title: Bishops in the Catholic Church

text: The pope is the Bishop of Rome. The Catholic Church holds that the College of Bishops as a group is the successor of the College of Apostles. The Church also holds that uniquely among the apostles Saint Peter, the first Bishop of Rome, was granted a role of leadership and authority, giving the pope the right to govern the Church together with the bishops. Hence, the Church holds that the Bishop of Rome, as successor of Peter, possesses the role, uniquely among bishops, of speaking for the whole Church, appointing other bishops, and managing the Church's central administration, the Roman Curia. Papal pronouncements which meet the requirements of the decree on papal infallibility of the First Vatican Council are infallible.


title: Bishops in the Catholic Church

text: On his resignation as pope (Bishop of Rome), Benedict XVI became "His Holiness Benedict XVI, Supreme Pontiff Emeritus" or "Pope Emeritus".


title: Bishops in the Catholic Church

text: Catholicos is an Eastern title roughly similar to that of patriarch. In the Catholic Church it is applied to a prelate who is also a major archbishop.


title: Bishops in the Catholic Church

text: Major archbishops are the heads of some of the Eastern Catholic Churches. The major archbishops' authority within their respective "sui juris" churches is equal to that of a patriarch, but they receive fewer ceremonial honours.


title: Bishops in the Catholic Church

text: In the Catholic Church, a primate is usually the bishop of the oldest diocese and/or the capital of a (present or former) nation; the title is one of honor.


title: Bishops in the Catholic Church

text: A metropolitan bishop is an archbishop with minor jurisdiction over an ecclesiastical province; in practice this amounts to presiding at meetings and overseeing a diocese which has no bishop.


title: Bishops in the Catholic Church

text: In Eastern Catholicism a metropolitan may also be the head of an autocephalous, "sui juris", or autonomous church when the number of adherents of that tradition is small. In the Latin Church, metropolitans are always archbishops; in many Eastern churches, the title is "Metropolitan," with some of these churches using "archbishop" as a separate office.


title: Bishops in the Catholic Church

text: Since the publication of the new Code of Canon Law in 1983 by Pope John Paul II, all members of the Catholic clergy are forbidden to hold public office without the express permission of the Holy See.


title: Bishops in the Catholic Church

text: The appointment of bishops in the Catholic Church is a complicated process that requires the participation of several officials. In the Latin Church, the local synod, the papal nuncio (or apostolic delegate), various dicasteries of the Roman Curia, and the Pope all take a part; since the 1970s it has become common practice for the nuncio to solicit input from clergy and laity within the vacant diocese. In patriarchal and major archiepiscopal Eastern Churches, the permanent synod, the holy synod, and the patriarch or major archbishop also play a role in the selection of bishops.


title: Bishops in the Catholic Church

text: The Catholic Church has always taught that bishops are descended from a continuous line of bishops since the days of the apostles, which is known as apostolic succession. Since 1896, when Pope Leo XIII issued the bull "Apostolicae curae", the Catholic Church has not recognised Anglican orders as valid, because of changes in the ordination rites that took place in the 16th century as well as divergence in the understanding of the theology of episcopacy and Eucharist. However, this view has since been complicated because Old Catholic bishops, whose orders are fully recognised as valid by Rome, have acted as co-consecrators in Anglican episcopal consecrations. According to the church historian Timothy Dufort, by 1969 all Church of England bishops had acquired Old Catholic lines of apostolic succession fully recognised by the Holy See.


title: Bishops in the Catholic Church

text: The Catholic Church does recognize, as valid but illicit, ordinations done by some independent Catholic groups such as the Old Catholic Church of the Utrecht Union and the Polish National Catholic Church, so long as those receiving the ordination are baptized males and a valid rite of episcopal consecration—expressing the proper functions and sacramental status of a bishop—is used. The Holy See also recognises as valid the ordinations of the Eastern Orthodox, Old Catholic, Oriental Orthodox and Assyrian Nestorian churches. Regarding the Churches of the East, the Second Vatican Council stated:


title: Bishops in the Catholic Church

text: The everyday dress of Latin Church bishops may consist of a black (or, in tropical countries, white) cassock with amaranth trim and purple fascia, along with a pectoral cross and episcopal ring. The 1969 Instruction on the dress of prelates stated that the dress for ordinary use may instead be a simple cassock without coloured trim. Since 1969, a black suit and clerical shirt, already customary in English-speaking countries, has become very common also in countries where previously it was unknown.


title: Bishops in the Catholic Church

text: A Latin Church bishop's choir dress, which is worn when attending but not celebrating liturgical functions, consists of the purple cassock with amaranth trim, rochet, purple zuchetto, purple biretta with a tuft, and pectoral cross. The cappa magna may be worn, but only within the bishop's own diocese and on especially solemn occasions.


title: Bishops in the Catholic Church

text: The mitre, zuchetto, and stole are generally worn by bishops when presiding over liturgical functions. For liturgical functions other than the Mass the bishop typically wears the cope. Within his own diocese and when celebrating solemnly elsewhere with the consent of the local ordinary, he also uses the crosier. When celebrating Mass, a bishop, like a priest, wears the chasuble. The Caeremoniale Episcoporum recommends, but does not impose, that in solemn celebrations a bishop should also wear a dalmatic, which can always be white, beneath the chasuble, especially when administering the sacrament of holy orders, blessing an abbot or abbess, and dedicating a church or an altar. The Caeremoniale Episcoporum no longer makes mention of pontifical gloves, pontifical sandals, liturgical stockings (also known as buskins), the maniple, or the accoutrements that it once prescribed for the bishop's horse.


title: Bishops in the Catholic Church

text: The everyday dress of Eastern Catholic bishops is often the same as their Latin Church counterparts: black clerical suit with pectoral cross or panagia.


title: Bishops in the Catholic Church

text: Traditionally, bishops are monks and so their everyday dress is the monastic habit with a panagia and, depending on rank, also a pectoral cross and a second panagia.


title: Bishops in the Catholic Church

text: When attending liturgical functions at which he does not celebrate, a bishop may wear a mantya, panagia and an engolpion if he is a patriarch or metropolitan bishop. He will also carry a pastoral staff in the form of a walking stick topped by a pommel. No episcopal ring exists in the Byzantine Rite.


title: Bishops in the Catholic Church

text: When participating in the Divine Liturgy, a bishop wears the sakkos (Imperial dalmatic), omophorion, epigonation and Byzantine-style mitre which is based on the closed Imperial crown of the late Byzantine Empire and is made in the shape of a bulbous crown, completely enclosed, and the material is of brocade, damask or cloth of gold. It may be embroidered, and richly decorated with jewels, with four icons attached: Christ, the Theotokos, John the Baptist and the Cross. These mitres are usually gold, but other liturgical colours may be used. The mitre is topped by a cross, made out of metal and standing upright. He also carries a crosier of that rite's style. Presiding over other services, he may wear fewer vestments, but also a mantya unless wearing a sticharion.


title: Australian brushturkey

text: The Australian brushturkey or Australian brush-turkey or gweela (Alectura lathami), also frequently called the scrub turkey or bush turkey, is a common, widespread species of mound-building bird from the family Megapodiidae found in eastern Australia from Far North Queensland to Eurobodalla on the South Coast of New South Wales. The Australian brushturkey has also been introduced to Kangaroo Island in South Australia. It is the largest extant representative of the family Megapodiidae, and is one of three species to inhabit Australia.


title: Australian brushturkey

text: Despite its name and their superficial similarities, the bird is not closely related to American turkeys, nor to the Australian bustard, which is also known as the bush turkey. Its closest relatives are the wattled brushturkey, Waigeo brushturkey, and malleefowl.


title: Australian brushturkey

text: It is a large bird with black feathers and a red head. Its total length is about and a wingspan of about . The subspecies "A. l. purpureicollis" from the northern Cape York Peninsula is smaller than the more widespread nominate subspecies. It has a prominent, fan-like tail flattened sideways, and its plumage is mainly blackish, but with a bare red head, and a yellow (in the nominate subspecies) or purple wattle (in "A. l. purpureicollis"). The males' wattles become much larger during breeding season, often swinging from side to side as they run. The males' heads and wattles also become much brighter during the breeding and nesting season. The underside of the body is sprinkled with white feathers, more pronounced in older birds. The brushturkey is a clumsy flyer and cannot fly long distances, only taking to the air when threatened by predators or to roost in trees at night and during the heat of the day.


title: Australian brushturkey

text: They build large nests on the ground made of leaves, other compostable material, and earth, high and up to across. Mound-building is done by a dominant male, and visited by a succession of local females, for mating and egg-laying. The male works tirelessly, collecting material from all around, and also diligently repelling rival males, which are keen to usurp his position. The effort involved eventually wears him down, and he will ultimately be defeated by a new king. The eggs are very large (90 × 45 mm), and the young are fully fledged on hatching. They can fly within hours, as soon as the feathers are dry. The eggs are hatched by the heat of the composting mound, the temperature of which is regulated by adding or removing material to maintain the temperature in the incubation temperature range. The Australian brushturkey checks the temperature by sticking its beak into the mound. Like some reptiles, incubation temperature affects the sex ratio of chicks, but the mechanism is different between reptiles and these birds, with reptiles exhibiting temperature-dependent sex determination, and megapodes exhibiting temperature-dependent embryo mortality. The sex ratio in brushturkeys is equal at incubation temperatures of 34 °C, but results in more males when cooler and more females when warmer (p=0.035). Whether the parents use this to manipulate the sex of their offspring by, for instance, selecting the nesting site accordingly, is unclear. Warmer incubation also results in heavier, fitter chicks (p<0.0001), but how this is linked to sex is also unknown.


title: Australian brushturkey

text: The same nesting site is frequently used year after year, with the old nests being added to each breeding season. The average clutch of eggs is between 16 and 24 large white eggs, which are laid September to March. Sometimes, up to 50 eggs laid by several females may be found in a single mound. The eggs are placed in a circle roughly down, apart, always with the large end up. The newly hatched young dig themselves out of the mound and then have to care for themselves.


title: Australian brushturkey

text: Brushturkey eggs are a favourite food of goannas, snakes, and dingoes and dogs, though brushturkeys were also a staple of Aboriginal Australians. Often, goannas exhibit wounds on their tails from having been pecked by brushturkeys that ferociously chase them away from their nests. Chicks are left to fend for themselves from their hatching so they have a high death rate.


title: Australian brushturkey

text: In situations where they come into contact with humans, such as picnic areas in national parks and suburban gardens, brushturkeys exhibit little fear and often boldly attempt to steal food from tables and raid compost bins. Brush-turkeys in more urbanized areas show reduced fear compared to birds in national parks. They nest in suburban gardens, and in search of material for their nests remove enormous amounts of mulch from gardens.


title: Australian brushturkey

text: The Australian brushturkey inhabits rainforests and wet sclerophyll forests, but can also be found in drier scrubs and open areas. In the northern part of its range, the Australian brushturkey is most common at higher altitudes, but individuals move to the lowland areas in winter. In the south, it is common in both mountain and lowland regions.


title: Australian brushturkey

text: Brushturkeys are now common in urban environments and can be found in backyards in both Brisbane and Sydney.


title: Australian brushturkey

text: The range of the Australian brushturkey extends from the top of Cape York to approximately the area around Wollongong.


title: Australian brushturkey

text: Brushturkeys are fairly common presently, but in the 1930s, the bird was supposed to be approaching extinction.


title: Australian brushturkey

text: The Australian brush turkey can damage gardens when raking up the ground looking for food. It can also cause extensive damage to food crops. The Department of Environment, Climate Change, and Water provides hints for living with brush turkeys in urban environments.


title: Australian brushturkey

text: They are sometimes hunted for food, including as part of the diet by Aboriginal Australians. Their eggs, which weigh on average , are also sometimes eaten.


title: Australian brushturkey

text: The brush turkey is fully protected in Queensland. Under the Nature Conservation Act 1992 it is an offence to harm brush turkeys. For a class 1 offence it is 3000 penalty units or two years imprisonment. For a class 4 offence it is 100 penalty units or A$13,345.00.


title: Australian brushturkey

text: In New South Wales, shooting a brush turkey has resulted in fines of up to A$22,000, under the Biodiversity Conservation Act.


title: Cyberbully (2011 film)

text: Cyberbully (stylized as cyberbu<nowiki>//</nowiki>y) is a teen drama television film that premiered on ABC Family (now Freeform) on July 17, 2011. The channel collaborated with "Seventeen" magazine to make the film, stating that they hoped it would "delete digital drama" in a press release. The film tells the story of a teenage girl who is bullied online. The film was released on DVD on February 7, 2012.


title: Cyberbully (2011 film)

text: Taylor Hillridge is a teenage girl who lives in St. Louis, Missouri, with her single mother, Kris, and her younger brother, Eric. She is close friends with two other girls, Samantha Caldone and Cheyenne Mortenson. Earlier, Taylor made a seemingly innocuous comment to one of her classmates, Lindsay Fordyce, to which Lindsay took great offense.


title: Cyberbully (2011 film)

text: For her 17th birthday, Taylor is given a computer by her mother. At first, Taylor is excited by the independence of going online without her mother always watching her. Meanwhile, her crush, Scott, asks her to the dance, to which she says yes. Cheyenne is happy for her, but Samantha does not like Scott because she previously went out with his friend, who later dumped her after he had sex with her. Taylor soon finds herself the victim of cyberbullying when she becomes a member of a social website named Cliquesters.


title: Cyberbully (2011 film)

text: Things begin to go wrong when Eric hacks into her account and writes "I'm a naughty girl, somebody should spank me" on her profile, having been angry at her when she refused to let him use the laptop. She condemns him for the hacking and Eric is then severely punished by Kris. Students at school write horrid comments about her and she becomes afraid to face her friends at school. Taylor also meets a boy named James online and thinks he is just being nice, but winds up spreading a rumor that Taylor slept with him and ended up giving him "the clap". Taylor gets pegged as a "slut" and "whore" as a result of the bullying. The abuse that Taylor receives from the hands of her schoolmates pushes her to a breaking point. Scott also tells Taylor that he cannot take her to the dance because of an excuse that obviously sounds made up (that his mother is forcing him to take another girl) and Cheyenne and Samantha begin to turn their backs on Taylor.


title: Cyberbully (2011 film)

text: Overcome with depression, Taylor posts a video online saying that she can no longer live with herself. Samantha sees this and quickly goes to Taylor's house and finds her trying to commit suicide by overdosing with pills, but cannot get the cap off; in the ensuing scuffle, the pill bottle spills on the floor, scattering pills over the bathroom floor. Taylor is then sent to a hospital. Taylor's mother learns of the incident and takes on the school system and state legislation to prevent others from experiencing the same problem as her daughter. Taylor's mother recommends that she go to a support group and obtain help. Meanwhile, Samantha finds Scott at a cafe and insults him for leaving Taylor. Taylor finds that Caleb, one of her classmates who is gay, is going through the same exact thing, only he is targeted for his sexuality. Taylor finds support in the group and deals with the bullying much better. Samantha confesses to Taylor that she was the one who created the "James" profile and set Taylor up. Samantha feels guilty and becomes a victim of cyberbullying herself. Taylor finds out about this and tells her about her support group and eventually forgives Samantha, rekindling their friendship.


title: Cyberbully (2011 film)

text: Samantha and Taylor return to school, where they are quickly teased by Lindsay in the cafeteria. Samantha urges Taylor to ignore her, but Taylor does the opposite and confronts Lindsay, calling her out for her online abuse. Scott, Cheyenne and Caleb appear and side with Taylor, condemning Lindsay for her bullying. Their actions are received well with other students present in the cafeteria, who spread the word about Taylor's courage and Lindsay's misdeeds, eroding Lindsay's support within the student body. Meanwhile, the state legislature passes a bill criminalizing cyberbullying, which is then signed into law in honor of Taylor and all victims of bullying.


title: Cyberbully (2011 film)

text: The film received a generally positive review from Common Sense Media, who gave the film a 4 out of 5 star rating, stating ""Cyberbully" is a great jumping-off point for talking to teens about the very real dangers that exist online. The movie does a good job of working in most of the hot-button issues related to this topic, including the anonymity that exists online, the legal loopholes that enable cyberbullying, the social pressure on teens to partake in digital relationships, and the emotional devastation that bullying inflicts on its victims and their families."


title: Cyberbully (2011 film)

text: "Cyberbully" gained 3.4 million views on its official release date. It was TV's number-one telecast for the 8-10 p.m. time slot and became the week's number-one TV film, and the second most viewed TV film of the 2010 and 2011 season. The film has gained popularity in recent years through online streaming, with an unofficial upload of the film on YouTube having amassed over 79 million views.


title: Cyberbully (2011 film)

text: ABC Family created "badges" that people could add to their profile pictures on sites like Twitter and Facebook; the badge says "[delete] digital drama!".


title: Cyberbully (2011 film)

text: On July 14, 2011, ABC Family hosted a live event called "The Rally to Delete Digital Drama" in Glendale, California. The rally included appearances from Shay Mitchell, Tyler Blackburn, Daren Kagasoff, Skyler Samuels, Grey Damon, Katie Leclerc, Vanessa Marano, Emily Osment, and more. Emily Osment performed her song "Drift", as well as other songs. There was also an autograph signing and gift giveaways.


title: Cyberbully (2011 film)

text: Emily Osment released a song called "Drift" which was featured in the film. It was released on July 12, 2011. The film also features "Breathe Me" by Sia. Television spots of the film contain the song "Perfect" by Pink.


title: Son Tae-young

text: As Miss Daegu, Son Tae-young placed second runner-up (or third place) at the Miss Korea pageant in 2000. She was the country's representative at the 2000 Miss International pageant, where she won 1st runner-up and Miss Photogenic.


title: Son Tae-young

text: Soon later turned to acting, appearing in the films "Sad Movie" (2005), the critically acclaimed "The Railroad" (2007), and "Crazy Waiting" (2008). Son is more prolific in television, with starring and supporting roles in dramas such as "One Million Roses" (2003), "Two Wives" (2009), "You're the Best, Lee Soon-shin" (2013), and "Into the Flames" (2014).


title: Son Tae-young

text: In 2014, Son played the leading role of a wife with a cheating husband in the Chinese romantic comedy film "Love War", opposite Hu Bing and Winston Chao.


title: Son Tae-young

text: Known for her sense of style, she has also hosted several beauty and fashion programs, among them "Son Tae-young's Life Magazine" (2008), "Actress House - Season 2" (2011), and "Son Tae-young's W Show!" (2013).


title: Son Tae-young

text: Son married actor Kwon Sang-woo at the Shilla Hotel on September 28, 2008. On February 6, 2009, she gave birth to a son, christened as Luke (nicknamed Rookie). Their second child, a daughter, was born on January 10, 2015. Son's brother-in-law is pianist and composer, Yiruma.


title: Alexander Korda

text: Sir Alexander Korda (; born Sándor László Kellner; ; 16 September 1893 – 23 January 1956) was a Hungarian-British film director, producer and screenwriter, who founded his own film production studios and film distribution company.


title: Alexander Korda

text: Born in Hungary, where he began his career, he worked briefly in the Austrian and German film industries during the era of silent films, before being based in Hollywood from 1926 to 1930 for the first of his two brief periods there (the other was during World War II). The change led to a divorce from his first wife, the Hungarian film actress María Corda, who was unable to make the transition from silent films to "talkies" because of her strong Hungarian accent.


title: Alexander Korda

text: From 1930, Korda was active in the British film industry, and soon became one of its leading figures. He was the founder of London Films and, post-war, the owner of British Lion Films, a film distribution company. Korda produced many outstanding classics of the British film industry, including "The Private Life of Henry VIII", "Rembrandt", "Things To Come", "The Thief of Baghdad" and "The Third Man". In 1942, Korda became the first filmmaker to receive a knighthood.


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda was born Sándor László Kellner into a Jewish family in Pusztatúrpásztó, Austria-Hungary. His parents were Henrik Kellner and Ernesztina Weisz. He had two younger brothers, Zoltan and Vincent, who also had careers in the film industry, often working with Alexander.


title: Alexander Korda

text: After the death of his father, Korda began writing film reviews to support his family. He also changed the family name, deriving the new name Korda from the Latin phrase "sursum corda" ("lift up your hearts").


title: Alexander Korda

text: Having been excused from military service in the Austro-Hungarian Army in the First World War, because he was short-sighted, Korda became an important figure in the Hungarian film industry, initially through his magazines "Pesti Mozi", "Mozihét" and "Világ". This led to invitations to write screenplays. His first script was for "Watchhouse in the Carpathians" (1914), which he also helped to direct. He also made a film with Gyula Zilahy, "The Duped Journalist" (1914), and directed "Tutyu and Totyo" (1915), "The Officer's Swordknot" (1915) and "Lyon Lea" (1915).


title: Alexander Korda

text: In 1916, Korda established his own production company, Corvin Film. Its first film was "White Nights" (1916), which was a big success. Korda went on to build Corvin into one of the largest film companies in Hungary with such productions as "The Grandmother" (1916), "Tales of the Typewriter" (1916), "The Man with Two Hearts" (1916), "The One Million Pound Note" (1916), "Cyclamen" (1916), "Struggling Hearts" (1916), "The Laughing Saskia" (1916), "Miska the Magnate" (1916), "St. Peter's Umbrella" (1917), "The Stork Caliph" (1917) (from the novel by Mihály Babits), and "Magic" (1917). Korda later regarded "Harrison and Barrison" (1917) as his best film. He also made "Faun" (1918), "Man of Gold" (1918), and "Mary Ann" (1918).


title: Alexander Korda

text: Under the shortlived Hungarian Soviet Republic Korda made "Ave Caesar!" (1919), "White Rose" (1919), "Yamata" (1919) and "Neither at Home or Abroad" (1919). His final Hungarian film was "Number 111" (1919).


title: Alexander Korda

text: In October 1919 Korda was arrested during the White Terror that followed the overthrow of the Communist government, but was soon released. He then left Hungary for Austria. He never returned to his country of birth.


title: Alexander Korda

text: After leaving Hungary, Korda accepted an invitation from Count Alexander Kolowrat to work for his company Sascha-Film in the Austrian capital Vienna. Korda worked alongside Kolowrat, who had attracted several leading Hungarian and German directors into his employment, on the historical epic "The Prince and the Pauper" (1920). The film was a major international success and inspired Korda with the idea of making "international films" with global box office appeal.


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda's next two films, "Masters of the Sea" (1922) and "A Vanished World" (1922), were both nautical-set adventures based on Hungarian novels.


title: Alexander Korda

text: By that stage, Korda had grown irritated with Kolowrat's interference with his work and left Sascha to make an independent film, "Samson and Delilah" (1922), set in the world of opera. The film was made on a lavish scale, with large crowd scenes. The lengthy shooting schedule lasted 160 working days. The film was unsuccessful.


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda left Vienna and travelled to Germany. He had frequent problems with money, and often had to receive support from friends and business associates, but in Berlin he raised funding for the melodrama "The Unknown Tomorrow" (1923). With backing from Germany's biggest film company, UFA, Korda returned to Vienna to make "Everybody's Woman" (1924). While he was there he began work on his next film, the historical "Tragedy in the House of Habsburg" (1924), which portrayed the Mayerling Incident. It earned back around half of its production costs. He followed this with "Dancing Mad" (1925), another melodrama.


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda cast his wife Maria Corda ["sic"] as the female lead in all his German-language films. To a large degree the success of his productions depended on her star power. Korda cast her again in "A Modern Dubarry" (1927), an update of the life of Madame Du Barry based on an original screenplay by Lajos Bíró. The film may have been intended to showcase Maria Corda's star potential to producers in Hollywood.


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda made his final German film, "Madame Wants No Children" (1926), for the Berlin-based subsidiary of the American studio Fox. Although made later, it was released before "A Modern Dubarry".


title: Alexander Korda

text: In December 1926 Korda and his wife sailed for the United States on board the steamer "Olympic", with a view to Korda taking up a contract with the American studio First National. In Hollywood both struggled to adapt to the studio system. Korda had to wait some time before gaining his first directorial assignment, "The Stolen Bride" (1927), a Hungarian-themed romance about a peasant's love for a countess. The film starred the American actress Billie Dove rather than Korda's wife.


title: Alexander Korda

text: Following the moderate success of "The Stolen Bride" Korda worked on the comedy "The Private Life of Helen of Troy" (1927), replacing the previous director, George Fitzmaurice. The film retells the story of Helen of Troy, parodying the historical epics of the era by transforming the classical characters into everyday people with modern problems. The film was a significant success for Korda, with his wife playing the role of Helen. The film was his most satisfying work in the United States and provided the template for his later success in Britain.


title: Alexander Korda

text: After this film, however, Korda became pigeonholed as a director of female stars and exotic foreign locations. He was generally given similar assignments for the remainder of his first period in Hollywood. His next few films were disappointments as his career lost its momentum: "Yellow Lily" (1928), "Night Watch" (1928) both with Dove, and "Love and the Devil" (1929) with Maria Korda (who now spelled her name with a K). The latter two, though still Silent films, had sound effects and music added to their soundtracks during Hollywood's transition to fully synchronized Sound films.


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda's next film "The Squall" (1929), with a young Myrna Loy, was his first talkie and featured a Hungarian setting. Although, like many other directors, Korda had misgivings about the new technology, he quickly adapted to making sound films.


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda's marriage was strained in Hollywood. The arrival of sound films wrecked his wife's career, as her heavy accent made her unemployable for most American films. "Love and the Devil" was the last of Korda's films she appeared in, and she made only two more films. She became increasingly resentful of the switch in their relationship, as her career was now over while Korda, who had once relied on her for the success of his films, was relatively flourishing. Their marriage collapsed, and they divorced in 1930.


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda made two more sound films at First National: "Her Private Life" (1929) and "Lilies of the Field" (1930), both of which were remakes of earlier silent films.


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda grew more frustrated in Hollywood as he came to strongly dislike the studio system. He hoped to save up enough money to return to Europe and begin producing on a large scale there, but his lavish personal spending and the large amounts he lost in the Wall Street Crash prevented this. When his producer, Ned Marin, moved from First National to the Fox Film Corporation Korda followed him. Korda's new contract gave him $100,000 a year.


title: Alexander Korda

text: His first film for Fox, "Women Everywhere" (1930), cost slightly more than some of the programmers he had previously directed in the United States. He collaborated with several figures who would contribute to his future success in Britain. Korda was offered a series of scripts, all of which he disliked, before he finally agreed to make "The Princess and the Plumber" (1930). Korda's reluctance to make the film led to his conflict with studio bosses, which brought to an end his first period in Hollywood.


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda went to France where he made "The Men Around Lucy" (1931) for Paramount. He also made "Rive gauche" (1931).


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda had a success with "Marius" (1931) starring Raimu from the play by Marcel Pagnol. He followed it with "Longing for the Sea" (1931), and "The Golden Anchor" (1932).


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda relocated to London where he made "Service for Ladies" (1932) for Paramount. He produced "Women Who Play" (1932) for them.


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda then decided to form his own company. In 1932 he founded London Films. Its first production was "Wedding Rehearsal" (1932). He then produced "Men of Tomorrow" (1932), co-directed by his brother Zoltan Korda, "That Night in London" (1932) starring Robert Donat, "Strange Evidence" (1933), "Counsel's Opinion" (1933), and "Cash" (1933).


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda had a huge hit with "The Private Life of Henry VIII" (1933), which he directed. It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture, established Korda internationally and made a star of Charles Laughton.


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda followed it with "The Girl from Maxim's" (1933), which he shot in English and French. He tried to repeat the success of "Henry" with "The Private Life of Don Juan" (1934) starring Douglas Fairbanks, which he directed, and "The Rise of Catherine the Great" (1934) which he did not. Neither did as well as "Henry".


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda produced a well-respected short, "The Private Life of the Gannets" (1934), and enjoyed a big success as producer of "The Scarlet Pimpernel" (1934). Also popular was "Sanders of the River" (1935) starring Paul Robeson and directed by his brother, and "The Ghost Goes West" (1936) starring Donat. His other credits as producer include "Moscow Nights" (1936) with Laurence Olivier, "Men Are Not Gods" (1936), and "Forget Me Not" (1936).


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda directed "Rembrandt" (1936) with Laughton, which was a critical rather than a commercial success. "Things to Come" (1936), directed by William Cameron Menzies, has come to be regarded as a classic. It was written by H.G. Wells and Korda's "The Man Who Could Work Miracles" (1936) is based on a Wells short story. Korda also commissioned and financed the documentary "Conquest of the Air" (1936).


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda bought property in Denham, Buckinghamshire, including Hills House, and built film studios on the property. London Film's Denham Film Studios was financed by the Prudential and opened in 1936. On 21 June 1936, Thurston Macauley, London correspondent to The New York Times, filed a story headlined "The Korda Workshop at Denham" describing the facility, located on 165 acres of woodland, field and river scenery suitable for filming, with 28 acres of buildings and a planned total of fifteen 250-foot by 130-foot sound stages (state of the art at the time). It was "not only the most up-to-date of all the world's studios" but a "complete community in itself" from foundry and blacksmith's shops to projection theatres, with "unusually good dressing and bathroom accommodations" and able to easily manage crowds of 500. Macauley pointed to the special construction designed to ensure that even dense fog would not penetrate the buildings and interfere with filming, a serious problem in Britain in the winter months. He concluded: "Hollywood, as well as the rest of the world, will be watching with interest what Korda does at Denham".


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda was naturalised as a British subject on 28 October 1936. That same year Korda was an important contributor to the Moyne Commission, formed to protect British film production from competition, mainly from the United States. Korda said: "If American interests obtained control of British production companies, they may make British pictures here, but the pictures made would be just as American as those made in Hollywood. We are now on the verge of forming a British school of film-making in this country."


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda produced "Fire Over England" (1937) with Olivier and Vivien Leigh. He also attempted a version of "I, Claudius" with Laughton and Merle Oberon, but it was abandoned with only a few scenes shot.


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda made "Dark Journey" (1937) with Conrad Veidt and Leigh, and had a big hit with "Elephant Boy" (1937) directed by his brother from a Rudyard Kipling story; it made a star of Sabu.


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda also made some cheaper films: "Farewell Again" (1938), "Storm in a Teacup" (1938) with Leigh and Rex Harrison, "The Squeaker" (1937), "Action for Slander" (1937), "Return of the Scarlet Pimpernel" (1937) and "Paradise for Two" (1937).


title: Alexander Korda

text: "Knight Without Armour" (1937) with Donat and Marlene Dietrich was an expensive epic that failed to recoup its money. "The Divorce of Lady X" (1938) was a comedy with Olivier and Merle Oberon.


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda had a big success with "The Drum" (1938), directed by Zoltan and starring Sabu. He produced "South Riding" (1938), "The Challenge" (1938), "The Rebel Son" (1939) and "Prison Without Bars" (1938).


title: Alexander Korda

text: During the Second World War Korda made more propaganda films, including "Q Planes" (1939), with Olivier, and "The Lion Has Wings" (1939). Korda had a massive hit with another adventure film directed by Zoltan, "The Four Feathers" (1939).


title: Alexander Korda

text: By 1939 Michael Powell had been hired as a contract director by Korda on the strength of "The Edge of the World" (1937). Korda set him to work on some projects such as "Burmese Silver" that were subsequently cancelled. Nonetheless, Powell was brought in to save a film that was being made as a vehicle for two of Korda's star players, Conrad Veidt and Valerie Hobson. The film was "The Spy in Black" (1939), where Powell first met Emeric Pressburger. Korda also produced the comedy "Over the Moon" (1939) and the drama "21 Days" (1939).


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda soon ran into financial difficulties, and management of the Denham complex was merged with Pinewood in 1939, becoming part of the Rank Organisation.


title: Alexander Korda

text: The outbreak of the Second World War in Europe meant that "The Thief of Bagdad" had to be completed in Hollywood, where Korda was based again for a few years. While he was in the United States he produced and directed "That Hamilton Woman" (1941) with Laurence Olivier and Vivien Leigh, and produced "Lydia" (1941) with Oberon. He also supervised "Jungle Book" (1942), a live-action version of Kipling's stories, directed by Zoltán Korda. He also had minor involvement in "To Be or Not to Be" (1942).


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda was appointed a Knight Bachelor, for his contribution to the war effort, in the 1942 Birthday Honours. On 22 September 1942 he was knighted at an investiture ceremony at Buckingham Palace by George VI. He was the first film director to receive the honour.


title: Alexander Korda

text: He returned to Britain in 1943 as production chief of MGM-London films, with a £35 million ten-year programme. The scheme ended after one year, one film and a £1 million loss to MGM. The only film to come out of the deal was "Perfect Strangers" (1945), directed by Korda, and starring Robert Donat and Deborah Kerr.


title: Alexander Korda

text: Via London Films Korda bought a controlling interest in British Lion Films. He produced "A Man About the House" (1947).


title: Alexander Korda

text: In 1948 London Films received an advance payment of £375,000, the largest single payment received by a British film company, for three films, "An Ideal Husband" (1947) (which Korda directed), "Anna Karenina" (1948) and "Mine Own Executioner" (1948). The company released three other films, "Bonnie Prince Charlie" (1948), "The Winslow Boy" (1948) and "The Fallen Idol" (1948). "The Winslow Boy" and "Fallen Idol" were hits. "An Ideal Husband" and "Anna Karenina" had some acclaim, but lost money at the box office. "Bonnie Prince Charlie" was a fiasco. Korda was also badly hurt by the trade war between the British and American film industries in the late 1940s. Korda did recover, in part due to a £3 million loan British Lion received from the National Film Finance Corporation.


title: Alexander Korda

text: In 1948 Korda signed a co-production deal with David O. Selznick. This resulted in "The Third Man" (1949) which was a success both critically and financially.


title: Alexander Korda

text: London Films made several films with smaller budgets: "The Cure for Love" (1949), "The Happiest Days of Your Life" (1950), "The Angel with the Trumpet" (1950), "My Daughter Joy" (1950)," State Secret" (1950), "The Wooden Horse" (1950), "Seven Days to Noon" (1951), "Lady Godiva Rides Again" (1951), "The Wonder Kid" (1951), and "Mr. Denning Drives North" (1951). Korda also helped to finance "Outcast of the Islands" (1952), "Home at Seven" (1952), "Who Goes There!" (1952), "The Holly and the Ivy" (1952), "The Ringer" (1952), "Folly to Be Wise" (1953), "Twice Upon a Time" (1953), "The Captain's Paradise" (1953), and "The Story of Gilbert and Sullivan" (1953). "Cry, the Beloved Country" (1951), directed by Zoltan, was acclaimed. "The Sound Barrier" (1952) from David Lean was a hit. "The Man Between" (1953) was an attempt to repeat the success of "The Third Man".


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda then helped to make "The Heart of the Matter" (1954), "Hobson's Choice" (1954), "The Belles of St. Trinian's" (1954), and "The Teckman Mystery" (1954).


title: Alexander Korda

text: A draft screenplay of what became "The Red Shoes" was written by Emeric Pressburger in the 1930s for Korda and intended as a vehicle for Merle Oberon, whom Korda later married. The screenplay was bought by Michael Powell and Pressburger, who made it for J. Arthur Rank. During the 1950s Korda reportedly expressed interest in producing a James Bond film based upon Ian Fleming's novel "Live and Let Die", but no agreement was ever reached.


title: Alexander Korda

text: In 1954 Korda received £5 million from the City Investing Corporation of New York, enabling him to continue producing films until his death.


title: Alexander Korda

text: His final films included "The Man Who Loved Redheads" (1955), "Three Cases of Murder" (1955), "A Kid for Two Farthings" (1955), "The Deep Blue Sea" (1955), "Summertime" (1955), and "Storm Over the Nile" (1955) a remake of "The Four Feathers". His last films were Laurence Olivier's adaptation of "Richard III" (1955) and "Smiley" (1956).


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda was married three times, first to the Hungarian actress María Corda in 1919. They had one son, Peter Vincent Korda, and divorced in 1930. In 1939 he married the film star Merle Oberon. They divorced six years later. He married, lastly, on 8 June 1953, Alexandra Boycun (1928–1966).


title: Alexander Korda

text: Korda died of a heart attack at the age of 62 at his home in London in 1956. He was cremated and his ashes were deposited at Golders Green Crematorium in London.


title: Alexander Korda

text: Michael Korda, son of Vincent and thus nephew of Alexander, wrote a "roman à clef" about Merle Oberon, published after her death. It was entitled "Queenie." He also wrote a memoir, "Charmed Lives" (1979), about his father, his two uncles and the rest of their large extended family.


title: Alexander Korda

text: The Alexander Korda Award for "Outstanding British Film of the Year" is given by the British Academy of Film and Television Arts.


title: RK-3 Corsar

text: The RK-3 "Corsar" (Ukrainian: "РК-3 "Корсар"") is a Ukrainian portable anti-tank guided missile developed by "Luch" State Kyiv Design Bureau.


title: RK-3 Corsar

text: 25 July 2013, "Luch" has conducted a live firing test of its new antitank missile system “Corsar” at a firing range near Kyiv.


title: RK-3 Corsar

text: CORSAR is a light portable anti tank missile system. It is intended to destroy stationary and moving armored targets. It can also be used against emplacements, light-armored objects and helicopters. Firing can be carried out from the mount as well as from a trench parapet. A method of guidance is laser beam riding. The system has two types of warheads. RK-3K Tandem-charge HEAT warhead with at least 550mm penetration behind ERA and RK-3OF high explosive-fragmentation warhead with at least 50mm penetration. RK-3K warhead might be able to counter the front armor of medium weight main battle tanks such as T-72A. The system also has HE-fragmentation RK-3OF warhead to attack Infantry positions and light armored vehicles. The system has a thermal imager for use in night time operation.


title: RK-3 Corsar

text: Ukraine's state-owned defense contractor State Kyiv Design Bureau, Luch started the project in the early 2000s. A prototype was debuted during the 2005 IDEX arms show in Abu Dhabi.


title: RK-3 Corsar

text: On July 25, 2013 at a landfill near Kyiv, successful tests of the missile were conducted. During testing, the Corsar missile demonstrated the ability to fire both a guided and an unguided rocket using the same launcher.


title: RK-3 Corsar

text: On August 29, 2017, Ukroboronprom reported that the Corsar Lightweight Portable Missile System, which was developed by the "Luch" State Design Bureau, was adopted by the Ukrainian Ground Forces, according to the Ministry of Defense.


title: RK-3 Corsar

text: In November 2018, an updated version of the system with Greek-made thermal imaging camera added to the launcher was demonstrated.


title: RK-3 Corsar

text: Corsar missile became a basis for Polish Pirat anti-tank missile, developed in cooperation of Polish firms and "Luch" bureau, in which beam-riding guidance was replaced with semi-active laser homing.


title: Leytonstone

text: Leytonstone () is an area in east London, England, north-east of Charing Cross. Part of the London Borough of Waltham Forest, a local authority district of Greater London. It adjoins Wanstead to the north-east, Forest Gate to the south-east, Stratford to the south-west, Leyton to the west, and Walthamstow to the north-west.


title: Leytonstone

text: Historically part of the ancient parish of Leyton in the Becontree hundred of Essex, the first documented evidence of settlement is from the 14th century, describing a hamlet at ‘Leyton-atte-stone’; a reference to the Roman milestone located within the area, that formed a northerm boundary of the parish. It remained largely rural until the 19th century, becoming part of the London postal district in 1856, the same year its railway station was opened (now on the Central line). When Greater London was created in 1965, the Municipal Borough of Leyton merged with Chingford and Walthamstow to form the London Borough of Waltham Forest.


title: Leytonstone

text: At the northern end of Leytonstone High Road is The Green Man; a public house and road junction, under which the A12 runs. Leytonstone is noted for being the birthplace of Alfred Hitchcock, with a number of references to the filmmaker around the area, including painted murals, mosaics, a pub and a hotel.


title: Leytonstone

text: The main thoroughfare, Leytonstone High Road, is part of an ancient highway from Epping to London, on the borders of Epping Forest. A small hamlet at Leytonstone had existed since the early 14th century, when it formed part of the parish of Leyton St Mary. The name Leytonstone, originally "Leyton-atte-Stone", comes from nearby Leyton ("settlement (tun) on the River Lea") and the Roman milestone called the High Stone.


title: Leytonstone

text: The milestone still stands at the junction of Hollybush Hill (the A1199 road with Woodford) and New Wanstead (the A113 road with Woodford Bridge), near the eastern bounds of the parish. It is a restored 18th-century obelisk set up on an earlier stump, traditionally described as a Roman milestone, possibly marking an extension of the Roman road from Dunmow to Chigwell into London. Two of the obelisk inscriptions are still just legible, others not:


title: Leytonstone

text: Other Roman archaeological features have been found in nearly by Leyton, including "a Roman cemetery south of Blind Lane, and massive foundations of some Roman building, with quantities of Roman brick... discovered in the grounds of Leyton Grange."


title: Leytonstone

text: In 1722, author Daniel Defoe travelled through "Layton-stone, a place by some known, now as much, by the sign of the Green-Man". Leytonstone, along with Stratford, Leyton and Woodford, was one of the villages Defoe called as desirable country retreats for wealthy merchants and financiers within an easy ride of the City.


title: Leytonstone

text: Leytonstone remained largely rural until the opening of the railway at Leytonstone station in 1856, which gave quick and easy access to Stratford and central London. This, with increased availability of office and industrial work, had transformed the area into a suburban dormitory town by the end of the 19th century.


title: Leytonstone

text: However, the forest land in the north and east of Leytonstone escaped development following a prolonged public campaign, when the Epping Forest Act 1878 preserved more than 200 acres (80 hectares) of open space for public use.


title: Leytonstone

text: In 1898 the department store Bearmans, opened by Frank Bearman to sell furniture and clothing, was the first store outside central London with an escalator.


title: Leytonstone

text: In the mid-1990s, the M11 link road (A12) was built through the area, despite a long-running protest by locals and road protestors. This and other protests led to the policy, Roads for Prosperity, being abandoned. From 2001 to 2013, artists ran the 491 Gallery, a squatted social space in a building next the A12, that hosted events from exhibitions to gigs.


title: Leytonstone

text: Leytonstone belonged originally to the ancient parish of Leyton in the Becontree Hundred of Essex. It became a separate ecclesiastical parish in 1845. The parish of Leyton formed part of the West Ham Poor law union. In 1894 it became part of Leyton Urban District, which was incorporated in 1926 as the Municipal Borough of Leyton.


title: Leytonstone

text: Leytonstone became part of the London Borough of Waltham Forest in 1965 when Greater London was created. Within the borough, it divides into four council wards, each with three councillors: Forest ward (Whipps Cross area, parts of Upper Leytonstone as far as Grove Green), Leytonstone ward (the rest of Upper Leytonstone, the town centre, Bushwood and Ferndale areas), Cathall ward and Cann Hall ward (South Leytonstone areas).


title: Leytonstone

text: The area forms part of the Leyton and Wanstead parliamentary constituency. , John Cryer has held the seat for the Labour Party. For elections to the London Assembly it is part of the North East constituency and the AM is Sem Moema of the Labour Party, who succeeded Jenette Arnold in 2021 .


title: Leytonstone

text: Leytonstone tube station is in Travelcard Zones 3 and 4 on the Central line of the London Underground, and serves as the last stop before the line splits into the Fairlop Loop and the branch to Epping (Zone 6). Since 2016, night tube trains run on Friday and Saturdays on the Central line every 10 minutes between White City and Loughton (in Essex) or Hainault via Leytonstone. A series of tiled mosaics commemorating the local film director Alfred Hitchcock line the entrance passages to the station.


title: Leytonstone

text: Leytonstone Bus Station stands either side of exits for Leytonstone tube station; key routes include the 257 to Stratford, the W15 to Hackney, and the night bus N8 to Tottenham Court Road.


title: Leytonstone

text: Leytonstone High Road railway station is a London Overground railway station, located in the south of Leytonstone, serving the Gospel Oak to Barking line. In 2018, the line was electrified to allow for longer trains, with an additional capacity; after engineering and supply delays, these were introduced in June 2019.


title: Leytonstone

text: Close to the southern end of Leytonstone ( south of the Cann Hall Road boundary) is Maryland railway station in Stratford; which is planned to be part of Crossrail on the Elizabeth Line.


title: Leytonstone

text: From 25 October 2021, Leytonstone will be in London's Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ); which is to be expanding from central London up to the North Circular and South Circular roads.


title: Leytonstone

text: "Leytonstone Leisure Centre" on Cathall Road provides a gym and 25-metre main pool, sports hall, fitness studios, and a children's soft-play area.


title: Leytonstone

text: Wanstead Flats has 60 football pitches, including eight full size pitches. This facility is overseen by City of London Corporation and amateur football teams play every Sunday. and "5K Parkruns" take place in Wanstead Flats every week.


title: Leytonstone

text: Leytonstone was home to the former association football team Leytonstone F.C. before it merged with Redbridge Forest F.C. and then Dagenham & Redbridge football club.


title: Simon O'Brien (presenter)

text: Simon O'Brien (born 19 June 1965 in Garston, Liverpool, Merseyside) is a British television actor and radio presenter as well as a property developer.


title: Simon O'Brien (presenter)

text: He came to prominence as the character Damon Grant in "Brookside", a role he played from the soap's launch in 1982 until 1987, when his character was killed off in York at the end of the 'soap bubble' "Damon and Debbie". In 1989, Simon starred in the British version of Jim Henson's Fraggle Rock until 1990. He portrayed the Lighthouse Keeper called BJ in the much acclaimed musical puppet TV series.


title: Simon O'Brien (presenter)

text: In the 1990s, after a spell presenting BBC football show "Standing Room Only" and a regular role on the American sitcom "Out All Night", he left show business and, with Alan Bate, set up Liverpool Cycle Centre, a combination of vegetarian café, cycle shop, cycle parking and other resources relevant to his enthusiasm for cycling. O'Brien then moved into property development. He has since returned to acting and presenting, with a short-lived football quizshow, "Do I Not Know That?", on ITV Digital, co-presenting the BBC One show "To Buy or Not to Buy", as well as playing caretaker Wally Scott in "Grange Hill" from 2003.


title: Simon O'Brien (presenter)

text: O'Brien presented BBC Radio Merseyside's Breakfast show with Lucinda Moore from September 2006 until 25 June 2007, when he resigned after the accidental broadcast of a promotional preview clip of a forthcoming radio show of him saying "fuck the government, fuck the planners". In 2014, O'Brien began presenting the TV reality series "My Dream Derelict Home". In 2022, it was announced that O'Brien would appear on the ITV soap opera "Coronation Street" as guest character Frank Bardsley.


title: Simon O'Brien (presenter)

text: In 2014, O'Brien was appointed chair of the Liverpool Green Strategy Group. He and his wife Liz, a teacher, have one daughter.


title: Pentasomy X

text: Pentasomy X, also known as 49,XXXXX, is a chromosomal disorder in which a female has five, rather than two, copies of the X chromosome. Pentasomy X is associated with short stature, intellectual disability, characteristic facial features, heart defects, skeletal anomalies, and pubertal and reproductive abnormalities. The condition is exceptionally rare, with an estimated prevalence between 1 in 85,000 and 1 in 250,000.


title: Pentasomy X

text: The condition has a large variety of symptoms, and it is difficult to paint a conclusive portrait of its phenotypes. Though significant disability is characteristic, there are so few diagnosed cases that confident conclusions about the presentation and prognosis remain impossible. Pentasomy X may be mistaken for more common chromosomal disorders, such as Down syndrome or Turner syndrome, before a conclusive diagnosis is reached.


title: Pentasomy X

text: Pentasomy X is not inherited, but rather occurs via nondisjunction, a random event in gamete development. In rare cases, it may be related to a parent's chromosomal mosaicism. The karyotype observed in pentasomy X is formally known as 49,XXXXX, which represents the 49 chromosomes observed in the disorder as compared to the 46 in normal human development.


title: Pentasomy X

text: The major clinical features of pentasomy X are intellectual disability, short stature, facial and musculoskeletal abnormalities, and congenital heart defects. Although one recorded case has been of low average intelligence, all other known cases have been intellectually disabled, with an average IQ of 50. The overall portrait is one of moderate intellectual disability, defined by an adult cognitive capacity similar to that of a six- to eight-year-old and the ability to acquire basic living and employment skills with support. Some girls with pentasomy X attend special education in mainstream schools through mainstreaming or inclusion, while some attend special schools.


title: Pentasomy X

text: Pentasomy X is associated with a number of physical anomalies, including short stature, clinodactyly (incurved pinky fingers), and distinctive facial features. Common findings include microcephaly, low-set ears, hypertelorism (wide-spaced eyes), and epicanthic folds. The characteristic facies have been described as "coarse", much like those of the related disorder tetrasomy X. Pentasomy X is unique amongst X-chromosome polysomies for its association with short stature, when most related disorders are associated with tall stature; the average height in pentasomy X is one standard deviation below the norm. Hypotonia, often severe, is a frequent finding, as are related musculoskeletal issues such as hip dysplasia. The severity of repeated joint dislocations may lead to a differential diagnosis of Larsen syndrome, as suggested in one reported case. Bone maturation may be delayed. Another skeletal finding is taurodontism, where the pulp of the teeth is enlarged into the roots; other dental abnormalities, such as missing teeth and severe tooth decay, have also been reported. These findings are not specific to pentasomy X, but rather common to sex chromosome aneuploidies in general and in particular show a strong resemblance to the male counterpart 49,XXXXY. Epicanthic folds and hypertelorism are also observed in tetrasomy and trisomy X, while clinodactyly and radioulnar synostosis are seen in all sex chromosome aneuploidies and taurodontism is specifically common to X-chromosome polysomies.


title: Pentasomy X

text: Heart defects are associated with the syndrome. Pentasomy X has one of the highest rates of congenital heart defects of any chromosomal disorder, with 56.5% of recorded patients having a heart defect of some kind. Patent ductus arteriosus is particularly frequent. The majority of such conditions resolve without surgical treatment, although a minority require it. Ventricular septal defects are also frequent. Other internal medical issues frequently recorded include kidney and urinary defects. Epilepsy has been associated with the condition, though seems to be rare. In sex chromosome aneuploidies as a whole, epilepsy is usually mild and amenable to treatment, and reports of epilepsy in pentasomy X have described it resolving with treatment and allowing antiepileptic drugs to eventually be stopped.


title: Pentasomy X

text: Puberty is altered in pentasomy X, although as few adults with the condition have been reported, the full scope of such alterations is unclear. In the sister condition of tetrasomy X, half of all women undergo puberty normally, while half have no or incomplete puberty. Some adolescents and adults with pentasomy X have been prepubertal, while some have had premature ovarian failure (early menopause) and some have had apparently non-noteworthy pubertal development. Though external genitalia is generally normal, underlying gonadal dysfunction is frequent, including ovarian dysfunction or an unusually small uterus. No cases are known of women with pentasomy X having children, but although fertility is likely reduced, some may be able to.


title: Pentasomy X

text: Little is understood about the psychological and behavioural phenotype of pentasomy X. Girls and women with the disorder are frequently described as shy and cooperative. Such traits are common to other conditions involving extra copies of the X chromosome. Developmental delays can cause difficulty communicating, resulting in frustration and tantrums. Overall, the syndrome is not associated with severe behavioural issues.


title: Pentasomy X

text: A number of disorders have been reported as comorbid with sex chromosome aneuploidies, including pentasomy X. In one case report, pentasomy X occurred alongside the similarly rare hyperimmunoglobulin E syndrome. Other possibly coincidental associations have included cerebral palsy and Dandy–Walker malformation.


title: Pentasomy X

text: Pentasomy X is caused by nondisjunction, a process through which gametes (eggs or sperm) with too many or too few chromosomes are produced. In nondisjunction, homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids fail to separate properly when producing gametes. In sex chromosome tetrasomy and pentasomy, the extra chromosomes are consistently inherited from one parent. In the specific case of pentasomy X, all known cases have inherited the additional chromosomes from the mother. This has been suggested to relate to genomic imprinting; specifically, it is hypothesized that specific loci on the sex chromosomes are affected by imprinting such that only maternal overimprinting is survivable, and cases of pentasomy X where the additional chromosomes were inherited from the father would be incompatible with life. As well as during gamete development, nondisjunction can occur after conception, resulting in a mosaic karyotype.


title: Pentasomy X

text: Nondisjunction is related to advanced maternal age, although due to its rarity, the maternal age effect in pentasomy X is unclear. More common aneuploidy syndromes, such as Down syndrome and Klinefelter's syndrome, have strong relationships with maternal age. Pentasomy X is not inherited and is not caused by the actions of the parents. However, in rare cases, pentasomy X may be related to chromosomal mosaicism in a parent.


title: Pentasomy X

text: X inactivation is a major factor in pentasomy X. X inactivation is the process through which genes in second (or higher) copies of the X chromosome are turned off, such that any cell has only one active copy of the chromosome. However, X inactivation appears to be disrupted in pentasomy X, allowing up to half of the supposedly inactive genetic material to actually work. This is assumed to contribute to the severe phenotype of the condition compared to other sex chromosome aneuploidies.


title: Pentasomy X

text: Chromosome aneuploidies such as pentasomy X are diagnosed through the process of karyotyping, or chromosome testing. Diagnosis cannot be made on the basis of phenotype alone, as multiple other conditions present similarly.


title: Pentasomy X

text: The phenotype of pentasomy X is not specific to the disorder, and many other conditions can be differential diagnoses. One is tetrasomy X, a related disorder in which a girl or woman has four copies of the X chromosome. The general profiles of the conditions are similar, with developmental delays, mild dysmorphic features, and shared congenital anomalies such as clinodactyly and radioulnar synostosis. However, the phenotype of pentasomy X is more severe than that of tetrasomy X, with lower IQ and more severe dysmorphism. Pentasomy X also has additional characteristics uncommon in the tetrasomy, such as short stature. Mosaic karyotypes, with both 48,XXXX and 49,XXXXX cells, are also possible. Though very few mosaic cases have been reported, the phenotype appears intermediate in severity between tetrasomy and pentasomy X.


title: Pentasomy X

text: Another potential differential diagnosis is Down syndrome. The features of the two conditions overlap, and some girls with pentasomy X may be assumed to have Down's before genetic ascertainment. Some cases of pentasomy X have had family histories of Down syndrome, inciting speculation that the conditions may tend to recur in the same family lines; alternatively, it may suggest that some patients diagnosed with Down syndrome on the basis of phenotype may actually have pentasomy X.


title: Pentasomy X

text: The phenotype of pentasomy X has also been compared to that of Turner syndrome, characterised by a female having one copy of the X chromosome. Both Turner's and pentasomy X are female-only disorders characterised by short stature, heart defects, and abnormal pubertal development. However, the intellectual disabilities observed in pentasomy X are rare in Turner syndrome.


title: Pentasomy X

text: The long-term prognosis of pentasomy X is unclear, due to its low prevalence. Though some reviews claim a poor prognosis due to the congenital defects observed in severe cases, support groups report milder abnormalities than common in the medical literature, including adults with pentasomy X in fair health. The spectrum of severity varies; long-term support is consistent, though some women have been reported as being able to work part-time and manage some of their affairs. For sex chromosome tetrasomy and pentasomy disorders as a whole, good prognosis is linked to strong parental and personal support. Girls and women with pentasomy X whose caregivers have acted as advocates for their success have been reported as achieving at higher personal and social levels than the general portrait of the medical literature.


title: Pentasomy X

text: Pentasomy X is exceptionally rare. The disorder is estimated to occur in approximately 1 in 250,000 females. Some higher estimates posit the condition may be as frequent as 1 in 85,000, as observed in the related 49,XXXXY syndrome. Fewer than thirty cases of the disorder have been reported in the medical literature, although it is speculated that many more cases have gone undiagnosed. Pentasomy X only occurs in females, as the Y chromosome is in most cases necessary for male sexual development.


title: Pentasomy X

text: Pentasomy X was first diagnosed in 1963, in a two-year-old girl karyotyped for severe intellectual disability. At the time, four cases of XXXXY syndrome had already been recorded. Pentasomy X was one of the later sex chromosome aneuploidies to be discovered, being preceded by Turner, Klinefelter, and trisomy X in 1959, XXYY syndrome in 1960, and XYY and tetrasomy X in 1961. By the time of Linden, Bender, and Robinson's seminal review of sex chromosome tetrasomy and pentasomy in 1995, only 25 cases had been recorded, the eldest in a girl of 16. As late as 2011, reviews claimed no adult women with pentasomy X had been ascertained, though chromosomal disorder organization Unique noted in 2005 its oldest member with pentasomy X was 29 years old.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: Industrialisation in the Soviet Union was a process of accelerated building-up of the industrial potential of the Soviet Union to reduce the economy's lag behind the developed capitalist states, which was carried out from May 1929 to June 1941.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: The official task of industrialisation was the transformation of the Soviet Union from a predominantly agrarian state into a leading industrial one. The beginning of socialist industrialisation as an integral part of the "triple task of a radical reorganisation of society" (industrialisation, economic centralisation, collectivisation of agriculture and a cultural revolution) was laid down by the first five-year plan for the development of the national economy lasting from 1928 until 1932.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: In Soviet times, industrialisation was considered a great feat. The rapid growth of production capacity and the volume of production of heavy industry (4 times) was of great importance for ensuring economic independence from capitalist countries and strengthening the country's defense capability. At this time, the Soviet Union made the transition from an agrarian country to an industrial one. During the Great Patriotic War, the Soviet industry proved its superiority over the industry of Nazi Germany. Since the late 1980s, discussions on the price of industrialisation have been held in the Soviet Union and Russia, which also questioned its results and long-term consequences for the Soviet economy and society. However, the economies of all post–Soviet states still function at the expense of the industrial base that was created in the Soviet period.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: Already during the Civil War, the Soviet government began to develop a long-term plan for the electrification of the country. In December 1920, the GOELRO plan was approved by the 8th All-Russian Congress of Soviets, and a year later it was approved by the 9th All-Russian Congress of Soviets.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: The plan provided for the priority development of the electric power industry, tied to the plans for the development of territories. The GOELRO plan, designed for 10–15 years, provided for the construction of 30 district power plants (20 thermal power plants and 10 hydroelectric power plants) with a total capacity of 1.75 gigawatts. The project covered eight major economic regions (Northern, Central Industrial, Southern, Volga, Ural, West Siberian, Caucasian and Turkestan). At the same time, the development of the country's transport system was carried out (reconstruction of old and construction of new railway lines, construction of the Volga–Don Canal).


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: The GOELRO project made possible the industrialisation in the Soviet Union: electricity generation in 1932 compared with 1913 increased almost 7 times, from 2 to 13.5 billion kWh.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: Until 1928, the Soviet Union conducted the "New Economic Policy". While agriculture, retail, services, food and light industries were mostly in private hands, the state retained control of heavy industry, transport, banks, wholesale and international trade ("commanding heights"). State-owned enterprises competed with each other, the role of the Gosplan of the Soviet Union was limited to forecasts that determined the direction and size of public investment.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: One of the fundamental contradictions of Bolshevism was the fact that the party that called itself "workers" and its rule the "dictatorship of the proletariat" came to power in an agrarian country where factory workers constituted only a few percent of the population, and most of them were recent immigrants from the village who have not yet completely broken ties with her. Forced industrialisation was designed to eliminate this contradiction.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: From a foreign policy point of view, the country was in hostile conditions. According to the leadership of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), there was a high probability of a new war with capitalist states. It is significant that even at the 10th congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) in 1921, Lev Kamenev, the author of the report "About the Soviet Republic Surrounded", stated that preparations for the Second World War, which had begun in Europe:


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: Preparation for war required a thorough rearmament. The military schools of the Russian Empire, destroyed by the revolution and the civil war, were rebuilt: military academies, schools, institutes and military courses began training for the Red Army. However, it was impossible to immediately begin technical re-equipment of the Red Army due to the backwardness of heavy industry. At the same time, the existing rates of industrialisation seemed insufficient, as the lag behind the capitalist countries, which had an economic upswing in the 1920s, was increasing.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: One of the first such plans for rearmament was laid out as early as 1921, in the draft reorganisation of the Red Army prepared for the 10th congress by Sergey Gusev and Mikhail Frunze. The draft stated both the inevitability of a new big war and the unpreparedness of the Red Army for it. Gusev and Frunze suggested organizing mass production of tanks, artillery, "armored cars, armored trains, airplanes" in a "shock" order. A separate point was also suggested to carefully study the combat experience of the Civil War, including the units that opposed the Red Army (officer units of the White Guards, Makhnovists carts, Wrangel "bombing airplanes", etc. In addition, the authors also urged to urgently organise the publication in Russia of foreign "Marxist" works on military issues.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: After the end of the Civil War, Russia again faced the pre-revolutionary problem of agrarian overpopulation (the "Malthusian-Marxist trap"). In the reign of Nicholas II, overpopulation caused a gradual decrease in the average allotments of land, the surplus of workers in the village was not absorbed by the outflow to the cities (amounting to about 300,000 people per year, with an average increase of up to 1 million people per year), nor by emigration Stolypin government program of resettling colonists in the Urals. In the 1920s, overpopulation took the form of urban unemployment. It has become a serious social problem that has grown throughout the New Economic Policy, and by the end of it was more than 2 million people, or about 10% of the urban population. The government believed that one of the factors hindering the development of industry in the cities was the lack of food and the unwillingness of the village to provide the city with bread at low prices.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: The party leadership intended to solve these problems by the planned redistribution of resources between agriculture and industry, in accordance with the concept of socialism, which was announced at the 14th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and the 3rd All-Union Congress of Soviets in 1925. In the Stalinist historiography, the 14th congress was called the "industrialisation congress", but it made only a general decision about the need to transform the Soviet Union from an agrarian country into an industrial one, without determining the specific forms and rates of industrialisation.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: The choice of a specific implementation of central planning was vigorously discussed in 1926–1928. Proponents of the genetic approach (Vladimir Bazarov, Vladimir Groman, Nikolai Kondratiev) believed that the plan should be based on objective regularities of economic development, identified as a result of an analysis of existing trends. Proponents of the teleological approach (Gleb Krzhizhanovsky, Valerian Kuybyshev, Stanislav Strumilin) believed that the plan should transform the economy and proceed from future structural changes, production opportunities and rigid discipline. Among the party functionaries, the former were supported by a supporter of the evolutionary path to socialism, Nikolai Bukharin, and the latter by Leon Trotsky, who insisted on an accelerated pace of industrialisation.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: One of the first ideologues of industrialisation was Evgeny Preobrazhensky, an economist close to Trotsky, who in 1924–25 developed the concept of forced "superindustrialisation" at the expense of funds from the countryside ("initial socialist accumulation", according to Preobrazhensky). For his part, Bukharin accused Preobrazhensky and his "left opposition" who supported him in imposing "feudal military exploitation of the peasantry" and "internal colonialism".


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: The general secretary of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), Joseph Stalin, initially supported Bukharin's point of view, but after Trotsky's exclusion from the Party's Central Committee in late 1927, he changed his position to the opposite. This led to a decisive victory for the teleological school and a radical turn from the New Economic Policy. Researcher Vadim Rogovin believes that the cause of Stalin's "left turn" was the grain harvest crisis of 1927; the peasantry, especially the well-to-do, massively refused to sell the bread, considering the purchase prices set by the state to be low.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: The internal economic crisis of 1927 intertwined with a sharp exacerbation of the foreign policy situation. On February 23, 1927, the British Foreign Secretary sent a note to the Soviet Union demanding that it stop supporting the Kuomintang–Communist government in China. After the refusal, the United Kingdom on May 24–27 broke off diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union. However, at the same time, the alliance of the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communists fell apart; on April 12, Chiang Kai-shek and his allies massacred the Shanghai Communists. This incident was widely used by the "united opposition" (the "Trotsky-Zinoviev bloc") to criticise the official Stalinist diplomacy as deliberately a failure.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: In the same period, a raid on the Soviet embassy in Beijing (April 6) took place; British police searched the Soviet-British joint-stock company Arcos in London (May 12). In June 1927, representatives of the Russian All-Military Union conducted a series of terrorist attacks against the Soviet Union. In particular, on June 7, White émigré Koverda killed the Soviet Plenipotentiary in Warsaw, Voykov, on the same day in Minsk, the head of the Belarusian Joint State Political Directorate, Iosif Opansky, was killed, the day before, the Russian All-Military Union terrorist threw a bomb at the Joint State Political Directorate in Moscow. All these incidents contributed to the creation of a "military psychosis" environment, the emergence of expectations of a new foreign intervention ("crusade against Bolshevism").


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: By January 1928, only two-thirds of the grain was harvested compared to last year's level, as the peasants massively held the bread, considering the purchase prices to be low. The disruptions in the supply of cities and the army that had begun were aggravated by the exacerbation of the foreign policy situation, which even reached the point of trial mobilisation. In August 1927, a panic began among the population, which resulted in the wholesale purchase of food for the future. At the 15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (December 1927), Mikoyan admitted that the country had experienced the difficulties of "the eve of war without having a war".


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: The main task of the introduced command economy was to build up the economic and military power of the state at the highest possible rates, accompanied with the near complete elimination of private industry that had allowed under the NEP. At the initial stage, it was reduced to the redistribution of the maximum possible amount of resources for the needs of state-owned industrialisation. In December 1927, at the 15th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), "Directives for drafting the first five-year national economic development plan of the Soviet Union" were adopted, in which the congress spoke out against super-industrialisation: the growth rates should not be maximal and should be planned so that failures do not occur. Developed on the basis of directives, the draft of the first five-year plan (October 1, 1928 – October 1, 1933) was approved at the 16th Conference of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) (April 1929) as a complex of carefully thought-out and real tasks. This plan, in reality, is much more stressful than previous projects, immediately after it was approved by the 5th Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union in May 1929, gave grounds for the state to carry out a number of economic, political, organisational and ideological measures, which elevated industrialisation in status of the concept, the era of the "Great Turn". The country had to expand the construction of new industries, increase the production of all types of products and start producing new equipment.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: First of all, using propaganda, the party leadership mobilised the population in support of industrialisation. Komsomol members, in particular, took it with enthusiasm. There was no shortage of cheap labor, because after collectivisation, a large number of yesterday's rural inhabitants moved from rural areas to cities from poverty, hunger and the arbitrariness of the authorities. Millions of people selflessly, almost by hand, built hundreds of factories, power stations, laid railways, subways. Often had to work in three shifts. In 1930, around 1,500 facilities were launched, of which 50 absorbed almost half of all investments. With the assistance of foreign specialists, a number of giant industrial buildings were erected: DneproGES, metallurgical plants in Magnitogorsk, Lipetsk and Chelyabinsk, Novokuznetsk, Norilsk and Uralmash, tractor plants in Stalingrad, Chelyabinsk, Kharkov, Uralvagonzavod, GAZ, ZIS (modern ZiL) and others. In 1935, the first line of the Moscow Metro opened with a total length of .


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: Attention was paid to the destruction of private agriculture and its replacement by state-run large farms. Due to the emergence of domestic tractor construction, in 1932, the Soviet Union refused to import tractors from abroad, and in 1934 the Kirov Plant in Leningrad began to produce a tilled tractor "Universal", which became the first domestic tractor exported abroad. In the ten years before the war, about 700,000 tractors were produced, which accounted for 40% of their world production.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: In order to create its own engineering base, the domestic system of higher technical education was urgently created. In 1930, universal primary education was introduced in the Soviet Union, and seven-year compulsory education in the cities.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: In 1930, speaking at the 16th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), Stalin admitted that an industrial breakthrough was possible only when building "socialism in one country" and demanded a multiple increase in the tasks of the five-year plan, arguing be exceeded.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: In order to increase incentives to work, payment has become more tightly attached to performance. Actively developed centers for the development and implementation of the principles of the scientific organisation of labor. One of the largest centers of this kind, the Central Institute of Labour, created about 1,700 training points with 2,000 of the most qualified instructors of the Central Labor Institute in different parts of the country. They operated in all leading sectors of the national economy—in engineering, metallurgy, construction, light and timber industries, on railways and motor vehicles, in agriculture and even in the navy.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: In 1933, at the joint plenum of the Central Committee and the Central Control Commission of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), Stalin said in his report that according to the results of the first five-year plan, consumer goods produced less than needed, but the policy of moving industrialisation to the background would have that we would not have a tractor and automobile industry, ferrous metallurgy, metal for the production of machines. The country would sit without bread. Capitalist elements in the country would incredibly increase the chances for the restoration of capitalism. Our position would become similar to that of China, which at that time did not have its own heavy and military industry, and became the object of aggression. We would not have non-aggression pacts with other countries, but military intervention and war. A dangerous and deadly war, a bloody and unequal war, for in this war we would be almost unarmed before the enemies, having at our disposal all modern means of attack.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: Since capital investments in heavy industry almost immediately exceeded the previously planned amount and continued to grow, money emission was sharply increased (that is, printing of paper money), and during the entire first five-year period money supply growth in circulation more than doubled than production of consumer goods, which led to higher prices and a shortage of consumer goods.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: In 1935, the "Stakhanovist movement" appeared, in honor of the mine worker Alexey Stakhanov, who, according to official information of that time, performed 14.5 norms for a shift on the night of August 30, 1935.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: Since after the nationalisation of foreign concessions for gold mining against the Soviet Union, a "golden boycott" was declared, such methods as selling paintings from the Hermitage collection were used to obtain the foreign currency needed to finance industrialisation.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: At the same time, the state shifted to the centralised distribution of the means of production and consumer goods belonging to it, the introduction of command-administrative methods of management and the nationalisation of private property were carried out. A political system emerged based on the leading role of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks), state ownership of the means of production and a minimum of private initiative. Also began the widespread use of forced labor by prisoners of the Gulag, special settlers and rear militia.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: The first five-year plan was associated with rapid urbanisation. The urban labor force increased by 12.5 million people, of whom 8.5 million were migrants from rural areas. However, the Soviet Union reached a share in 50% of the urban population only in the early 1960s.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: Engineers were invited from abroad, many well-known companies, such as Siemens-Schuckertwerke AG and General Electric, were involved in the work and carried out deliveries of modern equipment, a significant part of the equipment models produced in those years at Soviet factories, were copies or modifications of foreign analogues (for example, a Fordson tractor assembled at the Stalingrad Tractor Plant).


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: In February 1930, between Amtorg and Albert Kahn, Inc., a firm of American architect Albert Kahn, an agreement was signed, according to which Kahn's firm became the chief consultant of the Soviet government on industrial construction and received a package of orders for the construction of industrial enterprises worth $2 billion (about $250 billion in prices of our time). This company has provided construction of more than 500 industrial facilities in the Soviet Union.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: A branch of Albert Kahn, Inc. was opened in Moscow under the name "Gosproektstroy". Its leader was Moritz Kahn, brother of the head of the company. It employed 25 leading American engineers and about 2,500 Soviet employees. At that time it was the largest architectural bureau in the world. During the three years of the existence of Gosproektroy, more than 4,000 Soviet architects, engineers and technicians who have studied the American experience passed through it. The Moscow Office of Heavy Machinery, a branch of the German company Demag, also worked in Moscow.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: The firm of Albert Kahn played the role of coordinator between the Soviet customer and hundreds of Western companies that supplied equipment and advised the construction of individual objects. Thus, the technological project of the Nizhny Novgorod Automobile Plant was completed by Ford, the construction project by the American company Austin Motor Company. Construction of the 1st State Bearing Plant in Moscow, which was designed by Kahn, was carried out with the technical assistance of the Italian company RIV.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: The Stalingrad Tractor Plant, designed by Kahn in 1930, was originally built in the United States, and then was unmounted, transported to the Soviet Union and assembled under the supervision of American engineers. It was equipped with the equipment of more than 80 American engineering companies and several German firms.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: American hydrobuilder Hugh Cooper became the chief consultant for the construction of the DneproGES, hydro turbines for which were purchased from General Electric and Newport News Shipbuilding.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: The Magnitogorsk Metallurgical Plant was designed by the American firm Arthur G. McKee and Co., which also supervised its construction. A standard blast furnace for this and all other steel mills of the industrialisation period was developed by the Chicago-based Freyn Engineering Co.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: At the end of 1932, the successful and early implementation of the first five-year plan for four years and three months was announced. Summarizing its results, Stalin announced that heavy industry had fulfilled the plan by 108%. During the period between October 1, 1928 and January 1, 1933, the production fixed assets of heavy industry increased by 2.7 times.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: In report at the 17th Congress of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) in January 1934, Stalin cited the following figures with the words: "This means that our country has become firmly and finally an industrial country".


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: Following the first five-year plan, the second five-year plan followed, with a somewhat lower emphasis on industrialisation, and then the third five-year plan, which was thwarted by the outbreak of World War II.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: The result of the first five-year plans was the development of heavy industry, thanks to which the increase in gross domestic product during 1928–40, according to Vitaly Melyantsev, was about 4.6% per year (according to other, earlier estimates, from 3% to 6.3%). Industrial production in the period 1928–1937 increased 2.5–3.5 times, that is, 10.5–16% per year. In particular, the release of machinery in the period 1928–1937 grew on average 27.4% per year. From 1930 to 1940, the number of higher and secondary technical educational institutions in the Soviet Union increased 4 times and exceeded 150.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: By 1941, about 9,000 new plants were built. By the end of the second five-year plan, the Soviet Union took the second place in the world in industrial output, second only to the United States. Imports fell sharply, which was viewed as the country's gaining economic independence. Open unemployment had been eliminated. Employment (at full rates) increased from one third of the population in 1928 to 45% in 1940, which provided about half of the growth of the gross national product. For the period 1928–1937 universities and colleges prepared about two million specialists. Many new technologies were mastered. Thus, it was only during the first five-year period that the production of synthetic rubber, motorcycles, watches, cameras, excavators, high-quality cement and high-quality steel grades was adjusted. The foundation was also laid for Soviet science, which in certain areas eventually became world-leading. On the basis of the established industrial base, it became possible to conduct a large-scale re-equipment of the army; during the first five-year plan, defense spending rose to 10.8% of the budget.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: With the onset of industrialisation, the consumption fund, and as a result, the standard of living of the population, has sharply decreased. By the end of 1929, the rationing system was extended to almost all food products, but the shortage of rations was still there, and there were long queues to buy them. In the future, the standard of living began to improve. In 1936, the cards were canceled, which was accompanied by an increase in wages in the industrial sector and an even greater increase in state rations prices for all goods. The average level of per capita consumption in 1938 was 22% higher than in 1928. However, the greatest growth was among the party and labor elite and did not at all touch the overwhelming majority of the rural population, or more than half of the country's population.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: The end date of industrialisation is determined by different historians in different ways. From the point of view of the conceptual aspiration to raise heavy industry in record time, the first five-year plan was the most pronounced period. Most often, the end of industrialisation is understood as the last pre-war year (1940), less often the year before Stalin's death (1952). If industrialisation is understood as a process whose goal is the share of industry in the gross domestic product, characteristic of industrialised countries, then the economy of the Soviet Union reached such a state only in the 1960s. One should also take into account the social aspect of industrialisation, since it was only in the early 1960s urban population exceeded rural.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: Soviet economist and secretary of the party committee of the Leningrad University Nikolai Kolesov Dmitrievich believes that without the implementation of the industrialisation policy, the political and economic independence of the country would not have been ensured. Sources of funds for industrialisation and its pace were predetermined by economic backwardness and too short a period allowed for its liquidation. According to Kolesov, the Soviet Union managed to eliminate the backwardness in just 13 years.


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: During the years of Soviet power, the Communists argued that the basis of industrialisation was a rational and achievable plan. Meanwhile, it was supposed that the first five-year plan would come into effect at the end of 1928, but even by the time of its announcement in April–May 1929, the work on its compilation was not completed. The initial form of the plan included goals for 50 industries and agriculture, as well as the relationship between resources and opportunities. Over time, the achievement of predetermined indicators began to play a major role. If the growth rates of industrial production originally set in terms of were 18–20%, by the end of the year they were doubled. Western and Russian researchers argue that despite the report on the successful implementation of the first five-year plan, the statistics were falsified, and none of the goals were achieved even closely. Moreover, in agriculture and in industries dependent on agriculture, there was a sharp decline. Part of the party nomenclature was extremely outraged by this, for example, Sergey Syrtsov described the reports on the achievements as "fraud".


title: Industrialization in the Soviet Union

text: On the contrary, according to Boris Brutskus, it was poorly thought out, which manifested itself in a series of announced "fractures" (April–May 1929, January–February 1930, June 1931). A grandiose and thoroughly politicised system emerged, the characteristic features of which were economic "gigantomania", chronic commodity hunger, organisational problems, wastefulness, and loss-making enterprises. The goal (that is, the plan) began to determine the means for its implementation. According to the findings of other historians (Robert Conquest, Richard Pipes, etc.), the neglect of material support and the development of infrastructure over time began to cause significant economic damage. Some of the industrialisation endeavors are considered by critics to have been poorly thought out from the start. Jacques Rossi argues that the White Sea–Baltic Canal was unnecessary. At the same time, according to Soviet statistics, already in 1933, 1.143 million tons of cargo and 27,000 passengers were transported along the canal; in 1940, about one million tons, and in 1985, 7.3 million tons of cargo. However, the incredibly brutal conditions in the building of the canal resulted in the death of up to 25,000 able-bodied working-age Soviet citizens. This not only deprived the Soviet Union of their labor but reduced the pool of manpower for military service to counter Nazi German aggression only eight years later. when Hitler broke the Stalin-Hitler alliance.