title: Juan Valdez

text: The name "Juan Valdez" is by no means unique, as both Juan and Valdez are common Spanish-language names and there are possibly thousands of men with this name alive today (although the Valdez name is hardly known in the coffee growing regions of Colombia); this became relevant in a 2006 lawsuit over the phrase "Juan Valdez drinks Costa Rican coffee".


title: Juan Valdez

text: The National Federation of Coffee Growers of Colombia sued cartoonist Mike Peters, creator of "Mother Goose & Grimm", for a cartoon talking about Juan Valdez and Colombian coffee in January 2009. In a weeklong series making fun of various commercial products, he referenced violence in Colombia by having a character say: "Y'know, there's a big crime syndicate in Colombia. So when they say there's a little bit of Juan Valdez in every can, maybe they're not kidding." The lawsuit was dropped after Mr. Peters apologized publicly.


title: Massacre of Verden

text: The Massacre of Verden was an event during the Saxon Wars where the Frankish king Charlemagne ordered the death of 4,500 Saxons in October 782. Charlemagne claimed suzerainty over Saxony and in 772 destroyed the Irminsul, an important object in Saxon paganism, during his intermittent thirty-year campaign to Christianize the Saxons. The massacre occurred in Verden in what is now Lower Saxony, Germany. The event is attested in contemporary Frankish sources, including the "Royal Frankish Annals".


title: Massacre of Verden

text: Beginning in the 1870s, some scholars have attempted to exonerate Charlemagne of the massacre by way of a proposed manuscript error but these attempts have since been generally rejected. While the figure of 4,500 victims has generally been accepted, some scholars regard it as an exaggeration.


title: Massacre of Verden

text: An entry for the year 782 in the first version of the "Royal Frankish Annals" ("Annales Regni Francorum") records a Saxon rebellion, followed by a Saxon victory in the battle of the Süntel before Charlemagne arrived and put down the rebellion. Charlemagne ordered the execution of 4,500 Saxons near the confluence of the Aller and the Weser, in what is now Verden. Regarding the massacre, the entry reads:


title: Massacre of Verden

text: The "Annales qui dicuntur Einhardi" (Annals of Einhard), which are a revised version of the "Royal Frankish Annals" and not a completely independent source, give a different account of the battle of the Süntel, recording that Charlemagne lost two envoys, four counts, and around twenty nobles in a Frankish defeat. The reviser agrees about the punishment meted out on the Saxon rebels, and adds some details, such as that the Saxons blamed Widukind, that the number 4,500 was a minimum and that the executions took place in a single day:


title: Massacre of Verden

text: A short notice under the same year in the "Annales Laubacenses" (Annals of Lobbes) and the related "Annales sancti Amandi" (Annals of Saint-Amand) reads: "The rebellious Saxons killed many Franks; and Charles, [having] gathered the Saxons together, ordered them beheaded" ("Saxones rebellantes plurimos Francos interfecerunt; et Karlus, congregatos Saxones, iussit eos decollare"). For the year 782, the "Annales Sangallenses Baluzii" are more cryptic: "this year the Lord King Charles killed many Saxons" ("hoc anno domnus rex Karolus plures de Saxonis interfecit").


title: Massacre of Verden

text: Historian Alessandro Barbero says that, regarding Charlemagne, the massacre "produced perhaps the greatest stain on his reputation". In his survey on scholarship regarding Charlemagne, Barbero comments on attempts at exonerating Charlemagne and his forces from the massacre:


title: Massacre of Verden

text: Several historians have attempted to lessen Charles's responsibility for the massacre, by stressing that until a few months earlier the king thought he had pacified the country, the Saxon nobles had sworn allegiance, and many of them had been appointed counts. Thus the rebellion constituted an act of treason punishable by death, the same penalty that the extremely harsh Saxon law imposed with great facility, even for the most insignificant of crimes. Others have attempted to twist the accounts provided by sources, arguing that the Saxons were killed in battle and not massacred in cold blood, or even that the verb "decollare" (to decapitate) was a copyist's error in place of "delocare" (to relocate), so the prisoners were deported. None of these attempts has proved credible.


title: Massacre of Verden

text: He continues: "the most likely inspiration for the mass execution of Verden was the Bible", Charlemagne desiring "to act like a true King of Israel", citing the biblical tale of the total extermination of the Amalekites and the conquest of the Moabites by David. Barbero further points out that a few years later, a royal chronicler, commenting on Charlemagne's treatment of the Saxons, records that "either they were defeated or subjected to the Christian religion or completely swept away."


title: Massacre of Verden

text: Roger Collins identifies the victims of the massacre as all Saxons held to have participated in the battle of the Süntel. Charlemagne may have found his precedent for mass execution in the Council of Cannstatt of 745/6, whereat his uncle Carloman executed numerous leading Alemannic noblemen.


title: Massacre of Verden

text: The German historian Martin Lintzel argued that the figure of 4,500 was an exaggeration, partly based on the theory of Hans Delbrück regarding the small size of early medieval armies. On the other hand, Bernard Bachrach argues that the 4,500 captured warriors were but a small fraction of the able-bodied men in the region. The annalist's figure of 4,500, he notes, is generally accepted by scholars. He puts it at less than the entire Saxon army that fought at the Süntel, and suggests that Widukind's personal retinue probably also escaped capture.


title: Massacre of Verden

text: The medievalist Henry Mayr-Harting argues that since "reputation was of the highest importance to the warrior element of a heroic-age society" the massacre of Verden, whatever its actual scope, would have backfired on Charlemagne:


title: Massacre of Verden

text: On the reputational side during Charlemagne's wars, the Saxons' greatest "gain" will undoubtedly have been the blood bath of Verden in 783 ["sic"]. If but one tenth of the 4500 warriors said to have been slaughtered actually fell under the Frankish swords, think what a series of laments for fallen warriors, what a "Gododdin", what a subsequent celebration of reputation by poets, that would have made possible!


title: Massacre of Verden

text: He further argues that the Saxons were probably unable to mount another serious revolt for several years after Verden, since they had to wait for a new generation of young men to reach fighting age.


title: Massacre of Verden

text: Matthias Becher, in his biography of Charlemagne, suggests that a much smaller number of executions accompanied deportations in the year 782. Carole Cusack interprets the method of execution as hanging rather than beheading.


title: Massacre of Verden

text: The "Capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae", a law code promulgated by Charlemagne, has traditionally been dated to 782–85, in response to Widukind's rebellion. More recently, Yitzhak Hen has suggested a later date (c. 795), based on the influence of Islamic theology of "jihad" through the Spaniard Theodulf of Orléans. This theory has not found wide acceptance.


title: Massacre of Verden

text: Janet L. Nelson calls the massacre "exemplary legal vengeance for the deaths of [Charlemagne's ministers] and their men in the Süntel Hills". According to her, even if the Frankish leaders at the Süntel were at fault for the disaster, as the "Annales qui dicuntur Einhardi" imply, Charlemagne as their lord, according to the standards of the time, owed them vengeance. Nelson says that the method of mass execution—"decollatio", beheading—was also chosen for its symbolic value, for it was the Roman penalty for traitors and oath-breakers.


title: Massacre of Verden

text: The massacre became particularly significant and controversial among German nationalists in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and in Nazi Germany. In 1935, landscape architect Wilhelm Hübotter designed a memorial, known as the Sachsenhain ("Saxon Grove"), that was built at a possible site of the massacre. This site functioned for a period as a meeting place for the Schutzstaffel. Popular discussion of the massacre made Charlemagne a controversial figure in Nazi Germany until his official "rehabilitation" by Adolf Hitler and Joseph Goebbels, after which Charlemagne was officially presented in a positive manner in Nazi Germany.


title: Massacre of Verden

text: In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, historians generally approved of the executions of Verden, as displays of piety. During the Enlightenment this changed. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was one of the first to suggest that Verden cast a shadow over Charlemagne's legacy. Voltaire considered the king a "thousandfold murderer", with Verden the centrepiece of his barbarism.


title: Massacre of Verden

text: According to Barbero, the incident would be little more than a footnote in scholarship were it not for controversy in German circles due to nationalistic sentiment before and during the Nazi era in Germany. The controversy over the massacre was linked to disputes among German nationalists about the image of Charlemagne. Some Germans saw the victims of the massacre as defenders of Germany's traditional beliefs, resisting the foreign religion of Christianity. Wilhelm Teudt mentions the site of the massacre in his 1929 book "Germanische Heiligtümer" ('Germanic Shrines'). Some Christian nationalists linked Charlemagne with the humiliation of French domination after World War I, especially the occupation of the Rhineland. Of the first generation of German historians after 1871 to defend Charlemagne, Louis Halphen considered their efforts a failure.


title: Massacre of Verden

text: Hermann Gauch, Heinrich Himmler's adjutant for culture, took the view that Charlemagneknown in German as Karl the Great ()should be officially renamed "Karl the Slaughterer" because of the massacre. He advocated a memorial to the victims. Alfred Rosenberg also stated that the Saxon leader Widukind, not Karl, should be called "the Great". In Nazi Germany, the massacre became a major topic of debate. In 1934, two plays about Widukind were performed. The first, "Der Sieger" ("The Victor") by Friedrich Forster, portrayed Charlemagne as brutal but his goal, Christianization of the pagan Saxons, as necessary. Reception was mixed. The second, "Wittekind", by Edmund Kiß, was more controversial for its criticism of Christianity. The play resulted in serious disturbances and was stopped after just two performances. Described by one historian as "little more than an extended anti-Catholic rant", the plot depicted Charlemagne as a murderous tyrant and Verden as "attempted genocide plotted by the Church."


title: Massacre of Verden

text: In 1935, landscape architect Wilhelm Hübotter was commissioned to build the "Sachsenhain" (German 'Grove of the Saxons') in Verden, a monument to commemorate the massacre consisting of 4,500 large stones. The monument was used as both a memorial to the event and as a meeting place for the "Schutzstaffel". The memorial was inscribed to "Baptism-Resistant Germans Massacred by Karl, the Slaughterer of the Saxons". In the same year the annual celebration of Charlemagne in Aachen, where he is buried, was cancelled and replaced by a lecture on "Karl the Great, Saxon Butcher." The attacks on Charlemagne as "Sachsenschlächter" (slaughterer of the Saxons) and a tool of the Church and the Papacy were led by Alfred Rosenberg. In 1935, seven professional historians fought back with the volume "Karl der Große oder Charlemagne?" The issue was settled by Adolf Hitler himself, who privately pressured Rosenberg to cease his public condemnations, and by propagandist Joseph Goebbels, who began to issue positive statements about Charlemagne. In 1936, the Nazi historian Heinrich Dannenbauer could refer to Charlemagne's "rehabilitation". A memorial site, "Widukindgedächtnisstätte", was inaugurated at Engen in 1939.


title: Massacre of Verden

text: In 1942, the Nazi regime celebrated the 1200th anniversary of Charlemagne's birth. The historian Ahasver von Brandt referred to it as the "official rehabilitation" ("amtliche Rehabilitierung"), although Goebbels acknowledged in private that many people were confused by the about-face of National Socialism. A "Sicherheitsdienst" report of 9 April 1942 noted that:


title: Massacre of Verden

text: There were many voices to be heard saying that only a few years ago one had counted as an unreliable National Socialist had one left Karl der Große with so much as a single unblemished feature and not spoken also in tones of loathing of the "slaughterer of Saxons" and "pope's and bishops' lacky". Many people pose the question as to who in the Party it had been back then who had authorised this derogatory slogan, and from what quarter this completely different evaluation was coming now.


title: Massacre of Verden

text: Goebbels's opinion was that it was best for state propaganda on historical matters to align with popular opinion, and thus with and not against Charlemagne.


title: Massacre of Verden

text: As an example of Charlemagne's post-1935 rehabilitation in Nazi Germany, in 1944 the 33rd Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS "Charlemagne", a body of French volunteers, was named after the "pan-European Germanic hero" instead of after Joan of Arc.


title: Saturday Night Live Korea

text: Saturday Night Live Korea (; abbreviated as SNL Korea () or simply as SNLK) is a South Korean late-night live television sketch comedy and variety show. It is adapted from the long-running American TV show "Saturday Night Live" by NBC, and the show's executive producers are Lorne Michaels and Jennifer Danielson from SNL Studios and Broadway Video, which licenses the format. Originally broadcast by generalist cable network tvN, the weekly program ran from 3 December 2011 to 18 November 2017, and aired on Saturdays at 22:50 KST. In 2021, the format was revived by Coupang Play, and the show premiered on the streaming platform on September 4, 2021, at 22:00 KST.


title: Saturday Night Live Korea

text: Written and directed by filmmaker and playwright Jang Jin, the show was officially announced on November 24, 2011, at a roundtable press conference in Cheongdam-dong. The original cast was composed of 17 members: Jang Jin, Ahn Young-mi, Lee Han-wi, Jung Woong-in, Kim Bin-woo, Jang Young-nam, Kim Won-hae, Lee Hae-young, Lee Chul-min, Lee Sang-hoon, Park Joon-seo, Kim Ji-young, Kim Ji-kyung, Min Seo-hyun, Han Seo-jin, Go Kyung-pyo, and Kim Seul-gi. The premiere episode on December 3, 2011, was hosted by actor Kim Joo-hyuk.


title: Saturday Night Live Korea

text: Then-showrunner and head writer Jang Jin spoke about the difficulties in recruiting guests, saying "When you’re offering a film, you give them a script, ask them how it is and if they say no, say that's good and turn around, but to get people to appear in this show, I had to beg. I even asked them to appear on the show by giving them my next movie script." The first season ran from December 3, 2011, to January 21, 2012, for eight episodes.


title: Saturday Night Live Korea

text: The second season ran from May 26 to July 14, 2012, for eight episodes. The cast members were Jang Jin, Lee Han-wi, Kim Won-hae, Kang Sung-jin, Jang Young-nam, Jung Sung-ho, Kim Min-kyo, Lee Sang-hoon, Jung Myung-ok, Kang Yu-mi, Im Hye-young, Park Sang-woo, Ahn Young-mi, Kwon Hyeok-su, Go Kyung-pyo, and Kim Seul-gi.


title: Saturday Night Live Korea

text: The third season ran from September 8 to November 15, 2012, for seventeen episodes. The cast members were Jang Jin, Shin Dong-yup, Kim Won-hae, Jung Sung-ho, Park Sang-woo, Kim Min-kyo, Jung Myung-ok, Lee Sang-hoon, Oh Cho-hee, Jang Yoon-seo, Son Bo-min, Seo Yu-ri, Han Seo-jin, Kwon Hyeok-su, Go Kyung-pyo, and Kim Seul-gi.


title: Saturday Night Live Korea

text: Jay Park and Park Eun-ji joined as regular cast members (they had both previously hosted in season 3). Meanwhile, Jang Jin, Go Kyung-pyo, and Oh Cho-hee exited the program. The season 4 cast members were Shin Dong-yup, Kim Won-hae, Lee Sang-hoon, Ahn Young-mi, Kim Min-kyo, Kim Seul-gi, Jung Sung-ho, Jung Myung-ok, Kwon Hyeok-su, Park Sang-woo, Seo Yu-ri, Lee Byung-jin, Jin Won, Jay Park, and Park Eun-ji. New cast additions later in the season were Choi Il-gu, Yoo Se-yoon, 2EYES, and Clara. Jin Won exited the show on episode 18, and Kim Seul-gi did the same on episode 24.


title: Saturday Night Live Korea

text: Directors Ahn Sang-hee, Baek Seung-ryong, Kim Min, and Yoo Sung-mo are described them as "SNL Korea's F4."


title: Saturday Night Live Korea

text: Narsha and Seo Eun-kwang (BtoB) joined as regular cast members, while Clara exited the program. "Weekend Update" was discontinued, and replaced by a mini-talk show hosted by You Hee-yeol.


title: Saturday Night Live Korea

text: The sixth season started on February 14, 2015, and stopped on June 20, 2015, for a temporary hiatus for the airing of . It resumed on September 19, 2015, and ran until December 19, 2015.


title: Saturday Night Live Korea

text: On February 17, 2021, NBCUniversal Formats and Broadway Video Enterprise announced that SNL Korea will have a new season, produced this time by AStory. The series will air on Coupang Play later in the same year.


title: Saturday Night Live Korea

text: The Korean version follows a similar format as the American version, with a host, cast members and several skits for each episode.


title: Saturday Night Live Korea

text: The season finale of season two, broadcast on July 14, 2012, was hosted by boy band Super Junior, which was the first non-music program they appeared in as part of the promotion for their sixth studio album "Sexy, Free & Single". According to AGB Nielsen Media Research, the episodes achieved a nationwide rating of 1.334%.


title: Saturday Night Live Korea

text: Episode 13 of season 3, broadcast on December 1, 2012, and hosted by Jay Park, achieved a nationwide rating of 1.54%, with a peak of 1.85%. It recorded 1.04% ratings in the 20 to 49 age group, as well as 1.96% with a peak of 2.49% for women in their 40s, making it the most-watched program in its time slot for both age groups.


title: Saturday Night Live Korea

text: Nearing the conclusion of Season 8 in 2016, an episode that featured the boy band B1A4, SNL Korea released a behind-the-scenes video on their Facebook. The video features an introduction of the band and discussion of their upcoming appearance. As soon as the members are formally introduced, a group of female staff members grope the band members' genitals and run off. The video was taken off of the show's Facebook shortly after along with an apology to the members of B1A4. However, shortly after the incident, boy bands INFINITE and Block B released videos on their twitters under the hashtag "SNL_성추행" ('SNL sexual harassment') stating that this behavior was common on the show. A sexual assault case was filed by petition agency, E-People, against comedian Lee Se-young but the charges were eventually dropped.


title: Saturday Night Live Korea

text: SNL Korea was met with heavy criticism after airing a sketch that featured a joke about actress Um Aing-ran's chest. Um had been diagnosed with breast cancer earlier in the year and underwent surgery. Jung Yi-rang, the actress who portrayed Um in the sketch, was unaware of the severity of the condition and issued an apology to Um.


title: Saturday Night Live Korea

text: Season 8 of the SNL Korea ended on December 24, 2016, with singer Hwang Chi-yeul as the last host. tvN issued a statement saying that the show will return for another season but "with a new image".


title: Guano Islands Act

text: The Guano Islands Act (, enacted August 18, 1856, codified at §§ 1411-1419) is a United States federal law passed by the U.S. Congress that enables citizens of the United States to take possession, in the name of the United States, of unclaimed islands containing guano deposits. The islands can be located anywhere, so long as they are not occupied and not within the jurisdiction of another government. It also empowers the president of the United States to use the military to protect such interests and establishes the criminal jurisdiction of the United States in these territories.


title: Guano Islands Act

text: In the 1840s, guano came to be prized as a source of saltpeter for gunpowder as well as an agricultural fertilizer.


title: Guano Islands Act

text: The United States began importing it in 1843 through New York. By the early 1850s, the U.K. imported over 200,000 tons a year, and U.S. imports totaled about 760,000 tons. The "guano mania" of the 1850s led to high prices in an oligopolistic market, attempts of price control, fear of resource exhaustion, and eventually the enactment of the "Guano Islands Act of 1856" in August 1856. The Act enables U.S. citizens to take possession of unclaimed islands containing guano for the U.S., and empowered the president to send in armed military to intervene. This encouraged American entrepreneurs to search and exploit new deposits on tiny islands and reefs in the Caribbean and in the Pacific.


title: Guano Islands Act

text: This was the beginning of the concept of insular areas in U.S. territories. Up to this time, any territory acquired by the U.S. was considered to have become an integral part of the country unless changed by treaty and eventually to have the opportunity to become a state of the Union. With insular areas, land could be held by the federal government without the prospect of its ever becoming a state in the Union.


title: Guano Islands Act

text: Under the act the US gained control of around 94 islands. By 1903, 66 of these islands were recognized as territories of the US.


title: Guano Islands Act

text: Section 6 provides that criminal acts on or adjacent to these territories "shall be deemed committed on the high seas, on board a merchant ship or vessel belonging to the United States; and shall be punished according to the laws of the United States relating to such ships or vessels and offenses on the high seas". The provision was considered and ruled constitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court in "Jones v. United States", .


title: Guano Islands Act

text: The Act continues to be part of the law of the United States. The most recent Guano Islands Act claim was made to Navassa Island. However, the claim was denied because an American court ruled the island was already under American jurisdiction (a claim Haiti disputes).


title: Guano Islands Act

text: While more than 100 islands have been claimed for the United States under the Guano Islands Act, all but 10 have been withdrawn. The Act specifically allows the islands to be considered possessions of the U.S. The Act does not specify what the status of the territory is after it is abandoned by private U.S. interests or the guano is exhausted, creating neither obligation to nor prohibition of retaining possession.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: Sex differences in human physiology are distinctions of physiological characteristics associated with either male or female humans. These differences are caused by the effects of the different sex chromosome complement in males and females, and differential exposure to gonadal sex hormones during development. Sexual dimorphism is a term for the phenotypic difference between males and females of the same species.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: The process of meiosis and fertilization (with rare exceptions) results in a zygote with either two X chromosomes (an XX female) or one X and one Y chromosome (an XY male) which then develops the typical female or male phenotype. Physiological sex differences include discrete features such as the respective male and female reproductive systems, as well as average differences between males and females including size and strength, bodily proportions, hair distribution, breast differentiation, voice pitch, and brain size and structure.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: The human genome consists of two copies of each of 23 chromosomes (a total of 46). One set of 23 comes from the mother and one set comes from the father. Of these 23 pairs of chromosomes, 22 are autosomes, and one is a sex chromosome. There are two kinds of sex chromosomes–X and Y. In humans and in almost all other mammals, females carry two X chromosomes, designated XX, and males carry one X and one Y, designated XY.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: A human egg contains only one set of chromosomes (23) and is a haploid. Sperm also have only one set of 23 chromosomes and are therefore haploid. When an egg and sperm fuse at fertilization, the two sets of chromosomes come together to form a unique diploid individual with 46 chromosomes.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: The sex chromosome in a human egg is always an X chromosome since a female only has X sex chromosomes. In sperm, about half the sperm have an X chromosome and half have a Y chromosome. If an egg fuses with sperm with a Y chromosome, the resulting individual is male. If an egg fuses with sperm with an X chromosome, the resulting individual is female. There are rare exceptions to this rule in which, for example, XX individuals develop as males or XY individuals develop as females. Chromosomes are not the final determinant of sex. In some cases, for example, chromosomally female babies that have been exposed to high levels of androgens before birth can develop masculinized genitals by the time they are born. There are other variations of sex chromosomes that lead to a variety of different physical expressions.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: The X-chromosome carries a larger number of genes in comparison to the Y-chromosome. In humans, X-chromosome inactivation enables males and females to have an equal expression of the genes on the X-chromosome since females have two X-chromosomes while males have a single X and a Y chromosome. X-chromosome inactivation is random in the somatic cells of the body as either the maternal or paternal X-chromosome can become inactivated in each cell. Thus, females are genetic mosaics.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: The female skeleton is generally less massive, smoother, and more delicate than the male; its rib cage is more rounded and smaller, its lumbar curve greater, and a generally longer and smaller female waist results from the chest being more narrow at the base, and the pelvis generally not as high.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: The pelvis is, in general, different between the human female and male skeleton. Although variations exist and there may be a degree of overlap between typically male or female traits, the pelvis is the most dimorphic bone of the human skeleton and is therefore likely to be accurate when using it to ascertain a person's sex. It differs both in overall shape and structure. The female pelvis, which is adapted for gestation and childbirth, is less high, but proportionately wider and more circular than in the male; its sacrum—the triangular bone at the upper posterior of the pelvic cavity, serving as the base of the spine—is also wider. The female pelvis is tilted anteriorly, often resulting in the more sway-backed appearance.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: In females, the acetabula, the concave surfaces to which the balls of the femurs attach via ligaments, are located farther apart, which increases the distance between the most outer points of the femurs (their greater trochanters) and thus the width of the hips. Female femurs are therefore more generally angled (laterally, further away from vertical). This greater angle applies a larger portion of the gravitational or vertical load as valgus torque (rotational force against the knee). This, combined with the female's weaker tendons and ligaments and a narrower intercondylar notch, causes increased susceptibility to injury of the ACL in female athletes.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: The pelvis of the human male is slightly narrower. One hypothesis is that this makes it more optimized for walking and that the wider female pelvis is an evolutionary compromise between efficient walking and the need for successful childbirth. This is termed the "obstetrical dilemma". Disagreement exists as to the strength of the hypothesis.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: Pubertal changes in males lead to a ten times increase in testosterone. Because of this and because males go through puberty for longer, females typically have lower total muscle mass than males, and also have lower muscle mass in comparison to total body mass. Males convert more of their caloric intake into muscle and expendable circulating energy reserves, while females tend to convert more into fat deposits. As a consequence, men are generally physically stronger than women. Research suggests that, while men have greater total muscle areas than women, the number of muscle fibers in men and women are alike. Instead of muscle fiber composition as the main reason for men's greater absolute strength, the data indicates that it is total muscle area that is responsible for this difference. Men's individual muscle fibers are larger than women's, which results in their more muscular appearance. Their larger muscle fibers appear responsible for their more considerable absolute force production.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: The sex difference in muscle mass remains after adjusting for body weight and height. Men are at least one-third stronger than women when adjusting for differences in total body mass, due to the higher male muscle-mass to body-mass ratio. The greater muscle mass is reported to be due to a greater capacity for muscular hypertrophy as a result of higher levels of circulating testosterone in males.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: Gross measures of body strength suggest that women are approximately 50-60% as strong as men in the upper body, and 60-70% as strong in the lower body. One study of muscle strength in the elbows and knees—in 45 and older males and females—found the strength of females to range from 42 to 63% of male strength. Men have greater hand grip strength than women. Differences in width of arm, thighs and calves appear during puberty.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: Males typically have larger tracheae and main bronchi and greater lung volume per body mass. They also have larger hearts, 10% higher red blood cell count, and higher haemoglobin hence greater oxygen-carrying capacity. They have higher circulating clotting factors (vitamin K, prothrombin and platelets). These differences lead to faster clotting of blood and higher peripheral pain tolerance.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: Sex differences in the trachea and main bronchi are not apparent until at least age 14. On average, girls have smaller lungs than boys at birth.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: Men's skin is thicker and oilier than women's skin. Women have more subcutaneous fat than men. This helps keep them warmer and enables them to survive lower temperatures than men during the cold. As a result of greater vasoconstriction, while the surface of female skin is colder than male skin, the deep-skin temperature in women is higher than in men.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: Males generally have darker skin than females. The lighter skin in females helps their bodies synthesize more Vitamin D from sunlight and absorb more calcium, which is needed during pregnancy and lactation.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: On average, men have more body hair than women. Men have relatively more of a type of hair called terminal hair, especially on the face, chest, abdomen and back. Women have more vellus hair, which is thinner, shorter, and lighter, and therefore less visible.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: Although men grow hair faster than women, baldness is more prevalent in men than in women. The main cause for this is male pattern baldness. Male pattern baldness is a condition where hair loss occurs in a typical pattern of a receding hairline and hair thinning on the crown. It is caused by hormones and genetic predisposition.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: In lighter-complected humans, male skin is visibly redder; this is due to greater blood volume rather than melanin. Conversely, women are lighter-skinned than men in some studied human populations. The differences in color are mainly caused by higher levels of melanin in the skin, hair and eyes in males.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: In one study, almost twice as many females as males had red or auburn hair. A higher proportion of females were also found to have blond hair, whereas males were more likely to have black or dark brown hair. Another study found green eyes, which are a result of lower melanin levels, to be much more common in women than in men, at least by a factor of two.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: A different study found that while women tend to have a lower frequency of black hair, men have a higher frequency of platinum blond hair, blue eyes and lighter skin. According to this one theory the cause for this is a higher frequency of genetic recombination in women than in men, possibly due to sex-linked genes, and as a result women tend to show less phenotypical variation in any given population.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: The human sexual dimorphism in color seems to be greater in populations that are medium in skin color than in very light or very dark-colored populations.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: Males and females have different sex organs. Females have two ovaries that store the eggs, and a uterus which is connected to a vagina. Males have testicles that produce sperm. The testicles are placed in the scrotum behind the penis. The male penis and scrotum are external extremities, whereas the female sex organs are placed "inside" the body.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: Female ejaculation has been observed for 2,000 years. It refers to the release of fluid experienced by some females during orgasm. The components of the ejaculate are comparable to that of the male ejaculate. The release of this fluid is a product of the Skene's gland (female prostate), located within the walls of the urethra. The female prostate is much smaller than the male prostate but seems to behave in a similar fashion. Female ejaculate, though, does not contain sperm. The female prostate is visible through MRI and ultrasound.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: Males typically produce billions of sperm each month, many of which are capable of fertilization. Females typically produce one ovum a month that can be fertilized into an embryo. Thus during a lifetime males are able to father a significantly greater number of children than females can give birth to. The most fertile female, according to the Guinness Book of World Records, was the wife of Feodor Vassilyev of Russia (1707–1782) who had 69 surviving children. The most prolific father of all time is believed to be the last Sharifian Emperor of Morocco, Mulai Ismail (1646–1727) who reportedly fathered more than 800 children from a harem of 500 women.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: Female fertility declines after age 30 and ends with the menopause. Female physical experiences vary depending on external forces such as diet, marriage patterns, culture, and other aspects. In Western nations menstruation begins to affect females at 13 and menopause starts around 51. In non-industrialized countries, on the other hand, most females begin menstruation at a later age. More lactation in the lifetime of non-western females inhibits ovulation and extends the number of fertile years. Pregnancy in the 40s or later has been correlated with increased risk of Down syndrome in children. Males are capable of fathering children into old age. Paternal age effects in children include multiple sclerosis, autism, breast cancer and schizophrenia, as well as reduced intelligence.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: Adriana Iliescu was reported as the world's oldest woman to give birth, at age 66. Her record stood until Maria del Carmen Bousada de Lara gave birth to twin sons at Sant Pau Hospital in Barcelona, Spain on December 29, 2006, at the age of 67. In both cases IVF was used. The oldest known father was former Australian miner Les Colley, who fathered a child at age 93.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: Early research into the differences between male and female brains showed that male brains are, on average, larger than female brains. This research was frequently cited to support the assertion that women are less intelligent than men. One of the most influential early researchers on this topic was Paul Broca. In 1861, he examined 432 human brains from cadavers and found that the brains of men had an average weight of 1325 grams, while the brains of women had an average weight of 1144 grams. This study, however, did not control for differences in body size or age. Later studies have shown that while men's brains are an average of 10-15% larger and heavier than women's brains, there is relatively no difference when controlling for body weight. This means the brain-to-body mass ratio is, on average, approximately the same for both sexes. Comparing a man and a woman of the same body size, an average difference of 100 grams in brain-mass is present, the man having the bigger and heavier brain. This difference of 100 grams applies over the whole range of human sizes.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: Structural brain differences usually correspond to sexually dimorphic attributes that bring about functional brain differences.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: On average, female brains have a larger ratio of grey matter to the white matter than males (particularly in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and superior temporal gyrus), even when sex-differences in the total intracranial volume are taken into consideration. Most notably, males have a larger amount of white matter in the frontal and temporal perisylvian region, and in the temporal stem and optic radiation, of the left hemisphere, whereas females have a larger amount of gray matter in the superior temporal gyrus, planum temporale, Heschl gyrus, cingulate gyrus, inferior frontal, and central sulci margins, of the left hemisphere.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: The degree of hemispheric asymmetry in males corresponds to the relative size of corpus callosum; however, this is not true in females. An increase in hemispheric asymmetry in male brains causes a male sex-dependent decrease in inter-hemispheric connectivity. Many studies suggest that, on average, female brains have more commissural tracts involved in inter-hemispheric connectivity than males. Specifically, studies suggests that:


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: Typically, male brains are more asymmetric than female brains. Females have less asymmetry than males between left and right hemispheric cortical thickness. Males have a larger intra-hemispheric long-range interconnectivity than females, whereas females have larger inter-hemispheric connectivity. Males have larger left-hemispheric asymmetries than females in a number of brain areas, including the superior temporal gyrus, Heschl gyrus, deeper central sulcus, overall temporal and parietal, and inferior parietal lobule, thalamus and posterior cingulate. A few studies seemed to indicate otherwise.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: There are also differences in the structure of specific areas of the brain. On average, the SDN has been repeatedly found to be considerably larger in males than in females. The volume of the SDN was 2.2 times as large in males as in females. On average, the BSTc is twice as large in men as in women. On average, the INAH-3 is significantly larger in males than in females regardless of age. Two studies found that men have larger parietal lobes, an area responsible for sensory input including spatial sense and navigation; though, another study failed to find any statistically significant difference. At the same time, females have larger Wernicke's and Broca's areas, areas responsible for language processing. Studies using MRI scanning have shown that the auditory and language-related regions in the left hemisphere are proportionally expanded in females versus in males. Conversely, the primary visual, and visuo-spatial association areas of the parietal lobes are proportionally larger in males. The corpus callous is located at the sagittal divide and is the primary commissure in the human brain. It connects the left and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex, which allows them to communicate with each other. With respect to language, males predominantly use their left hemisphere but females use both their right and left hemispheres. The right hemisphere controls emotion, so using the right hemisphere adds more prosody to speech. In males, the corpus callosum is larger than females. However, the splenium and the isthmus subregions of the corpus callosum are larger in females. The genu subregion is larger in males. These subregions may serve as the basis for sex differences in language. However, a 1997 meta-study concluded that there is no relative size difference, and that the larger corpus callosum in males is due to generally larger brains in males on average.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: In total and on average, females have a higher percentage of grey matter in comparison to males, and males a higher percentage of white matter. However, some researchers maintain that as males have larger brains on average than females, when adjusted for total brain volume, the grey matter differences between sexes is small or nonexistent. Thus, the percentage of grey matter appears to be more related to brain size than it is to gender.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: In 2005, Haier "et al." reported that, compared with men, women show fewer grey matter areas associated with intelligence, but more white matter areas associated with intelligence. He concluded that "men and women apparently achieve similar IQ results with different brain regions, suggesting that there is no singular underlying neuroanatomical structure to general intelligence and that different types of brain designs may manifest equivalent intellectual performance." Using brain mapping, it was shown that men have more than six times the amount of gray matter related to general intelligence than women, and women have nearly ten times the amount of white matter related to intelligence than men. They also report that the brain areas correlated with IQ differ between the sexes. In short, men and women apparently achieve similar IQ results with different brain regions. Other differences that have been established include greater length in males of myelinated axons in their white matter (176,000 km compared to 146,000 km); and 33% more synapses per mm of cerebral cortex. Another difference is that females generally have faster blood flow to their brains and lose less brain tissue as they age than males do. Additionally, depression and chronic anxiety are much more common in women than in men, and it has been speculated by some that this is due to differences in the brain's serotonin system. Others contend this speculation ignores the social and material differences between men and women that are known to impact anxiety and depression.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: The amygdala, which is the structure that responds to emotionally arousing information, respond to the environment, and reacts with stress. The male amygdala is proportionally larger than that in women, causing sex to be a determining factor in reactions to stress. In studies of rats, there are more numerous interconnections seen in males in regard to this structure, suggesting the same pattern in humans. Katharina Braun and company (Otto von Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany) studied a litter of Degu puppies removed from their mother and determined that hearing their mother's call produced a higher concentration of serotonin in males' amygdala and a decreased concentration in females' amygdala. In this case, stress causes females' emotion regulation to drop, while males seem to keep more of an even keel. While this study was limited to rodents, it provides a possible explanation of why anxiety disorders occur more often among human females than males. Also, the hypothalamus and front medial area, both of which are associated with emotional processing, are larger in males than females. Other brain areas related to emotion, such as the orbitofrontal cortex, medial paralimbic region, and hippocampus are larger in females than males.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: The hippocampus has been proven by imaging to be larger in women than men. The hippocampus is crucial for memory storage and spatial mapping of the physical environment. This structural difference may be responsible for variations in behavior between the sexes. Studies show that women are more likely to navigate using landmarks, while men are more likely to estimate distance in space or orientation. Studies of rats show that males could learn better in the face of acute stress, while chronic stress is dealt with better by females. Sex hormones may influence female hippocampal cells to tolerate brain damage better than the same cells in men. The studies of the rats' influx and deflation of hippocampal cells can be translated to the difference in memory and spatial behaviors between the sexes.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: On average, Onuf's nucleus is sexually dimorphic, meaning that there are differences in Onuf's nucleus between males and females of the same species. Males of these species have more of these motoneurons than do their female counterparts.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: Research done at the Medical School of University of Pennsylvania found substantial differences in brain connectivity between males and females in 2013. The study examined 949 individuals (521 females and 428 males) of ages between 8 and 22. Overall, male brains showed more connectivity from back to front and within hemispheres, while female brains showed more connectivity between the left and right hemispheres of the cerebrum. In contrast to connectivity to the cerebrum, in the cerebellum, the part of the brain that plays a major role in the motor tasks, females showed higher intra-hemispheric connectivity while males showed higher inter-hemispheric connectivity. The differences were more pronounced in people aged 14 or older.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: The researchers stated that these findings potentially provide a neural basis for observable sex differences in psychology. The research was consistent with previous studies that found that females performed better than males on tasks of attention, face and word memory, and social cognition tests, while males performed better on spatial processing and sensorimotor skill tasks. On average, men outperformed women at learning and accomplishing single tasks, like cycling and navigating directions, while females had better memory and social cognition skills making them more adjusted to multitasking and coming up with consensus solutions. It has been suggested that the increased differentiation of brain connectivity in adolescence is in correlation with hormonal changes in puberty.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: A 2014 study by the same research group using rsfc-MRI (resting-state functional connectivity MRI) found similar results to the previous one, with males on average outperforming females on motor and spatial cognitive tests, and females on average outperforming males on emotional recognition and nonverbal reasoning tasks.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: Both genes and hormones affect the formation of human brains before birth, as well as the behavior of adult individuals. Several genes that code for differences between male and female brains have been identified. In the human brain, a difference between sexes was observed in the transcription of the PCDH11X/Y gene pair, a pair unique to "Homo sapiens". It has been argued that the Y chromosome is primarily responsible for males being more susceptible to mental illnesses. Several psychological studies contradict this however, as it has been found that female patients are actually more than twice as likely as male patients to be susceptible to depressive episodes and generalized anxiety, and additionally that progesterone levels in females actually stall the body's ability to turn off stressor hormones resulting in female subjects entering depressive episodes at even lower levels of stress than male subjects.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: Hormones significantly affect human brain formation, as well as brain development at puberty. A 2004 review in "Nature Reviews Neuroscience" observed that "because it is easier to manipulate hormone levels than the expression of sex chromosome genes, the effects of hormones have been studied much more extensively, and are much better understood, than the direct actions in the brain of sex chromosome genes." It concluded that while "the differentiating effects of gonadal secretions seem to be


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: dominant," the existing body of research "supports the idea that sex differences in neural expression


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: Selective pressures of evolution can cause innate biological brain differences before a child is even born. Research done on vervet monkeys showed that male and female monkeys gravitated towards sex-typical preferred toys. This study controls for external societal influence by using monkeys as the subject and projects results to humans, the closest animal relative. A separate study was done on one-day-old infants to see if infants diverted attention differently between the sexes. Results showed that there must be some innate mechanism that differs between the sexes. This innate mechanism is evolutionary in the sense that the hormones for females are concurrently passed down to other females, and the same with males.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: Other than external genitals, there are few physical differences before puberty. Small differences in height and start of physical maturity are seen. In the first decade of human life, there is a significant amount of overlap between children of both sexes. The gradual growth in sex difference throughout a person's life is a product of various hormones. Testosterone is the major active hormone in male development while estrogen is the dominant female hormone. These hormones are not, however, limited to each sex. Both males and females have both testosterone and estrogen.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: Strength and type of immune response differ in men and women. Generally speaking, women have a stronger immune response than men. This results in men having a higher morbidity and mortality from infectious diseases than women do, and lower rates of auto-immune diseases.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: Females live longer than males in most countries around the world. In Russia, however, the sex-associated gap has been increasing as male life expectancy declines.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: The longer average life span of women can lead to skewed statistical results in regard to sex differences. For example, women are often seen to be at a higher risk of bone fracture due to osteoporosis. Although women do lose bone density faster than men after menopause, the data shows a larger disparity because there are more older women in the population.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: Certain diseases and conditions are clearly sex-related in that they are caused by the same chromosomes that regulate sex differentiation. Some conditions are X-linked recessive, in that the gene is carried on the X chromosome. Genetic females (XX) will show symptoms of the disease only if both their X chromosomes are defective with a similar deficiency, whereas genetic males (XY) will show symptoms of the disease if their only X chromosome is defective. (A woman may carry such a disease on one X chromosome but not show symptoms if the other X chromosome works sufficiently.) For this reason, such conditions are far more common in males than in females.


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: The World Health Organization (WHO) has produced a number of reports on gender and health. The following trends are shown:


title: Sex differences in human physiology

text: Infectious disease prevalence varies - this is largely due to cultural and exposure factors. In particular the WHO notes that:


title: Stuck in the Suburbs

text: Stuck in the Suburbs is a Disney Channel Original Movie. It was released on July 16, 2004, and stars Danielle Panabaker as Brittany Aarons and Brenda Song as Natasha Kwon-Schwartz. Brittany, a regular middle school student in the suburbs, accidentally exchanges cell phones with pop singer Jordan Cahill. This was one of the first Television films by Disney which was also accompanied by its own soundtrack. The film gathered 3.7 million viewers which made the film the most-watched telecast in its time period in the kids 6–11 and 9–14 demographics. The film's soundtrack entered the U.S. "Billboard" 200 and peaked at #5 on the "Billboard" Top Kid Audio charts.


title: Stuck in the Suburbs

text: Brittany Aarons (Danielle Panabaker) is a regular teenage girl, one of the many who has a crush on popular pop singer Jordan Cahill (Taran Killam). However, she is bored of living a suburban existence and pines for excitement. At school, she meets a new girl, Natasha Kwon-Schwartz (Brenda Song), who informs Brittany that she moved to suburbia from several years on and off living in Europe and New York. Brittany's other friends dislike Natasha for her nonconformism, but Brittany pursues a friendship with her. Upon finding out that Jordan is filming a video nearby, Brittany invites Natasha to join her and her fangirl friends to watch the shoot. Jordan, at the video shoot, expresses dislike for the shallow new single, wanting to sing his own lyrics, which his record company denies him. When Jordan and his team knock into Brittany and Natasha after the shoot, Eddie (Jordan's assistant, best friend and confidante) and Brittany accidentally pick up one another's phones in the ensuing mess.


title: Stuck in the Suburbs

text: Brittany tries to return "Eddie's" phone but is denied entry at Jordan's hotel. Once they get a hold of Eddie and figure out the phone is Jordan's, they demand to speak with the pop star before they would return it, which Eddie refuses. Natasha convinces Brittany that it would be fun to mess with Jordan, and change his image. They prank call his hair stylist, get her to cut off all his hair, and get a new wardrobe for him. Along the way they find that Jordan's life is not the life he chooses, but rather the one his record company wants for him. At first he is terrified that his personal barber gave him a major haircut, but eventually accepts it as the first step towards a break from his manufactured image, enjoying his new wardrobe and look, which he thinks Eddie procured. Eventually, the girls demand Eddie have Jordan perform at a rally hosted by Brittany's mother to save a local landmark, which was previously failing to draw attention.


title: Stuck in the Suburbs

text: Jordan gets a hold of Brittany after Eddie confesses to the whole situation, and Jordan explains everything to her. She and Natasha make up from a falling out, and go to meet up with him while being chased by the record company who are tracking his phone. They send his lyrics for one of his songs "More Than Me" to everyone through Brittany's phone, ditch his phone and get a ride to the rally with Brittany's sister. At the rally, Eddie tries to stop Jordan from appearing but ultimately supports him, and the landmark is preserved. Brittany, Natasha, and Brittany's fangirl friends become dancers in the music video he was making at the beginning of the movie, which now features Eddie replacing Jordan. It is shown that Brittany and Jordan keep in touch, and although he invites her to go to New York with him (over the phone), she declines, saying things are really exciting in her suburban town.


title: Stuck in the Suburbs

text: The film was mostly shot on several locations throughout the Greater New Orleans Area, in particular St. Tammany Parish. The school scenes were filmed in the atrium, front steps, and the courtyard of Ben Franklin High School in the Lakefront area. Lockers were temporarily moved into the atrium to give the appearance of a hallway, and door frames were painted with temporary red paint.


title: Stuck in the Suburbs

text: The music video for "Make a Wish" was filmed in Carousel Gardens Amusement Park in New Orleans. The other video for "More Than Me" is filmed at the Piazza d'Italia in Downtown New Orleans.


title: Stuck in the Suburbs

text: The "Old House" from the film is actually the Otis House from Fairview-Riverside State Park in Madisonville on the Northshore. The house was aged for production, but restored to its actual appearance at the end of the film. The Otis House was originally built in the 1880s, has been on the National Register of Historic Places since 1998, and it actually is located near the expanding suburb of Mandeville. When Brittany is riding through the suburbs on her bike she is actually riding through Lafreniere Park.


title: Stuck in the Suburbs

text: The film received 3.7 million viewers at its TV premiere, including top rankings in the time period in the kids 6–11 and 9–14 demographics.


title: Stuck in the Suburbs

text: Walt Disney Records released a soundtrack for the album to promote the television movie with the original movie promotional poster. The songs below are included in the first edition of the soundtrack: Taran Killam who played Jordan Cahill confirmed on social media that he did not sing in the film. Singer and actor Drew Seeley (who had a brief role in the film) sang in place of Killam. Seeley also sang for Zac Efron 2 years later for High School Musical.


title: Stuck in the Suburbs

text: The enhanced golden collectors edition included the following songs with the same promotional movie poster:


title: Stuck in the Suburbs

text: "Good Life" and "Over It" was featured in several DisneyMania and Walt Disney Records albums and complaition soundtracks. "More Than Me" by Jordan Cahill / Taran Killam was featured in "The Suite Life of Zack & Cody" and Haylie Duff's "A Whatever Life" was in 7th Heaven.


title: Mount Pulag

text: Mount Pulag (; ) is Luzon's highest peak at above sea level, third-highest mountain in the Philippines, and the 26th-highest peak of an island on Earth. It is second-most prominent mountain in the Philippines, it is a dormant volcano. Located on the triple border of the provinces of Benguet, Ifugao, and Nueva Vizcaya, the borders meet at the mountain's peak. Mount Pulag is third highest next to Mount Apo and Mount Dulang-dulang.


title: Mount Pulag

text: The entire mountain is believed to be the home to the "tinmongao" spirits and is the sacred resting ground of the souls of the Ibaloi people and other ethnic peoples in the area.


title: Mount Pulag

text: The Ibaloi people of Benguet mummify their dead and house them in caverns in the mountain. The Kabayan mummy burial caves, one of the main attraction of the site, are considered Philippine national cultural treasures under Presidential Decree No. 432.


title: Mount Pulag

text: Mt. Pulag was proclaimed a national park through Presidential Proclamation No. 75 on February 20, 1987 covering an area of . It is part of the Cordillera Biogeographic Zone and is a National Integrated Protected Areas Programme (NIPAP) site.


title: Mount Pulag

text: The national park is inhabited by different ethnic groups such as the Ibalois, Kalanguya, Kankana-eys, Karao, and Ifugaos.


title: Mount Pulag

text: Mount Pulag stands at high. The peak of the mountain is located in the Municipality of Kabayan Province of Benguet.


title: Mount Pulag

text: The climate at the summit of Mount Pulag is subpolar oceanic (Köppen "Cwc"), bordering a subtropical highland (Köppen "Cwb") climate, as its summer mean temperatures only slightly exceed 10 degrees Celsius. Rainfall on the mountain averages yearly with August being the wettest month with an average rainfall of . Snow has not fallen on its top in at least the past 100 years, only hailstorms that look like snow. However, there have been mild flurries on the mountain, especially during December, January and February. Frost is more common on the mountain due to the low temperature during those months. During the winter season, the temperature at the highest point of the mountain is known to dip into sub-freezing temperatures, making it the coldest place in the country. The only recorded incidence of snow was in the late 1800s.


title: Mount Pulag

text: Mount Pulag has a large diversity of flora and fauna, including many species that endemic to the mountain. Mount Pulag hosts 528 documented plant species. It is the natural habitat of the dwarf bamboo ("Yushania niitakayamensis") and the Benguet pine ("Pinus kesiya") that dominate the areas of Luzon tropical pine forests found on the mountainsides. The Philippine yew tree, which contains a compound associated with cancer treatment, is found on Mount Pulag. Its bark is used by indigenous Ibaloi and Kalanguya communities to make tea.


title: Mount Pulag

text: Among its native wildlife are 33 bird species and several threatened mammals such as the Philippine deer, giant bushy-tailed cloud rat ("bowet") and the long-haired fruit bat. Mount Pulag is the only place that hosts the four cloud rat species. It is one of the most biodiverse locations in the Philippines, with the newly found (since 1896) 185-grams dwarf cloud rat, "Carpomys melanurus", a rare breed (endemic to the Cordillera), and the Koch pitta bird among its endangered denizens.


title: Mount Pulag

text: In April 2022, President Rodrigo Duterte signed a law declaring Mount Pulag as a protected landscape under the National Integrated Protected Areas System.


title: Mount Pulag

text: As the highest mountain in Luzon, Mount Pulag attracts a lot of mountain climbers. Highlights of the climb include the montane forests and the grassland summit with its "sea of clouds" phenomenon. There are four major trails up the summit: the Ambangeg, Akiki, and Tawangan trails from Benguet and the Ambaguio trail from Nueva Vizcaya. These trails are managed by the Mount Pulag National Park, under the Department of Environment and Natural Resources.


title: Mount Pulag

text: On April 7, 2009, a Philippine Air Force (PAF) Bell 412 of the 250th Presidential Airlift Wing crashed at above sea level in the Kabayan-Pulag pass between Mount Mangingihi and Mount Pulag in thick low cloud and fog. The aircraft pilots and their passengers, who were presidential appointees, died in the crash.


title: Mount Pulag

text: On January 20, 2018, the Mount Pulag National Park temporarily suspended trekking and hiking activities on Mount Pulag following a forest fire at a section of the mountain. According to an initial investigation, the fire started when a butane gas stove brought by a hiker allegedly exploded. The fire officers in site have declared a fire extinguished later that day. Suits were afterwards filed against the perpetrators of the fire. Park rangers estimated that it will take at least 6 months to 1 year before the area completely recovers.


title: Ras GTPase

text: Ras, from "Rat sarcoma virus", is a family of related proteins that are expressed in all animal cell lineages and organs. All Ras protein family members belong to a class of protein called small GTPase, and are involved in transmitting signals within cells (cellular signal transduction). Ras is the prototypical member of the Ras superfamily of proteins, which are all related in three-dimensional structure and regulate diverse cell behaviours.


title: Ras GTPase

text: When Ras is 'switched on' by incoming signals, it subsequently switches on other proteins, which ultimately turn on genes involved in cell growth, differentiation, and survival. Mutations in Ras genes can lead to the production of permanently activated Ras proteins, which can cause unintended and overactive signaling inside the cell, even in the absence of incoming signals.


title: Ras GTPase

text: Because these signals result in cell growth and division, overactive Ras signaling can ultimately lead to cancer. The three Ras genes in humans ("HRAS", "KRAS", and "NRAS") are the most common oncogenes in human cancer; mutations that permanently activate Ras are found in 20 to 25% of all human tumors and up to 90% in certain types of cancer (e.g., pancreatic cancer). For this reason, Ras inhibitors are being studied as a treatment for cancer and other diseases with Ras overexpression.


title: Ras GTPase

text: The first two Ras genes, "HRAS" and "KRAS", were identified from studies of two cancer-causing viruses, the Harvey sarcoma virus and Kirsten sarcoma virus, by Edward M. Scolnick and colleagues at the National Institutes of Health (NIH). These viruses were discovered originally in rats during the 1960s by Jennifer Harvey and Werner H. Kirsten, respectively, hence the name Rat sarcoma. In 1982, activated and transforming human "ras" genes were discovered in human cancer cells by Geoffrey M. Cooper at Harvard, Mariano Barbacid and Stuart A. Aaronson at the NIH, Robert Weinberg at MIT, and Michael Wigler at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. A third "ras" gene was subsequently discovered by researchers in the group of Robin Weiss at the Institute of Cancer Research, and Michael Wigler at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, named "NRAS", for its initial identification in human neuroblastoma cells.


title: Ras GTPase

text: The three human "ras" genes encode extremely similar proteins made up of chains of 188 to 189 amino acids. Their gene symbols are HRAS, NRAS and KRAS, the latter of which produces the K-Ras4A and K-Ras4B isoforms from alternative splicing.


title: Ras GTPase

text: It consists of two domains: a G domain of 166 amino acids (about 20 kDa) that binds guanosine nucleotides, and a C-terminal membrane targeting region (CAAX-COOH, also known as CAAX box), which is lipid-modified by farnesyl transferase, RCE1, and ICMT.


title: Ras GTPase

text: The G2 motif, also called Switch I or SW1, contains threonine35, which binds the terminal phosphate (γ-phosphate) of GTP and the divalent magnesium ion bound in the active site.


title: Ras GTPase

text: The G3 motif, also called Switch II or SW2, has a DXXGQ motif. The D is aspartate57, which is specific for guanine versus adenine binding, and Q is glutamine61, the crucial residue that activates a catalytic water molecule for hydrolysis of GTP to GDP.


title: Ras GTPase

text: The G5 motif contains a SAK consensus sequence. The A is alanine146, which provides specificity for guanine rather than adenine.


title: Ras GTPase

text: The two switch motifs, G2 (SW1) and G3 (SW2), are the main parts of the protein that move when GTP is hydrolyzed into GDP. This conformational change by the two switch motifs is what mediates the basic functionality as a molecular switch protein. This GTP-bound state of Ras is the "on" state, and the GDP-bound state is the "off" state. The two switch motifs have a number of conformations when binding GTP or GDP or no nucleotide (when bound to SOS1, which releases the nucleotide).


title: Ras GTPase

text: Ras proteins function as binary molecular switches that control intracellular signaling networks. Ras-regulated signal pathways control such processes as actin cytoskeletal integrity, cell proliferation, cell differentiation, cell adhesion, apoptosis, and cell migration. Ras and Ras-related proteins are often deregulated in cancers, leading to increased invasion and metastasis, and decreased apoptosis.


title: Ras GTPase

text: Ras activates several pathways, of which the mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase cascade has been well-studied. This cascade transmits signals downstream and results in the transcription of genes involved in cell growth and division. Another Ras-activated signaling pathway is the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway, which stimulates protein synthesis and cellular growth, and inhibits apoptosis.


title: Ras GTPase

text: Ras is a guanosine-nucleotide-binding protein. Specifically, it is a single-subunit small GTPase, which is related in structure to the G subunit of heterotrimeric G proteins (large GTPases). G proteins function as binary signaling switches with "on" and "off" states. In the "off" state it is bound to the nucleotide guanosine diphosphate (GDP), while in the "on" state, Ras is bound to guanosine triphosphate (GTP), which has an extra phosphate group as compared to GDP. This extra phosphate holds the two switch regions in a "loaded-spring" configuration (specifically the Thr-35 and Gly-60). When released, the switch regions relax which causes a conformational change into the inactive state. Hence, activation and deactivation of Ras and other small G proteins are controlled by cycling between the active GTP-bound and inactive GDP-bound forms.


title: Ras GTPase

text: The process of exchanging the bound nucleotide is facilitated by guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) and GTPase activating proteins (GAPs). As per its classification, Ras has an intrinsic GTPase activity, which means that the protein on its own will hydrolyze a bound GTP molecule into GDP. However this process is too slow for efficient function, and hence the GAP for Ras, RasGAP, may bind to and stabilize the catalytic machinery of Ras, supplying additional catalytic residues ("arginine finger") such that a water molecule is optimally positioned for nucleophilic attack on the gamma-phosphate of GTP. An inorganic phosphate is released and the Ras molecule is now bound to a GDP. Since the GDP-bound form is "off" or "inactive" for signaling, GTPase Activating Protein "inactivates" Ras by activating its GTPase activity. Thus, GAPs accelerate Ras "inactivation".


title: Ras GTPase

text: GEFs catalyze a "push and pull" reaction which releases GDP from Ras. They insert close to the P-loop and magnesium cation binding site and inhibit the interaction of these with the gamma phosphate anion. Acidic (negative) residues in switch II "pull" a lysine in the P-loop away from the GDP which "pushes" switch I away from the guanine. The contacts holding GDP in place are broken and it is released into the cytoplasm. Because intracellular GTP is abundant relative to GDP (approximately 10 fold more) GTP predominantly re-enters the nucleotide binding pocket of Ras and reloads the spring. Thus GEFs facilitate Ras "activation". Well known GEFs include Son of Sevenless (Sos) and cdc25 which include the RasGEF domain.


title: Ras GTPase

text: The balance between GEF and GAP activity determines the guanine nucleotide status of Ras, thereby regulating Ras activity.


title: Ras GTPase

text: In the GTP-bound conformation, Ras has a high affinity for numerous effectors which allow it to carry out its functions. These include PI3K. Other small GTPases may bind adaptors such as arfaptin or second messenger systems such as adenylyl cyclase. The Ras binding domain is found in many effectors and invariably binds to one of the switch regions, because these change conformation between the active and inactive forms. However, they may also bind to the rest of the protein surface.


title: Ras GTPase

text: Other proteins exist that may change the activity of Ras family proteins. One example is GDI (GDP Disassociation Inhibitor). These function by slowing the exchange of GDP for GTP, thus prolonging the inactive state of Ras family members. Other proteins that augment this cycle may exist.


title: Ras GTPase

text: Ras is attached to the cell membrane owing to its prenylation and palmitoylation (HRAS and NRAS) or the combination of prenylation and a polybasic sequence adjacent to the prenylation site (KRAS). The C-terminal CaaX box of Ras first gets farnesylated at its Cys residue in the cytosol, allowing Ras to loosely insert into the membrane of the endoplasmatic reticulum and other cellular membranes. The Tripeptide (aaX) is then cleaved from the C-terminus by a specific prenyl-protein specific endoprotease and the new C-terminus is methylated by a methyltransferase. KRas processing is completed at this stage. Dynamic electrostatic interactions between its positively charged basic sequence with negative charges at the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane account for its predominant localization at the cell surface at steady-state. NRAS and HRAS are further processed on the surface of the Golgi apparatus by palmitoylation of one or two Cys residues, respectively, adjacent to the CaaX box. The proteins thereby become stably membrane anchored (lipid-rafts) and are transported to the plasma membrane on vesicles of the secretory pathway. Depalmitoylation by acyl-protein thioesterases eventually releases the proteins from the membrane, allowing them to enter another cycle of palmitoylation and depalmitoylation. This cycle is believed to prevent the leakage of NRAS and HRAS to other membranes over time and to maintain their steady-state localization along the Golgi apparatus, secretory pathway, plasma membrane and inter-linked endocytosis pathway.


title: Ras GTPase

text: The clinically most notable members of the Ras subfamily are HRAS, KRAS and NRAS, mainly for being implicated in many types of cancer.


title: Ras GTPase

text: DIRAS1; DIRAS2; DIRAS3; ERAS; GEM; MRAS; NKIRAS1; NKIRAS2; RALA; RALB; RAP1A; RAP1B; RAP2A; RAP2B; RAP2C; RASD1; RASD2; RASL10A; RASL10B; RASL11A; RASL11B; RASL12; REM1; REM2; RERG; RERGL; RRAD; RRAS; RRAS2


title: Ras GTPase

text: Mutations in the Ras family of proto-oncogenes (comprising H-Ras, N-Ras and K-Ras) are very common, being found in 20% to 30% of all human tumors. It is reasonable to speculate that a pharmacological approach that curtails Ras activity may represent a possible method to inhibit certain cancer types. Ras point mutations are the single most common abnormality of human proto-oncogenes.


title: Ras GTPase

text: Ras inhibitor trans-farnesylthiosalicylic acid (FTS, Salirasib) exhibits profound anti-oncogenic effects in many cancer cell lines.


title: Ras GTPase

text: Inappropriate activation of the gene has been shown to play a key role in improper signal transduction, proliferation and malignant transformation.


title: Ras GTPase

text: Mutations in a number of different genes as well as RAS itself can have this effect. Oncogenes such as p210BCR-ABL or the growth receptor erbB are upstream of Ras, so if they are constitutively activated their signals will transduce through Ras.


title: Ras GTPase

text: The tumour suppressor gene NF1 encodes a Ras-GAP – its mutation in neurofibromatosis will mean that Ras is less likely to be inactivated. Ras can also be amplified, although this only occurs occasionally in tumours.


title: Ras GTPase

text: Finally, Ras oncogenes can be activated by point mutations so that the GTPase reaction can no longer be stimulated by GAP – this increases the half life of active Ras-GTP mutants.


title: Ras GTPase

text: "Constitutively active Ras" ("Ras") is one which contains mutations that prevent GTP hydrolysis, thus locking Ras in a permanently 'On' state.


title: Ras GTPase

text: Reovirus was noted to be a potential cancer therapeutic when studies suggested it reproduces well in certain cancer cell lines. It replicates specifically in cells that have an activated Ras pathway (a cellular signaling pathway that is involved in cell growth and differentiation). Reovirus replicates in and eventually kills Ras-activated tumour cells and as cell death occurs, progeny virus particles are free to infect surrounding cancer cells. This cycle of infection, replication and cell death is believed to be repeated until all tumour cells carrying an activated Ras pathway are destroyed.


title: Ras GTPase

text: Another tumor-lysing virus that specifically targets tumor cells with an activated Ras pathway is a type II herpes simplex virus (HSV-2) based agent, designated FusOn-H2. Activating mutations of the Ras protein and upstream elements of the Ras protein may play a role in more than two-thirds of all human cancers, including most metastatic disease. Reolysin, a formulation of reovirus, and FusOn-H2 are currently in clinical trials or under development for the treatment of various cancers. In addition, a treatment based on siRNA anti-mutated K-RAS (G12D) called siG12D LODER is currently in clinical trials for the treatment of locally advanced pancreatic cancer (NCT01188785, NCT01676259).


title: Ras GTPase

text: In glioblastoma mouse models SHP2 levels were heightened in cancerous brain cells. Inhibiting SHP2 in turn inhibited Ras dephosphorylation. This reduced tumor sizes and accompanying rise in survival rates.


title: Ras GTPase

text: Other strategies have attempted to manipulate the regulation of the above-mentioned localization of Ras. Farnesyltransferase inhibitors have been developed to stop the farnesylation of Ras and therefore weaken its affinity to membranes. Other inhibitors are targeting the palmitoylation cycle of Ras through inhibiting depalmitoylation by acyl-protein thioesterases, potentially leading to a destabilization of the Ras cycle.


title: Ras GTPase

text: In most of the cell types of most species, most "Ras" is the GDP type. This is true for "Xenopus" oocytes and mouse fibroblasts.


title: Ras GTPase

text: As mentioned above most "X." oocyte "Ras" is the GDP conjugate. Mammal "Ras" induces meiosis in "X. laevis" oocytes almost certainly by potentiating insulin-induced meiosis, but not progesterone-induced. Protein synthesis does not seem to be a part of this step. Injection increases synthesis of diacylglycerol from phosphatidylcholine. Some meiosis effects are antagonized by "rap1" (and by a "Ras" modified to dock incorrectly). Both "rap1" and the modified "Ras" are co-antagonists with p120Ras GAP in this pathway.


title: Ras GTPase

text: Expressed in all tissues of "Drosophila melanogaster" but mostly in neural cells. Overexpression is somewhat lethal and, during development, produces eye and wing abnormalities. (This parallels - and may be the reason for - similar abnormalities due to mutated receptor tyrosine kinases.) The "D." genes for "ras"es in mammals produce abnormalities.


title: Ras GTPase

text: The gene in "C. elegans" is "let 60". Also appears to play a role in receptor tyrosine kinase formation in this model. Overexpression yields a multivulval development due to its involvement in that region's normal development; overexpression in effector sites in lethal.


title: Ras GTPase

text: Essential in "Dictyostelium discoideum". This is evidenced by severe developmental failure in deficient "ras" expression and by significant impairment of various life activities when artificially expressed, such as: increased concentration of inositol phosphates; likely reduction of cAMP binding to chemotaxis receptors; and that is likely the reason cGMP synthesis is impaired. Adenylate cyclase activity is unaffected by "ras".


title: Ronald Bell (musician)

text: Ronald Nathan Bell (November 1, 1951 – September 9, 2020), also known as Khalis Bayyan, was an American composer, singer, songwriter, arranger, producer, saxophonist and co-founding member of Kool & the Gang. The band recorded nine No. 1 R&B singles in the 1970s and 1980s, including its No. 1 pop single "Celebration". The group is honored on the Hollywood Walk of Fame and was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame.


title: Ronald Bell (musician)

text: Bell was born in Youngstown, Ohio, to Aminah Bayyan (1932–2014) and Robert "Bobby" Bell (1929–1985). His father was a professional boxer and Golden Gloves amateur boxing winner. Training in Elwood, New York, he hung out with jazz players and became friends with Miles Davis and Thelonious Monk, who lived in the same apartment building as the elder Bell.


title: Ronald Bell (musician)

text: Ronald Bell and his brother, Robert "Kool" Bell, were introduced to jazz at around five or six. The family moved to Jersey City, New Jersey, in 1960. In 1964, the brothers joined neighborhood friends Spike Mickens, Dennis Thomas, Ricky Westfield, George Brown, and Charles Smith to create a distinctive musical blend of jazz, soul, and funk. At first calling themselves "The Jazziacs", the band went through various name changes—the New Dimensions, the Soul Town Band, and Kool & the Flames—before settling on Kool & the Gang in 1968.


title: Ronald Bell (musician)

text: Ronald Bell composed, arranged, produced and performed some of the most popular music in Kool and the Gang's body of work. He was a self-taught musician, and his distinctive sound is on the group's horn lines, bass, synthesizer and vocals. He wrote and produced many of the Kool & the Gang's songs, including "Celebration", "Cherish", "Jungle Boogie", "Summer Madness", and "Open Sesame". He said his favorite song was "Celebration", which he wrote after reading a passage in the Quran.


title: Ronald Bell (musician)

text: Bell converted to Islam in 1972, joining The Nation of Islam. He was given the name Khalis Bayyan by Imam Warith Deen Mohammed. He was married to Tia Sinclair Bell and had 10 children. His son, Rachid, released his debut album in 1998.


title: Ronald Bell (musician)

text: Bell died at his home in the United States Virgin Islands on September 9, 2020, at age 68. No cause was given, but the death was described as sudden.


title: Andijan

text: Andijan (sometimes spelled Andijon or Andizhan in English) ( / ئەندىجان; , "Andijân/Andīǰān"; , "Andižan") is a city in Uzbekistan. It is the administrative, economic, and cultural center of Andijan Region. Andijan is a district-level city with an area of and it had 458,400 inhabitants in 2022. Andijan is located in the south-eastern edge of the Fergana Valley near Uzbekistan's border with Kyrgyzstan.


title: Andijan

text: Andijan is one of the oldest cities in the Fergana Valley. In some parts of the city, archeologists have found items dating back to the 7th and 8th centuries. Historically, Andijan was an important city on the Silk Road.


title: Andijan

text: The city is perhaps best known as the birthplace of Babur who, following a series of setbacks, finally succeeded in laying the basis for the Mughal dynasty in the Indian subcontinent and became the first Mughal emperor. Andijan also gained notoriety in 2005 when government forces opened fire on protestors, killing hundreds in what came to be known as the Andijan Massacre.


title: Andijan

text: Andijan was developed into an important industrial city during the Soviet era. Manufactured goods produced in the city include chemicals, domestic appliances, electronics, foodstuffs, furniture, plows, pumps, shoes, spare parts for farming machines, various engineering tools, and wheelchairs.


title: Andijan

text: The origin of the name of the city is uncertain. Arab geographers of the 10th century referred to Andijan as "Andukan," "Andugan," or "Andigan." The traditional explanation links the name of the city to the Turkic tribal names "Andi" and "Adoq"/"Azoq".


title: Andijan

text: Andijan is one of the oldest cities in the Fergana Valley. Marhamat city of Andijan The ruins of Ershi, the capital of the Davan (Parkana) state, with more than 70 cities with a rich and dense population of the V - IV and IV centuries BC. In some parts of the city, archeologists have found items dating back to the 7th and 8th centuries. Historically, Andijan was an important city on the Silk Road.


title: Andijan

text: The city is perhaps best known as the birthplace of Babur who, following a series of setbacks, finally succeeded in laying the basis for the Mughal dynasty in the Indian Subcontinent and became the first Mughal emperor.


title: Andijan

text: After the formation of the Khanate of Kokand in the 18th century, the capital was moved from Andijan to Kokand. In the mid-19th century, the Russian Empire began occupying the area of present-day Central Asia. In 1876, the Russians conquered the Khanate of Kokand and the city of Andijan along with it.


title: Andijan

text: Andijan was the center and flashpoint of the Andijan Uprising of 1898 in which the followers of Sufi leader Madali Ishan attacked the Russian barracks in the city, killing 22 and injuring 16-20 more. In retaliation, 18 of the participants were hanged and 360 exiled.


title: Andijan

text: On 16 December 1902, much of the city was leveled by a severe earthquake which destroyed up to 30,000 homes in the region and killed as many as 4,500 residents. After Soviet rule was established in Andijan in 1917, the city quickly became an important industrial city in the Uzbek SSR.


title: Andijan

text: During the Soviet demarcation of Central Asia, Andijan was separated from its historical hinterland as the Ferghana Valley was divided among three separate Soviet republics. Andijan itself became part of the Uzbek SSR.


title: Andijan

text: During World War II, many Soviet citizens were evacuated to Andijan and the surrounding towns. Of the Jewish refugees fleeing Nazi-occupied Poland and banished by the Soviets to Siberia and Central Asia, some relocated to Andijan starting in 1941.


title: Andijan

text: In the 1990s, Andijan and the surrounding region became politically unstable. Poverty and an upsurge in Islamic fundamentalism produced tensions in the region. The town, and the region as a whole, suffered a severe economic decline following the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. Repeated border closures badly damaged the local economy, worsening the already widespread poverty of Andijan's inhabitants.


title: Andijan

text: On 13 May 2005, Uzbekistan's military opened fire on a mass of people who were protesting against poor living conditions and corrupt government. The estimates of those killed on 13 May range from 187, the official count of the government, to several hundred. A defector from the SNB alleged that 1,500 were killed. The bodies of many of those who died were allegedly hidden in mass graves following the massacre.


title: Andijan

text: The Uzbek government at first stated that the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan organized the unrest and that the protesters were members of Hizb ut-Tahrir. Critics have argued that the radical Islamist label has been just a pretext for maintaining a repressive regime in the country.


title: Andijan

text: Whether troops fired indiscriminately to prevent a colour revolution or acted legitimately to quell a prison break is also disputed. Another theory is that the dispute was really an inter-clan struggle for state power. The Uzbek government eventually acknowledged that poor economic conditions in the region and popular resentment played a role in the uprising.


title: Andijan

text: Andijan is located above sea level in the south-eastern edge of the Fergana Valley near Uzbekistan's border with Kyrgyzstan. By road it is northeast of Asaka and southeast of Namangan. Andijonsoy flows along the city.


title: Andijan

text: Andijan is also known with fascinating dishes, one of the most popular food is Plov also known (Osh) in the local language. Nevertheless, there are some other delicious foods as well such as Somsa, Monti and Dolma in the local language. However, Andijan is also known for its dance called Andijan polka and it has been reported that this dance history goes all the way back to the old centuries.


title: Andijan

text: Andijan has a cold semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification "BSk") with cold winters and hot summers, rendering a very continental nature, although winters are milder than one might expect for a location in Central Asia. Rainfall is generally light and erratic. Summers are particularly dry.


title: Andijan

text: In 2022, Andijan had a population of 458,500. Representatives of many ethnic groups can be found in the city. Uzbeks are the largest ethnic group, followed by Tajiks.


title: Andijan

text: Andijan has been an important craft and trade center in the Fergana Valley since the 15th century. After annexation by the Russians in 1876, the economy of the city started to grow significantly. Several industrial plants were built in Andijan after the city was connected with Russia with a railway line in 1889. Several hospitals, pharmacies, banks, and printing houses were established in the city during that period. After Soviet rule was established in late December 1917, both light and heavy industries developed significantly. Andijan became the first city in Uzbekistan to be fully supplied with natural gas.


title: Andijan

text: Andijan remains an important industrial city in independent Uzbekistan. There are 48 large industrial plants and about 3,000 small and medium enterprises in the city. Manufactured goods produced in the city include chemicals, domestic appliances, electronics, foodstuffs, furniture, plows, pumps, shoes, spare parts for farming machines, various engineering tools, and wheelchairs. Andijan is also home to over 50 international companies, five of which produce spare parts for GM Uzbekistan.


title: Andijan

text: There are four higher education institutions in Andijan City. Andijan state university, Andijan medical institute, Andijan machine-building institute and Andijan branch Tashkent state agrarian university. The Andijan Medical Institute is the largest of the four. The city is also home to four colleges, one academic lyceum, 21 vocational schools, 47 secondary schools, three music and art schools, nine sports schools, and 86 kindergartens.


title: Lioness: Hidden Treasures

text: Lioness: Hidden Treasures is a posthumous compilation album by English singer and songwriter Amy Winehouse. It was released on 2 December 2011 by Island Records. It was her third album, and features unreleased songs, covers and demos selected by Mark Ronson, Salaam Remi and Winehouse's family, including the first single, "Body and Soul", with Tony Bennett. The album was released in aid of the Amy Winehouse Foundation. "Our Day Will Come" was released as the album's second and final single on 4 December, and was Winehouse's first solo single to be released since 2007.


title: Lioness: Hidden Treasures

text: "Lioness: Hidden Treasures" was announced for release on 31 October 2011 via Winehouse's official website. Island Records co-president Ted Cockle has emphasised that "Lioness" is not in any way the planned follow-up to Winehouse's album "Back to Black" (2006). In fact, only two songs intended for the planned follow-up had been completed prior to her death. The album is a compilation of recordings from before the release of Winehouse's debut studio album, "Frank", in 2002, up to music she was working on in 2011.


title: Lioness: Hidden Treasures

text: Producers Salaam Remi and Mark Ronson compiled the album with the consent of the Winehouse family. They worked together on listening to thousands of hours of vocals by Winehouse. Remi told "NME" that the album would not lead to "a Tupac situation", referring to Tupac Shakur, in whose name seven posthumous studio albums have been released since his death in 1996. He stated, "A lot of people, through the other antics that were going on with her personally, didn't get that she was at the top of what she did. Coming to Miami was her escape from all of that, and her writing process could document her life, whether it was recording the pain or the loneliness or the humour. It makes no sense for these songs to be sitting on a hard drive, withering away."


title: Lioness: Hidden Treasures

text: Two tracks from "Lioness: Hidden Treasures" received world exclusive plays on BBC Radio 1 and BBC Radio 1Xtra on 3 November 2011. "The Chris Moyles Show" aired the first play of "Our Day Will Come", while DJ Twin B broadcast the world premiere of "Like Smoke", which features Nas. The album cover was shot by Canadian rock singer-songwriter Bryan Adams in 2007.


title: Lioness: Hidden Treasures

text: "Body and Soul", Winehouse's final studio recording and a duet with Tony Bennett, was released as a single on 14 September 2011, in commemoration of what would have been Winehouse's 28th birthday. It was released as the first single from "Lioness: Hidden Treasures" and Tony Bennett's "Duets II" album. Profits from the release of the single were donated to the Amy Winehouse Foundation. "Our Day Will Come" was released as the second single from the album. The song was added to the BBC Radio 1 playlist on 2 November 2011, entering the C-list. It was also named BBC Radio 2's "Record of the Week" for the week beginning 5 November.


title: Lioness: Hidden Treasures

text: "Lioness: Hidden Treasures" received generally mixed to positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 65, based on 28 reviews. "Q" called it "an admirable tribute if frequently deafened by the echo of its tragic catalyst." Jon Pareles of "The New York Times" commented that the album "ekes out all it can from the archives" and found it to be "just the scraps of what might have been." Andrew Ryce of "Pitchfork" wrote in his review, "There's little on "Lioness: Hidden Treasures" that sounds throwaway, or like it should have never been released; but there's equally little that sounds absolutely essential." AllMusic editor John Bush felt that "only the songwriting and prevalence of covers or 'original versions' reveal that this is a posthumous collection", crediting Salaam Remi and Mark Ronson for making the album "strikingly uniform".


title: Lioness: Hidden Treasures

text: "Lioness: Hidden Treasures" debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart with 194,966 copies sold in its first week, marking the biggest first-week sales of Winehouse's career, as well as the fourth fastest-selling album of 2011. It was certified triple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) on 26 June 2020, denoting shipments in excess of 900,000 copies in the United Kingdom. The album debuted at number five on the "Billboard" 200 with first-week sales of 114,000 units, making it Winehouse's highest-debuting album in the United States. As of July 2012, it had sold 423,000 copies in the US.


title: Lioness: Hidden Treasures

text: The album topped the charts in Austria, Greece, Netherlands, Portugal and Switzerland, while reaching the top five in Canada, New Zealand and several European countries, including Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Spain and Sweden. "Lioness: Hidden Treasures" had sold 2.4 million copies worldwide by the end of 2011, becoming the 11th best-selling album of 2011, as well as the fourth best-selling album by a British artist. The International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) certified the album platinum in late 2011, denoting sales in excess of one million copies in Europe.


title: Renata Notni

text: Renata Martínez Notni (born January 2, 1995 in Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico) is a Mexican actress and model.


title: Renata Notni

text: Notni was born in Cuernavaca, Morelos, Mexico. As a child, she attended acting lessons at CEA Infantil, the children's version of drama school, Centro de Educación Artística, run by Televisa in Mexico City.


title: Renata Notni

text: She made her acting debut in the 2006 telenovela, "Código Postal", when she was 10 years old. Since then, she has had roles in eight telenovelas including "Mar de amor" and "Amorcito Corazón". She has also participated in the Mexican television series, "La rosa de Guadalupe" and "Como dice el dicho". In 2014, she briefly relocated to New York City and enrolled in an acting course at Stella Adler Acting Studio. In November 2014, she travel to Madrid to film, "Yo quisiera", a youth-oriented television series, serving as her first acting role outside of Mexico. She received word that she had been cast as the lead in Televisa's upcoming telenovela, "Amor de barrio", shortly after finishing her acting class. Her participation in the telenovela was official confirmed in March 2015. The part was Notni's first starring role. Amor de barrio aired weekdays on Canal de las Estrellas beginning June 4, 2015. The telenovela's finale aired on November 8, 2015.


title: Renata Notni

text: Following the conclusion of Amor de barrio, Notni was cast in a role in the psychological thriller play, "Las que no sienten". The play premiered in November 2015 in at Teatro en Corto in Mexico City on November 5, 2015. It ran until December 15, 2015. On November 18, 2015, she attended an open casting call for a role in producer Juan Osorio's upcoming telenovela, "Sueño de amor". On November 26, 2015, Notni was confirmed for one of the lead youth roles in the telenovela. Filming began in late December 2015, and the telenovela premiered in Mexico on February 22, 2016. It premiered in the U.S on Univision on March 8, 2016.


title: Renata Notni

text: In 2017 she was the main role at the series "Mi adorable maldición" (English: My Sweet Curse). She played part as Aurora a girl showered by misfortunes and everybody used to believe she was cursed.


title: Renata Notni

text: Notni currently resides in Mexico City. She is fluent in English. She is in a relationship with actor Diego Boneta.


title: Steve Beshear

text: Steven Lynn Beshear (born September 21, 1944) is an American attorney and politician who served as the 61st governor of Kentucky from 2007 to 2015. He served in the Kentucky House of Representatives from 1974 to 1980, was the state's 44th attorney general from 1980 to 1983, and was the 49th lieutenant governor from 1983 to 1987.