text: 1987: "(I've Had) The Time of My Life" Lyrics by Franke Previte, Music by John DeNicola & Donald Markowitz, performed by Bill Medley and Jennifer Warnes – Dirty Dancing


title: Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song

text: 1988 (TIE): "Let the River Run" Music & Lyrics by Carly Simon, performed by Carly Simon – Working Girl " / "Two Hearts" Lyrics by Phil Collins, Music by Lamont Dozier – Buster "


text: 1989: "Under the Sea" Lyrics by Howard Ashman, Music by Alan Menken, performed by Samuel E. Wright – The Little Mermaid


text: 1991: "Beauty and the Beast" Lyrics by Howard Ashman, Music by Alan Menken, performed by Peabo Bryson and Céline Dion – Beauty and the Beast


text: 1992: "A Whole New World" Lyrics by Tim Rice, Music by Alan Menken, performed by Peabo Bryson and Regina Belle – Aladdin


text: 1993: "Streets of Philadelphia" Music & Lyrics by Bruce Springsteen, performed by Bruce Springsteen – Philadelphia


text: 1994: "Can You Feel the Love Tonight" Lyrics by Tim Rice, Music by Elton John, performed by Elton John – The Lion King


text: 1995: "Colors of the Wind" Lyrics by Stephen Schwartz, Music by Alan Menken, performed by Vanessa Williams – Pocahontas


text: 1996: "You Must Love Me" Lyrics by Tim Rice, Music by Andrew Lloyd Webber, performed by Madonna – Evita


text: 1997: "My Heart Will Go On" Lyrics by Wilbur Jennings, Music by James Horner, performed by Céline Dion – Titanic


text: 1998: "The Prayer" Music & Lyrics by David Foster, Tony Renis, Carole Bayer Sager, Alberto Testa, performed by Céline Dion and Andrea Bocelli – Quest for Camelot


text: 2002: "The Hands That Built America" Music & Lyrics by Bono, Adam Clayton, The Edge, & Larry Mullen, performed by U2 – Gangs of New York


text: 2003: "Into the West" Music & Lyrics by Annie Lennox, Howard Shore, Frances Walsh, performed by Annie Lennox –


text: 2004: "Old Habits Die Hard" Music & Lyrics by Mick Jagger, David A. Stewart, performed by Mick Jagger – Alfie


text: 2005: "A Love That Will Never Grow Old" Lyrics by Bernie Taupin, Music by Gustavo Santaolalla, performed by Emmylou Harris – Brokeback Mountain


text: 2008: "The Wrestler" Music & Lyrics by Bruce Springsteen, performed by Bruce Springsteen – The Wrestler


text: 2009: "The Weary Kind" Music & Lyrics by Ryan Bingham, T Bone Burnett, performed by Ryan Bingham – Crazy Heart


text: 2010: "You Haven't Seen the Last of Me" Music & Lyrics by Diane Warren, performed by Cher – Burlesque


text: 2011: "Masterpiece" Music & Lyrics by Madonna, Julie Frost, and Jimmy Harry, performed by Madonna – W.E.


text: 2018: "Shallow" Music & Lyrics by: Lady Gaga, Mark Ronson, Anthony Rossomando & Andrew Wyatt – A Star Is Born


text: 2020: "Io sì (Seen)" Music & Lyrics by: Niccolò Agliardi, Laura Pausini & Diane Warren – The Life Ahead


title: Bombard (weapon)

text: The bombard is a type of cannon or mortar which was used throughout the Middle Ages and the early modern period. Bombards were mainly large calibre, muzzle-loading artillery pieces used during sieges to shoot round stone projectiles at the walls of enemy fortifications, enabling troops to break in. Most bombards were made of iron and used gunpowder to launch the projectiles. There are many examples of bombards, including Mons Meg, the Dardanelles Gun, and the handheld bombard.


title: Bombard (weapon)

text: The term "bombard" was first used to describe guns of any kind from the early to mid-14th century, but it was later applied primarily to large cannons during the 14th to 15th centuries. Despite its strong association with large cannons, there is no standard size for bombards, and the term has been applied to cannons only a meter in length as well as cannons several meters long weighing up to 20 tonnes.


title: Bombard (weapon)

text: The oldest known representation of a bombard can be found in the Dazu Rock Carvings. In 1985, the Canadian historian Robin Yates was visiting Buddhist cave temples when he saw a sculpture on the wall depicting a demon firing a hand-held bombard. The sculpture was later dated to the early 12th century.


title: Bombard (weapon)

text: Early bombards also include two Chinese c. 1377 cast-iron mortars weighing over 150 kg, each with 4 trunnions on their barrels.


title: Bombard (weapon)

text: England began using cannons in the early 14th century. Field artillery was deployed by King Edward III at the Battle of Crecy in 1346 but equipment which may have been an artillery piece was listed as captured on a French ship by the English, at Sluys, as early as 1340. Inverted 'keyhole' gun loops at Bodiam Castle, Cooling Castle and Westgate Canterbury have all been identified as for firing heavy handguns. These defences are dated 1380–1385. Initially used as defensive weapons primitive bombards began to be used as siege weapons in the later 14th century. Henry IV and Henry V won battles with the use of bombards. Henry V captured Harfleur with bombards in 1415. King Henry's army later came under artillery fire at the Battle of Agincourt. James II of Scotland destroyed many castles with his one and a half ton cannon named "The Lion".


title: Bombard (weapon)

text: The French re-conquest of their kingdom from English control saw the use of considerable French artillery in the siege role. The French in this period preferred to avoid attacking English longbowmen in open battle and relied on siege tactics. However the last battle of the Hundred Years' War saw English commander John Talbot lead an Anglo-Gascon army against dug-in French troops equipped with 300 pieces of artillery at the Battle of Castillion in 1453. The French camp had been laid out by ordnance officer Jean Bureau to maximise the French artillery arm. The Anglo-Gascons were shot to pieces and Talbot was eventually killed.


title: Bombard (weapon)

text: Most bombards started with the construction of a wooden core surrounded by iron bars. Then, iron hoops were driven over these bars in order to surround and cover them. The whole structure was then welded with a hammer while it was still hot at about 2,500 °F (1,400 °C) (Pure iron can be welded when nearly white hot; between 2,500 °F (1,400 °C) and 2,700 °F (1,500 °C). See forge welding.) The rings then subsequently cooled and formed over the bars to secure them. The last step was to incinerate the wooden core and to attach a one-piece cast. The complicated procedure required a highly skilled forge who could work quickly and precisely with a hammer.


title: Bombard (weapon)

text: A notable example of a bombard is the large Mons Meg weapon, built around 1449 and used by King James II of Scotland. It was very powerful and used for bringing down castle walls. The origins of the Mons Meg are not fully known but according to Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, it was his idea. It was ordered around 1449 and had similar construction to a typical bombard. However, the Mons Meg was seldom used because of several factors. Mons Meg was capable of firing 180 kg (396 lb) shots and was one of the largest bombards in its time. It is now housed on public display at Edinburgh Castle.


title: Bombard (weapon)

text: A bombard with a bore of approximately 12 inches was found when the moat of Bodiam Castle, Kent, was drained. A muzzle-loader of hoop-and-stave construction, it is believed to be the oldest piece found in England and may be late 14th or very early 15th century. It was possibly dumped in the moat following an abortive siege at the castle during the Wars of the Roses. The original is now at the Royal Artillery Museum at Woolwich, but a copy has been on show at the castle for many years. The Star Gun Company has built a Bodiam Bombard replica while local newspapers report a replica was being fired at the castle for visitors during 2012.


title: Bombard (weapon)

text: Other known 15th-century very large-calibre guns include the wrought-iron Pumhart von Steyr and Dulle Griet as well as the cast-bronze Faule Mette, Faule Grete, and Grose Bochse. The Tsar Cannon is a late 16th-century show-piece.


title: Bombard (weapon)

text: The Dardanelles Gun, built in the Ottoman Empire in 1464 by Munir Ali, with a weight of 18.6 t and a length of 518 cm, was capable of firing stone balls of up to 63 cm diameter.


title: Bombard (weapon)

text: The Tsar Cannon, built in 1586 and today located on the grounds of the Moscow Kremlin, is the largest bombard ever built.


title: Bombard (weapon)

text: Eventually bombards were superseded by weapons using smaller calibre iron projectiles fired from longer barrels with more powerful gunpowder.


title: Iraq Campaign Medal

text: The Iraq Campaign Medal (ICM) is a military award of the United States Armed Forces which was created by Executive Order of U.S. President George W. Bush on 29 November 2004, and became available for general distribution in June 2005. The medal was designed by the U.S. Army Institute of Heraldry and was awarded during the Iraq War, from 19 March 2003 to 31 December 2011.


title: Iraq Campaign Medal

text: The medal is bronze in appearance, 1 inches (32mm) in diameter. The obverse depicts a north-oriented relief of the map of Iraq, surmounted by two lines representing the Tigris and Euphrates rivers throughout, superimposed over a palm wreath. Above is the inscription "IRAQ CAMPAIGN." On the reverse, the Statue of Freedom surmounts a sunburst, encircled by two scimitars pointing down with the blades crossing at the tips. Below is the inscription "FOR SERVICE IN IRAQ." The medal is suspended from a ribbon 1 inches (34.9 mm) wide. The stripes of the ribbon invoke the colors of the Iraqi flag and are: inch scarlet at the edges, followed by inch white, inch green, and inch white. The white is separated by a inch black with a inch stripe in chamois in the center.


title: Iraq Campaign Medal

text: The Iraq Campaign Medal was awarded to any member of the U.S. military who performed duty within the borders of Iraq (or its territorial waters) for a period of thirty consecutive days or sixty non-consecutive days. The medal was awarded retroactively from 19 March 2003 until the end of on 31 December 2011.


title: Iraq Campaign Medal

text: Personnel who engaged in combat with an enemy force, or personnel wounded in combat or wounded as a result of a terrorist attack within Iraq received the Iraq Campaign Medal regardless of the number of days spent within the country.


title: Iraq Campaign Medal

text: In addition, each day participating in aerial missions as a "regularly assigned air crewmember of an aircraft flying sorties into, out of, within or over Iraq and in direct support of the military operations" established a single day of eligibility. When the required minimum days of eligibility were accrued, the medal was then awarded.


title: Iraq Campaign Medal

text: The medal was also awarded posthumously to any service member who died in the line of duty within Iraq, including from non-combat injuries such as accidents and mishaps.


title: Iraq Campaign Medal

text: On 23 April 2012, an order terminating the award of the Iraq Campaign Medal was issued by the Department of Defense. The order is effective to 31 December 2011, the day Operation New Dawn ended. U.S. military personnel serving inside the borders of Iraq after December 2011 will not be eligible to receive the ICM.


title: Iraq Campaign Medal

text: The Iraq Campaign Medal replaced the Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal (GWOT-EM) for service in Iraq from 19 March 2003, through 30 April 2005. Personnel who previously received the GWOT-EM for Iraq service were given the option to exchange the medal for the Iraq Campaign Medal. The medals were not authorized for the same period of service in Iraq, and any Iraq service which followed the Iraq Campaign Medal's creation was recognized only with the ICM.


title: Iraq Campaign Medal

text: U.S. military personnel serving post-2014 in the Iraq conflict were originally awarded the Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal (GWOT-EM) and not the Iraq Campaign Medal as the latter conflict had ended and the former conflict was nameless at the time and the U.S. government did not designate the fighting to be a military campaign. However, the U.S. government dubbed their operations in Iraq post-2014 as "Operation Inherent Resolve", and in March 2016, the Inherent Resolve Campaign Medal (IRCM) was created. The IRCM is now awarded to those who have served in missions in Iraq against ISIL from 15 June 2014 to the present. Those who were awarded the GWOT-EM for serving in Iraq from 15 June 2014 to 30 March 2016, request the Inherent Resolve Campaign Medal instead.


title: Iraq Campaign Medal

text: The following are the approved campaign phases and respective inclusive dates for the Iraqi Campaign Medal:


title: Iraq Campaign Medal

text: The following ribbon devices are authorized for wear on the Iraqi Campaign Medal:<ref name="NavyAdminMsg141/08"></ref>


title: Anti-Terrorism Squad

text: Anti-Terrorism Squad (ATS) is a special police force in several states of India including Maharashtra, Gujarat, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal. In Maharashtra, it is headed by senior of the Indian Police Service. The squad has stopped several terrorist attacks in the country including 1991 Lokhandwala complex shooutout & 26/11 Mumbai attacks.


title: Anti-Terrorism Squad

text: ATS was founded in Maharashtra in 1990 by then Additional Commissioner of Police, Mumbai Aftab Ahmed Khan (popularly known as A. A. Khan). He was inspired by the Los Angeles Police Department's Special Weapons & Tactics (SWAT) teams methods to combat modern-day terrorism. Since its formation in 1990, ATS's officers have won 23 gallantry awards. The Mumbai ATS was involved in the 26 November 2008 hostage rescue operations in multiple locations in Mumbai, Maharashtra including the 5 star hotels Taj, Oberoi and Trident.


title: Anti-Terrorism Squad

text: The ATS was formed in December 1990 and helped reduce the crime rate in Mumbai by 70%. However, there were many human rights violations by the squad, from extreme means of torture to public shootings. Following the 1991 Lokhandwala Complex shootout on 16 November 1991 and many more encounters, the organization was terminated in January 1993. The leader of this program, A.A. Khan, was transferred as the ICP Anti Naxalite division to Nagpur on 29 January 1993 following the termination of the program. One month later on 12 March 1993 the Bombay blasts occurred, and the crime rate has increased since then.


title: Anti-Terrorism Squad

text: As per the information available on the official website of Mumbai Police, ATS was created by the Government of Maharashtra, vide G.R. No. SAS-10/03/15/SB-IV,


title: Anti-Terrorism Squad

text: On 16 November 1991 the ATS Chief, A.A. Khan, lead a squad of officers into the Swati building in Lokhandwala, eliminating 7 gangsters including Maya Dolas and Dilip Buwa. The shootout lasted 4 hours and more than 450 rounds were fired.


title: Anti-Terrorism Squad

text: The former ATS Chief Hemant Karkare was killed fighting terrorists on 26 November 2008, at the Cama & Albless Hospital in the Dhobitalao area of Mumbai. Karkare was killed with other two officers: Additional Commissioner Ashok Kamte and encounter specialist Vijay Salaskar. He was among the 14 police officials killed while fighting terrorists in Mumbai.


title: Anti-Terrorism Squad

text: The terrorists had holed up in many heritage locations of Mumbai, such as the Taj Mahal Palace Hotel and the Oberoi and Trident, Nariman Point hotels. Here the terrorists had killed 146 people, wounded at least 327, and taken at least 15 people hostage. Indians accounted for 96 dead of those, and at least 300 of those injured.


title: Anti-Terrorism Squad

text: Karkare, a 1982 batch IPS officer, had returned to his state cadre after a seven-year tenure with the Research and Analysis Wing, India's external intelligence agency, in Austria.


title: Tony Thompson (singer)

text: Anthony Ulysses Thompson, Jr. (September 2, 1975 – June 1, 2007) was an American singer–songwriter. Thompson was best known as the lead vocalist of the American R&B quintet Hi-Five, which had hit singles such as "I Like the Way (The Kissing Game)" and "I Can't Wait Another Minute". After the group disbanded in 1994, Thompson found solo success the following year with his debut album "Sexsational" in 1995.


title: Tony Thompson (singer)

text: Thompson was born in Waco, Texas and raised in Oklahoma City. He was named after his father, Anthony Thompson, Sr.


title: Tony Thompson (singer)

text: In 1984, he started singing solos in the local church choir at the age of eight. He then started singing in local talent shows. Local talent and up-and-coming artist William Walton reached out to Thompson in hopes of making his music dreams a reality. He was noticed by the first Waco, Texas R&B group (Ador) signed by Jive Records. The founding members are Toriano Easley (who is the only other native of Oklahoma City, Oklahoma) and left the group shortly before the scheduled release of self-title Hi-Five debut album; along with Marcus Sanders, Russell Neal, and Roderick "Pooh" Clark who were also from Waco. Due to untimely departure of Easley, with expediency Bronx native Treston Irby was brought in late 1990 to complete a five-member lineup. Taking the name Hi-Five, the group signed with Jive Records in 1989. The quintet's self-titled Hi-Five debut album, released September 1990, went platinum and produced several hits, including "I Like the Way (The Kissing Game)", "I Can't Wait Another Minute", and "Just Another Girlfriend". In 1992, the group released their second album, "Keep It Goin' On", with "She's Playing Hard to Get" and "Quality Time". Their third album, "Faithful", was released in 1993. The Hi-Five, Greatest Hits album was released October 1994,


title: Tony Thompson (singer)

text: by Jive/RCA Records. As the lead vocalist of Hi-Five for 5-years, the group disbanded in 1994 and Thompson focused on a solo career.


title: Tony Thompson (singer)

text: Thompson's only solo album, "Sexsational", was released on Giant Records in 1995. After a three-year (1997-2000) stint on Bad Boy Records, Thompson formed his own record label, N'Depth, and re-incarnated Hi-Five with four new members. The group's next album "The Return" was released in 2005. There was also a limited-run edition of a Christmas 2004 album titled "Five Days to Christmas."


title: Tony Thompson (singer)

text: During a November 4, 2005 promotional radio appearance with then-DJ Wendy Williams, Thompson and re-formed bandmates were confronted with a cease and desist letter, which Williams read aloud. Sent on behalf of two former Hi-Five bandmates, the letter cited their legal ownership of the Hi-Five name. This stopped distribution of album/CD and sales. Shortly afterward on November 22, 2005, a lawsuit was filed in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York as a third former bandmate joined the initial complaint. The action would prohibit Thompson, an original founding member from using the trademark "Hi-Five" name, that expired 1997 and not renewed; alleging agreement while minors, in connection with recordings not featuring all five original band members. Anthony Thompson was named as lead defendant, along with a former and three new bandmates, several distributors, retail outlet stores including Amazon and Walmart and RN'D, his primary distributor. Ultimately the legal case was not dismissed until August 2009, over two years after Thompson's death.


title: Tony Thompson (singer)

text: On June 1, 2007, Thompson's body was discovered by security officers at around 10 p.m. near an air-conditioning unit outside of an apartment complex in his native Waco, Texas. An autopsy later determined that he had died from "toxic effects of chlorodifluoromethane," or inhaling a toxic amount of freon. On June 10, 2010, a special ceremony was held for Tony Thompson's grave site headstone installation. Thompson is buried at Doris Miller Memorial Park in Waco, Texas.


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: The Pride of the Yankees is a 1942 American film produced by Samuel Goldwyn, directed by Sam Wood, and starring Gary Cooper, Teresa Wright, and Walter Brennan. It is a tribute to the legendary New York Yankees first baseman Lou Gehrig, who died only one year before its release, at age 37, from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, which later became known to the lay public as "Lou Gehrig's disease".


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: Though subtitled The Life of Lou Gehrig, the film is less a sports biography than an homage to a heroic and widely loved sports figure whose tragic and premature death touched the entire nation. It emphasizes Gehrig's relationship with his parents (particularly his strong-willed mother), his friendships with players and journalists, and his storybook romance with the woman who became his "companion for life," Eleanor Twitchell. Details of his baseball career—which were still fresh in most fans' minds in 1942—are limited to montages of ballparks, pennants, and Cooper swinging bats and running bases, though Gehrig's best-known major league record—2,130 consecutive games played—is prominently cited.


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: Yankee teammates Babe Ruth, Bob Meusel, Mark Koenig, and Bill Dickey play themselves, as does sportscaster Bill Stern. The film was adapted by Herman J. Mankiewicz, Jo Swerling, and an uncredited Casey Robinson from a story by Paul Gallico, and received 11 Oscar nominations. It ends with a re-enactment of Gehrig's poignant 1939 farewell speech at Yankee Stadium. The film's iconic closing line—"Today, I consider myself the luckiest man on the face of the Earth"—was voted 38th on the American Film Institute's list of 100 greatest movie quotes.


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: Lou Gehrig is a young Columbia University student whose old-fashioned mother wants him to study hard and become an engineer, but the young man has a gift for baseball. A sportswriter befriends Gehrig and persuades a scout to come see him play. When his mother gets sick, Gehrig signs with the team he has always revered, the New York Yankees to pay for the hospital bills. With the help of his father, he endeavors to keep his career change a secret from his mother.


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: Gehrig works his way up through the minor leagues and joins the Yankees. His hero, Babe Ruth, is at first condescending and dismissive of the rookie, but his strong, consistent play wins over Ruth and the rest of the team. Gehrig is unknowingly included by his teammates in playing pranks on Ruth on the team train.


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: During a game at Comiskey Park, Gehrig trips over a stack of bats and is teased by a spectator, Eleanor (the daughter of the ballpark hot dog magnate), who laughingly calls him "tanglefoot". Later, they are properly introduced, leading to a relationship, and then an engagement. Gehrig's mother, who still has not accepted the fact that her son will not be an engineer, does not take this news well; Gehrig finally stands up to her, and marries Eleanor.


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: The Yankees become the most dominant team in baseball, and Gehrig becomes a fan favorite. His father and fully converted mother attend games and cheer for him. In a re-creation of a famous (and possibly apocryphal) story, Gehrig visits a crippled boy named Billy in a hospital. He promises to hit two home runs in a single World Series game in the boy's honor—then fulfills his promise.


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: Gehrig is now the "Iron Horse", a national hero at the peak of his career with multitudes of fans, many loyal friends, and an adoring wife. Then he begins to notice, with growing alarm, that his strength is slowly ebbing away. Though he continues to play, and extends his consecutive-game streak to a seemingly insurmountable record, his physical condition continues its inexorable decline. One day, in Detroit, he tells Yankees manager Joe McCarthy that he has become a detriment to the team and benches himself. After an examination, a doctor gives him the awful news: Gehrig has a rare, incurable disease, and only a short time to live.


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: A short time later, at Lou Gehrig Day at Yankee Stadium, an older Billy finds Gehrig and shows him that he has made a full recovery, inspired by his hero's example and the two-homer fulfilled promise. Then, as Eleanor weeps softly in the stands, Gehrig addresses the fans: "People all say that I've had a bad break. But today ... today, I consider myself the luckiest man on the face of the Earth."


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: Samuel Goldwyn displayed little interest in Sam Wood's initial proposal to make a movie tribute to Gehrig, as he had no knowledge or interest in baseball. In addition, conventional Hollywood wisdom dictated that sports pictures were box-office poison, as women, who made up more than half the audience and made most movie-going decisions, did not like them. After Wood screened newsreel footage of Gehrig's famous "luckiest man" speech, however, Goldwyn—with tears in his eyes—agreed to produce the picture.


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: In a 1941 press campaign publicizing plans for the film, RKO Pictures announced a major talent hunt for Gehrig's portrayer, but Goldwyn and Wood reportedly never considered casting anyone but Cooper in the title role. Although he was ideally suited to the part due to his physical resemblance to Gehrig and the quiet strength and masculine appeal that he projected, Cooper was reluctant to accept it because he, like Goldwyn, had no interest in baseball. By one account, he had never watched a game nor even swung a bat prior to taking the role. Another problem was Cooper's age (41), particularly in scenes involving Gehrig as a young man. Cinematographer Rudolph Maté lighted Cooper from below during those early scenes to conceal lines and wrinkles, then gradually reduced and finally eliminated the lighting effect as the story progressed.


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: Another important (and problematic) casting decision was Babe Ruth, as himself. Ruth's health had been declining steadily since his retirement in 1935, and by 1942 he weighed nearly 270 pounds. He was put on a strict diet to achieve a presentable weight before filming began. This rapid weight loss, on the heels of a heart attack followed by a car accident, combined with the tough shooting schedule and Ruth's propensity to keep late hours, weakened him significantly. By the time filming wrapped he had developed pneumonia severe enough to require a period of hospitalization.


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: Multiple published sources have asserted that Cooper, who was right-handed, could not master a convincing left-handed swing. To remedy the problem, the story went, he was filmed wearing a mirror-image uniform and swinging from the right side of the plate, then running to third base instead of first; technicians then purportedly flopped the print of the film. Tom Shieber, Senior Curator at the National Baseball Hall of Fame, has shown, however, that Cooper did indeed learn to bat left-handed, and never wore a backwards Yankees uniform nor ran to third base after swinging. Film footage was, in fact, flopped only once, during a brief sequence portraying Gehrig's minor league days at Hartford, in order to make Cooper appear to be throwing left-handed — a far more difficult task for a right-hander to master. ("[Cooper] threw the ball like an old woman tossing a hot biscuit," said Lefty O'Doul, who tried unsuccessfully to teach him a convincing left-handed throw.) Scenes requiring Cooper to throw a ball as a Yankee were filmed using his stand-in, the left-handed Babe Herman.


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: Scenes purporting to depict Yankee Stadium, Comiskey Park, and other ballparks were all filmed at Wrigley Field in Los Angeles, home of the Los Angeles Angels of the old Pacific Coast League, and a popular venue for baseball movies of the era, as well as the "Home Run Derby" television series.


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text:
"Appreciation is expressed
for the gracious assistance
of Mrs. Lou Gehrig and
for the cooperation of
Mr. Ed Barrow and the
New York Yankees arranged
by Christy Walsh."


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text:
It is the story of a
gentle young man who, in
the full flower of his
great fame, was a lesson
in simplicity and modesty
to the youth of America.


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text:
He faced death with that
same valor and fortitude
that has been displayed
by thousands of young
Americans on far-flung
fields of battle. He left
behind him a memory of
courage and devotion that
will ever be an inspiration
to all men.


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: Gehrig died on June 2, 1941. The film premiered on July 14, 1942 in New York City at the Astor Theatre, and was shown for one night only at "forty neighborhood theatres." Preceding the film was the premiere of an animated short called "How to Play Baseball", produced by Walt Disney Animation Studios at Goldwyn's request.


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: "Variety" magazine called the film a "stirring epitaph" and a "sentimental, romantic saga ... well worth seeing."


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: "Time" magazine said the film was a "grade-A love story" done with "taste and distinction" though it was "somewhat overlong, repetitive, undramatic. Baseball fans who hope to see much baseball played in "Pride of the Yankees" will be disappointed. Babe Ruth is there, playing himself with fidelity and considerable humor; so are Yankees Bill Dickey, Bob Meusel, Mark Koenig. But baseball is only incidental. The hero does not hit a home run and win the girl. He is just a hardworking, unassuming, highly talented professional. The picture tells the model story of his model life in the special world of professional ballplayers."


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: Bosley Crowther of "The New York Times" called it a "tender, meticulous and explicitly narrative film" that "inclines to monotony" because of its length and devotion to "genial details."


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: "The Pride of the Yankees" was among the top ten box office films of 1942, earning $3,332,000 in theater rentals from the United States and Canada and an additional $855,000 from foreign rentals. Despite its wide popularity, RKO took a loss of $213,000 on the film due to the small distribution fee that Samuel Goldwyn had negotiated with the studio. All of Goldwyn's pictures produced a loss for RKO no matter how much money they took in; but the studio considered the arrangement acceptable, because its association with Goldwyn lent prestige to RKO, and enhanced sales of its own movies.


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: Film Editor Daniel Mandell won an Academy Award for his work on "The Pride of the Yankees". The film received ten additional Oscar nominations:


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: The American Film Institute ranked "The Pride of the Yankees" 22nd on its list of the 100 most inspiring films in American cinema.


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: In AFI's 2008 "Ten Top Tens"—the top ten films in ten "classic" American film genres—"The Pride of the Yankees" was ranked third in the sports category. Gehrig was named the 25th greatest hero in American cinema by the AFI in 2003.


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: As the film opens, Gehrig is depicted belting a home run through a window of the Columbia University athletic building. That building is actually located on the north end of campus, well away from the baseball field; his farthest hits most likely smashed through the windows of a nearby building housing the School of Journalism.


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: In the film, Gehrig hits two home runs in a World Series game against the St. Louis Cardinals where Babe Ruth also homers. This never occurred against the Cardinals, but did happen in Game 3 of the 1932 World Series versus the Cubs.


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: In the film, Gehrig meets Eleanor Twitchell early in his career and marries her shortly after his first World Series. Actually the two met in 1931, well after Gehrig was an established star. They were married in 1933.


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: In the scene where Eleanor looks through Lou's scrapbook, a newspaper clipping about Babe Ruth leaving the Yankees has a September 1935 date. Ruth last played for the Yankees in 1934. He had started the 1935 season as a Boston Brave, but he retired in late May.


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: In one of the film's more memorable scenes, a physician matter-of-factly informs Gehrig of his tragic diagnosis, dismal prognosis, and brief life expectancy. In fact, Mayo Clinic doctors painted an unrealistically optimistic picture of Gehrig's condition and prospects, reportedly at his wife's request. Among other things he was given "a 50–50 chance of keeping me as I am" for the foreseeable future, and was told that he "...may need a cane in 10 or 15 years." Deliberate concealment of bad news from patients, particularly when cancer or an incurable degenerative disease was involved, was a relatively common practice at the time.


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: There is no known intact film of Gehrig's actual speech at Yankee Stadium on July 4, 1939; a small portion of the newsreel footage, incorporating his first and last remarks, is all that survives. For the movie, the speech was not reproduced verbatim; the script condensed and reorganized Gehrig's actual spontaneous and unprepared remarks, and moved the iconic "luckiest man" line from the beginning to the end for heightened dramatic effect. Gehrig's message remained essentially unchanged.


title: The Pride of the Yankees

text: "The Pride of the Yankees" was adapted as an hour-long radio play on the October 4, 1943 broadcast of "Lux Radio Theater" with Gary Cooper and Virginia Bruce and a September 30, 1949 broadcast of "Screen Director's Playhouse" starring Gary Cooper and Lurene Tuttle.


title: Mandar Chandwadkar

text: Mandar Chandwadkar is an Indian actor. He is best known for playing the role of Aatmaram Tukaram Bhide in the Hindi sitcom "Taarak Mehta Ka Ooltah Chashmah".


title: Mandar Chandwadkar

text: Chandwadkar was born in Mumbai, Maharashtra and attended R.M. Bhatt High School in Parel, Mumbai. He graduated from the Guru Nanak Khalsa College of Arts, Science & Commerce, in Matunga Mumbai. He worked as a mechanical engineer in Dubai for three years(1997-2000). He left the job to pursue a career in acting. He is married to Snehal Chandwadkar, with whom he has a son named Parth.


title: Mandar Chandwadkar

text: In 1998, Chandwadkar formed his own theatre groups called "Pratibimb" and performed in three Hindi / Marathi comedies. He has directed several one-act plays. He has been active in both Hindi and Marathi teleserials and has acted in over 30 of them.


title: Bobotie

text: Bobotie (Afrikaans: ) is a well-known South African dish consisting of spiced minced meat baked with an egg-based topping.


title: Bobotie

text: Bobotie appears to be a variant of "Patinam ex lacte", a dish documented by the ancient Roman writer Apicius, layers of cooked meat, pine nuts, and seasoned with pepper, celery seeds and asafoetida. These were cooked until the flavours had blended, when a top layer of egg and milk was added. When the latter had set, the dish was ready to be served. C. Louis Leipoldt, a South African writer and gourmet, wrote that the recipe was known in Europe in the seventeenth century.


title: Bobotie

text: The origin of the word "bobotie" is contentious. The Afrikaans etymological dictionary claims that the probable origin is the Malayan word "boemboe", meaning curry spices. Others think it to have originated from "bobotok", an Indonesian dish which consisted of totally different ingredients. The first recipe for bobotie appeared in a Dutch cookbook in 1609. Afterwards, it was taken to South Africa and adopted by the Cape Malay community. It is also made with curry powder, leaving it with a slight "tang". It is often served with sambal. The dish has been known in the Cape of Good Hope since the 17th century, when it was made with a mixture of mutton and pork.


title: Bobotie

text: Today, bobotie is much more likely to be made with beef or lamb, although pork can also be used. Early recipes incorporated ginger, marjoram and lemon rind; the introduction of curry powder has simplified the recipe but the basic concept remains the same. Some recipes also call for chopped onions and almonds to be added to the mixture. Traditionally, bobotie incorporates dried fruit like raisins or sultanas. It is often garnished with bay leaves, walnuts, chutney and bananas. Although not particularly spicy, the dish incorporates a variety of flavours that can add complexity. For example, the dried fruit (usually apricots and raisins/sultanas) contrasts the curry flavouring. The texture of the dish is also complex, the baked egg mixture topping complementing the milk-soaked bread which adds moisture to the dish. Bobotie is usually served with "yellow rice", which is rice cooked with turmeric.


title: Bobotie

text: Leipoldt's recipe book published in 1933 calls for finely minced meat, breadcrumbs, milk, onions and butter and a curry sauce made with spices, sugar, lemon juice, chilli pepper and vinegar. This is baked with a topping of egg and milk.


title: Bobotie

text: A 1923 recipe by Mrs S. van H. Tulleken uses mutton, almonds, bitter almond essence, onions, butter, bread, curry powder, lemon juice, eggs and sugar, baked with a custard topping of eggs and milk.


title: Bobotie

text: Bobotie recipes were transported by South African settlers to other parts of Africa. Today, recipes for it can be found that originated in Afrikaner-descended settler communities in Botswana, Kenya, Zambia and Zimbabwe. There is a variation that was popular among the 7,000 Boer settlers who settled in the Chubut River Valley in Argentina in the early 20th century, in which the bobotie mixture is packed inside a large pumpkin, which is then baked until tender.


title: Bobotie

text: Bobotie was selected by 2008 Masters golf champion and South African native Trevor Immelman as the featured menu item for Augusta National's annual "Champions Dinner" in April 2009. Each year, the reigning champion at The Masters golf tournament, played every year in Augusta, Georgia, hosts the gathering and tends to create a menu featuring delicacies from his home region.


title: Bobotie

text: South African bobotie was one of the featured items on the menu; it is also served with turkey and mushrooms. It is listed as gluten-free. It is also on the everyday menu at the buffet restaurant Boma at Disney's Animal Kingdom Lodge.


title: Silver hallmarks

text: A silver object that is to be sold commercially is, in most countries, stamped with one or more silver hallmarks indicating the purity of the silver, the mark of the manufacturer or silversmith, and other (optional) markings to indicate date of manufacture and additional information about the piece. In some countries, the testing of silver objects and marking of purity is controlled by a national assayer's office.


title: Silver hallmarks

text: Hallmarks are applied with a hammer and punch, a process that leaves sharp edges and spurs of metal. Therefore, hallmarking is generally done before the piece goes for its final polishing.


title: Silver hallmarks

text: The hallmark for sterling silver varies from nation to nation, often using distinctive historic symbols, although Dutch and UK Assay offices no longer strike their traditional hallmarks exclusively in their own territories and undertake assay in other countries using marks that are the same as those used domestically.


title: Silver hallmarks

text: One of the most highly structured hallmarking systems in the world is that of the United Kingdom, (Scotland, England, Wales and Northern Ireland), and Ireland. These five nations have, historically, provided a wealth of information about a piece through their series of applied punches. Since 2015 visually identical UK Hallmarks are being struck in India and Italy by sub-offices of Birmingham & Sheffield Assay Offices respectively:


title: Silver hallmarks

text: Since the year 1838, the French assay mark for items made of solid silver is the head of the goddess Minerva in profile. The French have two standards for silver purity or fineness. The higher is 950 parts per thousand, or 95% silver referred to as 1st Standard. The lower grade of silver is 800 parts per thousand, or 80% silver referred to as 2nd Standard. Both standards are marked with the head of Minerva inclusive of a numeral 1 or 2 to indicate the standard.


title: Silver hallmarks

text: French silver made for export carries an assay mark in the shape of the head of Mercury, along with a number to indicate the millesimal fineness: "1" for .920, "2" for .840 and "3" for .750.


title: Silver hallmarks

text: French silver also is punched with the mark of the maker, by law in the shape of a lozenge, usually with the maker's initials and a symbol.


title: Silver hallmarks

text: In the early United States, no national assaying system was adopted, although the city of Baltimore did maintain its own assay office between 1814 and 1830. Prior to the general adoption of sterling silver as the standard of purity in 1868, silver was generally obtained from the melting of coins. Since these could vary considerably in purity, from around .750 millesimal fineness to around .900, silver known as "coin silver" varies in purity. Silver at that time was sometimes marked "COIN" or "PURE COIN", but can also be without a standard mark altogether. After the adoption of the sterling standard, pieces were marked with "STERLING", the number "925" or the notation "925/1000".


title: Silver hallmarks

text: The United States also had no date marking system. Because of this, some companies within the U.S., such as Tiffany, Reed & Barton and Gorham, adopted their own date marking systems.


title: Silver hallmarks

text: While American manufacturers did not apply assay marks, city marks or date marks, they did apply a maker's mark. This is generally not done today. The old hallmarks were as unique as today's logos, and disputes often arose when one company copied another's stamp.


title: Silver hallmarks

text: "The words "silver" and "sterling silver" describe a product that contains 92.5% pure silver. Silver products sometimes may be marked 925, which means that 925 parts per thousand are pure silver. Some jewelry described as "silver plate" has a layer of silver applied to a base metal. "Coin silver" is used for compounds that contain 90% pure silver. According to the law, quality-marked silver also must bear the name or a U.S. registered trademark of the company or person that will stand behind the mark."


title: Silver hallmarks

text: Between 1867 and 1933, Austria-Hungary and later, Hungary used the crescent moon crowned head of ancient Greek heroine Diana as the hallmarking symbol of legal silver alloys. The head was encircled by a frame, optionally composed of convex, concave and straight lines. One concave line represented 140/1000 fineness, a straight one 150 and a convex one 160. For example, a Diana head within a frame made in the shape of a 5-petal flower represented 5×160/1000 = 800 thousands fineness, a local silver standard commonly used in table forks and spoons. Meanwhile, a hexagonal frame represented 900 fine silver. This same system was also used to frame gold hallmarks.


title: Silver hallmarks

text: From 1929, Japan Mint assays and hallmarks the articles made of silver. The hallmarks of Japan Mint have the figure of the national flag of Japan.


title: Citizen science

text: Citizen science (CS) (similar to community science, crowd science, crowd-sourced science, civic science, participatory monitoring, or volunteer monitoring) is scientific research conducted with participation from the public (who are sometimes referred to as amateur/nonprofessional scientists). There are variations in the exact definition of citizen science, with different individuals and organizations having their own specific interpretations of what citizen science encompasses. Citizen science is used in a wide range of areas of study, with most citizen science research publications being in the fields of biology and conservation. There are different applications and functions of citizen science in research projects. Citizen science can be used as a methodology where public volunteers help in collecting and classifying data, improving the scientific community's capacity. Citizen science can also involve more direct involvement from the public, with communities initiating projects researching environment and health hazards in their own communities. Participation in citizen science projects also educates the public about the scientific process and increases awareness about different topics. Some schools have students participate in citizen science projects for this purpose as a part of the teaching curriculums.


title: Citizen science

text: The first use of the term "citizen science" can be found in a January 1989 issue of "MIT Technology Review", which featured three community-based labs studying environmental issues. In the 21st century, the number of citizen science projects, publications, and funding opportunities has increased. Citizen science has been used more over time, a trend helped by technological advancements. Digital citizen science platforms, such as Zooniverse, store large amounts of data for many projects and are a place where volunteers can learn how to contribute to projects. For some projects, participants are instructed to collect and enter data, such as what species they observed, into large digital global databases. For other projects, participants help classify data on digital platforms. Citizen science data is also being used to develop machine learning algorithms. An example is using volunteer-classified images to train machine learning algorithms to identify species. While global participation and global databases are found on online platforms, not all locations always have the same amount of data from contributors. Concerns over potential data quality issues, such as measurement errors and biases, in citizen science projects are recognized in the scientific community and there are statistical solutions and best practices available which can help.


title: Citizen science

text: The term "citizen science" has multiple origins, as well as differing concepts. It was first defined independently in the mid-1990s by Rick Bonney in the United States and Alan Irwin in the United Kingdom. Alan Irwin, a British sociologist, defines CS as "developing concepts of scientific citizenship which foregrounds the necessity of opening up science and science policy processes to the public". Irwin sought to reclaim two dimensions of the relationship between citizens and science: 1) that science should be responsive to citizens' concerns and needs; and 2) that citizens themselves could produce reliable scientific knowledge. The American ornithologist Rick Bonney, unaware of Irwin's work, defined CS as projects in which nonscientists, such as amateur birdwatchers, voluntarily contributed scientific data. This describes a more limited role for citizens in scientific research than Irwin's conception of the term.


title: Citizen science

text: The terms "citizen science" and "citizen scientists" entered the Oxford English Dictionary ("OED") in June 2014. "Citizen science" is defined as "scientific work undertaken by members of the general public, often in collaboration with or under the direction of professional scientists and scientific institutions". "Citizen scientist" is defined as: (a) "a scientist whose work is characterized by a sense of responsibility to serve the best interests of the wider community (now rare)"; or (b) "a member of the general public who engages in scientific work, often in collaboration with or under the direction of professional scientists and scientific institutions; an amateur scientist". The first use of the term "citizen scientist" can be found in the magazine "New Scientist" in an article about ufology from October 1979.


title: Citizen science

text: Muki Haklay cites, from a policy report for the Wilson Center entitled "Citizen Science and Policy: A European Perspective", an alternate first use of the term "citizen science" by R. Kerson in the magazine "MIT Technology Review" from January 1989. Quoting from the Wilson Center report: "The new form of engagement in science received the name 'citizen science'. The first recorded example of the use of the term is from 1989, describing how 225 volunteers across the US collected rain samples to assist the Audubon Society in an acid-rain awareness raising campaign."A ""Green Paper on Citizen Science"" was published in 2013 by the European Commission's Digital Science Unit and Socientize.eu, which included a definition for CS, referring to "the general public engagement in scientific research activities when citizens actively contribute to science either with their intellectual effort or surrounding knowledge or with their tools and resources. Participants provide experimental data and facilities for researchers, raise new questions and co-create a new scientific culture."


title: Citizen science

text: Citizen science may be performed by individuals, teams, or networks of volunteers. Citizen scientists often partner with professional scientists to achieve common goals. Large volunteer networks often allow scientists to accomplish tasks that would be too expensive or time-consuming to accomplish through other means.


title: Citizen science

text: Many citizen-science projects serve education and outreach goals. These projects may be designed for a formal classroom environment or an informal education environment such as museums.


title: Citizen science

text: Citizen science has evolved over the past four decades. Recent projects place more emphasis on scientifically sound practices and measurable goals for public education. Modern citizen science differs from its historical forms primarily in the access for, and subsequent scale of, public participation; technology is credited as one of the main drivers of the recent explosion of citizen science activity.


title: Citizen science

text: In March 2015, the Office of Science and Technology Policy published a factsheet entitled "Empowering Students and Others through Citizen Science and Crowdsourcing". Quoting: "Citizen science and crowdsourcing projects are powerful tools for providing students with skills needed to excel in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM). Volunteers in citizen science, for example, gain hands-on experience doing real science, and in many cases take that learning outside of the traditional classroom setting". The National Academies of Science cites SciStarter as a platform offering access to more than 2,700 citizen science projects and events, as well as helping interested parties access tools that facilitate project participation.


title: Citizen science

text: In May 2016, a new open-access journal was started by the Citizen Science Association along with Ubiquity Press called "Citizen Science: Theory and Practice" ("CS:T&P"). Quoting from the editorial article titled "The Theory and Practice of Citizen Science: Launching a New Journal", ""CS:T&P" provides the space to enhance the quality and impact of citizen science efforts by deeply exploring the citizen science concept in all its forms and across disciplines. By examining, critiquing, and sharing findings across a variety of citizen science endeavors, we can dig into the underpinnings and assumptions of citizen science and critically analyze its practice and outcomes."


title: Citizen science

text: In February 2020, Timber Press, an imprint of Workman Publishing Company, published "The Field Guide to Citizen Science" as a practical guide for anyone interested in getting started with CS.


title: Citizen science

text: Other definitions for citizen science have also been proposed. For example, Bruce Lewenstein of Cornell University's Communication and S&TS departments describes three possible definitions:


title: Citizen science

text: Scientists and scholars who have used other definitions include Frank N. von Hippel, Stephen Schneider, Neal Lane and Jon Beckwith. Other alternative terminologies proposed are "civic science" and "civic scientist".


title: Citizen science

text: Further, Muki Haklay offers an overview of the typologies of the level of citizen participation in citizen science, which range from "crowdsourcing" (level 1), where the citizen acts as a sensor, to "distributed intelligence" (level 2), where the citizen acts as a basic interpreter, to "participatory science", where citizens contribute to problem definition and data collection (level 3), to "extreme citizen science", which involves collaboration between the citizen and scientists in problem definition, collection and data analysis.


title: Citizen science

text: A 2014 Mashable article defines a citizen scientist as: "Anybody who voluntarily contributes his or her time and resources toward scientific research in partnership with professional scientists."


title: Citizen science

text: In 2016 the Australian Citizen Science Association released their definition which states "Citizen science involves public participation and collaboration in scientific research with the aim to increase scientific knowledge."


title: Citizen science

text: In a Smart City era, Citizen Science relays on various web-based tools, such as WebGIS, and becomes Cyber Citizen Science. Some projects, such as SETI@home, use the Internet to take advantage of distributed computing. These projects are generally passive. Computation tasks are performed by volunteers' computers and require little involvement beyond initial setup. There is disagreement as to whether these projects should be classified as citizen science.


title: Citizen science

text: The astrophysicist and Galaxy Zoo co-founder Kevin Schawinski stated: "We prefer to call this [Galaxy Zoo] citizen science because it's a better description of what you're doing; you're a regular citizen but you're doing science. Crowd sourcing sounds a bit like, well, you're just a member of the crowd and you're not; you're our collaborator. You're pro-actively involved in the process of science by participating."


title: Citizen science

text: Compared to SETI@home, "Galaxy Zoo volunteers do real work. They're not just passively running something on their computer and hoping that they'll be the first person to find aliens. They have a stake in science that comes out of it, which means that they are now interested in what we do with it, and what we find."


title: Citizen science

text: Citizen policy may be another result of citizen science initiatives. Bethany Brookshire (pen name SciCurious) writes: "If citizens are going to live with the benefits or potential consequences of science (as the vast majority of them will), it's incredibly important to make sure that they are not only well informed about changes and advances in science and technology, but that they also ... are able to ... influence the science policy decisions that could impact their lives." In "The Rightful Place of Science: Citizen Science", editors Darlene Cavalier and Eric Kennedy highlight emerging connections between citizen science, civic science, and participatory technology assessment.


title: Citizen science

text: Citizen involvement in scientific projects has become a means of encouraging curiosity and greater understanding of science whilst providing an unprecedented engagement between professional scientists and the general public. In a research report published by the National Park Service in 2008, Brett Amy Thelen and Rachel K. Thiet mention the following concerns, previously reported in the literature, about the validity of volunteer-generated data:


title: Citizen science

text: The question of data accuracy, in particular, remains open. John Losey, who created the Lost Ladybug citizen science project, has argued that the cost-effectiveness of citizen science data can outweigh data quality issues, if properly managed.


title: Citizen science

text: In December 2016, authors M. Kosmala, A. Wiggins, A. Swanson and B. Simmons published a study in the journal "Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment" called "Assessing Data Quality in Citizen Science". The abstract describes how ecological and environmental CS projects have enormous potential to advance science. Also, CS projects can influence policy and guide resource management by producing datasets that are otherwise infeasible to generate. In the section "In a Nutshell" (pg3), four condensed conclusions are stated. They are:


title: Citizen science

text: They conclude that as CS continues to grow and mature, a key metric of project success they expect to see will be a growing awareness of data quality. They also conclude that CS will emerge as a general tool helping "to collect otherwise unobtainable high-quality data in support of policy and resource management, conservation monitoring, and basic science."


title: Citizen science

text: A study of Canadian lepidoptera datasets published in 2018 compared the use of a professionally curated dataset of butterfly specimen records with four years of data from a CS program, eButterfly. The eButterfly dataset was used as it was determined to be of high quality because of the expert vetting process used on the site, and there existed a historic dataset covering the same geographic area consisting of specimen data, much of it institutional. The authors note that, in this case, CS data provides both novel and complementary information to the specimen data. Five new species were reported from the CS data, and geographic distribution information was improved for over 80% of species in the combined dataset when CS data was included.


title: Citizen science

text: Several recent studies have begun to explore the accuracy of CS projects and how to predict accuracy based on variables like expertise of practitioners. One example is a 2021 study by Edgar Santos-Fernandez and Kerrie Mengersen of the British Ecological Society who utilized a case study which used recent R and Stan programming software to offer ratings of the accuracy of species identifications performed by citizen scientists in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. This provided insight into possible problems with processes like this which include, "discriminatory power and guessing behaviour". The researchers determined that methods for rating the citizen scientists themselves based on skill level and expertise might make studies they conduct more easy to analyze.


title: Citizen science

text: Studies that are simple in execution are where CS excels in, particularly in the field of conservation biology and ecology. For example, in 2019, Sumner et al. compared the data of vespid wasp distributions collected by citizen scientists with the 4-decade, long-term dataset established by the BWARS. They set up the Big Wasp Survey from 26 August to 10 September 2017, inviting citizen scientists to trap wasps and send them for identification by experts where data was recorded. The results of this study showed that the campaign garnered over 2000 citizen scientists helping out with data collection, identifying over 6600 wasps. This experiment provides strong evidence that CS can generate potentially high-quality data comparable to that of expert data collection, within a shorter time frame. Although, the experiment was to originally test the strength of CS, the team also learned more about Vespidae biology and species distribution in the United Kingdom. With this study, the simple procedure enables CS to be executed in a successful manner. A study by J. Cohn describes that volunteers can be trained to use equipment and process data, especially considering that a large proportion of citizen scientists are individuals who are already well-versed in the field of science. The primary composition of volunteers in a CS project are students and educators in the science department. Other groups of volunteers include conservationists, outdoor enthusiasts, and amateur scientists. As such, citizen scientists are generally composed of individuals with a pre-understanding of the scientific method and how to conduct sensible and just scientific analysis.


title: Citizen science

text: Various studies have been published that explore the ethics of CS, including issues such as intellectual property and project design.(e.g.) The Citizen Science Association (CSA), based at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology, and the European Citizen Science Association (ECSA), based in the Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin, have working groups on ethics and principles.


title: Citizen science

text: In September 2015, ECSA published its "Ten Principles of Citizen Science", which have been developed by the "Sharing best practice and building capacity" working group of ECSA, led by the Natural History Museum, London with input from many members of the association.


title: Citizen science

text: The medical ethics of internet crowdsourcing has been questioned by Graber & Graber in the "Journal of Medical Ethics". In particular, they analyse the effect of games and the crowdsourcing project Foldit. They conclude: "games can have possible adverse effects, and that they manipulate the user into participation".


title: Citizen science

text: In March 2019 the online journal "Citizen Science: Theory and Practice" launched a collection of articles on the theme of Ethical Issues in Citizen Science. The articles are introduced with (quoting): "Citizen science can challenge existing ethical norms because it falls outside of customary methods of ensuring that research is conducted ethically. What ethical issues arise when engaging the public in research? How have these issues been addressed, and how should they be addressed in the future?"


title: Citizen science

text: In June 2019, "" (EASTS) published an issue titled "Citizen Science: Practices and Problems" which contains 15 articles/studies on CS, including many relevant subjects of which ethics is one. Quoting from the introduction "Citizen, Science, and Citizen Science": "The term citizen science has become very popular among scholars as well as the general public, and, given its growing presence in East Asia, it is perhaps not a moment too soon to have a special issue of EASTS on the topic."


title: Citizen science

text: Use of citizen science volunteers as "de facto" unpaid laborers by some commercial ventures have been criticized as exploitative.


title: Citizen science

text: Ethics in citizen science in the health and welfare field, has been discussed in terms of protection versus participation. Public involvement researcher Kristin Liabo writes that health researcher might, in light of their ethics training, be inclined to exclude vulnerable individuals from participation, to protect them from harm. However, she argues these groups are already likely to be excluded from participation in other arenas, and that participation can be empowering and a possibility to gain life skills that these individuals need. Whether or not to become involved should be a decision these individuals should be involved in and not a researcher decision.


title: Citizen science

text: In the research paper "Can citizen science enhance public understanding of science?" by Bonney et al. 2016, statistics which analyse the economic worth of citizen science are used, drawn from two papers: i) Sauermann and Franzoni 2015, and


title: Citizen science

text: ii)Theobald et al. 2015. In "Crowd science user contribution patterns and their implications" by Sauermann and Franzoni (2015), seven projects from the Zooniverse web portal are used to estimate the monetary value of the CS that had taken place. The seven projects are: Solar Stormwatch, Galaxy Zoo Supernovae, Galaxy Zoo Hubble, Moon Zoo, Old Weather, The Milky Way Project and Planet Hunters. Using data from 180 days in 2010, they find a total of 100,386 users participated, contributing 129,540 hours of unpaid work. Estimating at a rate of $12 an hour (an undergraduate research assistant's basic wage), the total contributions amount to $1,554,474, an average of $222,068 per project. The range over the seven projects was from $22,717 to $654,130.


title: Citizen science

text: In "Global change and local solutions: Tapping the unrealized potential of citizen science for biodiversity research" by Theobald et al. 2015, the authors surveyed 388 unique biodiversity-based projects. Quoting: "We estimate that between 1.36 million and 2.28 million people volunteer annually in the 388 projects we surveyed, though variation is great" and that "the range of in-kind contribution of the volunteerism in our 388 citizen science projects as between $667 million to $2.5 billion annually."


title: Citizen science

text: Worldwide participation in citizen science continues to grow. A list of the top five citizen science communities compiled by Marc Kuchner and Kristen Erickson in July 2018 shows a total of 3.75 million participants, although there is likely substantial overlap between the communities.


title: Citizen science

text: There have been studies published which examine the place of CS within education.(e.g.) Teaching aids can include books and activity or lesson plans.(e.g.). Some examples of studies are:


title: Citizen science

text: From the "Second International Handbook of Science Education", a chapter entitled: "Citizen Science, Ecojustice, and Science Education: Rethinking an Education from Nowhere", by Mueller and Tippins (2011), acknowledges in the abstract that: "There is an emerging emphasis in science education on engaging youth in citizen science." The authors also ask: "whether citizen science goes further with respect to citizen development." The abstract ends by stating that the "chapter takes account of the ways educators will collaborate with members of the community to effectively guide decisions, which offers promise for sharing a responsibility for democratizing science with others."


title: Citizen science

text: From the journal "Democracy and Education", an article entitled: "Lessons Learned from Citizen Science in the Classroom" by authors Gray, Nicosia and Jordan (GNJ) (2012) gives a response to a study by Mueller, Tippins and Bryan (MTB) called "The Future of Citizen Science". GNJ begins by stating in the abstract that "The Future of Citizen Science": "provides an important theoretical perspective about the future of democratized science and K12 education." But GRB state: "However, the authors (MTB) fail to adequately address the existing barriers and constraints to moving community-based science into the classroom." They end the abstract by arguing: "that the resource constraints of scientists, teachers, and students likely pose problems to moving true democratized science into the classroom."


title: Citizen science

text: In 2014, a study was published called "Citizen Science and Lifelong Learning" by R. Edwards in the journal "Studies in the Education of Adults". Edwards begins by writing in the abstract that CS projects have expanded over recent years and engaged citizen scientists and professionals in diverse ways. He continues: "Yet there has been little educational exploration of such projects to date." He describes that "there has been limited exploration of the educational backgrounds of adult contributors to citizen science". Edwards explains that CS contributors are referred to as volunteers, citizens or as amateurs. He ends the abstract: "The article will explore the nature and significance of these different characterisations and also suggest possibilities for further research."


title: Citizen science

text: In the journal "Microbiology and Biology Education" a study was published by Shah and Martinez (2015) called "Current Approaches in Implementing Citizen Science in the Classroom". They begin by writing in the abstract that CS is a partnership between inexperienced amateurs and trained scientists. The authors continue: "With recent studies showing a weakening in scientific competency of American students, incorporating citizen science initiatives in the curriculum provides a means to address deficiencies". They argue that combining traditional and innovative methods can help provide a practical experience of science. The abstract ends: "Citizen science can be used to emphasize the recognition and use of systematic approaches to solve problems affecting the community."


title: Citizen science

text: In November 2017, authors Mitchell, Triska and Liberatore published a study in "PLOS ONE" titled "Benefits and Challenges of Incorporating Citizen Science into University Education". The authors begin by stating in the abstract that citizen scientists contribute data with the expectation that it will be used. It reports that CS has been used for first year university students as a means to experience research. They continue: "Surveys of more than 1500 students showed that their environmental engagement increased significantly after participating in data collection and data analysis." However, only a third of students agreed that data collected by citizen scientists was reliable. A positive outcome of this was that the students were more careful of their own research. The abstract ends: "If true for citizen scientists in general, enabling participants as well as scientists to analyse data could enhance data quality, and so address a key constraint of broad-scale citizen science programs."


title: Citizen science

text: Citizen science has also been described as challenging the "traditional hierarchies and structures of knowledge creation".


title: Citizen science

text: While citizen science developed at the end of the 20th century, characteristics of citizen science are not new. Prior to the 20th century, science was often the pursuit of gentleman scientists, amateur or self-funded researchers such as Sir Isaac Newton, Benjamin Franklin, and Charles Darwin. Women citizen scientists from before the 20th century include Florence Nightingale who "perhaps better embodies the radical spirit of citizen science". Before the professionalization of science by the end of the 19th century, most pursued scientific projects as an activity rather than a profession itself, an example being amateur naturalists in the 18th and 19th centuries.


title: Citizen science

text: During the British colonization of North America, American Colonists recorded the weather, offering much of the information now used to estimate climate data and climate change during this time period. These people included John Campanius Holm, who recorded storms in the mid-1600s, as well as George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Benjamin Franklin who tracked weather patterns during America's founding. Their work focused on identifying patterns by amassing their data and that of their peers and predecessors, rather than specific professional knowledge in scientific fields. Some consider these individuals to be the first citizen scientists, some consider figures such as Leonardo da Vinci and Charles Darwin to be citizen scientists, while others feel that citizen science is a distinct movement that developed later on, building on the preceding history of science.


title: Citizen science

text: By the mid-20th century, however, science was dominated by researchers employed by universities and government research laboratories. By the 1970s, this transformation was being called into question. Philosopher Paul Feyerabend called for a "democratization of science". Biochemist Erwin Chargaff advocated a return to science by nature-loving amateurs in the tradition of Descartes, Newton, Leibniz, Buffon, and Darwin—science dominated by "amateurship instead of money-biased technical bureaucrats".


title: Citizen science

text: A study from 2016 indicates that the largest impact of citizen science is in research on biology, conservation and ecology, and is utilized mainly as a methodology of collecting and classifying data.


title: Citizen science

text: Astronomy has long been a field where amateurs have contributed throughout time, all the way up to the present day.


title: Citizen science

text: Collectively, amateur astronomers observe a variety of celestial objects and phenomena sometimes with equipment that they build themselves. Common targets of amateur astronomers include the Moon, planets, stars, comets, meteor showers, and a variety of deep-sky objects such as star clusters, galaxies, and nebulae. Observations of comets and stars are also used to measure the local level of artificial skyglow. One branch of amateur astronomy, amateur astrophotography, involves the taking of photos of the night sky. Many amateurs like to specialize in the observation of particular objects, types of objects, or types of events that interest them.


title: Citizen science

text: The American Association of Variable Star Observers has gathered data on variable stars for educational and professional analysis since 1911 and promotes participation beyond its membership on its Citizen Sky website.


title: Citizen science

text: Project PoSSUM is a relatively new organization, started in March 2012, which trains citizen scientists of many ages to go on polar suborbital missions. On these missions, they study noctilucent clouds with remote sensing, which reveals interesting clues about changes in the upper atmosphere and the ozone due to climate change. This is a form of citizen science which trains younger generations to be ambitious, participating in intriguing astronomy and climate change science projects even without a professional degree.


title: Citizen science

text: Butterfly counts have a long tradition of involving individuals in the study of butterflies' range and their relative abundance. Two long-running programs are the UK Butterfly Monitoring Scheme (started in 1976) and the North American Butterfly Association's Butterfly Count Program (started in 1975). There are various protocols for monitoring butterflies and different organizations support one or more of transects, counts and/or opportunistic sightings. eButterfly is an example of a program designed to capture any of the three types of counts for observers in North America. Species-specific programs also exist, with monarchs the prominent example. Two examples of this involve the counting of monarch butterflies during the fall migration to overwintering sites in Mexico: (1) Monarch Watch is a continent-wide project, while (2) the Cape May Monarch Monitoring Project is an example of a local project. The Austrian project Viel-Falter investigated if and how trained and supervised pupils are able to systematically collect data about the occurrence of diurnal butterflies, and how this data could contribute to a permanent butterfly monitoring system. Despite substantial identification uncertainties for some species or species groups, the data collected by pupils was successfully used to predict the general habitat quality for butterflies.


title: Citizen science

text: Citizen science projects have become increasingly focused on providing benefits to scientific research. The North American Bird Phenology Program (historically called the Bird Migration and Distribution records) may have been the earliest collective effort of citizens collecting ornithological information in the U.S. The program, dating back to 1883, was started by Wells Woodbridge Cooke. Cooke established a network of observers around North America to collect bird migration records. The Audubon Society's Christmas Bird Count, which began in 1900, is another example of a long-standing tradition of citizen science which has persisted to the present day, now containing a collection of six million handwritten migration observer cards that date back to the 19th century. Participants input this data into an online database for analysis. Citizen scientists help gather data that will be analyzed by professional researchers, and can be used to produce bird population and biodiversity indicators.


title: Citizen science

text: Raptor migration research relies on the data collected by the hawkwatching community. This mostly volunteer group counts migrating accipiters, buteos, falcons, harriers, kites, eagles, osprey, vultures and other raptors at hawk sites throughout North America during the spring and fall seasons. The daily data is uploaded to hawkcount.org where it can be viewed by professional scientists and the public.


title: Citizen science

text: Such indices can be useful tools to inform management, resource allocation, policy and planning. For example, European breeding bird survey data provide input for the Farmland Bird Index, adopted by the European Union as a structural indicator of sustainable development. This provides a cost-effective alternative to government monitoring.


title: Citizen science

text: Similarly, data collected by citizen scientists as part of BirdLife Australia's has been analysed to produce the first-ever Australian Terrestrial Bird Indices.


title: Citizen science

text: Most recently, more programs have sprung up worldwide, including NestWatch, a bird species monitoring program which tracks data on reproduction. This might include studies on when and how often nesting occurs, counting eggs laid and how many hatch successfully, and what proportion of hatchlings survive infancy. Participation in this program is extremely easy for the general public to join. Using the recently created nest watch app which is available on almost all devices, anyone can begin to observe their local species, recording results every 3 to 4 days within the app. This forms a continually-growing database which researchers can view and utilize to understand trends within specific bird populations.


title: Citizen science

text: The concept of citizen science has been extended to the ocean environment for characterizing ocean dynamics and tracking marine debris. For example, the mobile app Marine Debris Tracker is a joint partnership of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration and the University of Georgia. Long term sampling efforts such as the continuous plankton recorder has been fitted on ships of opportunity since 1931. Plankton collection by sailors and subsequent genetic analysis was pioneered in 2013 by Indigo V Expeditions as a way to better understand marine microbial structure and function.


title: Citizen science

text: Underwater photography has become more popular since the development of moderate priced digital cameras with waterproof housings in the early 2000s, resulting on millions of pictures posted every year on various websites and social media. This mass of documentation has great scientific potential, as millions of tourists possess a much superior coverage power than professional scientists, who cannot spend so much time in the field.


title: Citizen science

text: As a consequence, several participative sciences programs have been developed, supported by geotagging and identification web sites such as iNaturalist. The "Monitoring through many eyes" project collates thousands of underwater images of the Great Barrier Reef and provides an interface for elicitation of reef health indicators.


title: Citizen science

text: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) also offers opportunities for volunteer participation. By taking measurements in The United States' National Marine Sanctuaries, citizens contribute data to marine biology projects. In 2016, NOAA benefited from 137,000 hours of research.


title: Citizen science

text: There also exist protocols for auto-organization and self-teaching aimed at biodiversity-interested snorkelers, in order for them to turn their observations into sound scientific data, available for research. This kind of approach has been successfully used in Réunion island, allowing for tens of new records and even new species.


title: Citizen science

text: Aquarium hobbyists and their respective organizations are very passionate about fish conservation and often more knowledgeable about specific fish species and groups than scientific researchers. They have played an important role in the conservation of freshwater fishes by discovering new species, maintaining extensive databases with ecological information on thousands of species (such as for catfish, Mexican freshwater fishes, killifishes, cichlids), and successfully keeping and providing endangered and extinct-in-the-wild species for conservation projects. The CARES (Conservation, Awareness, Recognition, Encouragement, and Support) preservation program is the largest hobbyist organization containing over 30 aquarium societies and international organizations, and encourages serious aquarium hobbyists to devote tank space to the most threatened or extinct-in-the-wild species to ensure their survival for future generations.


title: Citizen science

text: Citizen scientists also work to monitor and conserve amphibian populations. One recent project is FrogWatch USA, organized by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums. Participants are invited to educate themselves on their local wetlands and help to save amphibian populations by reporting the data on the calls of local frogs and toads. The project already has over 150,000 observations from more than 5000 contributors. Participants are trained by program coordinators to identify calls and utilize this training to report data they find between February and August of each "monitoring season". Data is used to monitor diversity, invasion, and long-term shifts in population health within these frog and toad communities.


title: Citizen science

text: Reef Life Survey is a marine life monitoring programme based in Hobart, Tasmania. The project uses recreational divers that have been trained to make fish and invertebrate counts, using an approximate 50m constant depth transect of tropical and temperate reefs, which might include coral reefs. Reef Life Survey is international in its scope, but the data collectors are predominantly from Australia. The database is available to marine ecology researchers, and is used by several marine protected area managements in Australia, New Zealand, American Samoa and the eastern Pacific. Its results have also been included in the Australian Ocean DATA Network.


title: Citizen science

text: Farmer participation in experiments has a long tradition in agricultural science. There are many opportunities for citizen engagement in different parts of food systems. Citizen science is actively used for crop variety selection for climate adaptation, involving thousands of farmers.


title: Citizen science

text: Citizen science has a long tradition in natural science. Today, citizen science projects can also be found in various fields of science like art history. For example, the Zooniverse project AnnoTate is a transcription tool developed to enable volunteers to read and transcribe the personal papers of British-born and émigré artists. The papers are drawn from the Tate Archive. Another example of citizen science in art history is ARTigo. ARTigo collects semantic data on artworks from the footprints left by players of games featuring artwork images. From these footprints, ARTigo automatically builds a semantic search engine for artworks.


title: Citizen science

text: Citizen science has made significant contributions to the analysis of biodiversity across the world. A majority of data collected has been focused primarily on species occurrence, abundance and phenology with birds being primarily the most popular group observed There is growing efforts to expand the use of citizen science across other fields. Past data on biodiversity has had limitations in the quantity of data to make any meaningful broad connections to losses in biodiversity. Recruiting citizens already out in the field opens a tremendous amount of new data. For example, thousands of farmers reporting the changes in biodiversity in their farms over many years has provided a large amount of relevant data concerning the effect of different farming methods on biodiversity. Another example, is WomSAT, a citizen science project that collects data on wombat roadkill and sarcoptic mange incidence and distribution, to support conservation efforts for the species.


title: Citizen science

text: Citizen science can be used to great effect in addition to the usual scientific methods in biodiversity monitoring. The typical active method of species detection is able to collect data on the broad biodiversity of areas while citizen science approaches has shown to be more effective at identifying invasive species. In combination, this provides an effective strategy of monitoring the changes in biodiversity of ecosystems.


title: Citizen science

text: In the research fields of health and welfare, citizen science is often discussed in other terms, such as "public involvement", "user engagement", or "community member involvement". However the meaning is similar to CS, with the exception that citizens are not often involved in collecting data but more often involved in prioritisation of research ideas and improving methodology, e.g. survey questions. In the last decades, researchers and funders have gained awareness of the benefits from involving citizens in the research work, but the involvement of citizens in a meaningful way is not a common practice. There is an ongoing discussion on how to evaluate citizen science in health and welfare research.


title: Citizen science

text: One aspect to consider in citizen science in health and welfare, that stands out compared to in other academic fields, is "who" to involve. When research concerns human experiences, representation of a group becomes important. While it is commonly acknowledged that the people involved need to have lived experience of the concerned topic, representation is still an issue, and researchers are debating whether this is a useful concept in citizen science.


title: Citizen science

text: Newer technologies have increased the options for citizen science. Citizen scientists can build and operate their own instruments to gather data for their own experiments or as part of a larger project. Examples include amateur radio, amateur astronomy, Six Sigma Projects, and Maker activities. Scientist Joshua Pearce has advocated for the creation of open-source hardware based scientific equipment that both citizen scientists and professional scientists, which can be replicated by digital manufacturing techniques such as 3D printing. Multiple studies have shown this approach radically reduces scientific equipment costs. Examples of this approach include water testing, nitrate and other environmental testing, basic biology and optics. Groups such as Public Lab, which is a community where citizen scientists can learn how to investigate environmental concerns using inexpensive DIY techniques, embody this approach.


title: Citizen science

text: Video technology is much used in scientific research. The Citizen Science Center in the Nature Research Center wing of the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences has exhibits on how to get involved in scientific research and become a citizen scientist. For example, visitors can observe birdfeeders at the Prairie Ridge Ecostation satellite facility via live video feed and record which species they see.


title: Citizen science

text: Since 2005, the Genographic Project has used the latest genetic technology to expand our knowledge of the human story, and its pioneering use of DNA testing to engage and involve the public in the research effort has helped to create a new breed of "citizen scientist". Geno 2.0 expands the scope for citizen science, harnessing the power of the crowd to discover new details of human population history. This includes supporting, organization and dissemination of personal DNA (genetic) testing. Like amateur astronomy, citizen scientists encouraged by volunteer organizations like the International Society of Genetic Genealogy have provided valuable information and research to the professional scientific community.


title: Citizen science

text: With unmanned aerial vehicles, further citizen science is enabled. One example is the ESA's AstroDrone smartphone app for gathering robotic data with the Parrot AR.Drone.


title: Citizen science

text: Citizens in Space (CIS), a project of the United States Rocket Academy, seeks to combine citizen science with citizen space exploration. CIS is training citizen astronauts to fly as payload operators on suborbital reusable spacecraft that are now in development. CIS will also be developing, and encouraging others to develop, citizen-science payloads to fly on suborbital vehicles. CIS has already acquired a contract for 10 flights on the Lynx suborbital vehicle, being developed by XCOR Aerospace, and plans to acquire additional flights on XCOR Lynx and other suborbital vehicles in the future.


title: Citizen science

text: CIS believes that "The development of low-cost reusable suborbital spacecraft will be the next great enabler, allowing citizens to participate in space exploration and space science."


title: Citizen science

text: The website "CitizenScience.gov" was started by the U.S. government to "accelerate the use of crowdsourcing and citizen science" in the United States. Following the internet's rapid increase of citizen science projects, this site is one of the most prominent resource banks for citizen scientists and government supporters alike. It features three sections: a catalog of existing citizen science projects which are federally supported, a toolkit to help federal officials as they develop and maintain their future projects, and several other resources and projects. This was created as the result of a mandate within the Crowdsourcing and Citizen Science Act of 2016 (15 USC 3724).


title: Citizen science

text: The Internet has been a boon to citizen science, particularly through gamification. One of the first Internet-based citizen science experiments was NASA's Clickworkers, which enabled the general public to assist in the classification of images, greatly reducing the time to analyze large data sets. Another was the Citizen Science Toolbox, launched in 2003, of the Australian Coastal Collaborative Research Centre. Mozak is a game in which players create 3D reconstructions from images of actual human and mouse neurons, helping to advance understanding of the brain. One of the largest citizen science games is "Eyewire", a brain-mapping puzzle game developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology that now has over 200,000 players. Another example is "Quantum Moves", a game developed by the Center for Driven Community Research at Aarhus University, which uses online community efforts to solve quantum physics problems. The solutions found by players can then be used in the lab to feed computational algorithms used in building a scalable quantum computer.


title: Citizen science

text: More generally, Amazon's Mechanical Turk is frequently used in the creation, collection, and processing of data by paid citizens. There is controversy as to whether or not the data collected through such services is reliable, as it is subject to participants' desire for compensation. However, use of Mechanical Turk tends to quickly produce more diverse participant backgrounds, as well as comparably accurate data when compared to traditional collection methods.


title: Citizen science

text: The internet has also enabled citizen scientists to gather data to be analyzed by professional researchers. Citizen science networks are often involved in the observation of cyclic events of nature (phenology), such as effects of global warming on plant and animal life in different geographic areas, and in monitoring programs for natural-resource management. On BugGuide.Net, an online community of naturalists who share observations of arthropod, amateurs and professional researchers contribute to the analysis. By October 2022, BugGuide has over 1,886,513 images submitted by 47,732 contributors.


title: Citizen science

text: Not counting iNaturalist and eBird, the Zooniverse is home to the internet's largest, most popular and most successful citizen science projects. The Zooniverse and the suite of projects it contains is produced, maintained and developed by the Citizen Science Alliance (CSA). The member institutions of the CSA work with many academic and other partners around the world to produce projects that use the efforts and ability of volunteers to help scientists and researchers deal with the flood of data that confronts them. On 29 June 2015, the Zooniverse released a new software version with a project-building tool allowing any registered user to create a project. Project owners may optionally complete an approval process to have their projects listed on the Zooniverse site and promoted to the Zooniverse community. A NASA/JPL picture to the right gives an example from one of Zooniverse's projects The Milky Way Project.


title: Citizen science

text: The website CosmoQuest has as its goal "To create a community of people bent on together advancing our understanding of the universe; a community of people who are participating in doing science, who can explain why what they do matters, and what questions they are helping to answer."


title: Citizen science

text: CrowdCrafting enables its participants to create and run projects where volunteers help with image classification, transcription, geocoding and more. The platform is powered by PyBossa software, a free and open-source framework for crowdsourcing.


title: Citizen science

text: Project Soothe is a citizen science research project based at the University of Edinburgh. The aim of this research is to create a bank of soothing images, submitted by members of the public, which can be used to help others through psychotherapy and research in the future. Since 2015, Project Soothe has received over 600 soothing photographs from people in 23 countries. Anyone aged 12 years or over is eligible to participate in this research in two ways: (1) By submitting soothing photos that they have taken with a description of why the images make them feel soothed (2) By rating the photos that have been submitted by people worldwide for their soothability.


title: Citizen science

text: The internet has allowed for many individuals to share and upload massive amounts of data. Using the internet citizen observatories have been designed as a platform to both increase citizen participation and knowledge of their surrounding environment by collecting whatever relevant data is focused by the program. The idea is making it easier and more exciting for citizens to get and stay involved in local data collection.


title: Citizen science

text: The invention of social media has aided in providing massive amounts of information from the public to create citizen science programs. In a case study by Andrea Liberatore, Erin Bowkett, Catriona J. MacLeod, Eric Spurr, and Nancy Longnecker, the New Zealand Garden Bird Survey is conducted as one such project with the aid of social media. It examines the influence of utilizing a Facebook group to collect data from citizen scientists as the researchers work on the project over the span of a year. The authors claim that this use of social media greatly helps with the efficiency of this study and makes the atmosphere feel more communal.


title: Citizen science

text: The bandwidth and ubiquity afforded by smartphones has vastly expanded the opportunities for citizen science. Examples include iNaturalist, the San Francisco project, the WildLab, Project Noah, and Aurorasurus. Due to their ubiquity, for example, Twitter, Facebook, and smartphones have been useful for citizen scientists, having enabled them to discover and propagate a new type of aurora dubbed "STEVE" in 2016.


title: Citizen science

text: There are also apps for monitoring birds, marine wildlife and other organisms, and the "Loss of the Night".


title: Citizen science

text: An Android app Sapelli is a mobile data-collection and -sharing platform designed with a particular focus on non-literate and illiterate users. The SPOTTERON app creates synergy effects for projects by sharing a common feature set.


title: Citizen science

text: "The Crowd and the Cloud" is a four-part series broadcast during April 2017, which examines citizen science. It shows how smartphones, computers and mobile technology enable regular citizens to become part of a 21st-century way of doing science. The programs also demonstrate how citizen scientists help professional scientists to advance knowledge, which helps speed up new discoveries and innovations. The Crowd & The Cloud is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation.


title: Citizen science

text: Since 1975, in order to improve earthquake detection and collect useful information, the European-Mediterranean Seismological Centre monitors the visits of earthquake eyewitnesses to its website and relies on Facebook and Twitter. More recently, they developed the LastQuake mobile application which notifies users about earthquakes occurring around the world, alerts people when earthquakes hit near them, gathers earthquake eyewitnesses' testimonies to estimate the felt ground shaking and possible damages.


title: Citizen science

text: Citizen science has been used to provide valuable data in hydrology (catchment science), notably flood risk, water quality, and water resource management. A growth in internet use and smartphone ownership has allowed users to collect and share real-time flood-risk information using, for example, social media and web-based forms. Although traditional data collection methods are well-established, citizen science is being used to fill the data gaps on a local level, and is therefore meaningful to individual communities. Data collected from citizen science can also compare well to professionally-collected data. It has been demonstrated that citizen science is particularly advantageous during a flash flood because the public are more likely to witness these rarer hydrological events than scientists.


title: Citizen science

text: Citizen science includes projects that help monitor plastics and their associated pollution. These include The Ocean Cleanup, #OneLess, The Big Microplastic Survey, EXXpedition and Alliance to End Plastic Waste. Ellipsis seeks to map the distribution of litter using aerial data mapping by unmanned aerial vehicles and machine learning software. A Zooniverse project called The Plastic Tide (now finished) helped train an algorithm used by Ellipsis.