title: British Rail Class 720

text: Both the testing and production programmes were impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic that took hold during 2020. On 8 June 2020, operational use of the Class 720 was formally authorised by the Office of Rail and Road (ORR).


title: British Rail Class 720

text: On 26 November 2020, the first two units started passenger service on the London Liverpool Street to Southend line,


title: British Rail Class 720

text: On 16 December 2020, they started service on the Braintree branch, and on 23 December 2020, the Class 720s were rolled out on Southminster services.


title: British Rail Class 720

text: In February 2021, it was reported that driver training had begun for their introduction to the Cambridge route. That same month, Ian McConnell, Greater Anglia's franchise and programmes director, noted that the Class 720 was already running relatively well and free of any meaningful technical issues, with challenges with the onboard software issues being the chief concern with the type's deployment at that point.


title: British Rail Class 720

text: According to railway industry periodical "Rail Engineer", Greater Anglia intend to gradually extend the new fleet's usage to eventually cover all of the Great Eastern routes in Essex and through to Ipswich during the first half of 2021, while the Class 720 would be introduced to the west Anglia route between Liverpool Street and Cambridge in the second half of the year.


title: British Rail Class 720

text: On 23 March 2021, the 720s were introduced on the Liverpool Street to Clacton, Colchester Town and Ipswich services.


title: British Rail Class 720

text: On 25 August 2021, Class 720s entered service on the West Anglia mainline and Hertford East branch. On 13 September 2021, the 720s started services to Harwich Town and Walton-on-the-Naze.


title: British Rail Class 720

text: The units resemble the and built for Crossrail and London Overground respectively. However, owing to the services that they operate, the Class 720s have a higher top speed of , and have significantly more seats per carriage (and less standing space).


title: British Rail Class 720

text: Individual vehicles are numbered as follows, with the last three digits of each vehicle number matching those of the unit to which it belongs:


title: British Rail Class 720

text: European Vehicle Numbers for the fleet are devised by prefixing the domestic vehicle number with type code 94, country code 70, and a leading zero; "94700".


title: Unpaused

text: Unpaused is an Indian Hindi-language anthology film consisting of five short segments directed by Raj & DK, Nitya Mehra, Nikkhil Advani, Tannishtha Chatterjee and Avinash Arun. With an ensemble cast, the stories revolved around lives of people impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. It premiered on 18 December 2020 on Amazon Prime Video.


title: Unpaused

text: Debasree Purkayastha of "The Hindu" mentioned that the film has "a stirring ensemble of slice-of-life tales that dwell on the common themes of loneliness, love and hope." Saibal Chatterjee from NDTV wrote: "As a freewheeling rumination on loneliness, distress and lingering hope, the anthology, buoyed by a slew of terrific performances, is a pertinent commentary on a pandemic and its depredations."


title: Unpaused

text: Nandini Ramnath of Scroll.in praised the performances in the film but was critical of the treatment. Writing for "The Indian Express", Shubhra Gupta noted that the film mixes different themes like loneliness and isolation "with news that has made headlines in this terrible virus-laden year, with average results." Anna M. M. Vetticad wrote: ""Unpaused" is important because it serves to chronicle this slice of history. It helps that it is also an enjoyable, insightful affair."


title: Unpaused

text: The music was composed by Tanishk Bagchi, Payal Dev, Parth Parekh, Shishir A Samant and Gaurav Kadu with lyrics written by Rashmi Virag, Kunaal Vermaa, Ginny Diwan, Traditional and Gaurav Kadu.


title: Ramdev Pir

text: Baba Ramdev (or Ramdevji, or Ramdeo Pir, Ramsha Pir (1352–1385 AD; V.S. 1409–1442) is a Hindu deity of Gujarat and Rajasthan, India. He was a fourteenth-century ruler, said to have miraculous powers, who devoted his life uplifting the downtrodden and poor people. He is worshiped by many social groups of India as Ishta-deva.


title: Ramdev Pir

text: King Ajmal (Ajmal tanwar) married Queen Minaldevi, daughter of Pamji Bhati of Chhahan Baru village. The sonless king went to Dwaraka and pleaded with Krishna about his wish to have a child like him. They had two sons, the elder Viramdev and the younger Ramdev. Ramdev was born on Bhadra Shukla Dooj in V.S. 1409 in a Rajput family at Ramderiya. Barmer district.


title: Ramdev Pir

text: Ramdev believed in the equality of all human beings, be they high or low, rich or poor. He helped the down-trodden by granting them their wishes. He is often depicted on horseback. His followers are spread across in Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh, Mumbai, Delhi and also in Sindh in Pakistan. Several fairs in Rajasthan are held to commemorate him. Temples in his name are found in many states of India.


title: Ramdev Pir

text: Ajmal arrived at Dwarka and prayed for many days. Ultimately, in sheer disappointment, he asked Krishna's image the reason for deserving such sorrow. The image did not respond to the king's repeated queries. Angered and enraged at this, the king threw a dried laddu at the head of the image. The priest of the temple, considering the king to be mad, asked the king to go to the mystic Dwaraka to speak to the Lord. Dwaraka, swallowed by the sea many centuries prior, lay on the bed of the Arabian Sea. The unfearing king dived into the sea to meet the Lord. Pleased at the king's dedication and faith, the Lord granted him a boon. The king asked for Krishna to be born as his son. Lord promised to come in the king's house. Soon thereafter, the royal couple gave birth to the boy, whom they named Bhiramdev. After a few years, Krishna took a small form and appeared next to Bhiramdev. Muslims venerate Ramdev as "Ramshah Pir" or "Rama Shah Peer". He was said to have had miraculous powers and his fame reached far and wide. Legend has it that five Pirs from Mecca came to test Ramdev's powers. Ramdev welcomed them, and requested them to have lunch with him. The Pirs declined, saying that they ate only with their personal utensils, which were in Mecca. At this, Ramdev smiled and said look your utensils are coming and they saw that their eating bowls were coming flying in air from Mecca. After being convinced of his abilities and powers, they paid their homage to him and named him Rama Shah Peer. The five Pirs, who came to test his powers, were so impressed by him that they decided to stay with him. Their graves are located near Ramdev's "samadhi".


title: Ramdev Pir

text: Ramdev took Samadhi at Ramdevra (10 km from Pokhran) in Rajasthan, on Bhadrapada Shukla Ekadashi in V.S. 1442 at the age of 33 years.


title: Ramdev Pir

text: The temple complex housing the resting place of Ramdev is located at Ramdevra (10 km from Pokhran) in Rajasthan. The present temple structure was built around Ramdev's final resting place by Maharaja Ganga Singh of Bikaner in 1931.


title: Ramdev Pir

text: The complex also houses Samadhis of his disciples like Dalibai and some other of his chief disciples. The complex also houses the tombs of five Muslim Pirs, who had come from Mecca. It also houses a step-well, the water of which devotees believe has healing powers.


title: Ramdev Pir

text: Ramdev Jayanti, the birth date of Ramdev, is celebrated every year in India by his devotees. It falls on Dooj (the second day) of Shukla paksha of Bhadrapad month of Hindu calendar. In Rajasthan, this day is observed as a public holiday and a fair is held at the Ramdevra temple, where hundreds of thousands of devotees, both Hindu and Muslim, take part and pay their homage to Samadhi at the main temple.


title: Ramdev Pir

text: The Temple of Rama Pir is located in Tando Allahyar, Sindh, Pakistan. The annual festival of Ramapir Temple Tando Allahyar is the second largest pilgrimage sites for the Hindus in Pakistan. Every year in the Hindu month of Bhadrapad, 3 days celebrations are arranged by Ramapir Sheva Mandli.


title: Circadian rhythm sleep disorder

text: Circadian rhythm sleep disorders (CRSD), also known as circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorders (CRSWD), are a family of sleep disorders which affect the timing of sleep. CRSDs arise from a persistent pattern of sleep/wake disturbances that can be caused either by dysfunction in one's biological clock system, or by misalignment between one's endogenous oscillator and externally imposed cues. As a result of this mismatch, those affected by circadian rhythm sleep disorders have a tendency to fall asleep at unconventional time points in the day. These occurrences often lead to recurring instances of disturbed rest, where individuals affected by the disorder are unable to go to sleep and awaken at "normal" times for work, school, and other social obligations. Delayed sleep phase disorder, advanced sleep phase disorder, non-24-hour sleep–wake disorder and irregular sleep–wake rhythm disorder represents the four main types of CRSD.


title: Circadian rhythm sleep disorder

text: Humans, like most living organisms, have various biological rhythms. These biological clocks control processes that fluctuate daily (e.g., body temperature, alertness, hormone secretion), generating circadian rhythms. Among these physiological characteristics, the sleep-wake propensity can also be considered one of the daily rhythms regulated by the biological clock system. Human's sleeping cycles are tightly regulated by a series of circadian processes working in tandem, allowing for the experience of moments of consolidated sleep during the night and a long wakeful moment during the day. Conversely, disruptions to these processes and the communication pathways between them can lead to problems in sleeping patterns, which are collectively referred to as circadian rhythm sleep disorders.


title: Circadian rhythm sleep disorder

text: A circadian rhythm is an entrainable, endogenous, biological activity that has a period of roughly twenty-four hours. This internal time-keeping mechanism is centralized in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of humans, and allows for the internal physiological mechanisms underlying sleep and alertness to become synchronized to external environmental cues, like the light-dark cycle. The SCN also sends signals to peripheral clocks in other organs, like the liver, to control processes such as glucose metabolism. Although these rhythms will persist in constant light or dark conditions, different Zeitgebers (time givers such as the light-dark cycle) give context to the clock and allow it to entrain and regulate expression of physiological processes to adjust to the changing environment. Genes that help control light-induced entrainment include positive regulators BMAL1 and CLOCK and negative regulators PER1 and CRY. A full circadian cycle can be described as a twenty-four hour circadian day, where circadian time zero (CT 0) marks the beginning of a subjective day for an organism and CT 12 marks the start of subjective night.


title: Circadian rhythm sleep disorder

text: Humans with regular circadian function have been shown to maintain regular sleep schedules, regulate daily rhythms in hormone secretion, and sustain oscillations in core body temperature. Even in the absence of Zeitgebers, humans will continue to maintain a roughly 24-hour rhythm in these biological activities. Regarding sleep, normal circadian function allows people to maintain balance rest and wakefulness that allows people to work and maintain alertness during the day's activities, and rest at night.


title: Circadian rhythm sleep disorder

text: Some misconceptions regarding circadian rhythms and sleep commonly mislabel irregular sleep as a circadian rhythm sleep disorder. In order to be diagnosed with CRSD, there must be either a misalignment between the timing of the circadian oscillator and the surrounding environment, or failure in the clock entrainment pathway. Among people with typical circadian clock function, there is variation in chronotypes, or preferred wake and sleep times, of individuals. Although chronotype varies from individual to individual, as determined by rhythmic expression of clock genes, people with typical circadian clock function will be able to entrain to environmental cues. For example, if a person wishes to shift the onset of a biological activity, like waking time, light exposure during the late subjective night or early subjective morning can help advance one's circadian cycle earlier in the day, leading to an earlier wake time.


title: Circadian rhythm sleep disorder

text: The International Classification of Sleep Disorders classifies Circadian Rhythm Sleep Disorder as a type of sleep dyssomnia. Although studies suggest that 3% of the adult population has a CRSD, many people are often misdiagnosed with insomnia instead of a CRSD. Of adults diagnosed with sleep disorders, an estimated 10% have a CRSD and of adolescents with sleep disorders, an estimated 16% may have a CRSD. Patients diagnosed with circadian rhythm sleep disorders typically express a pattern of disturbed sleep, whether that be excessive sleep that intrudes on working schedules and daily functions, or insomnia at desired times of sleep. Note that having a preference for extreme early or late wake times are not related to a circadian rhythm sleep disorder diagnosis. There must be distinct impairment of biological rhythms that affects the person's desired work and daily behavior. For a CRSD diagnosis, a sleep specialist gathers the history of a patient's sleep and wake habits, body temperature patterns, and dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO). Gathering this data gives insight into the patient's current schedule, as well as the physiological phase markers of the patient's biological clock.


title: Circadian rhythm sleep disorder

text: The start of the CRSD diagnostic process is a thorough sleep history assessment. A standard questionnaire is used to record the sleep habits of the patient, including typical bedtime, sleep duration, sleep latency, and instances of waking up. The professional will further inquire about other external factors that may impact sleep. Prescription drugs that treat mood disorders like tricyclic antidepressants, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and other antidepressants are associated with abnormal sleep behaviors. Other daily habits like work schedule and timing of exercise are also recorded—because they may impact an individual's sleep and wake patterns. To measure sleep variables candidly, patients wear actigraphy watches that record sleep onset, wake time, and many other physiological variables. Patients are similarly asked to self-report their sleep habits with a week-long sleep diary to document when they go to bed, when they wake up, etc. to supplement the actigraphy data. Collecting this data allows sleep professionals to carefully document and measure patient's sleep habits and confirm patterns described in their sleep history.


title: Circadian rhythm sleep disorder

text: Other additional ways to classify the nature of a patient's sleep and biological clock are the morningness-eveningness questionnaire (MEQ) and the Munich ChronoType Questionnaire, both of which have fairly strong correlations with accurately reporting phase advanced or delayed sleep. Questionnaires like the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) and the Insomnia Severity Index (ISI) help gauge the severity of sleep disruption. Specifically, these questionnaires can help the professional assess the patient's problems with sleep latency, undesired early-morning wakefulness, and problems with falling or staying asleep.


title: Circadian rhythm sleep disorder

text: Tayside children's sleep questionnaire is a ten-item questionnaire for sleep disorders in children aged between one and five years old.


title: Circadian rhythm sleep disorder

text: Currently, the International Classification of Sleep Disorders (ICSD-3) lists 6 disorders under the category of circadian rhythm sleep disorders.


title: Circadian rhythm sleep disorder

text: CRSDs can be categorized into two groups based on their underlying mechanisms: The first category is composed of disorders where the endogenous oscillator has been altered, known as intrinsic type disorders. The second category consists of disorders in which the external environment and the endogenous circadian clock are misaligned, called extrinsic type CRSDs.


title: Circadian rhythm sleep disorder

text: CRSD has been frequently associated with excessive daytime sleepiness and nighttime insomnia in patients diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease (AD), representing a common characteristic among AD patients as well as a risk factor of progressive functional impairments. On one hand, it has been stated that people with AD have melatonin alteration and high irregularity in their circadian rhythm that lead to a disrupted sleep-wake cycle, probably due to damage on hypothalamic SCN regions typically observed in AD. On the other hand, disturbed sleep and wakefulness states have been related to worsening of an AD patient's cognitive abilities, emotional state and quality of life. Moreover, the abnormal behavioural symptoms of the disease negatively contribute to overwhelming patient's relatives and caregivers as well.


title: Circadian rhythm sleep disorder

text: However, the impact of sleep-wake disturbances on the subjective experience of a person with AD is not yet fully understood. Therefore, further studies exploring this field have been highly recommended, mainly considering the increasing life expectancy and significance of neurodegenerative diseases in clinical practices.


The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (CEIP) is a nonpartisan international affairs think tank headquartered in Washington D.C. with operations in Europe, South and East Asia, and the Middle East as well as the United States. Founded in 1910 by Andrew Carnegie, the organization describes itself as being dedicated to advancing cooperation between countries, reducing global conflict, and promoting active international engagement by the United States and countries around the world.


title: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace

text: In the University of Pennsylvania's "2019 Global Go To Think Tanks Report", Carnegie was ranked the number 1 top think tank in the world. In the "2015 Global Go To Think Tanks Report", Carnegie was ranked the third most influential think tank in the world, after the Brookings Institution and Chatham House. It was ranked as the top Independent Think Tank in 2018.


text: Its headquarters building, prominently located on the Embassy Row section of Massachusetts Avenue, was completed in 1989 on a design by architecture firm Smith, Hinchman & Grylls. It has also hosted the embassy of Papua New Guinea in the U.S.


text: The chairperson of Carnegie's board of trustees is former U.S. Secretary of Commerce Penny Pritzker, and the organization's president is former judge Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar, who replaced former U.S. Deputy Secretary of State William J. Burns in 2021.


text: Andrew Carnegie, like other leading internationalists of his day, believed that war could be eliminated by stronger international laws and organizations. "I am drawn more to this cause than to any," he wrote in 1907. Carnegie's single largest commitment in this field was his creation of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.


text: On his seventy-fifth birthday, November 25, 1910, Andrew Carnegie announced the establishment of the Endowment with a gift of $10 million worth of first mortgage bonds, paying a 5% rate of interest. The interest income generated from these bonds was to be used to fund a new think tank dedicated to advancing the cause of world peace. In his deed of gift, presented in Washington on December 14, 1910, Carnegie charged trustees to use the fund to "hasten the abolition of international war, the foulest blot upon our civilization", and he gave his trustees "the widest discretion as to the measures and policy they shall from time to time adopt" in carrying out the purpose of the fund.


text: Carnegie chose longtime adviser Elihu Root, senator from New York and former Secretary of War and of State, to be the Endowment's first president. Awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1912, Root served until 1925. Founder trustees included Harvard University president Charles William Eliot, philanthropist Robert S. Brookings, former U.S. Ambassador to Great Britain Joseph Hodges Choate, former secretary of state John W. Foster, and Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching president Henry Smith Pritchett.


text: At the outset of America's involvement in World War I in 1917, the Carnegie Endowment trustees unanimously declared, "the most effective means of promoting durable international peace is to prosecute the war against the Imperial Government of Germany to final victory for democracy." In December 1918, Carnegie Endowment Secretary James Brown Scott and four other Endowment personnel, including James T. Shotwell, sailed with President Woodrow Wilson on the USS "George Washington" to join the peace talks in France.


text: Carnegie is often remembered for having built Carnegie libraries, which were a major recipient of his largesse. The libraries were usually funded not by the Endowment but by other Carnegie trusts, operating mainly in the English-speaking world. However, after World War I the Endowment built libraries in Belgium, France, and Serbia in three cities which had been badly damaged in the war. In addition, in 1918, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (CEIP) began to support library special collections on international issues through its International Mind Alcove program, which aimed to foster a more global perspective among the public in the United States and other countries. The Endowment concluded its support for this program in 1958.


text: On July 14, 1923, the Hague Academy of International Law, an initiative of the Endowment, was formally opened in the Peace Palace at The Hague.


text: The Peace Palace had been built by the Carnegie Foundation (Netherlands) in 1913 to house the Permanent Court of Arbitration and a library of international law.


text: In 1925, Nicholas Murray Butler succeeded Elihu Root as president of the Endowment. In December of the same year, the endowment's Board approved a proposal by President Butler to offer aid in modernizing the Vatican Library. From 1926 to 1939 the Carnegie Endowment expended some $200,000 on the endeavor. For his work, including his involvement with the Kellogg–Briand Pact, Butler was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931.


text: In November 1944, the Carnegie Endowment published Raphael Lemkin's "Axis Rule in Occupied Europe: Laws of Occupation—Analysis of Government—Proposals for Redress". The work was the first to bring the word "genocide" into the global lexicon. In April 1945, James T. Shotwell, director of the Carnegie Endowment's Division of Economics and History, served as chairman of the semiofficial consultants to the U.S. delegation at the San Francisco conference to draw up the United Nations Charter. As chairman, Shotwell pushed for an amendment to establish a permanent United Nations Commission on Human Rights, which exists to this day.


text: In December 1945, Butler stepped down after twenty years as president and chairman of the board of trustees. Butler was the last living member of the original board selected by Andrew Carnegie in 1910. John Foster Dulles was elected to succeed Butler as chairman of the board of trustees, where he served until fellow board member Dwight D. Eisenhower was elected president of the U.S. in 1952 and appointed Dulles Secretary of State.


text: In 1946, Alger Hiss succeeded Butler as president of the Endowment but resigned in 1949 after being denounced as a communist and a spy by Whittaker Chambers and on December 15, 1948, indicted by the United States Department of Justice on two counts of perjury. Hiss was replaced in the interim by James T. Shotwell.


text: In 1947, the Carnegie Endowment's headquarters were moved closer to the United Nations in New York City, while the Washington office at Peter Parker House (700 Jackson Pl., NW) became a subsidiary branch.


text: In 1950, the Endowment board of trustees appointed Joseph E. Johnson, a historian and former State Department official, to take the helm.


text: In 1963, the Carnegie Endowment reconstituted its International Law Program in order to address several emerging international issues: the increase in significance and impact of international organizations; the technological revolution that facilitated the production of new military weaponry; the spread of Communism; the surge in newly independent states; and the challenges of new forms of economic activity, including global corporations and intergovernmental associations. The program resulted in the New York-based Study Group on the United Nations and the International Organization Study Group at the European Centre in Geneva.


text: In 1970, Thomas L. Hughes became the sixth president of the Carnegie Endowment. Hughes moved the Endowment's headquarters from New York to Washington, D.C., and closed the Endowment's European Centre in Geneva.


text: The Carnegie Endowment acquired full ownership of "Foreign Policy" magazine in the spring of 1978. The Endowment published "Foreign Policy" for 30 years, moving it from a quarterly academic journal to a bi-monthly glossy covering the nexus of globalization and international policy. The magazine was sold to "The Washington Post" in 2008.


text: In 1981, Carnegie Endowment Associate Fred Bergsten co-founded the Institute for International Economics—today known as the Peterson Institute for International Economics.


text: Citing the growing danger of a nuclear arms race between India and Pakistan, Thomas L. Hughes formed an eighteen-member Task Force on Non-Proliferation and South Asian Security to propose methods for reducing the growing nuclear tensions on the subcontinent.


text: In 1989, two former Carnegie associates, Barry Blechman and Michael Krepon, founded the Henry L. Stimson Center.


text: In 1991, Morton Abramowitz was named the seventh president of the Endowment. Abramowitz, previously a State Department official, focused the Endowment's attention on Russia in the post-Soviet era. In this spirit, the Carnegie Endowment opened the Carnegie Moscow Center in 1994 as a home of Russian scholar-commentators.


text: Jessica Mathews joined the Carnegie Endowment as its eighth president in May 1997. Under her leadership, Carnegie's goal was to become the first multinational/global think tank.


text: In 2000, Mathews announced the creation of the Migration Policy Institute (MPI) headed by Demetrios Papademetriou which became the first stand-alone think tank concerned with international migration.


text: As first laid out with the "Global Vision" in 2007, the Carnegie Endowment aspired to be the first global think tank. Mathews said that her aim was to make Carnegie the place that brings what the world thinks into thinking about U.S. policy and to communicate that thinking to a global audience.


text: During Mathews' tenure as president, the Carnegie Endowment launched the Carnegie Middle East Center in Beirut (2006), Carnegie Europe in Brussels (2007), and the Carnegie-Tsinghua Center at the Tsinghua University in Beijing (2010). Additionally, in partnership with the al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Carnegie established the Al-Farabi Carnegie Program on Central Asia in Kazakhstan in late 2011.


text: In February 2015, Mathews stepped down as president of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace after 18 years. William J. Burns, former U.S. deputy secretary of state, became Carnegie's ninth president. After Burns' nomination and confirmation as Director of the Central Intelligence Agency, then-California Supreme Court Justice and Stanford professor Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar became President of the Carnegie Endowment on November 1, 2021.


text: In April 2022, the Carnegie Endowment was compelled to close its Moscow center at the direction of the Russian government.


text: The Carnegie Endowment office in [[Washington, D.C.]], is home to ten programs: Africa; American Statecraft; Asia; Democracy, Conflict, and Governance; Europe; Middle East; Nuclear Policy; Russia and Eurasia; South Asia; and Technology and International Affairs.


text: In 1993, the Endowment launched the [[Carnegie Moscow Center]], with the belief that "in today's world a think tank whose mission is to contribute to global security, stability, and prosperity requires a permanent presence and a multinational outlook at the core of its operations."


text: The center's stated goals were to embody and promote the concepts of disinterested social science research and the dissemination of its results in post-Soviet Russia and Eurasia; to provide a free and open forum for the discussion and debate of critical national, regional and global issues; and to further cooperation and strengthen relations between Russia and the United States by explaining the interests, objectives and policies of each. From 2006 until December 2008, the center was led by former Deputy Secretary General of [[NATO]], [[Rose Gottemoeller]]. The center was headed by [[Dmitri Trenin]] until its closing in April 2022.


text: The [[Carnegie Middle East Center]] was established in Beirut, Lebanon in November 2006. The center aims to better inform the process of political change in the Arab Middle East and deepen understanding of the complex economic and security issues that affect it. , the current director of the center is Maha Yahya.


text: Founded in 2007 by [[Fabrice Pothier]], Carnegie Europe is the European centre of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. From its newly expanded presence in Brussels, Carnegie Europe combines the work of its research platform with the fresh perspectives of Carnegie's centres in Washington, Moscow, Beijing, and Beirut, bringing a unique global vision to the European policy community. Through publications, articles, seminars, and private consultations, Carnegie Europe aims to foster new thinking on the daunting international challenges shaping Europe's role in the world.


text: The Carnegie-Tsinghua Center for Global Policy was established at [[Tsinghua University]] in [[Beijing]] in 2010. The center's focuses include [[China]]'s foreign relations; international economics and trade; [[climate change and energy]]; nonproliferation and arms control; and other global and regional security issues such as [[North Korea]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Iran]].


text: In April 2016, Carnegie India opened in [[New Delhi]], [[India]]. The center's focuses include the political economy of reform in India, foreign and security policy, and the role of innovation and technology in India's internal transformation and international relations.


title: Bicycle brake

text: A bicycle brake reduces the speed of a bicycle or prevents it from moving. The three main types are: rim brakes, disc brakes, and drum brakes.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Most bicycle brake systems consist of three main components: a mechanism for the rider to apply the brakes, such as brake levers or pedals; a mechanism for transmitting that signal, such as Bowden cables, hydraulic hoses, rods, or the bicycle chain; and the brake mechanism itself, a caliper or drum, to press two or more surfaces together in order to convert, via friction, kinetic energy of the bike and rider into thermal energy to be dissipated.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Karl Drais included a pivoting brake shoe that could be pressed against the rear iron tyre of his 1817 . This was continued on the earliest bicycles with pedals, such as the boneshaker, which were fitted with a spoon brake to press onto the rear wheel. The brake was operated by a lever or by a cord connecting to the handlebars. The rider could also slow down by resisting the pedals of the fixed-wheel drive.


title: Bicycle brake

text: The next development of the bicycle, the penny-farthings, were similarly braked with a spoon brake or by back pedalling. During its development from 1870 to 1878, there were various designs for brakes, most of them operating on the rear wheel. However, as the rear wheel became smaller and smaller, with more of the rider's weight over the front wheel, braking on the rear wheel became less effective. The front brake, introduced by John Kean in 1873, had been generally adopted by 1880 because of its greater stopping power.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Some penny-farthing riders used only back pedalling and got off and walked down steep hills, but most also used a brake. Having a brake meant that riders could coast down hill by taking their feet off the pedals and placing the legs over the handlebars, although most riders preferred to dismount and walk down steep hills. Putting the legs under the handlebars with the feet off the pedals placed on foot-rests on the forks had resulted in serious accidents caused by the feet getting caught in the spokes.


title: Bicycle brake

text: An alternative to the spoon brake for penny-farthings was the caliper brake patented by Browett and Harrison in 1887. This early version of caliper braking used a rubber block to contact the outside of the penny-farthing's small rear tyre.


title: Bicycle brake

text: The 1870s and 1880s saw the development of the safety bicycle which roughly resembles bicycles today, with two wheels of equal size, initially with solid rubber tyres. These were typically equipped with a front spoon brake and no rear brake mechanism, but like penny-farthings they used fixed gears, allowing rear wheel braking by resisting the motion of the pedals. The relative fragility of the wooden rims used on most bicycles still precluded the use of rim brakes. In the late 1890s came the introduction of rim brakes and the freewheel.


title: Bicycle brake

text: With the introduction of mass-produced pneumatic tyres by the Dunlop Tyre Company, the use of spoon brakes began to decline, as they tended to quickly wear through the thin casing of the new tyres. This problem led to demands for alternative braking systems. On November 23, 1897, Abram W. Duck of Duck's Cyclery in Oakland, California, was granted a patent for his "Duck Roller Brake" (U.S. Patent 594,234). The Duck brake used a rod operated by a lever on the handlebar to pull twin rubber rollers against the front tyre, braking the front wheel.


title: Bicycle brake

text: In 1898, after the advent of freewheel coasting mechanisms, the first internal coaster brakes were introduced for the rear wheel. The coaster brake was contained in the rear wheel hub, and was engaged and controlled by backpedaling, thus eliminating the issue of tyre wear. In the United States, the coaster brake was the most commonly fitted brake throughout the first half of the 20th century, often comprising the only braking system on the bicycle.


title: Bicycle brake

text: The spoon brake or plunger brake was probably the first type of bicycle brake and precedes the pneumatic tyre. Spoon brakes were used on penny farthings with solid rubber tyres in the 1800s and continued to be used after the introduction of the pneumatic-tyred safety bicycle. The spoon brake consists of a pad (often leather) or metal shoe (possibly rubber faced), which is pressed onto the top of the front tyre. These were almost always rod-operated by a right-hand lever. In developing countries, a foot-operated form of the spoon brake sometimes is retrofitted to old rod brake roadsters. It consists of a spring-loaded flap attached to the back of the fork crown. This is depressed against the front tyre by the rider's foot.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Perhaps more so than any other form of bicycle brake, the spoon brake is sensitive to road conditions and increases tyre wear dramatically.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Though made obsolete by the introduction of the Duck brake, coaster brake, and rod brake, spoon brakes continued to be used in the West supplementally on adult bicycles until the 1930s, and on children's bicycles until the 1950s. In the developing world, they were manufactured until much more recently.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Invented in 1897, the Duck brake or Duck roller brake used a rod operated by a lever on the handlebar to pull twin friction rollers (usually made of wood or rubber) against the front tyre. Mounted on axles secured by friction washers and set at an angle to conform to the shape of the tyre, the rollers were forced against their friction washers upon contacting the tyre, thus braking the front wheel. A tension spring held the rollers away from the tyre except when braking. Braking power was enhanced by an extra-long brake lever mounted in parallel with and behind the handlebar, which provided additional leverage when braking (two hands could be used to pull the lever if necessary). Used in combination with a rear coaster brake, a cyclist of the day could stop much more quickly and with better modulation of braking effort than was possible using only a spoon brake or rear coaster brake. Known colloquially as the "duck brake", the design was used by many notable riders of the day, and was widely exported to England, Australia, and other countries. In 1902, Louis H. Bill was granted a patent for an improved version of the Duck Roller Brake (Patent 708,114) for use on motorized bicycles (motorcycles).


title: Bicycle brake

text: Rim brakes are so called because braking force is applied by friction pads to the rim of the rotating wheel, thus slowing it and the bicycle. Brake pads can be made of leather, rubber or cork and are often mounted in metal "shoes". Rim brakes are typically actuated by a lever mounted on the handlebar.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Rim brakes are inexpensive, light, mechanically simple, easy to maintain, and powerful. However, they perform relatively poorly when the rims are wet, and will brake unevenly if the rims are even slightly warped. Because rims can carry debris from the ground to the brake pads, rim brakes are more prone to clogging with mud or snow than disc brakes (where braking surfaces are higher from the ground), particularly when riding on unpaved surfaces. The low price and ease of maintenance of rim brakes makes them popular in low- to mid-price commuter bikes, where the disadvantages are alleviated by the unchallenging conditions. The light weight of rim brakes also makes them desirable in road racing bicycles.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Rim brakes require regular maintenance. Brake pads wear down and have to be replaced. As they wear down, their position may need to be adjusted as the material wears away. Because the motion of most brakes is not perfectly horizontal, the pads may lose their centering as they wear, causing the pads to wear unevenly. Over longer time and use, rims can become worn. Rims should be checked for wear periodically as they can fail catastrophically if the braking surface becomes too worn. Wear is accelerated by wet and muddy conditions. Rim brakes require that the rims be straight (not out-of-round or warped). If a rim has a pronounced wobble, then the braking force may be intermittent or uneven, and the pads may rub the rims even when the brake is not applied.


title: Bicycle brake

text: During braking, the friction surfaces (brake pads and rims) will experience thermal heating. In normal use this is not a problem, as the brakes are applied with limited force and for a short time, so the heat quickly dissipates to the surrounding air. However, on a heavily laden bike on a long descent, heat energy may be added more quickly than it can dissipate causing heat build-up, which may damage components and cause brake failure.


title: Bicycle brake

text: A ceramic coating for the rims is available which may reduce wear and can also improve both wet and dry braking. It may also slightly reduce heat transfer to the inside of the rims because it is a thermal insulator.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Brake pads are available with numerous shapes and materials. Many consist of a replaceable rubber pad held on a mounting, or brake shoe, with a post or bolt on the back to attach to the brake. Some are made as one piece with the attachment directly molded in the pad for lower production costs; brake pads of the cartridge type are held in place by a metal split pin or threaded grub screw and can be replaced without moving the brake shoe from its alignment to the rim. The rubber can be softer for more braking force with less lever effort, or harder for longer life. Many pad designs have a rectangular shape; others are longer and curved to match the radius of the rim. Larger pads do not necessarily provide more braking force, but will wear more slowly (in relation to thickness), so can usually be thinner. In general, a brake can be fitted with a variety of pads, as long as the mounting is compatible. Carbon fiber rims may be more sensitive to damage by incorrectly-matched brake pads, and generally must use non-abrasive cork pads.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Ceramic-coated rims should be used with special pads because of heat build-up at the pad-rim interface; standard pads can leave a "glaze" on the ceramic braking surface, reducing its inherent roughness and leading to a severe drop in wet-weather braking performance. Ceramic pads usually contain chromium compounds to resist heat.


title: Bicycle brake

text: For wet-weather use, brake pads containing iron (iii) oxide are sometimes used as these have higher friction on a wet aluminum rim than the usual rubber. These salmon-colored pads were first made by Scott-Mathauser and are now produced by Kool-Stop.


title: Bicycle brake

text: To minimise excessive rim wear, a brake pad should be hard enough that it does not embed road grit or chips of rim metal in the face of the pad, since these act as grinding/gouging agents and markedly reduce rim life.


title: Bicycle brake

text: The rod-actuated brake, or simply rod brake (roller lever brake in Raleigh terminology), uses a series of rods and pivots, rather than Bowden cables, to transmit force applied to a hand lever to pull friction pads upwards against the inner surface, which faces the hub, of the wheel rim. They were often called "stirrup brakes" due to their shape. Rod brakes are used with a rim profile known as the Westwood rim, which has a slightly concave area on the braking surface and lacks the flat outer surface required by brakes that apply the pads on opposite sides of the rim.


title: Bicycle brake

text: The rear linkage mechanism is complicated by the need to allow rotation where the fork and handlebars attach to the frame. A common setup was to combine a front rod brake with a rear coaster brake. Although heavy and complex, the linkages are reliable and durable and can be repaired or adjusted with simple hand tools. The design is still in use, typically on African and Asian roadsters such as the Sohrab and Flying Pigeon.


title: Bicycle brake

text: The caliper brake is a class of cable-actuated brake in which the brake mounts to a single point above the wheel, theoretically allowing the arms to auto-centre on the rim. Arms extend around the tyre and end in brake shoes that press against the rim. While some designs incorporate dual pivot points — the arms pivot on a sub-frame — the entire assembly still mounts to a single point.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Caliper brakes tend to become less effective as tyres get wider, and so deeper, reducing the brakes' mechanical advantage. Thus caliper brakes are rarely found on modern mountain bikes. But they are almost ubiquitous on road bikes, particularly the dual-pivot side-pull caliper brake.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Single-pivot side-pull caliper brakes consist of two curved arms that cross at a pivot above the wheel and hold the brake pads on opposite sides of the rim. These arms have extensions on one side, one attached to the cable, the other to the cable housing. When the brake lever is squeezed, the arms move together and the brake pads squeeze the rim.


title: Bicycle brake

text: These brakes are simple and effective for relatively narrow tyres but have significant flex and resulting poor performance if the arms are made long enough to fit wide tyres. If not adjusted properly, low quality varieties tend to rotate to one side during actuation and tend to stay there, making it difficult to evenly space brake shoes away from the rim. These brakes are now used on inexpensive bikes; before the introduction of dual-pivot caliper brakes they were used on all types of road bikes.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Dual-pivot side-pull caliper brakes are used on most modern racing bicycles. One arm pivots at the centre, like a side-pull; and the other pivots at the side, like a centre-pull. The cable housing attaches like that of a side-pull brake.


title: Bicycle brake

text: The centering of side-pull brakes was improved with the mass-market adoption of dual-pivot side-pulls (an old design re-discovered by Shimano in the early 1990s). These brakes offer a higher mechanical advantage, and result in better braking. Dual-pivot brakes are slightly heavier than conventional side-pull calipers and cannot accurately track an out-of-true rim, or a wheel that flexes from side to side in the frame during hard climbing. It is common to see professional racers climbing mountains with the quick-release undone on the rear brake, to eliminate drag from this source.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Centre-pull caliper brakes have symmetrical arms and therefore centre more effectively. The cable housing attaches to a fixed cable stop attached to the frame, and the inner cable bolts to a sliding piece (called a "braking delta", "braking triangle", or "yoke") or a small pulley, over which runs a "straddle cable" connecting the two brake arms. Tension on the cable is evenly distributed to the two arms, preventing the brake from taking a "set" to one side or the other.


title: Bicycle brake

text: These brakes were reasonably priced, and in the past filled the price niche between the cheaper and the more expensive models of side-pull brakes. They are more effective than side-pull brakes in long reach applications as the distance between the pivot and brake pad or cable attachment is much shorter, reducing flex. It is important that the fixed bridge holding the pivots is very stiff.


title: Bicycle brake

text: U-brakes (also known by the trademarked term 990-style) are essentially the same design as the centre-pull caliper brake. The difference is that the two arm pivots attach directly to the frame or fork while those of the centre-pull caliper brake attach to an integral bridge frame that mounts to the frame or fork by a single bolt. Like roller cam brakes, this is a caliper design with pivots located above the rim. Thus U-brakes are often interchangeable with, and have the same maintenance issues as, roller cam brakes.


title: Bicycle brake

text: U-brakes were used on mountain bikes through the early 1990s, particularly under the chainstays, a rear brake mounting location that was then popular. This location usually benefits from higher frame stiffness, an important consideration with a powerful brake since flex in the stays will increase lever travel and reduce effective braking force. Unfortunately it is also very prone to clogging by mud, which meant that U-brakes quickly fell out of favour on cross-country bikes.


title: Bicycle brake

text: U-brakes are the current standard on Freestyle BMX frames and forks. The U-brake's main advantage over cantilever and linear-pull brakes in this application is that sideways protrusion of the brake and cable system is minimal, and the exposed parts are smooth. This is especially valuable on freestyle BMX bikes where any protruding parts are susceptible to damage and may interfere with the rider's body or clothing.


title: Bicycle brake

text: The cantilever brake is a class of brake in which each arm is attached to a separate pivot point on one side of the seat stay or fork. Thus all cantilever brakes are dual-pivot. Both first- and second-class lever designs exist; second-class is by far the more common. In the second-class lever design, the arm pivots below the rim. The brake shoe is mounted above the pivot and is pressed against the rim as the two arms are drawn together. In the first-class lever design, the arm pivots above the rim. The brake shoe is mounted below the pivot and is pressed against the rim as the two arms are forced apart.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Due to a wider possible distance between the mounts and pads, cantilever brakes are often preferred for bicycles that use wide tyres, such as on mountain bikes. Because the arms move only in their designed arcs, the brake shoe must be adjustable in several planes. Thus cantilever brake shoes are notoriously difficult to adjust. As the brake shoes of a second-class cantilever brake wears, they ride lower on the rim. Eventually, one may go underneath the rim, so that the brake does not function.


title: Bicycle brake

text: There are several brake types based on the cantilever brake design: cantilever brakes and direct-pull brakes – both second class lever designs – and roller cam brakes and U-brakes – both first class lever designs.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Traditional cantilever brakes pre-date the direct-pull brake. It is a centre-pull cantilever design with an outwardly angled arm protruding on each side, a cable stop on the frame or fork to terminate the cable housing, and a straddle cable between the arms similar to centre-pull caliper brakes. The cable from the brake lever pulls upwards on the straddle cable, causing the brake arms to rotate up and inward thus squeezing the rim between the brake pads.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Originally, cantilever brakes had nearly horizontal arms and were designed for maximum clearance on touring or cyclo-cross bicycles. When the mountain bike became popular, cantilever brakes were adopted for these too, but the smaller MTB frames meant that riders often fouled the rear brake arms with their heels. "Low profile" cantilevers were designed to overcome this, where the arms are closer to 45 degrees from horizontal. Low profile brakes require more careful attention to cable geometry than traditional cantilevers but are now the most common type.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Traditional cantilever brakes are difficult to adapt to bicycle suspension and protrude somewhat from the frame. Accordingly, they are usually found only on bicycles without suspension.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Linear-pull brakes or direct-pull brakes, commonly referred to by Shimano's trademark V-brakes, are a side-pull version of cantilever brakes and mount on the same frame bosses. However, the arms are longer, with the cable housing attached to one arm and the cable to the other. As the cable pulls against the housing, the arms are drawn together. Because the housing enters from vertically above one arm yet force must be transmitted laterally between arms, the flexible housing is extended by a rigid tube with a 90° bend known as the "noodle" (a noodle with a 135° bend is used where the front brake is operated by the right hand, as this gives a smoother curve in the cable housing). The noodle is seated in a stirrup attached to the arm. A flexible bellows often covers the exposed cable.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Since there is no intervening mechanism between the cable and the arms, the design is called "direct-pull". And since the arms move the same distance that the cable moves with regard to its housing, the design is also called "linear-pull". The term "V-brake" is trademarked by Shimano and represents the most popular implementation of this design. Some high-end v-brakes use a four-pivot parallel motion so the brake pads contact at virtually the same position on the wheel rim regardless of wear.


title: Bicycle brake

text: V-brakes function well with the suspension systems found on many mountain bikes because they do not require a separate cable stop on the frame or fork. Because of the higher mechanical advantage of V-brakes, they require brake levers with longer cable travel than levers intended for older types of brakes. Mechanical (i.e. cable-actuated) disc brakes use the same amount of cable travel as V-brakes, except for those that are described as being "road" specific. As a general rule, mechanical disc brakes for so-called "flat bar" bicycles (chiefly mountain and hybrid bicycles) are compatible with V-brake levers, whereas mechanical disc brakes intended for "drop-bar" bicycles are compatible with the cable pull of older brake designs (cantilever, caliper, and U-brake).


title: Bicycle brake

text: Poorly designed V-brakes can suffer from a sudden failure when the noodle end pulls through the metal stirrup, leaving the wheel with no braking power. Although the noodle can be regarded as a service item and changed regularly, the hole in the stirrup may enlarge through wear. The stirrup cannot normally be replaced, so good-quality V-brakes use a durable metal for the stirrup.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Mini V-brakes (or mini Vs) are V-brakes with shorter arms, typically between 8 and 9 centimeters. This reduces the required cable pull, making them compatible with brake levers intended for cantilever brakes. Mini V-brakes retain advantages specific to V-brakes such as not requiring extra cable stops. On the downside, their shorter arms provide very small tyre and wheel clearance and generally make for a less forgiving setup: they can only accommodate smaller tyre sizes compared to cantilever brakes, may pose problems for mounting fenders, can be clogged more easily by mud, and they can make it harder to change wheels.


title: Bicycle brake

text: V-brakes always use thin and relatively long brake pads. The thin pads ease wheel removal, which is achieved by pushing the arms together and unhooking the noodle from the stirrup. The additional length gives good pad life by compensating for the thinner material depth.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Roller cam brakes are centre-pull cantilever brakes actuated by the cable pulling a single two-sided sliding cam. (First- and second-class lever designs exist; first-class is most common and is described here.) Each arm has a cam follower. As the cam presses against the follower it forces the arms apart. As the top of each arm moves outward, the brake shoe below the pivot is forced inward against the rim. There is much in favor of the roller cam brake design. Since the cam controls the rate of closure, the clamping force can be made non-linear with the pull. And since the design can provide positive mechanical advantage, maximum clamping force can be higher than that of other types of brakes. They are known for being strong and controllable. On the downside, they require some skill to set up and can complicate wheel changes. They also require maintenance: like U-brakes, as the pad wears it strikes the rim higher; unless re-adjusted it can eventually contact the tyre's sidewall.


title: Bicycle brake

text: The roller cam design was first developed by Charlie Cunningham of WTB around 1982 and licensed to Suntour. Roller cam brakes were used on early mountain bikes in the 1980s and into the 1990s, mounted to the fork blades and seat stays in the standard locations, as well as below the chain stays for improved stiffness as they do not protrude to interfere with the crank. It is not unusual for a bicycle to have a single roller cam brake (or U-brake) combined with another type. They are still used on some BMX and recumbent bicycles.


title: Bicycle brake

text: There are two rare variants that use the roller cam principle. For locations where centre-pull is inappropriate, the side-pull toggle cam brake was developed. Also a first-class cantilever, it uses a single-sided sliding cam (the toggle) against one arm that is attached by a link to the other arm. As the cam presses against the follower, the force is also transmitted to the other arm via the link. And specifically for suspension forks where the housing must terminate at the brake frame, the side-pull "sabre cam brake" was developed. In the sabre cam design, the cable end is fixed and the housing moves the single-sided cam.


title: Bicycle brake

text: The delta brake is a road bicycle brake named due to its triangular shape. The cable enters at the centre, pulls a corner of a parallelogram linkage housed inside the brake across two opposite corners, pushing out at the other two corners on to the brake arms above the pivots, so that the arms below the pivots push pads in against the rim. A feature of the design is that the mechanical advantage varies as a tangent function across its range, where that of most other designs remains fixed.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Many consider the brake attractive, and it has a lower wind profile than some other common brakes. However, "Bicycle Quarterly" criticized the delta brake for being heavy, giving mediocre stopping power, and suffering disadvantageous variable mechanical advantage. In particular, with a small parallelogram, pad wear causes mechanical advantage to rise dramatically. However, with high leverage, the stroke of the lever is not enough to fully apply the brake, so the rider can have brakes that feel normal in light braking but which cannot be applied harder for hard braking.


title: Bicycle brake

text: The basic design dates from at least the 1930s. They were made most prominently by Campagnolo in 1985, but brakes based on the same mechanism were also manufactured by Modolo (Kronos), Weinmann, and others. They are no longer made and are now uncommon.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Hydraulic rim brakes are one of the least common types of brakes. They are mounted either on the same pivot points used for cantilever and linear-pull brakes or they can be mounted on four-bolt brake mounts found on many trials frames. They were available on some high-end mountain bikes in the early 1990s, but declined in popularity with the rise of disc brakes. The moderate performance advantage (greater power and control) they offer over cable actuated rim brakes is offset by their greater weight and complexity. Some e-bikes continue to use them since they are powerful, relatively low-maintenance and weight is less of an issue when electric assistance is available.


title: Bicycle brake

text: A disc brake consists of a metal disc, or "rotor", attached to the wheel hub that rotates with the wheel. Calipers are attached to the frame or fork along with pads that squeeze the rotors for braking. Disc brakes may be actuated mechanically by cable, or hydraulically.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Disc brakes are most common for mountain bikes (including nearly all downhill bikes), and are also seen on some hybrid bicycles and touring bicycles. Towards the end of the 2010s, disc brakes have become increasingly common also on racing bicycles. A disc brake is sometimes employed as a drag brake for controlled speed reduction on steep descents.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Many hydraulic disc brakes have a self-adjusting mechanism so as the brake pad wears, the pistons keep the distance from the pad to the disc consistent to maintain the same brake lever throw. Some hydraulic brakes, especially older ones, and most mechanical discs have manual controls to adjust the pad-to-rotor gap. Several adjustments are often required during the life of the pads.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Disc brakes tend to perform equally well in all conditions including water, mud, and snow due to several factors:


title: Bicycle brake

text: There are two main types of disc brake: "mechanical" (cable-actuated) and hydraulic. Advantages and disadvantages are highly discussed by the users of each system. As advantages of cable-actuated disc brakes are argued lower cost, lower maintenance, and lighter system weight, hydraulic disc brakes are said to offer more braking power and better control. Cable-actuated disc brakes were traditionally the only type of disc brake that could be used with the brake levers found on drop handlebars, but this is no longer the case.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Many disc brakes have their pads actuated from both sides of the caliper, while some have only one pad that moves. Dual actuation can move both pads relative to the caliper, or can move one pad relative to the caliper, then move the caliper and other pad relative to the rotor, called a "floating caliper" design. Single-actuation brakes use either a multi-part rotor that floats axially on the hub, or bend the rotor sideways as needed. Bending the rotor is theoretically inferior, but in practice gives good service, even under high-force braking with a hot disc, and may yield more progressiveness.


title: Bicycle brake

text: For disc brakes with a hydraulic system, high-performance calipers usually use two or three pistons per side; lower-cost and lower-performance calipers often have only one per side. Using more pistons allows a larger piston area and thus increased leverage with a given master cylinder. Also, pistons may be of several sizes so pad force can be controlled across the face of the pad, especially when the pad is long and narrow. A long narrow pad may be desired to increase pad area and thus reduce the frequency of pad changes. In contrast, a single large piston may be heavier.


title: Bicycle brake

text: There are many standards for mounting disc brake calipers. However, most manufactures today use either the "IS" or "post-mount" (PM) standards. These differ by disc size and axle type.


title: Bicycle brake

text: A disadvantage of post mounts is that the bolt is threaded directly into the fork lowers. If the threads are stripped or if the bolt is stuck, then the threads will need to be repaired, or the seized bolt drilled out. Frame manufacturers have standardized the IS mount for the rear disc brake mount. In recent years post mount has gained ground and is becoming more common. This is mostly due to decreased manufacturing and part cost for the brake calipers when using post mount. A limitation of the mount is that the location of the rotor is more constrained: it is possible to encounter incompatible hub/fork combinations, where the rotor is out of range.


title: Bicycle brake

text: There are many options for rotor mounting. IS is a six-bolt mount and is the industry standard. Centerlock is patented by Shimano and uses a splined interface along with a lockring to secure the disc. The advantages of centerlock are that the splined interface is theoretically stiffer, and removing the disc is quicker because it only requires one lockring to be removed. Some of the disadvantages are that the design is patented requiring a licensing fee from Shimano. A Shimano cassette lockring tool (or an external BB tool in case of through-axle hub) is needed to remove the rotor and is more expensive and less common than a Torx key. Advantages of IS six-bolt are that there are more choices when it comes to hubs and rotors.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Rotors come in many different sizes, such as and diameter. Other sizes are available as manufacturers make discs specific to their calipers; the dimensions often vary by a few millimeters. Larger rotors provide greater braking torque for a given pad pressure, by virtue of a longer moment arm for the caliper to act on. Smaller rotors provide less braking torque but also less weight and better protection from knocks. Larger rotors dissipate heat more quickly and have a larger amount of mass to absorb heat, reducing brake fade or failure. Downhill bikes usually have larger brakes to handle greater braking loads. Cross country bicycles usually use smaller rotors which handle smaller loads but offer considerable weight savings. It is also common to use a larger diameter rotor on the front wheel and a smaller rotor on the rear wheel since the front wheel does the most braking (up to 90% of the total).


title: Bicycle brake

text: Bicycle drum brakes operate like those of a car, although the bicycle variety use cable rather than hydraulic actuation. Two pads are pressed outward against the braking surface on the inside of the hub shell. Shell inside diameters on a bicycle drum brake are typically . Drum brakes have been used on front hubs and hubs with both internal and external freewheels. Both cable- and rod-operated drum brake systems have been widely produced.


title: Bicycle brake

text: A Roller Brake is a modular cable-operated drum brake manufactured by Shimano for use on specially splined front and rear hubs. Unlike a traditional drum brake, the Roller Brake can be easily removed from the hub. Some models contain a torque-limiting device called a power modulator designed to make it difficult to skid the wheel. In practice this can reduce its effectiveness on bicycles with adult-sized wheels.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Drum brakes are most common on utility bicycles in some countries, especially the Netherlands, and are also often found on cargo bikes and velomobiles. Older tandem bicycles often employ a rear drum brake as a drag brake.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Drum brakes provide consistent braking in wet or dirty conditions since the mechanism is fully enclosed. They are usually heavier, more complicated, and often weaker than rim brakes, but they require less maintenance. Drum brakes do not adapt well to quick release axle fastening, and removing a drum brake wheel requires the operator to disconnect the brake cable as well as the axle. They also require a torque arm which must be anchored to the frame or fork of the bicycle, and not all bicycles are constructed to accommodate such fastenings or tolerate their applied forces.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Invented in 1898 by Willard M. Farrow, the "coaster brake", also known as a "back pedal brake" or "foot brake" ("torpedo" or "contra" in some countries, in Italy ), is a type of drum brake integrated into the back hub with an internal freewheel. Freewheeling functions as with other systems, but when back pedaled, the brake engages after a fraction of a revolution. The coaster brake can be found in both single-speed and internally geared hubs.


title: Bicycle brake

text: When such a hub is pedaled forwards, the sprocket drives a screw which forces a clutch to move along the axle, driving the hub shell or gear assembly. When pedaling is reversed, the screw drives the clutch in the opposite direction, forcing it either between two brake shoes and pressing them against the brake mantle (which is a steel liner within the hub shell), or into a split collar and expanding it against the mantle. The braking surface is often steel, and the braking element brass or phosphor-bronze, as in the Birmingham-made Perry Coaster Hub. Crude coaster brakes also exist, usually on children's bicycles, where a serrated steel brake cone grips the inside of the hub shell directly, with no separate brake pads or mantle. These offer a less progressive action and are more likely to lock the rear wheel unintentionally.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Unlike most drum brakes (but like a Shimano Roller Brake) a coaster brake is designed to run with all its internal parts coated in grease for quiet operation and smooth engagement. Most grey molybdenum disulphide greases work well in a coaster brake, with its metal-to-metal friction surfaces.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Coaster-brake bicycles are generally equipped with a single cog and chain wheel and often use an wide chain. However, there have been several models of coaster brake hubs with derailleurs, such as the Sachs 2×3. These use special extra-short derailleurs which can stand up to the forces of being straightened out frequently and do not require an excessive amount of reverse pedal rotation before the brake engages. Coaster brakes have also been incorporated into hub gear designs – for example the AWC and SRC3 from Sturmey-Archer, and the Shimano Nexus 3-speed. They can have up to eight gears, like the Nexus inter-8.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Coaster brakes have the advantage of being protected from the elements and thus perform well in rain or snow. Though coaster brakes generally go years without needing maintenance, they are more complicated than rim brakes to repair if it becomes necessary, especially the more sophisticated type with expanding brake shoes. Coaster brakes also do not have sufficient heat dissipation for use on long descents, a characteristic made legendary through events such as the 'Repack Downhill' race, where riders almost certainly would need to repack their coaster brakes after the grease melted or smoked due to the heat from lengthy downhill runs. A coaster brake can only be applied when the cranks are reasonably level, limiting how quickly it can be applied. As coaster brakes are only made for rear wheels, they have the disadvantage common to all rear brakes of skidding the wheel easily. This disadvantage may, however, be alleviated if the bicycle also has a hand-lever-operated front brake and the cyclist uses it. Another disadvantage is that the coaster brake is completely dependent on the chain being fully intact and engaged. If the chain breaks or disengages from the chainwheel and/or rear sprocket, the coaster brake provides no braking power whatsoever. Like all hub brakes except disc brakes, a coaster brake requires a reaction arm to be connected to the frame. This may require unbolting when the wheel is removed or moved in its fork ends to adjust chain tension.


title: Bicycle brake

text: A drag brake is intended to provide a constant decelerating force to slow a bicycle on a long downhill rather than to stop it; a separate braking system is used to stop the bicycle. A drag brake is often employed on a heavy bicycle such as a tandem in mountainous areas where extended use of rim brakes could cause a rim to become hot enough to blow out.;The typical drag brake has long been a drum brake. The largest manufacturer of this type of brake is Arai, whose brakes are screwed onto hubs with conventional freewheel threading on the left side of the rear hub and operated via Bowden cables. As of 2011, the Arai drum brake has been out of production for several years, with remaining stocks nearing depletion and used units commanding premium prices on internet auction sites.


title: Bicycle brake

text: More recently, large-rotor disc brakes are being used as drag brakes. (Some tandem riders with Avid BB-7 mechanical disc brakes and 203 mm rotors report fewer heat problems under heavy braking than when using the previous standard of comparison, an Arai drum used as a drag brake.) DT-Swiss make an adapter to mate disc rotors with hubs threaded for the Arai drum brake, but this still leaves the problem of fitting the caliper.


title: Bicycle brake

text: A band brake consists of a band, strap, or cable that wraps around a drum that rotates with a wheel and is pulled tight to generate braking friction. Band brakes appeared as early as 1884 on tricycles. Star Cycles introduced a band brake in 1902 on its bicycles with freewheels. Band brakes are still manufactured for bicycles today.


title: Bicycle brake

text: A rim band brake, as implemented on the Yankee bicycle by Royce Husted in the 1990s, consists of a stainless-steel cable, wrapped in a kevlar sheath, that rides in a u-shaped channel on the side of the wheel rim. Squeezing the brake lever tightens the cable against the channel to produce braking friction. A return spring slackens the cable when the brake lever is released, no adjustment is required, and the brake becomes more forceful when wet. Husted said his inspiration was the band brake used on industrial machinery. The Yankee bicycle only included a rear brake, but that met U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission standards.


title: Bicycle brake

text: The actuation mechanism is that part of the brake system that transmits force from the rider to that part of the system that does the actual braking. Brake system actuation mechanisms are either mechanical or hydraulic.


title: Bicycle brake

text: The primary modern mechanical actuation mechanism uses brake levers coupled to Bowden cables to move brake arms, thus forcing pads against a braking surface. Cable mechanisms are usually less expensive, but may require some maintenance related to exposed areas of the cable. Other mechanical actuation mechanisms exist: see Coaster brakes for back-pedal actuation mechanisms, and rod-actuated brakes for a mechanism incorporating metal rods. The first Spoon brakes were actuated by a cable that was pulled by twisting the end of a handlebar.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Hydraulic brakes also use brake levers to push fluid through a hose to move pistons in a caliper, thus forcing pads against a braking surface. While hydraulic rim brakes exist, today the hydraulic actuation mechanism is identified mostly with disc brakes. Two types of brake fluid are used today: mineral oil and DOT fluid. Mineral oil is generally inert, while DOT is corrosive to frame paint but has a higher boiling point. Using the wrong fluid can cause seals to swell or become corroded. A hydraulic mechanism is closed and therefore less likely have problems related to contamination at exposed areas. Hydraulic brakes rarely fail, but failure tends to be complete. Hydraulic systems require specialized equipment to repair.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Hydraulic disc brakes make use of two common forms of fluid: Automotive grade DOT 4 or DOT 5.1 which are hygroscopic and has a boiling point of 230 °C; and mineral oil which is not hygroscopic and has varying boiling points depending on the type. O-rings and seals inside the brake are specifically designed to work with one or the other fluid. Using the incorrect fluid type will cause the seals to fail resulting in a "squishy" feeling in the lever, and the caliper pistons are unable to retract, so a scraping disc is common. The brake fluid reservoir is usually marked to indicate the type of brake fluid to be used.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Some older designs, like the AMP and Mountain Cycles brakes, use a cable from lever to caliper, then use a master cylinder integrated into the piston. Some Santana tandem bicycles used a cable from lever to a master cylinder mounted near the head tube, with a hydraulic line to the rear wheel caliper. Such "hybrid" designs allow the leverage of a hydraulic system while allowing use of cable brake levers, but may be heavier and can suffer from grit intrusion in the standard cable.


title: Bicycle brake

text: An older Sachs drum brake kit ("Hydro Pull") allows to rebuild a regular Sachs bicycle drum brake to hydraulic lever and action. A piston is added outside the drum instead of the bowden clamp. This solution is often seen on modified Long John cargo bikes, allowing a low friction lever pull front wheel brake action. After Sachs ceased production of this kit a similar solution is sometimes done by welding on a Magura piston to the drum cylinder lever. Welding was necessary because the Magura action is reverse to that of the Sachs kit.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Brake levers are usually mounted on the handlebars within easy reach of the rider's hands. They may be distinct from or integrated into the shifting mechanism. The brake lever transmits the force applied by the rider through either a mechanical or hydraulic mechanism.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Bicycles with drop handlebars may have more than one brake lever for each brake to facilitate braking from multiple hand positions. Levers that allow the rider to work the brakes from the tops of the bars, introduced in the '70s, were called "extension levers," "safety levers " or, due to their reputation for being unable to actuate the full range of travel of the brake, "suicide levers". Modern top-mounted brake levers are considered safer, and are called "interrupt brake levers" due to their mechanism of action which "interrupts" the cable run from the primary lever and actuates the brake by pushing the cable housing downward instead of pulling the cable. This type of lever is also known as a "cross lever" due to its popularity in cyclo-cross.


title: Bicycle brake

text: The mechanical advantage of the brake lever must be matched to the brake it is connected to in order for the rider to have sufficient leverage and travel to actuate the brake. Using mismatched brakes and levers could result in too much mechanical advantage and hence not enough travel to properly actuate the brake (v-brakes with conventional levers) or too little mechanical advantage, requiring a very strong pull to apply the brakes hard (v-brake levers with other types of brake).


title: Bicycle brake

text: Mechanical (cable) brake levers come in two varieties based on the length of brake cable pulled for a given amount of lever movement:


title: Bicycle brake

text: Adapters are available to allow the use of one type of lever with an otherwise incompatible type of rim brake. Some brake levers have adjustable leverage that can be made to work with either type of brake. Others vary their mechanical advantage as the lever moves to move the pad quickly at first, then provide more leverage once it contacts the brake surface. Hydraulic brake levers move a piston in a fluid reservoir. The mechanical advantage of the lever depends on the brake system design.


title: Bicycle brake

text: The motion dynamics of a bicycle will cause a transfer of weight to the front wheel during braking, improving the traction on the front wheel. If the front brake is used too hard, momentum may cause the rider and bike to pitch forward – a type of crash sometimes called an "endo". Light use of the rear brake causes a light skid as the bicycle approaches the limit where pitchover will occur, a signal to reduce force on the front brake. On a low-traction surface or when turning, the front wheel will skid, the bicycle cannot be balanced and will fall to the side instead.


title: Bicycle brake

text: On tandem bicycles and other long-wheel-base bicycles (including recumbents and other specialized bicycles), the lower relative centre of mass makes it virtually impossible for heavy front braking to flip the bicycle; the front wheel would skid first.


title: Bicycle brake

text: In some situations, it is advisable to slow down and to use the rear brake more and the front brake less:


title: Bicycle brake

text: It is customary to place the front brake lever on the left in right-side-driving countries, and vice versa, because the hand on the side nearer the centre of the road is more commonly used for hand signals. Placing the front brake lever on the right also mimics the layout on motorcycles and is advantageous to avoid confusion when switching to and from a pedal cycle to motorcycle.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Track bicycles are built without brakes so as to avoid sudden changes in speed when racing on a velodrome. Since track bikes have a fixed gear, braking can be accomplished by reversing the force on the pedals to slow down, or by locking the pedals backwards and inducing a skid. Fixed gear road bikes may also lack brakes, and slowing or stopping is accomplished as with a track bike. Many fixed gear bikes however are fitted with a front brake for safety reasons, or because it is a legal requirement. Some BMX bicycles are built without brakes to forgo the expense and complication of a detangler. The usual method of stopping is for the rider to put one or both feet on the ground, or to wedge a foot between the seat and the rear tyre, effectively acting as a spoon brake. Cycle speedway is a type of close track racing in the UK, Poland, Australia, and France. The special built bike has a single freewheel and no brakes. Slowing is done during cornering by dragging the inside foot. These bikes are not intended for road use and are kept at the track.


title: Bicycle brake

text: In Belgium, Australia, Germany, the UK, France, Poland, Japan, Denmark, Sweden, and Finland, it is illegal to ride a bicycle without brakes on a public road.


title: Bicycle brake

text: A braking system has been fitted to selected bicycle models whereby a single lever operates first the rear brake then the front brake and it is claimed this reduces the risk of some braking-related accidents including going over the handlebars. This system emphasises the use of the rear brake, fails to optimise use of front braking, whilst being marketed as a solution to the fear of toppling over handle bars. The system encourages complacent use of brake levers by cyclists and reinforces the myth that the front brakes of bicycles are dangerous.


title: Bicycle brake

text: Cyclists young and old should seek training in the effective use of both brakes to stop in the minimum possible stopping distance in an emergency.


title: Buddy Baer

text: Jacob Henry "Buddy" Baer (June 11, 1915 – July 18, 1986) was an American boxer and later an actor with important parts in seventeen films, as well as roles on various television series in the 1950s and 1960s.


title: Buddy Baer

text: In 1941, he came extremely close to boxing stardom at Washington's Griffith Stadium, when in the opinion of most ringside officials, Joe Louis gave him a disqualifying late sixth-round hit in a title match that should have made Baer the world heavyweight champion. He lost to Louis in a rematch for the title the following year but remained solidly ranked among the top heavyweights in the early 1940s. In 2003, Baer was chosen for "The Ring" magazine's list of 100 greatest punchers of all time. He was the younger brother of boxing heavyweight champion and actor Max Baer, and the uncle of actor Max Baer Jr.


title: Buddy Baer

text: Baer was born in Denver, Colorado, on June 11, 1915, to father Jacob, a butcher, and mother Dora Bales. A few sources list his birthplace, like his brother Max, as Omaha, Nebraska. He moved with his family to California in 1928, living first in Livermore in 1926 and then Hayward, before settling in the early 1930s in Sacramento, where he would later retire. Both Buddy and his brother Max had a large Jewish following, for they claimed Jewish ancestry on their father's side and frequently wore a Star of David on their boxing trunks. Neither brother, however, appeared to be observant or openly religious, and their claims of Jewish heritage were questioned by legendary trainer Ray Arcel. Standing at 6' 6½" (1.99 m), Baer fought from 1934 to 1942 and was one of the best punchers of his era. Baer's manager during the largest portion of his boxing career was Ancil Hoffman, who also managed Max's career for a period.


title: Buddy Baer

text: In his professional debut, Baer knocked out Tiny Abbott, 1:54 into the first round on September 23, 1934, in Eureka, California. A boxer of some repute, the towering 6' 8" Abbott had twice faced Baer's brother Max, and though it was Baer's first time in the ring, the more experienced Abbott was nearing the end of his career. Baer had a long winning streak following his debut fight until he met Babe Hunt. On January 10, 1935, Baer was defeated in a four-round bout, losing on points to Hunt at Boston's Rickard Recreation Center. The loss was Baer's first in thirteen straight fights, twelve of which Baer won by knockout. Though Hunt had a bad second round, he came back strongly in the third and fourth to win by unanimous decision.


title: Buddy Baer

text: He completed a technical knockout of Jack O'Dowd at 2:10 into the second round at Detroit's Olympia Stadium on January 4, 1935. On a ticket that included Joe Louis, the total audience reached 15,853. The sizable crowd witnessed an exceptional performance from Baer, who outweighed his opponent by 29 pounds, less than his typical advantage. In an odd victory, O'Dowd, who seemed to lack the will to fight, was down five times in the first round, in a few instances without actually being hit. Though O'Dowd had faced the great Joe Louis the previous year, he showed no desire to mix with Baer and appeared thoroughly outmatched.


title: Buddy Baer

text: Frank Connolly, a former Golden Gloves champion, fell to Baer on March 20, 1935, in a convincing first-round knockout at the Oakland Auditorium before a substantial early-career crowd of 9,500. The final blow was a right hook that started low and came up with enormous power to knock out Connolly, who weighed 245, only a pound heavier than Baer.


title: Buddy Baer

text: Baer defeated Al Delaney on July 18, 1935, in a four-round knockout at Buffalo's Offerman Stadium. In a complete victory, Baer had Delaney down five times before the referee counted him out 34 seconds into the fourth round from a right behind the ear. In the opening round, Baer was knocked to his knees by a strong left, but he recovered, and had his own way for the rest of the match.


title: Buddy Baer

text: On the ticket of the Max Baer-Joe Louis match, he had one of his most lucrative bouts on September 4, 1935, when he lost a six-round wind-up match to Ford Smith in New York before an immense crowd of 90,000 fans at Yankee Stadium. Baer tried to overpower Smith in the early rounds with his legendary punching ability, but Smith moved, blocked and weathered the storm. In later rounds, Baer was less effective with intermittent looping blows that Smith countered with sharp, short punches to the body. Baer tired in the last round, and though he had an advantage in reach and weight, he did little damage in his final rally, having lost speed and precision in his blows. The more experienced Smith took four of the six rounds. According to one source, his purse for the match, which was the most heavily attended in New York history, was a remarkable $42,000. Louis, who won the title match against brother Max, had a purse of $200,000.


title: Buddy Baer

text: At this early stage of his career, Baer suffered a rare loss on April 22, 1936, dropping a six-round decision to Frenchman Andre Lenglet at Oakland's Municipal Auditorium. Baer looked strong in the first and had a brief promising rally in the fifth but lost his chance when Lenglet snapped back with a strong defense. One reporter, who wrote that Lenglet won each round by a large margin, noted that Baer failed to score with a telling blow throughout the match. Lenglet scored well with short left jabs to the face, and followups to the midriff and his frequent changes of pace confused Baer's ability to use his strong right.


title: Buddy Baer

text: In an important match on May 24, 1937, Baer outpointed Jack London, later the holder of the Commonwealth Boxing Council's Heavyweight title from 1944 to 1945. Baer won on points in a ten-round decision at Swansea, England, and though he had a significant advantage in height of nearly eight inches, he had only twenty pounds in weight over the sturdy London boxer. Two weeks earlier, Baer had defeated Jim Wilde at Harringay Arena in a fourth-round technical knockout. With clear dominance and impressive punching power, he had Wilde down three times in the first round and for a count of eight in the third. After being knocked to the canvas for a count of five in the opening of the fourth, the referee called the match. British rules required ending a bout after five knockdowns.


title: Buddy Baer

text: He brought a stop to seasoned Jewish heavyweight Abe Simon before 25,000 fans, on August 30, 1937, scoring a technical knockout at Yankee Stadium in 2:38 of the third round. Though Simon punished Baer severely in the first and had him hanging from the ropes with a two-fisted attack, Baer rallied in the second with sharp left jabs and a stinging right cross and had Simon down and then staggering in the third when the referee called the fight. Both fighters had exceptional weight and reach and though Baer had a two-inch advantage in height, Simon, a giant himself, actually outweighed Baer by seven pounds.


title: Buddy Baer

text: Baer lost to gifted Finnish boxer Gunnar Barlund on March 4, 1938, before 8,565 fans in a seventh-round technical knockout at Madison Square Garden. Baer had a forty-pound weight advantage over Barlund, and -inch advantage in height, but lacked stamina and heart as the fight progressed. Baer performed well in the first, cutting Barlund's forehead and nose with stinging left jabs and an occasional right, while Barlund lost points for low blows. In the second, however, Gunnar reached Baer with a few punches and then getting his range, took the second, third, and fourth. Baer maintained an edge in the fifth, and though both showed fatigue, Gunnar took the sixth, scoring at least ten straight rights and lefts without a return. In the seventh, Barlund drove Baer into the ropes with a heavy barrage. He followed him across the ring when Baer retreated and continued his attack, Baer seeming to give up, dropping his hands to his sides during the attack, and after coming from a clinch signaling the referee to end the fight. The referee asked Baer, apparently hurt, if he wished to continue, and decided to stop the fight, 1:36 into the seventh. Baer made no excuses for his performances but believed his layoff from the ring had affected his timing and ability to connect punches, particularly his right. Barlund successfully circled away from Baer's hard overhand right.


title: Buddy Baer

text: He defeated Lee Savold in an important match on October 30, 1939, in an eight-round newspaper decision before 3,500 in Des Moine, Iowa. After a brief exchange, Baer had his opponent down for a count of eight in the first round from a right uppercut, and though Savold battled hard in the remaining rounds, he struggled to connect blows after his rough first round. Most reporters gave five rounds to Baer with only two to Savold in the hotly contested match.


title: Buddy Baer

text: He defeated Nathan Mann on May 3, 1940, before 5000, in a seventh-round technical knockout at New York's Madison Square Garden. In the match, Baer took the first four rounds, but Mann took the next four with cutting hooks to the head and body. A savage right hook in the opening of the seventh severely cut Mann's eye, causing his handlers to end the fight.


title: Buddy Baer

text: Winning in a three-round technical knockout before 4,000 fans, he defeated accomplished boxer Harold Blackshear, who maintained a winning record and a 50% knockout percentage, on December 17, 1940, at Oakland's Auditorium. Baer had the advantages of roughly five inches in reach, 5.5 inches in height, and 49 pounds in weight, as well as his superior punching ability. He toyed with Blackshear for the first two-and-a-half rounds, before commencing a clubbing and brutal assault in the third that led to the end of the charity bout. Many at ringside considered the bout a mismatch. Although he pocketed $2,500 for the contest, Baer had faced stronger opposition in the recent past, as Blackshear had dropped his last two fights, suffering a loss and a strong knockout.


title: Buddy Baer

text: Baer lost to Eddie Blunt on January 15, 1941, at the Auditorium in Oakland in a ten-round points decision. Though Baer was a 3-1 favorite in the early betting, Blunt won eight of the ten rounds. Despite a weight disadvantage of twenty-four pounds, Blunt kept Baer off balance with long lefts and stiff uppercuts throughout the match, and by the fifth had cut Baer's eyes, after which Baer kept losing ground. The fifth through seventh rounds were hard fought with both boxers fighting toe to toe. Though Baer attempted a rally in the tenth, it was far too late to make up the points differential, though he managed to win the round. In the words of one reporter, "Baer took one of the most beautiful shellackings of his erratic career". Baer required stitches above both eyes, and it was evident he would need a break before his next fight.


title: Buddy Baer

text: In a ramp up to a heavyweight title match, he defeated colorful contender Tony Galento before 8,500 fans on April 8, 1941, in a seventh-round technical knockout in Washington D.C., when Galento had to discontinue the bout due to a broken hand. Galento took the first round backing Baer into the ropes with a few hard rights, but the second was even, and Baer took the remaining rounds. Baer used his superior reach in the remaining rounds to keep Galento from boring in, and in the fourth, he staggered Galento with a hard right to the mouth. Another solid blow in the sixth caused Galento to lose his mouthpiece, and there were some hard punches, but the match featured no knockdowns. The win was a solid one for Baer. Baer succeeded in connecting with solid lefts to Galento's head and both lefts and rights to his body.


title: Buddy Baer

text: The highlight of his boxing career came in his two attempts to take the heavyweight boxing championship from Joe Louis. In their first fight on May 23, 1941, Baer caught Louis with a powerful left hook in the first round and knocked the champion out of the ring. Louis, however, hurt but unfazed, climbed back in before the count of ten, though many ringside believed Louis benefited from a long count. Louis eventually won the fight on a disqualification after he had knocked down Baer three times in the sixth. Baer claimed that his third knockdown came shortly after the bell had rung to end the sixth round. In the seventh, when Baer's handlers refused to leave the ring as they protested what they believed was a late hit in the sixth, the referee, Arthur Donovan, disqualified Baer in a technical knockout for not resuming the match. In a controversial decision, the referee believed the last hit came before or during the final bell, but most ringside officials, including the Official Timekeeper, Knockdown Timekeeper, and both judges believed the final blow came after the bell which should have disqualified Louis. The final decision of the boxing commissioner favored the referee, and Louis retained the title. Regardless of the decision, many ringside believed Louis would have eventually won the fight, as he punished Baer repeatedly in the sixth, and had fully recovered from his knockdown in the first. Baer, nonetheless, came closer to defeating Louis and taking the title than any of the other opponents Louis would face, until losing to Ezzard Charles in 1950.


title: Buddy Baer

text: In their rematch in Madison Square Garden, on January 9, 1942, before an estimated crowd of 19,000, Louis knocked Baer out in the first, after downing him two previous times. His second knockdown, after a barrage of blows and a thundering left hook, resulted in a count of nine. After rising to his feet again, Baer was battered around the ring and floored for the last time with a straight right to the head that put him down for a seven count. Unable to get up, the count was completed and the fight ended. Baer subsequently remarked, "The only way I could have beaten Louis that night was with a baseball bat." A year later he said, "I had to quit. I injured my neck in an auto crash before the fight".


title: Buddy Baer

text: All newspaper decisions are officially regarded as “no decision” bouts and are not counted in the win/loss/draw column.


title: Buddy Baer

text: Baer retired from boxing after the second Louis bout, and enlisted in the United States Army at McClellan Air Force Base in 1942, the early years of America's involvement in World War II.


title: Buddy Baer

text: With the war over, and his Army discharge complete in September 1945, he returned to Sacramento and started his most successful business, Buddy Baer's Bar of Music at 1411 11th Street, which he opened with Fred Cullincini. He dabbled with less success in a variety of other businesses including a health food store, a clothing shop, heavy equipment sales and real estate. After his brother Max's death in 1959 of a heart ailment, he served as the national chairman for the Fraternal Order of Eagles Max Baer Heart Fund. He later worked as a Marshall or Sargeant-at-Arms for the California State Legislature in the 1970s. For a number of years he supported himself as a nightclub singer, putting his bass-baritone voice to use at such places as New York's Leon and Eddie's, and the Charles Club in Baltimore. He performed in 1952 with Pearl Bailey at the Paramount Theatre in New York.


title: Buddy Baer

text: Baer's last years were spent battling ailments that included diabetes, hypertension, and Alzheimer's disease. After a transfer from Sutter Memorial Hospital, he was admitted to the Martinez Veterans Hospital one week before his death and died on July 18, 1986 in Martinez, California. He was survived by his wife Vicki Farrell Brumbelow whom he had married in 1964, a daughter Sheila, and three grandchildren. Baer had three previous marriages. His body is buried in East Lawn Sierra Hills Memorial Park in Sacramento. Both Buddy and his brother Max were known as the "professional good guys" or "the genial giants". After their deaths, Sacramento sports reporter Billy Conlin wrote, "When they died, the 'sweet science' lost two of the sweetest!"


title: Buddy Baer

text: In 1957, Baer appeared in an episode of television's Gunsmoke, the episode entitled, "Never Pester Chester". In 1958, Baer appeared in an episode of the syndicated "Adventures of Superman" TV series, playing the role of Atlas, a circus strongman, who is duped by his fellow circus performers into stealing for them. They tell him that Superman is a crook and that he can help right the Man of Steel's wrongs by doing so.


title: Buddy Baer

text: In 1958, Baer appeared in Season 1 Episode 33 of Wagon Train, “The Daniel Hogan Story”. He played a boxer nicknamed “The Tinsmith”.


title: Buddy Baer

text: Baer's other television credits included guest roles on the "Adventures of Superman", "Captain Midnight", "Cheyenne", "Circus Boy", "Climax!", "Have Gun – Will Travel", "Peter Gunn", "Rawhide", "Sky King", "Wagon Train", "Tales of the Vikings", "Toast of the Town", and in the adventure series "Sheena, Queen of the Jungle". Baer’s most memorable character role was, perhaps, Stobo, on the aforementioned episode of "Gunsmoke".


title: Veterans of Foreign Wars

text: The Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW), formally the Veterans of Foreign Wars of the United States, is an organization of US war veterans, who, as military service members fought in wars, campaigns, and expeditions on foreign land, waters, or airspace. The organization was established twice separately, once by James C. Putnam on September 29, 1899, in Columbus, Ohio. The VFW is headquartered in Kansas City, Missouri. The organization was congressionally chartered in 1936 under the Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt.