title: Façade (video game)

text: Incorporating elements of both interactivity and drama, "Façade" takes advantage of voice acting and a 3-D environment, as well as natural language processing and other advanced artificial intelligence routines, to provide a robust interactive fiction experience. The player can take an active role in the conversation, pushing the topic one way or another, as in an interactive stage-play. These stage-plays are stored as script text files which can be read after the player has finished.


title: Façade (video game)

text: "Façade" was released for Microsoft Windows in July 2005, as a free download from the InteractiveStory.net web site.


title: Façade (video game)

text: , the creators of "Façade" were developing another title called "The Party", however, in December 2013, Michael Mateas confirmed that they were not currently working on it.


title: Façade (video game)

text: Most playthroughs end with either Trip and Grace managing an initial reconciliation and telling the player they need to be alone, or being so offended by the player that Trip forcibly removes them from the apartment. However, with active intervention, it is possible to inspire the two to rediscover their love for one another, or to push one to leave the other – sometimes admitting a past affair, one of many events decided at random when play begins.


title: Façade (video game)

text: Because much of it is designed to simulate 'on-the-fly' reactions to the player's or other characters' actions, and because the scenario features a random series of events (such as what conversational topics are brought up, what drinks Trip wants to serve, etc.) it possesses a certain amount of replay value.


title: Façade (video game)

text: The parser through which the player communicates to the actors is also notable for its ability to recognize and accept a large number of complex commands and respond to them adequately. Many questions can be fully parsed by the engine and the actors can respond in a variety of ways dependent on their mood, random fluctuations, and the player's past actions. For example, in one scenario, Grace may respond favorably to the statement 'I love your decorations.', while in another context she may believe you are being condescending to her. Although not every statement made by the player will be successfully parsed, often the engine will pull related information and integrate it using the built-in voice acting clips. As such, proper spelling and grammar is almost always required for optimal player experience. The engine does have some quirks, for example, saying the word "melon" at any time will result in the player being kicked out immediately.


title: Façade (video game)

text: Composer Leo Caruso developed various segments of the incidental music for this game (4 composers were involved in the full production).


title: Façade (video game)

text: "Façade" won the Grand Jury Prize at the 2006 Slamdance Independent Games Festival; an early, incomplete version was a finalist at the 2004 Independent Games Festival. It has been exhibited at several international art shows including ISEA 2004 and Game/Play 2006, and was the subject of a feature article in both "The Atlantic Monthly" in November 2006 and "" in May 2007.


title: Façade (video game)

text: "Façade" has received a mixed reception: as technology and possibility it is widely considered a major advance in interactive drama, while opinions on how enjoyable it is to play are more divided. Some find that when successful, it is very effective drama, while others find the drama to be a weak point. The open-ended narrative, with many possible outcomes, is often compared to "Galatea" by Emily Short.


title: The Uncensored Library

text: The Uncensored Library is a "Minecraft" server and map released by Reporters without Borders and created by BlockWorks, DDB Berlin, and MediaMonks as an attempt to circumvent censorship in countries without freedom of the press. The library contains banned reporting from Mexico, Russia, Vietnam, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt. An entire wing is given to each country, each containing several banned articles. The library was released on March 12, 2020, the World Day Against Cyber Censorship. Currently, the two ways to access the library are to download a map from the official website, or to connect to their Minecraft server.


title: The Uncensored Library

text: The library is a large scale project built using a neoclassical architectural style. It is intended to resemble well-established institutions such as the New York Public Library, as well as stylistically allude to the authoritarian structures the project aims to subvert. The library uses over 12.5 million Minecraft blocks.


title: The Uncensored Library

text: Each of the five countries covered by the library, as well as Reporters without Borders, has an individual wing, containing a number of articles, available in English and the original language the article was written in. The texts within the library are contained in in-game book items, which can be opened and placed on stands to be read by multiple players at once. These articles generally discuss censorship, unjust punishment, and other critiques of the writer's government. The interior architecture of each country's room symbolizes each country's unique situation and journalistic challenges. Additionally, the library contains a central room listing the Press Freedom Index and current state of freedom of the press of every country covered by the index, and the Mexican section contains memorials for reporters who were killed due to their writings. In March 2020, the library contained over 200 different books.


title: The Uncensored Library

text: A room in the library covers the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on journalism, containing books on 10 countries (Brazil, China, Egypt, Hungary, Iran, Myanmar, North Korea, Russia, Thailand and Turkmenistan) to show how reporting of the virus in each country has been affected.


title: The Uncensored Library

text: The song 'Truth Hegemony' that appears in the official promotional video of the library was written by Lucas Mayer and performed by The Client Said No.


title: The Uncensored Library

text: After launch, the project went viral across social media platforms and has been featured in various media outlets such as the BBC, DW News, CNBC, CNN, Tech Crunch, The Verge, Gizmodo, Engadget, Mashable, PC Gamer and Scene World Magazine.


title: Microsoft Power Platform

text: Microsoft Power Platform is a line of business intelligence, app development, and app connectivity software applications. Microsoft developed the Power Fx low-code programming language for expressing logic across the Power Platform. It also provides integrations with GitHub and Teams.


title: Microsoft Power Platform

text: Microsoft Dataverse, formerly called Microsoft Common Data Service, is a cloud-based storage and data management engine used along with other Microsoft products such as Power Apps and Microsoft Dynamics 365 applications. One example of use could be to use Dataverse as a form of data lake together with Microsoft Power Apps. Dataverse is based on Microsoft's Common Data Model as its common data model and is built on Microsoft Azure SQL. In November 2020, Microsoft's Common Data Service was rebranded into Dataverse.


title: Lolo Zouaï

text: Laureen Rebeha Zouaï (; born on March 5, 1995), better known as Lolo Zouaï, is a French-born American R&B and pop musician. Born to a French mother and an Algerian father in Paris, France; Zouaï moved to San Francisco, California when she was three months old. She graduated from Lowell High school in 2013. She released her debut album, "High Highs to Low Lows", in 2019. The album was given a 7.5 out of 10 rating by "Pitchfork". Zouaï was featured as "one to watch" by "The Guardian" in April 2019. She co-wrote "Still Down" from H.E.R.'s self-titled album, which won a Grammy Award for Best R&B Album.


title: Lolo Zouaï

text: After completing the opening slot on the North American leg of Dua Lipa's Future Nostalgia Tour Lolo released her sophomore album "PLAYGIRL" in October of 2022. She announced The PLAYGIRL World Tour slated for 2023. In November of 2022, Zouaï was included in the Forbes 30 under 30 2023 list for musicians.


title: Wagon Wheels

text: Wagon Wheels are a sweet snack food sold in the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, other Commonwealth countries like New Zealand and India, and Ireland. They consist of two biscuits that form a sandwich with a marshmallow filling with jam, and they are covered with a chocolate-flavoured coating.


title: Wagon Wheels

text: Wagon Wheels were invented by William Peschardt, who sold the patent to Garry Weston, son of W. Garfield Weston. Garry Weston worked for his father's business in Australia before taking over his family's business in Sheffield, England. He placed two Marie biscuits around a marshmallow filling and covered it with chocolate. They were introduced in 1948. The name (originally "Weston Wagon Wheels") relates to the shape of the biscuits and capitalised on the Wild West, which was popular in mass media at the time.


title: Wagon Wheels

text: In Australia, Wagon Wheels are now produced by Arnott's Biscuits. George Weston Foods Limited sold the brand to Arnott's in August 2003.


title: Wagon Wheels

text: In the United Kingdom Wagon Wheels are produced and distributed by Burton's Foods who separated from the Weston family connection when they were sold out of Associated British Foods in 2000. The original factory which produced the biscuit was in Slough but during the early 1980s production was transferred to an updated and modern factory in Llantarnam in South Wales.


title: Wagon Wheels

text: In Canada, Wagon Wheels were originally produced by McCormick's, however they are now under the Dare Foods Limited name. They come in Original, Fudge, Choco Cherry, and Raspberry flavours.


title: Wagon Wheels

text: There have been many debates amongst fans of the biscuit about its size. Wagon Wheels have supposedly shrunk in size over time, but Burton's Foods Ltd has denied this. It has been suggested that the supposed shrinkage is due to an adult's childhood memory of eating a Wagon Wheel held in a much smaller hand; this argument is perhaps moot, as it does not explain why the modern Wagon Wheel appears to be fatter than the original. Furthermore, in Australia, Arnott's has stated that tray packs of Wagon Wheels were in fact 'Mini Wagon Wheels' and have re-released the original 48g Wagon Wheels.


title: Wagon Wheels

text: The original factory in Prestonpans produced the biscuit with crinkled edges and corn cobbs rather than the updated smoother edges. This caused the overall diameter of the biscuit to shrink slightly, but not as much as fans of the biscuit believe.


title: Wagon Wheels

text: The British comedians French and Saunders made a sketch with Jennifer Saunders dressed as a schoolgirl stuffing a Wagon Wheel into her mouth.


title: Wagon Wheels

text: British comedians Hale and Pace used Wagon Wheels in their recurring "Curly & Nige" sketches, as the Curly and Nige characters won Wagon Wheels from each other by doing self-mutilating and dangerous bets.


title: Wagon Wheels

text: Wagon Wheels are thrown into the audience by Berwick Kaler during the annual York Theatre Royal pantomime.


title: Wagon Wheels

text: Wagon Wheels were chosen by Judge Paul Hollywood as the technical challenge for the first episode in series 9 of "The Great British Bake Off".


title: Wagon Wheels

text: The original wagon wheel which is now called "chocolate" had a marshmallow centre and not a jam centre.


title: Get a Life (American TV series)

text: Get a Life is a television sitcom that was broadcast in the United States on the Fox Network from September 23, 1990 to March 8, 1992. The show stars Chris Elliott as a 30-year-old paperboy named Chris Peterson. Peterson lived in an apartment above his parents' garage (Elliott's parents are played by Elinor Donahue and his real-life father, comedian Bob Elliott). The opening credits depict Chris Peterson delivering newspapers on his bike to the show's theme song, "Stand" by R.E.M.


title: Get a Life (American TV series)

text: The show was a creation of Elliott, Adam Resnick (like Elliott, a writer for "Late Night with David Letterman"), and writer/director David Mirkin (former executive producer/showrunner for "Newhart" and later for "The Simpsons"). Mirkin was executive producer/showrunner of the series and also directed most of the episodes. Notable writers of the series included Charlie Kaufman, screenwriter of "Being John Malkovich"; and Bob Odenkirk, co-creator of "Mr. Show with Bob and David" and "Tenacious D".


title: Get a Life (American TV series)

text: The show was unconventional for a prime time sitcom, and many times the storylines of the episodes were surreal. For example, Elliott's character actually dies in twelve episodes. The causes of death included being crushed by a giant boulder, old age, tonsillitis, stab wounds, gunshot wounds, falling from an airplane, strangulation, getting run over by cars, choking on cereal, and simply exploding. For this reason, it was a struggle for Elliott and Mirkin to get the show on the air. Many of the executives at the Fox Network hated the show and thought it was too disturbing and found Elliott's character to be too unlikeable and insane.


title: Get a Life (American TV series)

text: After only two VHS/DVD volumes were released, Shout! Factory released the complete series on September 18, 2012 – the first time all of the show's episodes were made commercially available.


title: Get a Life (American TV series)

text: Chris Peterson is a carefree, childlike bachelor who refuses to live the life of an adult. At the age of 30, Chris still lives with his parents in St Paul, Minnesota and maintains a career delivering the "St. Paul Pioneer Press", a job that he has held since his youth. He has no driver's license (instead, riding his bicycle wherever he goes) and is depicted as being immature, feckless, gullible, foolish, irresponsible, and extremely dimwitted. His low intelligence is exaggerated to absurd levels: in one episode he tries to leave his parents' house but is unable to operate the front door. In another he fell out of an airplane after opening the airlock, believing that the "EXIT" sign was a restroom.


title: Get a Life (American TV series)

text: Chris' parents (Fred and Gladys Peterson) are an elderly retired couple who are almost always seen in their pajamas and robes (even when they leave the house). They are often shown engaging in bizarre non-sequitur activities like polishing handguns, or trying to shoot a deer that ate flower bulbs in their garden. Gladys (Elinor Donahue) is a smiling, caring mother who doted over Chris, though she often makes sardonic, passive-aggressive comments about him and his lifestyle. Fred (Bob Elliott) is a brusque, sarcastic old man, who is constantly exasperated by his son and seems to have a reckless disregard for Chris' well-being (on one occasion, Chris demonstrated how his father taught him to use a shotgun by placing the barrel in his mouth).


title: Get a Life (American TV series)

text: In early episodes, Chris wanted little more than to spend his days reliving his childhood with his father and his best friend, Larry Potter (Sam Robards). Larry was Chris' friend from childhood, but unlike Chris, Larry has since "grown up", owns a house, works a dead-end job as an accountant, and has two children and a wife, Sharon Potter (Robin Riker). Sharon is overbearing and does not want her husband associating with Chris, preferring instead that he make friends with more sophisticated socialites that fit the image she wishes to portray. Sharon despises Chris, and Chris enjoys irritating her. Larry is envious of Chris' carefree lifestyle and is often coerced by Chris into joining him in his adventures, despite his wife's wishes. To Chris' dismay, Larry eventually heeds his advice and leaves his wife and children at the beginning of the second season. This leaves Sharon traumatized, and she becomes more and more obsessed with killing Chris in revenge.


title: Get a Life (American TV series)

text: In a defiant nod to Fox Network demands that his character "be more independent", Chris Peterson was moved out of his parents' house at the beginning of the second season, much to his parents' amazement and joy, and into the garage of ex-cop Gus Borden, played by Brian Doyle-Murray, who had been fired from the police force for urinating on his boss. Gus is a cranky, demeaning sociopath with minimal tolerance for Chris' antics, to which Chris seems oblivious, while looking up to Gus as a sort of paternal figure. Gus serves as Chris' comic foil throughout the second season.


title: Get a Life (American TV series)

text: One of the more controversial episodes featured a character named Spewey the Alien (a parody of the films "Mac and Me" and "E.T."), an extraterrestrial who secretes mucus from under his scales (which Chris proceeds to drink and call the "nectar of the Gods") and projectile vomits when he becomes emotionally overwrought. At the end of the episode, Chris and Gus barbecued and ate Spewey, although the creature was resurrected inside their refrigerator.


title: Get a Life (American TV series)

text: In the DVD commentary for the series by David Mirkin, he discusses the development of the Chris Peterson character and the series in great detail.


title: Get a Life (American TV series)

text: Mirkin states that the Chris Peterson character was originally somewhat based on Dennis the Menace, i.e. "What would Dennis The Menace have been like when he was 30 years old?" In the pilot, "Terror on the Hell Loop 2000", Chris Peterson was a fully functioning, wisecracking adult who is beating the system. However, as the series went on, he became a darker, more psychotic character. According to Mirkin, the main character was made more likeable in the pilot to get the network to agree to order the series and, once the series was ordered, the producers took the character in the darker direction that was always intended.


title: Get a Life (American TV series)

text: Mirkin explains that the series itself was both an homage to the sitcoms of the 1960s and 1970s as well as a subversive farce of the genre. Ultimately, Chris Peterson was a modern, borderline psychotic inhabiting a world of standard sitcom characters from a prior era. In particular, his main foil, Sharon, dresses and acts like a standard sitcom character from the 1960s. Her house is a standard sitcom set, and she has a standard sitcom family. The town is inhabited by standard sitcom archetypes, often played by well-recognized character actors from that era (e.g. James Hampton from "F Troop" and Graham Jarvis from "Mary Hartman, Mary Hartman"). A particular homage to that era of sitcoms is that the same actors would play different minor characters, only episodes apart. Mirkin also noted that the use of the original house from "The Munsters" as a backdrop at the end of the show's opening credits was another homage to the genre.


title: Get a Life (American TV series)

text: According to Mirkin, the network executives did not understand a lot of the more surreal, violent content of the scripts but nevertheless allowed it to go ahead. This enabled the writers to proceed with limited interference. However, the studio did not want the episode "Spewey and Me" to be aired, largely on the grounds of the alien being disgusting and getting eaten by Chris and Gus. Written as a parody of science-fiction films "" and "Mac and Me", the show's creators intended it to be a hopeful story of rebirth, hence the alien's resurrection at the end. However, Peter Chernin, who was in charge of Fox, proclaimed the episode to be one of the series' funniest and ensured that it would be broadcast.


title: Get a Life (American TV series)

text: When the series was picked up for a second season, Bob Elliot announced he did not wish to return as the father character Fred Peterson. According to co-star Elinor Donahue, the senior Elliot did not enjoy being away from his regular home and life in Maine, and his attitude was made worse by a burglary of his rented Los Angeles home during the first season. He was convinced to film enough insert scenes with Donahue to allow several appearances in the early part of the second season, with their final appearance occurring in the episode "Prisoner of Love." Both continued to be credited in the opening titles for the remainder of the season.


title: Get a Life (American TV series)

text: Had the show continued beyond its second season, Elliot, Mirkin and Resnick would have depicted Chris becoming a hobo, which would drop Fred, Gladys, Gus, and the other characters from the storyline. As Mirkin explained, he wanted to do a series that changed every year and did something different each season; "Chris would have moved out of Gus' garage and become a homeless drifter. And he would have traveled the country, in every place touching someone else's life and making it a little bit worse." .


title: Get a Life (American TV series)

text: The show was rerun in 2000 on the USA Network, although the series was only partially shown, and the theme song "Stand" by R.E.M. was replaced by generic music to avoid royalties for each playing of the theme. Occasionally, however, episodes aired with the correct theme.


title: Get a Life (American TV series)

text: Rhino Home Video released the best of on VHS and DVD – four VHS tapes with two episodes each and two DVDs with four episodes each, as well as one or two bonus features. The eight episodes on VHS are the same as the ones on the DVDs. The DVDs were released in 2000 and 2002 respectively.


title: Get a Life (American TV series)

text: Shout! Factory released the complete series on September 18, 2012. Although Chris Elliott stated in 2005 that he had recorded commentary tracks with Adam Resnick, none of Elliott's and Resnick's commentaries were used; they were substituted with commentaries by David Mirkin, and Mirkin is similarly the only creator present in the DVD set's extras.


title: Get a Life (American TV series)

text: It was noted by Mirkin that the reason the full DVD box set took so long to release is that the original producers of the show felt that all of the incidental music was very important to the series. They didn't want to release the series until all the rights to the songs had been secured and the series could be released with all of the original music intact.


title: Get a Life (American TV series)

text: Hip hop producer Dan "the Automator" Nakamura is a noted fan of the series, stating "it was probably one of the best shows on television". Handsome Boy Modeling School, consisting of Nakamura and "Prince Paul" Huston, is named after the series, and other works by Nakamura have referenced both "Get a Life" and "Cabin Boy". Tom Scharpling and Jon Wurster of "The Best Show on WFMU" became friends due to their mutual appreciation of "Get a Life".


title: Get a Life (American TV series)

text: The Built to Spill song "Get a Life" on the album "Ultimate Alternative Wavers" references the show and includes the lyric "Chris went right over their heads".


title: D'Eriq King

text: D'Eriq King (born August 24, 1997) is an American football quarterback for the DC Defenders of the XFL. He played college football at the University of Houston before transferring to the University of Miami where he played quarterback.


title: D'Eriq King

text: King attended Manvel High School in Manvel, Texas. He began his sophomore year as the eighth-string quarterback, claiming the starting spot a few weeks after the first game. During his senior season, he broke the career Texas 6A passing touchdowns record of 117 set by Kyler Murray the year before. During his high school career he passed for over 10,000 yards and rushed for over 3,000, throwing for 140 touchdowns and rushing for 48. He originally committed to Texas Christian University (TCU) to play college football but changed to the University of Houston.


title: D'Eriq King

text: King entered his freshman year at Houston as a wide receiver after injuries plagued the receiving corps during fall camp. He played in 10 games and made four starts, recording 29 receptions for 228 yards and a touchdown.


title: D'Eriq King

text: He played quarterback and receiver as a sophomore in 2017. After leading a comeback win against South Florida, he took over as the starting quarterback for the final four games of the season. For the season, he completed 90 of 139 passes for 1,260 yards, seven touchdowns and two interceptions. He also added 379 rushing yards with eight touchdowns and had 29 receptions for 264 yards and two touchdowns as a receiver. King entered 2018 as Houston's starting quarterback.


title: D'Eriq King

text: His junior season was cut short when he suffered a non-contact knee injury in the eleventh game of the year. On the season, he passed for 2982 yards, 36 touchdowns and 6 interceptions. He also rushed for 14 touchdowns; Kyler Murray and Dwayne Haskins were the only quarterbacks with more total touchdowns that year.


title: D'Eriq King

text: King returned as starting quarterback for his senior season after recovering from the previous season's injury. However, after the team's first four games, King announced he was going to redshirt for the remainder of the 2019 season.


title: D'Eriq King

text: On Sept. 4, King threw for 179 yards and a touchdown in a 44-13 road loss to No. 1 Alabama at Atlanta's Mercedes-Benz Stadium to open the 2021 season.


title: D'Eriq King

text: On July 1, 2021, NCAA student-athletes were allowed to receive compensation for use of their name, image, and likeness (NIL) for the first time, and King was one of the first athletes to take advantage of the new rules. He and Florida State quarterback McKenzie Milton became the co-founders and public faces of Dreamfield, a company specializing in booking live appearances for student-athletes. Dreamfield will also offer non-fungible tokens (NFTs), digital art works that cannot be duplicated and are purchased with cryptocurrency.


title: D'Eriq King

text: King signed with the New England Patriots as an undrafted free agent on May 9, 2022. He was waived on May 16.


title: D'Eriq King

text: On November 14, 2022, King signed with the Carolina Panthers practice squad. He was released on November 22.


title: Yamaha RD350

text: The RD350 is a two-stroke motorcycle produced by Yamaha from 1973 to 1975. It evolved directly from the piston port (pre-reed valve intake tract), front drum-braked, five-speed Yamaha 350 cc "R5".


title: Yamaha RD350

text: The engine is an air-cooled, parallel twin, six-speed (in some markets, such as the UK, the first model was sold in five-speed form), reed valve-equipped intake tract two-stroke engine. The bike is usually referred to as a sport bike.


title: Yamaha RD350

text: All models were equipped with "Autolube" automatic oil injection, relieving the user from the need to mix gasoline and two-stroke oil.


title: Yamaha RD350

text: Rim sizes are 18" WM2 (1.85") front and 18" WM3 (2.15") rear, both being of chromed, wire spoked steel construction. In the UK, rim sizes were 1.60 front and 1.85 rear.


title: Yamaha RD350

text: Brakes are: single front disc brake and a rear drum brake, a combination described by "Cycle Magazine" as the best in its class.


title: Yamaha RD350

text: The frame dimensions of the street "350" are very similar to the Yamaha TZ 250 and TZ 350 series factory road race bikes, differing mainly in weight and front fork rake – the RD being ~27 degrees and the TZ being ~25 degrees. The frames appear similar, side by side, with the street frame adorned with many brackets for the street equipment. The weight difference is substantial though, with the street-going RD frame weighing almost twice as much as the "TZ" roadrace race frame.


title: Yamaha RD350

text: The stock bike made ( at the back wheel) at 7500 rpm – very fast for the time. A contemporary of the RD is the Kawasaki H2 750cc Triple that produced 74 hp.


title: Yamaha RD350

text: The 350 evolved into the more refined and cleaner running RD400C in 1976, the "D" and "E" in 77–78 and the final model, the white 1979 RD400F.


title: Yamaha RD350

text: A licensed version of the RD350B was assembled in India between 1983–1990 by Escorts group under the brand name Rajdoot 350. It did not repeat the success of the RD350B in the Indian market, which some attribute to a high purchase price and poor fuel efficiency. However, it established Rajdoot/Yamaha as a performance bike manufacturer in India. There were two models for the Rajdoot 350 - High Torque and Low Torque. Compared to the Yamaha RD350B that made at the crankshaft, the 'High Torque' version made and the later 'Low Torque' made only , the engine being detuned in the quest for better fuel economy. By the time the production ended in 1990, the bike was nearly 100% sourced in India, with very little Japanese parts content.


title: Yamaha RD350

text: Brakes are: 180mm dia drum brakes front internal expansion (twin leading type) and rear single internal expansion.


title: Yamaha RD350

text: The RD350 was the first sporting motorcycle built in India, and it still enjoys cult status, with many RD clubs around the country. Around 7000 were made at the end of 1990.


title: Disc rot

text: Disc rot is the tendency of CD, DVD, or other optical discs to become unreadable because of physical or chemical deterioration. The causes include oxidation of the reflective layer, physical scuffing and abrasion of disc, reactions with contaminants, ultra-violet light damage, and de-bonding of the adhesive used to adhere the layers of the disc together.


title: Disc rot

text: In CDs, the reflective layer is immediately beneath a thin protective layer of lacquer, and is also exposed at the edge of the disc. The lacquer protecting the edge of an optical disc can usually be seen without magnification. It is rarely uniformly thick; thickness variations are usually visible. The reflective layer is typically aluminium, which reacts easily with several commonly encountered chemicals such as oxygen, sulfur, and certain ions carried by liquid water. In ordinary use, a surface layer of aluminium oxide is formed quickly when an aluminium surface is exposed to the atmosphere; it serves as passivation for the bulk aluminium with regard to many, but not all, contaminants. CD reflective layers are so thin that this passivation is less effective. In the case of CD-R and CD-RW media, the materials used in the reflecting layer are more complex than a simple aluminium layer, but also can present problems if contaminated. The thin 0.25-0.5mm layer of protective lacquer is equivalent.


title: Disc rot

text: DVDs have a different structure from CDs, using a plastic disc over the reflecting layer. This means that a scratch on either surface of a DVD is not as likely to reach the reflective layer and expose it to environmental contamination and perhaps to cause corrosion, perhaps progressive corrosion. Since disc rot is often caused by the corrosion of aluminum, this means that DVDs are more resistant to disc rot. Each type of optical disc thus has different susceptibility to contamination and corrosion of its reflecting layer; furthermore, the writable and re-writable versions of each optical disc type are somewhat different as well. Finally, discs made with gold as the reflecting layer are considerably less vulnerable to corrosion problems, though no less susceptible to physical damage to that layer. Because they are less expensive, the industry has adopted aluminium reflecting layers as the standard for factory-pressed optical discs.


title: Disc rot

text: Blu-rays, used to distribute movies (often as merchandise) and games, usually use a silver alloy layer instead of aluminum.


title: Disc rot

text: Using surface error scanning to check the data integrity allows discovering loss of data integrity before uncorrectable errors occur.


title: Disc rot

text: Laser rot is the appearance of video and audio artifacts during the playback of LaserDiscs, and their progressive worsening over time. It is most commonly attributed to oxidation in the aluminum layers by poor quality adhesives used to bond the disc halves together. Poor adhesives separate over time, which allows oxygen in the air to corrode the thin aluminum layer into aluminum oxide, visible as transparent patches or small dots in the disc. Corrosion is possible due to the thinness of the layer; normally aluminum does not corrode because it is coated in a thin oxide layer that forms on contact with oxygen. Single-sided video discs did not appear to suffer from laser rot while double-sided discs did. The name "laser rot" is not a misnomer; although the disc degradation does not involve the player's laser, the "rot" refers to the laser disc itself.


title: Disc rot

text: Laser rot was indicated by the appearance of multi-colored speckles appearing in the video output of a LaserDisc during playback. The speckles increased in volume and frequency as the disc continued to degrade. Much of the early production run of MCA DiscoVision Discs had severe laser rot. Also, in the 1990s, LaserDiscs manufactured by Sony's DADC plant in Terre Haute, Indiana, were plagued by laser rot.


title: Disc rot

text: Many HD-DVDs, especially those produced by Warner Bros. between 2006 and 2008 developed disc rot not long after production. Disc rot was also more common on double-sided HD-DVDs than on single-sided HD-DVDs.


title: Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster casualties

text: The was a series of equipment failures, nuclear meltdowns, and releases of radioactive materials at the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant, following the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami on 11 March 2011. It was the largest nuclear disaster since the Chernobyl disaster of 1986, and the radiation released exceeded official safety guidelines. Despite this, there were no deaths caused by acute radiation syndrome. Given the uncertain health effects of low-dose radiation, cancer deaths cannot be ruled out. However, studies by the World Health Organisation and Tokyo University have shown that no discernible increase in the rate of cancer deaths is expected. Predicted future cancer deaths due to accumulated radiation exposures in the population living near Fukushima have ranged in the academic literature from none to hundreds.


text: Many deaths are attributed to the evacuation and subsequent long-term displacement following emergency mass evacuation. For evacuation, the estimated number of deaths during and immediately after transit range from 34 to "greater than 50". The victims include hospital inpatients and elderly people at nursing facilities who died from causes such as hypothermia, deterioration of underlying medical problems, and dehydration.


text: For long-term displacement, many people (mostly sick and elderly) died at an increased rate while in temporary housing and shelters. Degraded living conditions and separation from support networks are likely contributing factors. , the Fukushima prefecture government counted 2,129 "disaster-related deaths" in the prefecture. This value exceeds the number that have died in Fukushima prefecture directly from the earthquake and tsunami. "Disaster-related deaths" are deaths attributed to disasters and are not caused by direct physical trauma, but does not distinguish between people displaced by the nuclear disaster compared to the earthquake / tsunami. As of year 2016, among those deaths, 1,368 have been listed as "related to the nuclear power plant" according to media analysis. Reports have pointed out that many of these deaths may have been caused by the evacuation period being too long, and that residents could have been allowed to return to their homes earlier in order to reduce the total related death toll. According to UNSCEAR, evacuation and sheltering measures to protect the public significantly reduced potential radiation exposures by “a factor of 10”.


text: At least six workers have exceeded lifetime legal limits for radiation and more than 175 (0.7%) have received significant radiation doses. Workers involved in mitigating the effects of the accident do face minimally higher risks for some cancers. According to Japan’s Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, the government awarded workers’ compensation to a man who developed leukemia while working on the Fukushima cleanup in 2015 and has acknowledged that three other Fukushima workers developed leukemia and thyroid cancer after working on the plant cleanup. As of 2020, the total number of cancer and leukemia instances has risen to six cases according to the Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO). In 2018 one worker died from lung cancer as a result from radiation exposure. After hearing opinions from a panel of radiologists and other experts, the ministry ruled that the man's family should be paid compensation.


text: The Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami killed over 15,000 people from effects unrelated to destruction of the reactors at Fukushima.


text: The plant comprises six separate boiling water reactors originally designed by General Electric (GE), and maintained by the Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO). At the time of the quake, Reactor 4 had been de-fueled while 5 and 6 were in cold shutdown for planned maintenance. Immediately after the earthquake, the remaining reactors 1–3 shut down automatically, and emergency generators came online to control electronics and coolant systems. However, the tsunami following the earthquake quickly flooded the low-lying rooms in which the emergency generators were housed. The flooded generators failed, cutting power to the critical pumps that must continuously circulate coolant water through a nuclear reactor for several days in order to keep it from melting down after being shut down. As the pumps stopped, the reactors overheated due to the normal high radioactive decay heat produced in the first few days after nuclear reactor shutdown (smaller amounts of this heat normally continue to be released for years, but are not enough to cause fuel melting). At this point, only prompt flooding of the reactors with seawater could have cooled the reactors quickly enough to prevent meltdown. Salt water flooding was delayed because it would ruin the costly reactors permanently. Flooding with seawater was finally commenced only after the government ordered that seawater be used, and at this point it was already too late to prevent meltdown.


text: As the water boiled away in the reactors and the water levels in the fuel rod pools dropped, the reactor fuel rods began to overheat severely, and to melt down. In the hours and days that followed, Reactors 1, 2 and 3 experienced full meltdown.


text: In the intense heat and pressure of the melting reactors, a reaction between the nuclear fuel metal cladding and the remaining water surrounding them produced explosive hydrogen gas. As workers struggled to cool and shut down the reactors, several strongly damaging hydrogen-air chemical explosions occurred.


text: Concerns about the atmospheric venting of radioactive gasses, and the occurrence of the large hydrogen explosion at unit 1 led to a -radius evacuation around the plant. During the early days of the accident workers were temporarily evacuated at various times for radiation safety reasons. At the same time, sea water that had been exposed to the melting rods was returned to the sea heated and radioactive in large volumes for several months until recirculating units could be put in place to repeatedly cool and re-use a limited quantity of water for cooling. The earthquake damage and flooding in the wake of the tsunami hindered external assistance. Electrical power was slowly restored for some of the reactors, allowing for automated cooling.


text: Japanese officials initially assessed the accident as Level 4 on the International Nuclear Event Scale (INES) despite the views of other international agencies that it should be higher. The level was later raised to 5 and eventually to 7, the maximum scale value. The Japanese government and TEPCO have been criticized in the foreign press for poor communication with the public and improvised cleanup efforts. On 20 March, the Chief Cabinet Secretary Yukio Edano announced that the plant would be decommissioned once the crisis was over.


text: On 16 December 2011, Japanese authorities declared the plant to be stable, although it would take decades to decontaminate the surrounding areas and to decommission the plant altogether.


text: Experts estimate the total amount of radioactivity released into the atmosphere was approximately one-tenth as much as was released during the Chernobyl disaster. Significant amounts of radioactive material have also been released into ground and ocean waters. Measurements taken by the Japanese government 30–50 km from the plant showed caesium-137 levels high enough to cause concern, leading the government to ban the sale of food grown in the area. Tokyo officials temporarily recommended that tap water should not be used to prepare food for infants. In May 2012, TEPCO reported that at least 900 PBq had been released "into the atmosphere in March, 2011 alone".


text: On 5 July 2012, the parliament appointed The Fukushima Nuclear Accident Independent Investigation Commission (NAIIC) submitted its inquiry report to the Japanese parliament, while the government appointed Investigation Committee on the Accident at the Fukushima Nuclear Power Stations of Tokyo Electric Power Company submitted its final report to the Japanese government on 23 July 2012. Tepco admitted for the first time on 12 October 2012 that it had failed to take stronger measures to prevent disasters for fear of inviting lawsuits or protests against its nuclear plants.


text: Annex A of the UNSCEAR (United Nations Scientific Committee for the Effects of Atomic Radiation) 2013 report to the UN General Assembly states that the average effective dose of the 25,000 workers over the first 19 months after the accident was about 12 millisieverts (mSv). About 0.7% of the workforce received doses of more than 100 mSv (Chapter II A(b) paragraph 35). No radiation-related deaths or acute diseases have been observed among the workers and general public exposed to radiation from the accident (Chapter II A(b) paragraph 38). Adults living in the city of Fukushima were estimated to have received, on average, an effective dose of about 4 mSv (Chapter II A(a) paragraph 30). No discernible increased incidence of radiation-related health effects are expected among exposed members of the public or their descendants (Chapter II A(b) paragraph 39). Average annual exposure in the region from naturally occurring sources is about 2.1 mSv, and average lifetime exposure is 170 mSv (Chapter II A(2) paragraph 29). For comparison, the average dose from an abdominal and pelvic computed tomography (CT) scan, with and without contrast, is 20 to 30 mSv.


text: In 2013, two years after the incident, the World Health Organization indicated that the residents of the area who were evacuated were exposed to so little radiation that radiation induced health impacts are likely to be below detectable levels. The health risks in the WHO assessment attributable to the Fukushima radioactivity release were calculated by largely applying the conservative Linear no-threshold model of radiation exposure, a model that assumes even the smallest amount of radiation exposure will cause a negative health effect.


text: The WHO calculations using this model determined that the most at risk group, infants, who were in the most affected area, would experience an absolute increase in the risk of cancer (of all types) during their lifetime, of approximately 1% due to the accident. With the lifetime risk increase for thyroid cancer, due to the accident, for a female infant, in the most affected radiation location, being estimated to be one half of one percent [0.5%]. Cancer risks for the unborn child are considered to be similar to those in 1 year old infants.


text: The estimated risk of cancer to people who were children and adults during the Fukushima accident, in the most affected area, was determined to be lower again when compared to the most at risk group – infants. A thyroid ultrasound screening programme is currently[2013] ongoing in the entire Fukushima prefecture, this screening programme is, due to the screening effect, likely to lead to an increase in the incidence of thyroid disease due to early detection of non-symptomatic disease cases.


text: About one third of people [33.3%] in industrialized nations are presently diagnosed with cancer during their lifetimes, radiation exposure can increase one's cancer risk, with the cancers that arise being indistinguishable from cancers resulting from other causes.


text: No increase is expected in the incidence of congenital or developmental abnormalities, including cognitive impairment attributable to within the womb radiation exposure. As no radiation induced inherited effects/heritable effects, nor teratogenic effects, have ever been definitely demonstrated in humans, with studies on the health of children conceived by cancer survivors who received radiotherapy, and the children of the Hibakusha, not finding a definitive increase in inherited disease or congenital abnormalities. No increase in these effects are therefore expected in or around the Fukushima power plants.


text: Major news source reporting at least 2 TEPCO employees confirmed dead from "disaster conditions" following the earthquake. "The two workers, aged 21 and 24, sustained multiple external injuries and were believed to have died from blood loss, TEPCO said. Their bodies were decontaminated as radiation has been spewing from the plant for three weeks."


text: A Japanese Research Company was assigned to find out the health effects and casualties caused by the disaster. They found that some deaths were early, during evacuation processes, while other deaths gradually happened after the disaster. The agency found out that the cause of these early deaths were due to the disruption of hospital operations, exacerbation of pre-existing health problems and the stress of dramatic changes in life. It is stated that the vast majority of people who died during their evacuation were elderly. 45 patients were reported dead after the evacuation of a hospital in Futaba due to lack of food, water and medical care as evacuation was delayed by three days.


text: The Associated Press reported that fourteen senior citizens died after being moved from their hospital which was in the Fukushima plant evacuation zone.


text: On 14 April 2011, it was reported that the oldest resident of Iitate, a 102-year-old, committed suicide rather than to leave following the announcement of his village's evacuation.


text: In a nuclear accident situation it is essential for authorities to understand and communicate the direction that contamination is spreading and where it may be deposited on land. Given this information, as well as basic knowledge of the risks of radiation, residents would not feel unnecessary anxiety.


text: The wind measurably increased the radiation levels up to 100 miles away from the disaster site. Radioactive iodine, which can lead to increased risk of thyroid cancer if absorbed into the body, was released into the air along with other fission products. To counteract the radioactive iodine the distribution of potassium iodide is used, as it prevents the absorption of the potentially dangerous radioisotopes of that element. Since Chernobyl, distributing potassium iodide to children has been a standard response when risk of radioactivity release is high.


text: According to the Japanese Government, over 160,000 people in the general population were screened in March 2011 for radiation exposure and no case was found which affects health. Thirty workers conducting operations at the plant had exposure levels greater than 100 mSv.


text: In April 2011, the United States Department of Energy published projections of the radiation risks over the next year for people living in the neighborhood of the plant. Potential exposure could exceed 20 mSv/year (2 rems/year) in some areas up to 50 kilometers from the plant. That is the level at which relocation would be considered in the US, and it is a level that could cause roughly one extra cancer case in 500 young adults. Natural radiation levels are higher in some part of the world than the projected level mentioned above, and about 4 people out of 10 can be expected to develop cancer without exposure to radiation. Further, the radiation exposure resulting from the accident for most people living in Fukushima is so small compared to background radiation that it may be impossible to find statistically significant evidence of increases in cancer.


text: , six workers at the Fukushima Daiichi site have exceeded lifetime legal limits for radiation and more than 300 have received significant radiation doses.


text: Workers on-site now wear full-body radiation protection gear, including masks and helmets covering their entire heads, but it means they have another enemy: heat. , 33 cases of heat stroke had been recorded. In these harsh working conditions, two workers in their 60s have died from heart failure.


text: , there were no deaths or serious injuries due to direct radiation exposures. Cancer deaths due to accumulated radiation exposures cannot be ruled out, and according to one expert, might be in the order of 100 cases. A May 2012 United Nations committee report stated that none of the six Fukushima workers who had died since the tsunami had died from radiation exposure.


text: According to a 2012 Yomiuri Shimbun survey, 573 deaths have been certified as "disaster-related" by 13 municipalities affected by the Fukushima nuclear disaster. These municipalities are in the no-entry, emergency evacuation preparation or expanded evacuation zones around the crippled Fukushima nuclear plant. A disaster-related death certificate is issued when a death is not directly caused by a tragedy, but by "fatigue or the aggravation of a chronic disease due to the disaster".


text: According to a June 2012 Stanford University study by John Ten Hoeve and Mark Z. Jacobson, based on linear no-threshold (LNT) model, the radioactivity released could cause 130 deaths from cancer (the lower bound for the estimator being 15 and the upper bound 1100) and 180 cancer cases (the lower bound being 24 and the upper bound 1800), mostly in Japan. Radiation exposure to workers at the plant was projected to result in 2 to 12 deaths. The radioactivity released was an order of magnitude lower than that released from Chernobyl, and some 80% of the radioactivity from Fukushima was deposited over the Pacific Ocean; preventive actions taken by the Japanese government may have substantially reduced the health impact of the radioactivity release. An additional approximately 600 deaths have been reported due to non-radiological causes such as mandatory evacuations. Evacuation procedures after the accident may have reduced deaths from radiation by between 3 and 245 cases, the best estimate being 28; even the upper bound projection of the lives saved from the evacuation is lower than the number of deaths already caused by the evacuation itself.


text: These numbers are very low compared to the estimated 20,000 casualties caused by the tsunami itself, and it has been estimated that if Japan had never adopted nuclear power, accidents and pollution from coal or gas plants would have caused more lost years of life.


text: Finally, there has been a widely critiqued paper published by members of the controversial Radiation and Public Health Project which attempts to ascribe the natural annual cycle of rising and falling adult and infant mortality rates in the United States to Fukushima fallout, suggesting about 14,000 have died.


text: Those who have responded to this paper in the literature have noted a number of errors, among them that this figure was based on an assumption of acute deaths from low radiation doses. There is no known mechanism for this, and "the cities under study with the lowest radiation fallout have the highest increases of death rates in the 14 weeks following Fukushima, while the Californian cities that would have received larger doses saw a decrease in death rate growth" and concluded that "innumerable factors other than radiation" were likely responsible for the major part of the variation in US mortality around the time of the nuclear disaster.


text: The author of the initial paper which attempts to draw a link between infant mortality in the US and the Fukushima accident, Joseph Mangano and his colleague Ernest J. Sternglass, both of the Radiation and Public Health Project, were also active publishing work attempting to draw a causality between infant death rates in Pennsylvania due to the Three Mile Island accident(TMI-2) in 1979, but likewise, these earlier papers conclusions have failed to be corroborated by any other peer reviewed paper or follow up epidemiology study, with Sternglass's paper being widely critiqued. In their final 1981 report, the Pennsylvania Department of Health, examining death rates within the 10-mile area around TMI for the 6 months after the accident, said that the TMI-2 accident did not cause local deaths of infants or fetuses.


text: Another cause of death is the increased number of suicides due to mental stress, despair, anxiety and depression caused by media coverage, and through long periods of evacuation.


text: Perinatal mortality in areas contaminated with radioactive substances started to increase 10 months after the nuclear accident relative to the prevailing and stable secular downward trend. These results are consistent with findings in


text: Europe after Chernobyl. Ten months after the earthquake and tsunami and the subsequent nuclear accident, perinatal mortality in 6 severely contaminated prefectures jumped up from January 2012 onward: jump odds ratio 1.156; 95% confidence interval (1.061, 1.259), P-value 0.0009. There were slight increases in areas with moderate levels of contamination and no increases in the rest of Japan. In severely contaminated areas, the increases of perinatal mortality 10 months after Fukushima were essentially independent of the numbers of dead and missing due to the earthquake and the tsunami.


title: Reece Dinsdale

text: Reece Dinsdale (born 6 August 1959) is an English actor and director of stage, film and television. He is a Huddersfield Town fan. In 2017 he became a patron of the Square Chapel, an arts centre in Halifax. He is also an honorary patron of The Old Courts multi-arts centre in Wigan


title: Reece Dinsdale

text: Dinsdale trained at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama from 1977 until 1980. After initially working in theatre in Exeter, Nottingham, Birmingham and at the Edinburgh Festival, Dinsdale got his first TV role in the Granada thriller "Knife Edge" in 1981. He followed this up by appearing in "Out on the Floor" a single drama for the BBC in 1982. This led to him being cast as Albert in "Agatha Christie's Partners in Crime" series for ITV in 1982.


title: Reece Dinsdale

text: More theatre followed with "Beethoven's Tenth" with Peter Ustinov at the Vaudeville Theatre, London and the highly acclaimed "Red Saturday" at the Royal Court. He played Jimmy Kemp in "Threads" (1984), a-soon-to-be-father and husband caught up in a nuclear attack on Sheffield. 1984 also saw Dinsdale appearing in one of his first feature films, Alan Bennett's "A Private Function", and the TV movie "Winter Flight" opposite Nicola Cowper.


title: Reece Dinsdale

text: "Glamour Night", another single drama for the BBC followed in 1984 before Dinsdale was cast as Matthew Willows in the British sitcom "Home to Roost" written by Eric Chappell and co-starring John Thaw. Dinsdale played Thaw's unruly teenaged son Matthew who comes to live with his estranged father after his mother throws him out. The show ran for four series between 1985 and 1990.


title: Reece Dinsdale

text: Interspersed with this were many appearances on stage, including the award-winning play "Observe the Sons of Ulster Marching Towards the Somme" at the Hampstead Theatre, London, in 1986, "Woundings" and "Don Carlos" at the Royal Exchange Theatre, Manchester, and "Old Year's Eve" at the Royal Shakespeare Company. On television he had leading roles in the three-part series "Take Me Home", and "The Attractions", and the single drama "Coppers" opposite Tim Roth. He also played Fearnot in Jim Henson's "The Storyteller" which aired 26 October 1987.


title: Reece Dinsdale

text: Dinsdale played the leading role of Jack Rover in "Wild Oats" in the inaugural production at the newly built West Yorkshire Playhouse in 1990. He then appeared in "Young Catherine", a miniseries in which he played the Grand Duke Peter. He then appeared at the National Theatre in David Hare's "Racing Demon".


title: Reece Dinsdale

text: From 1990 to 1992 he co-starred in "Haggard", a comedy set in the late 18th century. In 1994, he played the leading role in "ID", a British feature film charting the demise of a police officer who goes undercover to root out a firm of football hooligans. Based on a true story, Dinsdale won the International Critics Award for best actor at the Geneva Film Festival.


title: Reece Dinsdale

text: Dinsdale has continued to play leading roles on both stage and screen. Highlights include two series of "Thief Takers" in which he played the central role of Charlie Scott, and Kenneth Branagh's film of "Hamlet" in which he played Guildenstern opposite Timothy Spall's Rosencrantz. He guested in "Spooks", "Life on Mars", "Murder in Mind", "Silent Witness", and many others.


title: Reece Dinsdale

text: Dinsdale starred opposite Julie Walters in the ITV drama "Ahead of the Class" and played Robert in "Conviction" for the BBC (directed by Marc Munden). He starred in two series of "The Chase" (also for the BBC) and in two thrillers for ITV, "Love Lies Bleeding" and "Midnight Man".


title: Reece Dinsdale

text: In 2008, he joined the cast of "Coronation Street" to play the ill-fated Joe McIntyre, leaving of his own volition in February 2010. Since then he filmed leading guest roles in "Waterloo Road", "Taggart" and "Moving On". He played Doctor Wengel in Ibsen's "The Lady From the Sea" at the Royal Exchange Theatre, Manchester. In 2012 he appeared in the feature film "The Knife That Killed Me". In 2013, Dinsdale played the role of Walter Harrison in James Graham's smash hit play "This House" on the Olivier stage at the National Theatre - directed by Jeremy Herrin. In 2014, he played Alan Bennett in Bennett's autobiographical play "Untold Stories" at the West Yorkshire Playhouse.


title: Reece Dinsdale

text: In 2015 Dinsdale played the central role of George Jones in Headlong's national tour of Sir David Hare's play "The Absence of War", once again directed by Jeremy Herrin. In October 2015 Dinsdale played the title role in Shakespeare's "Richard III" at The West Yorkshire Playhouse for director Mark Rosenblatt. He has an extensive list of BBC Radio Drama credits and, in 2014, he was awarded a Yorkshire Award for Services to Arts and Entertainment. In 2015, he became the first actor to be named Associate Artist at The West Yorkshire Playhouse. In 2017, Dinsdale was made a patron of the Square Chapel Arts Centre in Halifax.


title: Reece Dinsdale

text: In 2020, Dinsdale joined the ITV soap opera Emmerdale playing the villainous Paul Ashdale. Dinsdale left the soap after just a year in 2021 when his character was killed off in an explosion.


title: Reece Dinsdale

text: In January 2012 Dinsdale directed his first drama for television; a 45-minute single drama called "The Crossing" starring Lee Boardman, Ramona Marquez and Susie Blake, in the "Secrets and Words" series for BBC1. In July and August 2014 he directed the episode "Madge" in the "Moving On" series starring Hayley Mills, Kenneth Cranham and Peter Egan, again for BBC1.


title: Reece Dinsdale

text: In May 2015, Dinsdale completed his third drama for BBC Television, "Scratch", starring Will Ash and Chris Coghill, once again for the "Moving On" series. Dinsdale thereafter directed a fourth TV drama, again in the "Moving On" series, for Jimmy McGovern: "Eighteen", a story about the attempted deportation of an Afghan youth back to his native Kabul, starring Antonio Aakeel and Rosie Cavaliero. The series was aired in November 2016. In 2017, Dinsdale directed Sue Johnston in "Lost" by Shaun Duggan for the "Moving On" series.


title: Reece Dinsdale

text: He has directed several episodes of Emmerdale and announced in spring 2022 that he is to direct episodes of Coronation Street.


title: Reece Dinsdale

text: In 2009, Dinsdale wrote the short film "Imaginary Friend" which was subsequently filmed and stars Maxine Peake and Zara Turner. The film premiered on 8 May 2010 at the 360/365 Film Festival in New York City.


title: Germanic name

text: Germanic given names are traditionally dithematic; that is, they are formed from two elements, by joining a prefix and a suffix. For example, King Æþelred's name was derived from ', for "noble", and ', for "counsel".


title: Germanic name

text: However, there are also names dating from an early time which seem to be monothematic, consisting only of a single element. These are sometimes explained as hypocorisms, short forms of originally dithematic names, but in many cases the etymology of the supposed original name cannot be recovered.


title: Germanic name

text: The oldest known Germanic names date to the Roman Empire period, such as those of "Arminius" and his wife "Thusnelda" in the 1st century, and in greater frequency, especially Gothic names, in the late Roman Empire, in the 4th to 5th centuries (the Germanic Heroic Age).


title: Germanic name

text: A great variety of names are attested from the medieval period, falling into the rough categories of Scandinavian (Old Norse), Anglo-Saxon (Old English), continental (Frankish, Old High German and Low German), and East Germanic (see Gothic names) forms.


title: Germanic name

text: By the High Middle Ages, many of these names had undergone numerous sound changes and/or were abbreviated, so that their derivation is not always clear.


title: Germanic name

text: Of the large number of medieval Germanic names, a comparatively small set remains in common use today. In modern times, the most frequent name of Germanic origin in the English-speaking world has traditionally been William (from an Old High German ), followed by Robert and Charles (Carl, after Charlemagne).


title: Germanic name

text: Many native English (Anglo-Saxon) names fell into disuse in the later Middle Ages, but experienced a revival in the Victorian era; some of these are Edward, Edwin, Edmund, Edgar, Alfred, Oswald and Harold for males; the female names Mildred and Winifred also continue to be used in present day, "Audrey" continues the Anglo-Norman (French) form of the Anglo-Saxon , while the name "Godiva" is a Latin form of . Some names, like Howard and Ronald, are thought to originate from multiple Germanic languages, including Anglo-Saxon.


title: Germanic name

text: Some medieval Germanic names are attested in simplex form; these names originate as hypocorisms of full dithematic names, but in some cases they entered common usage and were no longer perceived as such.


title: Germanic name

text: Some hypocorisms retain a remnant of their second element, but reduced so that it cannot be identified unambiguously any longer; Curt/Kurt may abbreviate either Conrad or Cunibert. Harry may abbreviate either Harold or Henry.


title: Germanic name

text: Other monothematic names originate as surnames (bynames) rather than hypocorisms of old dithematic names; e.g. Old English Æsc "ash tree", Carl "free man" (Charles), Hengest "stallion", Raban "raven" (Rabanus Maurus), Hagano/Hagen "enclosure", Earnest "vigorous, resolute".


Lego Indiana Jones: The Original Adventures is a Lego-themed action-adventure video game developed by Traveller's Tales and published by LucasArts. The game allows players to recreate moments from the first three "Indiana Jones" films: "Raiders of the Lost Ark" (1981), "Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom" (1984), and "Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade" (1989). It features the same co-operative play mode as seen in the "Lego Star Wars" video games, although it is restricted to local console play. The game was released on 3 June 2008 in the United States and Canada, and 6 June 2008 in Europe. A downloadable demo for Windows was made available on 13 May 2008. This game is based on the Lego Indiana Jones toy line. The Mac OS X version of the game was released on 4 December 2008 by Feral Interactive.


title: Lego Indiana Jones: The Original Adventures

text: As introduced in "", new moves include clinging onto branches during a jump using Indy's whip. As a promotion, "" features Indiana Jones as an unlockable playable character.


text: The game often follows the events in the films, although some scenes from the film have been altered to allow for co-operative mulitplayer play, to become more family friendly, or just provide comic relief to the player.


text: The game follows the storylines from the original, first three "Indiana Jones" films: "Raiders of the Lost Ark", "Temple of Doom" and "Last Crusade". However, the developers of the game divided the story from the movies into six chapters each in the game, with each a story and a freeplay mode as in the traditional Lego gameplay. The story mode must be played first, restricting the player to use preselected characters, from the real scenes in the movie, in the game, with the option to use any other (unlocked) character during the freeplay mode. These characters can then be used to interact with the environment that other characters sometimes cannot do during story mode to gain new items or find new doorways, puzzles or game collectibles.


text: Barnett College, Dr. Jones' teaching location from "Last Crusade" (earlier known as "Marshall College" in the prequels) serves as the main hub of the game, and different maps on the walls allow access to each of the missions, extra unlockable content and options are found in the different classrooms. Once a player chooses a mission, a cutscene begins that introduces the section of the movie being played. Notable scenes have been recreated from the movies, such as the memorable boulder escape and the battle on the rope bridge, or Walter Donovan choosing the incorrect Holy Grail.


text: There are 82 (standard) playable characters in total, 23 characters which are given to players in the story, and 59 characters which may be purchased from the in-game Library. Then, there are the two custom figures which can be made by the players, and the bonus character Han Solo (much like Indiana Jones was a playable character in ""). A few other characters can also be played with the "Secret Characters" extra on, only playable on certain levels (such as Santa Claus in "Into the Mountains" or Dancing girl 2 in "Shanghai Showdown".) Each character featured in the game has his/her own unique ability, which are required to access new areas when replaying a level in Free Play mode. "Lego Indiana Jones" allows players to mix and match parts to customise characters and make their own creation like "Belloq Jones" or "Colonel Toht".


text: LEGO Indiana Jones also allows players to customise characters and make their own creation. In addition, players can play as their custom creation in the Art Room to test their character's abilities. However, all custom characters have the Whip ability, which may clash with their custom character's appearance.


text: New features were added to the gameplay from the "Lego Star Wars" series, such as the ability for the player to interact with objects in their environment, e.g. bottles, swords and guns. Players can also build and ride vehicles. The game also incorporates character phobias from the films; for example, if Indiana Jones sees a snake, Willie sees a spider or Henry Jones Senior or Elsa see a rat, they will be frozen with fear and have limited movement capacity until the animals are either dead or out of range. Also, new melee attacks, such as the Whip snag (trips enemies), have been added.


text: The DS version has some significant changes to accommodate both the memory and size limitations of the DS as well as its unique touch screen controls. Characters' special abilities, such as Indy's whip or Satipo's shovel, and elements such as switches can be controlled by using the touch screen. In addition, the built-in microphone comes into play, allowing the player to physically blow out torches in some levels and inflate rubber rafts to cross water hazards.


text: There are four classes of characters that can use special access panels to enter hidden areas; these all require the player to match a four block sequence by solving a mini-puzzle on the touch screen. Scholars can access scroll panels, and must flip pages in a book to find the correct blocks. Thuggee use red skull panels and move a torch to illuminate the blocks on a darkened screen. Military characters can use the green radio panels and scroll through a set of slot-machine wheels to match the pattern. Brotherhood characters enter the red sword panels and solve a block switching game. In addition, Marion (and Monkey Man) can transform into a monkey on special red pads to climb to otherwise inaccessible areas, and throw bottles of alcohol into flaming trash cans to blow up certain obstacles.


text: The DS version features cameos by Star Wars characters, including Wicket the Ewok and Luke Skywalker frozen in an ice cave resembling the Wampa's, but unlike the console versions none of the characters are playable. An interesting thing to note is that if you chase Wicket, you might be able to kill him with one hit. In the final scene of "The Last Crusade" The Grail Knight is first shown as a shadow on the wall which looks like Darth Vader, when the shadow draws a sword the blade extends like a Lightsaber. Santa Claus, Strong Man, Castle Knight, and the Clown are the only non-movie characters who are unlockable. There are also no hidden levels and no bonus reward for completing the game at 100%.


text: Red power bricks remain in the DS version, despite being replaced with red parcels in the console/PSP versions. Also, the characters do not suffer from fear of creatures as they do in the console versions.


text: It was initially reported that the game would allow up to four players in co-operative mode, but this later turned out to be a miscommunication. While four characters may be visible on the screen, only two can be controlled by players. On the Nintendo DS, up to eight characters may be in the party, but only two may be visible on the screen. Neither the Xbox 360 version nor the PlayStation 3 version support online play through Xbox Live or the PlayStation Network. The Xbox 360 version is backwards compatible with Xbox One and the Xbox Series X.


text: The music from the films was used in this game, but also some music was extracted from "The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles" e.g. "Attack of the Hawkmen" or "Daredevils of the Desert" or "Masks of Evil", etc. They were played in various scenes such as when Indy and Satipo approached the temple in "The Lost Temple", or when Indy, Willie and Short Round were preparing the mine cart in "Escape the Mines" or when Indy finds the true Grail in "Temple of the Grail". The original trilogy soundtrack would be used in ". "


text: Reviews for the game were generally positive. IGN gave the game an 8/10 for the Nintendo DS, PS2 and the Wii 8.4/10 for the 360 and PS3 and 7.7/10 for the PSP. which is similar to the "" games. "X-Play" gave it a 4 out of 5, saying that it has everything that a fan of the films could want, but it is not as fun as "Lego Star Wars". "Official PlayStation Magazine UK" gave the game an 8/10, praising the immersive nature of the game, and praising the series' choices of source material. "Official Nintendo Magazine" gave the game 82%, just about the same as "Lego Star Wars", saying it was very similar and not much has improved. Also, the magazine stated that, "In general, this game could possibly be one of the greatest games ever." "Game Revolution" gave the game B+, citing that the game, designed by fans of the movie series, provides "addictive game play" with "tons of replay value."


text: The Nintendo DS version of "Lego Indiana Jones" was nominated for two DS-specific awards from IGN.com, namely Best Action Game and Best Local Multiplayer Game. The Wii version has also been nominated for multiple Wii-specific awards by "IGN", including Best Action Game and Best Local Multiplayer Game.


text: The game's Xbox 360 version received a "Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 300,000 copies in the United Kingdom. As of April 2009, the game has sold around 7.91 million copies combining sales of all platforms. As of May 2012, the game has sold over 11 million copies.


text: A sequel titled "" was released. It includes game levels for "Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull" (2008) as well as redesigned levels for the other three movies among other new features.


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: Turtle (also called American Turtle) was the world's first submersible vessel with a documented record of use in combat. It was built in 1775 by American David Bushnell as a means of attaching explosive charges to ships in a harbor, for use against Royal Navy vessels occupying American harbors during the American Revolutionary War. Connecticut Governor Jonathan Trumbull recommended the invention to George Washington, who provided funds and support for the development and testing of the machine.


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: Several attempts were made using "Turtle" to affix explosives to the undersides of British warships in New York Harbor in 1776. All failed, and her transport ship was sunk later that year by the British with the submarine aboard. Bushnell claimed eventually to have recovered the machine, but its final fate is unknown. Modern replicas of "Turtle" have been constructed and are on display in the Connecticut River Museum, the U.S. Navy's Submarine Force Library and Museum, the Royal Navy Submarine Museum, and the Oceanographic Museum (Monaco).


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: The American inventor David Bushnell made the idea of a submersible vessel for use in lifting the British naval blockade during the American War of Independence. Bushnell may have begun studying underwater explosions while at Yale College. By early 1775, he had created a reliable method for detonating underwater explosives, a clockwork connected to a musket firing mechanism, probably a flintlock, adapted for the purpose.


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: After the Battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775, Bushnell began work near Old Saybrook on a small, individually manned submersible designed to attach an explosive charge to the hull of an enemy ship, which, he wrote Benjamin Franklin, would be, "Constructed with Great Simplicity and upon Principles of Natural Philosophy."


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: Little is known about the origin, inspiration, and influences for Bushnell's invention. It seems clear Bushnell knew of the work of the Dutch inventor Cornelius Drebbel.


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: According to Dr. Benjamin Gale, a doctor who taught at Yale, the many brass and mechanical (moving) parts of the submarine were built by the New Haven clock-maker, engraver, silversmith, brass manufacturer and inventor Isaac Doolittle, whose shop was just a half block from Yale. Though Bushnell is given the overall design credit for the "Turtle" by Gale and others, Doolittle was well known as an "ingenious mechanic" (i.e. an engineer), engraver, and metalworker. He had both designed and manufactured complicated brass-wheel hall-clocks, a mahogany printing-press in 1769 (the first made in America, after Doolittle successfully duplicated the iron screw), brass compasses, and surveying instruments. He also founded and owned a brass foundry where he cast bells. At the start of the American Revolution,the wealthy and patriotic Doolittle built a gunpowder mill with two partners in New Haven to support the war, and was sent by the Connecticut government to prospect for lead.


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: Though the design of the "Turtle" was necessarily shrouded in secrecy, based on his mechanical engineering expertise and previous experience in design and manufacturing, it seems Doolittle designed and crafted (and probably funded) the brass and the moving parts of the "Turtle", including the propulsion system, the navigation instruments, the brass foot-operated water-ballast and forcing pumps, the depth gauge and compass, the brass crown hatch, the clockwork detonator for the mine, and the hand-operated propeller crank and foot-driven treadle with flywheel. According to a letter from Dr. Benjamin Gale to Benjamin Franklin, Doolittle also designed the mine attachment mechanism, "those Parts which Conveys the Powder, and secures the same to the Bottom of the Ship". The most historically important innovation in the "Turtle" was the propeller, as it was the first known use of one in a watercraft: it was described as an "oar for rowing forward or backward", with "no precedent" design and in a letter by Dr. Benjamin Gale to Silas Dean as "a pair of oars fixed like the two opposite arms of a windmill" and as "two oars or paddles" that were "like the arms of a windmill... long, and about wide." As it was probably brass, it was thus likely designed and forged by Doolittle. Doolittle also likely provided the scarce commodities of gunpowder and lead ballast as well. The wealthy Doolittle, nearly 20 years older than the Yale student Bushnell, was a founder and long time Warden of Trinity Episcopal Church on the Green, and was in charge of New Haven's port inspection and beacon-alarm systems – suggesting that Doolittle provided much of the political and financial leadership in building the "Turtle" as well as its brass and moving parts.


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: In making the hull, Bushnell enlisted the services of several skilled artisans, including his brother the farmer Ezra Bushnell and ship's carpenter Phineas Pratt, both, like David Bushnell, from Saybrook. The hull was "constructed of oak, somewhat like a barrel and bound by heavy wrought-iron hoops." The shape of the hull, Gale informed Silas Deane, "has the nearest resemblance to the two upper shells of a Tortoise joined together."


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: Named for its shape, "Turtle" resembled a large clam as much as a turtle; it was about long (according to the original specifications), tall, and about wide, and consisted of two wooden shells covered with tar and reinforced with steel bands. It dived by allowing water into a bilge tank at the bottom of the vessel and ascended by pushing water out through a hand pump. It was propelled vertically and horizontally by hand-cranked and pedal-powered propellers, respectively. It also had of lead aboard, which could be released in a moment to increase buoyancy. Manned and operated by one person, the vessel contained enough air for about thirty minutes and had a speed in calm water of about .


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: Six small pieces of thick glass in the top of the submarine provided natural light. The internal instruments had small pieces of bioluminescent foxfire affixed to the needles to indicate their position in the dark. During trials in November 1775, Bushnell discovered that this illumination failed when the temperature dropped too low. Although repeated requests were made to Benjamin Franklin for possible alternatives, none was forthcoming, and "Turtle" was sidelined for the winter.


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: Bushnell's basic design included some elements present in earlier experimental submersibles. The method of raising and lowering the vessel was similar to that developed by Nathaniel Simons in 1729, and the gaskets used to make watertight connections around the connections between the internal and external controls also may have come from Simons, who constructed a submersible based on a 17th-century Italian design by Giovanni Alfonso Borelli.


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: Due to colonial efforts to keep the existence of this potential war asset secret from the British, the colonial records concerning the "Turtle" are often short and cryptic. Most of the records that do exist concern Bushnell's request for funds. Bushnell met with Jonathan Trumbull, the governor of Connecticut, during 1771 seeking financial support. Trumbull also sent requests to George Washington and Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson, who was an inventor himself, was intrigued by the possibilities while Washington remained skeptical of devoting funds from the Continental Army, whose funding was already being stretched. Ultimately, Washington was able to provide some funds possibly due to Trumbull's influence.


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: Several setbacks plagued the design process. The mine in particular was delayed several times from its expected completion from 1771 to 1776. Piloting the "Turtle", moreover, required great physical stamina and coordination. The operator would have to adjust the bilge in order to keep from sinking while providing his own propulsion by use of a crank, which worked a propeller located on the front of the submarine, and direction by use of a lever that would operate and direct a rudder in the back. The cabin also reportedly held air for only thirty minutes of use. Thereafter, the operator would have to surface and replenish the air through a ventilator. Obviously, training would be needed in order to ensure the project's success due to the complex nature of the machine. "The boat was moved from Ezra's farm on the Westbrook Road to what is now Ayer's Point in Old Saybrook on the Connecticut River," writes historian Lincoln Diamant. Bushnell had a Yale connection here that allowed him to run trials in secrecy. Bushnell did the initial testing of his submarine here, choosing his brother, Ezra, as the pilot. Despite Bushnell's insistence on secrecy surrounding his work, news of it quickly made its way to the British, abetted by a Loyalist spy working for New York Congressman James Duane.


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: In August 1776, Bushnell asked General Samuel Holden Parsons for volunteers to operate "Turtle", because his brother Ezra, who had been its operator during earlier trials at Ayer's Point on the Connecticut river, was taken ill.


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: Three men were chosen, and the submersible was taken to Long Island Sound for training and further trials. While these trials went on, the British gained control of western Long Island in the August 27 Battle of Long Island. Since the British now controlled the harbor, "Turtle" was transported overland from New Rochelle to the Hudson River. After two weeks of training, "Turtle" was towed to New York, and its new operator, Sgt. Ezra Lee, prepared to attack the flagship of the blockade squadron, .


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: Destroying this symbol of British naval power by means of a submarine would at least be a blow to British morale and, perhaps, threaten the British blockade and control of New York Harbor. The plan was to have Lee surface just behind "Eagle"s rudder and use a screw to attach an explosive to the ship's hull. Once attached, Lee would re-enter the water and make his getaway.


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: At 11:00 pm on September 6, 1776, Sgt. Lee piloted the submersible toward Admiral Richard Howe's flagship, , then moored off Governors Island.


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: On that night, Lee maneuvered the small craft out to the anchorage. It took two hours to reach his destination, as it was hard work manipulating the hand-operated controls and foot pedals to propel the submersible into position. Adding to his difficulties was a fairly strong current and the darkness creeping overhead, which made visibility difficult.


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: The plan failed. Lee began his mission with only twenty minutes of air, not to mention the complications of operating the craft. The darkness, the speed of the currents, and the added complexities all combined to thwart Lee's plan. Once surfaced, Lee lit the fuse on the explosive and tried multiple times to stab the device into the underside of the ship. Unfortunately, after several attempts Lee was not able to pierce "Eagle"s hull and abandoned the operation as the timer on the explosive was due to go off and he feared getting caught at dawn. A popular story held that he failed due to the copper lining covering the ship's hull. The Royal Navy had recently begun installing copper sheathing on the bottoms of their warships to protect from damage by shipworms and other marine life, however the lining was paper-thin and could not have stopped Lee from drilling through it. Bushnell believed Lee's failure was probably due to an iron plate connected to the ship's rudder hinge. When Lee attempted another spot in the hull, he was unable to stay beneath the ship, and eventually abandoned the attempt. It seems more likely that he was suffering from fatigue and carbon dioxide inhalation, which made him confused and unable to properly carry out the process of drilling through the "Eagle"s hull. Lee reported British soldiers on Governors Island spotted the submersible and rowed out to investigate. He then released the charge (which he called a "torpedo", the prevailing term for underwater explosive devices prior to about 1890), "expecting that they would seize that likewise, and thus all would be blown to atoms." Suspicious of the drifting charge, the British retreated back to the island. Lee reported that the charge drifted into the East River, where it exploded "with tremendous violence, throwing large columns of water and pieces of wood that composed it high into the air." It was the first recorded use of a submarine to attack a ship; however, the only records documenting it are American. British records contain no accounts of an attack by a submarine or any reports of explosions on the night of the supposed attack on "Eagle".


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: According to British naval historian Richard Compton-Hall, the problems of achieving neutral buoyancy would have rendered the vertical propeller useless. The route "Turtle" would have had to take to attack "Eagle" was slightly across the tidal stream which would, in all probability, have resulted in Lee becoming exhausted. In the face of these and other problems, Compton-Hall suggests the entire story was fabricated as disinformation and morale-boosting propaganda, and if Lee did carry out an attack it was in a covered rowing boat rather than "Turtle".


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: Despite "Turtle"s failure, Washington called Bushnell "a Man of great Mechanical Powers, fertile of invention and a master in execution." In retrospect, Washington observed in a letter to Thomas Jefferson, "[Bushnell] came to me in 1776 recommended by Governor Trumbull (now dead) and other respectable characters…Although I wanted faith myself, I furnished him with money, and other aids to carry it into execution. He laboured for some time ineffectually and, though the advocates for his scheme continued sanguine, he never did succeed. One accident or another was always intervening. I then thought, and still think, that it was an effort of genius; but that a combination of too many things were requisite…"


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: "Turtle"s attack on "Eagle" reflected both the ingenuity of American forces after the fall of New York and the tendency of the weaker belligerent to adopt and embrace new, sometimes radical, technologies. "What astonishment it will produce and what advantages may be made…if it succeeds, [are] more easy for you to conceive than for me to describe," physician Benjamin Gale wrote to Silas Deane less than a year before "Turtle"'s mission.


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: The submarine's ultimate fate is not known, although it is believed that after the British took New York, the "Turtle" was destroyed to prevent her from falling into enemy hands.


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: On October 5, Sergeant Lee again went out in an attempt to attach the charge to a frigate anchored off Manhattan. He reported the ship's watch spotted him, so he abandoned the attempt. The submarine was sunk some days later by the British aboard its tender vessel near Fort Lee, New Jersey. Bushnell reported salvaging "Turtle", but its final fate is unknown. Washington called the attempt "an effort of genius", but "a combination of too many things was requisite" for such an attempt to succeed.


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: Following "Turtle"'s abortive attack in New York Harbor, Bushnell continued his work in underwater explosives. In 1777, he devised mines to be towed for an attack on HMS "Cerberus" near New London harbor and to be floated down the Delaware River in an attempt to interrupt the British fleet off Philadelphia. Both attempts failed, and the latter occupied a brief, if farcical, place in the literature of the war. Francis Hopkinson's poem "Battle of the Kegs," captured the surprising, if futile, venture: "The soldier flew, the sailor too, and, scared almost to death, sir, wore out their shoes to spread the news, and ran till out of breath, sir."


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: When the Connecticut government refused to fund further underwater project, Bushnell joined the Continental army as a captain-lieutenant of sappers and miners, and served with distinction for several years the Hudson River in New York. After the war, Bushnell drifted into obscurity. He visited France for several years, then moved to Georgia in 1795 under the assumed name of David Bush, where he taught school and practiced medicine. He died largely unknown in Georgia in 1824. After the war, inventors such as Robert Fulton were influenced by Bushnell's designs in the development of underwater explosives.


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: Despite "Turtle"'s shortcomings, Bushnell's invention marked an important milestone in submarine technology. The American inventor Robert Fulton conceived of his submarine "Nautilus" in the first years of the nineteenth century and took it to Europe when the United States proved largely uninterested in the design. During the American Civil War, the Confederate States of America, faced with a similar situation to that of the colonies during the War of Independence, developed an operational submarine CSS "H.L. Hunley", whose destruction of the USS "Housatonic" in Charleston Harbor in February 1864 was the first successful submarine attack in history. By the early-twentieth century, the world's navies were beginning to adopt submarines in larger numbers. Like Bushnell's design, these boats mimicked the natural forms of marine animals in their hull designs. As one contemporary historian of submarines observed in 1901, the evolution of modern submarine evolved from the whale, which he deemed a "submarine made by nature out of a mammal."


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: While Bushnell's name is not generally well-known, he is often credited with revolutionizing naval warfare from below. Bushnell's "Turtle" created a military vantage point unseen prior to the Revolutionary Wara view from under the war-stricken waters. As historian Alex Roland argues, Bushnell's legacy as an inventor was also burnished by American writers and historians who in the early nineteenth-century lionized Bushnell and his submarine. To a new postwar generation of Americans, he seemed "the ingenious patriot who invented the submarine that terrified the British." Bushnell joined the ranks of American inventors of the era such as Eli Whitney and Robert Fulton. These men served as national heroes to Americans who advocated for technological advances and idolized the men making them. "Whether the motives were military pride or scientific nationalism," Roland contends, "it was important to Americans in the first half century after the Revolution to look upon Bushnell's submarine as an American original.


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: Yet, while the "Turtle" occupies a prominent place in the history of technology and military history, Roland's scholarship points to other technological precedence that almost certainly influenced Bushnell's design. Roland points to Denis Papin, a French physician, physicist, and member of the Royal Society and the French Academy of Sciences, whose two submarines may well have served as a model for Bushnell. "The submarine Bushnell designed and built... had features peculiar to both of Papin's versions." As historian of technology Carroll Purcell argues, such trans-Atlantic technology cross-fertilization was hardly exceptional in this era.


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: Since the "Turtle"'s emergence over two centuries ago, the international playing field has leveled. The monopoly over submersible technology once held by the United States was lost over time as other navies around the world modernized and adopted submarine warfare. From the innovations of John Holland in the early twentieth century to the German U-boat campaigns of the World Wars, and the nuclear-powered ICBM submarines of the Cold War, modern navies embraced the submarine, first, for missions of reconnaissance and commerce-raiding, but, increasingly, in offensive, attack roles. In the postwar era, the submarine has become a central component of modern navies. Submarine usage has gone far beyond Bushnell's conception of lifting naval blockades designed to bleed a country dry of their imports to become an essential arm of offensive naval warfare and power projection.


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: The "Turtle" was the first submersible vessel used for combat and led to the development of what we know today as the modern submarine, forever changing underwater warfare and the face of naval warfare. As such, the "Turtle" has been replicated many times to show new audience the roots of submarine technology, how much it has changed, and the influence it has had on modern submarines. By the 1950s, historian of technology Brooke Hindle credited the "Turtle" as "the greatest of the wartime inventions." The "Turtle" remains a source of national as well as regional pride, which led to the construction of several replicas, a number of which exist in Bushnell's home state of Connecticut. As Benjamin Gale noted in 1775, the vessel was "constructed with great simplicity," and it has thus inspired at least four replicas. Many of these followed the designs set down by Bushnell, with "precise and comprehensive descriptions of his submarine," which aided the replication process.


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: The vessel was a source of particular pride in Connecticut. In 1976, a replica of "Turtle" was designed by Joseph Leary and constructed by Fred Frese as a project marking the United States Bicentennial. It was christened by Connecticut's governor, Ella Grasso, and later tested in the Connecticut River. This replica is owned by the Connecticut River Museum.


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: In 2002, Rick and Laura Brown, two sculptors from Massachusetts, along with Massachusetts College of Art and Design students and faculty, constructed another replica. The Browns set out to gain a better understanding of human ingenuity while keeping Bushnell's design, materials, and technique authentic. "With it, Yankee ingenuity was born," observed Rick Brown, referring to the latest in a long line of commemoration that perceived the "Turtle" as something authentically American. Of the temptation to use synthetic and ahistorical materials, Rob Duarte, a MassArts student observed, "It was always a temptation to use silicone to seal the thing," says Rob Duarte, a MassArt student. "Then you realized that someone else had to figure this out with the same limited resources that we were using. That's just an interesting way to learn. You can't do it any other way than by actually doing it." The outer shell of the replica was hollowed, using controlled fire, from a Sitka spruce. The log was in diameter and shipped from British Columbia. This replica took twelve days to build and was successfully submerged in water. In 2003, it was tested in an indoor test tank at the United States Naval Academy. Lew Nuckols, a professor of Ocean Engineering at USNA, made ten dives, noting "you feel very isolated from the outside world. If you had any sense of claustrophobia it would not be a very good experience."


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: In 2003, Roy Manstan, Fred Frese, and the Naval Underwater Warfare Center partnered with students from Old Saybrook High School in Connecticut on a four-year project called The Turtle Project, to construct their own working replica, which they completed and launched in 2007.


title: Turtle (submersible)

text: On August 3, 2007 three men were stopped by police while escorting and piloting a replica based on the "Turtle" within 200 feet (61 m) of RMS "Queen Mary 2", then docked at the cruise ship terminal in Red Hook, Brooklyn. The replica was created by New York artist Philip "Duke" Riley and two residents of Rhode Island, one of whom claimed to be a descendant of David Bushnell. Riley claimed that he wanted to film himself next to the "Queen Mary 2" for his upcoming gallery show. Riley's was not an exact replica, however, measuring tall and made of cheap plywood then coated with fiberglass. Its portholes and hatch were collected from a marine salvage company. He also installed pumps to allow him to add or remove water for ballast. Riley christened his vessel "Acorn", to note the deviation from Bushnell's original design. The vessel, reported the New York Times, "resembled something out of Jules Verne by way of Huck Finn, manned by cast members from '.' The Coast Guard issued Riley a citation for having an unsafe vessel, and for violating the security zone around "Queen Mary 2". The NYPD also impounded the submarine. Police Commissioner Raymond W. Kelly, calling this an incident of "marine mischief" assured the public that this was simply an art project and did not, in fact, represent a terrorist threat to the passenger ship.