title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: Some pre-revolutionary filmmakers have accounts about celebrities who have been hurt by Mousavi's positions in his early years in office. Saeed Motalebi, an established writer and director in the pre-revolutionary era, has one of such accounts that refers to the 1982 film "The Imperilled" (Barzakhi-ha) which was written by him and had four pre-revolutionary male stars in the lead roles. It was directed by Iraj Ghaderi and, with its patriotic story about resisting foreign invasion, it was a chance for Fardin, Malek-Motiei, Ghaderi and Rad to renew their threatened careers as actors in the post-revolutionary atmosphere. The film was a hit and became the highest grossing Iranian film of all time in its short period of screening in theaters. But it was soon banned and consequently the four actors were banned from working. About how the film's success was turned into disaster Motalebi says: In one friday Mr. Mohsen Makhmalbaf gathered a couple of people and they started collecting signatures for a petition which was written on a scroll, stating that "We have made a revolution while these actors are transgressors." They did it right in front of that theater in the Revolution Square near the university of Tehran. They said "Look how theaters are crowded while friday events are deserted." That's how they stopped my film.


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: Then a reporter who was queued to ask something about our film, went and told the then prime minister (Mir-Hossein Mousavi) "There is a film in theaters whose writer wants to convey that people who are fighting in the fronts are problematic persons." The prime minister replied "These are leftovers of junk intellectuals who will soon go to the dustbin of history." Malek-Motiei became jobless and turned his garage into a pastry shop. Ghaderi put some rice bags in his office and became a rice dealer. Fardin opened a pastry shop too and when I went to visit him, I used to wait outside as long as there were no customers so that he wouldn't feel ashamed when he saw me. These were all caused by those illogical efforts which I will never forgive.


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: On 12 December 2018 Amnesty International published an interview of the Austrian national public service ORF (broadcaster), on 13 December 1988, with Mir Hossein Mousavi. Mousavi was asked about the mass executions inside Iran's prison at the time he was in office. Mousavi replied, “We repressed them”. Amnesty's report criticizes Mousavi's response asserting that “without explaining what he is acknowledging ... he focuses on criticizing the July 1988 armed incursion by the People’s Mojahedin Organization of Iran (PMOI).” The report goes on to say:


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: Since 2009, when he re-entered politics as a Reformist opposition leader, Mir Hossein Mousavi’s response when asked about the 1988 prison massacres has often been to avoid commenting or to claim that they took place without the knowledge of his government. In this way, he has tried to justify his failure to stop, investigate or at least condemn the killings publicly. However, documents from Amnesty International’s archives show that the organization repeatedly raised its concerns about reports of mass prisoner executions with senior officials in Mir Hossein Mousavi’s government.


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: When Khomeini, the founder of the Islamic Republic, died in 1989, Mousavi was no longer welcome in the government. It was the start of 20 years of an almost total absence from public life for Mousavi, which many considered as a sign of his disapproval of the established government, though he did sit on two high-level government councils.


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: In 1989, Ali Khamenei named him as a member of the Expediency Discernment Council, his membership of which still continues. Mousavi has been a member of the Supreme Council of Cultural Revolution since 1996. He was also the political adviser of president Hashemi Rafsanjani (1989–1997) and senior adviser of president Khatami (1997–2005).


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: During these years, he partly retired from politics and returned to architecture and teaching, becoming President of the Iranian Academy of Arts, one of the four academies of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The main building of the Academy is designed by him. At the same time, he developed his passion for painting and writing poetry. He was a professor at Shahid Beheshti University and later joined the Academic staff of Tarbiat Modares University. His main field is architecture, and buildings such as "Kanoon-e Tohid" in Tehran, "Beynolharamein Bazaar" in Shiraz, "Haft-e-tir Martyr's tomb" in Tehran's Behesht-e Zahra, and "Salman mosque" in the presidential residence are examples of his work. In recent years, he has been more active in painting and has participated in many exhibitions.


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: Mousavi refused to run for the presidency in the 1997 elections, which caused the reformists to turn to his former Cabinet Minister, then a little-known cleric, Mohammad Khatami, who was elected by a landslide. During Khatami's administration, Mousavi served as the Senior Adviser to the President.


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: Mousavi was considered the leading candidate from the reformist alliance to run in the 2005 Iranian presidential election. However, on 12 October 2004, he officially declined the proposal after a meeting with President Mohammad Khatami and the two other top members of one of Iran's main Reformist parties, the Association of Combatant Clerics, Mehdi Karroubi and Mohammad Mousavi-Khoiniha.


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: After 20 years of political silence, on 9 March 2009, Mousavi announced his intention to run in the 2009 Iranian presidential election. He stated that his main goals were: to institutionalize social justice, equality and fairness, freedom of expression, to root out corruption and to speed up Iran's stagnant process of privatization, and thus move Iran away from what he called "an alms-based economy". Mousavi criticized the then-current conservative President, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, for his alleged economic mismanagement, asking, when Iran "was making profits from the high prices of oil, did he (Ahmadinejad) envisage a situation when the prices would fall?" On 16 March 2009, the former Iranian President Khatami withdrew from the election in support of Mir-Hossein Mousavi.


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: Mousavi ran as an independent Principled Reformist candidate. Although he is one of the original founders of the Iranian reformist camp, he shares many principles of the conservatives. Many reformist parties, among them reformist Islamic Iranian Participation Front, whose main candidate was Khatami, have supported his candidacy after the latter withdrew from the race. Many supporters of the reformist movement, however, objected to Mousavi's candidacy on the grounds that he was not committed to the principles of the reformist parties. Although Mousavi stated that he was not running as a reformist, he indicated that he welcomed the support of different parties, both reformist and conservative. He started his campaign from the center of Iranian politics; over time, he shifted more towards the left by declaring his support for reforms. Although some active members of the conservative camp, such as Emad Afroogh, as well as the conservative newspaper "Jomhouri-e Eslami", supported Mousavi's candidacy, he did not receive the official backing of any major conservative party. His candidacy made it harder for the conservatives to support Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, and large conservative parties, such as the Combatant Clergy Association, did not back the current President for a second term of office.


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: Mousavi had on numerous occasions indicated his wish to change the constitution in order to remove the existing ban on the private ownership of television stations (currently all Iranian television stations are state-owned), as well as transfer the control of the law-enforcement forces to the President (so that they represent the people, since the people directly elect the President through popular vote) from the Supreme Leader. He said that "the issue of non-compliance with the Iranian rules and regulations is the biggest problem that the country is currently faced with" and that he wished to put in place ways to enforce the laws further, and that it was also important to bring an end to keeping the populace uninformed about government matters. Among his policies were creation of a free environment for the flow of information and corrections to the national budget. He wanted to promote the creation of private, non-governmental TV networks and stop the operation of the "Moral Police". He has spoken about his opposition to massive changes in ministries, which he claims is what Ahmadinejad has done.


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: The BBC reported that Mousavi "called for greater personal freedoms in Iran and criticized the ban on private television channels", but "refused to back down from the country's disputed nuclear programme, saying it was "for peaceful purposes". Regarding the Iranian nuclear program, his plan includes a reduction of the cost by opposing radical approaches while maintaining what he sees as "Iran's right to civilian nuclear technology". Mousavi has stated that giving up the country's nuclear program would be "irreparable" and that the Iranian people support the nuclear program. "No one in Iran will accept suspension," Mousavi has said, adding that if elected, his policy would be to work to provide "guarantees" that Tehran's nuclear activities would never divert to non-peaceful aims.


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: On 30 May, Mousavi pledged that if elected he would amend "discriminatory and unjust regulations" against women, and take other measures in favour of women's rights and equality. He said that he would seek to disband the so-called morality police force, and ensure that Iranian women are treated equally, with the ability to attain financial empowerment and to serve at the highest levels of decision making bodies.


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: Mousavi directly addressed activating foreign policy to boost national interest by reducing tensions with other nations. This included negotiating with U.S. President Barack Obama if "his actions are in keeping with his words". He condemned Ahmadinejad's attitude toward The Holocaust (namely, that it was "a myth"), and condemned the killing of Jews in the Holocaust.


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: The election was held on 12 June 2009. The official results showed Ahmadinejad winning by a landslide, though Mousavi and many others believed the results to be fraudulent, suggesting that the Interior Minister, Sadegh Mahsouli, an ally of Ahmadinejad, interfered with the election and distorted the votes to keep Ahmadinejad in power. Mousavi has claimed victory, and called for his supporters to celebrate it, sparking large protests as a result.


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: Due to protests, from the opposition, the Supreme Leader ordered a partial recount of the election results. The recount was a random counting of 10% of the ballots. In order to create transparency, a 12-member council showed the recount on television, and concluded that President Ahmadinejad still led Mousavi after the recount. After the recount, the Guardian council certified the election, and concluded no evidence of irregularities, and closed the dossier on the election.


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: The Iranian Green Movement refers to a series of actions after the Iranian presidential election in 2009, in which protesters demanded the removal of Mahmoud Ahmadinejad from office.


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: Mousavi, Mehdi Karroubi, Hossein-Ali Montazeri and Mohammad Khatami are recognized as leaders of the Green Movement. Where is my vote? () was a motto used during the protests. Anti-Ahmadinejad protesters chanted the English-language phrase in numbers not seen since the 1979 Iranian Revolution, in an attempt to receive international attention. The Iranian Government had released results claiming a two-thirds majority for Ahmadinejad, but supporters of Mousavi and Karroubi, the moderate opposition leaders, accused the government of rigging the vote.


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: In the aftermath of the election and ensuing comments by Ahmadinejad and other conservative leaders, calling the opposition "a pile of dust" (خس و خاشاک), protests were widened and massive peaceful protests were held around the country. Although the Iranian government prohibited any gatherings of protesters in Tehran and across the country, significantly slowed down internet access, and censored any form of media supporting the opposition, hundreds of thousands of Iranians marched in defiance. Large numbers of protesters were arrested, and several were killed by the police and militia forces Basij. Neda Agha-soltan and Sohrab Aarabi were among the victims, and alleged cases of rape in prison (Taraneh Mousavi) were also uncovered.


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: Since the election, the government has severely restricted the access of foreign and Iranian media to footage and information relating to opposition activities. As a result, scenes of the massive street protests and more frequent student protests have been filmed by participants themselves.


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: Seyed Ali Mousavi was the nephew of Mousavi. Ali Mousavi died on 27 December 2009, during the 2009 Iranian election protests, when he was reportedly shot in either the back or the chest by security forces during demonstrations against Mahmoud Ahmadinejad's contested election win.


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: Iranian filmmaker Mohsen Makhmalbaf, the official spokesman of Mir-Hossein Moussavi's campaign abroad, told BBC News in an interview that Iranian secret police had called Seyed Ali Mousavi several times, days before he was shot, saying: "We will kill you."


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: After he died, his body was taken to Ebn-e Sina hospital, where protesters demonstrated outside. The protesters were broken up with tear gas by the Iranian security forces. It was later revealed that the government had removed his body and taken it to an undisclosed location in an attempt to crack down on the protests.


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: Mousavi and other reformist leaders are now working with peaceful and legal methods to widen the influence of their reforms. They have set up a new coalition, named The Green Path of Hope. Iranian political parties and movements need to be authorized by the Interior Ministry. Mousavi neither recognizes the current government as legitimate, nor is likely to receive permission; the movement was named a "path" in order bypass this law.


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: The Green Path of Hope seeks to continue protests against Ahmadinejad's presidency following lawful and peaceful methods, and the full execution of the constitution, as Mousavi says:


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: According to organization officials, the movement encompasses numerous political parties, NGOs and social networks. Mousavi emphasized that existent, autonomous social networks in the community are part of this movement:


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: The "Green Path" has six main members on its central council, who are connected to reformist parties, NGOs, and social networks. The main body will be ordinary protesters. The strategy is to connect existent pressures and issues in society in a social network, and to therefore lead protests in a lawful manner.


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: In the wake of the Tunisian and Egyptian revolutions, Green movement leaders in Iran called for demonstrations on 14 February 2011. The government responded by placing leaders of the movement under house arrest, and on 14 February Iranian state TV broadcast images of "some 50 conservative MPs marching through parliament's main hall" chanting "Death to Mousavi, death to Karroubi".


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: Mousavi and his wife, as well as Mehdi Karoubi, another opposition figure, were put under house arrest after they urged their supporters to organize demonstrations in support of uprisings in the Arab world in February 2011. On 2 February 2013, Iran's security forces arrested Mousavi's two daughters, Zahra and Nargess Mousavi, in their home. The semi-official news agency ILNA reported that they were questioned, and then freed the same day. After the election of Hassan Rouhani as President in 2013, it was announced that Mousavi and Rahnavard would soon be freed from house arrest.


title: Mir-Hossein Mousavi

text: In 2019, Mousavi was given the right to exit his home once a week. In addition, his immediate family were also able to visit him anytime. They were also given permission to use a mobile phone and satellite television.


title: Universal Zulu Nation

text: The Universal Zulu Nation is an international hip hop awareness group formed by and formerly led by hip hop artist Afrika Bambaataa.


title: Universal Zulu Nation

text: The Universal Zulu Nation promotes the idea that hip-hop was created to sustain the ideals of “peace, love, unity and having fun” for all races, religions, nations, and civilizations.


title: Universal Zulu Nation

text: Originally known simply as the Organization, it arose in the 1970s from the reformed New York City gang the Black Spades, a street gang from the South Bronx. While the Black Spades were the base of the organization, other reformed gangs contributed additional members, notably the Savage Nomads, Seven Immortals, and Savage Skulls, among others. Members began to organize cultural events for youths, combining local dance and music movements into what would become known as the various elements of hip hop culture. Elements of the culture include Emceeing (MCing), Deejaying (DJing), breaking, and writing.


title: Universal Zulu Nation

text: In many interviews, Afrika Bambaataa has spoken of the name "Zulu" as being inspired by the 1964 film of the same name.


title: Universal Zulu Nation

text: The imagery of the Zulu Nation has varied at times as well. During the 1970s, and 1980s, Afrika Bambaataa and the Zulu Nation members would often clothe themselves in costumes representing different cultures of the world and different factions of the Nation throughout the world may utilize different cultural symbols and themes to express basic Zulu philosophy.


title: Universal Zulu Nation

text: Since the early 1980s, the Zulu Nation has since established (autonomous) branches in Japan, France, the UK, Australia, Canada, South Korea and the Cape Flats in Cape Town South Africa.


title: Universal Zulu Nation

text: From the late 1980s, at the height of the Afrocentric movement in hip-hop (when artists such as KRS-One, Public Enemy, A Tribe Called Quest, Native Tongues, and Rakim hit success), the movement seemed to be incorporating many doctrines from the Nation of Islam, the Nation of Gods and Earths, and the Nuwaubians. In the mid 1990s some members began to break off starting their own projects or organizations such as Ill Crew Universal.


title: Universal Zulu Nation

text: Afrika Bambaataa stood down as head of the Zulu Nation in May 2016 after allegations of sexually abusing several young men and children in the organization. Ronald Savage was the first of several men to publicly accuse Bambaataa.


title: Universal Zulu Nation

text: In 2017, hundreds of Zulus resigned due to distrust of the Zulu Nation and founded their own organization, the Zulu Union.


title: Universal Zulu Nation

text: The Zulu movement was introduced to France in 1982 by Afrika Bambaataa when the New York City Rap Tour performed in several cities (Paris, Lyon, Metz, Belfort, Mulhouse) with artists PHASE 2, Futura 2000, Dondi, Grandmaster D.ST, the Rock Steady Crew, Rammellzee, the double dutch group Buffalo Girls. The Zulu Nation was centered in suburban Paris since most immigrants lived beyond the city limits. Since 1987, the Zulu Nation's ties to the French hip hop community have waned. Since Afrika Bambaataa's tour of France in 2008 and a Zulu Nation reunion in Paris, new movements of the Universal Zulu Nation have emerged in different cities in France. According to Veronique Henelon, "French rap specifically has been a multi-dimensional expression of ties with Africa." The first hip-hop television show reportedly appeared in France. It was called 'H.I.P. H.O.P.' and was aired by the TF1 channel in 1984.


title: Universal Zulu Nation

text: In 2004, the thirteenth episode of the second season of "Chappelle's Show" had the comedian Dave Chappelle do a sketch on an African-American George W. Bush, called Black Bush, where the character said that his coalition of the willing included Afrika Bambataa and the Zulu Nation.


title: Universal Zulu Nation

text: The Universal Zulu Nation is featured at length in the 2016 Netflix series "The Get Down". In the series, Afrika Bambaataa is played by Nigerian-American actor Okieriete Onaodowan.


title: Zante currant

text: Zante currants, Corinth raisins, Corinthian raisins or outside the United States simply currants, are raisins of the small, sweet, seedless grape cultivar Black Corinth ("Vitis vinifera"). The name comes from the Anglo-French phrase "raisins de Corinthe" (grapes of Corinth) and the Ionian island of Zakynthos (Zante), which was once the major producer and exporter. It is not related to black, red or white currants, which are berries of shrubs in the genus "Ribes" and not usually prepared in dried form.


title: Zante currant

text: The Zante currant is one of the oldest known raisins. The first written record of the grape was made in 75 AD by Pliny the Elder, who described a tiny, juicy, thick-skinned grape with small bunches. The next mention is a millennium later, when the raisins became a subject of trade between Venetian merchants and Greek producers from Ionian coasts. In the 14th century, they were sold in the English market under the label "Reysyns de Corauntz", and the name "raisins of Corinth" was recorded in the 15th century, after the Greek harbor which was the primary source of export. Gradually, the name got corrupted into currant. By the 17th century trade shifted towards the Ionian islands, particularly Zakynthos (Zante), resulting in the name "Zante currant".


title: Zante currant

text: The first attempts to introduce the Black Corinth cultivar in the United States date back to 1854. The first successful vineyards of White and Red Corinth (related varieties), were established in California in 1861 by Colonel Ágoston Haraszthy. Around 1901, David Fairchild of USDA imported high-quality black currant cuttings from the Greek village of Panariti, a renowned producer, and established the first commercial crops. However, because of the higher popularity of Thompson Seedless, American production remained modest up to 1920s and 1930s, after which its popularity increased due to the higher prices it could bring and improved cultivation practices such as girdling. The plantings reached by 1936, and have plateaued there since.


title: Zante currant

text: In wild grapes, the species is dioecious; the sexes grow on separate vines with male flowers on one plant, and female flowers on another. Black Corinth is an "almost male" variety in that the flowers have well-developed anthers (male), but only tiny underdeveloped ovaries (female).


title: Zante currant

text: Clusters of Black Corinth are small, averaging and ranging from . They are cylindrical, with prominent shoulder or winged. The berries are very small , round, and of a reddish black color. The skin is very thin, and the flesh is juicy and soft. It is practically seedless, except in an occasional large berry. When dried, the raisins weigh and are dark brown or black. Leaves are


title: Zante currant

text: To yield sufficient fruit, Black Corinth grapes need to be carefully managed. In ancient times, girdling was a standard practice to increase the set and size of seedless grapes, until the discovery of the plant hormone gibberellic acid, and its ability to do the same thing with less labor. Historically, Black Corinth stock was probably kept for its pollen-producing abilities, so other female flowered varieties (with naturally higher yields) would set full crops.


title: Zante currant

text: The Black Corinth cultivar is also reputed to be very prone to powdery mildew, and is susceptible to numerous other diseases such as downy mildew and black rot.


title: Zante currant

text: Greece is still the primary producer of Zante currants, amounting to about 80% of total world production, with California, South Africa and Australia sharing most of the remainder.


title: Zante currant

text: Zante currants are usually called simply "currants", except in the U.S., and in many anglophone countries are used in traditional baked goods and puddings.


title: Zante currant

text: They have been a key ingredient of British cuisine for centuries, having been imported from the Mediterranean as sweet luxury goods long before cane sugar became widely available in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Alongside raisins and sultanas they feature heavily in a wide variety of traditional baked goods recipes, including fruitcake, currant buns, teacakes, Eccles cakes, Saffron cake, bread and butter pudding, spotted dick, Welsh cakes, Bara brith, Christmas pudding and mince pies. They are also a major ingredient of currant slice (or currant square) and currant cake.


title: Zante currant

text: Unlike blackcurrants, Zante currants are not a significant source of vitamin C. The fresh fruit Zante raisins are made from is very small and sweet, with quite an intense flavour for a grape. Black, White and Red Corinth are often marketed under the name "Champagne grapes" in U.S. specialty stores, but they are not used for making Champagne.


title: Zante currant

text: Along with grapes and raisins, Zante currants are nephrotoxic to dogs. This toxicity manifests as kidney failure and can be seen in relatively small doses.


title: Annie Glenn

text: Anna Margaret Glenn (née Castor; February 17, 1920May 19, 2020) was an American advocate for people with disabilities and communication disorders and the wife of astronaut and senator John Glenn. A stutterer from an early age, Glenn was notable for raising awareness of stuttering among children and adults as well as other disabilities.


title: Annie Glenn

text: Anna Margaret Castor was born on February 17, 1920, in Columbus, Ohio, to Homer and Margaret (Alley) Castor. Her father was a dentist. In 1923, the Castor family moved to New Concord, Ohio.


title: Annie Glenn

text: Castor met John Glenn at a very young age when her parents became involved in the same community organizations as Glenn's parents. The families developed a friendship which allowed Castor and Glenn to remain close as they grew up. The pair became high school sweethearts and continued dating through college. Castor attended Muskingum College where she majored in music with a minor in secretarial skills and physical education. Castor was an active member of the swim team, volleyball team, and tennis team. She graduated in 1942. Even though she received an offer for a pipe organ scholarship from the Juilliard School, Castor declined the offer, choosing instead to stay in Ohio with Glenn. Castor and Glenn were married on April 6, 1943. They had two children, David, born in 1945, and Lyn, born in 1947.


title: Annie Glenn

text: During the early years of her marriage to John Glenn, Annie Glenn worked as an organist in various churches and taught trombone lessons.


title: Annie Glenn

text: Throughout the middle of the twentieth century, the Cold War tensions between the United States of America and the Soviet Union heightened. In an effort to boost American citizens' confidence in their government, U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower decided to become involved in the Space Race and launch Project Mercury. Seven young men were chosen for this space mission. These all-American astronauts were regarded as wholesome heroes and their wives were the picture of domestic patriotism. Annie Glenn was one of the wives of the Mercury 7 astronauts. These women "rocketed to fame" to become celebrities.


title: Annie Glenn

text: In her book " The Astronaut Wives Club" (which later became a television miniseries), Lily Koppel relates that Glenn and the other six wives formed a tight-knit support group informally called the "Astronaut Wives Club," which she cites as influential in shaping American identity, as Americans found their values of family, patriotism, and consumerism embodied in Glenn. Koppel states that American women turned to Glenn, who had been elevated in the media because of her all-American family, as a role model on how to maintain a happy home, and also an indirect propagator of the American value of consumption. The appearance of the Astronaut Wives in the media was marketed to average American housewives. For example, when the wives wore a shade of "responsible pink" lipstick to a "Life" photoshoot, the published photographs were retouched to show the wives wearing "patriotic red" lipstick instead. The lip color was changed to represent a new, vibrant period in American history. After the magazine was published, red lipstick became a fad. Similarly, while Mercury 7 astronauts were given sporty Corvettes to drive, the wives were strongly encouraged to keep their family-friendly station wagons, which meant that the average American housewives who were following the Astronaut Wives' example also bought station wagons. As a result of Glenn and the other members of the Astronaut Wives Club, women across the U.S. were inspired to be brave and of course, to buy the same consumer goods Glenn and the other wives had in their homes.


title: Annie Glenn

text: Like her father, Annie Glenn experienced a speech stutter throughout her life. As a child, Glenn did not feel hindered by her stutter; she happily participated in activities such as softball, girl scouts, school dances, and choir. It was not until sixth grade that she first realized her speech impairment. It was determined that her stutter was present in eighty-five percent of her verbal utterances. Despite her difficulty speaking, she was able to create and maintain close relationships. After graduating college, Glenn wanted to get a job in a different town but because of her disability, her parents were worried about her living independently. However, Glenn found ways to effectively communicate without speaking out loud. For example, before shopping, she would write down exactly what she was looking for and then show the note to the sales clerk when she needed help.


title: Annie Glenn

text: At the age of 53, Glenn discovered and attended a three-week treatment course at Hollins Communications Research Institute in Roanoke, Virginia, to help with her dysfluency. After attending the treatment course, her speech was greatly improved; however, she did not consider herself "cured" of stuttering. Glenn was finally able to confidently vocally interact with others. When her husband began campaigning for the Senate, she was able to support him by giving speeches at public events and at rallies. Glenn used her newfound voice to bring attention to disabled people who she knew had been overlooked so often.


title: Annie Glenn

text: In 1983, Glenn received the first national award of the American Speech and Hearing Association for her meritorious service to those with communicative disorders. In 1987, the National Association for Hearing and Speech Action awarded the first annual Annie Glenn Award for achieving distinction despite a communication disorder. Glenn presented the award to James Earl Jones as its first recipient. She was inducted into the National Stuttering Association Hall of Fame in 2004. In 2015, Ohio State University renamed 17th Avenue (on its campus) to Annie and John Glenn Avenue.


title: Annie Glenn

text: In 2009, the Ohio State University awarded her an honorary Doctorate of Public Service to recognize her work on behalf of children and others. The department awards the "Annie Glenn Leadership Award" annually to a person that has displayed innovative and inspirational work in speech/language pathology.


title: Annie Glenn

text: At the time of her husband's death in December 2016, Annie and John Glenn had been married for 73 years and eight months. During the course of their marriage, the couple had two children—John David, born in 1945, and Carolyn Ann, born in 1947—and two grandchildren.


title: Annie Glenn

text: Glenn turned 100 in February 2020. Three months later, on May 19, 2020, she died at a nursing home in Saint Paul, Minnesota, from complications of COVID-19 during the COVID-19 pandemic in Minnesota.


title: Annie Glenn

text: Glenn was played by Mary Jo Deschanel in the 1983 film "The Right Stuff". The film highlighted her stutter, particularly in a scene involving U.S. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson. In a 2015 interview, she and John Glenn indicated that, although they liked the Tom Wolfe book, they did not care for the movie adaptation of "The Right Stuff".


title: Annie Glenn

text: In the 2015 ABC-TV series "The Astronaut Wives Club", she is portrayed by Azure Parsons and in the 2020 Disney+ series "The Right Stuff" by Nora Zehetner.


title: Sawdust

text: Sawdust (or wood dust) is a by-product or waste product of woodworking operations such as sawing, sanding, milling, planing, and routing. It is composed of small chippings of wood. These operations can be performed by woodworking machinery, portable power tools or by use of hand tools. Wood dust is also the byproduct of certain animals, birds and insects which live in wood, such as the woodpecker and carpenter ant. In some manufacturing industries it can be a significant fire hazard and source of occupational dust exposure.


title: Sawdust

text: Sawdust, as particulates, is the main component of particleboard. Research on health hazards comes from the field of occupational safety and health, and study of ventilation happens in indoor air quality engineering.


title: Sawdust

text: Two waste products, dust and chips, form at the working surface during woodworking operations such as sawing, milling and sanding. These operations both shatter lignified wood cells and break out whole cells and groups of cells. Shattering of wood cells creates dust, while breaking out of whole groups of wood cells creates chips. The more cell-shattering that occurs, the finer the dust particles that are produced. For example, sawing and milling are mixed cell shattering and chip forming processes, whereas sanding is almost exclusively cell shattering.


title: Sawdust

text: A major use of sawdust is for particleboard; coarse sawdust may be used for wood pulp. Sawdust has a variety of other practical uses, including serving as a mulch, as an alternative to clay cat litter, or as a fuel. Until the advent of refrigeration, it was often used in icehouses to keep ice frozen during the summer. It has been used in artistic displays, and as scatter in miniature railroad and other models. It is also sometimes used to soak up liquid spills, allowing the spill to be easily collected or swept aside. As such, it was formerly common on barroom floors. It is used to make Cutler's resin. Mixed with water and frozen, it forms pykrete, a slow-melting, much stronger form of ice.


title: Sawdust

text: Sawdust is used in the manufacture of charcoal briquettes. The claim for invention of the first commercial charcoal briquettes goes to Henry Ford who created them from the wood scraps and sawdust produced by his automobile factory.


title: Sawdust

text: Cellulose, fibre starch that is indigestible to humans, and a filler in some low calorie foods, can be and is made from sawdust, as well as from other plant sources. While there is no documentation for the persistent rumor, based upon Upton Sinclair's novel "The Jungle", that sawdust was used as a filler in sausage, cellulose derived from sawdust was and is used for sausage casings. Sawdust-derived cellulose has also been used as a filler in bread.


title: Sawdust

text: When cereals were scarce, sawdust was sometimes an ingredient in Kommissbrot. Auschwitz concentration camp survivor, Dr. Miklós Nyiszli, reports in "Auschwitz: A Doctor's Eyewitness Account" that the subaltern medical staff, who served Dr. Josef Mengele, subsisted on "bread made from wild chestnuts sprinkled with sawdust."


title: Sawdust

text: Airborne sawdust and sawdust accumulations present a number of health and safety hazards. Wood dust becomes a potential health problem when, for example, the wood particles, from processes such as sanding, become airborne and are inhaled. Wood dust is a known human carcinogen. Certain woods and their dust contain toxins that can produce severe allergic reactions.


title: Sawdust

text: Breathing airborne wood dust may cause allergic respiratory symptoms, mucosal and non-allergic respiratory symptoms, and cancer. In the US, lists of carcinogenic factors are published by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). All these organisations recognize wood dust as carcinogenic in relation to the nasal cavities and paranasal sinuses.


title: Sawdust

text: People can be exposed to wood dust in the workplace by breathing it in, skin contact, or eye contact. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for wood dust exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m total exposure and 5 mg/m respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 1 mg/m over an 8-hour workday.


title: Sawdust

text: Water-borne bacteria digest organic material in leachate, but use up much of the available oxygen. This high "biological oxygen demand" can suffocate fish and other organisms. There is an equally detrimental effect on beneficial bacteria, so it is not at all advisable to use sawdust within home aquariums, as was once done by hobbyists seeking to save some expense on activated charcoal.


title: Sawdust

text: Sawdust is flammable and accumulations provide a ready source of fuel. Airborne sawdust can be ignited by sparks or even heat accumulation and result in explosions.


title: Sawdust

text: At sawmills, unless reprocessed into particleboard, burned in a sawdust burner, or used to make heat for other milling operations, sawdust may collect in piles and add harmful leachates into local water systems, creating an environmental hazard. This has placed small sawyers and environmental agencies in a deadlock.


title: Sawdust

text: Questions about the science behind the determination of sawdust being an environmental hazard remain for sawmill operators (though this is mainly with finer particles), who compare wood residuals to dead trees in a forest. Technical advisors have reviewed some of the environmental studies, but say most lack standardized methodology or evidence of a direct impact on wildlife. They don't take into account large drainage areas, so the amount of material that is getting into the water from the site in relation to the total drainage area is minuscule.


title: Sawdust

text: Other scientists have a different view, saying the "dilution is the solution to pollution" argument is no longer accepted in environmental science. The decomposition of a tree in a forest is similar to the impact of sawdust, but the difference is of scale. Sawmills may be storing thousands of cubic metres of wood residues in one place, so the issue becomes one of concentration.


title: Sawdust

text: But of larger concern are substances such as lignins and fatty acids that protect trees from predators while they are alive, but can leach into water and poison wildlife. Those types of things remain in the tree and, as the tree decays, they slowly are broken down. But when sawyers are processing a large volume of wood and large concentrations of these materials permeate into the runoff, the toxicity they cause is harmful to a broad range of organisms.


title: Sawdust

text: Wood flour is finely pulverized wood that has a consistency fairly equal to sand or sawdust, but can vary considerably, with particles ranging in dimensions from a fine powder to roughly that of a grain of rice. Most wood flour manufacturers are able to create batches of wood flour that have the same consistency throughout. All high quality wood flour is made from hardwoods because of its durability and strength. Very low grade wood flour is occasionally made from sapless softwoods such as pine or fir.


title: Sawdust

text: Wood flour is commonly used as a filler in thermosetting resins such as bakelite, and in linoleum floor coverings. Wood flour is also the main ingredient in wood/plastic composite building products such as decks and roofs. Prior to 1920, wood flour was used as the filler in ¼-inch thick Edison Diamond Discs.


title: Sawdust

text: Wood flour has found a use in plugging small through-wall holes in leaking main condenser (heat exchanger) tubes at electrical power generating stations via injecting small quantities of the wood flour into the cooling water supply lines. Some of the injected wood flour clogs the small holes while the remainder exits the station in a relatively environmentally benign fashion.


title: Sawdust

text: Because of its adsorbent properties it has been used as a cleaning agent for removing grease or oil in various occupations. It has also been noted for its ability to remove lead contamination from water.


title: Sawdust

text: Large quantities of wood flour are frequently to be found in the waste from woodworking and furniture companies. An adaptive reuse to which this material can be directed is composting.


title: Sawdust

text: As with all airborne particulates, wood dust particle sizes are classified with regard to effect on the human respiratory system. For this classification, the unit for measurement of particle sizes is the micrometre or micron (μm), where 1 micrometre = 1 micron. Particles below 50 μm are not normally visible to the naked human eye. Particles of concern for human respiratory health are those <100 μm (where the symbol < means ‘less than’).


title: Sawdust

text: Particles which precipitate in the vicinity of the mouth and eyes, and get into the organism, are defined as the inhalable fraction, that is total dust. Smaller fractions, penetrating into the non-cartilage respiratory tract, are defined as respirable dust. Dust emitted in the wood industry is characterized by the dimensional disintegration of particles up to 5 μm, and that


title: Sawdust

text: is why they precipitate mostly in the nasal cavity, increasing the risk of cancer of the upper respiratory tract.


title: Sawdust

text: The parameter most commonly used to characterize exposures to wood dust in air is total wood dust concentration, in mass per unit volume. In countries that use the metric system, this is usually measured in mg/m (milligram per cubic metre)


title: Sawdust

text: A study to estimate occupational exposure to inhalable wood dust by country, industry, the level of exposure and type of wood dust in 25 member states of the European Union (EU-25) found that in 2000–2003, about 3.6 million workers (2.0% of the employed EU-25 population) were occupationally exposed to inhalable wood dust. The highest exposure levels were estimated to occur in the construction sector and furniture industry.


title: Sawdust

text: Wood dust is known to be a human carcinogen, based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in humans. It has been demonstrated through human epidemiologic studies that exposure to wood dust increases the occurrence of cancer of the nose (nasal cavities and paranasal sinuses). An association of wood dust exposure and cancers of the nose has been observed in numerous case reports, cohort studies, and case control studies specifically addressing nasal cancer.


title: Sawdust

text: To lower the concentration of airborne dust concentrations during woodworking, dust extraction systems are used. These can be divided into two types. The first are local exhaust ventilation systems, the second are room ventilation systems. Use of personal respirators, a form of personal protective equipment, can also isolate workers from dust.


title: Sawdust

text: Local exhaust ventilation (LEV) systems rely on air pulled with a suction force through piping systems from the point of dust formation to a waste disposal unit. They consist of four elements: dust hoods at the point of dust formation, ventilation ducts, an air cleaning device (waste separator or dust collector) and an air moving device (a fan, otherwise known as an impeller). The air, containing dust and chips from the woodworking operation, is sucked by an impeller. The impeller is usually built into, or placed close to, the waste disposal unit, or dust collector.


title: Sawdust

text: Guidelines of performance for woodworking LEV systems exist, and these tie into occupational air quality regulations that exist in many countries. The LEV guidelines often referred to are those set by the ACIAH.


title: Sawdust

text: Low-volume/high-velocity (LVHV) capture systems are specialised types of LEV that use an extractor hood designed as an integral part of the tool or positioned very close to the operating point of the cutting tool. The hood is designed to provide high capture velocities, often greater than 50 m/s (10,000 fpm) at the contaminant release point. This high velocity is accompanied by airflows often less than 0.02m3/s (50 cfm) resulting from the small face area of the hood that is used. These systems have come into favour for portable power tools, although adoption of the technology is not widespread. Festool is one manufacturer of portable power tools using LVHV ventilation integrated into the tool design.


title: Sawdust

text: If suitably designed, general ventilation can also be used as a control of airborne dust. General ventilation can often help reduce skin and clothing contamination, and dust deposition on surfaces.


title: Bali tiger

text: The Bali tiger was a Panthera tigris sondaica population on the Indonesian island of Bali which has been extinct since the 1950s.


title: Bali tiger

text: It was formerly regarded as a distinct tiger subspecies with the scientific name "Panthera tigris balica", which had been assessed as extinct on the IUCN Red List in 2008. In 2017, felid taxonomy was revised, and it was subordinated to "P. t. sondaica", which also includes the still surviving Sumatran tiger.


title: Bali tiger

text: Results of a mitochondrial DNA analysis of 23 tiger samples from museum collections indicate that tigers colonized the Sunda Islands during the last glacial period 11,000–12,000 years ago.


title: Bali tiger

text: In Bali, the last tigers were recorded in the late 1930s. A few individuals likely survived into the 1940s and possibly 1950s. The population was hunted to extirpation and its natural habitat converted for human use.


title: Bali tiger

text: In 1912, the German zoologist Ernst Schwarz described a skin and a skull of an adult female tiger in the Senckenberg Museum collection, that had originated in Bali. He named it "Felis tigris balica" and argued that it is distinct from the Javan tiger by its brighter fur colour and smaller skull with narrower zygomatic arches.


title: Bali tiger

text: In 1969, the distinctiveness of the Bali tiger was questioned, since morphological analysis of several tiger skulls from Bali revealed that size variation is similar to Javan tiger skulls. Hue and striping pattern of fur neither differs significantly.


title: Bali tiger

text: A comparison of mitochondrial DNA sequences from 23 museum specimens of Bali and Javan tigers with other living tiger subspecies revealed a close genetic resemblance of the tigers in the Sunda Islands. They form a monophyletic group distinct and equidistant from tigers in mainland Asia.


title: Bali tiger

text: In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy, and now recognizes the extinct Bali and Javan tiger populations, as well as the Sumatran tiger population as "P. t. sondaica".


title: Bali tiger

text: The Bali tiger was described as the smallest tiger in the Sunda islands. In the 20th century, only seven skins and skulls of tigers from Bali were known to be preserved in museum collections. The common feature of these skulls is the narrow occipital plane, which is analogous with the shape of tiger skulls from Java. Skins of males measured between the pegs are long from head to end of tail; those of females . The weight of males ranged from , and of females from .


title: Bali tiger

text: Most of the known Bali tiger zoological specimens originated in western Bali, where mangrove forests, dunes and savannah vegetation existed. The main prey of the Bali tiger was likely the Javan rusa ("Rusa timorensis").


title: Bali tiger

text: At the end of the 19th century, palm plantations and irrigated rice fields were established foremost on Bali's rich volcanic northern slopes and the alluvial strip around the island. Tiger hunting started after the Dutch gained control over Bali.


title: Bali tiger

text: During the Dutch colonial period, hunting trips were conducted by European sportsmen coming from Java, who had a romantic but disastrous Victorian hunting mentality and were equipped with high-powered rifles. The preferred method of hunting tigers was to catch them with a large, heavy steel foot trap hidden under bait, a goat or a muntjac, and then shoot them at close range. Surabayan gunmaker E. Munaut is confirmed to have killed over 20 tigers in only a few years.


title: Bali tiger

text: In 1941, the first game reserve, today's West Bali National Park, was established in western Bali, but too late to save Bali's tiger population from extinction. It was probably eliminated by the end of World War II. A few tigers may have survived until the 1950s, but no specimen reached museum collections after the war.


title: Bali tiger

text: A few tiger skulls, skins and bones are preserved in museums. The British Museum in London has the largest collection, with two skins and three skulls; others include the Senckenberg Museum in Frankfurt, the State Museum of Natural History Stuttgart, the Naturalis museum in Leiden and the Zoological Museum of Bogor, Indonesia, which owns the remnants of the last known Bali tiger. In 1997, a skull emerged in the old collection of the Hungarian Natural History Museum and was scientifically studied and properly documented.


title: Bali tiger

text: The tiger had a well-defined position in Balinese folkloric beliefs and magic. It is mentioned in folk tales and depicted in traditional arts, as in the "Kamasan" paintings of the Klungkung kingdom. The Balinese considered the ground powder of tiger whiskers to be a potent and undetectable poison for one's foe. A Balinese baby was given a protective amulet necklace with black coral and "a tiger's tooth or a piece of tiger bone".


title: Bali tiger

text: The traditional Balinese "Barong" dance preserves a figure with the mask of a tiger called "Barong Macan".


title: Bali tiger

text: Balinese people are fond of wearing tiger parts as jewelry for status or spiritual reasons, such as power and protection. Necklaces of teeth and claws or male rings cabochoned with polished tiger tooth ivory still exist in everyday use. Since the tiger has disappeared on both Bali and neighboring Java, old parts have been recycled, or leopard and sun bear body parts have been used instead.


title: Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War

text: Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War is a 2004 combat flight simulation video game developed and published by Namco for the PlayStation 2. The game was developed by Project Aces, an internal Namco group credited with the development of the "Ace Combat" series. A limited number of the games were bundled with the Hori Flightstick 2 accessory.


title: Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War

text: "Ace Combat 5" features more than fifty licensed real-world jet aircraft. Nonetheless, the game's events and locations are set in a fictional world. The game's main campaign is set during a war between the fictitious nations of Osea and Yuktobania. The storyline revolves around the player character "Blaze", an Osean fighter pilot who leads a four-plane unit known as Wardog Squadron. "The Unsung War" follows this squadron's exploits as they attempt to ward off the Yuktobanian invasion of their homeland and uncover the truth about the war. Unlike its predecessors, "Ace Combat 5" does not include a multiplayer mode as developers did not have enough extended time to implement one.


title: Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War

text: Although a majority of the gameplay in "Ace Combat 5" remains similar to that of its predecessor, "", several notable additions were made. Among these additions are an arcade mode and the ability for the player to interact with wingmen. The multiplayer mode present in previous titles, however, was scrapped during development. The game received generally favorable reviews, although critics noted that the game was not the "revolutionary step forward for the series" that "Shattered Skies" was.


title: Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War

text: The game saw a PlayStation 4 release in 2019, as part of a pre-order bonus for "". Bandai Namco has since clarified that it is not a remaster, but instead a port of the PlayStation 2 original, running natively on the PlayStation 4 at higher resolutions.


title: Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War

text: "Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War" is divided into three gamemodes: Campaign, where players progress through story-driven levels; Arcade, which removes most of the story from Campaign mode in favor of gameplay; and Tutorial, which teaches the player the base mechanics. The gameplay in these three modes is largely consistent; players pilot an aircraft and must complete a series of missions that must be completed in the allotted amount of time. Missions feature a wide array of objectives, ranging from destroying all enemy aircraft in a level to protecting a specific target from enemy fire. The game features over fifty playable aircraft, including military and experimental aircraft licensed from the United States and Europe, in addition to original designs created specifically for the game. The majority of these aircraft are unlocked by progressing through the Campaign mode, while others are unlocked while destroying a certain amount of enemies with a particular craft.


title: Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War

text: In the Campaign mode, the player can issue orders to computer-controlled ally fighters, a method known as wingman interaction. With this, players can have fighters team up to take down a single target or spread out to cover more ground. Wingmen can be assigned specific aircraft before beginning a mission. Completing missions awards money that can be used to purchase aircraft, while certain missions unlock side games like midair refueling. The player's fighter has a limited number of ammunition, especially on harder difficulties. These fighters are also equipped with side weaponry unique to a particular model, such as guided bombs and salvo missiles that can be lock into multiple ground-stationed targets or aerial enemies.


title: Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War

text: The plot of the campaign revolves around a conflict fought between Osea and Yuktobania, the two superpowers of the game universe. In late 2010, Yuktobania unexpectedly declares war against Osea and initially begins with the advantage, though this is slowly chipped away by the Wardog Squadron who are present at several crucial battles. Wardog are also responsible for sinking Yuktobania's two gigantic submersible aircraft carrier and ballistic missile launchers. Wardog's successes turn the tide of the war in favor of Osea and their presence in battle increases the morale of the Osean forces, whilst also striking fear into the Yuktobanian counterparts; this earns them the attention of Albert Genette, an Osean journalist who stays at Wardog's air base, intending to publish a news article about the squadron.


title: Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War

text: It eventually comes to light that the war has been secretly orchestrated by paramilitary groups from Belka, a nation bitterly defeated by both countries in a war 15 years prior to the game's events. The unaccounted for successes of Wardog causes Belkan aggressors posing as Osean and Yuktobanian pilots to rely on attacking civilian targets to exploit the hatred between both countries and to also discredit the Wardog Squadron. The war nonetheless continues in Osea's favor thanks to Wardog's interventions, but a staged ambush by the Belkans nearly destroys the Wardog Squadron. Furthermore, upon returning home, the base commander, who is secretly a member of the paramilitary group, accuses Wardog, along with Genette and "Pops," the squadron mechanic who is a former Belkan pilot himself, of being enemy spies, forcing the squadron to flee the base in stolen training jets.


title: Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War

text: Rendezvousing with a friendly Osean aircraft carrier after faking their deaths, the renamed "Razgriz" Squadron rescues the Osean and Yuktobanian heads of state from captivity, confirming the Belkan conspiracy. It is learned that the civilians of both countries have become more and more opposed to the war, and that the "Grey Men", one of the Belkan paramilitary groups, are ultimately planning on utilising nuclear weapons on Osean and Yuktobanian cities to finally claim vengeance for their defeat and to unite Belka once more. The Razgriz successfully hinders such attempts, culminating in the destruction of a ground based control facility for an orbital platform as well as the platform itself when it is deliberately deorbited to impact the Osean capitol, ending the war and restoring peace between the two nations.


title: Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War

text: Namco first announced it was in development of "Ace Combat 5" in the 2002 Tokyo CG festival, in a presentation focusing upon computer graphics. Later, in 2003, Namco launched an official website promoting "Project Aces", originally thought to be a working title for "Ace Combat 5". "Project Aces" was later revealed to be the name for the internal Namco development team responsible for the "Ace Combat" series; "Ace Combat 5" was the first title to directly credit its development to the "Project Aces" team.


title: Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War

text: To ensure accuracy in the depiction of the game's aircraft, "Project Aces" was given permission by participating aircraft manufacturers to examine in person the planes that were to appear in the game. The visual team also made use of satellite images from the Japan Space Imaging Corporation in the development of the game's environments. Moreover, "Project Aces" incorporated full motion video into the cut scenes of "The Unsung War", as opposed to the still images used in the plot sequences of previous titles.


title: Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War

text: Hiroshi Tanaka, the Namco localization producer for "Ace Combat 5," highlights wingman interaction as one of the key distinguishing features between the game and its predecessors. Tanaka says that the wingman interaction feature introduces a "strategic and fun aspect of battle". Tanaka also states that because wingmen play a role in the story, the player can become more involved with the characters and the drama than in "Ace Combat 04". A third fictional aircraft, the ADLER, was planned but not fully developed due to time constraints.


title: Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War

text: The background music of the game's main campaign mode is primarily orchestral, although the arcade mode features rock music to complement its missions' more frantic pace. The game additionally features three vocal tracks. One is "The Unsung War", a Latin choral piece performed by the Warsaw National Philharmonic Orchestra, that reiterates the "Demon of Razgriz" legend introduced in the game's campaign. Another is "The Journey Home", a recurring song that implies a theme of peace during the campaign. The game also features the licensed track "Blurry" by Puddle of Mudd, which is featured during the game's opening trailer, one cutscene, and the closing credits.


title: Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War

text: Officially branded as the Ace Combat Flightstick 2, the Hori Flightstick 2 is a game peripheral specifically designed for "Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War". According to Hiroshi Tanaka, Namco and Hori worked together closely to ensure "that the game, the stick, and the controls matched exactly how it should play". Unlike the original Flightstick peripheral designed for "Ace Combat 04: Shattered Skies", the Flightstick 2 was released in North America in addition to Japan. In the United States, the accessory was released exclusively as a bundle with "Ace Combat 5"; only 20,000 bundles were made available in the limited edition offer.


title: Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War

text: The Flightstick 2 connects to the PS2 through a USB port. Unlike the PS2 DualShock 2 controller, the Flightstick 2 uses a HOTAS, or "hands on throttle and stick" design similar to that used in actual aircraft. The right hand controls the flight stick, which controls the plane's attitude; the left hand controls the throttle. Buttons, D-pads, and rudder controls are placed directly onto either the flight stick or the throttle. Although the Flightstick 2 does not offer force feedback, it does have a vibration feature. Although the Flightstick 2 was targeted specifically for use with "Ace Combat 5", not all of the buttons on the peripheral are utilized in the game.


title: Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War

text: "Ace Combat 5" is the only game officially sanctioned for use with the Flightstick 2. In a review of the peripheral, IGN commented that although the Hori Flightstick 2 was "nearly perfect in what it does, [...] at the moment it really only does one thing and that's play "Ace Combat 5"". However, the Flightstick 2 is also compatible with "" and "".


title: Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War

text: "Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War" was marked with strong sales, selling over 287,400 copies in Japan and over one million copies in North America, though it undersold "Ace Combat 04" by around 800,000 copies. The game was also favorably received by critics. Although reviewers point out that the game is remarkably similar to "Ace Combat 04", most also agree that the game's similarity to its predecessor did not detract from its overall quality. According to GameSpot, "this latest installment doesn't do much to change an already-winning formula—but not much was needed to keep this series feeling fresh and exciting".


title: Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War

text: Overall, critics' reception of the title's gameplay was positive, particularly for the game's intuitive control schemes and large assortment of playable aircraft. The gameplay was also applauded for its "ideal" place between "overtly arcadey rubbish and inaccessible hardcore simulation". On review aggregator website Metacritic, the game has a score of 84/100, indicating "generally favorable" reviews.


title: Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War

text: Reception of the game's new features, however, was mixed. The game's redesigned "target view" function was decried as "almost broken". Although GameSpy welcomed improvements to the game's radar display, other additions such as wingman commands were seen as "gimmicky" and having little effect on gameplay. The game's arcade mode was described as fun but lacking in features and storyline.


title: Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War

text: The game's presentation was better received. Various critics praised the way that the game's storyline ties cohesively with the missions, allowing for better and more involving gameplay. GameSpot praised the game for its "captivating storyline". IGN applauded that the game recognizes the player's accomplishments, adding a "sense of worth" to the campaign. Although GameSpy felt that the menu interface was not optimized in terms of usability, it lauded the look of the game's cinematics and briefing screens. Although others believed that the player's responses to wingmen had little effect on gameplay, "Game Informer" felt that the feature was a "brilliant way to create atmosphere".


title: Ace Combat 5: The Unsung War

text: The game was acclaimed for its graphics, particularly its improved special and environmental effects and its authentically modeled aircraft, but critics noted that the high level of visual improvement in some areas contrasts with little improvement in others. The game's voice acting received mixed reactions. Although some felt that taken as a whole the radio chatter sets the game's atmosphere and creates a "hectic feel", most critics felt that much of the chatter was contextually inappropriate or annoying. GameSpy compared the voice work in "5" negatively with that in "04", feeling that the dialogue seemed "forced" and that sometimes "characters start to blabber just because they can".


title: Item response theory

text: In psychometrics, item response theory (IRT) (also known as latent trait theory, strong true score theory, or modern mental test theory) is a paradigm for the design, analysis, and scoring of tests, questionnaires, and similar instruments measuring abilities, attitudes, or other variables. It is a theory of testing based on the relationship between individuals' performances on a test item and the test takers' levels of performance on an overall measure of the ability that item was designed to measure. Several different statistical models are used to represent both item and test taker characteristics. Unlike simpler alternatives for creating scales and evaluating questionnaire responses, it does not assume that each item is equally difficult. This distinguishes IRT from, for instance, Likert scaling, in which """All items are assumed to be replications of each other or in other words items are considered to be parallel instruments". By contrast, item response theory treats the difficulty of each item (the item characteristic curves, or ICCs) as information to be incorporated in scaling items.


title: Item response theory

text: It is based on the application of related mathematical models to testing data. Because it is often regarded as superior to classical test theory, it is the preferred method for developing scales in the United States, especially when optimal decisions are demanded, as in so-called high-stakes tests, e.g., the Graduate Record Examination (GRE) and Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT).


title: Item response theory

text: The name "item response theory" is due to the focus of the theory on the item, as opposed to the test-level focus of classical test theory. Thus IRT models the response of each examinee of a given ability to each item in the test. The term "item" is generic, covering all kinds of informative items. They might be multiple choice questions that have incorrect and correct responses, but are also commonly statements on questionnaires that allow respondents to indicate level of agreement (a rating or Likert scale), or patient symptoms scored as present/absent, or diagnostic information in complex systems.


title: Item response theory

text: IRT is based on the idea that the probability of a correct/keyed response to an item is a mathematical function of person and item parameters. (The expression “a mathematical function of person and item parameters” is analogous to Kurt Lewin’s equation "B = f(P, E)", which asserts that behavior is a function of the person in their environment.) The person parameter is construed as (usually) a single latent trait or dimension. Examples include general intelligence or the strength of an attitude. Parameters on which items are characterized include their difficulty (known as "location" for their location on the difficulty range); discrimination (slope or correlation), representing how steeply the rate of success of individuals varies with their ability; and a pseudoguessing parameter, characterising the (lower) asymptote at which even the least able persons will score due to guessing (for instance, 25% for a pure chance on a multiple choice item with four possible responses).


title: Item response theory

text: In the same manner, IRT can be used to measure human behavior in online social networks. The views expressed by different people can be aggregated to be studied using IRT. Its use in classifying information as misinformation or true information has also been evaluated.


title: Item response theory

text: The concept of the item response function was around before 1950. The pioneering work of IRT as a theory occurred during the 1950s and 1960s. Three of the pioneers were the Educational Testing Service psychometrician Frederic M. Lord, the Danish mathematician Georg Rasch, and Austrian sociologist Paul Lazarsfeld, who pursued parallel research independently. Key figures who furthered the progress of IRT include Benjamin Drake Wright and David Andrich. IRT did not become widely used until the late 1970s and 1980s, when practitioners were told the "usefulness" and "advantages" of IRT on the one hand, and personal computers gave many researchers access to the computing power necessary for IRT on the other.


title: Item response theory

text: Among other things, the purpose of IRT is to provide a framework for evaluating how well assessments work, and how well individual items on assessments work. The most common application of IRT is in education, where psychometricians use it for developing and designing exams, maintaining banks of items for exams, and equating the difficulties of items for successive versions of exams (for example, to allow comparisons between results over time).


title: Item response theory

text: IRT models are often referred to as "latent trait models". The term "latent" is used to emphasize that discrete item responses are taken to be "observable manifestations" of hypothesized traits, constructs, or attributes, not directly observed, but which must be inferred from the manifest responses. Latent trait models were developed in the field of sociology, but are virtually identical to IRT models.


title: Item response theory

text: IRT is generally claimed as an improvement over classical test theory (CTT). For tasks that can be accomplished using CTT, IRT generally brings greater flexibility and provides more sophisticated information. Some applications, such as computerized adaptive testing, are enabled by IRT and cannot reasonably be performed using only classical test theory. Another advantage of IRT over CTT is that the more sophisticated information IRT provides allows a researcher to improve the reliability of an assessment.


title: Item response theory

text: The trait is further assumed to be measurable on a scale (the mere existence of a test assumes this), typically set to a standard scale with a mean of 0.0 and a standard deviation of 1.0. Unidimensionality should be interpreted as homogeneity, a quality that should be defined or empirically demonstrated in relation to a given purpose or use, but not a quantity that can be measured. 'Local independence' means (a) that the chance of one item being used is not related to any other item(s) being used and (b) that response to an item is each and every test-taker's independent decision, that is, there is no cheating or pair or group work. The topic of dimensionality is often investigated with factor analysis, while the IRF is the basic building block of IRT and is the center of much of the research and literature.


title: Item response theory

text: The IRF gives the probability that a person with a given ability level will answer correctly. Persons with lower ability have less of a chance, while persons with high ability are very likely to answer correctly; for example, students with higher math ability are more likely to get a math item correct. The exact value of the probability depends, in addition to ability, on a set of "item parameters" for the IRF.


title: Item response theory

text: For example, in the three parameter logistic model (3PL), the probability of a correct response to a dichotomous item "i", usually a multiple-choice question, is:


title: Item response theory

text: where formula_1 indicates that the person's abilities are modeled as a sample from a normal distribution for the purpose of estimating the item parameters. After the item parameters have been estimated, the abilities of individual people are estimated for reporting purposes. formula_4, formula_5, and formula_6 are the item parameters. The item parameters determine the shape of the IRF. Figure 1 depicts an ideal 3PL ICC.


title: Item response theory

text: In brief, the parameters are interpreted as follows (dropping subscripts for legibility); "b" is most basic, hence listed first:


title: Item response theory

text: If formula_12 then these simplify to formula_13 and formula_14 meaning that "b" equals the 50% success level (difficulty), and "a" (divided by four) is the maximum slope (discrimination), which occurs at the 50% success level. Further, the logit (log odds) of a correct response is formula_15 (assuming formula_16): in particular if ability "θ" equals difficulty "b," there are even odds (1:1, so logit 0) of a correct answer, the greater the ability is above (or below) the difficulty the more (or less) likely a correct response, with discrimination "a" determining how rapidly the odds increase or decrease with ability.


title: Item response theory

text: In other words, the standard logistic function has an asymptotic minimum of 0 (formula_16), is centered around 0 (formula_18, formula_19), and has maximum slope formula_20 The formula_21 parameter stretches the horizontal scale, the formula_22 parameter shifts the horizontal scale, and the formula_23 compresses the vertical scale from formula_24 to formula_25 This is elaborated below.


title: Item response theory

text: The parameter formula_5 represents the item location which, in the case of attainment testing, is referred to as the item difficulty. It is the point on formula_1 where the IRF has its maximum slope, and where the value is half-way between the minimum value of formula_6 and the maximum value of 1. The example item is of medium difficulty since formula_5=0.0, which is near the center of the distribution. Note that this model scales the item's difficulty and the person's trait onto the same continuum. Thus, it is valid to talk about an item being about as hard as Person A's trait level or of a person's trait level being about the same as Item Y's difficulty, in the sense that successful performance of the task involved with an item reflects a specific level of ability.


title: Item response theory

text: The item parameter formula_4 represents the discrimination of the item: that is, the degree to which the item discriminates between persons in different regions on the latent continuum. This parameter characterizes the slope of the IRF where the slope is at its maximum. The example item has formula_4=1.0, which discriminates fairly well; persons with low ability do indeed have a much smaller chance of correctly responding than persons of higher ability. This discrimination parameter corresponds to the weighting coefficient of the respective item or indicator in a standard weighted linear (Ordinary Least Squares, OLS) regression and hence can be used to create a weighted index of indicators for unsupervised measurement of an underlying latent concept.


title: Item response theory

text: For items such as multiple choice items, the parameter formula_6 is used in attempt to account for the effects of guessing on the probability of a correct response. It indicates the probability that very low ability individuals will get this item correct by chance, mathematically represented as a lower asymptote. A four-option multiple choice item might have an IRF like the example item; there is a 1/4 chance of an extremely low ability candidate guessing the correct answer, so the formula_6 would be approximately 0.25. This approach assumes that all options are equally plausible, because if one option made no sense, even the lowest ability person would be able to discard it, so IRT parameter estimation methods take this into account and estimate a formula_6 based on the observed data.


title: Item response theory

text: Broadly speaking, IRT models can be divided into two families: unidimensional and multidimensional. Unidimensional models require a single trait (ability) dimension formula_1. Multidimensional IRT models model response data hypothesized to arise from multiple traits. However, because of the greatly increased complexity, the majority of IRT research and applications utilize a unidimensional model.


title: Item response theory

text: IRT models can also be categorized based on the number of scored responses. The typical multiple choice item is "dichotomous"; even though there may be four or five options, it is still scored only as correct/incorrect (right/wrong). Another class of models apply to "polytomous" outcomes, where each response has a different score value. A common example of this is Likert-type items, e.g., "Rate on a scale of 1 to 5."


title: Item response theory

text: Dichotomous IRT models are described by the number of parameters they make use of. The 3PL is named so because it employs three item parameters. The two-parameter model (2PL) assumes that the data have no guessing, but that items can vary in terms of location (formula_5) and discrimination (formula_4). The one-parameter model (1PL) assumes that guessing is a part of the ability and that all items that fit the model have equivalent discriminations, so that items are only described by a single parameter (formula_5). This results in one-parameter models having the property of specific objectivity, meaning that the rank of the item difficulty is the same for all respondents independent of ability, and that the rank of the person ability is the same for items independently of difficulty. Thus, 1 parameter models are sample independent, a property that does not hold for two-parameter and three-parameter models. Additionally, there is theoretically a four-parameter model (4PL), with an upper asymptote, denoted by formula_39 where formula_40 in the 3PL is replaced by formula_41. However, this is rarely used. Note that the alphabetical order of the item parameters does not match their practical or psychometric importance; the location/difficulty (formula_5) parameter is clearly most important because it is included in all three models. The 1PL uses only formula_5, the 2PL uses formula_5 and formula_4, the 3PL adds formula_6, and the 4PL adds formula_47.


title: Item response theory

text: The 2PL is equivalent to the 3PL model with formula_48, and is appropriate for testing items where guessing the correct answer is highly unlikely, such as fill-in-the-blank items ("What is the square root of 121?"), or where the concept of guessing does not apply, such as personality, attitude, or interest items (e.g., "I like Broadway musicals. Agree/Disagree").


title: Item response theory

text: The 1PL assumes not only that guessing is not present (or irrelevant), but that all items are equivalent in terms of discrimination, analogous to a common factor analysis with identical loadings for all items. Individual items or individuals might have secondary factors but these are assumed to be mutually independent and collectively orthogonal.


title: Item response theory

text: An alternative formulation constructs IRFs based on the normal probability distribution; these are sometimes called "normal ogive models". For example, the formula for a two-parameter normal-ogive IRF is:


title: Item response theory

text: The normal-ogive model derives from the assumption of normally distributed measurement error and is theoretically appealing on that basis. Here formula_5 is, again, the difficulty parameter. The discrimination parameter is formula_51, the standard deviation of the measurement error for item "i", and comparable to 1/"formula_4.


title: Item response theory

text: One can estimate a normal-ogive latent trait model by factor-analyzing a matrix of tetrachoric correlations between items. This means it is technically possible to estimate a simple IRT model using general-purpose statistical software.


title: Item response theory

text: With rescaling of the ability parameter, it is possible to make the 2PL logistic model closely approximate the cumulative normal ogive. Typically, the 2PL logistic and normal-ogive IRFs differ in probability by no more than 0.01 across the range of the function. The difference is greatest in the distribution tails, however, which tend to have more influence on results.


title: Item response theory

text: The latent trait/IRT model was originally developed using normal ogives, but this was considered too computationally demanding for the computers at the time (1960s). The logistic model was proposed as a simpler alternative, and has enjoyed wide use since. More recently, however, it was demonstrated that, using standard polynomial approximations to the normal CDF"," the normal-ogive model is no more computationally demanding than logistic models.


title: Item response theory

text: The Rasch model is often considered to be the 1PL IRT model. However, proponents of Rasch modeling prefer to view it as a completely different approach to conceptualizing the relationship between data and theory. Like other statistical modeling approaches, IRT emphasizes the primacy of the fit of a model to observed data, while the Rasch model emphasizes the primacy of the requirements for fundamental measurement, with adequate data-model fit being an important but secondary requirement to be met before a test or research instrument can be claimed to measure a trait. Operationally, this means that the IRT approaches include additional model parameters to reflect the patterns observed in the data (e.g., allowing items to vary in their correlation with the latent trait), whereas in the Rasch approach, claims regarding the presence of a latent trait can only be considered valid when both (a) the data fit the Rasch model, and (b) test items and examinees conform to the model. Therefore, under Rasch models, misfitting responses require diagnosis of the reason for the misfit, and may be excluded from the data set if one can explain substantively why they do not address the latent trait. Thus, the Rasch approach can be seen to be a confirmatory approach, as opposed to exploratory approaches that attempt to model the observed data.


title: Item response theory

text: The presence or absence of a guessing or pseudo-chance parameter is a major and sometimes controversial distinction. The IRT approach includes a left asymptote parameter to account for guessing in multiple choice examinations, while the Rasch model does not because it is assumed that guessing adds randomly distributed noise to the data. As the noise is randomly distributed, it is assumed that, provided sufficient items are tested, the rank-ordering of persons along the latent trait by raw score will not change, but will simply undergo a linear rescaling. By contrast, three-parameter IRT achieves data-model fit by selecting a model that fits the data, at the expense of sacrificing specific objectivity.


title: Item response theory

text: In practice, the Rasch model has at least two principal advantages in comparison to the IRT approach. The first advantage is the primacy of Rasch's specific requirements, which (when met) provides "fundamental" person-free measurement (where persons and items can be mapped onto the same invariant scale). Another advantage of the Rasch approach is that estimation of parameters is more straightforward in Rasch models due to the presence of sufficient statistics, which in this application means a one-to-one mapping of raw number-correct scores to Rasch formula_1 estimates.


title: Item response theory

text: As with any use of mathematical models, it is important to assess the fit of the data to the model. If item misfit with any model is diagnosed as due to poor item quality, for example confusing distractors in a multiple-choice test, then the items may be removed from that test form and rewritten or replaced in future test forms. If, however, a large number of misfitting items occur with no apparent reason for the misfit, the construct validity of the test will need to be reconsidered and the test specifications may need to be rewritten. Thus, misfit provides invaluable diagnostic tools for test developers, allowing the hypotheses upon which test specifications are based to be empirically tested against data.


title: Item response theory

text: There are several methods for assessing fit, such as a Chi-square statistic, or a standardized version of it. Two and three-parameter IRT models adjust item discrimination, ensuring improved data-model fit, so fit statistics lack the confirmatory diagnostic value found in one-parameter models, where the idealized model is specified in advance.


title: Item response theory

text: Data should not be removed on the basis of misfitting the model, but rather because a construct relevant reason for the misfit has been diagnosed, such as a non-native speaker of English taking a science test written in English. Such a candidate can be argued to not belong to the same population of persons depending on the dimensionality of the test, and, although one parameter IRT measures are argued to be sample-independent, they are not population independent, so misfit such as this is construct relevant and does not invalidate the test or the model. Such an approach is an essential tool in instrument validation. In two and three-parameter models, where the psychometric model is adjusted to fit the data, future administrations of the test must be checked for fit to the same model used in the initial validation in order to confirm the hypothesis that scores from each administration generalize to other administrations. If a different model is specified for each administration in order to achieve data-model fit, then a different latent trait is being measured and test scores cannot be argued to be comparable between administrations.


title: Item response theory

text: One of the major contributions of item response theory is the extension of the concept of reliability. Traditionally, reliability refers to the precision of measurement (i.e., the degree to which measurement is free of error). Traditionally, it is measured using a single index defined in various ways, such as the ratio of true and observed score variance. This index is helpful in characterizing a test's average reliability, for example in order to compare two tests. But IRT makes it clear that precision is not uniform across the entire range of test scores. Scores at the edges of the test's range, for example, generally have more error associated with them than scores closer to the middle of the range.


title: Item response theory

text: Item response theory advances the concept of item and test information to replace reliability. Information is also a "function" of the model parameters. For example, according to Fisher information theory, the item information supplied in the case of the 1PL for dichotomous response data is simply the probability of a correct response multiplied by the probability of an incorrect response, or,


title: Item response theory

text: The standard error of estimation (SE) is the reciprocal of the test information of at a given trait level, is the


title: Item response theory

text: For other models, such as the two and three parameters models, the discrimination parameter plays an important role in the function. The item information function for the two parameter model is


title: Item response theory

text: In general, item information functions tend to look bell-shaped. Highly discriminating items have tall, narrow information functions; they contribute greatly but over a narrow range. Less discriminating items provide less information but over a wider range.


title: Item response theory

text: Plots of item information can be used to see how much information an item contributes and to what portion of the scale score range. Because of local independence, item information functions are additive. Thus, the test information function is simply the sum of the information functions of the items on the exam. Using this property with a large item bank, test information functions can be shaped to control measurement error very precisely.


title: Item response theory

text: Characterizing the accuracy of test scores is perhaps the central issue in psychometric theory and is a chief difference between IRT and CTT. IRT findings reveal that the CTT concept of reliability is a simplification. In the place of reliability, IRT offers the test information function which shows the degree of precision at different values of theta, θ.


title: Item response theory

text: These results allow psychometricians to (potentially) carefully shape the level of reliability for different ranges of ability by including carefully chosen items. For example, in a certification situation in which a test can only be passed or failed, where there is only a single "cutscore," and where the actual passing score is unimportant, a very efficient test can be developed by selecting only items that have high information near the cutscore. These items generally correspond to items whose difficulty is about the same as that of the cutscore.


title: Item response theory

text: The person parameter formula_1 represents the magnitude of "latent trait" of the individual, which is the human capacity or attribute measured by the test. It might be a cognitive ability, physical ability, skill, knowledge, attitude, personality characteristic, etc.


title: Item response theory

text: The estimate of the person parameter - the "score" on a test with IRT - is computed and interpreted in a very different manner as compared to traditional scores like number or percent correct. The individual's total number-correct score is not the actual score, but is rather based on the IRFs, leading to a weighted score when the model contains item discrimination parameters. It is actually obtained by multiplying the item response function for each item to obtain a "likelihood function", the highest point of which is the "maximum likelihood estimate" of formula_1. This highest point is typically estimated with IRT software using the Newton–Raphson method. While scoring is much more sophisticated with IRT, for most tests, the correlation between the theta estimate and a traditional score is very high; often it is 0.95 or more. A graph of IRT scores against traditional scores shows an ogive shape implying that the IRT estimates separate individuals at the borders of the range more than in the middle.


title: Item response theory

text: An important difference between CTT and IRT is the treatment of measurement error, indexed by the standard error of measurement. All tests, questionnaires, and inventories are imprecise tools; we can never know a person's "true score", but rather only have an estimate, the "observed score." There is some amount of random error which may push the observed score higher or lower than the true score. CTT assumes that the amount of error is the same for each examinee, but IRT allows it to vary.


title: Item response theory

text: Also, nothing about IRT refutes human development or improvement or assumes that a trait level is fixed. A person may learn skills, knowledge or even so called "test-taking skills" which may translate to a higher true-score. In fact, a portion of IRT research focuses on the measurement of change in trait level.


title: Item response theory

text: Classical test theory (CTT) and IRT are largely concerned with the same problems but are different bodies of theory and entail different methods. Although the two paradigms are generally consistent and complementary, there are a number of points of difference:


title: Item response theory

text: It is worth also mentioning some specific similarities between CTT and IRT which help to understand the correspondence between concepts. First, Lord showed that under the assumption that formula_60 is normally distributed, discrimination in the 2PL model is approximately a monotonic function of the point-biserial correlation. In particular:


title: Item response theory

text: where formula_62 is the point biserial correlation of item "i". Thus, if the assumption holds, where there is a higher discrimination there will generally be a higher point-biserial correlation.


title: Item response theory

text: Another similarity is that while IRT provides for a standard error of each estimate and an information function, it is also possible to obtain an index for a test as a whole which is directly analogous to Cronbach's alpha, called the "separation index". To do so, it is necessary to begin with a decomposition of an IRT estimate into a true location and error, analogous to decomposition of an observed score into a true score and error in CTT. Let


title: Item response theory

text: where formula_60 is the true location, and formula_65 is the error association with an estimate. Then formula_66 is an estimate of the standard deviation of formula_65 for person with a given weighted score and the separation index is obtained as follows


title: Item response theory

text: where the mean squared standard error of person estimate gives an estimate of the variance of the errors, formula_69, across persons. The standard errors are normally produced as a by-product of the estimation process. The separation index is typically very close in value to Cronbach's alpha.


title: Item response theory

text: IRT is sometimes called "strong true score theory" or "modern mental test theory" because it is a more recent body of theory and makes more explicit the hypotheses that are implicit within CTT.


title: Item response theory

text: Many books have been written that address item response theory or contain IRT or IRT-like models. This is a partial list, focusing on texts that provide more depth.


title: Vishvarupa

text: Vishvarupa (, IAST: ) is an iconographical form and theophany of a Hindu deity, most commonly associated with Vishnu in contemporary Hinduism. Though there are multiple Vishvarupa theophanies, the most celebrated is in the "Bhagavad Gita", given by Krishna in the epic "Mahabharata", which was told to Pandava prince Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra in the war between the Pandavas and Kauravas. Vishvarupa is considered the supreme form of Vishnu, where the whole universe is described as contained within him.


title: Vishvarupa

text: In the climactic war in the "Mahabharata", the Pandava prince Arjuna and his brothers fight against their cousins, the Kauravas with Krishna as his charioteer. Faced with the moral dilemma of whether or not to fight against and kill his own family, Arjuna has a crisis of conscience. To appease him, Krishna discourses with Arjuna about life and death as well as dharma (duty) and yoga in form of the "Bhagavad Gita". In chapters 10 and 11, Krishna reveals himself as the Supreme Being and finally displays his Vishvarupa to Arjuna. Arjuna experiences the vision of the Vishvarupa with divine vision endowed to him by Krishna. Vishvarupa's appearance is described by Arjuna, as he witnesses it.


title: Vishvarupa

text: Vishvarupa has innumerable forms, eyes, faces, mouths and arms. All creatures of the universe are part of him. He is the infinite universe, without a beginning or an end. He contains peaceful as well as wrathful forms. Unable to bear the scale of the sight and gripped with fear, Arjuna requests Krishna to return to his four-armed Vishnu form, which he can bear to see. Fully encouraged by the teachings and darshan of Krishna in his full form, Arjuna continued the Mahabharata War.


title: Vishvarupa

text: There are two more descriptions in the "Mahabharata", where Krishna or Vishnu-Narayana offers the theophany similar to the Vishvarupa in the "Bhagavad Gita". When negotiations between Pandavas and Kauravas break down with Krishna as the Pandava messenger, Krishna declares that he is more than human and displays his cosmic form to the Kaurava leader Duryodhana and his assembly. Vishvarupa-Krishna appears with many arms and holds many weapons and attributes traditionally associated with Vishnu like the conch, the Sudarshana chakra, the gada (mace), his bow, his sword Nandaka. The inside of his body is described. Various deities (including Vasus, Rudras, Adityas, Dikapalas), sages and tribes (especially those opposing the Kauravas, including the Pandavas) are seen in his body. This form is described as terrible and only people blessed with divine vision could withstand the sight.


title: Vishvarupa

text: The other theophany of Vishnu (Narayana) is revealed to the divine sage Narada. The theophany is called "Vishvamurti". The god has a thousand eyes, a hundred heads, a thousand feet, a thousand bellies, a thousand arms and several mouths. He holds weapons as well as attributes of an ascetic like sacrificial fire, a staff, a kamandalu (water pot).


title: Vishvarupa

text: Another theophany in the "Mahabharata" is of a Vaishnava (related to Vishnu or Krishna) form. It misses the multiple body parts of Vishvarupa, but conveys the vastness and cosmic nature of the deity. His head covers the sky. His two feet cover all ground. His two arms encompass the horizontal space. His belly occupies the reattaining space in the universe.


title: Vishvarupa

text: Vishvarupa is also used in the context of Vishnu's "dwarf" avatar, Vamana in the "Harivamsa". Vamana, arrives at the asura king Bali's sacrifice as a dwarf Brahmin boy and asks for three steps of land as donation. Where the promise is given, Vamana transforms into his Vishvarupa, containing various deities in his body. The sun and the moon are his eyes. The earth his feet and heaven is his head. Various deities; celestial beings like Vasus, Maruts, Ashvins, Yakshas, Gandharvas, Apsaras; Vedic scriptures and sacrifices are contained in his body. With his two strides, he gains heaven and earth and placing the third on Bali's head, who accepts his mastership. Bali is then pushed to the realm of Patala (underworld).