia, stopped at the Big Spring on Sligo Creek (present-day Takoma Park, Maryland, near Washington, DC) to recuperate from his wounds in the medicinal waters there. Modern historians have dismissed this tale as lacking credibility; nonetheless, a commemorative sculpture of Powhatan has stood at the site since 1985.


title: Powhatan (Native American leader)

text: In "A True Relation of such Occurrences and Accidents of Note as Happened in Virginia" (1608), Smith described Powhatan thus:


title: Powhatan (Native American leader)

text: "...their Emperor proudly [lay] upon a bedstead a foot high upon ten or twelve mats, richly hung with many chains of great pearls about his neck, and covered with a great covering of "Rahaughcums" [raccoon skins]. At his head sat a woman, at his feet another, on each side, sitting upon a mat upon the ground, were ranged his chief men on each side [of] the fire, ten in a rank, and behind them as many young women, each a great chain of white beads over their shoulders, their heads painted in red, and [he] with such a grave a majestical countenance as drove me into admiration to see such state in a naked savage."


title: Powhatan (Native American leader)

text: "Powhatan's Mantle" is the name given to a cloak of deerskin, decorated with shell patterns and figures, held by the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. It allegedly belonged to Powhatan, although the evidence is questionable. The Mantle is certainly one of the earliest North American artifacts to have survived in a European collection. It must have originally belonged to a Native American of high social status, as it was decorated with numerous valuable native shell beads.


title: Powhatan (Native American leader)

text: In his 1906 work "Lives of Famous Chiefs", Norman Wood described Powhatan, based on reports from English colonists. He was said to be a "tall, well-proportioned man with a sower looke, his head somewhat gray, his beard so thinne that it seemeth none at all, his age neare sixtie, of a very able and hardy body, to endure any labor."


title: Powhatan (Native American leader)

text: Powhatan gained control of six tribes when he became chief. He inherited them from his father, whose name is unknown.


title: Powhatan (Native American leader)

text: • Arrohattoc(Arro-hattoc/Arrohateck) • Appomattoc (Appomattox) • Mattaponi (Mattapa-nient) • Pamunkey • Youghtanund • Powhatan


title: Powhatan (Native American leader)

text: Through his chiefdom, Powhatan obtained the following tribes known as The Powhatan Confederacy (Tsenacommacah):


title: Powhatan (Native American leader)

text: • Accohannock • Accomac • Chesapeake • Chickahominy • Kiskiack (Chiskiack) • Cuttatawomen • Kecoughtan • Moraughtacund (Morattico) • Nandtaughta-cund • Nansemond


title: Powhatan (Native American leader)

text: • Opiscopank (Piscataway) • Paspahegh • Piankatank • Pissaseck • Patawomeck (Potomac) • Quiyoughcohannock • Rap-pahannock (Tappahannock) • Sekakawon (Secacawoni)


title: Powhatan (Native American leader)

text: • Warraskoyack (Warrascocake/Warwick-squeak) • Weanoc (Weyanock) • Werowocomoco, • Wiccocomico (Wiccomico).


title: Mountain Creek Waterpark

text: Mountain Creek Waterpark is a water park located in Vernon, New Jersey, United States, on the grounds of the Mountain Creek ski resort. The park consists primarily of water-based attractions and opened in 1998. Its predecessor, Action Park, one of the first modern American water parks, was open from 1978 until 1996 and became infamous for its poor safety record. At least six people are known to have died as a result of mishaps on rides at the original park. Despite this, the park was very popular and attracted thrill-seekers from across the New York metropolitan area.


title: Mountain Creek Waterpark

text: On February 9, 1998, Intrawest announced the purchase of the majority of the Vernon Valley/Great Gorge ski area, including the Action Park property. After a massive overhaul, which included revamping rides and removing attractions deemed either outright unsafe or inappropriate relative to Intrawest's vision, the water park was reopened as "Mountain Creek Waterpark". In 2010, the Mountain Creek ski area and waterpark was sold to a group led by Eugene Mulvihill, the former owner of Vernon Valley/Great Gorge and the owner of the adjacent Crystal Springs Resort. It was under the new ownership that the name of the water park was changed back to Action Park in 2014. Two years later, the name was reverted to Mountain Creek Waterpark.


title: Mountain Creek Waterpark

text: The idea for the park began in 1976 when Eugene Mulvihill and his company, Great American Recreation, the owners of the recently combined Vernon Valley/Great Gorge ski area, wanted to find a way to generate revenue during the summer, so they opened a alpine slide down one of the steep ski trails. For the summer of 1978, Mulvihill added two water slides and a go-kart track, and named the collection of rides the Vernon Valley Summer Park. Additional attractions would be built by 1980, and the park would evolve to a major destination with 75 rides (35 motorized, self-controlled rides and 40 water slides).


title: Mountain Creek Waterpark

text: The park entertained over one million visitors per year during the 1980s, with as many as 12,000 coming on some of the busiest weekends. However, Action Park became infamous for poorly designed, unsafe rides; under-aged, under-trained, and often under-the-influence staff; intoxicated, unprepared visitors; and a consequently poor safety record. At least six people are known to have died as a result of mishaps on rides at the original park, and as such, it was given nicknames such as "Traction Park", "Accident Park", and "Class Action Park". In September 1989, GAR tried and failed to negotiate a deal with International Broadcasting Corporation that would result in the sale of Vernon Valley/Great Gorge, and Action Park, for $50 million.


title: Mountain Creek Waterpark

text: A few rides were closed and dismantled due to costly settlements and rising insurance premiums in the 1990s, and the park's attendance began to suffer as a recession early in that decade reduced the number of visitors. In early 1995, GAR operated Vernon Valley/Great Gorge and Action Park with no liability insurance, instead relying on self-insurance. However, they ultimately purchased liability insurance. As 1995 progressed, GAR's financial woes continued to accumulate, and foreclosure suits started being filed against the corporation. Law firms also sued for compensation for services rendered between 1991 and 1993.


title: Mountain Creek Waterpark

text: GAR negotiated a deal to temporary fend off an impending foreclosure, but in February 1996, the creditors who had taken on GAR's debt petitioned to force GAR into bankruptcy over the $14 million owed by the struggling company. GAR filed for Chapter 11 protection that following March but remained optimistic that they could regain their financial footing "within a year." Action Park closed at the end of the season as usual on Labor Day, September 2, 1996. Despite expecting to reopen the next year, on June 25, 1997, GAR announced the cessation of all its operations, including Action Park.


title: Mountain Creek Waterpark

text: Following the demise of GAR in 1997, Praedium Recovery Fund purchased the Vernon Valley-Great Gorge resort, and Action Park, for $10 million. The investment group put the company Angel Projects in charge of managing the resort, and aimed to pump in some $20 million to upgrade the ski resort's equipment, trails, and to remodel the water park.


title: Mountain Creek Waterpark

text: Canadian park operator Intrawest purchased the park and neighboring Vernon Valley ski area in February 1998. The Waterworld section of Action Park was revamped and then reopened for the 1998 season as Mountain Creek. The owners, aware of the image problems created during the Action Park era, sought to differentiate themselves from their predecessors. By this time, Mountain Creek was no longer the state's largest water park, nor was it the draw that it was during its original heyday, as other water parks built around the region have since divided the market. Since Intrawest was a ski resort corporation, the water park would be leased out to Palace Entertainment after the first couple of years.


title: Mountain Creek Waterpark

text: As a result of problems at the original Action Park, New Jersey toughened its amusement regulations. During the Mountain Creek era, many of the rides built during the heyday of Action Park boasted large bilingual signs advising patrons of just what the ride entailed, how deep the water was in metric and US customary units, the age it was most appropriate for, and the state regulatory ID numbers. Safety rules were strictly enforced at the new park, although alcohol was still available.


title: Mountain Creek Waterpark

text: In 2010, Intrawest, which ended up in bankruptcy proceedings itself as a result of a leveraged buyout, sold both the Mountain Creek ski resort and the water park to the owners of Crystal Springs Resort. The water park would remain under lease to Palace Entertainment until 2011, when the owners of the resort bought out the operating lease to the water park. This returned control of the former Action Park property, as well as the entire former Vernon Valley/Great Gorge ski area, to the Mulvihill family, as they had retained ownership of the ski area that was renamed Crystal Springs following GAR's bankruptcy.


title: Mountain Creek Waterpark

text: In April 2014, the Mulvihill family changed the name of Mountain Creek back to Action Park. However, on May 29, 2016, it was announced that the Action Park name was again retired and that the park would revert to the Mountain Creek Waterpark name.


title: Mountain Creek Waterpark

text: In the summer of 2014, the Zero-G — a double-looping slide featuring two inclined loops — opened. The Zero-G was located on the tower for the H-2-Oh-No super speed water slide.


title: Mountain Creek Waterpark

text: In 2015, plans for new park attractions were announced. These included a new lounge area and pools, relocation of batting cages to near the Action Putts Miniature Golf Course, and the construction of a temporary go-kart track by the same miniature golf course. A ride called the Sky Caliber, a vertically looping water slide, was also under development. Unlike the original Cannonball Loop, riders were to ride in bullet-shaped aluminum cages, and the slide would feature a taller and steeper approach, as well as a teardrop-shaped loop. The world's longest water slide, a inflatable slide made in 2013 in Waimauku, New Zealand, was to be moved to Mountain Creek and installed there.


title: 5-25-77

text: 5-25-77 is a coming-of-age film written and directed by Patrick Read Johnson and produced by Fred Roos and Gary Kurtz. It stars John Francis Daley as a teen-age director living in Wadsworth, Illinois, and his excitement for the premiere of "Star Wars" on May 25, 1977.


title: 5-25-77

text: Johnson began funding the project in 2001 and filming took place from 2004 to 2006. Additional shots and special effects were filmed in 2015, 2016, and over the following six years, making the film's production span a total of 18 years.


title: 5-25-77

text: The film was first known as "5-25-77"; the title was then changed to 77. In 2012, the title was reverted to "5-25-77".


title: 5-25-77

text: It is also the final film appearance of actor Justin Mentell, released almost 12 years after his death on February 1, 2010.


title: 5-25-77

text: The film's official premiere was on May 22, 2017 at the Genesee Theatre in Waukegan, Illinois. A short theatrical run followed. On December 25, 2020, its director announced on his Facebook and Twitter pages that it would be available to stream, buy and see in select theaters on May 25, 2021, but the release was postponed. On May 25, 2022, MVD Entertainment announced that they had acquired the film's worldwide rights and that it would be released in the fall of 2022.


title: 5-25-77

text: The final version debuted at the Skyline Indie Film Fest in Winchester, Virginia on September 8, 2022. It made its L.A. debut at the DTLA Film Festival a week later on September 15, and began a run on 100 screens on September 23. It was released on DVD and Blu-Ray on November 22, 2022.


title: Spectres (album)

text: Spectres is the fifth studio album by American hard rock band Blue Öyster Cult, released in November 1977. The album features one of the band's biggest hits, concert staple "Godzilla," and was certified gold in January 1978.


title: Spectres (album)

text: The cover art features Blue Öyster Cult's use of lasers in their live show at that time. A remastered version was released on February 13, 2007, which included four previously unreleased outtakes from the "Spectres" sessions as bonus tracks.


title: I Spy (2002 film)

text: I Spy (commonly styled I-SPY) is a 2002 American buddy spy comedy film directed by Betty Thomas, and starring Eddie Murphy and Owen Wilson. The film is based on the television series of the same name that aired in the 1960s and starred Robert Culp and Bill Cosby. The plot follows a spy and a famous civilian boxer who go undercover to prevent a gun runner from selling a stolen stealth bomber to the highest bidder.


title: I Spy (2002 film)

text: The film was released in the United States on November 1, 2002. It received generally negative reviews from critics, and only grossed $60 million against its $70 million production budget.


title: I Spy (2002 film)

text: At Bureau of National Security headquarters, Special Agent Alex Scott is accosted by rival, Carlos, before his next mission's briefing. Scott has to recover a stolen fighter, the "Switchblade," sold to arms dealer Arnold Gundars. Gundars is sponsoring middleweight world boxing champion Kelly Robinson's next match to simultaneously auction the plane. The agency has contacted Robinson and assigned him to be a civilian cover for Scott's mission. Together they travel to Budapest, where Scott plans to penetrate Gundars' compound during a pre-fight party.


title: I Spy (2002 film)

text: Arriving in Budapest, Robinson is kidnapped. During the interrogation Scott bursts in, frees him, and fights the kidnappers before revealing it was a test which Kelly passed by not divulging Scott's identity.


title: I Spy (2002 film)

text: At Gundars' party, Robinson replaces Gundars' pen with a duplicate with a tracking device before confronting his European challenger in the party's boxing ring as a diversion. Scott, posing as a member of Robinson's entourage, enters Gundars' private office and hacks his computer. Robinson unexpectedly arrives, tripping an alarm. They are forced to escape and manage to evade their pursuers by hiding in the sewer.


title: I Spy (2002 film)

text: Returning to base, Robinson helps Scott seduce Agent Rachel Wright by feeding him lines from the Marvin Gaye song "Sexual Healing". Scott succeeds, but is interrupted by movement on the pen tracking device. He tracks Gundars to a bathhouse, which Scott believes is a dead end. Robinson has a hunch that the plane is hidden in the building, leading the two into a fight with Gundars' men. Gundars speeds off in his car, with Wright in pursuit. Her car explodes and Scott blames Robinson for her death. They engage in a public confrontation that leads to Robinson's arrest. Scott convinces BNS to continue the operation and tracks Gundars down again.


title: I Spy (2002 film)

text: Robinson reaches the arena just in time for his fight. Scott finds Gundars with terrorists, busy fitting the plane with a nuclear missile. Scott surprises them, forcing a surrender, before being disarmed by double Agent Wright. She tortures Scott for the Switchblade's activation codes. Scott activates the contact lens gadget, allowing Robinson to see the dilemma as he battles his opponent in the ring. Robinson gets knocked down for the first time in his career, but recovers, defeats his opponent, and departs for the bridge.


title: I Spy (2002 film)

text: Robinson sets off a firefight, killing many of the terrorists. After Carlos lands by parachute, Robinson infers that Carlos is also corrupt. When Carlos provokes Kelly, he knocks him out. Robinson shoots the remaining terrorists, while their leader, Zhu Tam, and Gundars are both killed by Wright. After the bomb on the plane is destroyed, Robinson tells Rachel to put the gun down. Wright makes up a lie that the BNS suspected that Carlos was corrupt and says that they pretended to team up with Carlos so they can catch him and uses this to convince the others that she is innocent. The confusion leads to a fight between Scott and Carlos, allowing Wright to escape with Gundars' briefcase. Scott and Robinson attempt to fly the Switchblade away, but it crashes into the river. While in the water, Robinson discovers the nuclear weapon. Scott realizes the mission is a success after all, and Robinson remarks that he will be recognized as a hero.


title: I Spy (2002 film)

text: Later, Scott and Robinson track down and arrest Agent Wright in Monte Carlo. Scott finds a copy of USA Today with a picture of Carlos in a parade with President Bush. Robinson takes this news hard, refusing to accompany Scott to BNS headquarters for a mission debrief. Scott tells Robinson the agency has perfected a jelly-like substance that will allow its wearer to float through the air. Robinson happily agrees to go, and Scott tells another agent to get some jars of jelly and two parachutes.


title: I Spy (2002 film)

text: Made on a $70 million budget, the film brought in $33.6 million domestically and $26.7 million internationally, for a total of $60.3 million worldwide. It was the third box office bomb of 2002 for Murphy, following "Showtime" and "The Adventures of Pluto Nash".


title: I Spy (2002 film)

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 16% of 134 critics have given the film a positive review; the average rating was 4.1/10. The site's critics consensus reads: "Insipid and mirthless, "I Spy" bears little resemblance to the TV series that inspired it." Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 35 out of 100, based on 31 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+ to F scale.


title: I Spy (2002 film)

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" rated it two out of four stars and wrote, "This is a remake by the numbers, linking a halfwit plot to a series of standup routines in which Wilson and Murphy show how funny they could have been in a more ambitious movie."


title: I Spy (2002 film)

text: The film was nominated for three Razzie Awards: Worst Remake, Worst Actor for Eddie Murphy, and Worst Screen Couple for Murphy and Owen Wilson.


title: Eric Smith (general)

text: Eric M. Smith is a United States Marine Corps general who serves as the 36th assistant commandant of the Marine Corps since 8 October 2021. He most recently served as the deputy commandant for Combat Development and Integration, being succeeded by Karsten Heckl.


title: Eric Smith (general)

text: Eric Smith is from Plano, Texas. Smith was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Marine Corps in 1987 through the Naval Reserve Officers Training Corps program at Texas A&M University. During his time at A&M, he was Commander of the Fightin' Texas Aggie Band in the Texas A&M University Corps of Cadets.


title: Eric Smith (general)

text: After completing The Basic School and Infantry Officer's Course, he received assignment to 2nd Battalion, 3rd Marines as rifle platoon commander participating in Operation Desert Shield/Desert Storm. Following a tour as an Officer Selection Officer, he attended the Amphibious Warfare School and then reported to 2nd Battalion, 2nd Marines for duty as Commanding Officer of Weapons and E Companies. During this tour he participated in Operation Assured Response in Monrovia, Liberia. After a tour as a Marine Officer Instructor at Texas A&M University, he attended the United States Army Command and General Staff College. The following assignment was as the Naval Section Chief at the U.S. Military Group in Caracas, Venezuela from 2001 to 2003.


title: Eric Smith (general)

text: From 2003 until 2006, Smith served in the 1st Marine Division as the Division Operations Officer; Executive Officer of Regimental Combat Team 1; Commanding Officer of 1st Battalion, 5th Marines. During this time, had several deployments to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom, including Fallujah in 2004 and Ramadi in 2005. He has also served in the 2nd Marine Division as the Assistant Chief of Staff and the Commanding Officer of 8th Marine Regiment, which was deployed to Afghanistan and was involved in Operation Enduring Freedom. From July to November 2015, he commanded the Marine Corps Forces Southern Command in Miami, Florida. Then he was transferred to the Pentagon to serve as the Senior Military Assistant to the Secretary of Defense.


title: Eric Smith (general)

text: As a major general, Smith assumed command of the First Marine Division at Camp Pendleton. The division is part of the larger I Marine Expeditionary Force. As commander, he led a hazing crackdown but was rebuked by a military judge.


title: Eric Smith (general)

text: In May 2018, Smith was nominated for promotion to lieutenant general, and assignment as commanding general of III Marine Expeditionary Force. He received his promotion and assumed command of III MEF in August 2018.


title: Eric Smith (general)

text: On 13 June 2019, Smith assumed responsibility as the Commanding General, Marine Corps Combat Development Command and the Deputy Commandant for Combat Development and Integration.


title: Eric Smith (general)

text: In July 2021, he was nominated and confirmed for promotion to four-star general and assignment as Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps, succeeding Gary L. Thomas. He assumed the position from the retiring Gary L. Thomas on October 8, 2021.


title: Meena

text: Meena () is a sub-group of Bhils. They speak Meena language. They started adopting the Brahmin worship system. Its name is also transliterated as "Meenanda" or "Mina". Historians claim that they belong to the Matsya tribe. They got the status of Scheduled Tribe by the Government of India in 1954.


title: Meena

text: The Zamindar Meena, Chowkidar Meena, Gurjar Meena, Padiyar Meena, Bhil Meena, Rawat Meena, Takur Meena and Rajput Meena are a subgroup of Meenas.


title: Meena

text: The Meenas were originally a "nomadic tribe". They were described as a "semi-wild" and "hill tribe" similar to the Bhils. But in the British Raj, for the fulfillment of its purpose by the British Government, they were described as a "criminal tribe" by adding them to the Criminal Tribes Act. Presently they are described as "Scheduled Tribe" by the Indian Government.


title: Meena

text: The book "Civilizations of India", published in 1887, notes that the Meenas lived in fortified villages on the Aravalli hills in the middle of Rajputana. Presently they are present in the states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana and the Union Territory of Delhi in India.


title: Meena

text: The Meenas claim a mythological descent from the Matsya avatar, or fish incarnation, of Vishnu. They also claim to be descendants of the people of the Matsya Kingdom, which flourished in the 6th century B.C. The historian Pramod Kumar notes that it is likely that the tribes living in the ancient Matsya kingdom were called Meena but it cannot be said with certainty that there is anything common between them and the modern Meenas. They are considered to be adivasi (aboriginal people).


title: Meena

text: The Meenas ruled at certain places in Rajasthan until they were overpowered by invading Rajputs. From Meenas the Bundi was captured by Rao Dewa (A.D. 1342), Dhundhar by Kachhwaha Rajputs and Chopoli fell to the Muslim rulers. Kota, Jhalawar, Karauli and Jalore were the other areas of earlier Meena influence where they were forced to surrender ultimately.


title: Meena

text: Nandini Sinha Kapur, a historian who has studied early India, notes that the oral traditions of the Meenas were developed from the early 19th century AD in an attempt to reconstruct their identity. She says of this process, which continued throughout the 20th century, that "The Minas try to furnish themselves a respectable present by giving themselves a "glorious past"". In common with the people of countries such as Finland and Scotland, the Meenas found it necessary to invent tradition through oral accounts, one of the primary uses of which is recognised by both historians and sociologists as being "social protest against injustices, exploitation and oppression, a "raison d'être" that helps to retrieve the image of a community." Kapur notes that the Meenas not merely lack a recorded history of their own but also have been depicted in a negative manner both by medieval Persian accounts and records of the colonial period. From medieval times through to the British Raj, references to the Meenas describe them as violent, plundering criminals and an anti-social ethnic tribal group.


title: Meena

text: Gustave Le Bon, in his book "Civilizations of India", described the Meenas as a "half-wild" tribe similar to the Bhils.


title: Meena

text: The Raj colonial administration came into existence in 1858, following the Indian Rebellion of 1857 which caused the government of Britain to decide that leaving colonial administration in the hands of the East India Company was a recipe for further discontent. In an attempt to create an orderly administration through a better understanding of the populace, the Raj authorities instituted various measures of classifying the people of India. One such measure was the Criminal Tribes Act of 1871, under the provisions of which the Meenas were placed. The community remained stigmatised for many years, notably by influential officials of the Raj such as Herbert Hope Risley and Denzil Ibbetson, and were sometimes categorised as animists and as a hill tribe similar to the Bhils. The Meenas remained an officially designated criminal tribe until 1952, three years after the Act had been repealed. Mark Brown has examined the impact and issues of the Meena community during British rule and the change in their status from being a higher social group to a criminal tribe.


title: Meena

text: The Meena fall into the Scheduled Tribe category in the state of Rajasthan and the majority of them are classified as being Hindu, but in Madhya Pradesh Meena are recognised as a Scheduled Tribe only in Sironj Tehsil, Vidisha, while in the other 44 districts of the state they are categorised as Other Backward Classes. It has been proposed that the Meenas be fully recognised as a Scheduled Tribe in Madhya Pradesh. The proposal is being considered by the Government of India. In Uttar Pradesh, Meena are considered migrated from Rajasthan and have been living in western districts of Mathura, Sambhal and Budaun since many generations. At par their origin they are granted a Scheduled tribe status in the state of Uttar Pradesh. In Haryana they are classified as Other Backward Classes. In Maharashtra also Meenas come under the Other Backward Classes.


title: Meena

text: In Rajasthan, the Meena caste members oppose the entry of Gurjars into Scheduled Tribe fold, fearing that their own share of Scheduled Tribe reservation benefits will be eroded.


title: Meena

text: The Meena tribe is divided into several clans and sub-clans ("adakh"s), which are named after their ancestors. Some of the "adakh"s include Ariat, Ahari, Katara, Kalsua, Kharadi, Damore, Ghoghra, Dali, Doma, Nanama, Dadore, Manaut, Charpota, Mahinda, Rana, Damia, Dadia, Parmar, Phargi, Bamna, Khat, Hurat, Hela, Bhagora, and Wagat.


title: Meena

text: Bhil Meena is another sub-division among the Meenas. As part of a sanskritisation process, some Bhils present themselves as Meenas, who hold a higher socio-economic status compared to the Bhil tribal people.


title: Meena

text: A sub-group known as "Ujwal Meena" (also "Ujala Meena" or "Parihar Meena") seek higher status, and claim to be Rajputs, thus distinguishing themselves from the Bhil Meenas. They follow vegetarianism, unlike other Meenas whom they designated as "Mailay Meena".


title: Meena

text: Other prevalent social groupings are Zamindar Meena and the Chaukidar Meena. The Zamindar Meena, comparatively well-off, are those who surrendered to powerful Rajput invaders and settled on the lands believe to be granted by the Rajputs. Those who did not surrender to Rajput rule and kept on waging guerrilla warfare are called the Chaukidar Meena.


title: Meena

text: Chanda dynasty is a clan among the Meenas. Dhundhar was ruled by the Chanda clan of the Meenas before the Rajputs.


title: Meena

text: There is a custom in the Meenas to perform "Pitra Tarpan" after taking a collective bath on the day of Diwali. They adopt the culture of worshiping trees and plants in marriages, festivals and other ceremonies as per the "Dharadi" tradition.


title: Meena

text: According to the 2011 Census of India, the Meenas have a total population of 5 million. According to a report by Hindustan Times, the population of Meenas in Rajasthan is 7% of the state's population. And according to the report of a German news television Deutsche Welle, the Meenas constitute 10% of the population of the state of Rajasthan. Whereas according to a report by BBC Hindi, the population of Meenas is 14% of the state's population.


title: Meena

text: According to BBC Hindi's 2007 report, the number of Meena MLAs in the 12th Rajasthan Legislative Assembly was 31. List of Meena people in present Rajasthan Legislative Assembly.


title: Weezer (Red Album)

text: Weezer, also known as the Red Album, is the sixth studio album and album by the American rock band Weezer, released on June 3, 2008, by DGC and Interscope Records. Rick Rubin and Jacknife Lee both produced parts of the album, with the band producing a handful of tracks themselves. Like their 1994 debut, other band members contributed to songwriting. This is the first and, so far, the only Weezer album to feature lead vocals from all four band members. The album also features more musical experimentation in comparison to their previous efforts, especially shown in such songs as "Dreamin'", "The Angel and The One", and "The Greatest Man That Ever Lived".


title: Weezer (Red Album)

text: The Red Album was more well received by critics than their previous album, "Make Believe". Two commercial singles were released from the album—"Pork and Beans" and "Troublemaker"—both becoming relatively successful modern rock hits. The video for the former also became the most-watched video on the internet the weekend following its release. Additionally, an unconventional Hootenanny Tour replaced the traditional rock concert tour to promote the album. Despite these factors, the album proved to be less commercially successful than "Make Believe".


title: Weezer (Red Album)

text: After the platinum success of their fifth album "Make Believe", the band once again was put on hiatus. Frontman Rivers Cuomo returned to Harvard University to complete his education. He ended up graduating Phi Beta Kappa. Cuomo also married Kyoko Ito on June 18, 2006, a woman he had known since March 1997. He proposed to her in Tokyo shortly before Christmas 2005. The wedding was held at a secluded beach on Paradise Cove in Malibu and was attended by over a hundred people, including six of the seven members who played in Weezer (Mikey Welsh was not in attendance) as well as notables Justin Fisher, Kevin Ridel and Rick Rubin.


title: Weezer (Red Album)

text: Meanwhile, members Patrick Wilson and Brian Bell appeared in the 2006 film "Factory Girl" playing John Cale and Lou Reed respectively and contributing a cover of the Velvet Underground song "Heroin" for the film. Also during this time, Bell formed a new side-band called The Relationship while Wilson started work on material for the next Special Goodness album. He also had a second child, Ian Patrick Wilson, with his wife in early 2008.


title: Weezer (Red Album)

text: The band announced in June 2007 that recording sessions for the album would begin in July. In December 2007, Cuomo released "," which featured home demos that Cuomo has recorded from 1992 to 2007. It was also during this time that a mysterious website called "albumsix.com" began gaining attention. The website gave false information about the album such as the album title would be ""Tout Ensemble"" (French for "All Together") and a fake release date. The website fooled several news outlets such as "Pitchfork" and "Rolling Stone". The website was later revealed to be a hoax by some fans. Band historian/webmaster Karl Koch stated on Weezer's official website:


title: Weezer (Red Album)

text: At the beginning of the album's creation each Weezer member asked themselves what they wanted to get out of the album. With that in mind, they set out to record. Recording was done in three sessions. Half of the album was recorded during the spring of 2007 with Rick Rubin overseeing production. The second session, started in July and finished on October 18, was produced by Weezer themselves at Malibu. The third and final session of recording was done at the request of Geffen Records, who claimed that there was not enough commercial material on the album. This session was produced by Jacknife Lee and completed in March 2008.


title: Weezer (Red Album)

text: In the first podcast released on www.riverspodcast.com, Rivers mentioned playing drums on two songs on the album. In an interview with "Pitchfork", Cuomo stated the album would contain "longer songs, non-traditional song forms, different people writing and singing, instrument switching, TR-808s, synths, Southern rap, and baroque counterpoint."


title: Weezer (Red Album)

text: The majority of the album's content was written by Rivers Cuomo. However, for the first time since their debut album other members of the band contributed songwriting as well. Cuomo consciously strived to write less traditionally-structured songs, breaking away from the "verse-chorus--verse-chorus-bridge" structure that was present on past albums. Much of the album's subject matter is rooted in past experiences and nostalgia.


title: Weezer (Red Album)

text: "Troublemaker", which was considered for the first single, introduces the theme of nostalgia for the album, with Cuomo "reliving his lost youth". "The Greatest Man That Ever Lived (Variations on a Shaker Hymn)" is a track that includes piano, police sirens, rapped vocals and Cuomo singing in falsetto. Bass player Scott Shriner was particularly proud of the song saying, "The song 'The Greatest Man That Ever Lived' is a masterpiece that includes ten different styles of music based around a common theme. It's awesome. That word gets abused a lot, like 'Wow, these pancakes are awesome,' but 'Greatest Man' is . . . awesome!" "Pork and Beans", the album's third track and first single, was written by Cuomo as a reaction to a meeting with Geffen where the band was told it needed to record more-commercial material.


title: Weezer (Red Album)

text: "Heart Songs" is about all the artists and records that have influenced Cuomo from Gordon Lightfoot's "The Wreck of the Edmund Fitzgerald" when he was 5 years old to Nirvana's "Nevermind" in his early 20s. The song misidentifies the cover of "I Think We're Alone Now" as being by Debbie Gibson instead of Tiffany, an error that was brought to Cuomo's attention while recording. Cuomo opted to keep the error in due to his own memories and the personal nature of the song. Cuomo told "Pitchfork" that the song was partly inspired by the Mariah Carey song "We Belong Together". Cuomo's childhood friend Adam Orth commented on the autobiographical element of the lyrics for "Everybody Get Dangerous". "Dreamin'" was formerly known as "Daydreamer" and was described in the liner notes to "" as an "epic, 6-minute, symphonic type of art song." "This is the Way", featured on "Alone", was written as a more straightforward counterpart, and was originally selected by the band to be recorded for the Weezer album, but Cuomo persuaded the others to go with "Dreamin'" instead.


title: Weezer (Red Album)

text: "Thought I Knew" was also the name of a song by Brian Bell's band The Relationship, and is a reworking and re-recording of the track with Weezer sung as a lead vocal by Brian Bell. The song was originally written in a minor key. However, Bell felt that historically the band's songs haven't worked in minor and that the song needed to feel more uplifting. So he changed the song from minor to major and sped up the tempo. "Cold Dark World" is a song that was written by Rivers Cuomo and Scott Shriner and features Shriner on lead vocals. Shriner commented, "...I wrote this kind of creepy music, and Rivers wrote these kind of happy, positive lyrics, but when you put it together, it made a super-creepy song which I'm really proud of." "Automatic" was written by Patrick Wilson and features him on lead vocals, saying that the song "is interesting. It's a big rock tune but it's kinda got a vibe to it and the lyrics are just about me wanting to give as much love as I can to my family..."


title: Weezer (Red Album)

text: "The Angel and the One" serves as the album's closer. Some members of the band have claimed that this is their favorite track, including Pat Wilson. Cuomo stated that initially the song "started out as a really standard pop song called 'bad girl' and had a verse and a chorus and bridge and all that stuff. And I just wasn't satisfied with it. It was too normal. So one day I sat down with my acoustic guitar and I just played [this] song over and over, on basically looping it. My fingers hurt so much, I just kept playing it. And over the hour that I was playing it, the song slowly evolved and it smoothed over and the sections blurred into each other. And it turned into this spiritual reverie that is really just one long development without any distinction between sections."


title: Weezer (Red Album)

text: The album's deluxe edition featured four bonus tracks. "Pig" leaked as a demo in early 2007, this song details the life of a pig including playing in the mud as a piglet, falling in love, getting married, raising children and eventually being slaughtered. The final version of the track appears on the deluxe edition of the Weezer album. "King" is the last song on the deluxe edition of the Weezer album and is sung by Scott Shriner. In the liner notes for the deluxe edition Scott says that the song was not being voted by the rest of the band but was one of his favorite tracks from the demos Rivers played for the band. One day Scott called up Rivers and demanded the band add the song on the album, Rivers responded by saying that if he [Scott] wanted the song so bad he should sing it, and so he did. The song apparently took the longest to record and perfect, taking three weeks.


title: Weezer (Red Album)

text: The album's cover debuted on Spinner.com on April 21, 2008. It features the band members Brian Bell, Patrick Wilson, Rivers Cuomo and Scott Shriner in various outfits standing left to right in front of a red backdrop, and is in a manner similar to their debut and 2001 album. The cover was photographed by Sean Murphy. "Pitchfork" writer Amy Phillips compared the cover to the Village People saying, "Meet the new Village People: The Bartender, the Professor, the Cowboy, and the Biker." The cover received mixed reactions from fans wondering if the cover was a hoax. The cover was reconfirmed by the band's publicist Jim Merlis, "Yes, that's absolutely the cover. It's what they chose. They looked at a bunch of mockups, and that's the one they decided to go with. It's not a joke."


title: Weezer (Red Album)

text: On April 1, 2008, "Rolling Stone" reported that the album would once again be self-titled and become known as "The Red Album", with the first single being titled "Pork and Beans". The record was one of the first albums to be released on the new microSD slotMusic media format. In addition to the full album in a DRM-free MP3 format, the memory card also includes album art, liner notes, videos, and other features.


title: Weezer (Red Album)

text: Several of the songs were featured in several media outlets. "Everybody Get Dangerous" was featured in the trailer for Disney's comedy film "G-Force". The album's fifth track, "Everybody Get Dangerous", was played briefly in the film "21", although it was later excluded from the official soundtrack release. "Automatic" was remixed by LA Riots for the video game "Gran Turismo 5 Prologue".


title: Weezer (Red Album)

text: The album was promoted with a tour throughout 2008 called the "Troublemaker Tour" with even a bonus track off the album "King" also being played live. This would be the last time the band would tour to promote a new release of theirs until the 2014 release of Everything Will Be Alright in the End.


title: Weezer (Red Album)

text: The album received generally positive reviews, with a Metacritic score of 64, based on 32 reviews. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic gave the album a positive review of 4 and a half stars out of five calling the album, "A cheerfully restless record, one where all the parts don't fit and it's better because of it, as it has a wild, willing personality, suggesting that Weezer is comfortable as a band in a way they never quite have been before." "The Boston Globe" called the songs, "consistently vibrant, catchy, and well-built." IGN also gave the album a score of 6.9 out of ten, stating, "The Red Album is totally bizarre, a certifiable mess, and a hell of a lot of fun." "NME" complimented Cuomo's songwriting saying, "Musically, it’s a record that does much to further the claim for Cuomo’s songwriting greatness." "Los Angeles Times" gave it a score of three-and-a-half stars out of four and called it "a rush, starting with a sustained, four-song soliloquy on pop music's allure."


title: Weezer (Red Album)

text: Among the negative reviews, Tiny Mix Tapes called the album "a sad portrait of a band that has been totally destroyed by fame and the pressures that come along with it," and "The A.V. Club" saying: "If the so-called 'Red Album' really is an elaborate goof on an all-too-forgiving fan base, that doesn't make Weezer's newest worst album any less insipid." "Pitchfork" gave the record 4.7/10, lamenting that "like the YouTube culture the 'Pork and Beans' video depicts so well, the song-- and this album-- relies on a high quantity of short-lived pretty good ideas to distract from a shortage of great ones." "Prefix Magazine" said that if the Red Album's "songs were formulaic, shiny, and easily digestible like everything on "Green" or "Maladroit", the vacuity of the new songs wouldn't be as big a problem. But 'Heart Songs,' 'Thought I Knew'--these are just plain bad."


title: Weezer (Red Album)

text: The Red Album debuted at the fourth spot of the "Billboard" 200, with 126,000 copies sold in its first week. As of August 2009, according to Nielsen SoundScan, the Red Album has sold 443,000 copies.


title: Weezer (Red Album)

text: "The Post" ranked "The Red Album" the 6th best album by Weezer, and wrote that the album is among the band's most experimental. They also wrote: "The experiments pay off, and reflect Weezer's desire to constantly attempt new things as well as their refusal to fall back on their past success as a crutch."


title: Pears (soap)

text: Pears transparent soap is a British brand of soap first produced and sold in 1807 by Andrew Pears, at a factory just off Oxford Street in London. It was the world's first mass-market translucent soap. Under the stewardship of advertising pioneer Thomas J. Barratt, A. & F. Pears initiated a number of innovations in sales and marketing. English actress and socialite Lillie Langtry was recruited to become the poster-girl for Pears in 1882, and in doing so she became the first celebrity to endorse a commercial product.


title: Pears (soap)

text: Lever Brothers, now Unilever, acquired A. & F. Pears in 1917. Products under the Pears brand are currently manufactured in India and Saudi Arabia for global distribution.


title: Pears (soap)

text: Andrew Pears, the son of a farmer, was born around 1770 in Cornwall and moved from his native Mevagissey to London around 1787. He completed his apprenticeship in 1789, established a barber's shop in Gerrard Street in Soho and began to produce cosmetic products. At that time, Soho was a high-end residential area, and Pears' clientele included many wealthy socialites who took pride in their appearance. The fashion among the wealthy of the period was to have pristine white complexions; tanned faces were associated with those who laboured outdoors. Pears found that his powders and creams were frequently being used to cover up damage caused by the harshness of the soaps and other beauty products that were in general use at the time, many of which contained arsenic or lead. Pears began to experiment with soap purification and eventually managed to produce a gentle soap based on glycerine and other natural products. The clarity of the soap gave it a novel transparent appearance, which provided a marketing advantage. To add to the appeal, Pears gave the soap an aroma reminiscent of an English garden. It was first sold in London in 1807.


title: Pears (soap)

text: In 1835, when his grandson, Francis Pears, joined the business, the firm was renamed A & F Pears. After three years, Andrew retired and left Francis in charge. At the Great Exhibition of 1851, A & F Pears was awarded the prize medal for soap. Production moved to Isleworth in 1862. 23-year-old Thomas J. Barratt, sometimes referred to as the father of modern advertising, was appointed bookkeeper in 1864. The next year, Francis' son, Andrew, joined A. & F. Pears as joint proprietor, and ran the Isleworth factory. That same year, Thomas married Mary Pears, Francis's eldest daughter, and was appointed to run the administration in London. During the nineteenth century, Pears built a large market for its soap in the United States.


title: Pears (soap)

text: Following Barratt's death in April 1914, Lever Brothers took a major shareholding in A & F Pears. The takeover process was completed in 1920 and marketing and other secondary functions moved to Port Sunlight in north-west England, but production continued at Isleworth.


title: Pears (soap)

text: In the mid to late 1950s, each batch of soap, about 12 a day, was tested to ensure the absence of excess alkali or free fatty acid. Production moved to Port Sunlight in the 1960s, when Unilever, successor to Lever Brothers, set up a cosmetic development laboratory on the Isleworth site. A major fire at the site completely destroyed the original factory.


title: Pears (soap)

text: Pears soap is now made in India by Hindustan Unilever, a company in which Unilever now has a 67 percent share.


title: Pears (soap)

text: Pears soap was made using a process entirely different from that for other soaps. A mixture of tallow and other fats was saponified by an alkali. Clearly, this is currently caustic soda (sodium hydroxide), since the ingredients list shows sodium salts of fatty acids, but a chemist reports that in the 1960s, caustic potash (potassium hydroxide) was used. It has not been possible to determine what was used in the early days of the product, as the writings of Francis Pears mention only alkali in industrial methylated spirits. After saponification was completed, the resulting glycerol was left in the batch. Batches were made not in huge pans, but in small kettle-like vessels. As soon as the translucent amber liquid had cooled enough to solidify, it was extruded into opaque oval bars that were cut into bath- or toilet-weight tablets, ready for beginning their long spell in the drying rooms (ovens). The hot liquid soap fresh from the vessel had a total fatty matter (TFM) of 45% compared with the TFMs of 70–80% usual in soaps made by the conventional method. The TFM increased considerably as the alcohol content fell during drying. The concave shape of the soap is formed by shrinkage while the soap is drying, and is not due to deliberate moulding.


title: Pears (soap)

text: The entire Pears plant was a small almost self-contained annexe at the rear of the administration block. It was run by a handful of staff, who not only had experience of the specialised process, but had developed immunity to the effects of breathing the alcohol-laden atmosphere in the building. Bars of soap produced in the factory come in two sizes: 75 g and 125 g. Nowadays the soap comes in three colours: the classic amber, green, and mint (blue colour). Each variety has a unique aroma. The soap now comes in two new sizes: 69 g and 119 g.


title: Pears (soap)

text: The first of the famous Pears soap marketing campaigns used Giovanni Focardi's most well-known statue, "You dirty boy!", exhibited at the "Exposition Universelle de Paris" in 1878. The statue was so popular that Pears purchased the rights to produce copies as advertisements for its soap products. The statues were in terracotta, plaster and metal, and were used in shop counter displays.


title: Pears (soap)

text: From the late 19th century, Pears soap became famous for its marketing, masterminded by Barratt. Its campaign using John Everett Millais' painting "Bubbles" continued over many decades. As with many other brands at the time, at the beginning of the 20th century, Pears also used its product as a sign of the prevailing European concept of the "civilizing mission" of empire and trade, in which the soap stood for progress.


title: Pears (soap)

text: In the late 19th century, to publicise its products, Pears distributed coins countermarked with "Pears Soap". They were 10-centime French coins, imported by Pears. About the same size and shape as the British penny of the time, the French coins were generally accepted as pennies in Britain.


title: Pears (soap)

text: Lillie Langtry became the first woman to endorse a commercial product, when her famous ivory complexion gained her a contract to advertise Pears soap. Her fee was related to her weight, so it was said that she was paid "pound for pound".


title: Pears (soap)

text: Between 1891 and 1925, Pears issued its now-famous annuals, which are highly collectible. From the early 20th century, Pears was famous for the annual "Miss Pears" competition, in which parents entered their children into the high-profile hunt for a young brand ambassador to be used on packaging and in consumer promotions. Many Miss Pears subsequently entered acting or modelling.


title: Pears (soap)

text: "Pears' Cyclopaedia" is a one volume encyclopaedia, continuously published in the United Kingdom since December 1897.


title: Pears (soap)

text: Beginning with 2003, a British company called Cert Brands took charge of the marketing and distribution of Pears soap.


title: Pears (soap)

text: Pears' unique manufacturing process required the soap to be dried for up to thirteen weeks so that the alcohol used in the process could evaporate and be re-used. The soap bars were laid out on wooden trays in drying rooms known as "ovens" about the size of a domestic garage. Bars were placed on trays with both sides open to the air. Ovens were graded in warmth from around 70F (21C) to 100F (39C). As drying proceeded trolleys loaded with trays were moved to progressively warmer ovens. In practice the soap often became opaque. Unilever explored options to prevent this, all of which would have added to the cost:


title: Pears (soap)

text: On 27 February 2003 the 7th Amendment to the EU Cosmetics Directive (Directive 2003/15/EC) introduced a new legal requirement related to the labelling of 26 specific ingredients if present in a cosmetic product above the following concentration thresholds: 0.001% (10 mg/kg) for leave-on products and 0.01% (100 mg/kg) for rinse-off products.


title: Pears (soap)

text: The labelling requirement is linked to the presence of the substance in concentrations higher than the above-mentioned thresholds, irrespective of the substance’s function and irrespective of its source (i.e., whether added as such or as a component of a complex cosmetic ingredient such as botanical extracts, essential oils, fragrance compositions, aroma composition etc.).


title: Pears (soap)

text: Unilever was required to list those of the 26 specific ingredients that were in Pears in concentrations greater than 0.01%. Benzyl benzoate, Cinnamal, Eugenol, Limonene and Linalool were included in the labelling because they are among the ingredients covered by Directive 2003/15/EC. It is therefore possible that they were components of the original formula, rather than newly added ingredients.


title: Pears (soap)

text: In October 2009, the formula for the transparent amber soap was altered from the original to become 'Gentle Care' and wrapped in an inner cellophane covering. The new soap was slightly softer in texture and lasted half as long, but its most noticeable difference was its scent. The aroma of the classic transparent amber bar, which used to be characterized by a mild, spicy herbal fragrance, had been altered to a stronger aromatic scent. The "Hypoallergenic, non-comedogenic" claim was dropped, and the 3-month aging process described on the original box does not appear on the box of the 'Gentle Care' formula.


title: Pears (soap)

text: On 6 January 2010, after a Facebook campaign, it was reported in the media that Pears planned to abandon the new formula and that by March 2010 a new version would be available that is "much closer to the original". On 8 January 2010, it was reported in the media that Pears would not abandon the new formula but "make further improvements, by delivering a scent that more closely resembles" the original formula.


title: Pears (soap)

text: An analysis of the current ingredients list reveals items such as limonene, whose variant called limonene is characterised by a "turpentine-like odour" also typical of frankincense. It is an insecticide as well. However, this item was present in the pre-2009 formula, so the perceived change might be explained by different ingredients and by different proportions of ingredients.


title: Pears (soap)

text: The latest 2009 modification mainly breaks down to an addition of artificial colouring and substances whose hypothetical function is either as detergents (i.e., cleaning substances) or stabilisers (i.e., product longevity enhancers). However, even the pre-2009 formula was a far cry from the original one. The latter was completely free of industrial cleaners, free of synthetic colours and (apparently) free of synthetic odorants, whose place was occupied by natural herbal fragrances. However, one unknown in the original formula is the "Pears fragrance essence": because of it, the customer cannot be certain whether the "new" fragrant compounds are indeed all new—or simply formerly unlisted items.


title: Pears (soap)

text: During production at Port Sunlight the glycerol (glycerine) content was a result of not removing that formed during the manufacturing process.


title: Intestinal villus

text: Intestinal villi (singular: villus) are small, finger-like projections that extend into the lumen of the small intestine. Each villus is approximately 0.5–1.6 mm in length (in humans), and has many microvilli projecting from the enterocytes of its epithelium which collectively form the striated or brush border. Each of these microvilli are about 1 µm in length, around 1000 times shorter than a single villus. The intestinal villi are much smaller than any of the circular folds in the intestine.


title: Intestinal villus

text: Villi increase the internal surface area of the intestinal walls making available a greater surface area for absorption. An increased absorptive area is useful because digested nutrients (including monosaccharide and amino acids) pass into the semipermeable villi through diffusion, which is effective only at short distances. In other words, increased surface area (in contact with the fluid in the lumen) decreases the average distance travelled by nutrient molecules, so effectiveness of diffusion increases. The villi are connected to the blood vessels so the circulating blood then carries these nutrients away.


title: Intestinal villus

text: Enterocytes, along with goblet cells, represent the principal cell types of the epithelium of the villi in the small intestine.


title: Intestinal villus

text: There, the villi and the microvilli increase intestinal absorptive surface area approximately 40-fold and 600-fold, respectively, providing exceptionally efficient absorption of nutrients in the lumen.


title: Intestinal villus

text: There are also enzymes (enterocyte digestive enzyme) on the surface for digestion. Villus capillaries collect amino acids and simple sugars taken up by the villi into the blood stream. Villus lacteals (lymph capillary) collect absorbed chylomicrons, which are lipoproteins composed of triglycerides, cholesterol and amphipathic proteins, and are taken to the rest of the body through the lymph fluid.


title: Intestinal villus

text: Villi are specialized for absorption in the small intestine as they have a thin wall, one cell thick, which enables a shorter diffusion path. They have a large surface area so there will be more efficient absorption of fatty acids and glycerol into the blood stream. They have a rich blood supply to keep a concentration gradient.


title: Intestinal villus

text: In diseases of the small intestine the villi can become flattened due to the effects of inflammation, and the villi can sometimes disappear. This deterioration is known as villous atrophy, and is often a feature of coeliac disease.


title: Viennetta

text: Viennetta is a British brand of ice cream cake made by Unilever and sold under the various Heartbrand brands around the world. The original Viennetta consists of several rippled layers of ice cream separated by thin layers of sprayed-on compound chocolate. It is currently available in vanilla and mint.


title: Viennetta

text: Viennetta was launched by British ice cream company Wall's in 1982. The layered product and patented technique for its production were devised by Kevin Hillman, development manager at Wall's Gloucester factory, Ian Butcher, and Gordon Stewart Carrick. The layers of ice cream were extruded, one after another, onto trays sitting on a moving belt. The rate of extrusion was greater than the speed of the belt which causes festooning or bunching of the ice cream; each layer was extruded at a different speed from the previous layer. The final effect was akin to a series of waves rippling through the product, giving a concertina effect to the resultant confection.


title: Viennetta

text: A long running UK advertising campaign for the product used the slogan "one slice is never enough", which is still occasionally used in promotion efforts.


title: Viennetta

text: In the 1980’s and early 1990’s, Viennetta was often widely considered as a luxury alternative to the lower budget “choc ice” ice cream snack. Viennetta would be considered a luxury dessert, traditionally consumed after Sunday lunches by adults and children alike.


title: Viennetta

text: In 2007, to celebrate the brand's 25th birthday, a long Viennetta was made, setting the world record for longest ice cream.


title: Viennetta

text: Launched originally as a multi-portion dessert product, its success after being launched throughout KFC and Pizza Hut restaurants led to Unilever, owners of Wall's, producing many flavour and size variants. Viennetta was introduced in the United States and Canada in the late 1980s under the Breyers brand, and was discontinued in the mid-1990s, but was reintroduced in the US in 2021 under the Good Humor brand.


title: Viennetta

text: Unilever no longer produces the brand in Canada. It is sold in Australia and New Zealand under the Streets brand. It is sold in Italy in all supermarkets by Algida, and in Israel by Strauss, under the name Fantasia ("פנטסיה") as well as Germany, Greece and Austria. It is sold in Japan by Morinaga & Company. In Finland, Viennetta is sold under the Ingman brand.


title: Viennetta

text: Viennetta was also sold in Indonesia from mid-1990s until the mid-2000s, and re-introduced in April 2020, after a petition signed by almost 75,000 people demanded its comeback to the Indonesian market. In Thailand, it was originally available in the 1990s, and reintroduced again in November 2020. Viennetta was previously known as "Comtessa" in Spain, due to a legal problem, but became Viennetta in the 1990s. In 2021, Viennetta was introduced in the Philippines under the Selecta brand.


title: Naalaiya Theerpu

text: Naalaiya Theerpu () is a 1992 Indian Tamil-language action film directed by S. A. Chandrasekhar and produced by his wife Shoba Chandrasekhar which marked the debut of their son Vijay as a leading actor. The film which also starred Keerthana and Easwari Rao, with Srividya, Radha Ravi and Sarath Babu in supporting, had music composed by newcomer Manimekalai, cinematography by R. P. and editing by Gautham Raju. The story revolves around Arun Mehta, a businessman who has many extra-marital affairs, molests his wife, Mahalakshmi. However, things take an unexpected turn when she gets pregnant and has a son Vijay who later avenges against the deeds of his father.


title: Naalaiya Theerpu

text: The film was released on 4 December 1992 to mostly negative reviews and became a box-office bomb, though Vijay won the Cinema Express Award for Best New Face Actor.


title: Naalaiya Theerpu

text: Mahalakshmi is molested by her husband Arun Mehta, who has affairs with many other women. Mahalakshmi has a son Vijay, whom she raises on her own. However, things change when her son grows up.


title: Naalaiya Theerpu

text: Vijay made his debut as a leading actor with the film, aged eighteen. A fan of Rajinikanth, he told Chandrasekhar that he wanted to headline a film. Vijay enacted a scene from "Annaamalai" (1992), the one in which the title character (Rajinikanth) challenges Ashok (Sarath Babu). Chandrasekhar recalled, "He did it exactly the way it was in the film, especially the line mark this date in your calendar [...] That's when I realised that he had talent, a fierce passion."


title: Naalaiya Theerpu

text: The music was composed by M. M. Srilekha, under the name of Manimekalai at the age of 12. The film featured lyrics written by Pulamaipithan, P. R. C. Balu and Bharani. The latter went on to become a popular music composer.


title: Naalaiya Theerpu

text: "Naalaiya Theerpu" was released on 4 December 1992. Ayyappa Prasad of "The Indian Express" wrote, "Many tongue-in-cheek remarks on the prevailing political and economic climate makes the film worth watching". However, other reviews were mostly negative. The magazine "Ananda Vikatan" did not publish a review for the film. Despite Chandrasekhar's confidence, "Naalaiya Theerpu" became a box-office bomb. Chandrasekhar recalled in 2018, "To be honest, I shouldn’t have made that film for him especially when he was just 18 [...] I thought now that my son is also becoming an actor, I could continue to practise my style of filmmaking and pass on socially relevant messages to the audience through him. Maybe the timing wasn't right". Despite the film's failure, Vijay won the Cinema Express Award for Best New Face Actor.


title: Mahaveer Raghunathan

text: Mahaveer Raghunathan (born 17 November 1998) is an Indian racing driver who last competed in the 2019 FIA Formula 2 Championship with MP Motorsport.


title: Mahaveer Raghunathan

text: Raghunathan started his racing career in karting in 2012, where he remained active until 2013. He also made his Formula racing debut in 2012, in four races of the JK Racing Asia Series for the Meco Racing team.


title: Mahaveer Raghunathan

text: In 2013, Raghunathan competed in the MRF Challenge Formula 1600, finishing sixth. He also took part in the final race weekend of the Formula Masters China series at the Shanghai International Circuit for the Cebu Pacific Air by KCMG team


title: Mahaveer Raghunathan

text: In 2014, Raghunathan moved to the new Italian F4 Championship, debuting on the second race weekend for the F & M team. He finished 12th in the championship