title: CSS Alabama

text: The ship was purposely commissioned about a mile off Terceira Island in international waters on 24 August 1862. All the men from "Agrippina" and "Bahama" had been transferred to the quarter deck of "Enrica", where her 24 officers, some of them Southerners, stood in full dress uniform. Captain Raphael Semmes mounted a gun-carriage and read his commission from President Jefferson Davis, authorizing him to take command of the new cruiser. Upon completion of the reading, musicians that assembled from among the three ships' crews began to play the tune "Dixie" just as the quartermaster finished hauling down "Enrica"s British colors. A signal cannon boomed and the stops to the halliards at the peaks of the mizzen gaff and mainmast were broken and the ship's new battle ensign and commissioning pennant floated free on the breeze. With that the cruiser became Confederate States Steamer "Alabama". The ship's motto: "Aide-toi et Dieu t'aidera" (French for "God helps those who help themselves") was engraved in the bronze of the great double ship's wheel.


title: CSS Alabama

text: Captain Semmes then made a speech about the Southern cause to the assembled seamen (few of whom were American), asking them to sign on for a voyage of unknown length and destiny. Semmes had only his 24 officers and no crew to man his new command. When this did not succeed, Semmes changed his tack. He offered signing money and double wages, paid in gold, and additional prize money to be paid by the Confederate congress for all destroyed Union ships. When the men began to shout "Hear! Hear!" Semmes knew he had closed the deal: 83 seamen, many of them British, signed on for service in the Confederate Navy. Confederate agent Bulloch and the remaining seamen then returned to their respective ships for their return voyage to England. Semmes still needed another 20 or so men for a full crew complement, but enough had signed on to at least handle the new commerce raider. The rest would be recruited from among captured crews of raided ships or from friendly ports-of-call. Of the original 83 crewmen that signed on that day, many completed the full voyage.


title: CSS Alabama

text: Under Captain Semmes, "Alabama" spent her first two months in the Eastern Atlantic, ranging southwest of the Azores and then redoubling east, capturing and burning northern merchant ships. After a difficult Atlantic crossing, she then continued her path of destruction and devastation in the greater New England region. She then sailed south, arriving in the West Indies where she raised more havoc before finally cruising west into the Gulf of Mexico. There, in January 1863, "Alabama" had her first military engagement. She came upon and quickly sank the Union side-wheeler just off the Texas coast, near Galveston, capturing that warship's crew. She then continued further south, eventually crossing the Equator, where she took the most prizes of her raiding career while cruising off the coast of Brazil.


title: CSS Alabama

text: After a second, easterly Atlantic crossing, "Alabama" sailed down the southwestern African coast where she continued her war against northern commerce. After stopping in Saldanha Bay on 29 July 1863 in order to verify that no enemy ships were in Table Bay, she finally made a much-needed refitting and reprovisioning visit to Cape Town, South Africa. "Alabama" is the subject of an Afrikaans folk song, "Daar kom die Alibama" still popular in South Africa today. She then sailed for the East Indies, where she spent six months destroying seven more ships before finally redoubling the Cape of Good Hope en route to France. Union warships hunted frequently for the elusive and by now famous Confederate raider, but the few times "Alabama" was spotted, she quickly outwitted her pursuers and vanished over the horizon.


title: CSS Alabama

text: All together, she burned 65 Union vessels of various types, most of them merchant ships. During all of "Alabama"s raiding ventures, captured ships' crews and passengers were never harmed, only detained until they could be placed aboard a neutral ship or placed ashore in a friendly or neutral port.


title: CSS Alabama

text: All together, "Alabama" conducted a total of seven expeditionary raids, spanning the globe, before heading to France for refit and repairs:


title: CSS Alabama

text: Upon the completion of her seven expeditionary raids, "Alabama" had been at sea for 534 days out of 657, never visiting a single Confederate port. She boarded nearly 450 vessels, captured or burned 65 Union merchant ships, and took more than 2,000 prisoners without a single loss of life from either prisoners or her own crew.


title: CSS Alabama

text: On 11 June 1864, "Alabama" arrived in port at Cherbourg, France. Captain Semmes soon requested permission to dry dock and overhaul his ship, much needed after so long a time at sea and so many naval actions. Pursuing the raider, the American sloop-of-war, , under the command of Captain John Ancrum Winslow, arrived three days later and took up station just outside the harbor. While at his previous port-of-call, Winslow had telegraphed Gibraltar to send the old sloop-of-war with provisions and to provide blockading assistance. "Kearsarge" now had "Alabama" boxed in with no place left to run.


title: CSS Alabama

text: Having no desire to see his worn-out ship rot away at a French dock while quarantined by Union warships and given his instinctive aggressiveness and a long-held desire once again to engage his enemy, Captain Semmes chose to fight. After preparing his ship and drilling the crew for the coming battle during the next several days, Semmes issued, through diplomatic channels, a bold challenge (or hoped-for intimidation) to the "Kearsarge"s commander, "my intention is to fight the "Kearsarge" as soon as I can make the necessary arrangements. I hope these will not detain me more than until to-morrow or the morrow morning at farthest. I beg she will not depart until I am ready to go out. I have the honor to be Your obedient servant, R. Semmes, Captain."


title: CSS Alabama

text: On 19 June, "Alabama" sailed out to meet the Union cruiser. Jurist Tom Bingham later wrote, "The ensuing battle was witnessed by Manet, who went out to paint it, and the owner of an English yacht who had offered his children a choice between watching the battle and going to church."


title: CSS Alabama

text: As "Kearsarge" turned to meet her opponent, "Alabama" opened fire. "Kearsarge" waited patiently until the range had closed to less than 1,000 yards (900 m). According to survivors, the two ships steamed on opposite courses in seven spiraling circles, moving southwesterly with the 3-knot current, each commander trying to cross the bow of his opponent to deliver a heavy raking fire (to "cross the T"). The battle quickly turned against "Alabama" due to the superior gunnery displayed by "Kearsarge" and the deteriorated state of "Alabama"s contaminated powder and fuses. Her most telling shot, fired from the forward 7-inch (178 mm) Blakely pivot rifle, hit very near "Kearsarge"s vulnerable stern post, the impact binding the ship's rudder badly. That rifled shell, however, failed to explode. If it had done so, it would have seriously disabled "Kearsarge"s steering, possibly sinking the warship, and ending the contest. In addition, "Alabama"s too rapid rate-of-fire resulted in frequent poor gunnery, with many of her shots going too high, and as a result "Kearsarge" benefited little that day from the protection of her outboard chain armor. Semmes later said that the armor on "Kearsarge" was unknown to him at the time of his decision to issue the challenge to fight, and in the years that followed Semmes steadfastly claimed he would have never fought "Kearsarge" if he had known she was armor-clad.


title: CSS Alabama

text: "Kearsarge's" hull armor had been installed in just three days, more than a year before, while she was in port at the Azores. It was made using of single link iron chain and covered hull spaces long by deep. It was stopped up and down to eye-bolts with marlines and secured by iron dogs. Her chain armor was concealed behind 1-inch deal-boards painted black to match the upper hull's color. This "chaincladding" was placed along "Kearsarge"s port and starboard midsection down to the waterline, for additional protection of her engine and boilers when the upper portion of her coal bunkers were empty (coal bunkers played an important part in the protection of early steam vessels, such as protected cruisers).


title: CSS Alabama

text: A hit to her engine or boilers could easily leave "Kearsarge" dead in the water and vulnerable, or even cause a boiler explosion or fire that could destroy the cruiser. Her armor belt was hit twice during the fight: First in the starboard gangway by one of "Alabama"s 32-pounder shells that cut the chain armor, denting the hull planking underneath, then again by a second 32-pounder shell that exploded and broke a link of the chain armor, tearing away a portion of the deal-board covering. Had those rounds come from "Alabama"s more powerful 100-pounder Blakely pivot rifle, they would have easily penetrated, but the likely result would not have been very serious, as both shots struck the hull a little more than five feet above the waterline. Even if both shots had penetrated "Kearsarge"s side, they would have completely missed her vital machinery. However, a 100-pound shell could have done a great deal of damage to her interior and nearby crewmen; hot fragments could have easily set fire to the cruiser, one of the greatest risks aboard a wooden vessel.


title: CSS Alabama

text: A little more than an hour after the first shot was fired, "Alabama" was reduced to a sinking wreck by "Kearsarge"s powerful Dahlgrens, forcing Captain Semmes to strike his colors and to send one of his two surviving boats to "Kearsarge" to ask for assistance.


title: CSS Alabama

text: According to witnesses, "Alabama" fired 370 rounds at her adversary, averaging one round per minute per gun, a very fast rate of fire, while "Kearsarge"s gun crews fired less than half that number, taking more careful aim. During the confusion of battle, five more rounds were fired at "Alabama" after her colors were struck. (Her gun ports had been left open and the broadside cannon were still run out, appearing to come to bear on "Kearsarge".) Then a hand-held white flag came fluttering from "Alabama"s stern spanker boom, finally halting the engagement.


title: CSS Alabama

text: Prior to this, she had her steering gear compromised by shell hits, but the fatal shot came later when one of "Kearsarge"s shells tore open a midsection of "Alabama"s starboard waterline. Water quickly rushed through the defeated cruiser, eventually drowning her boilers and forcing her down by the stern to the bottom. As "Alabama" sank, the injured Semmes threw his sword into the sea, depriving "Kearsarge"s commander Captain John Ancrum Winslow of the traditional surrender ceremony of having it handed over to him as victor (an act which was seen as dishonorable by many at the time).


title: CSS Alabama

text: Of her 170 crew, the "Alabama" had 19 fatalities (9 killed and 10 drowned) and 21 wounded "Kearsarge" rescued the majority of the survivors, but 41 of "Alabama"s officers and crew, including Semmes, were rescued by John Lancaster's private British steam yacht "Deerhound", while "Kearsarge" stood off to recover her rescue boats as "Alabama" sank. Captain Winslow was forced to stand by helplessly and watch "Deerhound" spirit away to England his much sought-after adversary, Captain Semmes, and his surviving shipmates. Semmes and all forty-one members of the Alabama's crew who boarded the Greyhound successfully made it to England. Semmes eventually returned to the Confederacy and became a Confederate admiral in the last weeks of the war.


title: CSS Alabama

text: The sinking of "Alabama" by "Kearsarge" is honored by the United States Navy with a battle star on the Civil War campaign streamer.


title: CSS Alabama

text: Perhaps the most courageous and selfless act during "Alabama's" last moments involved the ship's assistant surgeon, Dr. David Herbert Llewellyn. Dr. Llewellyn, a Briton, was much loved and respected by the entire crew. During the battle, he steadfastly remained at his post in the wardroom tending the wounded until the order to abandon ship was finally given. As he helped wounded men into "Alabama"s only two functional lifeboats, an able bodied sailor attempted to enter one, which was already full. Llewellyn, understanding that the man risked capsizing the craft, grabbed and pulled him back, saying "See, I want to save my life as much as you do; but let the wounded men be saved first."


title: CSS Alabama

text: An officer in the boat, seeing that Llewellyn was about to be left aboard the stricken "Alabama", shouted "Doctor, we can make room for you." Llewellyn shook his head and replied, "I will not peril the wounded." Unknown to the crew, Llewellyn had never learned to swim, and he drowned when the ship went down.


title: CSS Alabama

text: His sacrifice did not go unrecognized in England. In his native village, a memorial window and tablet were placed at Easton Royal Church. Another tablet was placed in Charing Cross Hospital, London, where he attended medical school.


title: CSS Alabama

text: During her two-year career as a commerce raider, "Alabama" damaged Union merchant shipping around the world. The Confederate cruiser claimed 65 prizes valued at nearly $6,000,000 (about $ in today's dollars); in 1862 alone 28 were claimed. In an important development in international law, the U.S. government pursued the ""Alabama" Claims" against Great Britain for the losses caused by "Alabama" and other raiders fitted out in Britain. A joint arbitration commission awarded the U.S. $15.5 million in damages.


title: CSS Alabama

text: However, she and other raiders failed in their primary purpose, which was to draw Union vessels away from the blockade of the southern coastline, which was slowly strangling the Confederacy. The Confederate government had hoped that the panic of the shipping companies would force the Union to dispatch ships to protect merchant shipping and hunt down the raiders, a task which always requires a proportionately greater force when compared with the numbers of ships attacking (see Battle of the Atlantic). Union officials proved immovable on the blockade, however, and although insurance prices soared, shipping costs went up, and many vessels transferred to a neutral flag, very few naval vessels were taken off the southern blockade. In fact, with clever utilization of resources and a mammoth shipbuilding program, the Union managed to steadily increase the blockade throughout the war. It also sent vessels to protect merchant shipping and to hunt down and destroy the few Confederate raiders and privateers still operating.


title: CSS Alabama

text: In November 1984 the French Navy mine hunter "Circé" discovered a wreck under nearly 200 ft (60 m) of water off Cherbourg at . Captain Max Guerout later confirmed the wreck to be "Alabama"s remains.


title: CSS Alabama

text: In 1988 a non-profit organization, the CSS "Alabama" Association, was founded to conduct scientific exploration of the shipwreck. Although the wreck is in French territorial waters, the United States Government, as the successor to the former Confederate States of America, is the owner. On 3 October 1989 the US and France signed an agreement recognizing this wreck as an important heritage resource of both nations and establishing a Joint French-American Scientific Committee for archaeological exploration. This agreement established a precedent for international cooperation in archaeological research and in the protection of a unique historic shipwreck.


title: CSS Alabama

text: The Association CSS "Alabama" and the Naval History and Heritage Command signed on 23 March 1995 an official agreement accrediting Association CSS "Alabama" as operator of the archaeological investigation of the remains of the ship. The association, which is funded solely from private donations, is continuing to make this an international project through its fundraising in France and in the US, thanks to its sister organization, the CSS "Alabama" Association, incorporated in the State of Delaware.


title: CSS Alabama

text: "Alabama" was fitted with eight pieces of ordnance after she arrived at the Azores; six of those were 32-pounder smooth bores. Seven cannon were identified at the wreck site: Two were cast from a British Royal Navy pattern and three were of a later pattern produced by Fawcett, Preston, and Company in Liverpool.


title: CSS Alabama

text: One of the Blakely pattern 32-pounders was found lying across the starboard side of the hull, forward of the boilers. A second Blakely 32-pounder was identified outside the hull structure, immediately forward of the propeller and its lifting frame; the forward 32-pounder was recovered in 2000. Both of the British Royal Navy pattern 32-pounders were identified: One lies inside the starboard hull, forward of the boilers, adjacent to the forward Downton pump. The second was identified as lying on the iron deck structure, immediately aft of the smoke pipe; it was recovered in 2001. The sole remaining 32-pounder has not been positively identified, but it could be underneath hull debris forward of the starboard Trotman anchor.


title: CSS Alabama

text: "Alabama"s heavy ordnance were one Blakely Patent 7-inch 100-pounder shell rifle mounted on a pivot carriage forward and one 68-pounder smoothbore similarly mounted aft. The Blakely 7-inch 100-pounder was found beside its pivot carriage, atop the forward starboard boiler; this was the first cannon recovered from "Alabama". The 68-pounder smoothbore was located aft, at the stern, immediately outside the starboard hull structure; it is possible that the remains of its truck and pivot carriage lie underneath the gun barrel. Both heavy cannon were recovered in 1994.


title: CSS Alabama

text: In addition to the seven cannon, the wreck site contained shot, gun truck wheels, and brass tracks for the gun carriages; many of the brass tracks were recovered. Two shot were recovered, and one conical projectile was inside the barrel of the 7-inch Blakely rifle. A shell for a 32-pounder was recovered from the stern, forward of the propeller; that shot was attached to a wood sabot having been packed in a wood box for storage. Additional round shot were observed scattered forward of the boilers and in the vicinity of the aft pivot gun, one possibly having been fired from "Kearsarge".


title: CSS Alabama

text: In 2002, a diving expedition raised the ship's bell along with more than 300 other artifacts, including more cannons, structural samples, tableware, ornate commodes, and numerous other items that reveal much about life aboard the Confederate warship. Many of the artifacts are now housed in the Underwater Archaeology Branch, Naval History & Heritage Command conservation lab.


title: CSS Alabama

text: "Alabama" is the subject of a sea shanty, "Roll, Alabama, Roll" which was also the basis of a 2014 record of the same name by British contemporary folk band Bellowhead.


title: CSS Alabama

text: "Alabama"s visit to Cape Town in 1863 has passed (with a slight spelling change) into South African folklore in the Afrikaans song, "Daar Kom die Alibama".


title: CSS Alabama

text: In 1998 the Jules Verne scholar William Butcher was the first to identify a possible link between the Birkenhead built "Alabama" and Captain Nemo’s "Nautilus" from the Jules Verne 1869 novel "Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas." Butcher stated "The Alabama, which claimed to have sunk 75 merchantmen, was destroyed by the Unionist Kearsarge off Cherbourg on 11th June 1864…. This battle has clear connections with Nemo’s final attack, also in the English Channel."


title: CSS Alabama

text: Jules Verne had himself made a previous comparison between the Birkenhead built "CSS Alabama" and the "Nautilus" in a letter to his publisher Jules Hetzel in March 1869.


title: CSS Alabama

text: In September 2021 the Birkenhead born geography teacher John Lamb noted that both the hull of the fictional "Nautilus" and the hull of the real-life Confederate warship "CSS Alabama" had both been built in secret at the Laird's shipyard in Birkenhead, lying opposite the port of Liverpool. Furthermore, both vessels had been completed on a ‘desert island’ - in the case of the "Alabama" on the Azores Island of Terceira


title: CSS Alabama

text: In Jules Verne's "Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas" (1869) Captain Nemo explains how he built the "Nautilus"… "Each of its components, Dr Arronax, was sent to me from a different point on the globe via a forwarding address. …. the iron plates for its hull by Laird’s of Liverpool…. I set up my workshops on a small desert island in the middle of the ocean. There with my workmen, that is my good companions whom I instructed and trained, I completed our Nautilus.


title: CSS Alabama

text: According to the historian Stephen Fox, Captain Raphael Semmes had portraits of General Robert E Lee and the Confederate President Jefferson Davis on the cabin wall of the "CSS Alabama". In Jules Verne’s "Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas", Captain Nemo has portraits of Abraham Lincoln and the radical abolitionist John Brown adorning the cabin walls of the "Nautilus". Raphael Semmes was a supporter of slavery while Captain Nemo is a militant antislaver.


title: CSS Alabama

text: The two-year voyage of the "CSS Alabama" had covered a distance of approximately 75,000 miles which equates to just over 21,700 leagues and Jules Verne may have chosen Captain Nemo’s motto of ‘Mobilis in Mobile’ quite simply because the captain of the "CSS Alabama" – Raphael Semmes, was a resident of Mobile, Alabama.


title: CSS Alabama

text: In 1869 Captain Raphael Semmes released his American Civil War memoirs entitled "Memoirs of Service Afloat During the War Between the States". In the same year of 1869, Jules Verne released his classic novel "Twenty Thousand leagues Under the Seas" John Lamb catalogued the many similarities between the two books on his website "Jules Verne and the Heroes of Birkenhead" in August 2022.


title: CSS Alabama

text: John Lamb hypothesized that to Jules Verne the "CSS Alabama" and Captain Nemo's "Nautilus" might essentially be one and the same and that the militant abolitionist Captain Nemo is the ‘alter ego’ of the pro slavery Raphael Semmes - i.e. the ‘opposite of oneself’


title: CSS Alabama

text: In the sequel novel to "Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea" entitled "The Mysterious Island" Captain Nemo returns and is revealed as the rebel Indian Prince Dakkar a possible derivation of the Afrikaan song "Daar Kom die Alibama" (see above) whereby moving the letter 'k' two spaces to the left gives the phrase "Dakar om die Alibama".


title: CSS Alabama

text: In November 2021, Alan Evans the Director of Regeneration and Place at Wirral Borough Council endorsed the further claim by John Lamb that Jules Verne had set his 1874 novel "The Mysterious Island" in Birkenhead and the surrounding Wirral Peninsula, so marking the return of the Birkenhead built "Nautilus" and Captain Nemo back to their 'hometown'.


title: CSS Alabama

text: In August 2022 the British Member of Parliament for Birkenhead, Mick Whitley also endorsed John Lamb's discovery that Robert Louis Stevenson had also set his classic pirate novel "Treasure Island" (1881) in the town of Birkenhead and the surrounding Wirral Peninsula.


title: CSS Alabama

text: The letters of support for both novels were posted on the "Jules Verne and the Heroes of Birkenhead" website.


title: CSS Alabama

text: The practice of using primary and secondary naval flags after the British tradition was common practice for the Confederacy, linked as she was by both heritage and economy to the British Isles. The fledgling Confederate Navy therefore adopted and used jacks, commissioning pennants, battle ensigns, small boat ensigns, designating flags, and signal flags aboard its warships during the Civil War.


title: CSS Alabama

text: At the beginning of "Alabama"s raiding ventures, the newly commissioned cruiser may have been forced, out of necessity, to fly the only battle ensign available to Captain Semmes: an early 1861, 7-star First National Flag, possibly the same battle ensign flown aboard his previous command, the smaller commerce raider CSS "Sumter". Between 21 May and 28 November 1861, six more Southern states seceded and joined the Confederacy. Well before "Alabama" was launched as "Enrica" at Birkenhead, Merseyside in North West England, six more white, 5-pointed stars had been added to the "Stars and Bars" far away across the Atlantic on the Confederate mainland.


title: CSS Alabama

text: One such early "Stars and Bars" battle ensign was salvaged from "Alabama"s floating debris, following her sinking by "Kearsarge". It still survives and is held by the Alabama Department of Archives and History. It is listed there as "Auxiliary Flag of the C.S.S. Alabama, Catalogue No. 86.3766.1." According to their provenance reconstruction, DeCost Smith, an American from New England, discovered this "Stars and Bars" ensign in a Paris upholstery shop in 1884, where he purchased it for 15 francs. Smith's nephew, Clement Sawtell of Lincoln Square, Massachusetts, later inherited the ensign from his uncle. At the suggestion of retired Rear Admiral Beverly M. Coleman, Sawtell donated it to the State of Alabama on 3 June 1975.


title: CSS Alabama

text: This battle ensign's overall dimensions are different from the Confederate flag regulations' required 2:3 ratio. It is 64-inches high (hoist) by 112-inches long (fly), a proportion of 5:9, and its dark blue canton contains "eight" white stars, 8-inches (203 mm) high, in an unusual arrangement: The stars are not organized in a circle but configured in three, centered, horizontal rows of two, then three, and finally two. The additional 8th star is tucked into the lower left corner (and in the lower right corner on the opposite side), giving the canton's layout a unique, asymmetrical appearance. It seems plausible this was "Alabama"s original 7-star battle ensign, possibly flown aboard CSS "Sumter" as noted earlier, and later altered at some point when the long-delayed news of an 8th state joining the Confederacy finally reached the far distant cruiser.


title: CSS Alabama

text: Two "Star and Bars" battle ensigns, labeled as having belonged to "Alabama", also still exist. The first is a mounted and framed, "14-star" ensign located at the Mariner's Museum in Virginia. (A small number of these unusual 14-star national flags have survived to the modern era and are held in several Civil War archives.) From the several color photo available on the Internet, this ensign appears to have an approximate hoist-to-fly aspect ratio of 1:2.5 (i.e., very rectangular). A second "Stars and Bars" battle ensign is on display at the Pensacola Historical Museum. Its canton contains a circle of 12 stars surrounding a centered, larger 13th star.


title: CSS Alabama

text: Four of "Alabama"s later-style ensigns have survived to the modern era. The first measures and is located in South Africa at Cape Town's Bo-Kaap Museum. Its "Southern Cross" canton is oversize and made after the British navy fashion: Instead of being square, it has a very rectangular 1:2 aspect ratio. It was also made without any white stripes outlining its diagonal blue bars. A central 5-pointed white star, located where the two blue saltieres' cross, is larger than the other twelve. This ensign appears to have been made by her British crew sometime between "Alabama"s two visits to Cape Town. This flown ensign was finally given in thanks to William Anderson, whose ship's chandler company helped make repairs and provide supplies to "Alabama" in Cape Town, shortly before the raider returned to Cherbourg, France (and her fateful battle with the sloop-of-war, USS "Kearsarge").


title: CSS Alabama

text: A second Stainless Banner ensign of South African origin was made and then presented to "Alabama" on one of her two port visits to Cape Town; it resides in the Tennessee State Museum, according to their website.


title: CSS Alabama

text: The third surviving Stainless Banner is one of "Alabama"s original small boat ensigns. This official-looking ensign is marked in brown pigment on its hoist: "Alabama. 290. C.S.N. 1st Cutter." In 2007 it was offered and sold through Philip Weiss Auctions. It was being sold by the grandson of its second owner, who had originally purchased it from the granddaughter of a USS "Kearsarge" sailor. Its buyer has since resold this small boat ensign through a later auction.


title: CSS Alabama

text: A fourth surviving ensign appears, from various clues observed in on-line photos, to be roughly . Because "Alabama" was forced to replace several of her original small boats lost at different times during her lengthy cruise, this is likely a larger replacement boat ensign. While it could have been made aboard, its somewhat more accurate details suggest it might have been commissioned ashore during a port-of-call visit. This ensign was rescued from the sinking "Alabama" by W. P. Brooks, the cruiser's assistant-engineer. It was last flown, along with other historic flags, during a ceremony held on the parade ground at Fort Pulaski, GA, sometime during 1937. This ensign has since been mounted and framed and continues to reside with the Brooks family; four modern photos of it can be found at the website for the "Alabama Crew," a British-based naval reenactor group.


title: CSS Alabama

text: The Alabama Department of Archives and History has in its collection one more important Stainless Banner ensign listed as "Admiral Semmes' Flag, Catalogue No. 86.1893.1 (PN10149-10150)". Their provenance reconstruction shows that it was presented to Semmes after the sinking of "Alabama" by "Lady Dehogton and other English ladies". Such presentations of ceremonial colors were uncommon to ships' captains of the Confederate Navy, but a few were known to have received such honors. This Second National Flag is huge and made of pure silk, giving it an elegant appearance. While this ensign is in a remarkable state of preservation, its large size and delicate condition have made its up-close details and measurements unavailable. When Semmes returned to the Confederacy from England, he brought this ceremonial Stainless Banner with him. It was inherited by his grandchildren, Raphael Semmes III and Mrs. Eunice Semmes Thorington. Following his sister's death, Raphael Semmes III donated the ensign to the state of Alabama on 19 September 1929.


title: Skull fracture

text: A skull fracture is a break in one or more of the eight bones that form the cranial portion of the skull, usually occurring as a result of blunt force trauma. If the force of the impact is excessive, the bone may fracture at or near the site of the impact and cause damage to the underlying structures within the skull such as the membranes, blood vessels, and brain.


title: Skull fracture

text: While an uncomplicated skull fracture can occur without associated physical or neurological damage and is in itself usually not clinically significant, a fracture in healthy bone indicates that a substantial amount of force has been applied and increases the possibility of associated injury. Any significant blow to the head results in a concussion, with or without loss of consciousness.


title: Skull fracture

text: A fracture in conjunction with an overlying laceration that tears the epidermis and the meninges, or runs through the paranasal sinuses and the middle ear structures, bringing the outside environment into contact with the cranial cavity is called a compound fracture. Compound fractures can either be clean or contaminated.


title: Skull fracture

text: There are four major types of skull fractures: linear, depressed, diastatic, and basilar. Linear fractures are the most common, and usually require no intervention for the fracture itself. Depressed fractures are usually comminuted, with broken portions of bone displaced inward—and may require surgical intervention to repair underlying tissue damage. Diastatic fractures widen the sutures of the skull and usually affect children under three. Basilar fractures are in the bones at the base of the skull.


title: Skull fracture

text: Linear skull fractures are breaks in the bone that transverse the full thickness of the skull from the outer to inner table. They are usually fairly straight with no bone displacement. The common cause of injury is blunt force trauma where the impact energy transferred over a wide area of the skull.


title: Skull fracture

text: Linear skull fractures are usually of little clinical significance unless they parallel in close proximity or transverse a suture, or they involve a venous sinus groove or vascular channel. The resulting complications may include suture diastasis, venous sinus thrombosis, and epidural hematoma. In young children, although rare, the possibility exists of developing a growing skull fracture especially if the fracture occurs in the parietal bone.


title: Skull fracture

text: A depressed skull fracture is a type of fracture usually resulting from blunt force trauma, such as getting struck with a hammer, rock or getting kicked in the head. These types of fractures—which occur in 11% of severe head injuries—are comminuted fractures in which broken bones displace inward. Depressed skull fractures present a high risk of increased pressure on the brain, or a hemorrhage to the brain that crushes the delicate tissue.


title: Skull fracture

text: Compound depressed skull fractures occur when there is a laceration over the fracture, putting the internal cranial cavity in contact with the outside environment, increasing the risk of contamination and infection. In complex depressed fractures, the dura mater is torn. Depressed skull fractures may require surgery to lift the bones off the brain if they are pressing on it by making burr holes on the adjacent normal skull.


title: Skull fracture

text: one or more sutures of the skull causing a widening of the suture. While this type of fracture is usually seen in infants and young children as the sutures are not yet fused it can also occur in adults. When a diastatic fracture occurs in adults it usually affects the lambdoidal suture as this suture does not fully fuse in adults until about the age of 60. Most adult diastatic fractures are caused by severe head injuries. Due to the trauma, diastatic fracture occurs with the collapse of the surrounding head bones. It crushes the delicate tissue, similarly to a depressed skull fracture.


title: Skull fracture

text: Diastatic fractures can occur with different types of fractures and it is also possible for diastasis of the cranial sutures to occur without a concomitant fracture. Sutural diastasis may also occur in various congenital disorders such as cleidocranial dysplasia and osteogenesis imperfecta.


title: Skull fracture

text: Basilar skull fractures are linear fractures that occur in the floor of the cranial vault (skull base), which require more force to cause than other areas of the neurocranium. Thus they are rare, occurring as the only fracture in only 4% of severe head injury patients.


title: Skull fracture

text: Basilar fractures have characteristic signs: blood in the sinuses; cerebrospinal fluid rhinorrhea (CSF leaking from the nose) or from the ears (cerebrospinal fluid otorrhea); periorbital ecchymosis often called 'raccoon eyes' (bruising of the orbits of the eyes that result from blood collecting there as it leaks from the fracture site); and retroauricular ecchymosis known as "Battle's sign" (bruising over the mastoid process).


title: Skull fracture

text: A growing skull fracture (GSF) also known as a craniocerebral erosion or leptomeningeal cyst due to the usual development of a cystic mass filled with cerebrospinal fluid is a rare complication of head injury usually associated with linear skull fractures of the parietal bone in children under 3. It has been reported in older children in atypical regions of the skull such as the basioccipital and the base of the skull base and in association with other types of skull fractures. It is characterized by a diastatic enlargement of the fracture.


title: Skull fracture

text: Various factors are associated with the development of a GSF. The primary causative factor is a tear in the dura mater. The skull fracture enlarges due, in part, to the rapid physiologic growth of the brain that occurs in young children, and brain cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) pulsations in the underlying leptomeningeal cystic mass.


title: Skull fracture

text: A cranial burst skull fracture, usually occurring with severe injuries in infants less than 1 year of age, is a closed, diastatic skull fracture with cerebral extrusion beyond the outer table of the skull under the intact scalp.


title: Skull fracture

text: Acute scalp swelling is associated with this type of fracture. In equivocal cases without immediate scalp swelling the diagnosis may be made via the use of magnetic resonance imaging thus insuring more prompt treatment and avoiding the development of a "growing skull fracture".


title: Skull fracture

text: A fracture in conjunction with an overlying laceration that tears the epidermis and the meninges—or runs through the paranasal sinuses and the middle ear structures, putting the outside environment in contact with the cranial cavity—is a compound fracture.


title: Skull fracture

text: Compound fractures may either be clean or contaminated. Intracranial air (pneumocephalus) may occur in compound skull fractures.


title: Skull fracture

text: The most serious complication of compound skull fractures is infection. Increased risk factors for infection include visible contamination, meningeal tear, loose bone fragments and presenting for treatment more than eight hours after initial injury.


title: Skull fracture

text: A compound elevated skull fracture is a rare type of skull fracture where the fractured bone is elevated above the intact outer table of the skull. This type of skull fracture is always compound in nature. It can be caused during an assault with a weapon where the initial blow penetrates the skull and the underlying meninges and, on withdrawal, the weapon lifts the fractured portion of the skull outward. It can also be caused by the skull rotating while being struck in a case of blunt force trauma, the skull rotating while striking an inanimate object as in a fall, or it may occur during transfer of a patient after an initial compound head injury.


title: Skull fracture

text: The human skull is anatomically divided into two parts: the neurocranium, formed by eight cranial bones that houses and protect the brain—and the facial skeleton (viscerocranium) composed of fourteen bones, not including the three ossicles of the inner ear. The term "skull fracture" typically means fractures to the neurocranium, while fractures of the facial portion of the skull are "facial fractures", or if the jaw is fractured, a "mandibular fracture".


title: Skull fracture

text: The eight cranial bones are separated by sutures : one frontal bone, two parietal bones, two temporal bones, one occipital bone, one sphenoid bone, and one ethmoid bone.


title: Skull fracture

text: The bones of the skull are in three layers: the hard compact layer of the external table ("lamina externa"), the diploë (a spongy layer of red bone marrow in the middle, and the compact layer of the inner table ("Lamina interna").


title: Skull fracture

text: Skull thickness is variable, depending on location. Thus the traumatic impact required to cause a fracture depends on the impact site. The skull is thick at the glabella, the external occipital protuberance, the mastoid processes, and the external angular process of the frontal bone. Areas of the skull that are covered with muscle have no underlying diploë formation between the internal and external lamina, which results in thin bone more susceptible to fractures.


title: Skull fracture

text: Skull fractures occur more easily at the thin squamous temporal and parietal bones, the sphenoid sinus, the foramen magnum (the opening at the base of the skull that the spinal cord passes through), the petrous temporal ridge, and the inner portions of the sphenoid wings at the base of the skull. The middle cranial fossa, a depression at the base of the cranial cavity forms the thinnest part of the skull and is thus the weakest part. This area of the cranial floor is weakened further by the presence of multiple foramina; as a result this section is at higher risk for basilar skull fractures to occur. Other areas more susceptible to fractures are the cribriform plate, the roof of orbits in the anterior cranial fossa, and the areas between the mastoid and dural sinuses in the posterior cranial fossa.


title: Skull fracture

text: Children with a simple skull fracture without other concerns are at low risk of a bad outcome and rarely require aggressive treatment.


title: Skull fracture

text: The presence of a concussion or skull fracture in people after trauma without intracranial hemorrhage or focal neurologic deficits was indicated in long term cognitive impairments and emotional lability at nearly double the rate as those patients without either complication.


title: Skull fracture

text: Those with a skull fracture were shown to have "neuropsychological dysfunction, even in the absence of intracranial pathology or more severe disturbance of consciousness on the GCS".


title: Randy's Donuts

text: Randy's Donuts is a bakery and a landmark building in Inglewood, California which is near Los Angeles International Airport. It is built in a style that dates to a period in the early 20th century that saw a proliferation of programmatic architecture throughout Southern California. This style had its heyday from the mid-1920s to the mid-1930s. By the 1950s however, the trend of designing structures in the shape of the product sold there had changed to focus on signs rather than architecture itself. Randy's is represented by a giant doughnut on the roof of an otherwise ordinary drive-in that is a dedicated doughnut bakery. The building was designed by Henry J. Goodwin.


title: Randy's Donuts

text: Colossal donut signs atop Randy's stores vary in size. Most locations use a diameter version that sits atop the building and faces an intersection. In "Roadside Giant" by Brian and Sarah Butko, the Weintraubs climbed on top of the doughnut with a tape measure and confirmed the measurements for the authors. The Bellflower and Reseda locations, however, feature a smaller version of the doughnut on top of a pole in front of the building. This may be in diameter, as is widely reported.


title: Randy's Donuts

text: The 24-hour drive-in is at 805 West Manchester Boulevard and it intersects with La Cienega Boulevard. It is near the Manchester Boulevard off-ramp of the San Diego Freeway (I-405).


title: Randy's Donuts

text: The shop's exterior has made numerous television and film appearances including "Logorama", "Arrested Development", "Masked Rider", "Entourage", "The Golden Child", "Get Shorty", "Problem Child 2", "Crocodile Dundee in Los Angeles", "Californication", "Earth Girls Are Easy", "Iron Man 2", "The Kissing Booth 3", "Runaways", "Dope", "2012", "Life After People", and the pilot episode of "The Bernie Mac Show". Music videos of the Red Hot Chili Peppers' "Californication", Justin Timberlake's "Can't Stop The Feeling!," Becky G's "Becky from the Block" and "Zooted", as well as Randy Newman's "I Love L.A." were filmed at a Randy's Donuts.


title: Randy's Donuts

text: In the late 1940s, doughnut machine salesman Russell Wendell founded a chain of drive-in doughnut shops named Big Donut. The first location opened in 1951 in Westmont. The second location which is now a Randy's Donuts, was opened in 1952. Designed by architect Henry Goodwin and structural engineer Richard Bradshaw, the rooftop doughnut is constructed out of rolled steel bars covered with gunite.


title: Randy's Donuts

text: In 1976, after shifting focus to his Pup 'N' Taco chain (bought by Taco Bell in 1984), Wendell sold the Big Donut Inglewood location to Robert Eskow who renamed the location "Randy's Donuts" after his son. In 1978, Eskow sold the shop to Ron and Larry Weintraub, who decided to retain the name for the business.


title: Randy's Donuts

text: In 2015, Randy's Donuts was purchased by lawyer and entrepreneur Mark Kelegian. Since that time the brand has added franchise locations in Southern California, South Korea, Saudi Arabia, and Las Vegas.


title: Randy's Donuts

text: The building was featured in the films "Earth Girls Are Easy", "Mars Attacks!", "The Golden Child", "Into the Night"", "Stripped to Kill", "Problem Child 2", "Breathless", "Californication", "California Girls", "2012", "Iron Man 2", "Get Shorty", "Volcano", "Crocodile Dundee in Los Angeles", "Escape from Petropolis", "Blood In Blood Out", "Dope", and "Love Letters". It can be seen briefly with other world-famous monuments in the "Futurama" episode "When Aliens Attack."


title: Randy's Donuts

text: It was also featured in the music videos for Becky G's "Becky from the Block", Randy Newman's "I Love LA" and The Prodigy's "Wind It Up", as well as the music video for Red Hot Chili Peppers' "Californication."


title: Randy's Donuts

text: Similar buildings with giant donuts, under different names, are featured in the video games "", "", "City of Heroes", and "" as well as in "Marge vs. the Monorail", an episode of "The Simpsons". Garth can be seen slurping jelly from a Randy's Donut in Wayne's World.


title: Randy's Donuts

text: The iconic structure was shown on the History Channel series "Life After People", showing what would happen to the building without human repair.


title: Randy's Donuts

text: The building was shown in the "Masked Rider" Episode "Ferbus Maximus" where an overgrown Ferbus takes the giant doughnut and tries to eat it, only to reject it for being fake.


title: Randy's Donuts

text: The building's famous doughnut can be spotted in the scene changes of the Nickelodeon sitcom "Victorious".


title: Randy's Donuts

text: In the episode "Pier Pressure" of "Arrested Development", in a sequence showing Buster's medical trial for THC, medical marijuana, a picture is shown of Buster standing next to Randy's Donuts on the roof attempting to eat his way through it.


title: Randy's Donuts

text: In the film "Iron Man 2", protagonist Tony Stark is seen eating donuts while reclining inside the doughnut sign.


title: Randy's Donuts

text: In the film "2012", the doughnut sign can be seen rolling through the streets in Los Angeles during the earthquake.


title: Randy's Donuts

text: The store was mentioned in "The Big Bang Theory" as Howard (Simon Helberg) tells of a prank pulled on Sheldon (Jim Parsons) while pretending to be Dr. Stephen Hawking to meet at the Randy's Donut at 2 in the morning.


title: Randy's Donuts

text: On 4 July 2017, Inglewood rapcore band Fever 333 had their first public performance in a U-Haul truck in the shop's parking lot.


title: Inversion (music)

text: In music theory, an inversion is a type of change to intervals, chords, voices (in counterpoint), and melodies. In each of these cases, "inversion" has a distinct but related meaning. The concept of inversion also plays an important role in musical set theory.


title: Inversion (music)

text: An interval is inverted by raising or lowering either of the notes by one or more octaves so that the positions of the notes reverse (i.e. the higher note becomes the lower note and vice versa). For example, the inversion of an interval consisting of a C with an E above it (the third measure below) is an E with a C above it – to work this out, the C may be moved up, the E may be lowered, or both may be moved.


title: Inversion (music)

text: The tables to the right show the changes in interval quality and interval number under inversion. Thus, perfect intervals remain perfect, major intervals become minor and vice versa, and augmented intervals become diminished and vice versa. (Doubly diminished intervals become doubly augmented intervals, and vice versa.).


title: Inversion (music)

text: Traditional interval numbers add up to nine: seconds become sevenths and vice versa, thirds become sixths and vice versa, and so on. Thus, a perfect fourth becomes a perfect fifth, an augmented fourth becomes a diminished fifth, and a simple interval (that is, one that is narrower than an octave) and its inversion, when added together, equal an octave. See also complement (music).


title: Inversion (music)

text: A chord's inversion describes the relationship of its lowest notes to the other notes in the chord. For instance, a C-major triad contains the tones C, E and G; its inversion is determined by which of these tones is the lowest note (or bass note) in the chord.


title: Inversion (music)

text: The term "inversion" often categorically refers to the different possibilities, though it may also be restricted to only those chords where the lowest note is not also the root of the chord. Texts that follow this restriction may use the term "position" instead, to refer to all of the possibilities as a category.


title: Inversion (music)

text: A chord is in root position if its root is the lowest note. This is sometimes known as the "parent chord" of its inversions. For example, the root of a C-major triad is C, so a C-major triad will be in root position if C is the lowest note and its third and fifth (E and G, respectively) are above it – or, on occasion, don't sound at all.


title: Inversion (music)

text: The following C-major triads are in root position, since the lowest note is the root. The rearrangement of the notes above the bass into different octaves (here, the note E) and the doubling of notes (here, G), is known as "voicing" – the first voicing is close voicing, while the second is open.


title: Inversion (music)

text: In an inverted chord, the root is the lowest note. The inversions are numbered in the order their lowest notes appear in a close root-position chord (from bottom to top).


title: Inversion (music)

text: Chords with four notes (such as seventh chords) work in a similar way, except that they have three inversions, instead of just two. The three inversions of a G dominant seventh chord are:


title: Inversion (music)

text: Figured bass is a notation in which chord inversions are indicated by Arabic numerals (the "figures") either above or below the bass notes, indicating a harmonic progression. Each numeral expresses the interval that results from the voices above it (usually assuming octave equivalence). For example, in root-position triad C–E–G, the intervals above bass note C are a third and a fifth, giving the figures . If this triad were in first inversion (e.g., E–G–C), the figure would apply, due to the intervals of a third and a sixth appearing above the bass note E.


title: Inversion (music)

text: Certain conventional abbreviations exist in the use of figured bass. For instance, root-position triads appear without symbols (the is understood), and first-inversion triads are customarily abbreviated as just , rather than . The table to the right displays these conventions.


title: Inversion (music)

text: Figured-bass numerals express distinct intervals in a chord only as they relate to the bass note. They make no reference to the key of the progression (unlike Roman-numeral harmonic analysis), they do not express intervals pairs of upper voices themselves – for example, in a C–E–G triad, the figured bass does not signify the interval relationship between E–G, and they do not express notes in upper voices that double, or are unison with, the bass note.


title: Inversion (music)

text: However, the figures are often used on their own (without the bass) in music theory simply to specify a chord's inversion. This is the basis for the terms given above such as "chord" for a second inversion triad. Similarly, in harmonic analysis the term I refers to a tonic triad in first inversion.


title: Inversion (music)

text: A notation for chord inversion often used in popular music is to write the name of a chord followed by a forward slash and then the name of the bass note. This is called a "slash chord". For example, a C-major chord in first inversion (i.e., with E in the bass) would be notated as "C/E". This notation works even when a note not present in a triad is the bass; for example, F/G is a way of notating a particular approach to voicing an Fadd chord (G–F–A–C). This is quite different from analytical notations of "function"; e.g., the notation "IV/V" represents the subdominant of the dominant.


title: Inversion (music)

text: Lower-case letters may be placed after a chord symbol to indicate root position or inversion. Hence, in the key of C major, a C-major chord in first inversion may be notated as "Ib", indicating "chord I, first inversion". (Less commonly, the root of the chord is named, followed by a lower-case letter: "Cb"). If no letter is added, the chord is assumed to be in root inversion, as though "a" had been inserted.


title: Inversion (music)

text: In Jean-Philippe Rameau's "Treatise on Harmony" (1722), chords in different inversions are considered functionally equivalent and he has been credited as being the first person to recognise their underlying similarity. Earlier theorists spoke of different intervals using alternative descriptions, such as the "regola delle terze e seste" ("rule of sixths and thirds"). This required the resolution of imperfect consonances to perfect ones and would not propose, for example, a resemblance between and chords.


title: Inversion (music)

text: In contrapuntal inversion, two melodies, having previously accompanied each other once, accompany each other again but with the melody that had been in the high voice now in the low, and vice versa. The action of changing the voices is called "textural inversion". This is called "double counterpoint" when two voices are involved and "triple counterpoint" when three are involved. The inversion in two-part invertible counterpoint is also known as "rivolgimento".


title: Inversion (music)

text: Themes that be developed in this way without violating the rules of counterpoint are said to be in "invertible counterpoint". Invertible counterpoint can occur at various intervals, usually the octave, less often at the tenth or twelfth. To calculate the interval of inversion, add the intervals by which each voice has moved and subtract one. For example: If motif A in the high voice moves down a sixth, and motif B in the low voice moves up a fifth, in such a way as to result in A and B having exchanged registers, then the two are in double counterpoint at the tenth (6 + 5 – 1 = 10).


title: Inversion (music)

text: In J.S. Bach's "The Art of Fugue", the first canon is at the octave, the second canon at the tenth, the third canon at the twelfth, and the fourth canon in augmentation and contrary motion. Other exemplars can be found in the fugues in G minor and B major [external Shockwave movies] from J.S. Bach's "The Well-Tempered Clavier," Book 2, both of which contain invertible counterpoint at the octave, tenth, and twelfth.


title: Inversion (music)

text: For example, in the keyboard prelude in A major from J.S. Bach's "The Well-Tempered Clavier", Book 1, the following passage, from bars 9–18, involves two lines, one in each hand:


title: Inversion (music)

text: J.S. Bach's Three-Part Invention in F minor, BWV 795 involves exploring the combination of three themes. Two of these are announced in the opening two bars. A third idea joins them in bars 3–4. When this passage is repeated a few bars later in bars 7–9, the three parts are interchanged:


title: Inversion (music)

text: The piece goes on to explore four of the six possible permutations of how these three lines can be combined in counterpoint.


title: Inversion (music)

text: One of the most spectacular examples of invertible counterpoint occurs in the finale of Mozart's "Jupiter Symphony". Here, no less than five themes are heard together:


title: Inversion (music)

text: The whole passage brings the symphony to a conclusion in a blaze of brilliant orchestral writing. According to Tom Service:


title: Inversion (music)

text: A melody is inverted by flipping it "upside-down", reversing the melody's contour. For instance, if the original melody has a rising major third, then the inverted melody has a falling major third (or, especially in tonal music, perhaps a falling third).


title: Inversion (music)

text: According to "The Harvard Dictionary of Music", "The intervals between successive pitches may remain exact or, more often in tonal music, they may be the equivalents in the diatonic scale. Hence c'–d–e' may become c'–b–a (where the first descent is by a semitone rather than by a whole tone) instead of c'–b–a." Moreover, the inversion start on the same pitch as the original melody, but it doesn't have to, as illustrated by the example to the right.


title: Inversion (music)

text: In twelve-tone technique, the inversion of a tone row is one of its four traditional permutations (the others being the prime form, the retrograde, and the retrograde inversion). These four permutations (labeled "p"rime, "r"etrograde, "i"nversion, and "r"etrograde "i"nversion) for the tone row used in Arnold Schoenberg's Variations for Orchestra, Op. 31 are shown below.


title: Inversion (music)

text: In set theory, the inverse operation is sometimes designated as formula_1, where formula_2 means "invert" and formula_3 means "transpose by some interval formula_4" measured in number of semitones. Thus, inversion is a combination of an inversion followed by a transposition. To apply the inversion operation formula_2, you subtract the pitch class, in integer notation, from 12 (by convention, inversion is around pitch class 0). Then we apply the transposition operation formula_3 by adding formula_4. For example, to calculate formula_8, first subtract 3 from 12 (giving 9) and then add 5 (giving 14, which is equivalent to 2). Thus, formula_9. To invert a set of pitches, simply invert each pitch in the set in turn.


title: Inversion (music)

text: In set theory, "inversional equivalency" is the concept that intervals, chords, and other sets of pitches are the same when inverted. It is similar to enharmonic equivalency, octave equivalency and even transpositional equivalency. Inversional equivalency is used little in tonal theory, though it is assumed that sets that can be inverted into each other are remotely in common. However, they are only assumed identical or nearly identical in musical set theory.


title: Inversion (music)

text: Sets are said to be inversionally symmetrical if they map onto themselves under inversion. The pitch that the sets must be inverted around is said to be the axis of symmetry (or center). An axis may either be at a specific pitch or halfway between two pitches (assuming that microtones are not used). For example, the set C–E–E–F–G–B has an axis at F, and an axis, a tritone away, at B if the set is listed as F–G–B–C–E–E. As another example, the set C–E–F–F–G–B has an axis at the dyad F/F and an axis at B/C if it is listed as F–G–B–C–E–F.


title: Inversion (music)

text: The "pitch axis" works in the context of the compound operation transpositional inversion, where transposition is carried out after inversion. However, unlike in set theory, the transposition may be a chromatic or diatonic transposition. Thus, if D-A-G (P5 up, M2 down) is inverted to D-G-A (P5 down, M2 up) the "pitch axis" is D. However, if it is inverted to C-F-G the pitch axis is G while if the pitch axis is A, the melody inverts to E-A-B.


title: Inversion (music)

text: The notation of octave position may determine how many lines and spaces appear to share the axis. The pitch axis of D-A-G and its inversion A-D-E either appear to be between C/B or the single pitch F.


title: Roman villa

text: A Roman villa was typically a farmhouse or country house built in the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, sometimes reaching extravagant proportions.


title: Roman villa

text: Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD) distinguished two kinds of villas near Rome: the "villa urbana", a country seat that could easily be reached from Rome (or another city) for a night or two; and the "villa rustica", the farmhouse estate permanently occupied by the servants who generally had charge of the estate. The Roman Empire contained many kinds of villas, not all of them lavishly appointed with mosaic floors and frescoes. In the provinces, any country house with some decorative features in the Roman style may be called a "villa" by modern scholars. Some were pleasure houses, like Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli, that were sited in the cool hills within easy reach of Rome or, like the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum, on picturesque sites overlooking the Bay of Naples. Some villas were more like the country houses of England, the visible seat of power of a local magnate, such as the famous palace rediscovered at Fishbourne in Sussex.


title: Roman villa

text: Suburban villas on the edge of cities also occurred, such as the Middle and Late Republican villas that encroached on the Campus Martius, at that time on the edge of Rome, and which can be also seen outside the city walls of Pompeii. These early suburban villas, such as the one at Rome's Parco della Musica or at Grottarossa in Rome, demonstrate the antiquity and heritage of the "villa suburbana" in Central Italy. It is possible that these early, suburban villas were also in fact the seats of power of regional strongmen or heads of important families ("gentes"). A third type of villa provided the organisational centre of the large holdings called "latifundia", which produced and exported agricultural produce; such villas might lack luxuries. By the 4th century, "villa" could simply connote an agricultural holding: Jerome translated in the Gospel of Mark (xiv, 32) "chorion", describing the olive grove of Gethsemane, with villa, without an inference that there were any dwellings there at all.


title: Roman villa

text: Under the Empire, a many patrician villas were built near the Bay of Naples, especially on the isle of Capri, at Circeii on the coast and at Antium. Wealthy Romans escaped the summer heat in the hills around Rome, especially around Frascati ("cf." Hadrian's Villa). Cicero allegedly possessed no fewer than seven villas, the oldest of them, which he inherited, near Arpinum in Latium. Pliny the Younger had three or four, of which the example near Laurentum is well known from his descriptions.


title: Roman villa

text: By the first century BC, the "classic" villa took many architectural forms, with many examples employing atrium or peristyle, for enclosed spaces open to light and air. Upper class, wealthy Roman citizens in the countryside around Rome and throughout the Empire lived in villa complexes, the accommodation for rural farms. The villa-complex consisted of three parts:


title: Roman villa

text: Villas were often furnished with plumbed bathing facilities and many would have had an under-floor central heating known as the hypocaust.


title: Roman villa

text: A villa might be quite palatial, such as the villas of the imperial period, built on seaside slopes overlooking the Gulf of Naples at Baiae; others were preserved at Stabiae and Herculaneum by the ashfall and mudslide from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79, which also preserved the Villa of the Papyri and its library. Smaller in the countryside, even non-commercial villas operated as largely self-supporting units, with associated farms, olive groves, and vineyards. Roman writers refer with satisfaction to the self-sufficiency of their villas, where they drank their own wine and pressed their own oil, a commonly used literary "topos". An ideal Roman citizen was the independent farmer tilling his own land, and the agricultural writers wanted to give their readers a chance to link themselves with their ancestors through this image of self-sufficient villas. The truth was not too far from the image, either, while even the profit-oriented "latifundia", large slave-run villas, probably grew enough of all the basic foodstuffs to provide for their own consumption.


title: Roman villa

text: The late Roman Republic witnessed an explosion of villa construction in Italy, especially in the years following the dictatorship of Sulla (81 BC). In Etruria, the villa at Settefinestre was the centre of one of the "latifundia" that were involved in large-scale agricultural production. At Settefinestre and elsewhere, the central housing of such villas was not richly appointed. Other villas in the hinterland of Rome are interpreted in light of the agrarian treatises written by the elder Cato, Columella and Varro, all of whom sought to define the suitable lifestyle of conservative Romans, at least in idealistic terms.


title: Roman villa

text: Large villas dominated the rural economy of the Po Valley, Campania, and Sicily, and also operated in Gaul. Villas were centers of a variety of economic activity such as mining, pottery factories, or horse raising such as those found in northwestern Gaul. Villas specializing in the seagoing export of olive oil to Roman legions in Germany became a feature of the southern Iberian province of Hispania Baetica. Some luxurious villas have been excavated in North Africa in the provinces of Africa and Numidia.


title: Roman villa

text: Certain areas within easy reach of Rome offered cool lodgings in the heat of summer. Gaius Maecenas asked what kind of house could possibly be suitable at all seasons. The emperor Hadrian had a villa at Tibur (Tivoli), in an area that was popular with Romans of rank. Hadrian's Villa, dated to 123, was more like a palace, as Nero's palace, the Domus Aurea on the Palatine Hill in Rome, was disposed in groupings in a planned rustic landscape, more like a villa. Cicero had several villas. Pliny the Younger described his villas in his letters. The Romans invented the seaside villa: a vignette in a frescoed wall at the in Pompeii still shows a row of seafront pleasure houses, all with porticos along the front, some rising up in porticoed tiers to an "altana" at the top that would catch a breeze on the most stifling evenings.


title: Roman villa

text: Some late Roman villae had luxuries like hypocaust-heated rooms with mosaic floors; mosaics are known even from Roman Britain. As the Roman Empire collapsed, villas in Britain were abandoned. In other areas some at least survived; large working villas were donated by aristocrats and territorial magnates to individual monks, often to become the nucleus of famous monasteries. In this way, the villa system of late Antiquity was preserved into the Early Middle Ages. Benedict of Nursia established his influential monastery of Monte Cassino in the ruins of a villa at Subiaco that had belonged to Nero. Around 590, Saint Eligius was born in a highly placed Gallo-Roman family at the 'villa' of Chaptelat near Limoges, in Aquitaine. The abbey at Stavelot was founded ca 650 on the domain of a former villa near Liège and the abbey of Vézelay had a similar founding. As late as 698, Willibrord established an abbey at a Roman villa of Echternach, in Luxembourg near Trier, which Irmina of Oeren, daughter of Dagobert II, king of the Franks, presented to him.


title: Roman villa

text: As the empire expanded, villas spread into the Western provinces, including Gaul and Roman Britain. This was despite the fact that writers of the period could never quite decide on what was meant by villa, though it is clear from the treatise of Palladius that the villa had an agricultural and political role. In Roman Gaul the term "villa" was applied to many different buildings. The villas in Roman Gaul were also subject to regional differences, for example in northern and central Gaul colonnaded facades and pavilions were the fashion, whereas Southern Gaul were in peristyle. The villas style, locations, room numbers and proximity to a lake or ocean were manners of displaying the owners wealth.


title: Roman villa

text: Villas were also centres of production, and Gallo-Roman villa appear to have been closely associated with vineries and wine production. The owners were probably a combination of local Gallic elites who became quickly romanised after the conquest, as well as Romans and Italians who wished to exploit rich local resources. The villas would have been the centre of complex relationships with the local area. Much work would have been undertaken by slave labour or by local "coloni" ("tenant farmers"). There would also have been a steward in addition to the inhabiting family.


title: Jackboot

text: A jackboot is a military boot such as the cavalry jackboot or the hobnailed jackboot. The hobnailed jackboot has a different design and function from the first type. It is a combat boot that is designed for marching. It rises to mid-calf or higher without laces and usually has a leather sole with hobnails. Jackboots have been associated popularly with totalitarianism, as they were worn by German military and paramilitary forces during the Second World War; however, they have been used officially by other nations as well, including the United Kingdom, and had some civilian uses as well.


title: Jackboot

text: The term originally denoted tall "winged" leather cavalry boots, which were reinforced against sword blows by use of mail sewn into the lining of the leather. The "wings" (backward projections) on these high boots particularly protected a rider's knee-joint from a sword blow. These boots are still worn and still so termed by the Household Cavalry regiment of the British Army, initiated during the 17th century. The term originates from the French word "jaque" meaning "coat of mail". These boots were made very heavy by the mail reinforcement and are slightly less so presently from the use of modern materials as stiffeners. There are few manufacturers of cavalry jackboots extant during the 21st century, the most famous being Schnieder Boots of Mayfair, London, the official supplier to His Majesty the King's Household Cavalry.


title: Jackboot

text: The second meaning of the term is derived from the first, with reference to their toughness, but is unrelated in design and function, being a combat boot designed for marching, rising to at least mid-calf, with no laces, typically a leather sole with hobnails, and heel irons. The Germans term this boot "Marschstiefel", meaning "marching boot". This is the classic boot used by the German infantry during World War I, though the stormtroopers dispensed with them in favor of laced boots of a type then used by Austro-Hungarian mountain troops. An etymological source not derived from the cavalry jackboot has been suggested as from the word jack, jacket or jerkin, as a common garment worn by the peasantry.


title: Jackboot

text: The boots are associated popularly with fascism, particularly Nazism, as they were worn by the Sturmabteilung and later the field forces of the Wehrmacht and Waffen-SS as part of the World War II German uniform before Germany experienced leather shortages. When goose-stepping on pavement, the large columns of German soldiers in "Marschstiefel" ("marching boots") created a distinct rock-crushing sound which came to symbolize German conquest and occupation. A similar style of boot had been in use with German armies for World War I, the Franco-Prussian War, and before.


title: Jackboot

text: Jackboots were also associated with the armies of the former USSR (called "sapogi") and East Germany. Jackboots are still a part of the modern parade and service attire of the army of Russia and several other former Soviet states.


title: Jackboot

text: The word is used often in English as a synonym for "totalitarianism", particularly "fascism", although jackboots and similar types of footwear have been worn by various British regiments since the 18th century (see Wellington boot, origins).


title: Jackboot

text: In the United States in October 1993, the National Rifle Association (NRA) published a four-page advertisement in the center of its magazine "American Rifleman", the first page of which showed goose-stepping, jackbooted legs under the question, "What's the First Step to a Police State?" Two years later, the NRA's executive vice-president, Wayne LaPierre, created controversy when he referred to federal agents as "jackbooted government thugs" in an NRA fund-raising letter. The term had been invented by United States Representative John Dingell, Democrat of Michigan, in 1981. Such statements prompted former U.S. president George H. W. Bush to resign his membership in the organization soon afterward.


title: Meena Jutla

text: Meena Jutla is a fictional character from the ITV soap opera "Emmerdale", played by Paige Sandhu. Details surrounding her casting and Meena's characterisation were announced in September 2020 alongside that of two other new characters as part of what "Emmerdale" described as a "big autumn shake-up". She was introduced as the estranged sister of Manpreet Sharma (Rebecca Sarker) and arrives in the fictional village with the intention of reconciling her relationship with Manpreet. Upon her casting, Sandhu described her character as irresponsible, apathetic, unreliable, wild and intelligent. She later revealed that Meena's backstory involves her often being ignored by her parents in favour of Manpreet, which led to Meena having sex with Manpreet's husband Dennis (Sam Barriscale), which led to their marriage breaking down, as well as her relationship with her sister.


title: Meena Jutla

text: Shortly after her introduction, Meena forms a relationship with David Metcalfe (Matthew Wolfenden). The beginning of her tenure sees her scheming to improve her relationships with David and Manpreet. Her actions included taking Rishi Sharma's (Bhasker Patel) medication so that she could rescue him and pretending to be Ethan Anderson's (Emile John) estranged mother, after which producers hinted that Meena would be at the "forefront of really brilliant and gripping drama". It was later confirmed that she would become an "Emmerdale" villain in a serial killer plot. Sandhu created a backstory for her character which included killing two off-screen characters; her own father and former best friend Nadine Butler. Her on-screen murders include village locals Leanna Cavanagh (Mimi Slinger), Andrea Tate (Anna Nightingale) and Ben Tucker (Simon Lennon). Meena is known to dance and sing along to pop music before committing a crime, as well as taking keepsakes from her victims after their deaths. She also becomes involved in the aftermath of the murders in order to see the reactions from those who are mourning. In January 2022, it was confirmed that Sandhu would be leaving the role.


title: Meena Jutla

text: For Sandhu's portrayal of the role, Meena won the award for Best Villain at the "Inside Soap" Awards twice, in 2021 and 2022, also garnering nominations for Best Newcomer, Best Show-Stopper and Best Actress. At the 2022 British Soap Awards, Sandhu won the award for Best Leading Performer, as well as receiving nominations for Villain of the Year and her serial killer storyline receiving a nod for Best Storyline. The role also saw Sandhu receive nominations at the TRIC Awards, National Television Awards, "TV Choice" Awards and the "TVTimes" Awards. Meena caused division in viewers' opinions since her introduction. After Meena is revealed to be a serial killer, critics and viewers began to praise the character and Sandhu's acting skills, with many believing Meena had become a "top soap serial killer". Duncan Lindsay of the "Metro" described Meena as "the most unique and entertaining soap villain ever" and admitted that he wanted her to get away with her crimes due to her strong presence on "Emmerdale". Many viewers praised Meena and accredited her with being most interesting part of "Emmerdale", while some have complained about the violence shown in her murderous scenes, with Ofcom receiving hundreds of complaints about her brutality. Despite criticism, Meena regularly trended on Twitter and her storyline increased "Emmerdale"s ratings to the point of becoming the most-watched soap opera in the United Kingdom. Fans of Meena, known as 'Meeniacs', called for ITV to commission a spin-off series about her and "mourned the loss of Meena" after her exit.


title: Meena Jutla

text: Paige Sandhu's casting as Meena was announced by "Emmerdale" on 7 September 2020; she was announced as part of a "big autumn shake-up" alongside the castings of Lawrence Robb as Mackenzie Boyd and Simon Lennon as Ben Tucker. It was confirmed that Meena would be introduced as the estranged sister of established character Manpreet Sharma (Rebecca Sarker) and that the pair had fallen out in the past. Upon her casting, Sandhu described her character as fun and complex to play and she voiced her excitement at seeing how the viewers would react to her. She also stated that she had been enjoying filming with Sarker and Bhasker Patel, who plays Sarker's onscreen husband Rishi Sharma. On 24 September 2020, the day of Meena's first appearance, Sandhu revealed more details concerning her character. She stated that Meena is the opposite of her sister Manpreet, and that she is irresponsible, apathetic and unreliable, which she found enjoyable to portray. Sandhu also found Meena to be wild and intelligent, noting her talent for manipulating people. She explained: "She knows how to work people and she's a chameleon, depending on who she's talking to. She wonders: 'What can I get out of this person?'"


title: Meena Jutla

text: Explaining Meena's backstory, Sandhu stated that being the younger sister in her family led her to feel she is lower in the hierarchy of life. She views Manpreet as "the epitome of all that's good and great" and feels that she does not compare to her. Due to Meena growing up with an overachieving sister, Sandhu said that Meena had formed deeply rooted insecurities about herself due to not feeling good enough, which she covers up. The actress said that this backstory would be subtly explored in her scenes, as well as nods to her character having lived through recent depressing years. Sandhu also said that in order to enrich her character, she created a backstory where Meena has murdered two people prior to coming to Emmerdale. Sandhu stated that Meena's biggest weakness is her continued involvement with her murders. She explained that Meena loves to take a keepsake from her victims, such as Leanna's ring and Andrea's bracelet; the actress admitted that taking tokens from her victims and keeping them in a box is not clever. She also felt that although Meena is very clever, she should not stay involved with the crime, but explained that she has a fascination with death. She said: "When she's killed someone, she needs to still be involved in it. She wants to take complete ownership of that crime and so she watches people's reaction to that death, takes a token from the victim and stays around those people." When asked if she want Meena to face comeuppance for her crimes, Sandhu admitted that she wants Meena to keep getting away with her crimes due to enjoying portraying a serial killer.


title: Meena Jutla

text: Meena arrives in the Emmerdale village stating that she has the intention of reconciling with Manpreet, with who she had fallen out with years prior to her arrival. Sandhu hinted that despite Meena saying this, there is always a selfish reason behind her actions. She was asked how the reunion between the two characters goes, to which she replied that there would be tension and drama. She noted that the drama is especially awkward for Meena since she is the person responsible for the rivalry between them. Manpreet reveals that Meena had sex with her ex-husband while the pair were still together, which led to the eventual breakdown of their marriage. Rishi takes a liking to Meena and recommends her for a job at the local doctor's surgery, where Manpreet also works. Manpreet sits in on her interview with Liam Cavanagh (Jonny McPherson), where she makes distasteful remarks about Meena's personality. Both Liam and Rishi voice their disapproval of Manpreet's treatment of Meena, leading Manpreet to forgive Meena and allow her to stay at her house.


title: Meena Jutla

text: As well as being introduced as Manpreet's sister, it was also confirmed that she would be a potential love interest for newly single Billy Fletcher (Jay Kontzle). Meena flirts with him in front of his ex-girlfriend, Dawn Taylor (Olivia Bromley), which leads to a confrontation between the pair. After the interactions between Meena and Dawn, Sandhu revealed that Meena will make several other enemies in the village. She noted that any strong women will be threatened by Meena since she enjoys annoying them. She also confirmed that alongside her rivalries, Meena would also pursue friendships on the programme with characters such as Rishi and Liam.


title: Meena Jutla

text: In November 2020, Meena begins pursuing David Metcalfe (Matthew Wolfenden). Thinking that "David could be the man for her", she asks him on a date to which he accepts; however, he stands her up and texts her saying that he cannot come. Annoyed by David's rejection, she heads to his shop to confront him. Meena later learns that Manpreet was responsible for David standing her up, since her sister had advised David against dating her. Meena reacts by making a "shocking move" in order to win both Manpreet and David over. Meena purposely changes the direction of Rishi's Sat Nav, as well as taking his medication from the car and hiding Manpreet's phone. She pretends to come across Rishi in the direction she sent him and acts as though she has saved him. When Manpreet does not know how to thank Meena for saving Rishi's life, she suggests that Manpreet should talk to David about her again, in order to persuade him to give their relationship another chance. Speaking on Meena's actions, Sandhu guessed that the audience will not like Meena anymore since her character is "trying to steer the situation so that it comes out with her in the best possible position". She added that in Meena's position, her plan has succeeded since she has become a saviour in Manpreet's perspective. After Meena has won David back, Sandhu confirmed that viewers would continue to see more of Meena's dark side. She also warned viewers that her character has no limits as to how far she will go to get what she wants and confessed that she loves playing the new baddie of "Emmerdale". Digital Spy then wrote in December 2020 that the soap were setting up a "dark direction" for Meena.


title: Meena Jutla

text: In April 2021, Sandhu teased to "Inside Soap" that her dream storyline would be airing soon. She could not give specific details on the storyline due to her contract but stated that it would be a storyline that viewers would look forward to watching. The storyline begins with Meena impersonating Ethan Anderson's (Emile John) estranged mother, manipulating his emotions by texting him from a burner phone. Digital Spy wrote that she "hatched this masterplan" with intentions of pushing Manpreet to comfort Ethan so that Manpreet would reunite with ex-lover Charles Anderson (Kevin Mathurin), Ethan's father. In June 2021, series producer Kate Brooks told the "Daily Mirror" that Meena's plot will elevate and "captivate" viewers as she joins the "forefront of really brilliant and gripping drama". Brooks also hinted that her scheming had formed the start of a "gripping and enthralling story" she hoped would get the nation talking and have viewers shouting at their televisions. Days later, Meena locks Andrea Tate's (Anna Nightingale) dog in a car to stop her from going on a camping trip with Charles. The scenes were part of her plan to reunite Manpreet with Charles, and following their airing, Meena was revealed to be "Emmerdale"s next major villain. She was tipped by Kilkelly (Digital Spy) as "one to watch" and guessed that she is "only just getting started".


title: Meena Jutla

text: Meena confides in Diane Sugden (Elizabeth Estensen) about her dead friend Nadine, telling her that she regrets not spotting suicidal tendencies in Nadine before she killed herself. However, Meena is later seen reading an old newspaper clipping that is titled: "Woman found dead in suspicious circumstances." The article also stated that Nadine was found dead in her car after inhaling carbon monoxide fumes and Kilkelly confirmed that Meena is linked to Nadine's death. Following the scenes, Digital Spy compiled a list of potential victims that Meena could murder, with the list including Manpreet, Andrea, Rishi, Diane, David's son Jacob (Joe-Warren Plant) and Jacob's girlfriend Leanna Cavanagh (Mimi Slinger), amongst others.


title: Meena Jutla

text: On 28 June 2021, it was confirmed by "Emmerdale" that Meena would murder a character in forthcoming scenes. That same day, a trailer including Meena, David, Jacob, Leanna, Gabby Thomas (Rosie Bentham) and Victoria Sugden (Isabel Hodgins) premiered on ITV, with media outlets confirming that the latter five would be the potential victims of her murder. Sandhu knew of the murder arc from when she was signed to "Emmerdale" and admitted that knowing where Meena's storyline would end up made it more fun for her to play her. Sandhu kept the storyline a secret from other cast members when they asked her what would happen to Meena and noted that they were shocked to learn Meena would be a murderer. Sandhu cited "Killing Eve" as an aid to learning about how serial killers operate and noted that Meena has similar qualities to Villanelle. To further prepare herself for the storyline, she watched films including "Taxi Driver", "American Psycho", "Nightcrawler" and "Killer Women with Piers Morgan", as well as reading "The Psychopath Test". Speaking on the scenes, Sandhu admitted that she loves playing a character who is completely different from everybody else on the soap, specifically noting Meena's "lack of empathy and her playfulness" as exciting points to portray. Brooks also spoke about the scenes, stating that up to that point, viewers and other characters on the soap had viewed Meena's behaviour as petulance, but hinted that the scenes of her murdering another character would reveal the "true extent of her narcissistic and amoral character". Brooks branded the character 'Malevolent Meena'.


title: Meena Jutla

text: When asked why Meena would kill someone, Sandhu explained that Meena feels it is "perfectly reasonable" to murder someone in her way so that she can achieve her goals. Fans immediately suspected that Meena would kill Leanna, accrediting Meena's motive to Leanna receiving a rucksack filled with suspicious items belonging to Meena. In the episode broadcast on 8 July 2021, Leanna discovers that Meena stole money from the gay pride collection in the village and tried to frame Jacob, as well as discovering that Meena murdered Nadine. Leanna tries to escape but is confronted by her on a bridge, which Meena throws her from. Slinger enjoyed filming her scenes with Sandhu, noting that her ability to play a psychopath was scarily good. The pair required a stunt coordinator since Leanna falls 40 feet from a bridge. Due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on television, cast and crew members on "Emmerdale" were not allowed within 6 feet of each other at the time of filming. However, since Leanna and Meena had to be closer than 6 feet, the two actresses formed a bubble. This included isolating in a hotel for a number of days and taking regular COVID tests. Slinger was happy to have made the effort to bubble with Sandhu since it made the scenes "feel as real and raw as possible".


title: Meena Jutla

text: Following Meena murdering Leanna, Meena acts as a support to McPherson's character Liam, who said that Liam finds solace in Meena's cold nature. McPherson also confirmed that Meena would kill again, stating: "Leanna will not be the last victim, that's for sure!" It was then confirmed that in October 2021, a "super soap week" for "Emmerdale" would air. The plot of the week was confirmed to revolve around an adventure survival challenge that would "set the stage for high-stakes scenes" and give Meena new targets. Brooks also hinted that the week sees Meena determined to kill Victoria due to her having a secret affair with David and confirmed that by the end of the week, a character would die. Regarding the production aspect of the "super soap week", Brooks explained that the idea of a survival week had been talked about for a while, but when the production team saw Meena's potential on screen, they decided to make the week centre around Meena. Brooks added: "Let's face it, when Meena is around, anything can happen. It's been knocking around for a couple of years, but it was only when Meena came to fruition that we thought this was the perfect backdrop for her to wreak havoc."


title: Meena Jutla

text: Victoria falls from a rope bridge into a body of water, where she plunges down a waterfall. Meena finds her at the bottom of the waterfall and holds her body into the water in an attempt to drown her. Andrea oversees her attempt to kill her, which Meena notices. She then leaves Victoria to survive and targets Andrea. She chases Andrea into a maze and the chase comes to a head when the two reach the centre. Andrea finds a flare gun and holds Meena at gunpoint, who follows her onto the stage and admits to Andrea that she killed Leanna and will now have do the same to her. When Andrea is distracted, Meena grabs the gun from her, but as she is doing it, Andrea lights the maze on fire. She pushes Andrea off the stage then slams her head against a wooden step and leaves her to die in the fire. Whilst Meena tries to get out, she collapses from the smoke, but is saved by Mackenzie. When asked if she saw anybody else inside the maze, she states that there is nobody inside, leaving Andrea to die. DS Rogers (Matthew Flynn) questions her on what she knows about Andrea's murder and Meena "hatches a plan to put someone else in the frame". Despite her plan, she later overhears villagers discussing the police finding a lack of evidence to suggest Andrea had been murdered, meaning the investigation had been dropped. The scenes show Meena "desperately trying to hide her smile".


title: Meena Jutla

text: After Meena learns of David and Victoria's affair, she breaks into Victoria's house and destroys everything. Amy Wyatt (Natalie Ann Jamieson), who also lives there, immediately suspects Meena is responsible and confronts her, as well as informing the police. Billy sees their confrontation and intervenes before it can get physical; Meena labels Billy her "knight in shining armour" and starts a relationship with him to make David jealous. Billy still has romantic feelings for Dawn and the pair continue seeing each other, which Meena finds out about. Her reaction is to force Billy into allowing her to move in with him, which he reluctantly allows her to do. Hinting Meena's storylines for the end of 2021 in an interview with "Inside Soap", Sandhu stated that the festive period is "intense" for her. Sandhu said that the storylines would be wilder than anything to date and that after reading the scripts for the Christmas episodes, she was surprised that they had managed to make her plot "10 times crazier than [she] could ever have imagined". Kate White, the conductor of her "Inside Soap" interview, wrote that Meena is "nowhere near done yet" in her time on "Emmerdale".


title: Meena Jutla

text: Ben Tucker (Simon Lennon) is blamed for the adventure survival challenge going wrong and for Andrea's death, so he begins watching footage from the bodycams to prove his innocence. While on a date with Billy, Meena learns that he has access to the footage and leaves to visit him. She watches the footage with him and brags about how she almost murdered Victoria, after which he runs away from Meena. Meena hits him over the head with a kayak oar when he is not looking, and then when he is injured on the ground, she hits him again and kills him. The murder and Lennon's departure were not previously announced, meaning the scenes were a surprise for viewers.


title: Meena Jutla

text: After Ben's murder, Billy confesses to Meena that he wants to end their relationship to pursue Dawn instead. Sandhu said that his confession leads Meena to panic as she believes they are soulmates who are meant to be together. Therefore, to take ownership of the situation, Meena lies and tells Billy that she is pregnant with his baby. Sandhu explained that Meena does it as a way of "making sure that he can't cut her out of her life, and there's still a way of weaselling herself back in". Her reveal of the supposed pregnancy leads Billy to see the first signs of her "possessiveness and controlling behaviour", as well as putting difficulty in his plan of getting back with Dawn. Sandhu said that even she was shocked by the scripts and said: "there's nothing that's out of bounds for her because she doesn't feel guilty about doing anything and she doesn't believe that laws and bad things apply to her".


title: Meena Jutla

text: Manpreet begins to suspect Meena of performing evil acts, so arranges to meet Carol Butler (Laura Pitt-Pulford), the sister of Nadine. Carol tells her that Meena came into Nadine's life as a great friend but later murdered her. Manpreet later overhears Meena on the phone to social services, alleging that Dawn has reformed a drug habit and should have her son taken away. Manpreet demands proof that Meena is pregnant, to which Meena breaks a glass bottle and tries to stab her outside the Woolpack. The building explodes, leaving the pair unconscious under the rubble from the explosion. It was confirmed that both sisters would survive the explosion, due to photos of Meena keeping Manpreet hostage having been released by producers prior to the scenes. Meena makes a second attempt to kill Manpreet in hospital, almost injecting her with poison, until she wakes up. Sandhu explained that Meena could not easily murder Manpreet due to their connection as sisters. She said that Meena would not think twice about murdering anyone else that discovers her secrets, but because it is Manpreet, it leads Meena to "choose a different tactic [which is] stressful for her".


title: Meena Jutla

text: Meena keeps Manpreet hostage in her bedroom and tells the other villagers that she has moved to Ibiza to recover from the explosion and stay with her daughter, Aiesha Richards (Shila Iqbal). She then fakes a miscarriage that she claims has been caused by the explosion and convinces Liam to prescribe her three weeks of diazepam, which she uses to drug Manpreet. While appearing on "Loose Women", Sandhu said that due to Meena getting away with so many crimes in her time in the village, she is beginning to feel invincible. On the character's behaviour change, she said: "that's potentially her downfall as her behaviour is getting more and more outlandish and people are starting to catch on". It was then confirmed that Meena would set out to kill three people in a "bloodbath". The characters listed were Manpreet and Vinny Dingle (Bradley Johnson), who she kidnaps for knowing her secrets, as well as Samson Dingle (Sam Hall), who she sees with the ring that Meena stole from Leanna's dead body. However, after Liam interrupts her plan to kill Manpreet and Vinny, she goes on the run from the police with Tommy (Martin Mednikarov). The soap confirmed that her escape was not permanent and that her return to the soap would be imminent.


title: Meena Jutla

text: While on the run, Meena sees via social media that Billy and Dawn are set to get married on Valentine's Day. "Inside Soap"s Laura-Jayne Tyler wrote that her discovery could result in a "Valentine Day's massacre" due to her vow to "wreak havoc" on their wedding day and to get revenge on them both. Executive producer Jane Hudson told the magazine that while Meena's tenure on the soap was beginning to come to an end, there would still be numerous twists in the storyline since Meena "can do pretty much anything". She added that Meena's final actions on the soap would have "a lasting effect on quite a few of our villagers" but confirmed that Meena would get her comeuppance. On 7 February 2022, a trailer premiered on ITV with Meena in the village church, armed with a gun. Meena assaults a limousine driver and steals it to kidnap Dawn. Sandhu enjoyed the twist as she felt that Meena's return to the village was intense and that it was fun for her to play. After Meena kidnaps Dawn, she drives her to a local high bridge and opens the boot of the limo to reveal Billy is inside after drugging him. When Leyla Harding (Roxy Shahidi) attempts to locate the limo that had a tracker, Meena spots her coming and shoots her. Sandhu said that when filming for the scenes, it was very cold but due to the nice view from the viaduct and her company whilst filming, they were among her favourite scenes to film. She also enjoyed using a gun for the scenes as she felt that it added "an edge" to Meena that viewers had not previously seen.


title: Meena Jutla

text: When Dawn tries to beat Meena up, Meena informs her that she cannot kill her or else her son Lucas (Noah Ryan Aspinall) would die, indicating that she had kidnapped him. Whilst laughing maniacally, a scene then shows Harriet Finch (Katherine Dow Blyton) laying lifeless in a pool of her own blood after being wounded in the head by Meena. Dawn then rushes to the village to find Lucas, while Meena follows her to witness the chaos and to collect her box of items from her victims. Liam sees her and confronts her with a pitchfork. She makes a comment about how fun it was to murder Leanna and Liam pushes her from the bridge. On the possibility of Meena dying, Sandhu explained that Meena is not scared to die and that she would view it as a "great adventure", but in the case Meena survives and is sent to prison, Sandhu opined that her character would be fine with it as she sees Billy and Dawn living happily as worse than a prison sentence. Meena explains to the police that Liam deliberately pushed her from the bridge, but due to Manpreet and Liam sticking to the same story that it was self-defence and due to a lack of evidence, the investigation into Liam's attempted murder of Meena is dropped.