title: Islam in Italy

text: Under the Muslims, agriculture in Sicily prospered and became export oriented. Arts and crafts flourished in the cities. Palermo, the Muslim capital of the island, had 300,000 inhabitants at that time, more than all the cities of Germany combined. The local population conquered by the Muslims were Romanized Catholic Sicilians in Western Sicily and partially Greek speaking Christians, mainly in the eastern half of the island, but there were also a significant number of Jews. These conquered people were afforded freedom of religion under the Muslims as dhimmis. The dhimmi were also required to pay the jizya, or poll tax, and the kharaj or land tax, but were exempt from the tax that Muslims had to pay (Zakaat). The payment of the Jizya is payment for state services and protection against foreign and internal aggression as non Muslims did not pay the Zakaat tax. The conquered population could instead pay the Zakaat tax by converting to Islam. Large numbers of native Sicilians converted to Islam. However, even after 100 years of Islamic rule, numerous Greek-speaking Christian communities prospered, especially in north-eastern Sicily, as dhimmis. This was largely a result of the Jizya system which allowed co-existence. This co-existence with the conquered population fell apart after the reconquest of Sicily, particularly following the death of King William II of Sicily in 1189. By the mid-11th century, Muslims made up the majority of the population of Sicily.


title: Islam in Italy

text: From Sicily, the Muslims launched raids on the mainland and devastated Calabria. In 835 and again in 837, the Duke of Naples was fighting against the Duke of Benevento and appealed to the Sicilian Muslims for help. In 840 Taranto and Bari fell to the Muslims, and in 841 Brindisi. Muslim attacks on Rome failed in 843, 846 and 849. In 847 Taranto, Bari and Brindisi declared themselves emirates independent from the Aghlabids. For decades the Muslims ruled the Mediterranean and attacked the Italian coastal towns. Muslims occupied Ragusa in Sicily between 868 and 870.


title: Islam in Italy

text: Only after the fall of Malta in 870 did the occidental Christians succeed in setting up an army capable of fighting the Muslims. Over the next two decades, most of the territory held by Muslims on the mainland was liberated from Muslim rule. The Franco-Roman emperor Louis II reconquered Brindisi in 869, Bari in 871 and beat the Arabs at Salerno in 872. The Byzantines retook Taranto in 880. In 882 the Muslims had founded at the mouth of Garigliano between Naples and Rome a new base further in the north, which was in league with Gaeta, and had attacked Campania as well as Sabinia in Lazio. In 915, Pope John X organised a vast alliance of southern powers, including Gaeta and Naples, the Lombard princes and the Byzantines. The subsequent Battle of the Garigliano was successful, and all Saracens were captured and executed, ending any presence of Arabs in Lazio or Campania permanently. A hundred years later, the Byzantines called the Sicilian Muslims to ask for support against a campaign of German emperor Otto II. They beat Otto at the battle of Stilo in 982 and for the next 40 years largely succeeded in preventing his successors from entering southern Italy.


title: Islam in Italy

text: In 1002 a Venetian fleet defeated Muslims besieging Bari. After the Aghlabids were defeated in Ifriqiya as well, Sicily fell in the 10th century to their Fatimid successors, but claimed independence after fights between Sunni and Shia Muslims under the Kalbids.


title: Islam in Italy

text: After they had conquered the Visigoth Kingdom in Spain (729–765), the Arabs and Berbers from Septimania and Narbonne carried out raids into northern Italy, and in 793 again launched an offensive into northwestern Italy (Nicaea 813, 859 and 880). In 888, Andalusian Muslims set up a new base in Fraxinet near Fréjus in French Provence, from where they started raids along the coast and in inner France.


title: Islam in Italy

text: In 915, after the Battle of Garigliano, the Muslims lost their base in southern Lazio. In 926 King Hugh of Italy called the Muslims to fight against his northern Italian rivals. In 934 and 935 Genoa and La Spezia were attacked, followed by Nicaea in 942. In Piedmont the Muslims got as far as Asti and Novi, and also moved northwards along the Rhône valley and the western flank of the Alps. After defeating Burgundian troops , in 942–964 they conquered Savoy and occupied a part of Switzerland (952–960) . To fight the Arabs, Emperor Berengar I, Hugh's rival, called the Hungarians, who in their turn devastated northern Italy. As a result of the Muslim defeat at the Battle of Tourtour, Fraxinet was lost and razed by the Christians in 972. Thirty years later, in 1002, Genoa was invaded, and in 1004 Pisa.


title: Islam in Italy

text: Pisa and Genoa joined forces to end Muslim rule over Corsica (Islamic 810/850-930/1020) and Sardinia. In Sardinia in 1015 the fleet of the Andalusian lord of Dénia come from Spain, settled a temporary military camp as a logistic base to control the Tyrrhenian Sea and Italian peninsula, but in 1016 the fleet was forced to leave its base due to the military intervention of maritime republics of Genoa and Pisa.


title: Islam in Italy

text: The cultural and economical bloom in Sicily that had started under the Kalbids was interrupted by internecine fights, followed by invasions by the Tunisian Zirids (1027), Pisa (1030–1035), and the Romans (1027 onwards). Eastern Sicily (Messina, Syracuse and Taormina) was captured by the Byzantines in 1038–1042. In 1059 Normans from southern Italy, led by Roger I, invaded the island. The Normans conquered Reggio in 1060 (conquered by the Romanin 1027). Messina fell to the Normans in 1061; an invasion by the Algerian Hammadids to preserve Islamic rule was thwarted in 1063 by the fleets of Genoa and Pisa. The loss of Palermo in 1072 and of Syracuse in 1088 could not be prevented. Noto and the last Muslim strongholds on Sicily fell in 1091. In 1090–91, the Normans also conquered Malta; Pantelleria fell in 1123.


title: Islam in Italy

text: A small Muslim population remained on Sicily under the Normans. Roger II hosted at his court, among others, the famous geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi and the poet Muhammad ibn Zafar. At first, Muslims were tolerated by the Normans, but soon pressure from the Popes led to their increasing discrimination; most mosques were destroyed or made into churches. The first Sicilian Normans did not take part in the Crusades, but they undertook a number of invasions and raids in Ifriqiya, before they were defeated thereafter 1157 by the Almohads.


title: Islam in Italy

text: This peaceful coexistence in Sicily finally ended with the death of King William II in 1189. The Muslim elite emigrated at that time. Their medical knowledge was preserved in the Schola Medica Salernitana; an Arabian-Roman-Norman synthesis in art and architecture survived as Sicilian Romanesque. The remaining Muslims fled, for example to Caltagirone on Sicily, or hid out in the mountains and continued to resist against the Hohenstaufen dynasty, who ruled the island from 1194 on. In the heartland of the island, the Muslims declared Ibn Abbad the last Emir of Sicily.


title: Islam in Italy

text: To end this upheaval, emperor Frederick II, himself a Crusader, instigated a policy to rid Sicily of the few remaining Muslims. This cleansing was done in small part under Papal influence but mostly in order to create a loyal force of troops which could not be influenced by non-Christian infiltrators. In 1224–1239 he deported every single Muslim from Sicily to an autonomous colony under strict military control (so that they could not infiltrate non-Muslim areas) in Lucera in Apulia. Muslims were recruited however by Frederick in the army and constituted his faithful personal bodyguard, since they had no connection to his political rivals. In 1249, he ejected the Muslims from Malta as well. Lucera was returned to the Christians in 1300 at the instigation of the pope by King Charles II of Naples. Muslims were forcefully converted, killed or expelled from Europe . However a Muslim community was still recorded in Apulia in 1336 and very recently in 2009, a genetic study revealed a small genetic Northwest African contribution among today's inhabitants near the region of Lucera.


title: Islam in Italy

text: During Spanish rule of Sicily, and to escape the Spanish inquisition of the Moriscos (Muslims who had converted to Christianity) in the Iberian peninsula, a few Moriscos migrated to Sicily. During this time there were several attempts to rid Sicily of its extensive formerly Muslim 'Moor' population. The attacks were also directed against crypto-Muslim slaves and Sicilian renegades who refused to deny Islam during the 16th and the 17th centuries. However, it is doubtful that the order was carried out in practice. The main reason that some former Muslims were able to remain in Sicily was that they were openly supported by The Duke of Osuna, now officially installed as viceroy in Palermo, advocated to the Spanish monarch in Madrid for allowing the Moriscos to stay in Sicily.


title: Islam in Italy

text: During this century, the Ottoman Empire was expanding mightily in southeastern Europe. It completed the absorption of the Byzantine Empire in 1453 under Sultan Mehmet II by conquering Constantinople and Galata. It seized Genoa's last bastions in the Black Sea in 1475 and Venice's Greek colony of Euboea in 1479. Turkish troops invaded the Friuli region in northeastern Italy in 1479 and again in 1499–1503. The Apulian harbor town of Otranto, located about 100 kilometers southeast of Brindisi, was seized in 1480 (Ottoman invasion of Otranto), but the Turks were routed there in 1481 by an alliance of several Italian city-states, Hungary and France led by the prince Alphonso II of Naples, when Mehmet died and a war for his succession broke out. Cem Sultan, pretender to the Ottoman throne, was defeated despite being supported by the pope; he fled with his family to the Kingdom of Naples, where his male descendants were bestowed with the title of Principe de Sayd by the Pope in 1492. They lived in Naples until the 17th century and in Sicily until 1668 before relocating to Malta.


title: Islam in Italy

text: It is a subject of debate whether Otranto was meant to be the base for further conquests. In any case, the Ottoman sultans had not given up their ambition to take over the Italian Peninsula and to finally install Islamic sovereignty after the conquest of Constantinople. After the conquests of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) and Hungary in 1526 and the defeat of the Turkish army at Vienna in 1529, Turkish fleets again attacked southern Italy. Reggio was sacked in 1512 by the famous Turkish corsair Khayr al-Din, better known by the nickname of Barbarossa; in 1526 the Turks attacked Reggio again, but this time suffered a setback and were forced to turn their sights elsewhere. In 1538 they defeated the Venetian fleet. In 1539 Nice was raided by the Barbary pirates (Siege of Nice), but an attempted Turkish landing on Sicily failed, as did the attempted conquest of Pantelleria in 1553 and the siege of Malta in 1565.


title: Islam in Italy

text: Next to Spain, the biggest contribution to the victory of the Christian "Holy League" in the battle of Lepanto in 1571 was made by the Republic of Venice, which between 1423 and 1718 fought eight costly wars against the Ottoman Empire. In 1594, the city of Reggio was again sacked by Cığalazade Yusuf Sinan Pasha, a renegade who converted to Islam.


title: Islam in Italy

text: According to a 2016 Pew Research Center projection and Brookings, there are 1,400,000 Muslims in Italy (2.3% of the Italian population), almost one third of Italy's foreign population (250.000 have acquired Italian citizenship). The majority of Muslims in Italy are Sunni, with a Shi'ite minority. There are also a few Ahmadi Muslims in the country. This diversity has induced a lack of organization throughout the Italian Muslim community. As a result, the community also lacks cohesive leadership.


title: Islam in Italy

text: Despite undocumented immigrants representing a minority of the Muslims in Italy, considering that undocumented migrants and refugees predominantly come from Muslim countries, the issue of Islam in contemporary Italy has been linked by some political parties (particularly the Lega Nord) with immigration, and more specifically illegal immigration. Immigration has become a prominent political issue, as reports of boatloads of illegal immigrants (or "clandestini") dominate news programmes, especially in the summertime. Police forces have not had great success in intercepting many of the thousands of "clandestini" who land on Italian beaches, mainly because of a political unwillingness, partly fostered by the EU, to address the issue. However, the vast majority of the "clandestini" landing in Italy are only using the country as a gateway to other EU states, due to the fact that Italy offers fewer economic opportunities and social welfare services for them than Germany, France, or the United Kingdom.


title: Islam in Italy

text: While in medieval times, the Muslim population was almost totally concentrated in Insular Sicily and in the city of Lucera, in Apulia, it is today more evenly distributed, with almost 60% of Muslims living in the North of Italy, 25% in the centre, and only 15% in the South. Muslims form a lower proportion of immigrants than in previous years, as the latest statistical reports by the Italian Ministry of Interior and Caritas indicate that the share of Muslims among new immigrants has declined from over 50% at the beginning of the 1990s (mainly Albanians and Moroccans) to less than 25% in the following decade, due to the massive arrivals from eastern Europe.


title: Islam in Italy

text: Recent points of contention between ethnic Italians and the Muslim immigrant population include the strong presence of crucifixes in public buildings, including school classrooms, government offices, and hospital wards. Adel Smith has attracted considerable media attention by demanding that crucifixes in public facilities be removed. The Italian Council of State, in the Sentence No. 556, 13 February 2006, confirmed the display of the crucifix in government sponsored spaces. Smith was subsequently charged with defaming the Catholic religion in 2006.


title: Islam in Italy

text: In November 2016, Minister of the Interior Angelino Alfano reported that Italy had deported nine imams for inciting racial violence.


title: Islam in Italy

text: In January 2017, community groups representing around 70% of the Muslim community in Italy signed a pact with the government to "reject all forms of violence and terrorism" and to hold prayers in mosques in the Italian language or at least to have them translated.


title: Islam in Italy

text: As of 2013, of the total 64,760 detainees in Italy, approximately 13,500 (20.8%) came from countries with Islamic majorities, mostly Morocco and Tunisia.


title: Islam in Italy

text: There are a total of eight mosques in Italy. While Italy is home to the fourth largest Muslim population in Europe, the number of mosques is minute in comparison to France (which is home to over 2,200 mosques) and the United Kingdom (which is home to over 1,500 mosques). The scarcity of mosques in Italy is caused predominantly by the fact that Italy does not officially recognize Islam as a religion. Official state recognition would guarantee and protect places of worship, recognize religious holidays and allow access to public funding.


title: Islam in Italy

text: There have been a number of cases of extraordinary rendition of Muslim activists, as well as attempts by a past government to close mosques. Many mosque constructions are blocked by opposition of local residents. In September 2008 the Lega Nord political party was reported to have introduced a new bill which would have blocked the construction of new mosques in much of the country, arguing that Muslims can pray anywhere, and do not need a mosque. The construction of mosques had already been blocked in Milan. The bill was not approved.


title: Islam in Italy

text: In 2007, the Moroccan imam at the mosque in Ponte Felcino in Perugia was deported by the Italian government for extremist views.


title: Islam in Italy

text: Deportation (expulsion) of foreign suspects have been the cornerstone of Italy's preventive counter-terrorism fight against suspected radicals. Every deportee is prohibited from re-entering Italy and therefore the entire Schengen Area, for a period of five years. Italy is able to use this method as many radicalized Muslims are first-generation immigrants and therefore have not yet acquired Italian citizenship. In Italy as elsewhere in Europe, prison inmates show signs of radicalization while incarcerated and in 2018, 41 individuals were deported upon release from prison. Of the 147 deported by the Italian government in the 2015–2017 all were related to jihadism and 12 were imams. From January 2015 to April 2018, 300 individuals were expulsed from Italian soil. The vast majority of the deportees come from North Africa and a smaller group come from the Balkans.


title: Islam in Italy

text: In the mid to late 2010s, a "homegrown" Islamist movement started to emerge in Italy with Islamists writing online content in Italian. While radicalized individuals may get in contact with fellow extremists at mosques, indoctrination and planning of violence take place elsewhere.


title: Islam in Italy

text: From 1 August 2016 to 31 July 2017, a total of eight imams were deported. The following twelve-month period, two were deported.


title: Islam in Italy

text: In July 2016, the Moroccan imam at the "Asonna" center in Noventa Vicentina was deported for reportedly expressing extremist views and for posing a security threat. While most extremists are banned for 5 to 10 years, Muhammed Madad was banned from returning for 15 years.


title: Islam in Italy

text: In March 2018, police carried out an anti-terrorist operation in Foggia against the "Al Dawa" unauthorized prayer hall located near the railway station. Egyptian Abdel Rahman Mohy preached to children using Islamic State propaganda.


title: Islam in Italy

text: According to prison authorities in Italy, in October 2018 there were 66 Muslim detainees who either had been sentenced or were awaiting trial for terrorism offences.


title: Islam in Italy

text: Although Muslim population in Italy is very small compared to its counterparts in France, Germany, Britain and Spain, anti-Islamic feeling in Italy runs high, which became clear following the September 11 attacks and 7 July 2005 London bombings. Survey published in 2019 by the Pew Research Center found that 55% of Italians had an unfavourable view of Muslims. Much of the local Italian media indirectly correlates Islam to terrorism as a whole. This contributes to these unfavorable opinions.


title: National Unity Party (Philippines)

text: The National Unity Party (NUP) is a political party in the Philippines. The party was formed in 2010 by former members of Lakas-Kampi CMD who broke away after internal discontent within the party. Since 2016, the party is part of the PDP–Laban-led coalition in the House of Representatives, the Coalition for Change.


title: National Unity Party (Philippines)

text: The party was accredited by the Commission of Elections as a national party in a resolution dated October 5, 2011.


title: National Unity Party (Philippines)

text: On September 26, 2012, the party held its first national convention where they announced support for Team PNoy for the 2013 elections, however most NUP members ultimately supported the United Nationalist Alliance, especially Garcia.


title: National Unity Party (Philippines)

text: According to the party's constitution, NUP's principles include the following: belief in God; sovereignty of the state, national interest and democracy; social justice and responsibility; and environmental awareness.


title: Kim Ryeo-wook

text: Kim Ryeo-wook (born June 21, 1987), better known by the mononym Ryeowook, is a South Korean singer, songwriter and musical actor. He is best known as a member of boy group Super Junior and its subgroups, Super Junior-K.R.Y. and Super Junior-M. Along with four other Super Junior members, he is one of the first Korean artists to appear on Chinese postage stamps. He began a solo career in 2016 with first EP "The Little Prince".


title: Kim Ryeo-wook

text: Ryeowook was discovered through the "CMB Youth ChinChin Festival" in 2004 and signed a contract with SM Entertainment soon afterwards impressing the judges with his singing talent. Before Kyuhyun was added in 2006, Ryeowook was the last to join Super Junior several weeks before their debut in 2005.


title: Kim Ryeo-wook

text: Ryeowook made his debut as part of the 12-member project group "Super Junior 05" on 6 November 2005 on SBS' music programme "Popular Songs", performing their first single, "Twins (Knock Out)". Their debut album "SuperJunior05 (Twins)" was released a month later on 5 December 2005 and debuted at number three on the monthly MIAK K-pop album charts.


title: Kim Ryeo-wook

text: In late 2006, Ryeowook, along with fellow Super Junior members Kyuhyun and Yesung, formed a subgroup named Super Junior K.R.Y., a group specializing in R&B ballads. The trio debuted on 5 November 2006 on KBS' "Music Bank" with performing Hyena soundtrack called "The One I Love". Ryeowook made his acting debut in 2007, in the film, "Attack on the Pin-Up Boys", a high-school comedy/mystery film, in which he plays the eccentric vice president of the student council. He was nominated for Best Supporting Actor and Best Comedic Performance at the Korean Movie Awards.


title: Kim Ryeo-wook

text: In April 2008, he was put into seven-member sub-group Super Junior-M, a Mandopop subgroup of Super Junior for the Chinese music industry. They debuted in China at the 8th Annual Music Chart Awards, simultaneously with the release of their first music video, "U" on 8 April 2008. This was followed by the release of the debut Chinese-language studio album, "Me" in selected provinces in China on 23 April and 2 May in Taiwan.


title: Kim Ryeo-wook

text: In November 2012, Super Junior K.R.Y. held a concert tour in Japan, Super Junior K.R.Y. Special Winter Concert. They announced that they would be releasing their first single six years after debut. The teaser for "Promise You" was released on 21 November 2012, followed by the single on 23 January 2013. It debuted at number two on the Oricon's daily singles chart.


title: Kim Ryeo-wook

text: Ryeowook's first composition to be officially released was "Love U More", in the repackaged "Sorry, Sorry" Version C. Ryeowook made his musical theatre debut in "Temptation of Wolves" alongside Park Hyung-sik of and Lim Jeong-hee. It ran from 14 July to 30 October 2011 at the COEX Artium.


title: Kim Ryeo-wook

text: On 16 and 23 June, following the footsteps of bandmates Yesung and Kyuhyun, Ryeowook joined KBS' "Immortal Songs 2" with Sunggyu of Infinite, where singers render their own versions of songs from music legends and winners are selected by voting. He took first place in the 11 August episode where singers Lee Sang-woo and Lee Sang-eun were guests. He recorded his last episode on 16 August, which was broadcast on 25 August.


title: Kim Ryeo-wook

text: Ryeowook's debut solo album's title is "The Little Prince". The release of "The Little Prince" was not only anticipated as Ryeowook's first official solo album since his debut 11 years ago but it is also because it is the first release under Super Junior's own label, Label SJ, established by SM Entertainment in 2015 during the group's 10th anniversary. The title track bearing the same name as the album is a ballad inspired by French author Antoine de Saint-Exupéry's novel "The Little Prince". The title track "The Little Prince" is a ballad song and a conversation between a man in pain from love and The Little Prince.


title: Kim Ryeo-wook

text: In addition to Ryeowook's solo promotions and album release, he held his first solo concert through SMTOWN's The Agit series called "Ever Lasting Star - RyeoWook" from 19 February until 21 February at the SMTOWN's Coex Artium in Samseong-dong, Seoul.


title: Kim Ryeo-wook

text: With three octaves in his range, Ryeowook is a lyric tenor. He has also been known for his frequent usage of falsettos. South Korean operatic singer Sumi Jo, whom he collaborated with for a formal performance, praised his musicianship. She called his skills "outstanding"; acknowledged his professionalism on stage.


title: Kim Ryeo-wook

text: With his second EP, "Drunk on Love", Young Post noticed a variety of genres and styles interpolated: from a pop ballad-like style; jazz; R&B; and to more of a style reminiscing of lounge music.


title: Kim Ryeo-wook

text: On 24 February 2012, Ryeowook graduated from Inha University with a major in theater and film studies.


title: Primitive reflexes

text: Primitive reflexes are reflex actions originating in the central nervous system that are exhibited by normal infants, but not neurologically intact adults, in response to particular stimuli. These reflexes are suppressed by the development of the frontal lobes as a child transitions normally into child development. These primitive reflexes are also called infantile, infant or newborn reflexes.


title: Primitive reflexes

text: Older children and adults with atypical neurology (e.g., people with cerebral palsy) may retain these reflexes and primitive reflexes may reappear in adults. Reappearance may be attributed to certain neurological conditions including dementia (especially in a rare set of diseases called frontotemporal degenerations), traumatic lesions, and strokes. An individual with cerebral palsy and typical intelligence can learn to suppress these reflexes, but the reflex might resurface under certain conditions (i.e., during extreme startle reaction). Reflexes may also be limited to those areas affected by the atypical neurology, (i.e., individuals with cerebral palsy that only affects their legs retaining the Babinski reflex but having normal speech); for those individuals with hemiplegia, the reflex may be seen in the foot on the affected side only.


title: Primitive reflexes

text: Primitive reflexes are primarily tested with suspected brain injury or some dementias such as Parkinson's disease for the purpose of assessing frontal lobe functioning. If they are not being suppressed properly they are called frontal release signs. Atypical primitive reflexes are also being researched as potential early indicators of autistic spectrum disorders.


title: Primitive reflexes

text: Primitive reflexes are mediated by extrapyramidal functions, many of which are already present at birth. They are lost as the pyramidal tracts gain functionality with progressive myelination. They may reappear in adults or children with loss of function of the pyramidal system due to a variety of reasons. However, with the advent of "Amiel Tison method of neurological assessment", the importance of assessment of such reflexes in the pediatric population has come down.


title: Primitive reflexes

text: Reflexes vary in utility. Some reflexes hold a survival value (e.g., the rooting reflex, which helps a breastfed infant find the mother's nipple). Babies display the rooting reflex only when they are hungry and touched by another person, not when they touch themselves. There are a few reflexes that likely assisted in the survival of babies during human evolutionary past (e.g., the Moro reflex). Other reflexes such as sucking and grabbing help establish gratifying interaction between parents and infants. They can encourage a parent to respond with love and affection, and to feed their child more competently. In addition, it helps parents to comfort their infant while allowing the baby to control distress and the amount of stimulation they receive.


title: Primitive reflexes

text: The sucking reflex is common to all mammals and is present at birth. It is linked with the rooting reflex and breastfeeding. It causes the child to instinctively suck anything that touches the roof of their mouth and simulates the way a child naturally eats. There are two stages of the action:


title: Primitive reflexes

text: The rooting reflex is present at birth (gestational age of appearance 28 weeks) and disappears around four months of age, as it gradually comes under voluntary control. The rooting reflex assists in the act of breastfeeding. A newborn infant will turn its head toward anything that strokes its cheek or mouth, searching for the object by moving its head in steadily decreasing arcs until the object is found. After becoming familiar to responding in this way (if breastfed, approximately three weeks after birth), the infant will move directly to the object without searching.


title: Primitive reflexes

text: The Moro reflex is an important indicator for evaluating integration of the central nervous system, named after its discoverer, pediatrician Ernst Moro.


title: Primitive reflexes

text: Although this is sometimes referred to as the startle reaction, startle response, startle reflex or embrace reflex, most researchers see it as distinct from the startle reflex, and it is believed to be the only unlearned fear in human newborns.


title: Primitive reflexes

text: The Moro reflex is present at birth, peaks in the first month of life, and begins to integrate around 2 months of age. It is likely to occur if the infant's head suddenly shifts position, the temperature changes abruptly, or they are startled by a sudden noise. The legs and head extend while the arms jerk up and out with the palms up and thumbs flexed. Shortly afterward the arms are brought together and the hands clench into fists, and the infant cries loudly.


title: Primitive reflexes

text: The reflex normally integrates by three to four months of age, though it may last up to six months. Bilateral absence of the reflex may be linked to damage to the infant's central nervous system, while a unilateral absence could mean an injury due to birth trauma (e.g., a fractured clavicle or injury to the brachial plexus). Erb's palsy or some other form of paralysis is also sometimes present in such cases. In human evolutionary history, the Moro reflex may have helped infants cling to the mother while being carried around. If the infant lost its balance, the reflex caused the infant to embrace its mother and regain its hold on the mother's body.


title: Primitive reflexes

text: The walking or stepping reflex is present at birth, though infants this young cannot support their own weight. When the soles of their feet touch a flat surface they will attempt to walk by placing one foot in front of the other. This reflex integrates around 2 months as infants start attempting to walk after this reflex disappears.


title: Primitive reflexes

text: The asymmetrical tonic neck reflex, also known as 'fencing posture', is present at one month of age and integrates at around four months. When the child's head is turned to the side, the arm on that side will straighten and the opposite arm will bend (sometimes the motion will be very subtle or slight). If the infant is unable to move out of this position or the reflex continues to be triggered past six months of age, the child may have a disorder of the upper motor neurons. According to Laura Berk, the tonic neck reflex is a precursor to the hand/eye coordination of the infant. It also prepares the infant for voluntary reaching.


title: Primitive reflexes

text: The symmetric tonic neck reflex normally appears and develops around 6–9 months of age and should integrate by around 12 months. When the child's head flexes forward, extending the back of the neck, the upper extremities will contract and the lower extremities will extend. Conversely, when the child's head is extended backward, contracting the back of the neck, the upper extremities will extend and the lower extremities will contract. This reflex is important to help a child push up onto their hands and knees but may inhibit actual forward creeping or crawling if it is not properly integrated. If this reflex is retained beyond 2–3 years, it may result, directly or indirectly, in a range of physical and neurological developmental delays.


title: Primitive reflexes

text: The tonic labyrinthine reflex is a primitive reflex found in newborn humans. With this reflex, tilting the head back while lying on the back causes the back to stiffen and even arch backwards, the legs to straighten, stiffen, and push together, the toes to point, the arms to bend at the elbows and wrists, and the hands to become fisted or the fingers to curl. The presence of this reflex beyond the newborn stage is also referred to as abnormal extension pattern or extensor tone.


title: Primitive reflexes

text: The presence of the TLR as well as other primitive reflexes such as the asymmetrical tonic neck reflex (ATNR) beyond the first six months of life may indicate that the child has developmental delays and/or neurological abnormalities. For example, in people with cerebral palsy, the reflexes may persist and even be more pronounced. As abnormal reflexes, both the tonic labyrinthine reflex and the asymmetrical tonic neck reflex can cause problems for the growing child. The TLR and ATNR both hinder functional activities such as rolling, bringing the hands together, or even bringing the hands to the mouth. Over time, both the TLR and ATNR can cause serious damage to the growing child's joints and bones, causing the head of the femur to partially slip out of the acetabulum (subluxation) or completely move out of the acetabulum (dislocation).


title: Primitive reflexes

text: The palmar grasp reflex appears at birth and persists until five or six months of age. When an object is placed in the infant's hand and strokes their palm, the fingers will close and they will grasp it with a palmar grasp. To best observe this reflex, on a bed where the child could safely fall onto a pillow, offer the infant two opposing little fingers (as index fingers are typically too large for the infant to grasp), and gradually lift. The grasp of it may be able to support the child's weight; they may also release their grip suddenly and without warning. The reverse motion can be induced by stroking the back or side of the hand.


title: Primitive reflexes

text: A plantar reflex is a normal reflex that involves plantar flexion of the foot, which moves toes away from the shin and curls them down. An abnormal plantar reflex (Babinski sign) occurs when upper motor neuron control over the flexion reflex circuit is interrupted. This results in a dorsiflexion of the foot (foot angles towards the shin, big toe curls up). This also occurs in babies under c. 1 year, because of low myelination of the corticospinal tracts. As these tracts develop to adult form, the flexion-reflex circuit is inhibited by the descending corticospinal inputs, and the normal plantar reflex develops. The Babinski reflex is a sign of neurological abnormality (e.g., upper motor neuron lesion) in adults.


title: Primitive reflexes

text: The Galant reflex, also known as "Galant's infantile reflex", is present at birth and fades between the ages of four to six months. When the skin along the side of an infant's back is stroked, the infant will swing towards the side that was stroked. If the reflex persists past six months of age, it is a sign of pathology. The reflex is named after the Russian neurologist Johann Susman Galant.


title: Primitive reflexes

text: The swimming reflex involves placing an infant face down in a pool of water. The infant will begin to paddle and kick in a swimming motion. The reflex disappears between 4–6 months. Despite the infant displaying a normal response by paddling and kicking, placing them in water can be a very risky procedure. Infants can swallow a large amount of water while performing this task; therefore, caregivers should proceed with caution. It is advisable to postpone swimming lessons for infants until they are at least three months old because infants submerged in water can die from water intoxication.


title: Primitive reflexes

text: The Babkin reflex occurs in newborn babies, and describes varying responses to the application of pressure to both palms. Infants may display head flexion, head rotation, opening of the mouth, or a combination of these responses. Smaller, premature infants are more susceptible to the reflex, with an observed occurrence in a child of 26 weeks gestation. It is named after the Russian physiologist, Boris Babkin.


title: Primitive reflexes

text: This reflex occurs in slightly older infants (starts between 6 and 7 months and become fully mature by 1 year of age) when the child is held upright and the baby's body is rotated quickly to face forward (as in falling). The baby will extend their arms forward as if to break a fall, even though this reflex appears long before the baby walks.


title: Primitive reflexes

text: Reflexes that are not suppressed in infancy are referred to as unintegrated or persistent reflexes. When they persist, they are related to academic struggles. For example, children with learning difficulties have been found to exhibit persistent primitive reflexes. In addition, a persistent ATNR has been found to be associated with lower reading and spelling scores, and children with reading problems tend to display the tonic labyrinthine reflex more than children without reading problems. Lastly, a relationship has been found between ADHD symptoms and ATNR persistence and another between ADHD diagnosis and Moro and Galant reflex persistence.


title: Primitive reflexes

text: As mentioned in the introduction, when primitive reflexes are not being suppressed properly they are generally referred to as frontal release signs (although this may be a misnomer). In addition to the reflexes previously mentioned, they include the palmomental reflex, snout reflex, glabellar reflex or "tap" reflex.


title: Primitive reflexes

text: The term "high-risk newborns" refers to neonates with a significant chance of mortality or morbidity, especially within the first month of being born. High-risk newborns will often show abnormal responses of primitive reflexes, or lack a response entirely. Performance of primitive reflexes in high-risk newborns will often vary in response depending on the reflex (e.g., normal Moro reflex may be present, while the walking reflex is absent or abnormal). Normal performance of primitive reflexes in newborns can be linked to a greater likelihood of having higher Apgar scores, higher birth weight, shorter hospitalization time after birth, and a better overall mental state.


title: Primitive reflexes

text: A 2011 cross-sectional study assessing primitive reflexes in 67 high-risk newborns, used a sample method to evaluate responses of the sucking, Babinski and Moro reflexes. The results of the study showed that the sucking reflex was performed normally most often (63.5%), followed by the Babinski reflex (58.7%), and the Moro reflex (42.9%). The study concluded that high-risk newborns presented more periodic abnormal and absent responses of primitive reflexes, and that each reflex varied in response.


title: Primitive reflexes

text: However, with the advent of simple and effective methods like the "Amiel Tison method of neurological assessment", as predictor of neurological sequelae in high-risk neonates and infants, the importance of assessment of primitive reflexes is decreasing.


title: Errol Flynn filmography

text: The film appearances of movie actor Errol Flynn (1909–1959) are listed here, including his short films and one unfinished feature.


title: Errol Flynn filmography

text: At the height of his career, exhibitors voted Flynn among the leading stars in Britain, the US and Australia in various polls:


title: Yara International

text: Yara International ASA is a Norwegian chemical company. It produces, distributes, and sells nitrogen-based mineral fertilizers and related industrial products. Its product line also includes phosphate and potash-based mineral fertilizers, as well as complex and specialty mineral fertilizer products.


title: Yara International

text: The company was established in 1905 as Norsk Hydro — the world's first producer of mineral nitrogen fertilizers — and de-merged as Yara International ASA on March 25, 2004. Yara is listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange and has its headquarters in Oslo. The company has more than 17,000 employees, production sites on six continents, operations in more than 60 countries and sales to about 150 countries.


title: Yara International

text: The history of Yara dates back to the establishment of Norsk hydroelektiske kvelstoffaktieselskab, or Norsk Hydro, as it later became known, in December 1905 after nitrogen fertilizer was successfully produced at Notodden. Norsk Hydro was founded by Sam Eyde, Kristian Birkeland, and Marcus Wallenberg. In 1903, Birkeland and Eyde had developed direct nitrogen fixation, called the Birkeland–Eyde process, based on a method used by Henry Cavendish in 1784.


title: Yara International

text: The company used Norway's large hydroelectric-energy resources to produce its first product. Between 1906 and 1919 Norsk Hydro built two hydroelectric power plants in Notodden and Rjukan. The company sent its first shipment to China in 1913.


title: Yara International

text: Following the successful production of mineral fertilizer, the company expanded into other businesses such as oil and metals. In 1969, Norsk Hydro entered into its first joint venture, with authorities in Qatar. With access to a competitive source of gas and a strategic location in the Middle East, the joint venture opened up a global market for the company.


title: Yara International

text: Norsk Hydro was led by Johan Berthin Holte as CEO from 1967 until 1977. By the 1970s, the company was established in Asia, the Middle East and North America. The late 1970s to the mid-1980s was a period of rapid growth, through the acquisition of major fertilizer companies in France, Germany, the Netherlands and the UK. At the end of the 1990s, the company was also established in Brazil and South Africa.


title: Yara International

text: In 2004, Hydro Agri de-merged from Norsk Hydro and became an independent company called Yara International ASA. The company was listed on the Oslo Stock Exchange on March 25, 2004 and is a leading producer of ammonia, nitrates, nitrogen products, and NPK specialty fertilizers. Since then, Yara has continued to expand its global presence through investments in other countries, with many acquisitions, joint ventures, and new projects, primarily in Africa and North and South America.


title: Yara International

text: In July 2006 Yara paid $126 million for a controlling share in Fertibras. This acquisition gave Yara more than 99% of the voting stock in Fertibras and 15% of Fosfertil, the largest producer in Brazil of nitrogen and phosphate fertilizers.


title: Yara International

text: In 2008, Thorleif Enger retired, and became CEO. On his appointment, Haslestad stated: "Yara must continue its growth strategy. The company has many exciting opportunities to pursue, for instance when it comes to the environment, where we contribute to better balance in agricultural development and deliver some interesting industrial solutions to environmental problems." Haslestad held the office until 2014, when the company fired him, saying they needed someone who could complete the upcoming merger negotiations and that Haslestad had been on the point of retiring. Svein Richard Brandtzaeg ten days earlier had decided not to leave Hydro to take over the helm of Yara, after contract negotiations were leaked and charges were laid against Enger, the prior CEO. In January Yara reached an agreement with Vale to sell its Brazilian shares of Fosfertil for $785 million US. Also in 2010, ANZ Bank called in the receivers on the 65% share of Burrup owned by, which was later sold to Yara and to Apache Corporation of New York, which had a gas supply agreement with Burrup. In 2016 the Oswal couple was still litigating the fairness of the proceedings, alleging coercion. Radhika has also been accused of dodging a $186 million tax bill. Also in separate proceedings, her husband is alleged to have taken more than $150 million from entities associated with the fertiliser plant and to have spent the money on private planes and other luxury goods. The two left Perth for Dubai in 2010.


title: Yara International

text: On February 25, 2011 the US Treasury Department lifted sanctions that had been in place against Yara subsidiary Libyan Norwegian Fertilizer because of its affiliation with the Libyan government.


title: Yara International

text: In March 2011 the Dutch government froze about €3 billion in Libyan assets, including Yara's Sluiskil joint venture, half-owned by the LIA and the NOCL


title: Yara International

text: On August 3, 2011 Yara announced that it was selling its share in its Russian Rossosh NPK plant for $390 million US, or 2.1 billion kroner (NOK)


title: Yara International

text: In 2013 Yara was enmeshed in a scandal that involved many companies and transactions that may not have taken place, Dagens Næringsliv. Norway's business daily, reported that Yara had paid over eight million Norwegian krone to Shukri Ghanem, formerly Libya's prime minister, oil minister, and senior commander of the state oil company. Ghanem had been found dead in the Austrian Danube in 2012. Yara issued fictitious invoices to account for the money transfers, which were deposited in the bank account of a relative of Ghanem in the UBS Bank in Switzerland. The Norwegian (Økokrim) anti-corruption agency noticed the payments in 2011. The head of the upstream segment, Tor Halba, had warned of possible corrupt practices in a 2008 internal email. Investigators came across the payments when they seized business records for two Swiss-based businesses, one of them Yara's fertilizer trading subsidiary, Balderton. Yara's own investigation uncovered additional corruption in India. Økokrim charged the company with gross corruption in both cases.


title: Yara International

text: On October 26, 2013 Yara acquired OFD Holding Inc.(OFD) from Omimex Resources Inc. for US$425 million, gaining production facilities in Colombia and distribution companies across Latin America.


title: Yara International

text: Norwegian authorities had been informed by the company in 2011 that it might have been involved in corruption in connection with 2008 negotiations leading to 2009's investment of 1.5 billion Norwegian kroner into a 50% share of Libyan Norwegian Fertiliser Company, or LIFECO.


title: Yara International

text: In January 2014, the corporation agreed to pay a $48 million fine in a case involving corruption between 2004 and 2009. The company admitted bribing senior government officials in India and Libya, as well as to suppliers in Russia and India. The fine was the largest ever of its kind in Norway. The case puts two cohorts of Yara executives up against each other.


title: Yara International

text: On 10 January 2014 the Norwegian Cabinet approved the indictment of former deputy CEO Daniel Clauw in connection with Norway's investigation of Yara. Three other Yara executives were also indicted in the case. They were sentenced July 7, 2015. Enger, the former CEO, received the harshest sentence, three years. The former chief legal officer, Kendrick Wallace, was given a 2½-year sentence, and Clauw and former upstream coordinator Tor Halba were given two-year sentences. Yara International announced in September 2014 that it was in talks with CF Industries about a possible merger of equals, a deal worth over $27 billion.


title: Yara International

text: In Zambia, Yara acquired Greenbelt Fertilizers, a company with a strong footprint in Zambia, Mozambique and Malawi. In September 2015, Svein Tore Holsether joined Yara as the company's new President and CEO. In 2015, the last Yara Prize was awarded before it was turned into the Africa Food Prize. The prize was launched in 2005. From 2016 and onwards, the Yara Prize has been turned into the Africa Food Prize, in collaboration with Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA).


title: Yara International

text: In February 2016 the two urea and two ammonia plants Yara has in Brega were operating at less than 50% of their capacity.


title: Yara International

text: In 2017, Yara ordered the , which will be the world's first autonomous ship. Entering service in 2018, it will be fully autonomous by 2020.


title: Yara International

text: In connection with the protests in Belarus in 2020, the opposition politician Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya called Yara International to stop working with Belarusian state-owned company Belaruskali or to ensure that they respect workers' rights. The state-owned company Belaruskali had previously fired employees who had taken part in strikes or demonstrations. In the course of this, Yara published a statement in which they called on the Belarusian state company to stop punishing workers.


title: Yara International

text: Libyan Norwegian Fertiliser Company B.V., registered in the Netherlands, is co-owned by Yara and "Libyan partners ... with close ties to Muammar Gaddafi and his clan" according to Dagens Næringsliv. Authorities have frozen the joint venture's bank accounts in the Netherlands.


title: Field trip

text: A field trip or excursion is a journey by a group of people to a place away from their normal environment.


title: Field trip

text: When done for students, as it happens in several school systems, it is also known as school trip in the UK, Australia, New Zealand and Bangladesh, and school tour in Ireland.


title: Field trip

text: A 2022 study, which used randomized controlled trial data, found that culturally enriching field trips led students to show a greater interest in arts, greater tolerance for people with different views, and boosted their educational outcomes.


title: Field trip

text: The purpose of the field trip is usually "observation" for education, non-experimental research or to provide students with experiences outside their everyday activities, such as going camping with teachers and their classmates. The aim of this research is to observe the subject in its natural state and possibly collect samples. It is seen that more-advantaged children may have already experienced cultural institutions outside of school, and field trips provide common ground with more-advantaged and less-advantaged children to have some of the same cultural experiences in the arts.


title: Field trip

text: Field trips are most often done in 3 steps: preparation, activities and follow-up activity. Preparation applies to both the student and the teacher. Teachers often take the time to learn about the destination and the subject before the trip. Activities that happen on the field trips often include: lectures, tours, worksheets, videos and demonstrations. Follow-up activities are generally discussions that occur in the classroom once the field trip is completed.


title: Field trip

text: In Western culture people first come across this method during school years when classes are taken on school trips to visit a geological or geographical feature of the landscape, for example. Much of the early research into the natural sciences was of this form. Charles Darwin is an important example of someone who has contributed to science through the use of field trips.


title: Field trip

text: Popular field trip sites include zoos, nature centers, community agencies such as fire stations and hospitals, government agencies, local businesses, amusement parks, science museums, and factories. Field trips provide alternative educational opportunities for children and can benefit the community if they include some type of community service. Field trips also provide students the opportunity to take a break from their normal routine and experience more hands-on learning. Places like zoos and nature centers often have an interactive displays that allow children to touch plants or animals.


title: Field trip

text: Today, culturally enriching field trips are in decline. Museums across the United States report a steep drop in school tours. For example, the Field Museum in Chicago at one time welcomed more than 300,000 students every year. Recently the number is below 200,000. Between 2002 and 2007, Cincinnati arts organizations saw a 30 percent decrease in student attendance. A survey by the American Association of School Administrators found that more than half of schools eliminated planned field trips in 2010–11.


title: Field trip

text: A variation on the field trip is the "site-based program" or "site-school" model, where a class temporarily relocates to a non-school location for an entire week to take advantage of the resources on the site. As with a multi-day field trip, appropriate overnight camping or lodging arrangements are often made to accommodate the experience. The approach was first developed at the Calgary Zoo in Alberta, Canada in 1993, and "Zoo School" was inaugurated in 1994. The Calgary Board of Education then approached the Glenbow Museum and Archives to create a "Museum School" in 1995 followed by the Calgary Science Centre (1996), the University of Calgary (1996), Canada Olympic Park (1997), the Inglewood Bird Sanctuary (1998), Calgary City Hall (2000), Cross Conservation Area (2000), the Calgary Stampede (2002), the Calgary Aero-Space Museum (2005), and the Fire Training Academy (2008). One of the newer schools in Calgary is Tinker School and Social Enterprise School at STEM Learning Lab (2018) The model spread across Alberta (with 15 sites in Edmonton alone), throughout Canada and to the United States. Global coordination of the model is through the "Beyond the Classroom Network".


title: Field trip

text: A somewhat similar model in France called (sea class), (snow class), or (green class) involving outdoor education trips that last several days, however these may not involve support from museum or zoo staff as in the Canadian model.


title: Second-order logic

text: In logic and mathematics, second-order logic is an extension of first-order logic, which itself is an extension of propositional logic. Second-order logic is in turn extended by higher-order logic and type theory.


title: Second-order logic

text: First-order logic quantifies only variables that range over individuals (elements of the domain of discourse); second-order logic, in addition, also quantifies over relations. For example, the second-order sentence formula_1 says that for every formula "P", and every individual "x", either "Px" is true or not("Px") is true (this is the law of excluded middle). Second-order logic also includes quantification over sets, functions, and other variables (see section below). Both first-order and second-order logic use the idea of a domain of discourse (often called simply the "domain" or the "universe"). The domain is a set over which individual elements may be quantified.


title: Second-order logic

text: First-order logic can quantify over individuals, but not over properties. That is, we can take an atomic sentence like Cube("b") and obtain a quantified sentence by replacing the name with a variable and attaching a quantifier:


title: Second-order logic

text: is not a sentence of first-order logic, but this is a legitimate sentence of second-order logic. Here, "P" is a predicate variable and is semantically a set of individuals.


title: Second-order logic

text: As a result, second-order logic has greater expressive power than first-order logic. For example, there is no way in first-order logic to identify the set of all cubes and tetrahedrons. But the existence of this set can be asserted in second-order logic as


title: Second-order logic

text: We can then assert properties of this set. For instance, the following says that the set of all cubes and tetrahedrons does not contain any dodecahedrons:


title: Second-order logic

text: Second-order quantification is especially useful because it gives the ability to express reachability properties. For example, if Parent("x", "y") denotes that "x" is a parent of "y", then first-order logic can't express the property that "x" is an ancestor of "y". In second-order logic we can express this by saying that every set of people containing "y" and closed under the Parent relation contains "x":


title: Second-order logic

text: It is notable that while we have variables for predicates in second-order-logic, we don't have variables for properties of predicates. We can't say, for example, that there is a property Shape("P") that is true for the predicates "P" Cube, Tet, and Dodec. This would require third-order logic.


title: Second-order logic

text: The syntax of second-order logic tells which expressions are well formed formulas. In addition to the syntax of first-order logic, second-order logic includes many new "sorts" (sometimes called "types") of variables. These are:


title: Second-order logic

text: Each of the variables just defined may be universally and/or existentially quantified over, to build up formulas. Thus there are many kinds of quantifiers, two for each sort of variables. A "sentence" in second-order logic, as in first-order logic, is a well-formed formula with no free variables (of any sort).


title: Second-order logic

text: It's possible to forgo the introduction of function variables in the definition given above (and some authors do this) because an "n"-ary function variable can be represented by a relation variable of arity "n"+1 and an appropriate formula for the uniqueness of the "result" in the "n"+1 argument of the relation. (Shapiro 2000, p. 63)


title: Second-order logic

text: Monadic second-order logic (MSO) is a restriction of second-order logic in which only quantification over unary relations (i.e. sets) is allowed. Quantification over functions, owing to the equivalence to relations as described above, is thus also not allowed. The second-order logic without these restrictions is sometimes called "full second-order logic" to distinguish it from the monadic version. Monadic second-order logic is particularly used in the context of Courcelle's theorem, an algorithmic meta-theorem in graph theory. The MSO theory of the complete infinite binary tree (S2S) is decidable. By contrast, full second order logic over any infinite set (or MSO logic over for example (formula_2,+)) can interpret the true second-order arithmetic.


title: Second-order logic

text: Just as in first-order logic, second-order logic may include non-logical symbols in a particular second-order language. These are restricted, however, in that all terms that they form must be either first-order terms (which can be substituted for a first-order variable) or second-order terms (which can be substituted for a second-order variable of an appropriate sort).


title: Second-order logic

text: A formula in second-order logic is said to be of first-order (and sometimes denoted formula_3 or formula_4) if its quantifiers (which may be universal or existential) range only over variables of first order, although it may have free variables of second order. A formula_5 (existential second-order) formula is one additionally having some existential quantifiers over second order variables, i.e. formula_6, where formula_7 is a first-order formula. The fragment of second-order logic consisting only of existential second-order formulas is called existential second-order logic and abbreviated as ESO, as formula_5, or even as ∃SO. The fragment of formula_9 formulas is defined dually, it is called universal second-order logic. More expressive fragments are defined for any "k" > 0 by mutual recursion: formula_10 has the form formula_6, where formula_7 is a formula_13 formula, and similar, formula_14 has the form formula_15, where formula_7 is a formula_17 formula. (See analytical hierarchy for the analogous construction of second-order arithmetic.)


title: Second-order logic

text: The semantics of second-order logic establish the meaning of each sentence. Unlike first-order logic, which has only one standard semantics, there are two different semantics that are commonly used for second-order logic: standard semantics and Henkin semantics. In each of these semantics, the interpretations of the first-order quantifiers and the logical connectives are the same as in first-order logic. Only the ranges of quantifiers over second-order variables differ in the two types of semantics (Väänänen 2001).


title: Second-order logic

text: In standard semantics, also called full semantics, the quantifiers range over "all" sets or functions of the appropriate sort. Thus once the domain of the first-order variables is established, the meaning of the remaining quantifiers is fixed. It is these semantics that give second-order logic its expressive power, and they will be assumed for the remainder of this article.


title: Second-order logic

text: Leon Henkin (1950) defined an alternative kind of semantics for second-order and higher-order theories, in which the meaning of the higher-order domains is partly determined by an explicit axiomatisation, drawing on type theory, of the properties of the sets or functions ranged over. Henkin semantics is a kind of many-sorted first-order semantics, where there are a class of models of the axioms, instead of the semantics being fixed to just the standard model as in the standard semantics. A model in Henkin semantics will provide a set of sets or set of functions as the interpretation of higher-order domains, which may be a proper subset of all sets or functions of that sort. For his axiomatisation, Henkin proved that Gödel's completeness theorem and compactness theorem, which hold for first-order logic, carry over to second-order logic with Henkin semantics. Since also the Skolem–Löwenheim theorems hold for Henkin semantics, Lindström's theorem imports that Henkin models are just "disguised first-order models".


title: Second-order logic

text: For theories such as second-order arithmetic, the existence of non-standard interpretations of higher-order domains isn't just a deficiency of the particular axiomatisation derived from type theory that Henkin used, but a necessary consequence of Gödel's incompleteness theorem: Henkin's axioms can't be supplemented further to ensure the standard interpretation is the only possible model. Henkin semantics are commonly used in the study of second-order arithmetic.


title: Second-order logic

text: Jouko Väänänen (2001) argued that the choice between Henkin models and full models for second-order logic is analogous to the choice between ZFC and "V" as a basis for set theory: "As with second-order logic, we cannot really choose whether we axiomatize mathematics using "V" or ZFC. The result is the same in both cases, as ZFC "is" the best attempt so far to use "V" as an axiomatization of mathematics."


title: Second-order logic

text: Second-order logic is more expressive than first-order logic. For example, if the domain is the set of all real numbers, one can assert in first-order logic the existence of an additive inverse of each real number by writing ∀"x" ∃"y" ("x" + "y" = 0) but one needs second-order logic to assert the least-upper-bound property for sets of real numbers, which states that every bounded, nonempty set of real numbers has a supremum. If the domain is the set of all real numbers, the following second-order sentence (split over two lines) expresses the least upper bound property:


title: Second-order logic

text: This formula is a direct formalization of "every , set A ." It can be shown that any ordered field that satisfies this property is isomorphic to the real number field. On the other hand, the set of first-order sentences valid in the reals has arbitrarily large models due to the compactness theorem. Thus the least-upper-bound property cannot be expressed by any set of sentences in first-order logic. (In fact, every real-closed field satisfies the same first-order sentences in the signature formula_18 as the real numbers.)


title: Second-order logic

text: In second-order logic, it is possible to write formal sentences that say "the domain is finite" or "the domain is of countable cardinality." To say that the domain is finite, use the sentence that says that every surjective function from the domain to itself is injective. To say that the domain has countable cardinality, use the sentence that says that there is a bijection between every two infinite subsets of the domain. It follows from the compactness theorem and the upward Löwenheim–Skolem theorem that it is not possible to characterize finiteness or countability, respectively, in first-order logic.


title: Second-order logic

text: Certain fragments of second-order logic like ESO are also more expressive than first-order logic even though they are strictly less expressive than the full second-order logic. ESO also enjoys translation equivalence with some extensions of first-order logic that allow non-linear ordering of quantifier dependencies, like first-order logic extended with Henkin quantifiers, Hintikka and Sandu's independence-friendly logic, and Väänänen's dependence logic.


title: Second-order logic

text: A deductive system for a logic is a set of inference rules and logical axioms that determine which sequences of formulas constitute valid proofs. Several deductive systems can be used for second-order logic, although none can be complete for the standard semantics (see below). Each of these systems is sound, which means any sentence they can be used to prove is logically valid in the appropriate semantics.


title: Second-order logic

text: The weakest deductive system that can be used consists of a standard deductive system for first-order logic (such as natural deduction) augmented with substitution rules for second-order terms. This deductive system is commonly used in the study of second-order arithmetic.


title: Second-order logic

text: The deductive systems considered by Shapiro (1991) and Henkin (1950) add to the augmented first-order deductive scheme both comprehension axioms and choice axioms. These axioms are sound for standard second-order semantics. They are sound for Henkin semantics restricted to Henkin models satisfying the comprehension and choice axioms.


title: Second-order logic

text: One might attempt to reduce the second-order theory of the real numbers, with full second-order semantics, to the first-order theory in the following way. First expand the domain from the set of all real numbers to a two-sorted domain, with the second sort containing all "sets of" real numbers. Add a new binary predicate to the language: the membership relation. Then sentences that were second-order become first-order, with the formerly second-order quantifiers ranging over the second sort instead. This reduction can be attempted in a one-sorted theory by adding unary predicates that tell whether an element is a number or a set, and taking the domain to be the union of the set of real numbers and the power set of the real numbers.


title: Second-order logic

text: But notice that the domain was asserted to include "all" sets of real numbers. That requirement cannot be reduced to a first-order sentence, as the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem shows. That theorem implies that there is some countably infinite subset of the real numbers, whose members we will call "internal numbers", and some countably infinite collection of sets of internal numbers, whose members we will call "internal sets", such that the domain consisting of internal numbers and internal sets satisfies exactly the same first-order sentences as are satisfied by the domain of real numbers and sets of real numbers. In particular, it satisfies a sort of least-upper-bound axiom that says, in effect:


title: Second-order logic

text: Countability of the set of all internal numbers (in conjunction with the fact that those form a densely ordered set) implies that that set does not satisfy the full least-upper-bound axiom. Countability of the set of all "internal" sets implies that it is not the set of "all" subsets of the set of all "internal" numbers (since Cantor's theorem implies that the set of all subsets of a countably infinite set is an uncountably infinite set). This construction is closely related to Skolem's paradox.


title: Second-order logic

text: Thus the first-order theory of real numbers and sets of real numbers has many models, some of which are countable. The second-order theory of the real numbers has only one model, however.


title: Second-order logic

text: This follows from the classical theorem that there is only one Archimedean complete ordered field, along with the fact that all the axioms of an Archimedean complete ordered field are expressible in second-order logic. This shows that the second-order theory of the real numbers cannot be reduced to a first-order theory, in the sense that the second-order theory of the real numbers has only one model but the corresponding first-order theory has many models.


title: Second-order logic

text: There are more extreme examples showing that second-order logic with standard semantics is more expressive than first-order logic. There is a finite second-order theory whose only model is the real numbers if the continuum hypothesis holds and that has no model if the continuum hypothesis does not hold (cf. Shapiro 2000, p. 105). This theory consists of a finite theory characterizing the real numbers as a complete Archimedean ordered field plus an axiom saying that the domain is of the first uncountable cardinality. This example illustrates that the question of whether a sentence in second-order logic is consistent is extremely subtle.


title: Second-order logic

text: It is a corollary of Gödel's incompleteness theorem that there is no deductive system (that is, no notion of "provability") for second-order formulas that simultaneously satisfies these three desired attributes:


title: Second-order logic

text: This corollary is sometimes expressed by saying that second-order logic does not admit a complete proof theory. In this respect second-order logic with standard semantics differs from first-order logic; Quine (1970, pp. 90–91) pointed to the lack of a complete proof system as a reason for thinking of second-order logic as not "logic", properly speaking.


title: Second-order logic

text: As mentioned above, Henkin proved that the standard deductive system for first-order logic is sound, complete, and effective for second-order logic with Henkin semantics, and the deductive system with comprehension and choice principles is sound, complete, and effective for Henkin semantics using only models that satisfy these principles.


title: Second-order logic

text: The compactness theorem and the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem do not hold for full models of second-order logic. They do hold however for Henkin models.


title: Second-order logic

text: Predicate logic was introduced to the mathematical community by C. S. Peirce, who coined the term "second-order logic" and whose notation is most similar to the modern form (Putnam 1982). However, today most students of logic are more familiar with the works of Frege, who published his work several years prior to Peirce but whose works remained less known until Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead made them famous. Frege used different variables to distinguish quantification over objects from quantification over properties and sets; but he did not see himself as doing two different kinds of logic. After the discovery of Russell's paradox it was realized that something was wrong with his system. Eventually logicians found that restricting Frege's logic in various ways—to what is now called first-order logic—eliminated this problem: sets and properties cannot be quantified over in first-order logic alone. The now-standard hierarchy of orders of logics dates from this time.


title: Second-order logic

text: It was found that set theory could be formulated as an axiomatized system within the apparatus of first-order logic (at the cost of several kinds of completeness, but nothing so bad as Russell's paradox), and this was done (see Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory), as sets are vital for mathematics. Arithmetic, mereology, and a variety of other powerful logical theories could be formulated axiomatically without appeal to any more logical apparatus than first-order quantification, and this, along with Gödel and Skolem's adherence to first-order logic, led to a general decline in work in second (or any higher) order logic.


title: Second-order logic

text: This rejection was actively advanced by some logicians, most notably W. V. Quine. Quine advanced the view that in predicate-language sentences like "Fx" the ""x"" is to be thought of as a variable or name denoting an object and hence can be quantified over, as in "For all things, it is the case that . . ." but the ""F"" is to be thought of as an "abbreviation" for an incomplete sentence, not the name of an object (not even of an abstract object like a property). For example, it might mean " . . . is a dog." But it makes no sense to think we can quantify over something like this. (Such a position is quite consistent with Frege's own arguments on the concept-object distinction). So to use a predicate as a variable is to have it occupy the place of a name, which only individual variables should occupy. This reasoning has been rejected by George Boolos.


title: Second-order logic

text: In recent years second-order logic has made something of a recovery, buoyed by Boolos' interpretation of second-order quantification as plural quantification over the same domain of objects as first-order quantification (Boolos 1984). Boolos furthermore points to the claimed nonfirstorderizability of sentences such as "Some critics admire only each other" and "Some of Fianchetto's men went into the warehouse unaccompanied by anyone else", which he argues can only be expressed by the full force of second-order quantification. However, generalized quantification and partially ordered (or branching) quantification may suffice to express a certain class of purportedly nonfirstorderizable sentences as well and these do not appeal to second-order quantification.


title: Second-order logic

text: The expressive power of various forms of second-order logic on finite structures is intimately tied to computational complexity theory. The field of descriptive complexity studies which computational complexity classes can be characterized by the power of the logic needed to express languages (sets of finite strings) in them. A string "w" = "w"···"w" in a finite alphabet "A" can be represented by a finite structure with domain "D" = {1...,"n"}, unary predicates "P" for each "a" ∈ "A", satisfied by those indices "i" such that "w" = "a", and additional predicates that serve to uniquely identify which index is which (typically, one takes the graph of the successor function on "D" or the order relation <, possibly with other arithmetic predicates). Conversely, the Cayley tables of any finite structure (over a finite signature) can be encoded by a finite string.


title: Second-order logic

text: This identification leads to the following characterizations of variants of second-order logic over finite structures:


title: Second-order logic

text: Relationships among these classes directly impact the relative expressiveness of the logics over finite structures; for example, if PH = PSPACE, then adding a transitive closure operator to second-order logic would not make it any more expressive over finite structures.


title: Emily (2022 film)

text: Emily is a 2022 biographical drama film written and directed by Frances O'Connor in her directorial debut. It depicts a fictionalized version of the life of English writer Emily Brontë (portrayed by Emma Mackey), concentrating on her romantic relationship with the curate William Weightman (there is no evidence that such a relationship ever occurred). Fionn Whitehead, Oliver Jackson-Cohen, Alexandra Dowling, Amelia Gething, Adrian Dunbar and Gemma Jones also appear in supporting roles.


title: Emily (2022 film)

text: "Emily" premiered at the 2022 Toronto International Film Festival before being theatrically released in the United Kingdom by Warner Bros. Pictures on 14 October 2022, and in the United States by Bleecker Street in 2023.


title: Emily (2022 film)

text: As Emily Brontë is ill and near death her older sister Charlotte asks her what inspired her to write her novel "Wuthering Heights".


title: Emily (2022 film)

text: Sometime in the past Charlotte, nearly graduated from school, returns home for a visit. Emily tries to talk to her about the fictional worlds she has been creating while Charlotte was at school, but Charlotte tries to dissuade her from these juvenile activities.


title: Emily (2022 film)

text: At the same time William Weightman, a new curate, arrives. While her sisters and several other young women seem enamoured of the young man Emily is dismissive of him. While visiting the Brontë home, Weightman partakes in a game the Brontës have invented where they take turns donning a mask and impersonating a character with the other members guessing who the character is. When it is Emily's turn she claims to be possessed by the ghost of their deceased mother. Charlotte, Anne and Branwell become distressed while Weightman is disturbed by the scene.


title: Emily (2022 film)

text: Emily goes with Charlotte to her school to learn to be a teacher while her brother Branwell goes to study at the Royal Academy of Arts. Both Emily and Branwell return shortly after as failures, Branwell proclaiming he is now more interested in writing and Emily at a loss for what to do.


title: Emily (2022 film)

text: Emily's father engages Weightman to teach Emily French which he does while arguing religious philosophy with her. In the mean time Branwell encourages Emily to drink and play, their favourite pastime involving staring in the window of a local family and scaring them at night. They are eventually caught and when Emily denies her involvement Branwell is sent to work for the family as a tutor as punishment. Branwell is caught kissing the mistress of the house and is sent elsewhere in disgrace.


title: Emily (2022 film)

text: When Charlotte returns home and begins to suspect an affinity between the two Weightman abruptly ends their relationship. Emily is devastated and takes out her anger on Branwell, telling him that his attempts at fiction are clichéd and trite. In order to move on with her life Emily decides to leave with Charlotte for Brussels. She tells Weightman she no longer intends to write. Weightman writes Emily a letter urging her to change her mind, which he gives to Branwell. However Branwell reads its contents and does not pass on the message.


title: Emily (2022 film)

text: In Brussels Emily has a vision of Weightman and shortly after receives news that he died. The sisters return home to tend to an ailing Branwell. His final act before dying is to give Emily Weightman's letter in which he urges her to continue to write. In the aftermath of Branwell's death Emily writes "Wuthering Heights".


title: Emily (2022 film)

text: Now on her death bed Emily confesses to Charlotte that she was in love with Weightman and asks Charlotte to burn the love letters between the two after she dies. Charlotte does so and begins to write her own works.


title: Emily (2022 film)

text: The film was announced in May 2020 with Emma Mackey cast in the titular role, with Joe Alwyn, Fionn Whitehead and Emily Beecham being cast as people in Emily’s life. Frances O'Connor was set to write and direct the film. Both Alwyn and Beecham left the project prior to the start of filming in April 2021, with Oliver Jackson-Cohen, Alexandra Dowling, Amelia Gething, Gemma Jones and Adrian Dunbar joining the cast. Filming began in Yorkshire on 16 April 2021 and concluded on 26 May.


title: Emily (2022 film)

text: "Emily" had its world premiere in the Platform Prize lineup at the 2022 Toronto International Film Festival on September 9, 2022. In May 2022, it was announced that Bleecker Street has acquired the US distribution rights for the film, with a release year of 2023.


title: Emily (2022 film)

text: In his review for "The Guardian", Peter Bradshaw describes the film as "beautifully acted, lovingly shot, fervently and speculatively imagined". Mark Kermode describes "Emily" as a "full-blooded gothic fable", praising O’Connor's "spine-tingling feature debut".


title: Emily (2022 film)

text: The film received three awards at the Dinard British Film Festival: Golden Hitchcock, Best Performance Award for Emma Mackey and Audience Award.


title: Grob G 115

text: The Grob G 115 is a general aviation fixed-wing aircraft, primarily used for flight training. It is built in Germany by Grob Aircraft (Grob Aerospace before January 2009). The E variant with a 3-blade variable pitch propeller is in service with the Finnish Air Force, the Royal Navy and Army Air Corps for Flying Grading (a pre-EFT flying course) and in the Royal Air Force as part of No. 6 Flying Training School (6 FTS) which provides flying to both University Air Squadrons and Air Experience Flights to Cadets of the Royal Air Force Air Cadets. As of 2020, the Tutor is still being used by the RAF for some Elementary Flying Training (3FTS) but is due to be phased out in favour of its replacement, the Prefect T1.


title: Grob G 115

text: The aircraft is constructed of carbon composite materials. The main fuselage and each wing spar is a single piece. It has a fixed (sprung steel) tricycle undercarriage with spatted wheels, a short nose bearing the 180 hp engine, and a 3-bladed variable-pitch propeller. The aircraft was re-certified in 2013 with a new MT Propeller following issues with the previous design. The inverted oil system was also redesigned to improve lubrication during aerobatics. The cockpit features a broad canopy arch and spine. Forward visibility is good. The side-by-side seats are fixed and pilot seating is adjusted with cushions as well as a rudder bar adjuster. The wings are tapered with square tips and the empennage consists of a large fin and rudder, with an oblong tailplane with square tips mid-set to the fuselage.


title: Grob G 115

text: The initial Grob G 115 and G 115A models had an upright fin and rudder, and were mainly sold to civilian aeroplane clubs in Germany, the United Kingdom and several other countries.


title: Grob G 115

text: The Grob Heron was first bought by the Royal Navy. After its use five were bought by Tayside Aviation. There are only six recorded Herons in existence; two (to be sold) operated by Tayside Aviation, three privately owned and one in Germany. One was reported as written off after an accident.


title: Grob G 115

text: With the retirement of the Scottish Aviation Bulldog T.1 from Royal Air Force University Air Squadrons (UASs) and Air Experience Flights (AEFs), a new system was put in place for the provision of the UAS and AEF flying tasks. Aircraft were to be owned and operated by private industry, contracted to the Ministry of Defence (MoD). The aircraft chosen for this task was the Grob 115E, designated Tutor T1 by the MoD. The Tutor fleet is owned and maintained by a civilian company, Babcock, and carries British civilian registrations under a Private Finance Initiative (PFI) scheme, painted overall white with blue flashes and UK Military Aircraft roundels.


title: Grob G 115

text: Royal Navy, Army and RAF Elementary Flying Training (EFT), where students streamed according to ability: Fast Jet, Rotary Wing, Multi-Engine or non-pilot roles, was previously taught on the Grob Tutor at RAF Cranwell and RAF Barkston Heath by the joint 3 Flying Training School, with 703 Naval Air Squadron, 674 Squadron Army Air Corps and 57 RAF Reserve Squadron, before being replaced in 2018 by the turboprop trainer, the Grob G120TP Prefect. Some 3FTS EFT training for various pipelines still continues on the Tutor on 16Sqn at RAF Wittering.


title: Grob G 115

text: Until 2005 the Tutor was used by UASs to provide EFT to university students, many sponsored by the RAF. From 2006, UAS students are no longer taught EFT; they follow an unassessed flying syllabus similar to EFT, but with only a 36-hour course and the possibility of progression to more advanced training on merit. The Tutor is also used by AEFs to provide flying experience for cadets of the Air Training Corps (ATC) and Combined Cadet Force (CCF), replacing the Bulldog in these roles at the turn of the century. The final AEF to receive the Tutor was 10 AEF, based at RAF Woodvale in Merseyside, in 2001. 10 AEF was incidentally also the last AEF to receive the Bulldog in 1996, replacing the Chipmunk.


title: Grob G 115

text: Five Tutor T1s are also operated by 727 Naval Air Squadron of the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm for trainee pilot grading at RNAS Yeovilton.


title: Grob G 115

text: In 2009 some Tutor squadrons began to receive new Enhanced Avionics (EA) Tutors, with an updated and enhanced instrument panel, featuring a Garmin GNS 430W GPS system, digital HSI and digital engine instruments. These aircraft are the same as the standard Tutors, with the exception of an extra VHF aerial for the new GPS system and the cockpit modifications.


title: Wheat berry

text: A wheat berry, or wheatberry, is a whole wheat kernel, composed of the bran, germ, and endosperm, without the husk. Botanically, it is a type of fruit called a caryopsis. Wheat berries have a tan to reddish-brown color and are available as either a . They are often added to salads or baked into bread to add a chewy texture. If wheat berries are milled, whole-wheat flour is produced.


title: Wheat berry

text: Wheat berries are the primary ingredient in an Eastern European Christmas porridge called "kutya". In France, cooked durum wheat berries are commonly eaten as a side dish instead of rice or corn. This side dish is often called "ebly", from the name of the first brand of prepared wheat berries.


title: Bryde's whale

text: Bryde's whale ( Brooder's), or the Bryde's whale complex, putatively comprises three species of rorqual and maybe four. The "complex" means the number and classification remains unclear because of a lack of definitive information and research. The common Bryde's whale (Balaenoptera brydei, Olsen, 1913) is a larger form that occurs worldwide in warm temperate and tropical waters, and the Sittang or Eden's whale (Balaenoptera edeni, Anderson, 1879) is a smaller form that may be restricted to the Indo-Pacific. Also, a smaller, coastal form of "B. brydei" is found off southern Africa, and perhaps another form in the Indo-Pacific differs in skull morphology, tentatively referred to as the Indo-Pacific Bryde's whale. The recently described Omura's whale ("B. omurai", Wada et al. 2003), was formerly thought to be a pygmy form of Bryde's, but is now recognized as a distinct species. Rice's whale ("B. ricei"), which makes its home solely in the Gulf of Mexico, was once considered a distinct population of Bryde's whale, but in 2021 it was described as a separate species.


title: Bryde's whale

text: "B. brydei" gets its specific and common name from Johan Bryde, Norwegian consul to South Africa, who helped establish the first modern whaling station in the country, while "B. edeni" gets its specific and common names from Sir Ashley Eden, former High Commissioner of Burma (Myanmar). Sittang whale refers to the type locality of the species.


title: Bryde's whale

text: In Japan, early whalers called it or . It preys on the anchovy and it was commonly associated with the skipjack. As modern whaling shifted to the Sanriku area, whalemen confused the sei whale with it; now only applies to the latter. Incidentally, anchovies are dominant prey for both species off Japan. They are now called , for their resemblance to the sei whale.


title: Bryde's whale

text: The taxonomy is poorly characterised. The two genetically distinct, candidate species/subspecies/morphologies are Bryde's whale "B. brydei" and the Sittang or Eden's whale "B. edeni", that differentiate by geographic distribution, inshore/offshore preferences, and size. For both putative species, the scientific name "B. edeni" is commonly used or they are simply referred to "B." cf "brydei/edeni".


title: Bryde's whale

text: In 1878, the Scottish zoologist John Anderson, first curator of the Indian Museum in Calcutta, described "Balaenoptera edeni", naming it after the former British High Commissioner in Burma, Sir Ashley Eden, who helped obtain the type specimen. Eden's Deputy Commissioner, Major A.G. Duff, sent a Mr Duke, one of his assistants, to Thaybyoo Creek, between the Sittang and Beeling Rivers, on the Gulf of Martaban, where he found a 37-foot whale, which had stranded there in June 1871 after swimming more than 20 miles up the creek—it was said to have "exhausted itself by its furious struggles" to get free and "roared like an elephant" before finally expiring. Despite terrible weather, he was able to secure almost the entire skull and nearly all its vertebrae, along with other bones. These were sent to Anderson, who described the specimen, which was physically mature, as a new species. In 1913, the Norwegian scientist Ørjan Olsen, based on the examination of a dozen "sei whales" brought to the whaling stations at Durban and Saldanha, in South Africa, described "Balaenoptera brydei", naming it after the Norwegian consul to South Africa Johan Bryde. In 1950, the Dutch scientist G.C.A. Junge, after comparing specimens of "B. edeni" and "B. brydei" with a 39-foot, physically mature specimen that had stranded on Pulau Sugi, an island between Singapore and Sumatra, in July 1936, synonymized the two species into "B. edeni".


title: Bryde's whale

text: In the 1950s it was discovered that there were two types of "sei whale" off Japan, a northern form with longer, finer baleen and shorter ventral grooves and a southern form with shorter, coarser baleen and longer ventral grooves. They also differed in the shape of the palate. The former was caught off northeastern Honshu and eastern Hokkaido, while the latter was taken off western Kyushu and southern Honshu. Both were caught off the Bonin Islands, but at different seasons. It was realized that the northern form were indeed sei whales ("B. borealis"), but the southern form were Bryde's whale ("B. brydei/edeni"). A later study revealed that Bryde's caught off Japan exhibited lateral ridges on their rostrum, whereas sei whales lacked this feature.


title: Bryde's whale

text: In the 1960s it was discovered that some of the "sei whales" being caught off Brazil were also Bryde's whales based on the same characters that distinguished the two species off Japan (i.e. three ridges on the rostrum versus one, shape of the palate, texture of the baleen, length of the ventral grooves).


title: Bryde's whale

text: Several differences in anatomy are found between Bryde's and Eden's whales; morphological similarities have caused confusions regarding species identification.


title: Bryde's whale

text: Members of the Bryde's whale complex are moderately-sized rorquals, falling behind sei whales, but being larger than Omura's whale and the relatively small minke whales. The largest measured by Olsen (1913) was a female caught off Durban in November 1912, while the longest of each sex measured by Best (1977) at the Donkergat whaling station in Saldanha Bay, South Africa, were a female caught in October 1962 and a male caught in April 1963; both were the offshore form. At physical maturity, the coastal form off South Africa averages for males and for females, while the South Africa offshore form averages . The coastal form near Japan is slightly smaller, with adult males averaging and adult females . At sexual maturity, males average and females near Japan. Sexual maturity is reached at 8–11 years for both sexes in the offshore form off South Africa. At birth, they are . The body mass of Bryde's whales can range .


title: Bryde's whale

text: The Bryde's whale is a baleen whale, more specifically a rorqual belonging to the same group as blue whales and humpback whales. It has twin blowholes with a low splashguard to the front. Like other rorquals, it has no teeth, but has two rows of baleen plates.


title: Bryde's whale

text: Bryde's whales closely resemble their close relative the sei whale. They are remarkably elongated (even more so than fin whales), with the greatest height of the body being one seventh their total length—compared to 1/6.5 to 1/6.75 in fin whales and only 1/5.5 in sei whales. Bryde's are dark smoky grey dorsally and usually white ventrally, whereas sei whales are often a galvanized blue-grey dorsally and have a variably sized white patch on the throat, a posteriorly oriented white anchor-shaped marking between the pectoral fins, and are blue-grey beyond the anus—although Bryde's off South Africa can have a similar irregular white patch on the throat. Bryde's have a straight rostrum with three longitudinal ridges that extend from the blowholes, where the auxiliary ridges begin as depressions, to the tip of the rostrum. The sei whale, like other rorquals, has a single median ridge, as well as a slightly arched rostrum, which is accentuated at the tip. Bryde's usually have dark grey lower jaws, whereas sei whales are lighter grey. Bryde's have 250–370 pairs of short, slate grey baleen plates with long, coarse, lighter grey or white bristles that are long by wide, while sei whales have longer, black or dark grey baleen plates with short, curling, wool-like bristles.


title: Bryde's whale

text: The 40 to 70 ventral pleats extend to or past the umbilicus, occupying about 58% and 57% of the total length, respectively; sei whales, though, have ventral pleats that extend only halfway between the pectoral fins and umbilicus, occupying only 45–47% of the total body length, whereas their umbilicus is usually 52% of the total body length. Both species are often covered with white or pink oval scars caused by bites from cookie-cutter sharks.


title: Bryde's whale

text: Bryde's whales have an upright, falcate dorsal fin that is up to in height, average , and is usually between . It is often frayed or ragged along its rear margin and located about two-thirds of the way along the back. The broad, centrally notched tail flukes rarely break the surface. The flippers are small and slender.


title: Bryde's whale

text: Their blow is columnar or bushy, about high. Sometimes, they blow or exhale while under water. Bryde's whales display seemingly erratic behaviour compared to other baleen whales, because they surface at irregular intervals and can change directions for unknown reasons.


title: Bryde's whale

text: They usually appear individually or in pairs, and occasionally in loose aggregations up to 20 animals around feeding areas. They are more active on the water surface than sei whales, especially in coastal waters.


title: Bryde's whale

text: They regularly dive for about 5–15 minutes (maximum of 20 minutes) after four to seven blows. Bryde's whales are capable of reaching depths down to . When submerging, these whales do not display their flukes. Bryde's whales commonly swim at , but can reach . They sometimes generate short (0.4 seconds) powerful, low-frequency vocalizations that resemble a human moan.


title: Bryde's whale

text: Bryde's whales feed on a wide variety of fish, planktonic crustaceans, and cephalopods. In the western North Pacific, Bryde's whales caught by Japanese scientific whaling vessels (2000–2007) mainly fed on Japanese anchovy ("Engraulis japonicus", 52%) and various species of euphausiid (36%, including "Euphausia similis", "E. gibboides", "Thysanoessa gregaria", and "Nematoscelis difficilis"), as well as oceanic lightfish ("Vinciguerria nimbaria", nearly 3%), and mackerels ("Scomber" spp., less than 2%). The prey differed by location and season. In coastal areas, euphausiids dominated the diet, comprising 89 and 75% of the diet in May and June, respectively. Further offshore, Japanese anchovy was the dominant species, accounting for nearly 100% of the diet in late summer. Based on the stomach contents of Bryde's whales caught by Japanese pelagic whaling expeditions in the North Pacific in the 1970s, the majority were found to feed on euphausiids (nearly 89%), whereas only about 11% fed on fish.


title: Bryde's whale

text: Off South Africa, prey preferences differed between the inshore and offshore forms. The former mainly feed on anchovies ("Engraulis capensis", 83%), maasbankers ("Trachurus trachurus", 36%), and pilchards ("Sardinops ocellata", 33%), with only one (or 3%) being found with euphausiids ("Nyctiphanes capensis"). The latter, however, mainly feed on euphausiids (primarily "Euphausia lucens", but also "E. recurva", "N. capensis", and "Thysanoessa gregaria"), as well as various deep-sea fish (including Mueller's pearlside, "Maurolicus muelleri", and a species of "Lestidium"). One was even found "full of baby squid" (later identified as "Lycoteuthis diadema").


title: Bryde's whale

text: In the Gulf of California, they mainly feed on Pacific sardine ("Sardinops sagax") and Pacific thread herring ("Opisthonema libertate") (about 88%), but also feed on euphausiids (mostly "Nyctiphanes simplex", 11%). They have also been observed feeding on pelagic red crabs ("Pleuroncodes planipes") off southern Baja California. In the Coral Sea, the South Pacific, and the Indian Ocean, they appear to mainly feed on euphausiids, while off Brazil, they have been observed feeding on sardines. Individuals caught off Western Australia were found with anchovies ("E. australis") in their stomachs (though these individuals may refer to Omura's whale). Bryde's whales use several feeding methods, including skimming the surface, lunging, and bubble nets especially within Gulf of Tosa.


title: Bryde's whale

text: In the Pacific and northern Indian Ocean, Bryde's whales have been observed employing "tread-water feeding" or "trap feeding," a behaviour more commonly known from the northern Gulf of Thailand which is also performed by humpback whales in the northeastern Pacific.


title: Bryde's whale

text: Bryde's whales breed in alternate years, apparently in any season, with an autumnal peak. Their gestation period is estimated at 12 months. Calves are about long at birth and weigh . They become sexually mature at 8–13 years of age, when females are . The mother nurses for 6–12 months.