title: Biplab Kumar Deb

text: Deb contested the election from Banamalipur Constituency in Agartala and won by a margin of 9,549 votes, which was held by Indian National Congress MLA Gopal Roy. Deb led the Tripura's Election campaign and defeated Left Front after 25 years by winning 44 seats with his ally Indigenous Peoples Front of Tripura out of possible 60 seats in Tripura.


title: Biplab Kumar Deb

text: Deb campaigned on the subject of youth employment opportunities, which he promised to improve if elected Chief Minister of Tripura. He also promised the employees of Tripura that he would implement the 7th Pay Commission once he got elected. Deb brought in key BJP ministers from across India to campaign for the party in Tripura.


title: Biplab Kumar Deb

text: He took his oath as the 10th Chief Minister of Tripura on 9 March 2018. He resigned from the post on 14 May 2022.


title: Biplab Kumar Deb

text: In April 2018, Deb stirred nationwide controversy by comparing the internet and satellite with the character Sanjay of Mahabharata, as Sanjay has the blessings to see what is happening in the outside world from the house through his eyes.


title: Biplab Kumar Deb

text: He also made controversial remarks on the Civil Service Examination, stating that only civil engineers should sit for civil service exams.


title: Biplab Kumar Deb

text: He claimed that the oxygen levels will automatically rise in water bodies if ducks swim in them and wants every family to rear ducks and that his government plans to distribute 50,000 ducklings to villagers who lived near water bodies.


title: Biplab Kumar Deb

text: While addressing a function, Deb once again was surrounded in controversy after he said Rabindranath Tagore returned his Nobel Prize in protest against the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.


title: Biplab Kumar Deb

text: He also stated that international beauty pageants were a farce, and claimed that the decision to award Miss World and Miss Universe titles to Indian women for five years in a row was market-driven rather than based on the beauty of the participants while questioning the rationale behind awarding Diana Hayden the Miss World pageant.


title: Gunnar Nordahl

text: Nils Gunnar Nordahl (; 19 October 1921 – 15 September 1995) was a Swedish professional footballer. A highly prolific, powerful, and physically strong striker, with an eye for goal, he is best known for his spell at AC Milan from 1949 to 1956, in which he won the Scudetto twice, and also the title of "pluricapocannoniere", with an unprecedented five top scorer ("Capocannonieri") awards, more than any other player in the history of the Italian championship.


title: Gunnar Nordahl

text: Nordahl is Milan’s all-time record goalscorer, and he long held the record for most goals for a single club in the history of Italian league, before being surpassed by Francesco Totti in January 2012. He still holds the record for goals per appearance in Italy.


title: Gunnar Nordahl

text: A full international between 1942 and 1948, he won 33 caps and scored 43 goals for the Sweden national team. He represented his country at the 1948 Summer Olympics, where he was the joint top scorer alongside Denmark's John Hansen as Sweden won gold.


title: Gunnar Nordahl

text: Nordahl is considered to be one of the greatest Swedish football players of all-time, and regarded as one of the best strikers in football history. In 2017, he was included in "FourFourTwo" magazine's list of the 100 greatest players of all time, at the 54th position.


title: Gunnar Nordahl

text: Nordahl started out at Hörnefors IF in Sweden before moving to first Degerfors IF and then IFK Norrköping. He won four Swedish championships with IFK Norrköping and once scored seven goals in one game. During his time in Swedish clubs, Nordahl scored 149 goals in 172 matches.


title: Gunnar Nordahl

text: Nordahl transferred to AC Milan on 22 January 1949. Later, he would team up with his national team strike partners, Gunnar Gren and Nils Liedholm to form the renowned Gre-No-Li trio. Playing eight seasons with Milan, he is Serie A's multi-top-scorer a record five times (1949–50, 1950–51, 1952–53, 1953–54 and 1954–55). Nordahl is also Milan's all-time top-scorer, with 210 league goals.


title: Gunnar Nordahl

text: Nordahl is the third-highest Serie A goalscorer of all time, with 225 goals in 291 matches, only behind Silvio Piola and Francesco Totti. That makes Nordahl the top goalscorer among non-Italian players, and he is also the most "efficient" goalscorer goals in Serie A ever with 0.77 goals/match. He was nicknamed "il pompiere" (the fireman), because of his former job while he played in Sweden.


title: Gunnar Nordahl

text: After leaving Milan, Nordahl played for Roma for two seasons. Nordahl's record for most goals scored in Serie A (not including Divisione Nazionale, before Serie A was installed) of 35 in 1949–50 in a season was broken by Gonzalo Higuaín in the 2015–16 season who scored 36. Nordahl, together with the mentioned Gre-No-Li is today legendary in Milan. When Milan striker Andriy Shevchenko scored his 100 goal in Serie A for Milan, it is said that some old Milanese supporters commented: "Well he can double that number, and then add another 26, then, and just then, he has passed "Il Cannoniere"."


title: Gunnar Nordahl

text: Nordahl was first called up to the Swedish national team in 1942. In 1948, he helped Sweden to win the Olympic football tournament, becoming the tournament's top scorer on the way. The Swedish team also included his brothers Bertil and Knut Nordahl. Nordahl's transfer to Milan forced him to retire from the national team, as the rules at the time prevented professionals from the Swedish national team, being not called to 1950 FIFA World Cup along his fellows Gren and Liedholm. In his 33 matches in the national team, he scored a total of 43 goals.


title: Go Back (TV series)

text: Go Back () is a 2017 South Korean television series starring Son Ho-jun and Jang Na-ra. It premiered on October 13, 2017 and aired every Friday and Saturday at 23:00 (KST) on KBS2.


title: Go Back (TV series)

text: The series was based on the Naver webtoon series "Do it one more time" () by Hong Seung-pyo (aka Miti) and Kim Hye-yeon (aka Gugu), which was first published online in 2016.


title: Go Back (TV series)

text: Choi Ban-do (Son Ho-jun) and Ma Jin-joo (Jang Na-ra) are both 38 years old and married with a little son. Both are struggling through daily lives that leave them exhausted and unhappy. Ban-do is a pharmaceutical salesman who spends his days begging people to buy his medicines and his evenings either drinking with prospective clients or helping an arrogant and cruel hospital director, Park Hyun-suk (Im Ji-kyu), to hide the fact that he is cheating on his wealthy wife. Jin-joo is a housewife who raises their son while struggling to find meaning in her life and feels lonely and abandoned by Ban-do. After coming to a breaking point in their relationship, Ban-do and Jin-joo wake up to find themselves as 20-year-old university students. They don't know why they are there or how long they will stay so they decide to enjoy it and make different choices than they did the first time around. These decisions impact their families and friends.


title: Go Back (TV series)

text: The drama, directed and written by the production team of "The Sound of Your Heart", is the first production of Zium Content, the production company founded by ex-KBS drama producer Han Seok-won ("") in early 2017. It was co-produced by KBS N.


title: Go Back (TV series)

text: The soundtrack released on November 20, 2017 for the korean drama of the same name. The CD 1 composed of 7 tracks which was released as a single while the CD 2 released as a track on the album.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: Ian Pretyman Stevenson (October 31, 1918 – February 8, 2007) was a Canadian-born American psychiatrist, the founder and director of the Division of Perceptual Studies at the University of Virginia School of Medicine.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: He was a professor at the University of Virginia School of Medicine for fifty years. He was chair of their department of psychiatry from 1957 to 1967, Carlson Professor of Psychiatry from 1967 to 2001, and Research Professor of Psychiatry from 2002 until his death in 2007.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: As founder and director of the University of Virginia School of Medicine's Division of Perceptual Studies (originally named "Division of Personality Studies"), which investigates the paranormal, Stevenson became known for his research into cases he considered suggestive of reincarnation – the idea that emotions, memories, and even physical bodily features can be passed on from one incarnation to another. In the course of his forty years doing international fieldwork, he researched three thousand cases of children who claimed to remember past lives. His position was that certain phobias, philias, unusual abilities and illnesses could not be fully explained by genetics or the environment. He believed that, in addition to genetics and the environment, reincarnation might possibly provide a third, contributing factor.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: Stevenson helped to found the Society for Scientific Exploration in 1982, and was the author of around three hundred papers and fourteen books on reincarnation, including "Twenty Cases Suggestive of Reincarnation" (1966), "Cases of the Reincarnation Type" (four volumes, 1975-1983) and "European Cases of the Reincarnation Type" (2003). His 1997 work "Reincarnation and Biology: A Contribution to the Etiology of Birthmarks and Birth Defects" reported two hundred cases in which birthmarks and birth defects seemed to correspond in some way to a wound on the deceased person whose life the child recalled. He wrote a shorter version of the same research for the general reader, "Where Reincarnation and Biology Intersect" (1997).


title: Ian Stevenson

text: Reaction to his work was mixed. In an obituary for Stevenson in "The New York Times," Margalit Fox wrote that Stevenson's supporters saw him as a misunderstood genius, that his detractors regarded him as earnest but gullible, but that most scientists had simply ignored his research. His life and work became the subject of the supportive books "" (1999) by Tom Shroder (a "Washington Post" journalist), "Life Before Life" (2005) by Jim B. Tucker (a psychiatrist and colleague at the University of Virginia who now heads the division Stevenson founded), and "Science, the Self, and Survival after Death" (2012), by Emily Williams Kelly. Critics, particularly the philosophers C.T.K. Chari (1909–1993) and Paul Edwards (1923–2004), raised a number of issues, including instances where the children or parents interviewed by Stevenson had deceived him, instances of Stevenson asking leading questions in his interviews, and problems with working through translators who credulously believed what the interviewees were saying at face value. Stevenson's critics contend that ultimately his conclusions are undermined by confirmation bias, where cases not supportive of his hypothesis were not presented as counting against it, and motivated reasoning since Stevenson had always maintained a personal belief in reincarnation as a fact of reality rather than also considering the possibility that it may not happen at all.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: Ian Stevenson was born in Montreal and raised in Ottawa, one of three children. His father, John Stevenson, was a Scottish lawyer who was working in Ottawa as the Canadian correspondent for "The Times" of London or "The New York Times". His mother, Ruth, had an interest in theosophy and an extensive library on the subject, to which Stevenson attributed his own early interest in the paranormal. As a child he was often bedridden with bronchitis, a condition that continued into adulthood and engendered in him a lifelong love of books. According to Emily Williams Kelly, a colleague of his at the University of Virginia, he maintained a list of the books he had read, which numbered 3,535 between 1935 and 2003.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: He studied medicine at St. Andrews University in Scotland from 1937 to 1939, but had to complete his studies in Canada because of the outbreak of the Second World War. He graduated from McGill University with a B.S.c. in 1942 and an M.D. in 1943. He was married to Octavia Reynolds from 1947 until her death in 1983. In 1985, he married Dr. Margaret Pertzoff (1926–2009), professor of history at Randolph-Macon Woman's College. She did not share his views on the paranormal, but tolerated them with what Stevenson called "benevolent silences."


title: Ian Stevenson

text: After graduating, Stevenson conducted research in biochemistry. His first residency was at the Royal Victoria Hospital in Montreal (1944–1945), but his lung condition continued to bother him, and one of his professors at McGill advised him to move to Arizona for his health. He took up a residency at St. Joseph's Hospital in Phoenix, Arizona (1945–1946). After that, he held a fellowship in internal medicine at the Alton Ochsner Medical Foundation in New Orleans, became a Denis Fellow in Biochemistry at Tulane University School of Medicine (1946–1947), and a Commonwealth Fund Fellow in Medicine at Cornell University Medical College and New York Hospital (1947–1949). He became a U.S. citizen in 1949.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: Emily Williams Kelly writes that Stevenson became dissatisfied with the reductionism he encountered in biochemistry, and wanted to study the whole person. He became interested in psychosomatic medicine, psychiatry and psychoanalysis, and in the late 1940s, worked at New York Hospital exploring psychosomatic illness and the effects of stress, and in particular why one person's response to stress might be asthma and another's high blood pressure.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: He taught at Louisiana State University School of Medicine from 1949 to 1957 as assistant, then associate, professor of psychiatry.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: In the 1950s, he met Aldous Huxley (1894–1963), known for his advocacy of psychedelic drugs, and studied the effects of L.S.D. and mescaline, one of the first academics to do so. Ian Stevenson, in his course of studies, tried and studied L.S.D. himself, describing three days of "perfect serenity." He wrote that at the time he felt he could "never be angry again," but added, "As it happens that didn't work out, but the memory of it persisted as something to hope for."


title: Ian Stevenson

text: From 1951, he studied psychoanalysis at the New Orleans Psychoanalytic Institute and the Washington Psychoanalytic Institute, graduating from the latter in 1958, a year after being appointed head of the department of psychiatry at the University of Virginia. He argued against the orthodoxy within psychiatry and psychoanalysis at the time that the personality is more plastic in the early years; his paper on the subject, "Is the human personality more plastic in infancy and childhood?" ("American Journal of Psychiatry", 1957), was not received well by his colleagues. He wrote that their response prepared him for the rejection he experienced over his work on the paranormal.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: Stevenson described as the leitmotif of his career his interest in why one person would develop one disease, and another something different. He came to believe that neither environment nor heredity could account for certain fears, illnesses and special abilities, and that some form of personality or memory transfer might provide a third type of explanation. He acknowledged, however, the absence of evidence of a physical process by which a personality could survive death and transfer to another body, and he was careful not to commit himself fully to the position that reincarnation occurs. He argued only that his case studies could not, in his view, be explained by environment or heredity, and that "reincarnation is the best – even though not the only – explanation for the stronger cases we have investigated." He said in 1974, looking back on his work:


title: Ian Stevenson

text: [W]hat I do believe is that, of the cases we now know, reincarnation--at least for some--is the best explanation that we have been able to come up with. There is an impressive body of evidence and it is getting stronger all the time. I think a rational person, if he wants, can believe in reincarnation on the basis of evidence.In 1958 and 1959, Stevenson contributed several articles and book reviews to "Harper's" about parapsychology, including psychosomatic illness and extrasensory perception, and in 1958, he submitted the winning entry to a competition organized by the American Society for Psychical Research, in honor of the philosopher William James (1842–1910). The prize was for the best essay on "paranormal mental phenomena and their relationship to the problem of survival of the human personality after bodily death." Stevenson's essay, "The Evidence for Survival from Claimed Memories of Former Incarnations" (1960), reviewed forty-four published cases of people, mostly children, who claimed to remember past lives. It caught the attention of Eileen J. Garrett (1893–1970), the founder of the Parapsychology Foundation, who gave Stevenson a grant to travel to India to interview a child who was claiming to have past-life memories. According to Jim Tucker, Stevenson found twenty-five other cases in just four weeks in India and was able to publish his first book on the subject in 1966, "Twenty Cases Suggestive of Reincarnation".


title: Ian Stevenson

text: Chester Carlson (1906–1968), the inventor of xerography, offered further financial help. Jim Tucker writes that this allowed Stevenson to step down as chair of the psychiatry department and set up a separate division within the department, which he called the Division of Personality Studies, later renamed the Division of Perceptual Studies.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: When Carlson died in 1968, he left $1,000,000 to the University of Virginia to continue Stevenson's work. The bequest caused controversy within the university because of the nature of the research, but the donation was accepted, and Stevenson became the first Carlson Professor of Psychiatry.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: The bequest from Chester Carlson allowed Stevenson to travel extensively, sometimes as much as 55,000 miles a year, collecting around three thousand case studies based on interviews with children from Africa to Alaska.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: In one case of claimed reincarnation, as Stevenson recounted it, a newborn girl in Sri Lanka screamed whenever she was carried near a bus or a bath. When she was old enough to talk, he said, she recounted a previous life as a girl of 8 or 9 who drowned after a bus knocked her into a flooded rice paddy; later investigation found the family of just such a dead girl living four or five kilometers away. The two families, Stevenson said, were believed to have had no contact.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: According to journalist Tom Shroder, "In interviewing witnesses and reviewing documents, Stevenson searched for alternate ways to account for the testimony: that the child came upon the information in some normal way, that the witnesses were engaged in fraud or self-delusion, that the correlations were the result of coincidence or misunderstanding. But in scores of cases, Stevenson concluded that no normal explanation sufficed."


title: Ian Stevenson

text: In some cases, a child in a "past life" case may have birthmarks or birth defects that in some way correspond to physical features of the "previous person" whose life the child seems to remember. Stevenson's "Reincarnation and Biology: A Contribution to the Etiology of Birthmarks and Birth Defects" (1997) examined two hundred cases of birth defects or birthmarks on children claiming past-life memories. These included children with malformed or missing fingers who said they recalled the lives of people who had lost fingers; a boy with birthmarks resembling entrance and exit wounds who said he recalled the life of someone who had been shot; and a child with a scar around her skull three centimetres wide who said she recalled the life of a man who had had skull surgery. In many of the cases, in Stevenson's view, the witness testimony or autopsy reports appeared to support the existence of the injuries on the deceased's body.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: The "Journal of the American Medical Association" referred to Stevenson's "Cases of the Reincarnation Type" (1975) as a "painstaking and unemotional" collection of cases that were "difficult to explain on any assumption other than reincarnation." In September 1977, the "Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease" devoted most of one issue to Stevenson's research. Writing in the journal, the psychiatrist Harold Lief described Stevenson as a methodical investigator and added, "Either he is making a colossal mistake, or he will be known (I have said as much to him) as 'the Galileo of the 20th century'." The issue proved popular: the journal's editor, the psychiatrist Eugene Brody, said he had received 300–400 requests for reprints.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: Despite this early interest, most scientists ignored Stevenson's work. According to his "New York Times" obituary, his detractors saw him as "earnest, dogged but ultimately misguided, led astray by gullibility, wishful thinking and a tendency to see science where others saw superstition." Critics suggested that the children or their parents had deceived him, that he was too willing to believe them, and that he had asked them leading questions. Robert Todd Carroll wrote in his "Skeptic's Dictionary" that Stevenson's results were subject to confirmation bias, in that cases not supportive of the hypothesis were not presented as counting against it. Leonard Angel, a philosopher of religion, told "The New York Times" that Stevenson did not follow proper standards. "[B]ut you do have to look carefully to see it; that's why he's been very persuasive to many people."


title: Ian Stevenson

text: In an article in "Skeptical Inquirer" Angel examined Stevenson’s "Twenty Cases Suggestive of Reincarnation" (1974) and concluded that the research was so poorly conducted as to cast doubt on all Stevenson's work. He says that Stevenson failed to clearly and concisely document the claims made before attempting to verify them. Among a number of other faults, Angel says, Stevenson asked leading questions and did not properly tabulate or account for all erroneous statements. Angel writes:


title: Ian Stevenson

text: Skeptics have written that Stevenson's evidence was anecdotal and by applying Occam's razor there are prosaic explanations for the cases without invoking the paranormal. Science writer Terence Hines has written:


title: Ian Stevenson

text: Robert Baker wrote that many of the alleged past-life experiences investigated by Stevenson and other parapsychologists can be explained in terms of known psychological factors. Baker attributed the recalling of past lives to a mixture of cryptomnesia and confabulation.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: British author and religious studies scholar, Ian Wilson, argued that a large number of Stevenson's cases consisted of poor children remembering wealthy lives or belonging to a higher caste. He speculated that such cases may represent a scheme to obtain money from the family of the alleged former incarnation.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: The philosopher C.T.K. Chari of Madras Christian College in Chennai, a specialist in parapsychology, argued that Stevenson was naive and that the case studies were undermined by his lack of local knowledge. Chari wrote that many of the cases had come from societies, such as that of India, where people believed in reincarnation, and that the stories were simply cultural artifacts; he argued that, for children in many Asian countries, the recall of a past life is the equivalent of an imaginary playmate. The philosopher Keith Augustine made a similar argument.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: Responding to this cultural argument, Stevenson said that it was precisely those societies that listened to children's claims about past lives, which in Europe or North America would normally be dismissed without investigation. To address the cultural concern, he wrote "European Cases of the Reincarnation Type" (2003), which presented forty cases he had examined in Europe. Moreover, Joseph Prabhu, professor emeritus of philosophy and religion at California State University, wrote that it is not true "that these cases are mainly to be found in cultures, where the belief in reincarnation is prevalent. In July 1974 Stevenson's colleague at the University of Virginia, J. G. Pratt, carried out a census of Stevenson's cases and found that of the 1339 cases then in Stevenson's file, 'the United States has the most, with 324 cases (not counting American Indian and Eskimo) and the next five countries in descending order are Burma (139 cases), India (135), Turkey (114), and Great Britain (111).'"


title: Ian Stevenson

text: The philosopher Paul Edwards, editor-in-chief of Macmillan's "Encyclopedia of Philosophy", became Stevenson's chief critic. From 1986 onwards, he devoted several articles to Stevenson's work, and discussed Stevenson in his "Reincarnation: A Critical Examination" (1996). He argued that Stevenson's views were "absurd nonsense" and that when examined in detail his case studies had "big holes" and "do not even begin to add up to a significant counterweight to the initial presumption against reincarnation." Stevenson, Edwards wrote, "evidently lives in a cloud-cuckoo-land."


title: Ian Stevenson

text: Champe Ransom, whom Stevenson hired as an assistant in the 1970s, wrote an unpublished report about Stevenson's work, which Edwards cites in his "Immortality" (1992) and "Reincarnation" (1996). According to Ransom, Edwards wrote, Stevenson asked the children leading questions, filled in gaps in the narrative, did not spend enough time interviewing them, and left too long a period between the claimed recall and the interview; it was often years after the first mention of a recall that Stevenson learned about it. In only eleven of the 1,111 cases Ransom looked at had there been no contact between the families of the deceased and of the child before the interview; in addition, according to Ransom, seven of those eleven cases were seriously flawed. He also wrote that there were problems with the way Stevenson presented the cases, in that he would report his witnesses' conclusions, rather than the data upon which the conclusions rested. Weaknesses in cases would be reported in a separate part of his books, rather than during the discussion of the cases themselves. Ransom concluded that it all amounted to anecdotal evidence of the weakest kind.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: In "Death and Personal Survival" (1992), Robert Almeder, professor emeritus of philosophy at Georgia State University, holds that Ransom was false in stating that there were only 11 cases with no prior contact between the two families concerned.. According to Almeder there were 23 such cases.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: Edwards cited the case of Corliss Chotkin, Jr., in Angoon, Alaska, described in Stevenson's "Twenty Cases Suggestive of Reincarnation" (1966), as an example that relied entirely on the word of one woman, the niece of Victor Vincent, a fisherman. (Victor Vincent was the person whose life Corliss Chotkin, Jr., seemed to remember.) Edwards wrote that, among the many weaknesses in the case, the family were religious believers in reincarnation, Chotkin had birthmarks that were said to have resembled scars that Vincent had but Stevenson had not seen Vincent's scars, and all the significant details relied on the niece. Edwards said that Stevenson offered no information about her, except that several people told him she had a tendency, as Stevenson put it, to embellish or invent stories. Edwards wrote that similar weaknesses could be found in all Stevenson's case studies. In Stevenson's defense, Robert Almeder wrote in 1997 that the Chotkin case was one of Stevenson's weaker ones.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: Edwards charged that Stevenson referred to himself as a scientist but did not act like one. According to Edwards, he failed to respond to, or even mention, significant objections; the large bibliography in Stevenson's "Children Who Remember Previous Lives" (1987) does not include one paper or book from his opponents.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: Ian Wilson, one of Stevenson’s critics, acknowledged that Stevenson had brought “a new professionalism to a hitherto crank-prone field.” Paul Edwards wrote that Stevenson “has written more fully and more intelligibly in defense of reincarnation than anybody else.” Though faulting Stevenson’s judgment, Edwards wrote: “I have the highest regard for his honesty. All of his case reports contain items that can be made the basis of criticism. Stevenson could easily have suppressed this information. The fact that he did not speaks well for his integrity.”


title: Ian Stevenson

text: Carl Sagan referred to what were apparently Stevenson's investigations in his book "The Demon-Haunted World" as an example of carefully collected empirical data, and though he rejected reincarnation as a parsimonious explanation for the stories, he wrote that the phenomenon of alleged past-life memories should be further researched. Sam Harris cited Stevenson's works in his book "The End of Faith" as part of a body of data that seems to attest to the reality of psychic phenomena, but that only relies on subjective personal experience.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: In support of Stevenson, Almeder argued in "Death and Personal Survival" that Edwards had begged the question by stating in advance that the idea of consciousness existing without the brain in the interval between lives was incredible, and that Edwards's "dogmatic materialism" had forced him to the view that Stevenson's case studies must be examples of fraud or delusional thinking. According to Almeder, the possibility of fraud was indeed investigated in the cases Edwards mentioned.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: In an article published on the website of "Scientific American" in 2013, in which Stevenson's work was reviewed favorably, Jesse Bering, a professor of science communication, wrote: "Towards the end of her own storied life, the physicist Doris Kuhlmann-Wilsdorf—whose groundbreaking theories on surface physics earned her the prestigious Heyn Medal from the German Society for Material Sciences, surmised that Stevenson’s work had established that 'the statistical probability that reincarnation does in fact occur is so overwhelming … that cumulatively the evidence is not inferior to that for most if not all branches of science.' "


title: Ian Stevenson

text: Although Stevenson mainly focused on cases of children who seemed to remember past lives, he also studied two cases in which adults under hypnosis seemed to remember a past life and show rudimentary use of a language they had not learned in the present life. Stevenson called this phenomenon "xenoglossy." The linguist Sarah Thomason, critiquing these cases, wrote that Stevenson is "unsophisticated about language" and that the cases are unconvincing. Thomason concluded, "the linguistic evidence is too weak to provide support for the claims of xenoglossy." William J. Samarin, a linguist from the University of Toronto, wrote that Stevenson corresponded with linguists in a selective and unprofessional manner. He said that Stevenson corresponded with one linguist in a period of six years "without raising any discussion about the kinds of thing that linguists would need to know." Another linguist, William Frawley, wrote, "Stevenson does not consider enough linguistic evidence in these cases to warrant his metaphysics."


title: Ian Stevenson

text: Stevenson stepped down as director of the Division of Perceptual Studies in 2002, although he continued to work as Research Professor of Psychiatry. Bruce Greyson, editor of the "Journal of Near-Death Studies", became director of the division. Jim Tucker, the department's associate professor of psychiatry and neurobehavioral sciences, continued Stevenson's research with children, examined in Tucker's book, "Life Before Life: A Scientific Investigation of Children's Memories of Previous Lives" (2005).


title: Ian Stevenson

text: Stevenson died of pneumonia on February 8, 2007 at his home in Charlottesville, Virginia. In his will he endowed the Stevenson Chair in Philosophy and History of Science including Medicine, at McGill University Department of Social Studies of Medicine.


title: Ian Stevenson

text: As one experiment to test for personal survival of bodily death, in the 1960s Stevenson set a combination lock using a secret word or phrase and placed it in a filing cabinet in the department, telling his colleagues he would try to pass the code to them after his death. Emily Williams Kelly told "The New York Times": "Presumably, if someone had a vivid dream about him, in which there seemed to be a word or a phrase that kept being repeated—I don't quite know how it would work—if it seemed promising enough, we would try to open it using the combination suggested."


title: Voyagers!

text: Voyagers! is an American science fiction television series about time travel that aired on NBC from October 3, 1982, to July 10, 1983, during the 1982–1983 season. The series starred Jon-Erik Hexum and Meeno Peluce.


title: Voyagers!

text: Phineas Bogg (Jon-Erik Hexum) was one of a society of time travelers called Voyagers who, with the help of a young boy named Jeffrey Jones (played by Meeno Peluce) from 1982, used a hand-held device called an Omni (which looked much like a large pocket watch that flashes red when history is wrong and green when the timeline is corrected) to travel in time and ensured that history unfolded as we know it.


title: Voyagers!

text: Bogg and Jeffrey first met when Bogg's Omni malfunctioned and took him to 1982 (the device was not supposed to reach any later than 1970), landing him in the skyscraper apartment of Jeffrey's aunt and uncle, who were caring for him after his parents' deaths. Bogg's Guidebook, which contained a detailed description of how history was supposed to unfold, was grabbed by Jeffrey's dog Ralph, and in the struggle to retrieve it Jeffrey accidentally fell out his bedroom window and Bogg jumped out to rescue him by activating the Omni. With his Guidebook stuck in 1982, Bogg (who, being more interested in girls than in history, apparently never paid much attention in his Voyager training/history classes) had to rely on Jeffrey, whose father had been a history professor, to help him. Jeffrey's knowledge proved invaluable; for example, in the first episode, Jeffrey ensured that baby Moses' basket traveled down the Nile where it was met by the Pharaoh's daughter.


title: Voyagers!

text: Phineas was a great womanizer and managed to fall for a beautiful woman in almost every episode. Whenever Jeffrey's wisdom was paired up against Bogg's stubbornness, Jeffrey usually won out, to which Bogg would always mutter, "Smart kids give me a pain!" Another catchphrase used by Bogg as an expletive was "Bat's breath!" They developed a strong relationship and became a formidable team. In the course of their adventures together, they sometimes encountered other Voyagers whose missions happened to overlap with theirs.


title: Voyagers!

text: It was revealed later in the series that despite Jeffrey's age, and the accidental circumstances of his first encounter with Phineas, he was always destined to become a Voyager.


title: Voyagers!

text: Over the closing credits of each episode, regular cast member Meeno Peluce said in voice-over: "If you want to learn more about [historical element from the episode], take a voyage down to your public library. It's all in books!"


title: Voyagers!

text: Tom Shales of "The Washington Post" praised the series as "a live-action version of the Mr. Peabody and Sherman cartoons on the delightful old 'Bullwinkle' show" and "largely a joy ride from start to finish."


title: Voyagers!

text: "Voyagers!" ran for one season of 20 episodes, broadcast opposite the top-rated "60 Minutes". The series averaged a 17 share. "Voyagers!" seemed likely to be renewed for a second season, but controversies in "60 Minutes" reporting led executives to believe that "60 Minutes" might successfully be challenged by a competing news program instead. NBC canceled "Voyagers!" and replaced it with the news magazine program "Monitor," which averaged only a 7 share. David Letterman poked fun at NBC's cancellation of the series by airing a sketch on his "Late Night" program titled "They Took My Show Away", a parody of the after school special in which the host comforts a boy who was a "Voyagers!" fan.


title: Voyagers!

text: In 1985, following the death of series lead Jon-Erik Hexum, Universal re-edited several episodes of the show into a television film. Entitled "Voyager from the Unknown", the story combined the pilot episode and "Voyagers of the Titanic" into one feature-length film. This version incorporates new video special effects, some voice-over dubbing for Hexum and Peluce's characters that changed, and added dialogue and new footage to include a super-computer directing Voyager missions.


title: Voyagers!

text: The opening begins with a narration and painted illustrations of Bogg receiving his Guidebook on "Planet Voyager" by artist Jerry Gebr.


title: Voyagers!

text: "Far out in the cosmos there exists a planet known as Voyager, where the mystery of travel into space and through time has been solved. It is inhabited by a race who call themselves Voyagers. Their purpose is to keep constant surveillance on history. These people have a time machine device, the Omni, which will take them into the past, present or future. As each Voyager graduates he is given an omni and a guidebook. One such graduate Phineas Bogg, who was assigned as a field worker to operate in certain time zones."


title: Voyagers!

text: The re-edited telefilm was issued on VHS by MCA Home Video in 1985. It would be the only official release of "Voyagers!" on home video in the US until the DVD release in 2007.


title: Voyagers!

text: On July 17, 2007, Universal Studios Home Entertainment released all 20 episodes of "Voyagers!" on DVD in Region 1. It was released in Region 2 on October 29, 2007.


title: Kristen Wilson

text: Kristen Wilson (born September 4, 1969) is a former American actress, best known as Miranda DuBaer in "Twitches" and "Twitches Too" and as Lisa Dolittle in the films "Dr. Dolittle", "Dr. Dolittle 2", and "Dr. Dolittle 3".


title: Kristen Wilson

text: Kristen Wilson was born on September 4, 1969, and raised in Chelmsford, Massachusetts, near Boston. She trained as a dancer there and worked with the Boston Ballet for four years. She received her Bachelor of Fine Arts degree in musical theatre from Syracuse University, but took some time off during her junior year to be in a national tour of "West Side Story".


title: Kristen Wilson

text: Kristen made her film debut in the 1992 film "Prototype" and later landed a supporting role in "Who's the Man?" In 1995, Kristen moved to New York City, where she starred in the HBO TV movie "Tyson" as actress Robin Givens. Subsequently, she appeared alongside Damon Wayans and Adam Sandler in "Bulletproof". Her other film credits include "Get on the Bus, Walking Tall, Crossover, Dungeons and Dragons," "Pompatus of Love", "Girl 6", "Cross-Eyed", "Dr. Dolittle", "Dr. Dolittle 2", and "Dr. Dolittle 3". She also plays the biological mother of Camryn (Tamera Mowry) and Alex (Tia Mowry) in the Disney films "Twitches" and "Twitches Too".


title: Kristen Wilson

text: Wilson also has an extensive television career; she is well known for her recurring role on "The District". Her other credits include "My Wife and Kids", "Crossing Jordan", "New York Undercover", "Matt Waters", and a pilot episode for the CBS' legal drama series "Shark".


title: Kristen Wilson

text: Wilson's work in theater consists of the Broadway hit "Nick & Nora", "1492", "The Hunchback", "A FunnyForum", "A My Name is Alice", "The Club", and the national tour of "West Side Story".


title: Kristen Wilson

text: Kristen was married to lighting technician Michael Marzovilla from 1997 to 1999. They have a daughter Ruby, who was born in 1998. She has since remarried.


title: Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)

text: The 1992 match between former world chess champions Bobby Fischer and Boris Spassky was billed as a World Chess Championship, but was unofficial. It was a rematch of the 1972 World Championship match. Fischer won 10–5, with 15 draws.


title: Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)

text: The match was played in late 1992 in Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, which was under UN sports sanctions because of the Breakup of Yugoslavia. This led to a US warrant for Fischer's arrest, and he never returned to his home country.


title: Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)

text: Although there was substantial media coverage, and some drama, public interest in the historic Fischer–Spassky rematch was not nearly as great as the 1972 encounter in Reykjavík, Iceland.


title: Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)

text: After defeating Spassky to win the title of World Champion in the World Chess Championship 1972, Fischer was scheduled to defend his title in 1975 against the winner of the 1974 FIDE Candidates Tournament, Anatoly Karpov. Fischer, however, was unhappy with the format of the World Championship. At the time the format was a 24-game match, with the winner being the first player to score 12½ points; if the match was drawn 12–12, then the match would be stopped, the prize money split, and the Champion retained his title. Fischer disliked this format because the player who was leading could play to draw games instead of win, and with each drawn game coast closer to the title. In his match against Spassky in 1972, games 14 to 20 were all draws. This style of chess offended Fischer. Instead, Fischer demanded the format be changed to that used in the very first World Championship, between Wilhelm Steinitz and Johannes Zukertort, where the winner was the first player to score 10 wins with draws not counting. In case of a 9–9 score, the champion would retain title, and the prize fund split equally. A FIDE Congress was held in 1974 during the Nice Olympiad. The delegates voted in favor of Fischer's 10-win proposal, but rejected the 9–9 clause as well as the possibility of an unlimited match. In response, Fischer refused to defend his title, and Karpov was declared World Champion by forfeit.


title: Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)

text: Seventeen years later, Fischer entered negotiations with sponsors willing to fund a match under his proposed format, settling on a bid from Yugoslav millionaire Jezdimir Vasiljević. Fischer insisted that since he had not been defeated in a match, he was still the true World Champion. He further claimed that all the games in the FIDE-sanctioned World Championship matches, involving Karpov and his challengers Korchnoi and Kasparov, had prearranged outcomes. He then played a rematch of the 1972 World Chess Championship against Spassky. The purse for the rematch was US$5 million, with $3.35 million of the purse to go to the winner.


title: Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)

text: The match started in Sveti Stefan near Budva, an island off the coast of Montenegro. The match rules required a player to win ten games (draws not counting), with no . After a player had won five games, the match would take a 10-day recess and continue in Belgrade, the capital of Serbia.


title: Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)

text: Spassky at the time was rated 2560, (tied for 96th–102nd on the FIDE rating list at the time), well below World Champion and world number one Garry Kasparov, who was rated 2790. Fischer's score of 17½ out of 30 (counting draws) against Spassky gave him a performance rating of 2660, which would have put him at No. 10 in the world on the January 1993 list.


title: Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)

text: Yasser Seirawan believed that the match proved that Fischer's playing strength was "somewhere in the top ten in the world". Kasparov himself was dismissive of Fischer, stating that "Bobby is playing OK, nothing more. Maybe his strength is 2600 or 2650. It wouldn't be close between us." Jeremy Silman wrote that Fischer's level of play was inconsistent: Games 1 and 11 were very highly regarded, but overall the level of play was below that of the world championship matches of Kasparov.


title: Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)

text: After Fischer's victory, he proclaimed himself as the "Undefeated Champion of the World". His status as a World Champion in 1992 is not widely acknowledged.


title: Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)

text: Both match locations were at the time part of the same country, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, which was under UN sports sanctions because of the Breakup of Yugoslavia. Fischer's participation led to a conflict with the US government, which warned Fischer that his participation in the match would violate an executive order imposing US sanctions on Yugoslavia. The US government ultimately issued a warrant for his arrest. After that, Fischer lived his life as an émigré.


title: Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)

text: As for Spassky, this match proved to be his last major challenge. He continued to play occasional events, but never participated in a world championship cycle again.


title: Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)

text: September 10. A better line for Fischer would have been 16...Bb4 17.Ndf3! a5! 18.Nc6+ Bxc6 19.Rxc6 Rc8 20.Nd4 with a slight plus for Spassky (Seirawan).


title: Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)

text: September 12. The players reached a Ruy Lopez Pilnik Variation ("ECO" C90) after 11...Re8, which to the Zaitsev Variation after 13...Bb7. After 17...c4! 18.b4! cxd3 19.Bxd3 Qxd5 20.Be4 Nxe4 (only move) 21.Nxe4 Bg7 22.bxa5 f5 23.Ng3 e4 24.Nh4 Bf6? 25.Nxg6 e3 26.Nf4 Qxd2 27.Rxe3 Qxd1+ 28.Rxd1 Fischer had a decisive advantage (Matanović). If instead 20...Qc4, 21.Qb1! (Fischer) Nc6 22.Bxg6 fxg6 23.Qxg6+ Bg7 24.Nf5 and White wins.


title: Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)

text: September 19. After 18.Bb5? (18.Qxa5 Nxa5 19.Rb5 Nc6 20.h4! was better) Qxd2+ 19.Kxd2 Bd7 Fischer had a slight advantage (Krnić).


title: Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)

text: September 20. Fischer innovates with a tactical gambit 7.b4 Spassky could have evened the game with 13...Ne7 (Timman).


title: Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)

text: September 30. Instead of 15...c5, better for Fischer was 15...c6 16.Qb3 and White has a slight advantage (Balasov).


title: Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)

text: October 1. Fischer could have kept a slight edge with 14.Qxa6 Bxa6 15.Na5! Rfc8 16.Be3 Rab8 17.b3 f5 18.exf5 gxf5 19.Rac1 (Matulović).


title: Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)

text: October 7. The players reached a Benoni Defense ("ECO" A56) after 5...Bg7, which transposed to a King's Indian Defence after 6.Bg5. Spassky should have played 9.Qd2 Nh5 10.Be2 Nxg3 11.hxg3 a6 12.Nf3 Nd7 13.0-0 Rb8 14.a4 with a slight advantage for White (Minev).


title: Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)

text: October 10. Spassky had the possibility 16...Qe7!? 17.Qd1 Re8 18.Qf3 Bc8 with an even game (Matanović).


title: Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)

text: October 29. The players reached a Benoni Defense ("ECO" A56) after 6.Bd3, which transposed to a King's Indian Defence after 7.Nf3. After 16.g4! Spassky had a slight edge (Krnić).


title: Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)

text: October 31. If 14.b3 instead (to prevent 14...Nc4), then either 14...Bd6 or 14...c4 15.f3 give a level game (Balashov).


title: Fischer–Spassky (1992 match)

text: November 5. After 13.g4? (13.Qd2!?) hxg4! 14.fxg4 c5 15.h5 cxd4 16.Nd4 Nc5! Fischer had the upper hand (Krnić).


title: TM 31-210 Improvised Munitions Handbook

text: The TM 31-210 Improvised Munitions Handbook is a 256 pages United States Army technical manual intended for the United States Army Special Forces. It was first published in 1969 by the Department of the Army. Like many other U.S. military manuals dealing with improvised explosive devices (IEDs) and unconventional warfare, it was declassified and released into the public domain as a result of provisions such as the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), and is now freely available to the public in both electronic and printed formats.


title: TM 31-210 Improvised Munitions Handbook

text: The manual describes the manufacture of various types of ordnances from readily available materials, from junk piles, common household chemicals and supplies purchased from regular stores.


title: TM 31-210 Improvised Munitions Handbook

text: The manual is one of the best official references on improvised explosive devices (IEDs) manufacturing, and some of the weapons described in it have been used against U.S. troops by foreign troops. For example, the hand-grenade-in-a-can trap was used against U.S. troops in Vietnam, and the water-in-a-bucket timer was used by Afghan guerrillas to launch rockets against U.S. military bases.


title: TM 31-210 Improvised Munitions Handbook

text: The miscellaneous section deals with the production of various types of trigger mechanisms (pressure, pressure release, traction, etc.), a makeshift precision balance, electric batteries, makeshift bulletproof barricades and more. The manual ends with two appendices, which briefly deal with the properties of some primary and secondary explosives.


title: TM 31-210 Improvised Munitions Handbook

text: The TM 31-210 manual appeared as an "easter egg" in the 1995 CGI animated film, "Toy Story". In the scene where Woody is trapped under a blue plastic box in Sid's bedroom, it's possible to see behind him a document titled "TM 31-210 Improvised Interrogation Handbook", a clear reference to the actual document.


title: Rao (Indian surname)

text: Rao is a title and a surname native to India. It is used mostly in states of Gujarat, Haryana, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka and Maharashtra.


title: Emily Oster

text: Emily Fair Oster (born February 14, 1980) is an American economist and author. She is currently the JJE Goldman Sachs University Professor of Economics and International and Public Affairs at Brown University, where she has taught since 2015. Her research interests span from development economics and health economics to research design and experimental methodology. Her research has received exposure among non-economists through "The Wall Street Journal", the book "SuperFreakonomics", and her 2007 TED Talk.


title: Emily Oster

text: Oster is the author of three books, "Expecting Better", "The Family Firm", and "Cribsheet", which discuss a data-driven approach to decision-making in pregnancy and parenting.


title: Emily Oster

text: Oster was born on February 14, 1980, the daughter of economists Sharon Oster and Ray Fair. When she was two years old, Oster's parents noticed that she talked to herself in her crib after they left her room. They placed a tape recorder in her room in order to find out what she was saying and passed the tapes on to a linguist and psychologist with whom they were friends. Analysis of Oster's speech showed that her language was much more complex when she was alone than when interacting with adults. This led to her being the subject of a series of academic papers which were collectively published as a compendium in 1989 titled "Narratives from the Crib". The book was reprinted in 2006, with a foreword by Oster.


title: Emily Oster

text: After earning a B.A. and Ph.D. from Harvard in 2002 and 2006 respectively, Oster taught at the University of Chicago Booth School of Business. She later moved to Brown University, where she is Professor of Economics.


title: Emily Oster

text: Oster's research focuses generally on development economics and health. In 2005, Oster published a dissertation for her economics Ph.D. from Harvard University, which suggested that the unusually high ratio of men to women in China was partially due to the effects of the hepatitis B virus. "Hepatitis B and the Case of the Missing Women," pointed to findings that suggested areas with high hepatitis B rates tended to have higher male-to female birth ratios. Oster argued that the fact that hepatitis B can cause a woman to conceive male children more often than female, accounted for a bulk of the "missing women" in Amartya Sen's 1990 essay, "More Than 100 Million Women Are Missing." Oster noted that the use of hepatitis B vaccine in 1982 led to a sharp decline in the male-to-female birth ratio. Sen's essay had attributed the "missing women" to societal discrimination against girls and women in the form of the allocation of health, educational, and food resources. In April 2008, Oster released a working paper "Hepatitis B Does Not Explain Male-Biased Sex Ratios in China" in which she evaluated new data, which showed that her original research was incorrect. "Freakonomics" author Steven Levitt saw this as a sign of integrity.


title: Emily Oster

text: In a 2007 TED Talk, Oster discussed the spread of HIV in Africa, applying a cost-benefit analysis to the question of why African men have been slow to change their sexual behavior.


title: Emily Oster

text: Oster's work on television and female empowerment in India was featured in Steve Levitt's second book, "SuperFreakonomics".


title: Emily Oster

text: In her book, "Expecting Better", Oster discusses the data behind common pregnancy "rules" and argues many of them are misleading. On the guideline of avoiding alcohol consumption during pregnancy, she argues that there is no evidence that (low) levels of alcohol consumption by pregnant women adversely affect their children. This claim, however, has drawn criticism from the National Organization on Fetal Alcohol Syndrome and others. As of March 2019, the book has sold over 100,000 copies.


title: Emily Oster

text: Her second book, "Cribsheet," was published in April 2019 and was a "New York Times" best seller. It evaluates and reviews the research on a variety of parenting topics relating to infants and toddlers, including breastfeeding, safe sleep guidelines, sleep training, and potty training. The week of April 28, 2019, "Cribsheet" was also the best selling book in Washington, DC according to the "Post".


title: Emily Oster

text: Her third book, "The Family Firm: A Data-Driven Guide to Better Decision Making in the Early School Years," applies to school age children. A review discusses the relationship of her parenting approach to more permissive parenting ideas dating back to the pre-Reagan era.


title: Emily Oster

text: Oster was an advocate for opening schools during the coronavirus epidemic, spearheading a project to collect data on the spread of coronavirus in schools, and appearing frequently in media discussing why schools should open. In early October 2020, she wrote an influential and much cited article in "The Atlantic" entitled "Schools Aren't Super-Spreaders" which inspired numerous articles. Secretary of Education Betsy DeVos and the CDC cited Oster's work as a reason to open schools during the pandemic. In August 2020, Oster launched a dashboard compiling information on the spread of COVID-19 in schools. Critics of Oster's dashboard said it had methodological problems that they believe undermine its usefulness.


title: Emily Oster

text: In September 2021, Oster launched the Covid-19 School Data Hub which includes information on virtual and in person status of schools across 31 states. According to "The New York Times", the data hub is "one of the most comprehensive efforts yet to document how schools operated during the pandemic."


title: Emily Oster

text: On October 31, 2022, "The Atlantic" published an opinion piece written by Oster in which she called for "amnesty" following the COVID-19 pandemic, citing the "tremendous uncertainty" surrounding topics such as the virus, face masks, social distancing, school closures and COVID-19 vaccines.


title: Emily Oster

text: Emily is the daughter of Sharon Oster and Ray Fair, both professors of economics at Yale University. She married Jesse Shapiro, also an economist, in June 2006, and they have two children.


title: Krishna district

text: Krishna district is district in the coastal Andhra Region in Indian state of Andhra Pradesh, with Machilipatnam as its administrative headquarters. It is the coastal district of Andhra Pradesh. Machilipatnam is the most populated city in the district. It is surrounded on the east by Bay of Bengal, west by Guntur and north by Eluru and NTR districts and south again by Bay of Bengal. In 2022 Krishna district was divided into Krishna and NTR districts.


title: Krishna district

text: Krishna district, with its district headquarters at Machilipatnam was formerly called Machilipatnam district. Later it was renamed as Krishna district, by adding certain Taluks of the abolished Guntur District in 1859 with Machilipatnam with its head. It was named after the Krishna River, the third longest river in India. The river flows through the state of Andhra Pradesh before it empties itself into Bay of Bengal, near Hamsaladevi village of Krishna district.


title: Krishna district

text: This history of this region dates back to the 2nd century BCE. The area was ruled by the Satavahanas (230 BCAD 227); Pallavas (AD 340AD 500), Chalukyas (AD 6151070 AD) and later by Cholas, Kakatiyas, Musunuri Nayaks, Reddy dynasty and Gajapati kings of Odisha.


title: Krishna district

text: "Satavahana period" (230 BCAD 227): The Satavahanas ruled this region with headquarters at Srikakulam. Prominent rulers during this period were Srimukha (founder), Gotamiputra Satakarni and Yajnasri Satakarni (last Satavahana king). The Satavahanas imparted more stability and security to the life of the people of the region for more than four centuries. "Pallava Kingdom" (AD 340AD 500), spread over from Krishna river to Tungabhadra, including Amaravati in the East, Bellary in the West and Kancheepuram in the South with capital cities at venginagar near Eluru and Pithapuram, both in Vengidesa. "Bruhitpalayanas", the contemporaries of Pallavas who ruled the district with Koduru as their capital. "Vishnukundinas" (AD 5th century), are rulers who excavated cave temples at Mogalrajapuram (now in Vijayawada) and Undavalli, etc.


title: Krishna district

text: "Eastern chalukyas" (AD 615AD 1070), the entire Andhra country was under the control of a single ruler under their reign. The Eastern Chalukyas were credited with the excavations of the cave temple at Undavalli and rock cut shrines and Shiva temples.


title: Krishna district

text: "Cholas" ruled this region with capital at Rajamahendri . It was during Rajarajanaredra's reign that Nannayya Bhattu translated the Mahabharata into Telugu. "Kakatiyas", ruled this region up to the early 14th century with Orugallu as their capital and followed by Musunuri Nayaks who rebelled against Delhi sultanate and won. Musunuri Nayaks constructed various forts in South India including Hampi and ruled many states of India independently. "Reddy dynasty", on the downfall of Pratapa Rudra of Kakatiya, the eldest son of Prolaya Vema reddi, a subordinate of Musunuri Kapaya Naidu found himself independent and established himself in the hill fort of Kondavedu. The Kondavidu Reddi's were great patrons of Telugu literature. The poet Srinadha and his brother-in –law Bammera Pothana flourished at his court. The ruins of fortresses at Kondavidu can be seen


title: Krishna district

text: "Gajapathis" of Odisha: Kapileswara Gajapathi is preserved by the village Kapileswarapuram now in Pamidimukkala mandal. He was succeeded by Vidyadhara Gajapathi who built Vidyadharapuram (now in Vijayawada) and constructed a reservoir at Kondapalli. Krishnadevaraya of "Vijayanagara empire" conquered this region in the early 16th century. "Qutb Shahis", in 1512, the Kingdom of Golconda was founded by one Sultan Quli Qutub Shah. The Kingdom of Golconda included this district within its limits. Abu-l-Hussain Shah was the last of Qutab Shahi dynasty known as Tanisha. He had two ministers, both Brahmins, named Madanna and Akkanna. Popular tradition attributed this preference of Vijayawada to the devotion of the two ministers to the goddess Kanaka Durga.


title: Krishna district

text: The Emperor Aurangazeb included this district in the province of Golconda, which remained under Asaf jah who was appointed as Subedar or Viceroy of the Deccan in AD 1713 with the title of Nizam-ul-Mulk. The province of Golconda comprised five Nawabs’ charges viz. Arcot, Cuddapah, Kurnool, Rajahmundry and Chicacole (Srikakulam). The Nawab of Rajahmundry ruled the country induced in the Krishna district.


title: Krishna district

text: "The British": In the year 1611 the English founded their settlement at Masulipatnam which was their headquarters until they finally moved to Madras in 1641. The Dutch and French also had settlements at Masulipatnam. Upon the death of the old Nizam-ul-Mulk in June 1748 his heirs strove for the succession with the support of the English and the French. When Nizam Ali Khan was proclaimed ruler of Golconda in 1761 the British secured at first the divisions of Masulipatnam, Nizampatnam and part of Kondaveedu and later the entire Circars. At first the district was administered by a chief and council at Masulipatnam but in 1794 Collectors, directly responsible to the Board of Revenue, were appointed at Masulipatnam.


title: Krishna district

text: The Krishna District was formed from the District of Rajahmundry in 1859, when it also included the present day Guntur and West Godavari districts. Guntur was separated from Krishna in 1904, and West Godavari in 1925, giving rise to the present day Krishna district.


title: Krishna district

text: census of India, the district had a population of 4,517,398 with a density of 518 persons per km. The total population constitute, 2,267,375 males and 2,250,023 females –a ratio of 992 females per 1000 males. The total urban population is (40.81%). There are literates with a literacy rate of 73.74%.


title: Krishna district

text: After reorganization the district had a population of 17,35,079, of which 482,513 (27.81%) live in urban areas. Krishna district has a sex ratio of 996 females per 1000 males and a literacy rate of 73.75%. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes make up 346,989 (20.00%) and 37,716 (2.17%) of the population respectively.


title: Krishna district

text: According to the 2011 census, 93.30% of the population spoke Telugu and 5.97% Urdu as their first language.


title: Krishna district

text: Krishna district is surrounded on the east by Bay of Bengal, west by Guntur and Bapatla districts and north by Eluru and NTR districts and south by Bay of Bengal. The Krishna district occupies an area of , It has a total coastline of .


title: Krishna district

text: The main hill range of the district known as Kondapalli runs between Nandigama and Vijayawada with a length of about 24 km. The other smaller hill ranges are Jammalavoidurgam, Mogalrajapuram and Indrakiladri hills. Kolleru, is the large freshwater lake in India. It spans into two districts – Krishna and West Godavari.


title: Krishna district

text: The forest occupies only 9 percent of the total district area. However, it contains Reserved Forest areas in Nandigama, Vijayawada, Tiruvuru, Nuzvid, Gannavaram, Machilipatnam and Divi Seema Talukas. A type of light wood known as ‘Ponuku’ (Gyrocapus Jacquini) is found in the Kondapalli hills. The wood is used for the manufacture of the well known Kondpalli toys. The most noticeable trees are pterocarpus, Terminalia, Anogeissus and Logustroeinai and Casuarina.


title: Krishna district

text: Panthers, hyenas, jungle cats, foxes, bears and other carnivorous mammalian fauna are found here. Deer, spotted deer sambar, blackbuck and other herbivorous animals are found in the inland forests. The district has a large number of Murrah buffaloes and cows.


title: Krishna district

text: The climatic conditions of the district consist of extremely hot summers and moderately hot winters and may be classified as tropical. The period starting from April to June is the hottest. The annual rainfall in the region is about 1028 mm and is contributed to by the Southwest monsoon. Three types of soils viz., Black Cotton (57.6 percent), Sand clay loams (22.3 percent) and Red loams (19.4 percent).


title: Krishna district

text: The Gross District Domestic Product (GDDP) of the district is and it contributes 12% to the Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP). For the FY 2013–14, the per capita income at current prices was . The primary, secondary and tertiary sectors of the district contribute , and respectively.


title: Krishna district

text: The major products contributing to the GVA of the district from agriculture and allied services are, paddy, sugarcane, mango, tomato, milk, meat and fisheries. The GVA to the industrial and service sector is contributed from construction, electricity, manufacturing, transport and software services.


title: Krishna district

text: The district has three revenue divisions, namely Machilipatnam, Gudivada and Vuyyuru, each headed by a sub collector. These revenue divisions are divided into 25 mandals in the district. These 25 mandals consist of unknown number of mandal parishads, unknown number of panchayats, unknown number of villages and 3 municipalities. There are unknown number of towns (or urban settlements) in the district, including 1 municipal corporation, 3 municipalities, unknown number of nagar panchayat and unknown number of census towns. Machilipatnam is the only municipal corporation and the 3 municipalities in the district are Gudivada, Pedana and Vuyyuru. The unknown number of census towns are TBA.


title: Krishna district

text: The list of 25 mandals in Krishna district under 3 revenue divisions are listed in the following table:


title: Krishna district

text: Krishna district has one parliamentary constituency namely Machilipatnam. There are seven assembly constituencies namely, Gannavaram, Gudivada, Pedana, Machilipatnam, Avanigadda, Pamarru (SC), Penamaluru. Telugu Desam Party, Jana Sena party, YSR Congress, Bharatiya Janata Party, Lok Satta, CPI and CPM are the main political parties in the district.


title: Krishna district

text: The culture of Krishna district is mostly traditional in rural places and moderately modern in Gudivada and Machilipatnam. It is also famous as the birthplace for Indian classical dance named Kuchipudi and the culture with the dialect of Telugu spoken in Krishna is widely considered to be the standard form of Telugu.


title: Krishna district

text: The District is well served by Roads and Railways. 502 villages (including some of the major hamlets) have been connected with transport facilities. The total road length of state highways in the district is . Four national highways pass through the district namely NH16 from Chennai to Kolkata, NH 65 from Pune to Machilipatnam, NH165 from Pamarru to Palakollu, NH216 from Ongole to Kathipudi.


title: Krishna district

text: APSRTC is the major road transport corporation, operates Bus services from District headquarters Machilipatnam to Vijayawada, Eluru, Hanuman Junction, Gudivada, Avanigadda, Repalle, Kakinada, Narsapuram, Bhimavaram, Visakhapatnam, Srikakulam, Palasa, Palakonda, Parvathipuram, Rajahmundry.


title: Krishna district

text: There exists of rail network in the district. Gudivada Junction railway station is the major railway junction in the district and Machilipatnam railway station is the major railway station in the district.


title: Krishna district

text: The primary and secondary school education is imparted by government, aided and private schools, under the "School Education Department" of the state. As per the school information report for the academic year 2015–16, there are a total of 4,449 schools. They include, 15 government, 2,432 mandal and zilla parishads, 3 residential, 1748 private, 2 model, 3 Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV), 180 municipal and 66 other types of schools. The total number of students enrolled in primary, upper primary and high schools of the district are 562,510.


title: Krishna district

text: Dr.Gururaju Government Homoeo Medical college and Regional Research Institute for Homoeopathy are located in Gudivada. Krishna University is located in Machilipatnam. Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies, Nuzvid is situated in Nuzvid. School of Planning and Architecture is present in Gudavalli.


title: Krishna district

text: District has numerous engineering colleges including Prasad V. Potluri Siddhartha Institute of Technology, Velagapudi Ramakrishna Siddhartha Engineering College, Lakireddy Bali Reddy Engineering College, Gudlavalleru Engineering College, DMS SVH College of Engineering, SRR & CVR Govt. Degree College is one of the oldest colleges. It was established in 1937. Govt Polytechnic Vijayawada (one of the oldest Polytechnic colleges in India), Andhra Loyola College, AANM & VVRSR (Gudlavalleru) Polytechnic College, Mary Stella college, Sidhartha Degree College are a few of the many famous arts and science colleges in the district.


title: Krishna district

text: Kabbadi is the most popular sport, followed by cricket, volleyball, badminton, basketball and tennis.


title: Krishna district

text: Indira Gandhi Municipal Stadium in Vijayawada hosts One Day Internationals Cricket matches of India. Only one international cricket match was played between India and West Indies on 24 November 2002 at Indira Gandhi stadium. It was won by West Indies. On 12 December 1997 Women's Cricket Worldcup only a group match was played between England Women's Cricket Team and Pakistan women's cricket team, and it was won by England. Dandamudi Rajagopal Indoor Stadium in Vijayawada .


title: Krishna district

text: NTR Stadium is the main sports venue in Gudivada. It is used for several sports, like athletics, volleyball, cricket practice, kho kho, kabaddi, badminton, tennis and basketball. Famous Hockey player Balram belongs to this District.


title: Krishna district

text: It is also the stadium for Krishna District Cricket Association. Mangalagiri International Cricket Stadium is being built in a site in Navuluru, village of Mangalagiri town, Guntur district, about 15 km from the city of Vijayawada. The exclusive stadium of the Andhra Cricket Association will be the venue for international and Ranji matches.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: John Marshall Harlan (May 20, 1899 – December 29, 1971) was an American lawyer and jurist who served as an Associate Justice of the U.S. Supreme Court from 1955 to 1971. Harlan is usually called John Marshall Harlan II to distinguish him from his grandfather John Marshall Harlan, who served on the U.S. Supreme Court from 1877 to 1911.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: Harlan was a student at Upper Canada College and Appleby College and then at Princeton University. Awarded a Rhodes Scholarship, he studied law at Balliol College, Oxford. Upon his return to the U.S. in 1923 Harlan worked in the law firm of Root, Clark, Buckner & Howland while studying at New York Law School. Later he served as Assistant U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York and as Special Assistant Attorney General of New York. In 1954 Harlan was appointed to the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, and a year later president Dwight Eisenhower nominated Harlan to the United States Supreme Court following the death of Justice Robert H. Jackson.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: Harlan is often characterized as a member of the conservative wing of the Warren Court. He advocated a limited role for the judiciary, remarking that the Supreme Court should not be considered "a general haven for reform movements". In general, Harlan adhered more closely to precedent, and was more reluctant to overturn legislation, than many of his colleagues on the Court. He strongly disagreed with the doctrine of incorporation, which held that the provisions of the federal Bill of Rights applied to the state governments, not merely the Federal. At the same time, he advocated a broad interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause, arguing that it protected a wide range of rights not expressly mentioned in the United States Constitution. Justice Harlan was gravely ill when he retired from the Supreme Court on September 23, 1971. He died from spinal cancer three months later, on December 29, 1971. After Harlan's retirement, President Nixon appointed William Rehnquist to replace him.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: John Marshall Harlan was born on May 20, 1899, in Chicago. He was the son of John Maynard Harlan, a Chicago lawyer and politician, and Elizabeth Flagg. He had three sisters. Historically, Harlan's family had been politically active. His forebear George Harlan served as one of the governors of Delaware during the seventeenth century; his great-grandfather James Harlan was a congressman during the 1830s; his grandfather, also John Marshall Harlan, was an associate justice of the United States Supreme Court from 1877 to 1911; and his uncle, James S. Harlan, was attorney general of Puerto Rico and then chairman of the Interstate Commerce Commission.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: In his younger years, Harlan attended The Latin School of Chicago. He later attended two boarding high schools in the Toronto Area, Canada: Upper Canada College and Appleby College. Upon graduation from Appleby, Harlan returned to the U.S. and in 1916 enrolled at Princeton University. There, he was a member of the Ivy Club, served as an editor of "The Daily Princetonian", and was class president during his junior and senior years. After graduating from the university in 1920 with an Artium Baccalaureus degree, he received a Rhodes Scholarship, which he used to attend Balliol College, Oxford, making him the first Rhodes Scholar to sit on the Supreme Court. He studied jurisprudence at Oxford for three years, returning from England in 1923. Upon his return to the United States, he began work with the law firm of Root, Clark, Buckner & Howland (which became Dewey & LeBoeuf), one of the leading law firms in the country, while studying law at New York Law School. He received his Bachelor of Laws in 1924 and earned admission to the bar in 1925.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: Between 1925 and 1927, Harlan served as Assistant United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York, heading the district's Prohibition unit. He prosecuted Harry M. Daugherty, former United States Attorney General. In 1928, he was appointed Special Assistant Attorney General of New York, in which capacity he investigated a scandal involving sewer construction in Queens. He prosecuted Maurice E. Connolly, the Queens borough president, for his involvement in the affair. In 1930, Harlan returned to his old law firm, becoming a partner one year later. At the firm, he served as chief assistant for senior partner Emory Buckner and followed him into public service when Buckner was appointed United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York. As one of "Buckner's Boy Scouts", eager young Assistant United States Attorneys, Harlan worked on Prohibition cases, and swore off drinking except when the prosecutors visited the Harlan family fishing camp in Quebec, where Prohibition did not apply. Harlan remained in public service until 1930, and then returned to his firm. Buckner had also returned to the firm, and after Buckner's death, Harlan became the leading trial lawyer at the firm.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: As a trial lawyer Harlan was involved in a number of famous cases. One such case was the conflict over the estate left after the death in 1931 of Ella Wendel, who had no heirs and left almost all her wealth, estimated at $30–100 million, to churches and charities. However, a number of claimants, most of them imposters, filed suits in state and federal courts seeking part of her fortune. Harlan acted as the main defender of her estate and will as well as the chief negotiator. Eventually a settlement among lawful claimants was reached in 1933. In the following years Harlan specialized in corporate law dealing with the cases like "Randall v. Bailey", concerning the interpretation of state law governing distribution of corporate dividends. In 1940, he represented the New York Board of Higher Education unsuccessfully in the Bertrand Russell case in its efforts to retain Bertrand Russell on the faculty of the City College of New York; Russell was declared "morally unfit" to teach. The future justice also represented boxer Gene Tunney in a breach of contract suit brought by a would-be fight manager, a matter settled out of court.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: In 1937, Harlan was one of five founders of a eugenics advocacy group called the Pioneer Fund, which had been formed to introduce Nazi ideas on eugenics to the United States. He had likely been invited into the group due to his expertise in non-profit organizations. Harlan served on the Pioneer Fund's board until 1954. He did not play a significant role in the fund.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: During World War II, Harlan volunteered for military duty, serving as a colonel in the United States Army Air Force from 1943 to 1945. He was the chief of the Operational Analysis Section of the Eighth Air Force in England. He won the Legion of Merit from the United States, and the Croix de Guerre from both France and Belgium. In 1946 Harlan returned to private law practice representing Du Pont family members against a federal antitrust lawsuit. In 1951, however, he returned to public service, serving as Chief Counsel to the New York State Crime Commission, where he investigated the relationship between organized crime and the state government as well as illegal gambling activities in New York and other areas. During this period Harlan also served as a committee chairman of the Association of the Bar of the City of New York, and to which he was later elected vice president. Harlan's main specialization at that time was corporate and antitrust law.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: In 1928, Harlan married Ethel Andrews, who was the daughter of Yale history professor Charles McLean Andrews. This was the second marriage for her. Ethel was originally married to New York architect Henry K. Murphy, who was twenty years her elder. After Ethel divorced Murphy in 1927, her brother John invited her to a Christmas party at Root, Clark, Buckner & Howland, where she was introduced to John Harlan. They saw each other regularly afterwards and married on November 10, 1928, in Farmington, Connecticut.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: Harlan, a Presbyterian, maintained a New York City apartment, a summer home in Weston, Connecticut, and a fishing camp in Murray Bay, Quebec, a lifestyle he described as "awfully tame and correct". The justice played golf, favored tweeds, and wore a gold watch which had belonged to the first Justice Harlan. In addition to carrying his grandfather's watch, when he joined the Supreme Court he used the same furniture which had furnished his grandfather's chambers.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: John and Ethel Harlan had one daughter, Evangeline Dillingham (born on February 2, 1932). She was married to Frank Dillingham of West Redding, Connecticut, until his death, and has five children. One of Eve's children, Amelia Newcomb, is the international news editor at "The Christian Science Monitor" and has two children: Harlan, named after John Marshall Harlan II, and Matthew Trevithick. Another daughter, Kate Dillingham, is a professional cellist and published author.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: Harlan was nominated by President Dwight D. Eisenhower on January 13, 1954, to a seat on the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit vacated by Judge Augustus Noble Hand. Harlan knew this court well, as he had often appeared before it and was friendly with many of the judges. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on February 9, 1954, and received his commission on the next day. His service terminated on March 27, 1955, due to his elevation to the Supreme Court.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: Harlan was nominated by President Eisenhower on January 10, 1955, as an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, to succeed Robert H. Jackson. On being nominated, the reticent Harlan called reporters into his chambers in New York, and stated, in full, "I am very deeply honored." He was confirmed by the Senate on March 16, 1955, by a 71-11 vote, and was sworn into office on March 28, 1955. Despite the brevity of his stay on the Second Circuit, Harlan would serve as the Circuit Justice responsible for the Second Circuit throughout his Supreme Court capacity, and, in that capacity, enjoyed attending the Circuit's annual conference, bringing his wife and catching up on the latest gossip. Additionally, he served as Circuit Justice for the Ninth Circuit from June 25 to June 26, 1963. He assumed retired status on September 23, 1971, serving in that capacity until his death on December 29, 1971.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: Harlan's nomination came shortly after the Supreme Court handed down its landmark decision in "Brown v. Board of Education", declaring segregation in public schools unconstitutional. James Eastland (the chairman of the United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary) and several other southern senators delayed his confirmation, because they (correctly) believed that he would support desegregation of the schools and civil rights. Unlike almost all previous Supreme Court nominees, Harlan appeared before the Senate Judiciary Committee to answer questions relating to his judicial views. Every Supreme Court nominee since Harlan has been questioned by the Judiciary Committee before confirmation. The Senate finally confirmed him on March 17, 1955, by a vote of 71–11. He took his seat on March 28, 1955. Of the eleven senators who voted against his appointment, nine were from the South. He was replaced on the Second Circuit by Joseph Edward Lumbard.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: On the Supreme Court, Harlan often voted alongside Justice Felix Frankfurter, who was his principal mentor on the court. Some legal scholars even viewed him as "Frankfurter without mustard", though others recognize his own important contributions to the evolution of legal thought. Harlan was an ideological adversary—but close personal friend—of Justice Hugo Black, with whom he disagreed on a variety of issues, including the applicability of the Bill of Rights to the states, the Due Process Clause, and the Equal Protection Clause.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: Justice Harlan was very close to the law clerks whom he hired, and continued to take an interest in them after they left his chambers to continue their legal careers. The justice would advise them on their careers, hold annual reunions, and place pictures of their children on his chambers' walls. He would say to them of the Warren Court, "We must consider this only temporary," that the Court had gone astray, but would soon right itself.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: Justice Harlan is remembered by people who worked with him for his tolerance and civility. He treated his fellow Justices, clerks and attorneys representing parties with respect and consideration. While Justice Harlan often strongly objected to certain conclusions and arguments, he never criticized other justices or anybody else personally, and never said any disparaging words about someone's motivations and capacity. Harlan was reluctant to show emotion, and was never heard to complain about anything. Harlan was one of the intellectual leaders of the Warren Court. Harvard Constitutional law expert Paul Freund said of him:


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: His thinking threw light in a very introspective way on the entire process of the judicial function. His decisions, beyond just the vote they represented, were sufficiently philosophical to be of enduring interest. He decided the case before him with that respect for its particulars, its special features, that marks alike the honest artist and the just judge.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: Harlan's jurisprudence is often characterized as conservative. He held precedent to be of great importance, adhering to the principle of "stare decisis" more closely than many of his Supreme Court colleagues. Unlike Justice Black, he eschewed strict textualism. While he believed that the original intention of the Framers should play an important part in constitutional adjudication, he also held that broad phrases like "liberty" in the Due Process Clause could be given an evolving interpretation.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: Harlan believed that most problems should be solved by the political process, and that the judiciary should play only a limited role. In his dissent to "Reynolds v. Sims", he wrote:


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: These decisions give support to a current mistaken view of the Constitution and the constitutional function of this court. This view, in short, is that every major social ill in this country can find its cure in some constitutional principle and that this court should take the lead in promoting reform when other branches of government fail to act. The Constitution is not a panacea for every blot upon the public welfare nor should this court, ordained as a judicial body, be thought of as a general haven of reform movements.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: However, Harlan was not a social conservative. He wrote the plurality opinion in Manual Enterprises, Inc. v. Day, ruling that photographs of nude men are not obscene, one of the first major victories for the early gay rights movement.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: Despite Harlan’s conservatism, he opposed the Vietnam War and along with Justices William O. Douglas, Potter Stewart and William J. Brennan Jr. unsuccessfully pushed for the Court to hear challenges to its legality.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: The Supreme Court decided several important equal protection cases during the first years of Harlan's career. In these cases, Harlan regularly voted in favor of civil rights—similar to his grandfather, the only dissenting justice in the infamous "Plessy v. Ferguson" case.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: He voted with the majority in "Cooper v. Aaron", compelling defiant officials in Arkansas to desegregate public schools. He joined the opinion in "Gomillion v. Lightfoot", which declared that states could not redraw political boundaries in order to reduce the voting power of African-Americans. Moreover, he joined the unanimous decision in "Loving v. Virginia", which struck down state laws that banned interracial marriage.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: Justice Harlan advocated a broad interpretation of the Fourteenth Amendment's Due Process Clause. He subscribed to the doctrine that the clause not only provided procedural guarantees, but also protected a wide range of fundamental rights, including those that were not specifically mentioned in the text of the Constitution. (See substantive due process.) However, as Justice Byron White noted in his dissenting opinion in "Moore v. East Cleveland", "no one was more sensitive than Mr. Justice Harlan to any suggestion that his approach to the Due Process Clause would lead to judges 'roaming at large in the constitutional field'." Under Harlan's approach, judges would be limited in the Due Process area by "respect for the teachings of history, solid recognition of the basic values that underlie our society, and wise appreciation of the great roles that the doctrines of federalism and separation of powers have played in establishing and preserving American freedoms".


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: Harlan set forth his interpretation in an often cited dissenting opinion to "Poe v. Ullman", which involved a challenge to a Connecticut law banning the use of contraceptives. The Supreme Court dismissed the case on technical grounds, holding that the case was not ripe for adjudication. Justice Harlan dissented from the dismissal, suggesting that the Court should have considered the merits of the case. Thereafter, he indicated his support for a broad view of the due process clause's reference to "liberty". He wrote, "This 'liberty' is not a series of isolated points pricked out in terms of the taking of property; the freedom of speech, press, and religion; the right to keep and bear arms; the freedom from unreasonable searches and seizures; and so on. It is a rational continuum which, broadly speaking, includes a freedom from all substantial arbitrary impositions and purposeless restraints." He suggested that the due process clause encompassed a right to privacy, and concluded that a prohibition on contraception violated this right.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: The same law was challenged again in "Griswold v. Connecticut". This time, the Supreme Court agreed to consider the case, and concluded that the law violated the Constitution. However, the decision was based not on the due process clause, but on the argument that a right to privacy was found in the "penumbras" of other provisions of the Bill of Rights. Justice Harlan concurred in the result, but criticized the Court for relying on the Bill of Rights in reaching its decision. "The Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment stands," he wrote, "on its own bottom." The Supreme Court would later adopt Harlan's approach, relying on the due process clause rather than the penumbras of the Bill of Rights in right to privacy cases such as "Roe v. Wade" and "Lawrence v. Texas".


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: Harlan's interpretation of the Due Process Clause attracted the criticism of Justice Black, who rejected the idea that the Clause included a "substantive" component, considering this interpretation unjustifiably broad and historically unsound, one of the few issues in which Black was more conservative than Harlan. The Supreme Court has agreed with Harlan, and has continued to apply the doctrine of substantive due process in a wide variety of cases.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: Justice Harlan was strongly opposed to the theory that the Fourteenth Amendment "incorporated" the Bill of Rights—that is, made the provisions of the Bill of Rights applicable to the states. His opinion on the matter was opposite to that of his grandfather, who supported the full incorporation of the Bill of Rights. When it was originally ratified, the Bill of Rights was binding only upon the federal government, as the Supreme Court ruled in the 1833 case "Barron v. Baltimore". Some jurists argued that the Fourteenth Amendment made the entirety of the Bill of Rights binding upon the states as well. Harlan, however, rejected this doctrine, which he called "historically unfounded" in his "Griswold" concurrence.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: Instead, Justice Harlan believed that the Fourteenth Amendment's due process clause only protected "fundamental" rights. Thus, if a guarantee of the Bill of Rights was "fundamental" or "implicit in the concept of ordered liberty," Harlan agreed that it applied to the states as well as the federal government. Thus, for example, Harlan believed that the First Amendment's free speech clause applied to the states, but that the Fifth Amendment's self-incrimination clause did not.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: Harlan's approach was largely similar to that of Justices Benjamin Cardozo and Felix Frankfurter. It drew criticism from Justice Black, a proponent of the total incorporation theory. Black claimed that the process of identifying some rights as more "fundamental" than others was largely arbitrary, and depended on each Justice's personal opinions.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: The Supreme Court has eventually adopted some elements of Harlan's approach, holding that only some Bill of Rights guarantees were applicable against the states—the doctrine known as selective incorporation. However, under Chief Justice Earl Warren during the 1960s, an increasing number of rights were deemed sufficiently fundamental for incorporation (Harlan regularly dissented from these rulings). Hence, the majority of provisions from the Bill of Rights have been extended to the states; the exceptions are the Third Amendment, the grand jury clause of the Fifth Amendment, the Seventh Amendment, the Ninth Amendment, and the Tenth Amendment. Thus, although the Supreme Court has agreed with Harlan's general reasoning, the end result of its jurisprudence is very different from what Harlan advocated.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: Justice Harlan supported many of the Warren Court's landmark decisions relating to the separation of church and state. For instance, he voted in favor of the Court's ruling that the states could not use religious tests as qualifications for public office in "Torcaso v. Watkins". He joined in "Engel v. Vitale", which declared that it was unconstitutional for states to require the recitation of official prayers in public schools. In "Epperson v. Arkansas", he similarly voted to strike down an Arkansas law banning the teaching of evolution.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: In many cases, Harlan took a fairly broad view of First Amendment rights such as the freedom of speech and of the press, although he thought that the First Amendment applied directly only to the federal government. According to Harlan the freedom of speech was among the "fundamental principles of liberty and justice" and therefore applicable also to states, but less stringently than to the national government. Moreover, Justice Harlan believed that federal laws censoring "obscene" publications violated the free speech clause. Thus, he dissented from "Roth v. United States", in which the Supreme Court upheld the validity of a federal obscenity law. At the same time, Harlan did not believe that the Constitution prevented the states from censoring obscenity. He explained in his "Roth" dissent:


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: The danger is perhaps not great if the people of one State, through their legislature, decide that "Lady Chatterley's Lover" goes so far beyond the acceptable standards of candor that it will be deemed offensive and non-sellable, for the State next door is still free to make its own choice. At least we do not have one uniform standard. But the dangers to free thought and expression are truly great if the Federal Government imposes a blanket ban over the Nation on such a book. ... The fact that the people of one State cannot read some of the works of D. H. Lawrence seems to me, if not wise or desirable, at least acceptable. But that no person in the United States should be allowed to do so seems to me to be intolerable, and violative of both the letter and spirit of the First Amendment.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: Harlan concurred in "New York Times Co. v. Sullivan", which required public officials suing newspapers for libel to prove that the publisher had acted with "actual malice." This stringent standard made it much more difficult for public officials to win libel cases. He did not, however, go as far as Justices Hugo Black and William O. Douglas, who suggested that all libel laws were unconstitutional. In "Street v. New York", Harlan wrote the opinion of the court, ruling that the government could not punish an individual for insulting the American flag. In 1969 he noted that the Supreme Court had consistently "rejected all manner of prior restraint on publication."


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: When Harlan was a Circuit Judge in 1955, he authorized the decision upholding the conviction of leaders of the Communist Party USA (including Elizabeth Gurley Flynn) under the Smith Act. The ruling was based on the previous Supreme Court's decisions, by which the Court of Appeals was bound. Later, when he was a Supreme Court justice, Harlan, however, wrote an opinion overturning the conviction of Communist Party activists as unconstitutional in the case of "Yates v. United States". Another such case was "Watkins v. United States".


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: Harlan penned the majority opinion in "Cohen v. California", holding that wearing a jacket emblazoned with the words "Fuck the Draft" was speech protected by the First Amendment. His opinion was later described by constitutional law expert Professor Yale Kamisar as one of the greatest ever written on freedom of expression. In the "Cohen" opinion, Harlan famously wrote "one man's vulgarity is another's lyric," a quote that was later denounced by Robert Bork as "moral relativism".


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: Justice Harlan is credited for establishing that the First Amendment protects the freedom of association. In "NAACP v. Alabama", Justice Harlan delivered the opinion of the court, invalidating an Alabama law that required the NAACP to disclose membership lists. However he did not believe that individuals were entitled to exercise their First Amendment rights wherever they pleased. He joined in "Adderley v. Florida", which controversially upheld a trespassing conviction for protesters who demonstrated on government property. He dissented from "Brown v. Louisiana", in which the Court held that protesters were entitled to engage in a sit-in at a public library. Likewise, he disagreed with "Tinker v. Des Moines", in which the Supreme Court ruled that students had the right to wear armbands (as a form of protest) in public schools.


title: John Marshall Harlan II

text: During the 1960s the Warren Court made a series of rulings expanding the rights of criminal defendants. In some instances, Justice Harlan concurred in the result, while in many other cases he found himself in dissent. Harlan was usually joined by the other moderate members of the Court: Justices Potter Stewart, Tom Clark, and Byron White.