title: Highland Park parade shooting

text: Police records and people who knew Crimo indicate that Crimo came from a troubled household. When Crimo was two, his mother left him unattended on a hot August day inside a car with windows rolled up. She pleaded guilty to child endangerment and was ordered to undergo an evaluation at a child advocacy center. Between 2009 and 2014, police officers visited the Crimos' home nearly 20 times, nine of which involved reports of domestic violence. In 2010, Crimo's father reported that his wife struck him with a screwdriver but later retracted the accusation. Officers recommended that the couple go through marriage counseling or separate. Crimo's parents no longer live together.


title: Highland Park parade shooting

text: Law enforcement identified two prior encounters with Crimo: a 911 call in April 2019 reporting that he attempted to commit suicide and a September 2019 incident regarding alleged threats by Crimo to a family member. According to law enforcement, mental health professionals handled the suicide matter. In September 2019, police seized 16 knives, a dagger, and a sword from Crimo after a family member reported to the police that he planned to "kill everyone". Crimo's father said the weapons were his, however, and both parents denied Crimo had threatened anyone. He was not charged with a crime at the time, but a “clear and present danger report” was filed with the Illinois State Police. In December that year, Crimo applied for a Firearm Owner Identification card (FOID). It was sponsored by his father due to his young age. On either occasion, Highland Park police could have invoked Illinois' red flag law, which would have allowed them to seek a restraining order preventing Crimo from buying guns for up to six months. However, they did not pursue this option. Just four months later, in January 2020, Illinois State Police approved Crimo for a firearms permit, and he passed four background checks when buying firearms in 2020 and 2021. When asked about why the "clear and present danger" report did not prevent Crimo from obtaining a FOID card, the Illinois State Police said that Crimo responded no when asked whether he would harm himself or others and "no one, including family, was willing to move forward on a complaint". Neither did they provide more information on threats or mental health that would have enabled further action by law enforcement.


title: Highland Park parade shooting

text: Crimo's father, 58-year-old Robert Bob Crimo Jr., who lived with the accused suspect, said that there had been "no warning signs" immediately before the shooting. He stated that he does not regret sponsoring his son for an Illinois FOID card that allowed his son to legally purchase weapons even after incidents that raised red flags with police. Crimo Jr. described the entire situation as a nightmare, saying the family is shocked at the behavior because he believes his son was raised with good morals. He told the New York Post the day after the shooting that his son talked about the 2022 Copenhagen mall shooting and the 22-year-old Danish suspect the night before allegedly launching his own massacre and how Crimo Jr. avoided taking any responsibility or feeling guilt over how the suspect got his gun.


title: Highland Park parade shooting

text: Robert Bob Crimo Jr. (born June 22, 1964) is a local Highland Park resident who also grew up in Highwood and Buffalo Grove, a popular local deli owner, and a former mayoral Republican for the city who ended up losing to pro-gun control Democrat Nancy Rotering in the 2019 runoff election. He lived with his wife and Highland Park native Denise Crimo, who had a criminal history dating back as far as mid-2002. Prior to his mayoral campaign, he owned and operated two restaurants in the city of Highland Park. Crimo Jr. first operated "White Hen Pantry" for 17 years from 1990 until its closure in 2007, and a 7-Eleven was currently at the former Deli's site. The following year in 2008, Crimo Jr. opened and operated "Bob's Pantry & Deli", which is a local favorite by thousands in the city since opening and was notable enough for its "Nicky D" sandwiches.


title: Highland Park parade shooting

text: On December 16, 2022, Crimo Jr. was arrested and charged with seven counts of reckless conduct in relation to the shooting without incident. The Lake County State’s Attorney Eric Rinehart said that Robert Crimo Jr. surrendered to Highwood Police and determined that the charges are based on Crimo sponsoring his then-19-year-old son’s application for a gun license shortly after losing the city's mayoral runoff election in 2019. The following morning on December 17, Crimo Jr. was released on $50,000 bond.


title: Highland Park parade shooting

text: Multiple Chicago suburbs canceled their Fourth of July celebrations after the shooting. Six Flags Great America in Gurnee continued operating but canceled its fireworks show. The Chicago White Sox announced they would continue to play their baseball game against the Minnesota Twins but canceled their fireworks show.


title: Highland Park parade shooting

text: School districts in the surrounding neighborhoods said counseling service would be made available at Highland Park High School for "students, staff and community members."


title: Highland Park parade shooting

text: The Ravinia Festival in Highland Park announced the cancellation of all concerts and events through July 10. "This decision was made after careful consideration and in close consultation with many stakeholders, including neighbors, public officials, artists, and patrons. Our shared hope is that the reduced activity—both within the park and in the neighborhoods surrounding Ravinia—will give the community the space and quiet to reflect and heal."


title: Highland Park parade shooting

text: A GoFundMe campaign was established to benefit the two-year-old who was orphaned. By July 7, nearly $3 million had been raised.


title: Highland Park parade shooting

text: Members of the North Chicago Police Department were honored on July 18 for their role in capturing Crimo. The North Chicago City Council presented six officers and one detective with letters of commendation.


title: Highland Park parade shooting

text: The Small Business Administration is offering low interest loans to small businesses and nonprofits in Lake County, Cook County, McHenry County, and Kenosha County that may have suffered economic setbacks because of the shooting.


title: Highland Park parade shooting

text: With the city's blessings, the Highland Park Community Foundation also offered grants to the victims and to nonprofit organizations helping those affected.


title: Highland Park parade shooting

text: Crimo's parents released a statement through their attorney, stating: "We are all mothers and fathers, sisters and brothers, and this is a terrible tragedy for many families, the victims, the paradegoers, the community, and our own. Our hearts, thoughts, and prayers go out to everybody."


title: Highland Park parade shooting

text: President Joe Biden stated that he was shocked by the "senseless" gun violence and has offered the "full support of the Federal government" to the affected communities. He also called for gun control measures. Vice President Kamala Harris made a similar statement.


title: Highland Park parade shooting

text: Illinois governor J. B. Pritzker called the perpetrator a "monster" and stated that his office had made available all state resources to the community and was coordinating with local officials. He called for better gun control as well. Illinois U.S. Senator Dick Durbin called the attack "horrific" and "senseless". Gubernatorial candidate Darren Bailey advocated for "prayer and action to address rampant crime and mental health issues," calling the attack a "horrific tragedy". Bailey later apologized after saying, "...so let's pray for justice to prevail, and then let's move on and let's celebrate..." about 90 minutes after the shooting.


title: Highland Park parade shooting

text: Highland Park Mayor Nancy Rotering said the community had been shaken to its core. Chicago mayor Lori Lightfoot released a statement about the shooting, calling it devastating and that she had been in contact with Mayor Rotering and offered the city's support with the Chicago Police Department providing assistance. She also stated the city grieved with the families of victims and the injured.


title: Highland Park parade shooting

text: Illinois State Senator Julie Morrison and U.S. Representative Brad Schneider were in attendance and expressed their condolences. Morrison expressed a sentiment that she would never want to be in another parade. Schneider stated he and his campaign team were safe and highlighted his commitment to make the community a safer place.


title: Highland Park parade shooting

text: Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau released a statement on Twitter condemning the shooting the day after it had occurred, stating: "my heart breaks for the people of Highland Park, Illinois, who wanted nothing more than to celebrate their country this morning – but instead had their lives change forever. To the injured, and to the loved ones of the victims: Canadians are keeping you in our thoughts."


title: McLean Hospital

text: McLean Hospital () (formerly known as Somerville Asylum and Charlestown Asylum) is a psychiatric hospital in Belmont, Massachusetts. It is noted for its clinical staff expertise and neuroscience research and is also known for the large number of famous people who have been treated there. McLean maintains the world's largest neuroscientific and psychiatric research program in a private hospital. It is the largest psychiatric facility of Harvard Medical School, an affiliate of Massachusetts General Hospital, and part of Mass General Brigham, which also includes Brigham and Women's Hospital.


title: McLean Hospital

text: McLean was founded in 1811 in a section of Charlestown, Massachusetts that is now a part of Somerville, Massachusetts. Originally named Asylum for the Insane, it was the first institution organized by a group of prominent Bostonians who were concerned about homeless mentally ill persons "abounding on the streets and by-ways in and about Boston". The effort was organized by Rev. John Bartlett, chaplain of the Boston Almshouse. The hospital was built around a Charles Bulfinch mansion, which became the hospital's administrative building; most of the other hospital buildings were completed by 1818.


title: McLean Hospital

text: The institution was later given the name The McLean Asylum for the Insane in honor of one of its earliest benefactors, John McLean, who granted enough money to build several such hospitals. A portrait of McLean now hangs in the present Administration Building, along with other paintings that were once displayed in the original hospital. In 1892, the facility was renamed McLean Hospital in recognition of broader views on the treatment of mental illness.


title: McLean Hospital

text: In 1895 the campus moved to Waverley Oaks Hill in Belmont, Massachusetts. Joseph Curtis (civil engineer) and Frederick Law Olmsted (the renowned landscape architect who also conceptualized the Emerald Necklace public spaces of Boston, New York's Central Park, and Hartford's Institute of Living) were consulted on the selection of the hospital site. The move was necessitated by changes in Charlestown, including new rail lines and other distracting development. Olmsted himself was eventually treated at McLean, but there is no evidence that he was responsible for the design of the grounds. Once hospital construction began, Curtis was hired by the hospital, and supervised the landscape work for many years.


title: McLean Hospital

text: In the 1990s, facing falling revenue in a changing health care industry, the hospital drafted a plan to sell a portion of its grounds for development in the Town of Belmont. The proposed sale of the land caused a divisive and somewhat baroque political debate in the town during the late 1990s. Ultimately a plan to preserve some of Olmsted's original open space and to allow the town to develop mixed residential and commercial real estate prevailed over a plan to create only high-end residential development. The deal was finalized in 2005, and land development was well underway by the end of the year. Most of the Belmont campus (more than ) had been listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2003.


title: McLean Hospital

text: McLean is known widely for its treatment of adolescents, most specifically its treatment of borderline personality disorder using dialectical behavioral therapy developed by Marsha M. Linehan.


title: McLean Hospital

text: , McLean is led by Scott L. Rauch, President and Psychiatrist in Chief, who is known for his innovative work using brain imaging methods to study psychiatric dysfunction.


title: McLean Hospital

text: As one of the teaching hospitals of Harvard Medical School, McLean is differentiated from its New England peers (such as The Institute of Living and the Brattleboro Retreat) by its combination of teaching, treatment, and research; most other facilities focus on only one of these priorities. It is home to the Harvard Brain Tissue Resource Center, the largest "brain bank" collection of research specimens in the world. The hospital developed and implemented national health screening methods for alcohol, depression, and memory disorders. The Cole Resource Center, a mental health consumer resource and advocacy center, is located at the hospital.


title: McLean Hospital

text: Mathematician John Nash; musicians James Taylor, and Ray Charles; poets Sylvia Plath, Robert Lowell and Anne Sexton; Massachusetts politician and Civil War general Nathaniel P. Banks; authors Susanna Kaysen and David Foster Wallace; and criminal Michelle Carter have been treated at McLean Hospital.


title: McLean Hospital

text: One popular and anecdotal history of McLean is Alex Beam's "Gracefully Insane: Life and Death Inside America's Premier Mental Hospital". More-factual and scholarly accounts of the history are recorded in the Little and Sutton books listed in "Further reading".


title: McLean Hospital

text: Memoirs of time spent within McLean's walls include Sylvia Plath's novel "The Bell Jar", and Susanna Kaysen's "Girl, Interrupted", which was made into a film of the same name starring Winona Ryder and Angelina Jolie. Samuel Shem's roman à clef "Mount Misery" tells a story inspired at least in part by the author's experiences at McLean. The 1994 "Under Observation: Life Inside A Mental Hospital" by Lisa Berger and Alexander Vuckovic uses some fictional techniques (composite characters, etc.) to describe some of the typical events at McLean. James Taylor's song "Knockin' 'Round the Zoo" recalls his stay at McLean as a teenager. "Poems of Boston and Just Beyond: From the Back Bay to the Back Ward" by Doug Holder are based on his more than three decades working there, and are archived at the poetry room at the Lamont Library at Harvard University.


title: William Ellison

text: William Ellison Jr. ( April 1790 – December 5, 1861), born April Ellison, was a U.S. cotton gin maker and blacksmith in South Carolina, and former African-American slave who achieved considerable success as a slaveowner before the American Civil War. He eventually became a major planter and one of the medium property owners, and one of the wealthiest property owners in the state. According to the 1860 census (in which his surname was listed as "Ellerson"), he owned up to 68 black slaves, making him the largest of the 171 black slaveholders in South Carolina. He held 63 slaves at his death and more than of land. From 1830 to 1865 he and his sons were the only free blacks in Sumter County, South Carolina to own slaves. The county was largely devoted to cotton plantations, and the majority population were slaves.


title: William Ellison

text: Ellison and his sons were among a number of successful free people of color in the antebellum years, but Ellison's master had passed on social capital by apprenticing him to learn a valuable artisan trade as a cotton-gin maker, at which Ellison made a success. He took a wife at the age of 21. After buying his own freedom when he was 26, a few years later Ellison purchased his wife and their children, to protect them from sales as slaves. The Act of 1820 made it more difficult for slaveholders to make personal manumissions, but Ellison gained freedom for his sons and a quasi-freedom for his surviving daughter. During the American Civil War, Ellison and his sons supported the Confederate States of America and gave the government substantial donations and aid. A grandson fought informally with the regular Confederate Army and survived the war.


title: William Ellison

text: William Ellison Jr. was named "April" by his master when born into slavery about 1790 on a plantation near Winnsboro, South Carolina. The name indicated the month he was born, which was a common slave-naming practice at the time. In 1800-1802 the man April was documented as owned by William Ellison of Fairfield County, the son of Robert Ellison, a planter.


title: William Ellison

text: William Ellison apprenticed young April at age 10 to a cotton gin maker, William McCreight of Winnsboro. This would provide him with a valuable, highly skilled trade to make a living as an adult. Cotton gins were in demand, integral to the profitable processing of short-staple cotton. The invention of the cotton gin at the end of the 18th century led to the widespread cultivation of short-staple cotton across the upland areas of the Deep South, establishing the Black Belt and stimulating widespread changes in land use. Hundreds of thousands of new settlers were attracted to the region, and they created pressure for the federal government to conduct Indian removal throughout the Southeast and what became known as the Deep South. This also resulted in the forced migration of more than one thousand slaves from the Upper South to the Deep South through the domestic slave market, as slaves were sold to develop and labor on the new plantations.


title: William Ellison

text: April Ellison completed his apprenticeship after six years and continued to work at the shop as a hired hand. Most of his earnings went to his master, as April was a slave who was "hired out." But, it appears April was allowed to keep a portion of his fees, as he later purchased his freedom from Ellison. It was common practice, according to Black Codes of South Carolina and Louisiana, to pay slaves for any labor performed on Sunday. April continued to learn the variety of complex skills related to cotton-gin making and repair. He also learned blacksmithing.


title: William Ellison

text: At age 21, April took Matilda, a 16-year-old slave woman (1795- ), as his consort (slaves did not have legally recognized marriages). They had a daughter Aliza/Eliza Ann together, born in 1811. Eliza Ann later married James M. Johnson.


title: William Ellison

text: April and Matilda had several more children: three sons, Henry ( 1816-August 20, 1883), Reuben ( 1818- May 1864), and William Jr. (July 19, 1819 – July 24, 1904); and daughters Maria and Mary Elizabeth (June 11, 1824 – September 15, 1852). Note: These are documented as two different women, as Ellison bequeathed Maria money in his will of 1861 (see below), but Mary had already died by then.) Both names were popular for girls in those years.


title: William Ellison

text: On June 8, 1816, at the age of 26, April was freed by his master William Ellison (likely his father, as April took his name as a free man). April appeared to have purchased his freedom by money saved from a portion of his earnings. According to the 1800 law, five freemen had to appear with his master in court to attest to April's ability to support himself in freedom. At that time, he took the name "William Ellison, Jr." as aligning himself with the planter family.


title: William Ellison

text: It took years for Ellison to buy his wife and children out of slavery. He had to earn the money and also work within state laws that restricted such manumissions. His priority was to free his wife so that their future children were born free. In this slave society, children of slave mothers were considered slaves, regardless of the status of their fathers, according to the principle of "partus sequitur ventrem", which had been incorporated into state law since the 17th century, following the model of Virginia.


title: William Ellison

text: The manumission laws in South Carolina made it difficult for Ellison and others to free their relatives, especially children. Purchasing them from slaveholders was one step, but under the 1800 law, other free men had to certify that the slave could support himself in freedom. This obviously could not be the case for children. The Act of 1820 prohibited slaveholders from making personal manumissions by deed or court filings; they had to seek permission for each manumission by both houses of the legislature, and the number of manumissions dropped sharply as a result. For many free black people, being forced to hold their relatives as property put them at risk. In hard times, property, including slaves, could be confiscated or put up for forced sale to settle debts of an individual.


title: William Ellison

text: After purchasing his daughter Maria from her owner (as she had been born while her mother was still enslaved), Ellison set up a trust with a friend in 1830 to have legal title transferred to him for one dollar. Col. William McCreighton nominally "owned" Maria, but the trust provided for her to live with her father, who could free her if the laws changed to make it easier to achieve. McCreighton kept his part of the trust, and Maria lived as if she were free. As a young woman, she married Henry Jacobs, a free man of color in another county. In the 1850 census, Maria Ellison Jacobs was listed as a free woman of color, although no legal document supported that. In 1861, her father Ellison provided for her to receive $500 in his will.


title: William Ellison

text: After gaining his freedom, in 1817 Ellison moved to Sumter County, South Carolina, in the High Hills of Santee, where he established himself as a cotton gin maker. This area was rapidly being developed for cotton plantations of short-staple cotton. At first, he paid for the labor of slave artisans who had been "hired out" by their masters. Within two years he purchased two artisan slaves to work in his shop. By 1830 he held four artisan slaves.


title: William Ellison

text: By 1840 he held a total of 8 slaves who worked in his cotton gin business. They were both skilled and unskilled, as the latter cut wood from his land for the gins. By the 1850s, he also operated a blacksmith shop with artisan slaves. He advertised his business in the "Black River Watchman", the "Sumter Southern Whig", and the "Camden Gazette".


title: William Ellison

text: As cotton prices were high, there was demand for Ellison's services. Planters needed cotton gins to process their cotton profitably, as the machinery was much more efficient than manual labor. Eventually Ellison earned enough to buy land: starting with more than , by 1850 he had increased his holdings to , and established his own cotton plantation. By that time, he owned 32 slaves.


title: William Ellison

text: The Ellison family joined the Episcopal Church of the Holy Cross in Stateburg. As a mark of his status, on August 6, 1824, William Ellison was the first free person of color to install a family bench on the first floor of the church, which was usually reserved for wealthy white families who could afford to pay for a bench (and donate to the church).


title: William Ellison

text: Ellison and his family established a family cemetery on their plantation. Based on transcriptions of the gravestones, his wife and three generations of descendants, including his sons and their wives, were buried on this property. Family burials took place in the early decades of the twentieth century.


title: William Ellison

text: In 1852, Ellison bought Keith Hill and Hickory Hill plantations, bringing his total of land holdings to more than . He gave each of his sons part of the properties, as they were all working with him in his business. In 1850 the sons each held slave women who worked as domestic servants for their families.


title: William Ellison

text: After the outbreak of the American Civil War, in 1861 Ellison offered labor from his 53 slaves to the Confederate Army. He converted his cotton plantation to mixed crops to supply food to the cause. His sons also supported the Confederacy and tried to enlist, but were refused because of their race. They donated money, and bought Confederate bonds; with defeat, these bonds became worthless and they lost their investments, becoming destitute by the end of the war like many formerly successful whites.


title: William Ellison

text: William Ellison's daughter, Eliza Ann's, second marriage was to James M Johnson. Her first marriage was to Willis Buckner, an African American man, and produced one son, John Wilson Buckner (born 1831, the same year as the death of his father). John W Buckner served in the Civil War, Confederate Army, 7th Battalion Nelson's Enfield Rifles Company E South Carolina Infantry and, after the conclusion of the War, was a long time employee of his uncle, Henry Ellison. John W Buckner first married Jane "Jinsy" Pitts in 1856, but later married Sarah Oxendine on June 10, 1861.


title: William Ellison

text: At his death, Ellison provided for dividing his property, including over 60 slaves, among his surviving daughter Maria and two surviving sons. He bequeathed $500 to a slave daughter he had sold. There are differing views on who Willis and John Wilson Buckner were married to and their relationship to Ellison. Ellison family lore states that John Wilson Buckner was the grandson of Ellison. On March 27, 1863, John Wilson Buckner, William Ellison's oldest grandson, enlisted in the 1st South Carolina Artillery.


title: Canary Islanders

text: Canary Islanders, or Canarians (), are a Romance people and ethnic group. They reside on the Canary Islands, an autonomous community of Spain near the coast of northwest Africa, and descend from a mixture of European settlers and aboriginal Guanche peoples. Genetics shows modern Canarian people to be, on average, a population of mostly European ancestry, with some Northwest African admixture. The distinctive variety of the Spanish language spoken in the region is known as "habla canaria" ("Canary speech") or the ("dialecto")" canario" (Canarian dialect). The Canarians, and their descendants, played a major role during the conquest, colonization, and eventual independence movements of various countries in Latin America. Their ethnic and cultural presence is most palpable in the countries of Uruguay, Venezuela, Cuba, the Dominican Republic and Puerto Rico.


title: Canary Islanders

text: The original inhabitants of the Canary Islands are commonly known as Guanches (although this term in its strict sense only refers to the original inhabitants of Tenerife). They are believed to be either Berbers in origin or a related group.


title: Canary Islanders

text: The islands were conquered by Castile at the beginning of the 15th century. In 1402, they began to subdue and suppress the native Guanche population. The Guanches were initially enslaved and gradually absorbed. As a result, modern Canarian people are mixture of mostly European and North African, with low frequencies of sub-saharan. However, there are variation in its population depending on the individual.


title: Canary Islanders

text: After subsequent settlement by Europeans, the remaining Guanches were gradually diluted by the settlers and their culture largely vanished. Alonso Fernández de Lugo, conqueror of Tenerife and La Palma, oversaw extensive immigration to these islands during a short period from the late 1490s to the 1520s from mainland Europe, mostly Castile and Portugal. At subsequent judicial enquiries, Fernández de Lugo was accused of favoring Genoese and Portuguese immigrants over Castilians.


title: Canary Islanders

text: The native inhabitants of the Canary Islands hold a gene pool that is predominantly European and native Guanche. Guanche genetic markers have also been found recently in Puerto Rico and, at low frequencies, in peninsular Spain after later emigration from the Canary Islands.


title: Canary Islanders

text: The most frequent (maternal-descent) mtDNA haplogroup in Canary Islands is H (37.6%), followed by U6 (14.0%), T (12.7%), not-U6 U (10.3%) and J (7.0%). Two haplogroups, H and U6, alone account for more than 50% of the individuals. Significant frequencies of sub-Saharan maternal L haplogroups (6.6%) is also consistent with the historical records on introduction of sub-Saharan female slave labour in Canary Islands. However, some Sub-Saharan female lineages are also found in North African populations, and as a result, some of these L lineages could have been introduced to the Islands from North Africa. A 2009 study of DNA extracted from the remains of aboriginal inhabitants found that 7% of lineages were haplogroup L, which leaves open the possibility that these L lineages were part of the founding population of the Canary Islands. Sub-Saharan female lineages have been found in frequencies of 10% or more in some islands.


title: Canary Islanders

text: A 2003 genetics research article by Nicole Maca-Meyer et al. published in the "European Journal of Human Genetics" compared aboriginal Guanche mtDNA (collected from Canarian archaeological sites) to that of today's Canarians and concluded that "despite the continuous changes suffered by the population (Spanish colonization, slave trade), aboriginal mtDNA lineages constitute a considerable proportion [42–73%] of the Canarian gene pool". According to this article, both percentages are obtained using two different estimation methods; nevertheless according to the same study the percentage that could be more reliable is the one of 73%.


title: Canary Islanders

text: Although the Berbers are the most probable ancestors of the Guanches, it is deduced that important human movements (e.g., the Islamic-Arabic conquest of the Berbers) have reshaped Northwest Africa after the migratory wave to the Canary Islands and the "results support, from a maternal perspective, the supposition that since the end of the 16th century, at least, two-thirds of the Canarian population had an indigenous substrate, as was previously inferred from historical and anthropological data." mtDNA haplogroup U subclade U6b1 is Canarian-specific


title: Canary Islanders

text: A 2019 genetics research article confirms that most lineages observed in the ancient samples have a Mediterranean distribution, and belong to lineages associated with the Neolithic expansion in the Near East and Europe (T,J,X…). This phylogeographic analysis of Canarian ancient mitogenomes, the first of its kind, shows that some lineages are restricted to Central North Africa (H1cf, J2a2d and T2c1d3), while others have a wider distribution, including both West and Central North Africa, and, Europe and the Near East.


title: Canary Islanders

text: Y-DNA, or Y-chromosomal, (direct paternal) lineages were not analysed in this study; however, an earlier study giving the aboriginal y-DNA contribution at 6% was cited by Maca-Meyer et al., but the results were criticized as possibly flawed due to the widespread phylogeography of y-DNA haplogroup E1b1b1b, which may skew determination of the aboriginality versus coloniality of contemporary y-DNA lineages in the Canaries. Regardless, Maca-Meyer et al. state that historical evidence does support the explanation of "strong sexual asymmetry...as a result of a strong bias favoring matings between European males and aboriginal females, and to the important aboriginal male mortality during the Conquest."


title: Canary Islanders

text: Indeed, according to a recent study by Fregel et al. 2009, in spite of the geographic nearness between the Canary Islands and Morocco the genetic ancestry of the Canary islands males is mainly of European origin. Nearly 67% of the haplogroups resulting from are Euro–Eurasian (R1a (2.76%), R1b (50.62%), J (14%), I (9.66%) and G (3.99%)). Unsurprisingly the Castillian conquest brought the genetic base of the current male population of the Canary Islands. Nevertheless, the second most important haplogroup origin is Northern Africa. E1b1b (14% including 8.30% of the typical berber haplogroup E-M81), E1b1a and E1a (1.50%), and T (3%) haplogroups are present at a rate of 33%. According to the same study, the presence of autochthonous North African E-M81 lineages, and also other relatively abundant markers (E-M78 and J-M267) from the same region in the indigenous Guanche population, "strongly points to that area [North Africa] as the most probable origin of the Guanche ancestors". In this study, Fregel et al. estimated that, based on Y-chromosome and mtDNA haplogroup frequencies, the relative female and male indigenous Guanche contributions to the present-day Canary Islands populations were respectively of 41.8% and 16.1%.


title: Canary Islanders

text: Regarding mitochondrial DNA, the maternal lineages of Canary Islanders are characterized by the prevalence of European ancestry in all islands except La Gomera, in which the Northwest African lineage is stronger.


title: Canary Islanders

text: A 2002 study analyzing the mithocondrial DNA from the teeth of the 18th century Canarian population, found that the 18th century Canary Islanders had a bit more of North African heritage than European, with minor Sub-Saharian roots, which the author links to the former trade of black slaves.


title: Canary Islanders

text: An autosomal study in 2011 found an average Northwest African influence of about 17% in Canary Islanders with a wide interindividual variation ranging from 0% to 96%. According to the authors, the substantial Northwest African ancestry found for Canary Islanders supports that, despite the aggressive conquest by Castile in the 15th century and the subsequent immigration, genetic footprints of the first settlers of the Canary Islands persist in the current inhabitants. Paralleling mtDNA findings, the largest average Northwest African contribution was found for the samples from La Gomera.


title: Canary Islanders

text: Another recent study by Guillen-Guio et al. 2018 sequenced the entire genomes of a sample of 400 adult men and women from all the islands except La Graciosa to determine the relationship of Canarian genetic diversity to the more frequent complex pathologies in the archipielago. The study indicated that Canarian DNA shows distinctive genetic markers, the result of a combination of factors such as the geographic isolation of the islands, the adaption to the environment of its inhabitants and the historic admixture of the Pre-Hispanic population of the archipielago (coming from North Africa), with European and from Sub-Saharan area individuals. Drawing on these data, it was estimated that the Canarian population is, on average at an autosomal level, 75% European, 22% North African and 3% Sub-saharan. According to the authors "the proportion of SSA ancestry we observed in Canary Islanders likely originated in the postconquest importation of enslaved African people.". This study reported the below Genomic Ancestry Proportions in Canary Islanders.


title: Canary Islanders

text: Source: "Genomic Ancestry Proportions (from ADMIXTURE, K-4)" in Canary Islanders (Guillen-Guio et al. 2018)


title: Canary Islanders

text: The Guanches are related to the indigenous Berbers. In 2017, the first genome-wide data from the Guanches confirmed a North African origin and that they were genetically most similar to ancient North African Berber peoples of the nearby North African mainland. It also showed that modern inhabitants of Gran Canaria carry an estimated 16%–31% Guanche autosomal ancestry.


title: Canary Islanders

text: Modern-day Canarian culture is Spanish, with some Guanche influences. Some of the Canarian traditional sports such as "lucha canaria" ("Canarian fight"), "juego del palo" ("stick game") or "salto del pastor" ("shepherd's jump"), among others, have their roots in Guanche culture. Additionally, other traditions include Canarian pottery, words of Guanche origin in the Canarian speech and the rural consumption of "guarapo gomero" and "gofio". The inhabitants of La Gomera also retain an ancient way of communicating across deep ravines by means of a whistled speech called "Silbo Gomero", which can be heard up to away. This indigenous whistled language was invented by the Guanches, and was then adopted by the Spanish settlers in the 16th century after the Guanches were culturally assimilated into the population. The language was also formerly spoken on el Hierro, Tenerife and Gran Canaria


title: Canary Islanders

text: The holidays celebrated in the Canary Islands are of international, national and regional or insular character. The official day of the autonomous community is Canary Islands Day on 30 May. The anniversary of the first session of the Parliament of the Canary Islands, based in the city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, held on 30 May 1983, is commemorated with this day. The most famous festival of the Canary Islands is the carnival. The carnival is celebrated in all the islands and all its municipalities, perhaps the two busiest being those of the two Canarian capitals; the Carnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife ("Tourist Festival of International Interest") and the Carnival of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. It is celebrated on the streets between the months of February and March. But the rest of the islands of the archipelago have their carnivals with their own traditions among which stand out: The Festival of the Carneros of El Hierro, the Festival of the Diabletes of Teguise in Lanzarote, Los Indianos de La Palma, the Carnival of San Sebastián de La Gomera and the Carnival of Puerto del Rosario in Fuerteventura.


title: Canary Islanders

text: The strong influence of Latin America in Canarian culture is due to the constant emigration and return over the centuries of Canarians to that continent, chiefly to Puerto Rico, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Venezuela. To a lesser extent, they also went to the US states of Louisiana (mostly the southern portion) and Texas (mostly in and around San Antonio), and some areas in eastern Mexico including Nuevo León and Veracruz.


title: Canary Islanders

text: The majority of native Canary Islanders are Roman Catholic with various smaller foreign-born populations of other Christian beliefs such as Protestants from northern Europe.


title: Canary Islanders

text: The appearance of the Virgin of Candelaria (Patron of Canary Islands) was credited with moving the Canary Islands toward Christianity. Two Catholic saints were born in the Canary Islands: Peter of Saint Joseph de Betancur and José de Anchieta. Both born on the island of Tenerife, they were respectively missionaries in Guatemala and Brazil.


title: Canary Islanders

text: Around 5 percent of Canarians belong to a minority religion. Separate from the overwhelming Christian majority are a minority of Muslims who are usually foreign-born. At present, there are in the Canary Islands a figure of approximately 70,000 Muslims and 40 mosques and places of worship throughout the archipelago.


title: Canary Islanders

text: Among the followers of Islam, the Islamic Federation of the Canary Islands exists to represent the Islamic community in the Canary Islands as well as to provide practical support to members of the Islamic community.


title: Canary Islanders

text: Historically, the Canary Islands have served as a hub between Spain and the Americas; favoured by that circumstance, large groups of Canary islanders have emigrated and settled all over the New World as early as the 15th century, mainly in Cuba, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, Colombia, Venezuela and Uruguay.


title: Canary Islanders

text: The Canarian population includes long-tenured and new waves of mainland Spanish immigrants, including Andalucians, Galicians, Castilians, Catalans, Basques and Asturians of Spain; old settlers of Portuguese, Italian, the Dutch or Flemish, British, and French origin, as well as recent foreign-born arrivals. In 2019 the total population was 2,153,389, of which 72.1% were native Canary Islanders. A total of 80.6%, or 1,735,457, were born in Spain and 19.4%, or 417,932, were born outside the country. Of these, the majority are from the Americas, mainly from Venezuela (66,573) and Cuba (41,792) and Colombia (31,368). There are 38,768 people from Africa, the majority from Morocco (24,268).


title: Canary Islanders

text: According to a 2012 study by the Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas, when asked about national identity, the majority of respondents from the Canary Islands (49.3%) consider themselves Spanish and Canarian in equal measures, followed by 37.1% who consider themselves more Canarian than Spanish. Only 6.1% of the respondents consider themselves only Canarian.


title: Norwegian Prima

text: Norwegian Prima is a Prima-class class cruise ship operated by Norwegian Cruise Line (NCL). She is the first of six new ships in its class and entered service in August 2022.


title: Cobbler (Better Call Saul)

text: "Cobbler" is the second episode of the second season of the AMC television series "Better Call Saul", a spin-off series of "Breaking Bad". The episode aired on February 22, 2016 on AMC in the United States. Outside of the United States, the episode premiered on streaming service Netflix in several countries.


title: Cobbler (Better Call Saul)

text: Howard Hamlin arrives to deliver groceries as Chuck McGill plays Gabriel Fauré's "Sicilienne" on his home piano. Chuck says he is apprehensive about Jimmy McGill joining Davis & Main, which Howard says happened mostly through Kim Wexler's efforts. After Howard leaves, Chuck turns on his metronome and stares at it silently.


title: Cobbler (Better Call Saul)

text: Before a meeting between Hamlin, Hamlin & McGill, and D&M, Kim rearranges name placards so that she and Jimmy sit side by side. On a break, she gives him a travel mug that originally read "World's Best Lawyer", which she altered to "World's 2nd Best Lawyer". At the nail salon Jimmy receives his new Mercedes-Benz company car, and is frustrated that his mug does not fit in the cup holder like it did in his old car.


title: Cobbler (Better Call Saul)

text: At the courthouse, Mike Ehrmantraut sees Daniel Wormald arrive. He tells Mike about the burglary at his house and Mike cautions him about talking to the police, but Daniel is adamant about getting his baseball cards back. To prevent Daniel from meeting with the police, Mike offers to find the cards. Nacho Varga refuses to return them so Mike threatens to inform Tuco Salamanca about Nacho's secret drug deals. They agree that Daniel and Nacho will trade Daniel's Hummer for the baseball cards and $10,000.


title: Cobbler (Better Call Saul)

text: Chuck sits in during an HHM–D&M meeting. Jimmy is hesitant to discuss Sandpiper client outreach but continues after silent encouragement from Kim. Mike asks him to represent Daniel when Daniel meets with the police. Daniel tells detectives his baseball cards were returned so there is no need for further investigation, but they are skeptical. Jimmy talks to them privately and fabricates a story about a failed gay love affair and the stealing of the baseball cards as revenge. To provide an explanation for Daniel's hiding place, Jimmy claims it contained videos of Daniel sitting on various types of pies, a fictitious fetish called "Hoboken squat cobbler". The detectives believe him and end their investigation.


title: Cobbler (Better Call Saul)

text: That night, Jimmy tells Kim about Daniel's case, including fabricating the videos. Kim is appalled that Jimmy resorted to an underhanded scheme. Jimmy counters by asking why she was willing to play along with tricking Ken. She says that con had nothing to do with work. She asks why Jimmy was willing to falsify evidence to exonerate a client, and he is unable to provide a satisfactory answer.


title: Cobbler (Better Call Saul)

text: Bob Odenkirk was said to have inspired the name of the episode and the fetish portrayed in the police interrogation room scene. Peter Gould said "There weren't as many names. In fact, I don't know that we named it at all. I think (Jimmy) just said, 'He sits in pies.' He pitched the idea: 'Sex acts all have a name. Shouldn't there be a name for this thing?'"


title: Cobbler (Better Call Saul)

text: "On this show, he mostly is a performer, but every once in a while, you see that he really is one of the great comic minds of our time. That was an example of Bob giving us a direction that we ran with, and then he ran with it in performance. And I just love it. I have to say, that was an interesting evolution of that scene. I'm really proud of it." As Chuck, Michael McKean actually played "Sicilienne" on the piano for the cold open, but the notes he follows are not for a solo piano performance as Chuck does; rather "a duet for piano and flute".


title: Cobbler (Better Call Saul)

text: Including DVR playback, the episode was watched by 4.373 million viewers and attained an 18-49 rating of 2.0.


title: Cobbler (Better Call Saul)

text: The episode received critical acclaim from critics, with much of the praise going to Bob Odenkirk's performance, Jimmy McGill's character development, and the police interrogation room scene. Terri Schwartz of IGN gave the episode an 8.8 rating, noting that the episode "made excellent use of Bob Odenkirk's humor, delivering some of the funniest moments of the series". "The Telegraph" noted how "amid the chuckles were intimations of darker days ahead".


title: Cobbler (Better Call Saul)

text: Donna Bowman of "The A.V. Club" gave the episode an A- rating, comparing the police scene to the bar scene from the previous episode, saying It’s the criminal defense equivalent of the Viktor-with-a-K con from the premiere, a web of pure fabrication that plays right into the police’s jaded worldview: People are sick; anything’s possible; it’s almost too crazy not to be real. But to seal the deal, Jimmy buys some baked goods and films Daniel sitting on them. It’s not clear he needed to do this to convince the police. Rather, as he’s gleefully recounting the scam to Kim, it seems that he takes some pleasure in humiliating the idiotic dipshit. In doing so, though, he crosses a line—he fabricates evidence. Kim’s horrified, but for Jimmy, it’s a way of being both Slippin’ Jimmy and James M. McGill, Esq. He’s keeping it isolated from Davis & Main, he assures her; strictly pro bono work. He’s trying to have the cocobolo desk and flip the forbidden switch at the same time.


title: Cobbler (Better Call Saul)

text: Nicholas Parco of "The New York Daily News" said of the police scene and the episode as a whole that "Sure, McGill [...] is nowhere near the Goodman that "Breaking Bad" fans fell in love with, but in the final scene of the aptly titled “Cobbler,” the evolution shines through more than ever. Alan Sepinwall of "HitFix" called the scene "the funniest "Breaking Bad" universe moment since Jesse thought Walt was going to build a robot, and the show sending a reassuring message that it will do just fine whenever the switch in Jimmy's office flips permanently to the Saul position." David Segal of "The New York Times" called the scene "my favorite scene of this very young season. I particularly loved the notion that as convincing as Jimmy was, the cops apparently ended the interview less than fully persuaded that a lover’s spat, and the aforementioned fetish, explained the home robbery of Daniel Wormald, the world’s most irritating naïf."


title: Cobbler (Better Call Saul)

text: Jonathan Banks's role as Mike was received positively by critics as well. Sean T. Collins of "The New York Observer" said "Mike’s material is strong even by his own standards. His dynamic with Daniel Wormald [...] is exasperatingly entertaining enough to come with the "Curb Your Enthusiasm" soundtrack. [...] And it’s worth pointing out that in deciding to help reclaim the cards only after Dan reveals some of them belonged to his dad, we catch a glimpse of the tragic father-and-son backstory we learned about Mike in Season One’s strongest episode."


title: David Popovici

text: David Popovici (; born 15 September 2004) is a Romanian competitive swimmer who specializes in freestyle. He is the current holder of the world record in the long course 100-metre freestyle and the junior world record in the long course 200-metre freestyle. At the 2022 World Aquatics Championships, Popovici won gold medals in his two signature events (Men's 100-metre freestyle and Men's 200-metre freestyle), becoming the first swimmer to do so at the same edition of the World Championships, since Jim Montgomery in 1973.


title: David Popovici

text: Popovici was born in Bucharest, and he started swimming at Lia Manoliu pool at the age of 4, at a doctor's recommendation to correct early stage scoliosis. At the age of 9 he began to train at Aqua Team Bucharest, under coach Adrian Rădulescu, a former swimmer with a PhD in athletic performance specialized in swimming. At the age of 10, Popovici broke his first junior national record, in 50 m backstroke – a 24 year-old record held by Dragoș Coman, a 2003 world bronze medalist. At 14 he became the fastest swimmer under 15 in the history of the European Youth Olympic Festival, swimming 100 meters in 49.82 seconds.


title: David Popovici

text: At the 2020 European Aquatics Championships in Budapest, which took place from 10 to 23 May 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Popovici managed to swim below the Olympic Qualifying Time in the Men's 100-metre freestyle event and by doing so, he qualified for the Tokyo 2020 Olympics, being the youngest member of the Romanian team. He broke the Romanian national record three times during the event (in the heats, semifinal and final), finishing sixth place in the final. Popovici also competed in the Men's 50-metre freestyle and the Men's 200-metre freestyle, meeting the Olympic Selection Time in both of the events.


title: David Popovici

text: Popovici won a total of four medals, at the 2021 European Junior Swimming Championships in Rome, where he broke the 100-metre freestyle junior world record twice, and the 200-metre freestyle junior world record once. In the 4x100-metre freestyle relay, he broke the junior world record for the first time, with a time of 47.56, helping the relay win the silver medal. Two days later, he managed to break the same junior world record again, this time in the 100-metre freestyle event, to win the gold medal, with a time of 47.30. This performance made Popovici the fastest man in the world at that time in 2021, surpassing Kliment Kolesnikov. His second gold medal of the European Junior Championships came in the 200-metre freestyle event, where he broke another junior world record in the semifinal, with a time of 1:45.26. He won his third gold medal in the 50-metre freestyle event, where he finished 0.61 seconds ahead of second place finisher Nikita Chernousov.


title: David Popovici

text: At the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, which were postponed to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Popovici competed in the 50-metre, 100-metre, and 200-metre freestyle individual events, following his good performances at the European Championships. While he did not win a medal, he was only 0.02 seconds behind bronze medalist Fernando Scheffer, and ahead of Martin Malyutin (who won the gold medal at the European Championships), as he finished fourth in the Men's 200-metre freestyle, with a time of 1:44.68. In the Men's 100-metre freestyle, Popovici once again asserted himself as a medal contender, qualifying for the final (47.72) and ultimately placing seventh, with a time of 48.04.


title: David Popovici

text: To follow-up a pair of national records accomplished while racing at the FINA World Cup meet in Kazan, clocking respective performances of 46.77 in the 100-metre freestyle, and 1:43.58 in the 200-metre freestyle, Popovici entered to compete at the 2021 European Short Course Swimming Championships held at the Kazan Aquatics Palace in Russia. On 6 November, Popovici won the gold medal in the Men's 200-metre freestyle event, with a time of 1:42.12, breaking his own national record from the World Cup. He failed to qualify for the finals in the Men's 100-metre freestyle, and Men's 400-metre freestyle individual events.


title: David Popovici

text: In his first of two events at the 2021 World Short Course Championships, the 400-metre freestyle on 16 December, Popovici placed thirty-second with a time of 3:46.08 and did not qualify for the evening final. For his second event, the 200-metre freestyle the following day, he ranked fourteenth in the preliminary heats with a 1:43.62, not qualifying for the final of the event.


title: David Popovici

text: At the 2022 World Championships, Popovici won gold medals in the Men's 100-metre freestyle and the Men's 200-metre freestyle, becoming the first swimmer in 49 years to win gold in both sprint events, at the same edition of the world championships. Popovici dominated throughout the heats, semifinals and final of the 200-metre freestyle event, firstly clocking a personal best 1:44.40 in the semifinal, to take the top seed and break a world junior record. In the final, on 20 June, he finished 1.26 seconds ahead of his closest competitor, Hwang Sun-woo, touching the wall at 1:43.21 to become the fourth fastest performer of all-time (second fastest performer of all-time in a textile swimsuit) and win the gold medal. This performance made Popovici the second-youngest swimmer to win the Men's 200-metre freestyle event at the world championships (following Tim Shaw), at only 17 years and 278 days old. On Day 4, in the semifinal of the 100-metre freestyle, Popovici broke his third world junior record in as many days by clocking a 47.13, heading into the final as the top seed by nearly half a second. On the next day, in the final, he managed to win his second gold medal, touching at 47.58 for a come-from-behind victory, just .06 ahead of France's Maxime Grousset.


title: David Popovici

text: At the 2022 European Junior Championships in Otopeni, Popovici competed in five individual and relay events, winning either gold or silver in all five of them, and helping his compatriots to what was going to be Romania's most successful European Junior Championships. Matching his individual performances in Rome from last year, he won the gold medal in the Men's 50-metre, 100-metre, and 200-metre freestyle events, most notably winning the 200-metre freestyle final with a time of 1:45.45, which was 2.26 seconds ahead of silver medalist Lorenzo Galossi. On 5 July, Popovici led off the Romanian Men’s 4×100 freestyle relay in 47.54, as the quartet composed of himself, Vlad Stancu, Ștefan Cozma and Patrick Dinu won gold in front of a home crowd, with a time of 3:18.93. One day later, on 6 July, Popovici was part of the Romanian relay that won the silver medal in the Mixed 4x100-metre freestyle, along with Patrick Dinu, Bianca Costea, and Rebecca Diaconescu.


title: David Popovici

text: Popovici kept his momentum rolling from the world championships into Rome, where he entered to compete at the 2022 European Aquatics Championships. His meet started with the 100-metre freestyle, where in the prelims he clocked a new championship record of 47.20. He followed that up with a 46.98 performance in the semifinals, setting a new world junior record and European record. Furthermore, his closing split in the semifinals (24.05), became the fastest in the history of the event at that time. On 13 August 2022, Popovici one-upped himself in the final, touching at 46.86 to not only win gold, but break César Cielo's 13-year-old world record in the event, by 0.05 seconds. The Romanian was not leading at the halfway mark of the race, opening in 22.74 and trailing Maxime Grousset with fifty meters left to go. However, he came home in a scintillating 24.12 final fifty, and ended up winning 0.61 seconds ahead of his closest competitor. Following his performances in the semifinals and the final, Popovici became the first swimmer to crack the 47-second mark two times. On 14 August, he once again proved he was in top form in the 200-metre freestyle event, moving through the prelims and the semifinals easily, and dropping the hammer in the final the following day, clocking a new world junior record of 1:42.97, to win his second gold medal. This performance made him the fastest textile performer in the history of the event and third fastest all-time behind Michael Phelps and world record holder Paul Biedermann. On 17 August, Popovici swum in the heats of the Men's 400-metre freestyle event, clocking a personal best of 3:47.99, but later withdrew from the final. Following the conclusion of the competition, LEN, the official governing body of European Aquatics, announced that David Popovici was named the male swimmer of the meet, as his performances earned him the highest number of FINA points during the championships.


title: David Popovici

text: Two weeks before his eighteenth birthday, Popovici competed at the 2022 World Junior Championships in Lima, in his final long course international competition as a junior athlete. On the first day, 30 August, Popovici helped the Romanian relay to a gold medal in the Men's 4x100-metre freestyle event, finishing 1.45 seconds ahead of the French relay that won the silver medal. He twice lowered the FINA World Junior Championship Record in the 100-metre freestyle; first by leading off the relay in prelims, and then again in the final. The next day, he managed to do the same in the 200-metre freestyle, as he captured the gold medal, covering his four laps in a champion-record mark of 1:46.18. Popovici ended up touching the wall almost three seconds before silver medalist Dániel Mészáros, who was timed in 1:48.98. On 1 September, the Romanian relay featuring Popovici on the leadoff leg, won the silver medal in the Mixed 4x100-metre freestyle event, with a time of 3:30.39, finishing 0.36 seconds behind the Hungarian relay. In his final event, Popovici swam in the 100-metre freestyle, winning his third gold medal, with a time of 47.13, 2.24 seconds ahead of silver medalist Jere Hribar.


title: David Popovici

text: On day two of the 2022 World Short Course Championships in Melbourne, Australia, Popovici set a new world junior record in the semifinals of the 100 metre freestyle with a time of 45.91 seconds, which was 0.20 seconds faster than the former mark of 46.11 by Kliment Kolesnikov. The following day, he placed thirty-first in the 400 metre freestyle with a time of 3:58.48. In the final of the 100 metre freestyle, he set another world junior record with a personal best time of 45.64 seconds and placed fourth. The sixth and final day, he won the silver medal in the 200 metre freestyle with a new Romanian record time of 1:40.79.


title: David Popovici

text: Popovici grew up idolizing Michael Phelps and Ian Thorpe. He also stated that he is inspired by Floyd Mayweather, following Mayweather's training methods and the way he motivated himself. In December 2021, Popovici signed an endorsement deal with Arena.


title: David Popovici

text: In July 2022, Popovici was awarded the Order of the Star of Romania, the highest civil order in the nation, by the Romanian president Klaus Iohannis.


title: Sven (Frozen)

text: Sven is a fictional character who appears in the animated feature film "Frozen" (2013) and its sequel "Frozen II" (2019), produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios. He is a reindeer that lives together with his companion, Kristoff. Sven, alongside Kristoff, assists princess Anna in her search for her sister, queen Elsa, who has run away after placing the kingdom of Arendelle under an eternal winter. During their adventure, Sven also meets and befriends a living snowman, Olaf. Years after the events from the first film, Sven and the others go in search of a mysterious voice heard by Elsa. In the course of the journey, Sven meets other reindeer. Besides the two films, Sven is also present in the short film "Frozen Fever" (2015) and the featurette "Olaf's Frozen Adventure" (2017).


title: Sven (Frozen)

text: Sven was created by "Frozen" directors Chris Buck and Jennifer Lee. In the making of Sven's character, the animation team brought a real-life reindeer into the studio in order to study its behavior and incorporate the observed elements in Sven's portrayal. Nonetheless, because of the reindeer's lack of motion, Sven's depiction was eventually developed based on the mannerisms of a dog. His appearance was designed to be realistic.


title: Sven (Frozen)

text: Critical reception of Sven's character has been generally positive, with journalists commending his loyalty and describing him as lovable. Reviewers have also regarded Sven as a source of comic relief, and they have praised his relationship with Kristoff. Merchandise inspired by the character has been released, including stuffed toys and action figures.


title: Sven (Frozen)

text: In order to study reindeer for the development of the film "Frozen" (2013), produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios and codirected by Chris Buck and Jennifer Lee, the filmmakers went to a reindeer farm management in Roros, Norway, owned by the Sami people. The animation team also decided to bring a real-life reindeer into the studio to analyze its mannerisms and implement them into Sven's portrayal. The animators remarked how the reindeer scratched behind its ears using its back legs similarly to how dogs do, and they decided to make this one of Sven's habits as well. Nevertheless, after realizing that the reindeer did not do much besides standing in the same place, the animators decided to depict Sven as "an excited dog" and "an inquisitive pooch that sniffs around the place". Animator John Lasseter highlighted the resemblance between his Labrador and Sven, which derives from how both of them act. The filmmakers had initially planned to give the name "Thor" to the character, but the idea was discarded because of the excessive usage of this name among the company.


title: Sven (Frozen)

text: "Frozen" director Jennifer Lee felt Sven is the character that differs the least from the way he had been conceptualized since the filmmakers had decided from the beginning that he would never speak; she said the only change related to him in the making of the film was that his role in the story had become "bigger and bigger". Chris Buck, the other "Frozen" director, mentioned that he had tried to make the characters including Sven "as interesting and entertaining as possible". He further stated they had enjoyed deciding how Sven would be portrayed in the film. Buck commented that while Sven could have remained only a "pantomime character", Lee had proposed the idea of having Kristoff talk for Sven since she also does this with her cats; Buck had immediately perceived this as a "great idea" because of acting with his dogs in the same manner, and as a result the concept was incorporated in the story. Lee stated that the way Kristoff expresses Sven's thoughts is "fun". Buck further said he enjoyed how Kristoff pretended not to understand Sven when he tried to communicate with Kristoff through sounds. He described Sven and Kristoff as "best friends" and mentioned that Sven acts like his conscience. Lee commented that the filmmakers had tried to find similarities between Sven and the snowman Olaf in order to introduce the two of them in an intelligent manner during the teaser trailer for "Frozen", and as a result they had decided to highlight their common interest in carrots.


title: Sven (Frozen)

text: The sounds Sven makes such as his grunts and snorts were recorded by the voice actor Frank Welker. Jonathan Groff, who provides the English voice for Kristoff, stated that while Olaf and some animals from other Disney films have the ability to talk, Sven cannot do so. He said that he had recorded a duet with himself for one of the moments when Kristoff expressed Sven's replies. Groff mentioned that the filmmakers had informed him when he had begun his work for the film that he would also provide a "reindeer voice", adding that he had enjoyed recording it. He said that "a lot of people have weird pet voices for their pets"; according to Groff, when he and the filmmakers were "exploring the world of that", he "tried a bunch of different voices" and they "landed on the one that is Sven". In a sequence from the sequel "Frozen II" (2019), which is viewed from Kristoff's perspective, Sven directly talks and is also voiced by Groff.


title: Sven (Frozen)

text: Sven's design was created in order to highlight Kristoff's disheveled appearance. He was conceptualized as "dumpy" and unappealing so that he would look realistic. His appearance was created in contrast with the design of Santa Claus's reindeer from Christmas cartoon episodes. One of Sven's earlier designs depicted him as a reindeer with just one antler. Head of the animation Lino DiSalvo stated Sven's design is far from being majestic. He added that Sven living in the wilderness without being brushed offered him a battered appearance, which provided comic relief. DiSalvo said Sven's eyebrows are expressive, adding that Sven communicates through them. Story artist Chris Williams mentioned that he had not known how reindeer looked before working on Sven, stating that he had grown up believing they were the "graceful, powerful creatures" that were portrayed in cartoons. Clio Chiang, another story artist, regarded Sven as a stubby animal and referred to him as her favorite character. Bill Schwab, "Frozen II"s art director of characters, said that Sven's antlers are covered with "a fuzzy coating" in this sequel since it takes place during autumn. Schwab also stated that Sven's "harness has an autumnal wheat motif", which serves as a connection to both Anna and Arendelle; he further commented that this motif is found on many elements from the film related to Arendelle. He mentioned that while "Sven stands out" among the other reindeer from "Frozen II" since he is larger, "the Northuldra reindeer do feel like [they are] related to him".


title: Sven (Frozen)

text: After being asked about the similarity between Sven and the character Maximus from the film "Tangled" (2010) because of their doglike behavior, Jennifer Lee stated that she could not see the resemblance, adding that Sven is "not nearly as smart as Maximus", while Chris Buck shared similar thoughts. Lee further said that reindeer resemble dogs more than horses do and mentioned that Sven was created to be "a lot more like an animal" than Maximus; she elaborated on this by stating that viewers can understand Sven's thoughts only near the end of the story and that Kristoff "speaks for him and treats him more like a pet" compared to other animals from Disney films.


title: Sven (Frozen)

text: Sven is a non-speaking reindeer, who has been a companion to Kristoff since they were young. Kristoff understands what Sven communicates through his facial expressions and movements, and he sometimes voices Sven's thoughts. The two of them work together harvesting ice at the beginning of the film, with Sven pulling the sled that carries the ice. Following this, they meet several trolls that are disguised as rocks, and a female troll adopts Sven and Kristoff. Years later, the two of them travel together to the kingdom of Arendelle on the coronation day of princess Elsa. In the forest near Arendelle, they subsequently meet princess Anna, Elsa's estranged sister, who asks them to take her to the North Mountain — Elsa's location after fleeing from the kingdom because of unwillingly placing it under an everlasting winter. On their way, Sven and Kristoff lose their sled after being chased by wolves, but Sven convinces Kristoff to continue helping Anna nonetheless. Later, they meet a talking snowman created by Elsa, Olaf, who offers to guide them. Sven alongside the others manages to help Anna reach Elsa's newly created ice castle, but after Elsa casts ice magic on her, the group brings Anna back to Arendelle. Soon after they leave Anna in her maids' care, Sven shows his intention to return along with Kristoff to her, and they immediately start heading toward Arendelle once they realize Anna is in danger on account of a snowstorm that is forming. On the frozen fjord near Arendelle, Sven then saves Kristoff from falling into the icy water. Because of their actions throughout the story, Sven and the others help overcome Hans, the evil acting leader of Arendelle, and contribute to Anna's permanent reunion with Elsa and to Elsa being able to bring summer back in the end. As a result, Elsa awards a medal to Sven, and Anna offers him and Kristoff a new sled.


title: Sven (Frozen)

text: In the short film "Frozen Fever" (2015), Sven contributes to the arrangements for Anna's birthday party, but he falls asleep along with Kristoff and Olaf in the meantime. They wake up because of several small living snowmen, who have been created by Elsa's sneezes and who wish to reach Anna's birthday cake. Trying to stop them, Kristoff accidentally spills a drink over Sven and himself. While running after the snowmen in an attempt to catch them, Sven ends up with his tongue stuck to an icy poll. Later, Kristoff climbs on top of Sven and holds the birthday cake in order to present it in this manner to Anna. After Anna and Elsa arrive at the kingdom's gates, Sven slices the birthday cake with the help of his antlers. Eventually, Sven brings the snowmen to Elsa's ice castle alongside Kristoff and Olaf.


title: Sven (Frozen)

text: Sven also appears in the featurette "Olaf's Frozen Adventure" (2017), at the beginning of which he brings a huge bell to the castle along with Kristoff to celebrate Christmas. He then helps Kristoff to explain a tradition among trolls to Anna and Elsa. Afterward, Sven and Olaf decide to go in search of family traditions for Anna and Elsa since they do not have any. On their way back to the castle after collecting many traditions, the sled pulled by Sven goes on fire. Following the sled's destruction, Sven and Olaf end up on opposite sides of a ravine. After realizing that Olaf has been approached by wolves, Sven immediately runs back to the kingdom in order to get help. Upon arriving there, he tries to explain to Kristoff what has happened to Olaf, but he manages to understand the situation only after Anna and Elsa correctly interpret Sven's message. They right away begin their search for Olaf, and when they find him covered with snow, Sven catches him by his nose and pulls him out. While heading back toward the castle, Sven stops alongside everyone else at a frozen lake, where Elsa creates a Christmas tree out of ice. Afterward, she places Olaf between Sven's antlers, and they look joyfully at the tree.


title: Sven (Frozen)

text: In the film "Frozen II", three years have passed since the events from the original film. Sven spends time alongside Kristoff, Olaf, Anna, and Elsa in the kingdom of Arendelle. Later, he assists them as they play charades. After Elsa starts hearing a mysterious voice, Sven and the others leave to find answers regarding it, and they arrive at a magical forest; there, they meet a tribe called the Northuldra. Among the Northuldra, Sven encounters other reindeer. After Anna leaves with Elsa and Olaf to find the voice, Sven accompanies Kristoff when he sings about Anna. Some time later, Sven and Kristoff save Anna from several giants. Once everything is solved, Sven runs happily in a circle with the other reindeer. Throughout the film, Sven supports Kristoff's attempts to propose to Anna, and he cries joyfully when the proposal happens. In the end, Sven and the people of Arendelle celebrate the coronation of Anna, who becomes the new queen after Elsa decides to remain in the forest.


title: Sven (Frozen)

text: Sven appears in the 2020 short film "Once Upon a Snowman", where events from the first "Frozen" film are presented from a different perspective. He makes a cameo appearance in the film "Moana" (2016), in which the character Maui, who has the ability of shapeshifting, briefly transforms into him. The character also appears in the teaser trailer for "Frozen", which presents an original story where Sven tries to reach Olaf's carrot nose after Olaf loses it on a frozen lake; while he initially has difficulties with this task such as remaining with his tongue stuck to the frozen surface, Sven manages to outdistance Olaf and arrives at his nose first, but he subsequently returns it to Olaf and bonds happily with him as a result. Sven is also present in an advertisement created for Sky Cinema, in which he pulls a sled, and in a Christmas advertisement.


title: Sven (Frozen)

text: Sven is present in the four short films developed by the company The Lego Group that are part of the brand extension "Frozen Northern Lights", where he sometimes seems to be talking and is voiced by Jonathan Groff; he also appears in the book series resulted from the extension. Sven is depicted in a comic book series as a result of Disney's partnership with Dark Horse Comics. He is also portrayed in a comic book series published by Joe Books Ltd. Sven is present in a pop-up book written by Matthew Reinhart, in an adult coloring book, and in other books as well. He appears in the platform video game "". Sven is also present in the mobile games "Frozen Free Fall", "Disney Build It: Frozen", "Disney Tsum Tsum", "Disney Magic Kingdoms", and "Olaf's Adventures". He is a character in the crossover action video game "Kingdom Hearts III" as well. He also appears in the video game "Minecraft". Sven has been shown in emoji form. Costumes replicating Sven's design have appeared in the video game "LittleBigPlanet 3", and in the online game "Club Penguin". A character based on Sven that shares the same name is present in the television series "Once Upon a Time", and it is portrayed by a real-life reindeer.


title: Sven (Frozen)

text: Sven appears in the musical "Frozen", in which he is portrayed by the actors Andrew Pirozzi and Adam Jepsen; the actors Collin Baja and Evan Strand play the role of Sven on the North American tour, while the actor Ashley Birchall and the actress Mikayla Jade will portray Sven on the West End musical. Sven is present in the stage show "Frozen – Live at the Hyperion" as well. He also appears in the musical stage show "Frozen Jr.", where the cast consists only of young actors. Sven has been a part of "Disney on Ice"s "Frozen" shows, and of Disney Cruise Line shows. He makes several appearances during the ride "Frozen Ever After". Sven has also appeared on floats that have been displayed during parades at Walt Disney Parks and Resorts. Sven can be seen in special locations for photographs that have been arranged at Tokyo Disneyland, with one of them depicting him alone, and another one presenting him alongside other "Frozen" characters; a giant figure portraying him has been displayed there as well. He also appears during a ride at Hong Kong Disneyland. Sven is present during an attraction at Disneyland Paris, and he appears in a show there as well. Sven is also present in PhotoPass pictures taken at Disney's Animal Kingdom. He has been featured in a holiday window arrangement.


title: Sven (Frozen)

text: Sven's character has received a generally positive critical response, with reviewers praising his portrayal in the franchise. Writers regarded Sven as "lovable", and he was also characterized as "friendly", "goofy", "trusty", "sweet", "funny", "cute", "adorably anthropomorphic", and as having "a winsome charm". Critics praised Sven's doglike behavior, stating it originates from his "degree of understanding and loyalty". Sven was considered an "iconic" "Frozen" character, an "adored" character, and one of the franchise's "key supporting characters". He was also described as the "funniest" character in the story. Alonso Duralde of "The Wrap" stated that Sven differs from most of the other animals in Disney films since he does not speak, which obliges Kristoff to hold their conversations from both points of view. Sven was viewed as a source of comic relief, and the interactions between him and the other characters were also commended. Sven's "speed and strength" were praised as well. Sven was commented "to please younger viewers" in "Frozen II", and his design was praised.


title: Sven (Frozen)

text: Journalists have compared Sven with several characters from other stories. Critics commented on the similarity between Sven and the character Maximus from "Tangled", mentioning that Sven is "almost as inspired" as Maximus, characterizing him as a well-received "rehash of Maximus" because of the "canine" behavior of both characters, and describing him as "loyal, adventuresome, and very, very doglike" in the process. Nevertheless, "IGN" writer Witney Seibold felt that Sven is "not nearly as funny or as entertaining as Maximus". Reviewers mentioned that Sven resembles the character Chewbacca from the "Star Wars" franchise as well, stating the sounds they make are similar. Todd McCarthy of "The Hollywood Reporter" said there is a similarity between the "Frozen" characters including Sven and the characters from "The Wizard of Oz" novel, and Stephen Holden of "The New York Times" commented that the journey in which Sven was also involved resembled the events from this novel as well.


title: Sven (Frozen)

text: Sven's relationship with Kristoff has been well-received by critics. "Bustle"s Caitlin Gallagher preferred Sven and Kristoff's bond to the relationship between the reindeer Bae and the robber girl from "The Snow Queen" fairy tale. The communication between Sven and Kristoff was applauded, with reviewers saying that "Kristoff voicing his impression of the reindeer's thoughts" provided humor, and mentioning that their interactions were some of "Frozen"s "funniest parts". Sven and Kristoff's bond was stated to be similar to the one between the characters Chewbacca and Han Solo from "Star Wars" since Sven is both Kristoff's "best friend" and "conscience" despite not being able to talk. Their relationship was also commented to resemble the one between the characters Maximus and Flynn Rider from "Tangled". Sven was characterized as Kristoff's "soft spot". He was also described as "a loyal companion to Kristoff" with "strong morals" since Sven regularly urged him to make the right choices. Their bond was regarded as "unique".


title: Sven (Frozen)

text: Several pieces of merchandise based on Sven have been released, including action figures. Sven has also served as inspiration for the creation of stuffed toys, plush toys with blankets, plush pillows, a plush rocking horse, plush backpack clips, and a life-size toy. The Lego Group has launched Lego sets containing Sven. Tsum Tsum toys in his mold have been produced, which either come alongside a sled, or are separate. McDonald's toys portraying him have also been created. The company Fisher-Price has launched Little People toys inspired by Sven. The company Hasbro has released miniature figurines based on Sven. The company Funko has also manufactured figurines representing him, including Funko Pop! figures, Dorbz figures, and Mystery Minis figures. The company Build-A-Bear Workshop has produced toys inspired by Sven as well. Bobbleheads depicting Sven have been created, and ornaments portraying him have also been released. Cups based on him have been produced, and sippers inspired by him have also been created. Items featuring Sven alongside other "Frozen" characters have been released, such as inflatable toys, Disney pins, a "Monopoly" game, puzzles, a "Trouble" game, T-shirts, sweaters, pajamas, knit caps, earmuffs, jewelry, rolling suitcases, tote bags, phone cases, water bottles, mugs, tableware, and bakeware. Drinks based on Sven have been produced, and cakes inspired by him have been created as well.


title: Projects in the Jungle

text: Projects in the Jungle is the second studio album by American heavy metal band Pantera, released on July 27, 1984, by Metal Magic Records. The band made their first music video for the track "All Over Tonight". Though sharing many similarities with Def Leppard's pre-"Hysteria" sound ("Pyromania" had been released the year before), the title track's musical style is a foreshadowing of what was to come a few years later, as it features a thrash metal-oriented guitar riff with more groove metal-like breakdowns.


title: Projects in the Jungle

text: In a retrospective review for AllMusic, Eduardo Rivadavia gave the album 2.5 stars out of a possible 5. He described Terry Glaze's vocal style as "ear assaulting" and the lyrics as "frequently moronic" examples of glam metal cliches of the era. Nonetheless, "Projects in the Jungle" was "a major improvement over the band's tentative performance on debut album "Metal Magic", and its much improved production clarity and musicianship spoke volumes of Pantera's growing professionalism and maturity."


title: Moses Mendelssohn

text: Moses Mendelssohn (6 September 1729 – 4 January 1786) was a German-Jewish philosopher and theologian. His writings and ideas on Jews and the Jewish religion and identity were a central element in the development of the "Haskalah", or 'Jewish Enlightenment' of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.


title: Moses Mendelssohn

text: Born to a poor Jewish family in Dessau, Principality of Anhalt, and originally destined for a rabbinical career, Mendelssohn educated himself in German thought and literature. Through his writings on philosophy and religion he came to be regarded as a leading cultural figure of his time by both Christian and Jewish inhabitants of German-speaking Europe and beyond. His involvement in the Berlin textile industry formed the foundation of his family's wealth.


title: Moses Mendelssohn

text: His descendants include the composers Fanny and Felix Mendelssohn; Felix's son, chemist Paul Mendelssohn Bartholdy; Fanny's grandsons, Paul and Kurt Hensel; and the founders of the Mendelssohn & Co. banking house.


title: Moses Mendelssohn

text: Moses Mendelssohn was born in Dessau. His father's name was Mendel, but Moses and his brother Saul were the first to adopt the surname Mendelssohn ("Mendel's son"). Moses's son Abraham Mendelssohn wrote in 1829 (to Felix), "My father felt that the name Moses Ben Mendel Dessau would handicap him in gaining the needed access to those who had the better education at their disposal. Without any fear that his own father would take offense, my father assumed the name Mendelssohn. The change, though a small one, was decisive."


title: Moses Mendelssohn

text: Mendel was an impoverished scribe—a writer of Torah scrolls—and his son Moses in his boyhood developed curvature of the spine. Moses' early education was provided by his father and by the local rabbi, David Fränkel, who, besides teaching him the Bible and Talmud, introduced to him the philosophy of Maimonides. In 1743 Fränkel received a call to Berlin, and a few months later Moses followed him. Moses, age 14, "entered Berlin at the Rosenthaler Tor, the only gate in the city wall through which Jews (and cattle) were allowed to pass." "Mendelssohn enrolled in Frankel's exacting seminary, where the program consisted of unending rote repetitions of early medieval texts, interpretations thereof, elaborations of Talmudic law, and copious commentary accumulated over the centuries."


title: Moses Mendelssohn

text: A refugee Polish Jew, Israel Zamosz, taught him mathematics, and a young Jewish physician taught him Latin. He was, however, mainly self-taught. He learned to spell and to philosophize at the same time (according to the historian Graetz). With his scanty earnings he bought a Latin copy of John Locke's "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding", and mastered it with the aid of a Latin dictionary. He then made the acquaintance of Aaron Solomon Gumperz, who taught him basic French and English. In 1750, a wealthy Jewish silk-merchant, Isaac Bernhard, appointed him to teach his children. Mendelssohn soon won the confidence of Bernhard, who made the young student successively his bookkeeper and his partner.


title: Moses Mendelssohn

text: It was possibly Gumperz who introduced Mendelssohn to Gotthold Ephraim Lessing in 1754, who became one of his greatest friends. It is said that the first time Mendelssohn met Lessing, they played chess. In Lessing's play "Nathan the Wise" Nathan and the character Saladin first meet during a game of chess. Lessing had recently produced the drama "Die Juden", whose moral was that a Jew can possess nobility of character. This notion was, in the contemporary Berlin of Frederick the Great, generally ridiculed as untrue. Lessing found in Mendelssohn the realization of his dream. Within a few months, the two became closely intellectually allied. Lessing also brought Mendelssohn to public attention for the first time: Mendelssohn had written an essay attacking Germans' neglect of their native philosophers (principally Gottfried Leibniz), and lent the manuscript to Lessing. Without consulting the author, Lessing published Mendelssohn's "Philosophical Conversations" ("Philosophische Gespräche") anonymously in 1755. In the same year there appeared in Danzig (now Gdańsk, Poland) an anonymous satire, "Pope a Metaphysician" ("Pope ein Metaphysiker"), which turned out to be the joint work of Lessing and Mendelssohn.


title: Moses Mendelssohn

text: Mendelssohn became (1756–1759) the leading spirit of Friedrich Nicolai's important literary undertakings, the "Bibliothek" and the "Literaturbriefe", and ran some risk (which Frederick's good nature mitigated) by criticizing the poems of the King of Prussia. In 1762 he married Fromet Guggenheim, who survived him by twenty-six years. In the year following his marriage Mendelssohn won the prize offered by the Berlin Academy for an essay on the application of mathematical proofs to metaphysics, "On Evidence in the Metaphysical Sciences"; among the competitors were Thomas Abbt and Immanuel Kant, who came second. In October 1763 the king granted Mendelssohn, but not his wife or children, the privilege of Protected Jew ("Schutzjude"), which assured his right to undisturbed residence in Berlin.


title: Moses Mendelssohn

text: As a result of his correspondence with Abbt, Mendelssohn resolved to write on the immortality of the soul. Materialistic views were at the time rampant and fashionable, and faith in immortality was at a low ebb. At this favourable juncture appeared "Phädon oder über die Unsterblichkeit der Seele" ("Phaedo or On the Immortality of Souls"; 1767). Modelled on Plato's dialogue of the same name, Mendelssohn's work possessed some of the charm of its Greek exemplar and impressed the German world with its beauty and lucidity of style. "Phaedo" was an immediate success, and besides being one of the most widely read books of its time in German was speedily translated into several European languages, including English. The author was hailed as the "German Plato", or the "German Socrates"; royal and other aristocratic friends showered attentions on him, and it was said that "no stranger who came to Berlin failed to pay his personal respects to the German Socrates."


title: Moses Mendelssohn

text: So far, Mendelssohn had devoted his talents to philosophy and criticism; now, however, an incident turned the current of his life in the direction of the cause of Judaism. In April 1763, Johann Kaspar Lavater, then a young theology-student from Zurich, made a trip to Berlin, where he visited the already famous Jewish philosopher with some companions. They insisted on Mendelssohn telling them his views on Jesus and managed to get from him the statement, that, provided the historical Jesus had kept himself and his theology strictly within limits of orthodox Judaism, Mendelssohn "respected the morality of Jesus' character." Six years later, in October 1769, Lavater sent Mendelssohn his German translation of Charles Bonnet's essay on Christian Evidences, with a preface where he publicly challenged Mendelssohn to refute Bonnet or if he could not then to "do what wisdom, the love of truth and honesty must bid him, what a Socrates would have done if he had read the book and found it unanswerable." Mendelssohn answered in an open letter in December 1769: "Suppose there were living among my contemporaries a Confucius or a Solon, I could, according to the principles of my faith, love and admire the great man without falling into the ridiculous idea that I must convert a Solon or a Confucius." The ongoing public controversy cost Mendelssohn much time, energy and strength.


title: Moses Mendelssohn

text: Lavater later described Mendelssohn in his book on physiognomy, "Physiognomische Fragmente zur Beförderung der Menschenkenntnis und Menschenliebe" (1775–1778), as "a companionable, brilliant soul, with piercing eyes, the body of an Aesop [who was traditionally considered ugly]—a man of keen insight, exquisite taste and wide erudition [...] frank and open-hearted"—ending his public praise with the wish of Mendelssohn recognizing, "together with Plato and Moses... the crucified glory of Christ." When, in 1775 the Swiss-German Jews, faced with the threat of expulsion, turned to Mendelssohn and asked him to intervene on their behalf with "his friend" Lavater, Lavater, after receiving Mendelssohn's letter, promptly and effectively secured their stay.


title: Moses Mendelssohn

text: In March 1771 Mendelssohn's health deteriorated so badly that Marcus Elieser Bloch, his doctor, decided his patient had to give up philosophy, at least temporarily. After a short and restless sleep one evening, Mendelssohn found himself incapable of moving and had the feeling of something lashing his neck with fiery rods, his heart was palpitating and he was in an extreme anxiety, yet fully conscious. This spell was then broken suddenly by some external stimulation. Attacks of this kind recurred. The cause of his disease was ascribed to the mental stress due to his theological controversy with Lavater. However, this sort of attack, in milder form, had presumably occurred many years earlier. Bloch diagnosed the disease as due to 'congestion of blood in the brain' (a meaningless diagnosis in modern medical practice as such congestion is anatomically impossible), and after some controversy this diagnosis was also accepted by the famous Hanoverian court physician, Johann Georg Ritter von Zimmermann, an admirer of Mendelssohn. In retrospect, his illness might be diagnosed as a heart-rhythm-problem (such as atrial fibrillation) and/or a mild form of familial dysautonomia, a hereditary disease of Ashkenazi Jews, which often brings with it a curvature of the spine and epilepsy-like symptoms in times of stress.


title: Moses Mendelssohn

text: Mendelssohn was treated with China bark, blood lettings on the foot, leeches applied to the ears, enemas, foot baths, lemonade and mainly vegetarian food. “No mental stress whatsoever” was ordered. However, although he remained subject to periods of setback, he eventually recovered sufficiently to write the major works of his later career.


title: Moses Mendelssohn

text: Mendelssohn died on 4 January 1786 as the result (it was thought at the time) of a cold contracted while carrying a manuscript (his reply to Jacobi, titled "To Lessing's Friends (An die Freunde Lessings)") to his publishers on New Year's Eve; Jacobi was held by some to have been responsible for his death. He was buried in the Jewish Cemetery of Berlin. The translation of the Hebrew inscription on his gravestone (see picture to the right) reads: "H[ere] r[ests] / the wise R[eb] Moses of Dessau / born on the 12th of Elul 5489 [6 September 1729] / died on Wednesday the 5th of Shevat [4 January] / and buried the next morning on Thursday 6th/ 5546 [5 January 1786] / M[ay] H[is] S[oul be] B[ound up in the] B[ond of eternal] L[ife]". Although the cemetery was largely destroyed during the Nazi era, after German reunification, in 2007-2008, it was reestablished with monuments to its past, including a recreation of Mendelssohn's gravestone.


title: Moses Mendelssohn

text: It was after the breakdown of his health that Mendelssohn decided to "dedicate the remains of my strength for the benefit of my children or a goodly portion of my nation"—which he did by trying to bring the Jews closer to "culture, from which my nation, alas! is kept in such a distance, that one might well despair of ever overcoming it". One of the means of doing this was by "giving them a better translation of the holy books than they previously had". To this end Mendelssohn undertook his German translation of the Pentateuch and other parts of the Bible. This work was called the "Bi'ur" ("the explanation") (1783) and also contained a commentary, only that on Exodus having been written by Mendelssohn himself. The translation was in an elegant High German, designed to allow Jews to learn the language faster. Most of the German Jews in that period spoke Yiddish and many were literate in Hebrew (the language of Jewish scripture, liturgy, and scholarship). The commentary was also thoroughly rabbinic, quoting mainly from medieval exegetes but also from Talmud-era "midrashim". Mendelssohn is also believed to be behind the foundation of the first modern public school for Jewish boys, "Freyschule für Knaben", in Berlin in 1778 by one of his most ardent pupils, David Friedländer, where both religious and worldly subjects were taught.


title: Moses Mendelssohn

text: Mendelssohn also tried to better the Jews' situation in general by furthering their rights and acceptance. He induced Christian Wilhelm von Dohm to publish in 1781 his work, "On the Civil Amelioration of the Condition of the Jews", which played a significant part in the rise of tolerance. Mendelssohn himself published a German translation of the "Vindiciae Judaeorum" by Menasseh Ben Israel.


title: Moses Mendelssohn

text: The interest caused by these actions led Mendelssohn to publish his most important contribution to the problems connected with the position of Judaism in a Gentile world. This was "Jerusalem" (1783; Eng. trans. 1838 and 1852). It is a forcible plea for freedom of conscience, described by Kant as "an irrefutable book". Mendelssohn wrote:


title: Moses Mendelssohn

text: Brothers, if you care for true piety, let us not feign agreement, where diversity is evidently the plan and purpose of Providence. None of us thinks and feels exactly like his fellow man: why do we wish to deceive each other with delusive words?


title: Moses Mendelssohn

text: Its basic thrust is that the state has no right to interfere with the religion of its citizens, Jews included. While it proclaims the mandatory character of Jewish law for all Jews (including, based on Mendelssohn's understanding of the New Testament, those converted to Christianity), it does not grant the rabbinate the right to punish Jews for deviating from it. He maintained that Judaism was less a "divine need, than a revealed life". "Jerusalem" concludes with the cry "Love truth, love peace!"—in a quote from Zacharias 8:19.


title: Moses Mendelssohn

text: Kant called this "the proclamation of a great reform, which, however, will be slow in manifestation and in progress, and which will affect not only your people but others as well." Mendelssohn asserted the pragmatic principle of the possible plurality of truths: that just as various nations need different constitutions—to one a monarchy, to another a republic, may be the most congenial to the national genius—so individuals may need different religions. The test of religion is its effect on conduct. This is the moral of Lessing's "Nathan the Wise" ("Nathan der Weise"), the hero of which is undoubtedly Mendelssohn, and in which the parable of the three rings is the epitome of the pragmatic position.


title: Moses Mendelssohn

text: To Mendelssohn his theory represented a strengthening bond to Judaism. But in the first part of the 19th century, the criticism of Jewish dogmas and traditions was associated with a firm adhesion to the older Jewish mode of living. Reason was applied to beliefs, the historic consciousness to life. Modern reform in Judaism has parted to some extent from this conception. In the view of the German writer Heinrich Heine, "as Luther had overthrown the Papacy, so Mendelssohn overthrew the Talmud; and he did so after the same fashion, namely, by rejecting tradition, by declaring the Bible to be the source of religion, and by translating the most important part of it. By these means he shattered Judaic, as Luther had shattered Christian, catholicism; for the Talmud is, in fact, the catholicism of the Jews."


title: Moses Mendelssohn

text: Mendelssohn grew ever more famous, and counted among his friends many of the great figures of his time. But his final years were overshadowed and saddened by the so-called pantheism controversy. Ever since his friend Lessing had died, he had wanted to write an essay or a book about his character. When Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, an acquaintance of both men, heard of Mendelssohn's project, he stated that he had confidential information about Lessing being a "Spinozist", which, in these years, was regarded as being more or less synonymous with "atheist"—something which Lessing was accused of being anyway by religious circles.


title: Moses Mendelssohn

text: This led to an exchange of letters between Jacobi and Mendelssohn which showed they had hardly any common ground. Mendelssohn then published his "Morgenstunden oder Vorlesungen über das Dasein Gottes" ("Morning hours or lectures about God's existence"), seemingly a series of lectures to his oldest son, his son-in-law and a young friend, usually held "in the morning hours", in which he explained his personal philosophical world-view, his own understanding of Spinoza and Lessing's "purified" ("geläutert") pantheism. But almost simultaneously with the publication of this book in 1785, Jacobi published extracts of his and Mendelssohn's letters as "Briefe über die Lehre Spinozas", stating publicly that Lessing was a self-confessed "pantheist" in the sense of "atheist". Mendelssohn was thus drawn into a poisonous literary controversy, and found himself attacked from all sides, including former friends or acquaintances such as Johann Gottfried von Herder and Johann Georg Hamann. Mendelssohn's contribution to this debate, "To Lessing's Friends (An die Freunde Lessings)" (1786), was his last work, completed a few days before his death.


title: Moses Mendelssohn

text: Mendelssohn's complete works have been published in 19 volumes (in the original languages) (Stuttgart, 1971 ff., ed. A. Altmann and others)