title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: In 2008, author Moustafa Bayoumi released the book "How Does It Feel to Be a Problem?: Being Young and Arab in America". The author says mass arrests and deportations of Arabs and Arab Americans were conducted by the various government organizations, including the FBI, often with insufficient evidence to connect them to terrorism; that some were incarcerated indefinitely without notifying the detainee's relatives as if they had just disappeared. Bayoumi maintains deportation of Arabs and Arab-Americans significantly increased following 9/11, often at short notice, saying in one case a man was deported without his clothes.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: The attacks were regarded by some as particularly disturbing to children, in part because of the frequency with which the images were replayed on television. Many schools closed early, especially those with children whose parents worked in Washington, D.C., and New York City. In Sarasota, Florida, Emma E. Booker Elementary School became a part of history, as President George W. Bush was reading to a classroom of children there when the attacks happened.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: Psychological studies focused on children exposed to the attacks in Lower Manhattan and New York City found higher rates of clinically significant behavior problems among preschool children, as well as elevated rates of PTSD and depression in the years after the attacks. For children who lost a parent in the attack, psychologists noticed that while some coped well initially, they would at times succumb to bouts of depression and self-harm later in life, or become reluctant to discuss their family history.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: The thousands of tons of toxic debris resulting from the collapse of the Twin Towers contained more than 2,500 contaminants, including known carcinogens. Subsequent debilitating illnesses among rescue and recovery workers are said to be linked to exposure to these carcinogens. The Bush administration ordered the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to issue reassuring statements regarding air quality in the aftermath of the attacks, citing national security; however, the EPA did not determine that air quality had returned to pre-September 11 levels until June 2002.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: Health effects also extended to residents, students, and office workers of Lower Manhattan and nearby Chinatown. Several deaths have been linked to the toxic dust, and the victims' names were included in the World Trade Center memorial. As of January 1, 2002 the New York Police Department had received 37 disability claims, and the Fire Department reported 269 disability claims related to injuries suffered as a result of the attacks. Approximately 18,000 people have been estimated to have developed illnesses as a result of the toxic dust. By 2004, nearly half of more than 1,000 screened rescue-and-recovery workers and volunteers reported new and persistent respiratory problems, and more than half reported persistent psychological symptoms. Because of the long latency period between exposure and development of asbestos-related diseases, exposed Manhattan residents, especially rescue-and-recovery workers, can suffer future adverse health effects. One such death related to health effects was the January 6, 2006 death of NYPD James Zadroga which was ruled by a New Jersey coroner as directly due to clean-up at the WTC site. This ruling was unequivocally rejected in October 2007 by the New York City Chief Medical Examiner, Dr. Charles Hirsch, and Medical Examiner Michele Slone. On June 29, 2019, former New York Police Department detective Luis G. Alvarez died from colorectal cancer, with which he was diagnosed in 2016 and is believed to be caused from his three months spent at Ground Zero after 9/11.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: There is also scientific speculation that exposure to various toxic products in the air may have negative effects on fetal development. A notable children's environmental health center is currently analyzing the children whose mothers were pregnant during the WTC collapse and were living or working nearby. A study of rescue workers released in April 2010 found that all those studied had impaired lung functions, and that 30–40% were reporting little or no improvement in persistent symptoms that started within the first year of the attack.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: Years after the attacks, legal disputes over the costs of illnesses related to the attacks were still in the court system. On October 17, 2006, a federal judge rejected New York City's refusal to pay for health costs for rescue workers, allowing for the possibility of numerous suits against the city. Government officials have been faulted for urging the public to return to lower Manhattan in the weeks shortly after the attacks. Christine Todd Whitman, administrator of the EPA in the aftermath of the attacks, was heavily criticized by a U.S. District Judge for incorrectly saying that the area was environmentally safe. Mayor Giuliani was criticized for urging financial industry personnel to return quickly to the greater Wall Street area.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: After the terrorist attack, various repercussions took place that affected the U.S as a whole. All the money and claims that were being put out to help aid the victims of the attack, as well as different security and laws to protect the U.S, caused several layoffs and un-employments. Specifically, It was said that 462 extended masses were layoffs because of the attacks that displaced approximately 130,000 employees. The unemployment rate inclined to a total of 5.0% which is significant.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: The attacks caused an estimated overall economic loss to the city of $82.8-USD 94.8 billion, with the lower number being consistent with the NYC Partnership's November 2001 estimate and the high end being consistent with the New York City Comptroller's October 2001 estimate. It was calculated that the lost human productive value, life insurance payouts were $2.63 billion, federal payments after offsets were estimated at $2.34 billion and charitable payments were $0.79 billion.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: It was projected by one individual that the public art that was damaged or destroyed during the attacks was valued at $10 million. Art by Louise Nevelson, Alexander Calder, and James Rosati were all destroyed along with a memorial sculpture by Elyn Zimmerman in memorial for the victims of the 1993 World Trade Center Bombing.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: As of August 2002, there were approximately 1,464 claims against the city of New York City that amounted to approximately $8.2 billion. Although the New York City's Law Department indicated at the time that the City's liability for the claims would only be around $350 million, provided through an act of Congress. The claims ranged from City employee's personal injuries that totaled around $5.2 billion, suffering due to the loss of life that totaled around $3 billion, and for the destruction of property such as the one filed by AEGIS Insurance Company for $250 million.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: Following the road to recovery, the federal government and state begin issuing grants and various funds to compensate and help those who suffered. The 9/11 Heroes Stamp Program was administered by the Department of Homeland Security which gave funds to those who became disabled from direct contact in the attack or suffered a loss from the attack. The Post- 9/11 GI Bill became a result after 9/11, paying homage to the U.S military soldiers, which provided educational and financial assistance to those soldiers who were returning to civilian life. Federal grant aid assisted states, communities, and local organizations in their efforts to stay safe and remain readily prepared. For that to happen the program law enforcement training and technical assistance grant was created hoping to stop or better compose for a terrorist attack.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: The September 11th Victim Compensation fund (VCF) was established to provide financial assistance to those that experienced the disaster directly or those who lost family members from the attack. The fund has provided reimbursements for medical treatments for various conditions affecting victims, including PTSD and health effects from being exposed to toxic air.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: The attacks affected trade relations with foreign countries, complicating the supply of oil demands. After the attack, oil prices skyrocketed.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: Rebuilding of the area began shortly after clean up, and construction began on the Freedom Tower and the National September 11 Memorial and Museum.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: Park51 (originally named Cordoba House) is a planned 13-story Muslim community center to be located two blocks from the World Trade Center site in Lower Manhattan. The majority of the center will be open to the general public and its proponents have said the center will promote interfaith dialogue. It will contain a Muslim prayer space that has controversially been referred to as the "Ground Zero mosque", though numerous commentators noted that it was neither a mosque nor at Ground Zero.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: It would replace an existing 1850s Italianate-style building that was being used as a Burlington Coat Factory before it was damaged in the September 11 attacks. The proposed multi-faith aspects of the design include a 500-seat auditorium, theater, a performing arts center, a fitness center, a swimming pool, a basketball court, a childcare area, a bookstore, a culinary school, an art studio, a food court, and a memorial to the victims of the September 11 attacks. The prayer space for the Muslim community will accommodate 1,000–2,000 people.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: The evolution of security and protective services changed tremendously due to the attacks. Immediate changes included air travel policies, airport security and screening, and guidelines that must be obeyed before getting on board. Congress immediately responded after the terrorist attack by passing the Aviation and Transportation Security Act, which applied to different types of transportation, not just air travel.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: Additional screening was another main focus that took place during the period after the attacks, and many passengers were prescreened and advanced screened at different security checkpoints. This led to the major issue of racial profiling and invasion of privacy, as many Middle Eastern-looking people were singled out for further screening. Luggage screening was another main objective, as new technology was introduced to scan passengers' luggage thoroughly and search for weapons or bombs. In addition, some pilots were required by the Department of Homeland Security to carry a firearm on board. Better known as a Federal flight deck officer, these pilots undergo training to prevent terrorist attacks or other potential dangers on an airplane.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: Another act was passed known as the USA Patriot Act, which broadened the powers of law enforcement to identify terrorist activity. For example, law enforcement was allowed able to break one's premises without a search warrant and their consent, if they were suspected of terrorist activity. This also included roving wiretaps as a method of surveillance. For instance, the government was allowed to search through one's record searches and intelligence searches. Specifically, if one searched terrorism activities or showed unusual behavior and then deleted their history, the government was able to see that. The purpose of this act was to catch acts of terrorism before any attacks were planned and executed. A program called Total Information Awareness was developed to enhance the technology that would collect and analyze information about every individual in the United States, and trace unusual behaviors that could help prevent terrorist activities. Information that was gathered through the program included internet activity, credit card purchase histories, airline ticket purchases, and medical records.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: Bombings in Kabul, Afghanistan occurred after the attacks and were reposted live by CNN correspondent Nic Robertson less than 24 hours after the attacks in America.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: The attacks had major worldwide political effects. Many other countries introduced tough anti-terrorism legislation and took action to cut off terrorist finances, including the freezing of bank accounts suspected of being used to fund terrorism. Law enforcement and intelligence agencies stepped up cooperation to arrest terrorist suspects and break up suspected terrorist cells around the world.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: Reaction to the attacks in the Muslim world was mixed. Also, shortly after the attack, the media picked up on several celebrations of the attacks in the Middle East with images of these celebrations being broadcast on television and published in print. Less publicized were public displays of sympathy, including candlelight vigils in countries like Iran.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: In the immediate aftermath, support for the United States' right to defend itself was expressed across the world, and by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1368. The Australian Prime Minister, John Howard, was in Washington D.C. at the time of the attacks and invoked the ANZUS military alliance as a pledge of Australian assistance to the U.S.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: In the immediate aftermath of the attacks many United States-based airports would not accept airplane flights to land, causing Operation Yellow Ribbon in which all incoming international flights were rerouted by the FAA to airports in Canada. Many Canadians opened up their homes to stranded travelers and organizations such as the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals gave comfort to animals and other special groups that were stranded by the diversions.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: In France, calls to the United States Embassy were placed by locals who offered rooms within their homes to stranded passengers and observed the official day of mourning with three minutes of silence and stillness.


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: The attack prompted numerous memorials and services all over the world with many countries, along with the United States, declaring a national day of mourning. In Berlin, 200,000 Germans marched to show their solidarity with America. The French newspaper of record, "Le Monde", ran a front-page headline reading ""Nous sommes Tous Américains"", or "We are all Americans". In London, the US national anthem was played at the Changing of the Guard at Buckingham Palace. (To mark the Queen's Golden Jubilee, New York City lit the Empire State Building in purple and gold, to say "thank you" for this action.)


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: Hate crimes against Muslims increased around the world. For example, Canada experienced a 16-fold increase in anti-Muslim attacks immediately a year after 9/11. In the year leading to the attack, there were only 11 reported crimes but a year following 9/11, there were 173 hate crime cases reported. The same also happened in the United Kingdom and Australia. In the latter's case, a study conducted in Sydney and Melbourne revealed an overwhelming majority of Muslim residents who experienced racism or racist violence since the attack. Another study claimed that hate crimes "increased for all Muslims after 9/11, although the relative risk was much higher for those individuals living in countries with smaller Muslim populations."


title: Aftermath of the September 11 attacks

text: An increase in racial tensions was seen in countries such as England, with a number of violent crimes linked to the September 11th attacks. The most severe example was seen in Peterborough, where teenager Ross Parker was murdered by a gang of up to ten Muslims of Pakistani background who had sought a white male to attack.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: The Amarāvati "Stupa", is a ruined Buddhist "stūpa" at the village of Amaravathi, Palnadu district, Andhra Pradesh, India, probably built in phases between the third century BCE and about 250 CE. It was enlarged and new sculptures replaced the earlier ones, beginning in about 50 CE. The site is under the protection of the Archaeological Survey of India, and includes the "stūpa" itself and the Archaeological Museum.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: The surviving important sculptures from the site are now in a number of museums in India and abroad; many are considerably damaged. The great majority of sculptures are in relief, and the surviving sculptures do not include very large iconic Buddha figures, although it is clear these once existed. The largest collections are the group in the Government Museum, Chennai, that in the Amaravati Archaeological Museum, and the group in the British Museum in London. Others are given below.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: Art historians regard the art of Amaravati as one of the three major styles or schools of ancient Indian art, the other two being the Mathura style, and the Gandharan style. Largely because of the maritime trading links of the East Indian coast, the Amaravati school or Andhran style of sculpture, seen in a number of sites in the region, had great influence on art in South India, Sri Lanka and South-East Asia.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: Like other major early Indian stupas, but to an unusual extent, the Amaravarti sculptures include several representations of the stupa itself, which although they differ, partly reflecting the different stages of building, give a good idea of its original appearance, when it was for some time "the greatest monument in Buddhist Asia", and "the jewel in the crown of early Indian art".


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: The name Amaravathi is relatively modern, having been applied to the town and site after the Amareśvara Liṅgasvāmin temple was built in the eighteenth century. The ancient settlement, just next to the modern Amaravathi village, is now called Dharanikota; this was a significant place in ancient times, probably a capital city. The oldest maps and plans, drawn by Colin Mackenzie and dated 1816, label the "stūpa" simply as the "deepaladimma" or 'hill of lights'. The monument was not called a "stūpa" in ancient inscriptions, but rather the "mahācetiya" or great sanctuary.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: The stupa, or "mahāchetiya", was possibly founded in the third century BCE in the time of Asoka but there is no decisive evidence for the date of foundation. The earliest inscription from the site belongs to the early centuries BCE but it cannot be assigned to Aśoka with certainty. The earliest phase from which we have architectural or sculpted remains seems to be post-Mauryan, from the 2nd century BCE.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: The main construction phases of Amaravati fall in two main periods, with the stupa enlarged in the second by additions to the main solid earth mound, faced with brick, consisting of railings ("vedikā") and carved slabs placed around the "stūpa" proper. As elsewhere these slabs are usually called 'drum slabs' because they were placed round the vertical lower part or "drum" (tholobate) of the "stūpa". In the early period (circa 200-100 BCE), the "stūpa" had a simple railing consisting of granite pillars, with plain cross-bars, and coping stones. The coping stones with youths and animal reliefs, the early drum slabs, and some other early fragments belong to this period. The "stūpa" must have been fairly large at this time, considering the size of the granite pillars (some of which are still seen "in situ", following excavations).


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: The late period of construction started around ca. 50 BCE and continued until circa 250 CE. The exterior surfaces of the stupa and the railings were in effect all new, with the old elements reused or discarded. James Burgess in his book of 1887 on the site, noted that:wherever one digs at the back of the outer rail, broken slabs, statues &etc, are found jammed in behind it. The dark slate slabs too of the procession path are laid on a sort of concrete formed of marble chips, broken slabs, pillars &etc ...


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: At the base the dome seems to have been brought out by 2.4 metres all round, the distance between the outer face of the old drum wall, and that of the new one. The older wall was 2.4 metres thick and the new one 1.2 metres. The size and shape of the new dome is uncertain.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: The earlier "vedika" railings were also replaced with larger ones, with more sculpture. Some of the old stones were recycled elsewhere on the site. The pillars had mostly been plain, but there was a coping carved in relief at the top. Burgess estimated that the new railings were some 3 metres tall, 59 metres in diameter, with 136 pillars and 348 crossbars, running for 803 feet in total.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: The work of this period has generally been divided into three phases on the basis of the styles and content of the railing sculpture and so dates that can be assigned to parts of the great limestone railing. Shimada dates the first phase to 50-1 BCE, about the same period as the Sanchi "stūpa" I gateways. The second phase is 50-100 CE, the same period as Karli "chaitya" and the Pandavleni Caves (no. 3 and 10) at Nasik. The third phase is circa 200-250 CE based on comparisons with Nagarjunakonda sculpture. Some other types of sculpture belong to an even later time, about the seventh or eighth centuries, and include standing Bodhisattvas and goddesses. Amaravātī continued to be active after this time, probably to about the thirteenth century.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: The Chinese traveller and Buddhist monk Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang) visited Amaravati in 640 CE, stayed for some time and studied the "Abhidhammapitakam". He wrote a enthusiastic account of the place, and the viharas and monasteries there. It was still mentioned in Sri Lanka and Tibet as a centre of Esoteric Buddhism as late as the 14th century.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: During the period of the decline of Buddhism in India, the stupa was neglected and was buried under rubble and grass. A 14th-century inscription in Sri Lanka mentions repairs made to the stupa, and after that it was forgotten. The stupa is related to the Vajrayana teachings of Kalachakra, still practiced today in Tibetan Buddhism. The Dalai Lama of Tibet conducted a Kalachakra initiation at this location in 2006, attended by over 100,000 pilgrims.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: Westerners were first alerted to the ruins of the Stupa at Amaravati after a visit in 1797 by Major Colin Mackenzie. On the right bank of the Krishna River in the Andhra district of southeast India, Mackenzie came across a huge Buddhist construction built of bricks and faced with slabs of limestone. By the time he returned in 1816, indiscriminate excavations led by the powerful local zamindar Vasireddy Venkatadri Nayudu had already destroyed what remained of the structure and many of the stones and bricks had been reused to build local houses. Mackenzie carried out further excavations, recorded what he saw and drew a plan of the stupa.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: In 1845, Sir Walter Elliot of the Madras Civil Service explored the area around the stupa and excavated near the west gate of the railing, removing many sculptures to Madras (now Chennai). They were kept outside the local college before being transported to the Madras Museum. At this time India was run by the East India Company and it was to that company that the curator of the museum appealed. The curator Dr Edward Balfour was concerned that the artefacts were deteriorating so in 1853 he started to raise a case for them to be moved. Elliot seems to have made extensive notes and sketches of his excavations, but most of these were lost getting back to England.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: By 1855, he had arranged for both photographs and drawings to be made of the artifacts, now called the "Elliot Marbles". 75 photographs taken by Captain Linnaeus Tripe are now in the British Library. Many of the sculptures were exported to London in 1859, though more remained in Madras. Robert Sewell, under James Burgess, first Director of the Archaeological Survey of India, made further excavations in the 1880s, recording his excavations in some detail with drawings and sketches but not in the detail that would now be expected.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: Plans have also been put in place to create a purpose built exhibition space for the sculptures still in India. Those marbles not in an air-conditioned store were said to show signs of damage from the atmosphere and salt. The Chennai museum has plans for an air-conditioned gallery to install the sculptures, but these goals have yet to be realised.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: The history of the sculptures for the stupa is complicated and scholarly understanding of it is still developing. The subject matter of many detailed narrative reliefs is still unidentified, and many reliefs of the first main phase round the drum were turned round in the second, and recarved on their previously plain backs, before being re-mounted on the drum. The earlier sculptures, now invisible and facing into the stupa, were often badly abraded or worn down in this position.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: In the final form of the stupa, it seems that all the sculpture of the early phase was eventually replaced, and new sculpture added in positions where there had been none before, giving a profusion of sculpture, both relief and free-standing, on the stupa itself, and the "vedika" railings and gateways surrounding it, making Amaravati "the most richly decorated stupa known".


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: The final form of the railings had a diameter of 192 feet. The railing uprights were some 9 feet high, with three rounded cross-bars horizontally between them, and a coping at the top. Both uprights and cross-bars were decorated with round medallion or tondo reliefs, the latter slightly larger, and containing the most impressive surviving sculpture. Large numbers of the medallions contained just a single stylized lotus flower. The vedika had four entrances, at the cardinal directions, and here the railings turned to run away from the stupa.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: All this is much the same as at Sanchi, the surviving highly decorated stupa that is in the closest to its original condition. But the Sanchi railings have much less decoration, except around the famous torana gateways; these do not seem to have been a feature at Amaravati.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: Very little of the sculpture was found and properly recorded in its original exact location, but the broad arrangement of the different types of pieces is generally agreed. The many representations of a stupa, either representing the Amaravati Stupa itself, or an imaginary one very similar to it, provide a useful guide. It is not certain whether either the early or late phases of sculptural decoration were ever completed, as too much has been destroyed. Most survivals can be fitted into groups, by architectural function and placement.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: A typical "drum-slab" is about 124 centimetres high, 86 cm wide and 12.5 cm thick. A two-sided example in the British Museum is dated by them to the 1st century BCE for the obverse face, with a scene of worshippers around the Bodhi Tree with no Buddha shown, and 3rd century CE for the reverse face, with a view of a stupa, which large numbers of the later drum-slabs show. The stupas are broadly consistent and are generally taken to show what the late form of the Amaravati Stupa looked like, or was intended to.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: The early railing pillars are in granite (apparently only on the east and west sides) and plain; the cross-bars were perhaps in limestone. Many stumps of the pillars are now arranged around the stupa. Fragments have been found of limestone coping stones, some with reliefs of running youths and animals, similar in style to those at Bharhut, so perhaps from c. 150-100 BCE. This subject-matter continued in the coping stones of the first phase of the later railings.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: The later "railing copings" (uṣṇīṣa) are long pieces typically about 75 to 90 cm tall and 20 to 28 cm thick, running along the top of the railings (where perhaps their detail was hard to make out). Many are carved with crowded scenes, often illustrating Jataka tales from the previous lives of the Buddha. The early coping stones were smaller and mostly carved with a thick undulating garland with small figures within its curves.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: There was also a much smaller set of limestone railings, undecorated, whose placing and function remains unclear. The later ones, in limestone, are carved with round lotus medallions, and sometimes panels with figurative reliefs, these mostly on the sides facing in towards the stupa. There are three medallions to a column, the bottom one incomplete. Based on the style of the sculpture the construction of the later railing is usually divided into three phases, growing somewhat in size and the complexity of the images.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: Around the entrances there were a number of columns, pillars and pilasters, some topped with figures of sitting lions, a symbol of Buddhism. Several of these have survived. There are also small pilasters at the side of some other reliefs, especially drum-slabs showing stupas. The stupas on drum-slabs show large statues of a standing Buddha behind the entrances, but none of these have survived. Only a few fragments from the garland decorations shown high on the dome in drum-slab stupa depictions (one in Chennai is illustrated).


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: Amaravati itself is the most important site for a distinct regional style, called the Amaravati School or style, or Andrhan style. There are numerous other sites, many beyond the boundaries of the modern state of Andhra Pradesh. One reason for the use of the terms Amaravati School or style is that the actual find-spot of many Andhran pieces is uncertain or unknown. The early excavations at Amaravati itself were not well recorded, and the subsequent history of many pieces is uncertain. As late as the 1920s and beyond, other sites were the subject of "excavations" that were sometimes little better than treasure hunts, with pieces sold abroad as "Amaravati School".


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: The second most important site for the style is Nagarjunakonda, some 160 km away. This was a large monastic vihara or "university", which is now submerged under a lake, after construction of a dam. Many remains were relocated to what is now an island in the lake, but most sculptures are now in various museums, in India and abroad. The Chandavaram Buddhist site is another large stupa.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: In reliefs, the mature Amaravati style is characterised by crowded scenes of "graceful, elongated figures who imbue the sculpted scenes with a sense of life and action that is unique in Indian art"; "decorative elements reach a suave richness never surpassed... In the narrative scenes, the deep cutting permits overlapping figures on two or even three planes, the figures appearing to be fully in the round. The superlative beauty of the individual bodies and the variety of poses, many realizing new possibilities of depicting the human form, as well as the swirling rhythms of the massed compositions, all combine to produce some of the most glorious reliefs in world art".


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: Though the subject matter is similar to that at Bharhut and Sanchi "the style is notably different. Compared with the northern works, their figures are more attenuated and sensual, their decoration more abundant. Empty space is anathema, so that the entire surface is filled with figures in motion".


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: In earlier phases, before about 180-200 CE, the Buddha himself is not shown, as also in other Indian schools. Unlike other major sites, minor differences in the depiction of narratives show that the exact textual sources used remain unclear, and have probably not survived.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: Especially in the later period at Amaravati itself, the main relief scenes are "a sort of 'court art'", showing a great interest in scenes of court life "reflecting the luxurious life of the upper class, rich, and engaged in the vibrant trade with many parts of India and the wider world, including Rome".


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: Free-standing statues are mostly of the standing Buddha, wearing a monastic robe "organized in an ordered rhythm of lines undulating obliquely across the body and imparting a feeling of movement as well as reinforcing the swelling expansiveness of the form beneath". There is a "peculiarly characteristic" large fold at the bottom of the robe, one of a number of features similar to the Kushan art of the north.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: From the 19th century, it was always thought that the stupa was built under the Satavahana dynasty, rulers of the Deccan whose territories eventually straddled both east and west coasts. However, this did not resolve the dating issues, as the dates of that dynasty were uncertain, especially at the start. Recently there has been more attention paid to the preceding local Sada dynasty, perhaps tributaries of the Mahameghavahana dynasty ruling Kalinga to the north. Their capital was probably Dhanyakataka; the stupa was just outside this.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: Since the 1980s, the dynasty has been given this name as all the names of kings from it, known from coins and inscriptions, end in "-sada" (as all from the later Gupta dynasty end in that). They perhaps began to rule around 20 BCE. Their coins nearly all have a standing lion, often with symbols that are very likely Buddhist. Shimada suggests that much or most of the sculpture at Amaravati was created under Sada rule, before the Satavahanas took over in the 2nd century CE, possibly around 100 CE.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: At the later end of the chronology, the local Andhra Ikshvaku ruled after the Satavahanas and before the Gupta Empire, in the 3rd and early 4th centuries, perhaps starting 325-340.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: This album of drawings of Amarāvati is a landmark in the history of archaeology in India. The pictures were made in 1816 and 1817 by a team of military surveyors and draftsmen under the direction of Colonel Colin Mackenzie (1757-1821), the first Surveyor-General of India.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: The album contains maps, plans and drawings of sculpture from the stūpa at Amarāvati. The album is preserved in the British Library, where it is online, with a second copy in Kolkata.


title: Amaravati Stupa

text: Apart from those in the site museum (some of which are casts), nearly all of the sculptures have been removed from the site of the stupa. Some pieces, especially from the early granite railing pillars, and lotus flower medallions, are placed around the stupa itself. Apart from the museum at the site, several museums across India and around the world have specimens from Amarāvati. The largest collections are the group in the Government Museum, Chennai, and the group in the British Museum in London. Significant collections of sculpture are held in the following places:


title: Pragya Singh Thakur

text: Pragya Singh Thakur (born 2 February 1970), better known as Sadhvi Pragya, is an Indian politician and Member of Parliament representing Bhopal and belonging to the Bharatiya Janata Party. During her college days, she was an active member of Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad (ABVP) and later joined various affiliate organisations of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS).


title: Pragya Singh Thakur

text: She is an accused in the 2008 Malegaon bombings where 10 people were killed and 82 more were injured. She was arrested on terror charges after her bike was found to be used in the bomb blast. She is currently under trial for multiple charges under the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act. In 2017 she was granted bail on health grounds following the dropping of some of the serious charges by the National Investigation Agency.


title: Pragya Singh Thakur

text: Thakur contested the 2019 Indian general election from Bhopal constituency, running against Digvijaya Singh of the Indian National Congress, the former Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh. She won her debut contest by a margin of votes. According to political scientist Christophe Jaffrelot, she has become the "symbol" of the 2019 election, in which nebulous fringe elements of the Hindutva ideology became mainstream.


title: Pragya Singh Thakur

text: On 21 November 2019 Sadhvi Pragya Singh Thakur was made a part of the 21-member parliamentary consultative committee on defence, which is headed by Defence Minister Rajnath Singh. After her comment in parliament, where she called Nathuram Godse (Gandhi's assassin) a patriot, she was criticised by opposition party members. On 28 November, she was removed from the committee on defence as well as BJP parliamentary party meetings.


title: Pragya Singh Thakur

text: Thakur was born on 2 February 1970. Her father, Chandrapal Singh, was an Ayurvedic practitioner in Bhind, Madhya Pradesh and a worker of Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh. She had been a tomboy since her childhood, keeping her hair short, and dressing like a boy. She was often called 'the girl with boyish looks'. She loved riding bikes. It was a motorcycle registered on her name which led to her arrest in connection with the Malegaon blasts.


title: Pragya Singh Thakur

text: Cardiothoracic and vascular surgeon Dr. S. S. Rajput of the Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Institute of Medical Sciences, Lucknow said that Thakur underwent a bilateral mastectomy to prevent recurrence of her cancer in 2008, stating he had operated on her three times. She had been operated twice to surgically remove both her breasts to cure her breast cancer. She was criticised for saying that her breast cancer got cured because of using cow urine and Panchagavya.


title: Pragya Singh Thakur

text: Thakur studied at Lahar College (Bhind), where, in 1993, she joined Akhil Bhartiya Vidyarthi Parishad (ABVP), the student wing of the Sangh Parivar. She subsequently rose to the position of state secretary and left this organisation in 1997. After that, she worked for Rashtrawadi Sena and the Hindu Jagran Manch. She was also a member of Durga Vahini, women's wing of Hindu organisation Bajrang Dal. She is also a founder member of Vande Mataram Jan Kalyan Samiti, which is an organisation connected to the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh and belongs to the Sangh Parivar.


title: Pragya Singh Thakur

text: Thakur joined the Bharatiya Janata Party on 17 April 2019 and was declared as the BJP candidate for Bhopal Lok Sabha constituency for 2019 elections. Thakur was in the news for saying that Mumbai former ATS chief Hemant Karkare died in 2008 Mumbai attacks because she cursed him for giving her bad treatment in jail after her arrest in 2008 blasts. BJP leader Fatima Rasool Siddique said her communal and obnoxious remarks have tarnished the image of Shivraj Singh Chouhan and Muslims and she will not campaign for Thakur. Election Commission of India directed the police to file an FIR against Thakur for her Babri Masjid remark that she participated in demolition of the Babri Masjid at Ayodhya in 1992. The Election Commission later banned her for 72 hours from campaigning for violating the Model Code of Conduct by stirring up communal feelings. She was later criticised by BJP party leaders for saying that the killer of Mahatma Gandhi, Nathuram Godse was and always will be a patriot. Nevertheless, Thakur won the election by a margin of votes defeating opposing candidate Digvijaya Singh, a two-time Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh. According to political scientist Christophe Jaffrelot, she has become the "symbol" of the 2019 election, in which nebulous fringe elements of the Hindutva ideology have been mainstreamised.


title: Pragya Singh Thakur

text: On 21 November 2019 Sadhvi Pragya Singh Thakur has been made a part of the 21-member parliamentary consultative committee on defence, which is headed by Defence Minister Rajnath Singh. After her comment in parliament, where she called Nathuram Godse (Gandhi's assassin) a patriot, she was criticised by opposition party members. On 28 November, she was sacked from the committee on defence as well as BJP parliamentary party meetings.


title: Pragya Singh Thakur

text: Following the 2008 Malegaon bombings, in which six people were killed and over 100 injured, Thakur was arrested as one of the prime accused in October 2008 under terrorism charges.


title: Pragya Singh Thakur

text: Mumbai's Anti Terrorist Squad (ATS) claimed that Thakur formed a group to take revenge for the 2006 Mumbai train bombings and that her motorcycle was used in the bomb blast. This motorcycle was a key evidence in the arrest of Thakur.


title: Pragya Singh Thakur

text: On 19 January 2009, Maharashtra Police filed a 4000-page charge sheet for the Malegaon blasts. According to this charge sheet, Lt Col Prasad Purohit was claimed to be the main conspirator who provided the explosives and Thakur arranged the persons who planted the explosive. It was claimed that on 11 April 2008, Thakur and Purohit met in Bhopal wherein both agreed for co-operation in carrying out the blast. However, the charges framed against the Maharashtra Control of Organised Crime Act were dropped for Thakur in July 2009 because Thakur was not proven to be a member of this organised crime syndicate.


title: Pragya Singh Thakur

text: Swami Aseemanand in his on-camera confessions named Thakur as one of the key conspirators in the 2008 Malegaon, Ajmer Dargah, and Samjhauta Express terror blasts.


title: Pragya Singh Thakur

text: Thakur had challenged the Bombay High court order of 12 March 2010 rejecting her plea for bail, contending that her arrest violated the mandate of Article 22(1) and 22(2) of the Constitution and also on the ground that no charge sheet was filed within 90 days as contemplated by Section 167(2) of the Code of Criminal Procedure. She contended that she was arrested by the Maharashtra Police's Anti-Terrorism Squad (ATS) from Surat on 10 October 2008, but was brought before the magistrate on 24 October, and thus was in illegal detention for 14 days which violated Article 22(2). On 23 September 2011, the Supreme Court dismissed the bail plea. Dismissing her plea, the bench of Justice JM Panchal and Justice HL Gokhale said "The appellant's contention that she was arrested on October 10, 2008, and was in police custody since then is found to be factually incorrect by this Court. The appellant was arrested only on October 23, 2008, and within 24 hours thereof, on October 24, 2008, she was produced before the Chief Judicial Magistrate, Nasik. As such, there is no violation of either Article 22(2) of the Constitution or Section 167 of Cr.PC."


title: Pragya Singh Thakur

text: In 2012 she also filed an application for bail in the Bombay High Court on health grounds, claiming that she has been diagnosed with third-stage breast cancer. On 9 August 2012, she, however, withdrew her application.


title: Pragya Singh Thakur

text: In April 2017, she was granted bail by the Bombay High Court on health grounds, following the dropping of charges in under the MCOCA section by the Special National Investigation Agency. She is currently under trial for multiple charges under the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act.


title: Pragya Singh Thakur

text: Thakur has made, directly or indirectly, several claims about ill-treatment in prison. In August 2014, the Human Rights Commission ordered a probe into Thakur's allegations of torture while in police custody. Subsequently, the case of torture was closed as the panel did not find any evidence to support these claims.


title: Pragya Singh Thakur

text: In December 2020, while addressing a gathering of Kshatriya Mahasabha Thakur made a controversial remark. She said that Brahmins don't feel bad when called "Brahmin", so do Kshatriyas and Vaishyas. But Shudras do not like to be called as "Shudra" because of ignorance, they are "unable to understand".


title: Pragya Singh Thakur

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic in 2021, Thakur made public remarks addressing BJP party workers in Bhopal claiming that drinking cow urine helps infected people heal from the effects of the virus. "I consumed cow urine daily and it is a kind of acid which purifies my body. It also purifies the lungs and saves me from COVID-19 infection. I don’t take any medicine against corona but I am safe." The purported benefits of drinking cow urine have no scientific backing.


title: Pragya Singh Thakur

text: During the 2022 Karnataka hijab row defending the ban on hijab, Thakur said that there is "no need to wear hijab anywhere" and that only those who are "not safe in their houses need to wear Hijab". She also said that there is no need to were a hijab when in the company of the Hindu community, especially at educational institutions.


title: Pragya Singh Thakur

text: She also stated her support for Nupur Sharma for the latter's controversial remarks on Prophet Muhammad.


title: Dungeness

text: Dungeness () is a headland on the coast of Kent, England, formed largely of a shingle beach in the form of a cuspate foreland. It shelters a large area of low-lying land, Romney Marsh. Dungeness spans Dungeness Nuclear Power Station, the hamlet of Dungeness, and an ecological site at the same location. It lies within the civil parish of Lydd.


title: Dungeness

text: Dungeness's name means "the headland at Denge", referring to nearby Denge Marsh. The marsh is first mentioned in 774 as "Dengemersc". Its name may mean "marsh of the pasture district", from Old English "denn *gē mersc", or else "marsh with manured land", from Old English "dyncge mersc".


title: Dungeness

text: Dungeness is one of the largest expanses of shingle in Europe. It is of international conservation importance for its geomorphology, plant and invertebrate communities and bird life. This is recognised and protected mostly through its conservation designations as a national nature reserve (NNR), a Special Protection Area (SPA), a Special Area of Conservation (SAC) and part of the Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) of Dungeness, Romney Marsh and Rye Bay.


title: Dungeness

text: There is a remarkable variety of wildlife living at Dungeness, with over 600 different types of plants: a third of all those found in Britain. It is one of the best places in Britain to find invertebrates such as moths, bees, beetles, and spiders; many of these are very rare, some found nowhere else in Britain.


title: Dungeness

text: The short-haired bumblebee, "Bombus subterraneus", was last found in the UK in 1988 but has survived in New Zealand after being shipped there more than 100 years ago. After unsuccessful attempts to reintroduce the New Zealand bees at Dungeness in 2009–2010, the Bumblebee Conservation Trust, Hymettus, Natural England and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds teamed up with the Swedish government in a second attempt and introduced 51 of them in 2012 and 49 in 2013 to the Dungeness Reserve. This will be continued each year to ensure a successful integration.


title: Dungeness

text: The flooded gravel pits on Denge Beach, both brackish and fresh water, provide an important refuge for many migratory and coastal bird species. The RSPB has a bird reserve there, and every year thousands of bird watchers visit the peninsula and its bird observatory.


title: Dungeness

text: One of the most remarkable features of the site is an area known as "the patch" or, by anglers, as "the boil". The waste hot water from the Dungeness nuclear power stations is pumped into the sea through two outfall pipes, enriching the biological productivity of the sea bed and attracting seabirds from miles around.


title: Dungeness

text: Beach fishing is popular at Dungeness, with the area being a nationally recognised cod fishing venue in the winter.


title: Dungeness

text: The Dungeness area will potentially be affected by plans to lengthen the runway of Lydd Airport to accommodate larger passenger jets.


title: Dungeness

text: It has previously been reported that Dungeness had such low rainfall as to qualify as the only desert in the UK. However, a spokesperson for the Met Office refuted this in 2015.


title: Dungeness

text: The climate in Dungeness is mild and generally warm and temperate. There is significant rainfall throughout the year. The average annual temperature is . Precipitation averages annually. The Köppen Climate Classification subtype for this climate is "" (Marine West Coast Climate/Oceanic climate).


title: Dungeness

text: There have been seven lighthouses at Dungeness, five high and two low, with the fifth high one still fully operational today. At first, only a beacon was used to warn sailors, but this was replaced by a wooden lighthouse in 1615 which was tall. As the sea retreated, this had to be replaced in 1635 by a new lighthouse nearer to the water's edge known as Lamplough's Tower which was around 110 ft high.


title: Dungeness

text: As more shingle was thrown up, a new and more up-to-date lighthouse was built near the sea in 1792 by Samuel Wyatt. This lighthouse was high and of the same design as the third Eddystone Lighthouse. From the mid-19th century, it was painted black with a white band to make it more visible in daylight; similar colours have featured on the subsequent lighthouses here. This lighthouse was demolished in 1904, but the lighthouse keepers' accommodation, built in a circle around the base of the tower, still exists.


title: Dungeness

text: In 1901 building of the fourth lighthouse, the High Light Tower, started. It was first lit on 31 March 1904 and still stands today. It is no longer in use as a lighthouse but is open as a visitor attraction. It is a circular brick structure, high and in diameter at ground level. It has 169 steps and gives visitors a good view of the shingle beach.


title: Dungeness

text: As the sea receded further, and after building the nuclear power station which obscured the light of the 1904 lighthouse, a fifth lighthouse, Dungeness Lighthouse was built.


title: Dungeness

text: There are two nuclear power stations at Dungeness, identified as "A" and "B", the first built in 1965 and the second in 1983. They are within a wildlife sanctuary designated a Site of Special Scientific Interest, and birds flourish in the warmer water created by the station's outflow.


title: Dungeness

text: The older power station closed on 31 December 2006, while the current owner EDF Energy announced in June 2021 that the newer station would not resume operations, which had halted in September 2018, and would move into the defuelling phase with immediate effect.


title: Dungeness

text: There is a public visitors centre, and tours of "B" station are available. Tours were stopped in 2001, and the visitor centre subsequently closed in 2003, in the wake of the September 11 attacks. EDF opened a new visitor centre in 2013 and resumed tours, albeit with new security procedures which have to be cleared some weeks in advance of visits.


title: Dungeness

text: In addition to the power station and lighthouse, there is a collection of dwellings. Most are wooden weatherboard beach houses, but there are also around 30 houses converted from old railway coaches in the 1920s. These houses are owned and occupied by fishermen whose boats lie on the beach. Closer to the main road, there is a large building – comprising five conjoined homes – previously tenanted by coastguards. There are more houses around the site of the power stations. There are two public houses: the Britannia and the Pilot, the latter being served by the Pilot Inn railway station from 1928 to 1977. Fresh seafood can be purchased from several outlets across the shingle.


title: Dungeness

text: A notable house is Prospect Cottage, formerly owned by the late artist and film director Derek Jarman. The cottage is painted black, with a poem, part of John Donne's "The Sunne Rising", written on one side in black lettering. The garden, reflecting the bleak, windswept landscape of the peninsula, is made of pebbles, driftwood, scrap metal and a few hardy plants.


title: Dungeness

text: Dungeness is accessible by two roads, one along the coast from New Romney to the north, and another from Lydd to the north-west. Both roads converge near the Pilot public house, from where a single road runs a mile (1.6 km) south to the tip of Dungeness.


title: Dungeness

text: Dungeness is also served by the Romney, Hythe and Dymchurch Railway, a gauge light railway that covers the distance from Hythe. The line, which had opened to New Romney in 1927, was extended to Dungeness station a year later. It still provides a service for tourists.


title: Dungeness

text: The peninsula has a second, standard gauge railway, but this is now truncated at Lydd and only used to carry waste from the power stations. It formerly linked Dungeness (and, via a separate branch, New Romney) to a junction with the Marshlink Line at Appledore. The Dungeness section was closed to passengers on 4 July 1937 and it was truncated to Lydd on 6 March 1967.


title: Dungeness

text: Lydd Airport, sometimes known as London Ashford Airport, lies just to the north-west of Dungeness. Despite opposition, largely due to its proximity to the unique landscape of Dungeness, the airport received permission in 2014 to extend its runway to allow it to handle fully loaded aircraft up to the size of a Boeing 737 or Airbus A319.


title: Dungeness

text: The beach and marshes have been used for military training and include marked "danger areas". In World War I Lydd Camp was here.


title: Dungeness

text: Denge, a former Royal Air Force site at the northern edge of the Dungeness headland, is the site of a set of acoustic mirrors, known as the "Listening Ears". Built between 1928 and 1930, the three massive concrete structures formed an experimental early warning system that aimed to detect invading aircraft by focusing sound waves. The site was chosen as being one of the quietest in Britain. Their different forms are evidence of their experimental nature; they were not particularly effective and were abandoned when radar became available. The site is now managed by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds.


title: Dungeness

text: In 1944, some of the world's first underwater oil pipelines were laid between Dungeness and France in Operation Pluto. The lines from Dungeness were part of a network called "Dumbo" and ran to Ambleteuse in France.


title: Dungeness

text: Dungeness appears quite often in music videos, album covers and adverts. It featured on the cover of Pink Floyd's 1981 album "A Collection of Great Dance Songs". British band The Soup Dragons shot the videos for their top 5 1990 hit '"I'm Free", and follow-up top 20 1991 hit "Mother Universe" on Dungeness; and there have also been several photo shoots by the band in the area.


title: Dungeness

text: The shingle beach and fishermen's shacks feature extensively in the Lighthouse Family promotional video for their 1998 song "High". The acoustic mirror at Dungeness is featured on the cover of the album "Ether Song" by the British indie band Turin Brakes. Dungeness appears on the covers of albums as diverse as "So much for the city" by The Thrills and "Aled" by Aled Jones. The Prodigy's single "Invaders Must Die" video was filmed here and shows both the acoustic mirrors and the lighthouse. In 2011, the music video for the song Walk the River by British band Guillemots was filmed on the headland. In 2012, Nicki Minaj's single Freedom was filmed on the beach and with the acoustic mirrors. The music video for Lithuanian DJ Ten Walls' hit single "Walking With Elephants" was shot on the headland and in the surrounding sea and featured many of the areas prominent landmarks. In 2016, The Wholls also filmed the music video for their single "X21". In 2020, the music video for Nothing But Thieves's single Impossible was partly filmed on the beach.


title: Dungeness

text: Athlete have a song on the album "Vehicles and Animals" called "Dungeness" which is about the area. Get Cape. Wear Cape. Fly mentions Dungeness and the lighthouse in his song "Lighthouse Keeper". The Kent-based hardcore punk band November Coming Fire released a 2006 album entitled "Dungeness", featuring a track called "Powerstation" which included a recording of waves on the beach, and Scottish folk band Trembling Bells named their album "Dungeness" too.


title: Dungeness

text: In television, the Dungeness landscape, the lighthouse and the power station have been used on digital channel E4 at the beginning and end of advertising breaks. It was used as a backdrop for the ITV drama "The Poison Tree". It featured in an episode of the BBC detective serial "The Inspector Lynley Mysteries" and in March 2007 was the setting for a major part of an "EastEnders" special. The BBC filmed episodes of "Doctor Who" in Dungeness during the 1970s. The 1981 fantasy film "Time Bandits" shot its "Time of Legends" sequence on the beach, and Dungeness was used to film a scene in Danny Boyle's "Trance".


title: Dungeness

text: Much of the Michael Winterbottom's 1998 film "I Want You" was set in and around Dungeness: the lead character's home was one of the wooden beach huts. The Derek Jarman avant-garde 1990 film "The Garden" was set and filmed in Dungeness.


title: Lincoln Continental Mark IV

text: The Continental Mark IV is a personal luxury car that was marketed by the Lincoln division of Ford Motor Company from the 1972 to 1976 model years. The third generation of the Mark series, the Mark IV grew in size over its Continental Mark III predecessor. As with the previous generation, the Mark IV saw little direct competition in the American marketplace, competing nearly exclusively against the Cadillac Eldorado (redesigned for 1971).


title: Lincoln Continental Mark IV

text: As with the Mark III, the Mark IV shared its chassis with the Ford Thunderbird, with the Mark IV receiving its own bodywork below the windows. Hidden headlights made their return, along with a radiator-style grille, and a Continental spare tire trunklid. For 1976, the Designer Series option package was introduced; in what would become a tradition for the Mark series (and later Lincoln), the option consisted of specially coordinated exterior and interior trims developed between Lincoln and contemporary fashion designers.


title: Lincoln Continental Mark IV

text: Ford assembled the Continental Mark IV at its Wixom Assembly Plant (Wixom, Michigan) facility alongside the Ford Thunderbird and the Lincoln Continental. For 1977, the Mark IV underwent a substantial revision, becoming the Continental Mark V.


title: Lincoln Continental Mark IV

text: Following the successful redesign of the Lincoln Continental for the 1970 model year, Ford Motor Company chose an evolutionary design path for the successor of the Continental Mark III. With designers again using sharp-edged fenders, hidden headlamps, and a tall radiator-style grille, the Continental Mark IV retained the traditional "long-hood, short deck" coupe proportions of the Mark III along with its "Continental spare tire" decklid. The spare tire was actually stored on a ledge in the trunk on top of the gas tank, immediately behind the rear seat.


title: Lincoln Continental Mark IV

text: In a cost-cutting move, however, Ford Motor Company forced the Mark IV to increase parts commonality with the Ford Thunderbird; while the roofline, doors, and inner body panels were shared, the Mark IV and Thunderbird still were given different outer body panels below the roofline and different interiors. In a major break from American luxury car tradition, the rear wheel openings of the Mark IV were designed at the same height as the front wheels (similar to the 1966-1970 Oldsmobile Toronado); its large fender flares precluded the use of fender skirts.


title: Lincoln Continental Mark IV

text: In 1973, the front bodywork underwent a major redesign, necessitated by the addition of 5 mph bumpers; in various forms, the front body style would be seen on Continentals and Lincolns until 1989. For 1974, a 5 mph bumper was added to the rear body work, moving the taillights from the bumper into the rear bodywork.


title: Lincoln Continental Mark IV

text: All Mark IVs were equipped with a vinyl roof. The Mark IV introduced the opera window to the Mark series, a feature that would be featured in the Mark through the discontinuation of the Mark VI after 1983. For 1972, it was an almost universally specified option, becoming standard for 1973.


title: Lincoln Continental Mark IV

text: All Mark IVs were equipped with the -4V Ford 385 series 16-valve V8 ("4V" is in reference to the 4-venturi Autolite carburetor). Rated at 365 hp (gross)in the Mark III, the 460 was carried over to the Mark IV. For 1972, rated output underwent a numeric decrease to 212 hp. In order to comply with changing EPA emissions regulations, Ford was required to decrease the compression ratio of the engine. The same year, American auto manufacturers adopted SAE net horsepower as its standard of measuring engine output, to better reflect real-world engine performance (as installed in vehicles). All examples of the Mark IV were equipped with a Ford C6 three-speed automatic transmission.


title: Lincoln Continental Mark IV

text: A feature retained from the Mark III was "Sure-track" brakes. Both front seats were power adjustable.


title: Lincoln Continental Mark IV

text: Performance was not competitive with contemporary premium personal luxury cars. However, no other "personal luxury" models were six-passenger vehicles, except the Cadillac Eldorado.


title: Lincoln Continental Mark IV

text: For 1976, to attract further interest to the Mark IV in its final model year, Lincoln-Mercury introduced the "Designer Series" special-edition option package. Developed entirely for appearance purposes, the four versions of the Designer Series were styled through the consultation of notable fashion designers of the time (Bill Blass, Cartier, Givenchy, and Pucci); each version featured an individually coordinated exterior and interior color combination with specific trim and interior fabrics. In addition, the opera window was fitted with the signature of the corresponding designer, a 22-karat gold-plated dashboard plaque (which could be engraved with the name of the original owner).


title: Lincoln Continental Mark IV

text: Along with pairing the model line with contemporary designers to attract wider interest in the model line, the Designer Series offered a level of customization (to a smaller extent) not seen since the era of coachbuilt vehicles (not seen in Lincolns since the Model L and Model K). Since the introduction of the Mark III, Cartier had been associated with the Mark series as the designer of the optional dashboard clock (standard on the Mark IV).


title: Lincoln Continental Mark IV

text: Following its successful use in the Mark IV, the Designer Series would return for successive generations of the Mark series (with the exception of the Lincoln Mark VIII). The Cartier edition would see the longest use; following its 1982 shift to the Lincoln Town Car, the edition served as its flagship trim through the 2003 model year.


title: Lincoln Continental Mark IV

text: For 2017, Lincoln introduced the Black Label series across its model line as a flagship trim. While not associated with fashion designers, the Black Label continues the use of a themed vehicle design, using a specially coordinated exterior and interior.


title: Shatrughna

text: Shatrughna () is a prince of Ayodhya, King of Madhupura and Vidisha, and a brother of Prince Rama in the Hindu epic "Ramayana". He is also known as "Ripudaman" (vanquisher of foes). He is the twin of Lakshmana. He is a loyalist of Bharata, just like Lakshmana is to Rama. According to the Valmiki Ramayana, Shatrughna is one aspect of the manifestation of Vishnu (Rama). Shatrughna also appears as the 412th name of Vishnu in the Vishnu Sahasranama of the Mahabharata.


title: Shatrughna

text: According to the "Ramayana", Rama is the seventh avatar of Vishnu, while Lakshmana, Shatrughna, and Bharata are the avatars of Sheshanaga, Panchajanya, and the Sudarshana Chakra respectively.


title: Shatrughna

text: Shatrughna was born to the king of Ayodhya, Dasharatha, and his third wife, Queen Sumitra, a princess of Kashi. Dasharatha's other two wives, Kaushalya and Kaikeyi, bore children who would be his half-brothers. Kaushalya had Rama and Kaikeyi had Bharata, who were Shatrughna's half-brothers. Shatrughna's twin brother was Lakshmana. Shatrughna was married to Shrutakirti, daughter of Kushadhwaja, Janaka's younger brother. Thus, Shrutakirti was Sita's cousin. They had two sons - Subahu and Shatrughati.


title: Shatrughna

text: When Rama was exiled, Shatrughna dragged Kaikeyi's old nurse Manthara (who was responsible for poisoning the queen's mind against Rama) and tried to kill her, but he was restrained by Bharata, who felt that Rama would not approve.


title: Shatrughna

text: Bharata went to Rama and asked him to come back to Ayodhya, but Rama refused. Bharata ruled Ayodhya from Nandigramam and was an excellent leader, acting as the very embodiment of dharma. Although Bharata was the king designate of Ayodhya during Rama's exile, it was Shatrughna who undertook of the administration of the whole kingdom during Rama's absence. Shatrughna was the only solace for the three queen mothers during the absence of Rama, Lakshmana, and Bharata from Ayodhya.


title: Shatrughna

text: Manthara appears only once in the "Ramayana" after Rama's banishment. Having been rewarded by Kaikeyi with costly clothing and jewels, she was walking in the palace gardens when Bharata and his half-brother Shatrughna came upon her. Seeing her, Shatrughna flew into a violent rage over Rama's banishment decided to attack her. Kaikeyi begged Bharata to save her, which he did, telling Shatrughna that it would be a sin to kill a woman, and that Rama would be furious with them both if he did such a thing. He relented and the brothers left, while Kaikeyi attempted to comfort Manthara.


title: Shatrughna

text: Although he played a relatively minor role in the "Ramayana", Shatrughna was important to the main story and goal of the epic. His chief exploit was the killing of Lavanasura, the demon King of Madhupura (Mathura), who was a nephew of Ravana, the King of Lanka, slain by Rama.


title: Shatrughna

text: Lavanasura was the son of Madhu, the pious demon-king after whom the city of Madhupura was named. Madhu's wife and Lavanusara's mother Kumbhini was a sister of Ravana. Lavanasura was holder of the divine "Trishula" (Trident) of Lord Shiva, and nobody was able to kill him or prevent him from committing sinful activities.


title: Shatrughna

text: Shatrughna begged Rama and his elder brothers to allow him the opportunity to serve them by killing Lavanasura. Shatrughna killed the demon with an arrow imbibed with the power of Vishnu. After Lavanasura's death, Rama crowned him King of Madhupura.


title: Shatrughna

text: After Rama, the seventh Avatar of Vishnu completed 11,000 years of perfectly pious rule upon earth, Shatrughna had divided his kingdom consisting of Madhupura and Vidisha between his sons Subahu and Shatrughati; and walked into the river Sarayu to return to his true and eternal Mahavishnu form. Bharata and Shatrughna followed him into the river and merged into Mahavishnu.


title: United States Secretary of Agriculture

text: The United States secretary of agriculture is the head of the United States Department of Agriculture. The position carries similar responsibilities to those of agriculture ministers in other governments.


title: United States Secretary of Agriculture

text: The department includes several organizations. The 297,000 mi (770,000 km) of national forests and grasslands are managed by the United States Forest Service. The safety of food produced and sold in the United States is ensured by the United States Food Safety and Inspection Service. The Food Stamp Program works with the states to provide food to low-income people.


title: United States Secretary of Agriculture

text: Secretary of Agriculture is a Level I position in the Executive Schedule, thus earning a salary of US$221,400, as of January 2021.


title: United States Secretary of Agriculture

text: Since February 24, 2021, the current secretary is Tom Vilsack, who had previously served as the 30th secretary of agriculture in the Obama administration.


title: United States Secretary of Agriculture

text: When the Department of Agriculture was established in 1862, its executive was a non-Cabinet position called the commissioner of agriculture. The commissioners of agriculture were:


title: United States Secretary of Agriculture

text: The position of secretary of agriculture was created when the department was elevated to Cabinet status in 1889. The following is a list of secretaries of agriculture, since the creation of the office in 1889.


title: Pneumocystis jirovecii

text: Pneumocystis jirovecii (previously "P. carinii") is a yeast-like fungus of the genus "Pneumocystis". The causative organism of "Pneumocystis" pneumonia, it is an important human pathogen, particularly among immunocompromised hosts. Prior to its discovery as a human-specific pathogen, "P. jirovecii" was known as "P. carinii".


title: Pneumocystis jirovecii

text: The complete lifecycles of any of the species of "Pneumocystis" are not known, but presumably all resemble the others in the genus. The terminology follows zoological terms, rather than mycological terms, reflecting the initial misdetermination as a protozoan parasite. It is an extracellular fungus. All stages are found in lungs and because they cannot be cultured "ex vivo", direct observation of living "Pneumocystis" is difficult. The trophozoite stage is thought to be equivalent to the so-called vegetative state of other species (such as "Schizosaccharomyces pombe"), which like "Pneumocystis", belong to the Taphrinomycotina branch of the fungal kingdom. The trophozoite stage is single-celled and appears amoeboid (multilobed) and closely associated with host cells. Globular cysts eventually form that have a thicker wall. Within these ascus-like cysts, eight spores form, which are released through rupture of the cyst wall. The cysts often collapse, forming crescent-shaped bodies visible in stained tissue. Whether meiosis takes place within the cysts, or what the genetic status is of the various cell types, is not known for certain.


title: Pneumocystis jirovecii

text: The lifecycle of "P. jirovecii" is thought to include both asexual and sexual phases. Asexual multiplication of haploid cells likely occurs by binary fission. The mode of sexual reproduction appears to be primary homothallism, a form of self-fertilization. The sexual phase takes place in the host's lungs. This phase is presumed to involve formation of a diploid zygote, followed by meiosis, and then production of an ascus containing the products of meiosis, eight haploid ascospores. The ascospores may be disseminated by airborne transmission to new hosts.


title: Pneumocystis jirovecii

text: "Pneumocystis" pneumonia is an important disease of immunocompromised humans, particularly patients with HIV, but also patients with an immune system that is severely suppressed for other reasons, for example, following a bone marrow transplant. In humans with a normal immune system, it is an extremely common silent infection.


title: Pneumocystis jirovecii

text: Identified by methenamine silver stain of lung tissue, type I pneumocytes, and type II pneumocytes over-replicate and damage alveolar epithelium, causing death by asphyxiation. Fluid leaks into alveoli, producing an exudate seen as honeycomb/cotton candy appearance on hematoxylin and eosin-stained slides. Drug of choice is trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole, pentamidine, or dapsone. In HIV patients, most cases occur when the CD4 count is below 200 cells per microliter.


title: Pneumocystis jirovecii

text: At first, the name "Pneumocystis carinii" was applied to the organisms found in both rats and humans, as the parasite was not yet known to be host-specific. In 1976, the name ""Pneumocystis jiroveci"" was proposed for the first time, to distinguish the organism found in humans from variants of "Pneumocystis" in other animals. The organism was named thus in honor of Czech parasitologist Otto Jirovec, who described "Pneumocystis" pneumonia in humans in 1952. After DNA analysis showed significant differences in the human variant, the proposal was made again in 1999 and has come into common use.


title: Pneumocystis jirovecii

text: The name was spelled according to the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, since the organism was believed to be a protozoan. After it became clear that it was a fungus, the name was changed to "Pneumocystis jirovecii", according to the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICNafp), which requires such names be spelled with double i ("ii").


title: Pneumocystis jirovecii

text: Both spellings are commonly used, but according to the ICNafp, "P. jirovecii" is correct. A change in the ICNafp now recognizes the validity of the 1976 publication, making the 1999 proposal redundant, and cites "Pneumocystis" and "P. jiroveci" as examples of the change in ICN Article 45, Ex 7. The name "P. jiroveci" is typified (both lectotypified and epitypified) by samples from human autopsies dating from the 1960s.


title: Pneumocystis jirovecii

text: The term PCP, which was widely used by practitioners and patients, has been retained for convenience, with the rationale that it now stands for the more general Pneumocystis pneumonia rather than Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia.


title: Pneumocystis jirovecii

text: The name "P. carinii" is incorrect for the human variant, but still describes the species found in rats, and that name is typified by an isolate from rats.


title: Pneumocystis jirovecii

text: "Pneumocystis" species cannot be grown in culture, so the availability of the human disease-causing agent, "P. jirovecii", is limited. Hence, investigation of the whole genome of a "Pneumocystis" is largely based upon true "P. carinii" available from experimental rats, which can be maintained with infections. Genetic material of other species, such as "P. jirovecii", can be compared to the genome of "P. carinii".


title: Pneumocystis jirovecii

text: The genome of "P. jirovecii" has been sequenced from a bronchoalveolar lavage sample. The genome is small, low in G+C content, and lacks most amino-acid biosynthesis enzymes.


title: Pneumocystis jirovecii

text: The earliest report of this genus appears to have been that of Carlos Chagas in 1909, who discovered it in experimental animals, but confused it with part of the lifecycle of "Trypanosoma cruzi" (causal agent of Chagas disease) and later called both organisms "Schizotrypanum cruzi", a form of trypanosome infecting humans. The rediscovery of "Pneumocystis" cysts was reported by Antonio Carini in 1910, also in Brazil. The genus was again discovered in 1912 by Delanoë and Delanoë, this time at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, who found it in rats and proposed the genus and species name "Pneumocystis carinii" after Carini.


title: Pneumocystis jirovecii

text: "Pneumocystis" was redescribed as a human pathogen in 1942 by two Dutch investigators, van der Meer and Brug, who found it in three new cases: a 3-month-old infant with congenital heart disease and in two of 104 autopsy cases – a 4-month-old infant and a 21-year-old adult. There being only one described species in the genus, they considered the human parasite to be "P. carinii". Nine years later (1951), Dr. Josef Vanek at Charles University in Prague, Czechoslovakia, showed in a study of lung sections from 16 children that the organism labelled ""P. carinii"" was the causative agent of pneumonia in these children. The following year, Jírovec reported ""P. carinii"" as the cause of interstitial pneumonia in neonates. Following the realization that "Pneumocystis" from humans could not infect experimental animals such as rats, and that the rat form of "Pneumocystis" differed physiologically and had different antigenic properties, Frenkel was the first to recognize the human pathogen as a distinct species. He named it ""Pneumocystis jiroveci"" (corrected to "P. jirovecii" - see nomenclature above). Controversy existed over the relabeling of "P. carinii" in humans as "P. jirovecii", which is why both names still appear in publications. However, only the name "P. jirovecii" is used exclusively for the human pathogen, whereas the name "P. carinii" has had a broader application to many species. Frenkel and those before him believed that all "Pneumocystis" were protozoans, but soon afterwards evidence began accumulating that "Pneumocystis" was a fungal genus. Recent studies show it to be an unusual, in some ways a primitive genus of Ascomycota, related to a group of yeasts. Every tested primate, including humans, appears to have its own type of "Pneumocystis" that is incapable of cross-infecting other host species and has co-evolved with each species. Currently, only five species have been formally named: "P. jirovecii" from humans, "P. carinii" as originally named from rats, "P. murina" from mice, "P. wakefieldiae" also from rats, and "P. oryctolagi" from rabbits.


title: Pneumocystis jirovecii

text: Historical and even recent reports of "P. carinii" from humans are based upon older classifications (still used by many, or those still debating the recognition of distinct species in the genus "Pneumocystis") which does not mean that the true "P. carinii" from rats actually infects humans. In an intermediate classification system, the various taxa in different mammals have been called "formae speciales" or forms. For example, the human "form" was called "Pneumocystis carinii" f. [or f. sp.] "hominis", while the original rat infecting form was called "Pneumocystis carinii" f. [or f. sp.] "carinii". This terminology is still used by some researchers. The species of "Pneumocystis" originally seen by Chagas have not yet been named as distinct species. Many other undescribed species presumably exist and those that have been detected in many mammals are only known from molecular sample detection from lung tissue or fluids, rather than by direct physical observation. Currently, they are cryptic taxa.


title: The class the stars fell on

text: "The class the stars fell on" is an expression used to describe the class of 1915 at the United States Military Academy in West Point, New York. In the United States Army, the insignia reserved for generals is one or more stars. Of the 164 graduates that year, 59 (36%) attained the rank of general, more than any other class in the history of the Academy, hence the expression. Two graduates reached the rank of five-star General of the Army, two were four-star generals, seven three-star lieutenant generals, 24 two-star major generals, and 24 one-star brigadier generals. Dwight D. Eisenhower, one of the five-star generals, went on to become the 34th President of the United States. The other, Omar Bradley, became the first Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, under Presidents Harry S. Truman and Eisenhower.


title: The class the stars fell on

text: The term had previously been applied to the class of 1886, which produced a large number of general officers for World War I. Of this class, which includes John J. Pershing, Charles T. Menoher, and Mason Patrick, 25 out of 77 (32%) became generals.


title: The class the stars fell on

text: Some 287 cadets entered the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, in 1911, the largest plebe (entering or most junior) class up to that date. That year, the United States Congress changed the rules regarding appointment to the Academy. Previously, Congressmen had been allowed to make one appointment every four years. This was now increased to one every three years. Fourteen more cadets received appointments to the class, which they joined six weeks late, in August 1911, thereby missing out on the infamous period of hazing known as Beast Barracks. They were known as the "Augustines" after the month on which they joined. Among their number was Omar Bradley. Only 164 cadets graduated and were commissioned as second lieutenants on 12 June 1915, but that was still the largest graduating class up to that time, and the US Army had only 105 positions available for them.


title: The class the stars fell on

text: The class First Captain (the cadet brigade commander) was Roscoe B. Woodruff. The top 19 graduates all went into the United States Army Corps of Engineers. Ranking first in the class was William E. R. Covell, who edged out Edwin R. Kimble by the narrowest of margins. Covell went on to become a general during World War II. Kimble served during World War I as a major in France, where he died on 9 April 1918 of sepsis after a surgical operation. The youngest graduating member of the class was Clyde R. Eisenschmidt, who was born on 30 July 1894. He retired as a lieutenant colonel on 30 June 1940.


title: The class the stars fell on

text: The oldest member of the class was Robert B. Lorch, who was born on 18 December 1888. After serving in France as a major during World War I, he was honorably discharged from the Army on 8 December 1922. Recalled during World War II, he reached the rank of lieutenant colonel in 1950. In a class with many superb athletes, Thomas B. Larkin won the physical fitness contest and was designated "strong man" of the Corps. The lowest ranking member of the class, known as the class "goat", was Charles C. Herrick. After service in France as a major, he was honorably discharged on 15 December 1922, and became an investment banker. Recalled to active duty during World War II, he reached the rank of colonel. Also among the class was Luis R. Esteves, the first Puerto Rican to attend West Point, and the first to graduate. He was the first member of the class to be made a general.


title: The class the stars fell on

text: Sixteen members of the class were sons of West Point graduates. Three were both sons and grandsons of graduates. Alexander P. Cronkhite was the son of Major General Adelbert Cronkhite, from the class of 1882, and the grandson of Brigadier General Alexander C. M. Pennington, Jr., of the class of 1860. Ranked 7th in the class, Cronkhite died in a mysterious shooting accident on 25 October 1918. John F. Conklin was the son of Colonel John Conklin of the class of 1884. His maternal grandfather was Major General William H. French of the class of 1837. Oscar Straub was the son of Colonel Oscar I. Straub of the class of 1887, and the grandson of Brigadier General E. Van A. Andruss, from the class of 1864. In addition, John R. Mendenhall's father John Ross Mendenhall had attended the Academy but dropped out in 1881 without graduating, and his grandfather, Colonel John Mendenhall, was a graduate of the class of 1851. Pearson Menoher was the son of Major General Charles T. Menoher, who was a member of the class of 1886, and served as the first chief of the United States Army Air Service.


title: The class the stars fell on

text: Harmon was preceded by his two older brothers, Kenneth B. Harmon, of the class of 1910, and Millard F. Harmon, Jr., of the class of 1912. Hubert Harmon was ejected when it was discovered that he had two brothers at West Point, as it was felt that the taxpayers would not be getting their money's worth educating three sons of the same family. He was readmitted in June 1911 after his father lobbied numerous government officials. He now only had one brother at West Point, as Kenneth had graduated the year before. Both Millard Jr., and Hubert subsequently became three-star generals.


title: The class the stars fell on

text: Due to its origins as an engineering school, the West Point curriculum emphasized mathematics and other technical subjects of relevance to that specialty rather than education in military topics. Much of the military training that was provided concerned close order drill and equitation. Of the top 25 graduates of the class of 1915, 24 were commissioned into the Corps of Engineers. The exception, James A. Lester, who was ranked 23rd, chose to go into the field artillery instead. He would become a major general.


title: The class the stars fell on

text: Of the 164 graduates in the class, 102 (62 percent) served overseas during World War I before the armistice of 11 November 1918, although only 56 (34 percent) saw actual combat. This was not unusual; nearly 60 percent of the Army's regular officers did not serve overseas. A widespread belief that those who had served overseas would receive preferential treatment, including faster promotion, was not borne out by subsequent events. Promotion was by seniority, and glacially slow. Officers commissioned between November 1916 and November 1918 made up 55.4 percent of the Army's officers in 1926. This "hump" constituted a major personnel problem that was solved only by the Army's rapid expansion after 1940 in response to World War II. Much of the success of the class is attributable to being fortunate enough to be just ahead of the hump, but not too old to assume positions of great responsibility during World War II.


title: The class the stars fell on

text: Omar Bradley, for example, was promoted to first lieutenant on 1 July 1916, captain on 15 May 1917, and major on 17 June 1918. He had been returned to the grade of captain on 22 January 1920, and promoted to major again on 1 July 1920, only to be returned to captain again on 4 November 1922. He was promoted to major a third time on 25 June 1924, and remained one for twelve years before becoming a lieutenant colonel on 26 June 1936. He was promoted to brigadier general in February 1941.


title: The class the stars fell on

text: In the inter-war period, officers led a "country club existence". They had a high social standing, equivalent to that of an upper-middle-class professional. They normally worked a 30-hour week, which gave them plenty of time to spend with their families, and for sports. They and their families had access to free medical and dental care. They had free life insurance, and an adequate salary, which could be stretched because Army commissaries and post exchanges sold many everyday goods tax-free. They invariably lived on-base in good housing, and in tight-knit and supportive communities. When posted overseas, they took their families with them. A secure and steady job was highly prized during the Great Depression years from 1929 to 1939, and resignations were rare.


title: The class the stars fell on

text: There were two levels of advanced schooling. The first was the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, which concentrated on teaching officers both command and staff duties related to corps and divisions. Although viewed as competitive, nearly all officers eventually attended. A 1937 survey showed that 97 percent of the Army's colonels and 95 percent of its lieutenant colonels were graduates. There were two senior schools, the Army War College and the Army Industrial College. The Army War College taught the handling of higher formations. The Army Industrial College taught industrial mobilization.


title: The class the stars fell on

text: The Army's training program attracted criticism, both at the time and subsequently. In 1937, Brigadier General George C. Marshall felt that in merging instruction on command and staff duties, the Command and General Staff School had neglected the former in favor of the latter, with officers being prepared for staff duties in peacetime rather than the chaos of command in wartime. Brigadier General Lesley J. McNair conducted a survey of graduates in 1939 that found that most felt that there was too much emphasis on obsolete skills like equitation. For this reason, the staff rides were disliked. While most considered the map exercises the most valuable part of the curriculum, some noted that students spent time discovering for themselves things that they could have been told.


title: The class the stars fell on

text: Writing in 2011, Jörg Muth concluded that "At Fort Leavenworth, school solutions were always the norm. Ineffective courses were led by instructors who sometimes lacked knowledge of their fields and usually failed in didactics and pedagogics ... It seems in general not to have been a good idea to challenge the instructors at Leavenworth in any way if an officer student wanted to leave the school with a respectable grade." While the education system undoubtedly failed in some key areas, it did create a body of competent division and corps commanders.


title: The class the stars fell on

text: The first member of the class to wear a star was Esteves, who was appointed adjutant general of Puerto Rico with the rank of brigadier general in February 1939. During World War II, Eisenhower and Bradley rose to four-star rank. They made decisions that dramatically affected the careers of their classmates. Concerned that Major General Roscoe Woodruff, whose VII Corps was scheduled to spearhead the Normandy landings, had no amphibious experience, Bradley replaced him with Major General J. Lawton Collins. Woodruff returned to the United States. He later distinguished himself in command of the 24th Infantry Division in amphibious operations in the Philippines campaign.


title: The class the stars fell on

text: A worse fate befell Major General Henry J. F. Miller, who leaked details of the invasion date at a dinner party in April 1944. He was reduced to his permanent rank of lieutenant colonel and sent home. Eisenhower wrote a letter to him explaining that, "I know of nothing that causes me more real distress than to be faced with the necessity of sitting as a judge in cases involving military offences by officers of character and good record, particularly when they are old and warm friends." Miller retired due to physical disability on 30 November 1944. In December 1948 he was promoted to brigadier general on the retired list. He died on 7 January 1949.


title: The class the stars fell on

text: Apart from those who became generals, the best known member of the class is Louis A. Merrilat, who played college football with the Army Black Knights alongside Bradley and Eisenhower, and was selected as a first-team All-American in both 1913 and 1914. He was wounded in battle while serving in France during World War I, and later played in the National Football League for the Canton Bulldogs in the 1925 NFL season. He became a soldier of fortune, training Iran's Persian Guard, working with the Chinese Army in the 1930s, and serving in the French Foreign Legion. During World War II, he returned to active duty with the US Army, reaching the rank of colonel.


title: The class the stars fell on

text: The last surviving general of the class was James Van Fleet, who commanded the 4th Infantry Division, 90th Infantry Division and III Corps during World War II, and the U.S. Eighth Army in the Korean War. Celebrations for his 100th birthday on 19 March 1992 included a parachute drop by the Army's Golden Knights. A West Point Cadet, James Ward, remarked that: "Everything we aspire to be, he's already done. He's the epitome of the Long Gray Line." Van Fleet died on 23 September 1992, at the age of 100.


title: The class the stars fell on

text: The last surviving member of the class was Edmund De Treville Ellis. Commissioned in the cavalry, he later transferred to the Quartermaster Corps, with which he served in the European Theater during World War II and during the 1948 Berlin airlift. He retired from the Army as a colonel on 31 March 1950. He became the oldest living graduate of West Point in October 1990, and the last surviving member of the class of 1915 on the death of Van Fleet. He died at the age of 104 on 22 January 1995. Like Van Fleet, he was interred in Arlington National Cemetery.


title: Xian Lim

text: Alexander Xian Lim (born July 12, 1989) is a Filipino actor, model, singer, host, blogger, filmmaker and professional basketball player.


title: Xian Lim

text: He is best known for his roles in "My Binondo Girl" (2011), "The Reunion" (2012), "Ina, Kapatid, Anak" (2012–13), "Bakit Hindi Ka Crush ng Crush Mo?" (2013), "Bride for Rent" (2014), "The Story of Us" (2016) and "Everything About Her" (2016).


title: Xian Lim

text: Lim was a contract artist of Star Magic from 2008 to 2017, until signing a contract with Viva Artists Agency in January 2018 and he officially moved to GMA Network in 2022.Since 2012, Lim has notably hosted for many major televised events, particularly Binibining Pilipinas (Miss Philippines) annually, as well as Miss Grand International in Vietnam in 2017.


title: Xian Lim

text: Born in San Francisco, California, Lim and his family moved back to Manila, Philippines six months after his birth. Following his parents' separation, he (age 10) and his mother relocated to Daly City, California. Raised by his mother, a former model turned piano teacher, resulted in Lim learning various musical instruments including piano, trombone, saxophone and guitar. He later joined a symphonic band before graduating high school at age 18. He briefly studied psychology at Skyline College in San Bruno, California, until moving to the Philippines to attend college as a basketball varsity scholar at the University of the East in Manila.


title: Xian Lim

text: In 2010, he was part of the cast in the drama "Rubi" as Luis Navarro. Then, he guest starred in "100 Days to Heaven" as Jojo Villanueva. He was a guest judge on "Showtime" and had one-episode appearances for "Midnight DJ", "Maalaala Mo Kaya", "Wansapanataym" and "Your Song Presents: Andi".


title: Xian Lim

text: In 2011, after a special participation in "Minsan Lang Kita Iibigin" portraying the young Joaquin del Tierro, he landed his first major lead role in "My Binondo Girl" top-billed by Kim Chiu. The romantic-comedy television drama was a nationwide success, garnering an average household TV rating of 28.2% provided by Kantar Media/TNS.


title: Xian Lim

text: In early 2012, Lim signed a three-picture contract with Star Cinema and appeared in the film, "My Cactus Heart". In the same year, he starred in a youth-oriented movie with Enchong Dee, Enrique Gil and Kean Cipriano, entitled "The Reunion". He was also back in primetime through the teleserye drama "Ina, Kapatid, Anak" with Kim Chiu, Maja Salvador and Enchong Dee. He also released his debut studio album "So It's You" under Star Records which reached a Gold Record status.


title: Xian Lim

text: In 2013, his film "Bakit Hindi Ka Crush Ng Crush Mo?" with his onscreen and offscreen partner Kim Chiu earned Php 10.5 million in the first day of film showing alone, consequentially surpassing the P100 million mark at the box office for the year 2013 in three weeks time. From the outstanding box office sales, the pair obtained the nickname as the newest blockbuster royalties of their generation.


title: Xian Lim

text: In 2014, his second movie with Kim Chiu entitled "Bride for Rent" earned a whopping Php 21.2M on its first day and Php 100M in just 4 days. The movie eventually grossed Php 326,958,423 during its whole run in theaters which validated the KimXi tandem's box office draw.


title: Xian Lim

text: From 2015 to 2017, he has starred in a succession of roles, starting with his voice over for the Filipino release of "Paddington", as well as leading and supporting film credits in "All You Need Is Pag-ibig" (2015), "Everything About Her" (2016) and "Sin Island" (2018).


title: Xian Lim

text: After Lim signed a contract with Viva Artists Agency months after his contract with Star Magic expired in mid-2017, he confirmed his directorial debut in his film "Tabon", which premiered at the Cinemalaya 2019. He transferred to GMA Network after seen in "Maynila" episodes in 2010.


title: Xian Lim

text: As of 2022, Kapuso actor Xian Lim made his directorial debut in GMA Network's movie "Wish Ko Lang". Xian shared the exciting news with his followers on Instagram on Tuesday, August 23, 2022, as he shared some of the behind-the-scenes snaps from a shoot. His recent career is now managed by Viva Artist Agency (talent agency) since 2017 and has a television network contract with GMA (network) since April 2020.


title: Xian Lim

text: Lim actively promotes living a healthy lifestyle and his interests include filmmaking, traveling and sports. He is a self-professed health-buff, enjoys activities like running and exercises, with further intentions to someday joining a triathlon.


title: Xian Lim

text: In 2011, Xian began courting fellow Star Magic artist and leading lady Kim Chiu. Lim and Chiu began dating in 2012, which was confirmed in a 2013 episode of "Kris TV".


title: Xian Lim

text: On November 15, 2018, Kim Chiu confirmed her relationship with Lim in an interview on "Tonight with Boy Abunda".


title: Xian Lim

text: Lim has participated in various charity games including annual birthday events at local missions foundations, performing at benefit concerts, an event in Iloilo under Star Magic and San Juan City for the victims of Typhoon Sendong. In August 2012, he and Kim Chiu spearheaded a relief operation in Marikina for the city's flood-affected victims.


title: Xian Lim

text: During 2013, Lim joined the PETA Free Mali campaign along with Kim Chiu. Lim made a video plea for Mali asking that she be moved to a sanctuary for the sake of her well-being.


title: Aditi Sharma (actress, born 1996)

text: Aditi Sharma (born 4 September 1996) is an Indian actress and model who mainly works in Hindi television. She made her acting debut in 2018 and is best known for her portrayal of Meera Dhingra in "Kaleerein" and Roshni Ahmed Khan in "Yehh Jadu Hai Jinn Ka!". Sharma made her web debut with "Crashh" in 2021.