title: Die Entführung aus dem Serail

text: Accompanied by a chorus of Janissaries ("Singt dem großen Bassa Lieder" – "Sing to the mighty Pasha Selim"), Pasha Selim appears with Konstanze, for whose love he strives in vain (Aria of Konstanze: "Ach ich liebte" – "How I loved him"). Pedrillo tricks the Pasha into hiring Belmonte as an architect. When Belmonte and Pedrillo try to enter the palace, Osmin bars their way, but they hurry past him anyway (Terzett: "Marsch! Marsch! Marsch! Trollt euch fort!" – "March! March! March! Clear off!").


title: Die Entführung aus dem Serail

text: The Pasha has given Blonde to Osmin, to be his slave; however, she defiantly rebuffs her new master's rough lovemaking attempts (Aria: "Durch Zärtlichkeit und Schmeicheln" – "With smiles and kind caresses"), threatens to scratch out his eyes, and chases him out of the room (Duet: "Ich gehe, doch rate ich dir" – "I'm going, but mark what I say"). Konstanze enters in distress (Aria: "Welcher Wechsel herrscht in meiner Seele … Traurigkeit ward mir zum Lose" – "Oh what sorrow overwhelms my spirit … Endless grief tortures my spirit"). The Pasha enters, demands Konstanze's love, and threatens to use force, but she resolutely rejects him. (Aria: "Martern aller Arten" – "Tortures unrelenting") Left alone, he muses on her determination to remain chaste, which increases his desire for her.


title: Die Entführung aus dem Serail

text: Pedrillo informs Blonde that Belmonte has come and is planning to rescue them, filling Blonde with joy. (Aria: "Welche Wonne, welche Lust" – "Oh, the happy, happy day"). After singing a short ditty to boost his courage (Aria: "Frisch zum Kampfe" – "Now Pedrillo, now for battle!"), Pedrillo invites Osmin to drink (Duet: "Vivat Bacchus! Bacchus lebe!" – "Here's to Bacchus, long live Bacchus"). Despite his religious prohibition against alcoholic beverages, Osmin drinks heavily and falls asleep. Konstanze joins Belmonte who declares his love (Aria: "Wenn der Freude Tränen fließen" – "When tears of joy flow"). The two couples reunite (Quartet, Belmonte, Konstanze, Pedrillo, Blonde: "Ach Belmonte! Ach, mein Leben" – "Ah, Belmonte, ah my dear one!"). After their initial expressions of love and joy, Belmonte and Pedrillo both question anxiously whether their respective fiancees have remained faithful during their forced separation; to their delight, the women respond with indignation and dismay, and Blonde slaps Pedrillo's face. The two men apologize for their lack of confidence; the women forgive them for their offensive questions.


title: Die Entführung aus dem Serail

text: Belmonte and Pedrillo come to the garden with ladders (Aria, Belmonte: "Ich baue ganz auf deine Stärke" – "Love, only love, can now direct me"). Pedrillo attracts the attention of the women by singing a ballad about a rescue similar to the one he is planning (Romanze, Pedrillo: "In Mohrenland gefangen war" – "In Moorish lands a maiden fair"). However, Osmin enters, sees the ladders, and rouses the castle. Osmin exults in the prospect of seeing them all hanged (Aria: "O, wie will ich triumphieren" – "My triumphant hour's approaching"). Belmonte pleads for their lives and tells Pasha Selim that his father is a Spanish Grandee and Governor of Oran, named Lostados, and will pay a generous ransom. Unfortunately, Pasha Selim and Lostados are long-standing enemies. The Pasha rejoices in the opportunity to subject his enemy's son to a horrible death. He leaves Belmonte and Konstanze to bid each other a last farewell; they lovingly assure each other that being tortured to death will be a pleasure, so long as they get tortured to death together (Duet: "Welch ein Geschick! O Qual der Seele... Weh, du soltest für mich sterben" – "What dreadful fate conspires against us... Woe, you will die because of me"). However, the Pasha then decides that he can make a better point against Lostados by showing mercy and releasing Belmonte and his friends. All are set at liberty – much to the dismay of Osmin (Finale: "Nie werd' ich deine Huld verkennen" – "Your noble mercy passes measure").


title: Die Entführung aus dem Serail

text: The Australian Broadcasting Commission made a TV production in 1961 as the English-language "The Abduction from the Seraglio", using outdoor filming in addition to the stage setting.


title: Die Entführung aus dem Serail

text: The American post-modernist writer Donald Barthelme wrote a surreal comic short story entitled "The Abduction from the Seraglio" (published in "The New Yorker" in January 1978, collected in "Great Days", Farrar, Strous & Giroux 1979, and in "Sixty Stories", 1981) in which Belmonte, as narrator, is reconfigured into a cowboy sculptor (whose arias are Country & Western songs), Constanze into his ex-lover, a counter-culture free spirit seduced by the Pasha, who in turn is a Plymouth automobile dealer worth five million dollars a year. Belmonte's rescue attempt fails as Constanze decides to stay with the Pasha, and he is left bereft.


title: Die Entführung aus dem Serail

text: Music professor, composer, and humorist Peter Schickele claims to have "discovered" P. D. Q. Bach's "The Abduction of Figaro" (1984), a pastiche of the "Entführung" and Mozart's "The Marriage of Figaro".


title: Die Entführung aus dem Serail

text: The Finnish composer Aulis Sallinen wrote an opera called "The Palace" (first performed 1995); it contains characters whose names are adapted from "Abduction" and loosely uses elements of the plot of Mozart's opera as the starting point of a satirical fantasy.


title: Symbolab

text: Symbolab is an answer engine that provides step-by-step solutions to mathematical problems in a range of subjects. It was originally developed by Israeli start-up company EqsQuest Ltd., under whom it was released for public use in 2011. In 2020, the company was acquired by American educational technology website Course Hero.


title: Symbolab

text: In late 2011, Symbolab was released as a mathematical semantic search engine by Israeli entrepreneurs Michal Avny (CEO), Adam Arnon (Chief Scientist), and Lev Alyshayev (CTO). At the onset, it could interpret a user-entered equation or symbolic problem and find the solution if it existed. Later, the ability to show all of the steps explaining the calculation were added.


title: Symbolab

text: The company's emphasis gradually drifted towards focusing on providing step-by-step solutions for mathematical problems at the secondary and post-secondary levels. Symbolab relies on machine learning algorithms for both the search and solution aspects of the engine.


title: Symbolab

text: In October 2020, California-based Course Hero acquired EqsQuest Ltd. and the Symbolab engine for an undisclosed amount. The erstwhile team of employees, who were all based in Tel Aviv, joined the Course Hero team as part of the acquisition.


title: Untitled Horror Movie

text: Untitled Horror Movie is a 2021 American horror comedy film directed by Nick Simon, who co-wrote the screenplay with Luke Baines. Baines also stars in the film alongside Claire Holt, Darren Barnet, Emmy Raver-Lampman, Katherine McNamara, and Timothy Granaderos. The film utilizes found footage conventions, and in one scene presents its narrative via a computer screen. Its plot follows six actors who decide to create a horror film, and in doing so unwittingly summon a malevolent spirit.


title: Untitled Horror Movie

text: "Untitled Horror Movie" was filmed remotely due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The processes of writing, pre-production, and filming all took place during COVID-19-related quarantines. The film's actors—who were self-isolating at their homes during shooting—were responsible for lighting, makeup, audio and camerawork, with direction, assistance and communication taking place through Zoom.


title: Untitled Horror Movie

text: After actor Declan learns about the cancellation of the hit TV show "Belle" where he stars, he discloses the news to his fellow castmates: aspiring writer Kip, shallow diva Kelly, the level-headed and confident Alex, the very ditzy Chrissy and fun-loving Max. Kip wants to use the opportunity and reveals to his friends about a horror movie he has been working on. The idea of being in charge of their own movie excites them and although Kelly is initially hesitant, she later agrees on the condition that she gets to star.


title: Untitled Horror Movie

text: The group starts working on the movie, juggling between improving Kip's terrible script and coping with Kelly's dissatisfaction. Chrissy's pendulum gives them an idea to shoot a séance and Chrissy agrees to use the pendulum during filming though she is against the idea.


title: Untitled Horror Movie

text: Max sends some of their scenes to his manager and claims that the movie will be highly sought after, motivating them to carry on with the film. Chrissy then starts to recite the séance. In the night as they film the séance the group all feel strange things happen, such as Declan hearing thunder from his house even though it was a clear night, Kelly feeling a gust of wind blowing on her face and a shadow appearing behind Chrissy, which she claims she had no idea of. The group later notice the same shadow in Alex's footage as well.


title: Untitled Horror Movie

text: The next day Chrissy joins in the video call with a blackened eye, saying that she couldn't stop hitting herself the previous night even after she stopped filming. The group first rebuke it as Chrissy trying to seek attention but soon realise that strange things were going with the rest of the cast every time they try to shoot the séance scene, creeping them out enough for Kip to cancel shooting for the night.


title: Untitled Horror Movie

text: At night, Kip wakes Alex up telling her Chrissy had uploaded a horrifying video of an anonymous person recording her while she slept. Alarmed, Kip contacts the rest of the group, but Chrissy disconnects mid-call. Declan video-calls her for the rest of the group to see that someone is indeed in Chrissy's house. Declan leaves to help her while the others watch as she tries to survive many attacks.


title: Untitled Horror Movie

text: Declan reaches Chrissy's house in time to witness Chrissy choking herself to death after giving her pendulum to Declan. Declan flees from her house with the pendulum. A few days later Kip calls Declan telling him that Chrissy's body was found and her death was ruled an accident. The group argues whether to abandon the movie and Declan decides to throw away Chrissy's pendulum after realising that it is the source of the evil entity. However, he is later strangled to death by the same entity and is possessed.


title: Untitled Horror Movie

text: The rest of the group, unaware of Declan's death, is invited by the creators of "Belle" and reveal their intention to renew it for three more seasons to honor Chrissy. One of the producers Bobbie, finds a package from Declan containing the materials for the séance and Chrissy's pendulum. After Bobbie recites the séance again, the entire group is possessed while the producers leave, convinced they were being pranked.


title: Untitled Horror Movie

text: Director and co-writer Nick Simon, with star and fellow co-writer Luke Baines, pitched the concept of "Untitled Horror Movie" to producers Bronwyn Cornelius and Marina Stabile, who helped acquire funding for the project. Cornelius stated that "We've never met the cast and crew, and yet we all absolutely bonded virtually over these Zoom calls. It's fascinating how connected you can feel to somebody having never physically met them. [...] You don't need to lose that bonding just because we can't physically be in the same space."


title: Untitled Horror Movie

text: "Untitled Horror Movie" was filmed remotely as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, with the processes of writing, pre-production, and filming all taking place during COVID-19-related quarantines. Simon and the rest of the crew sent packages containing makeup and hair supplies, camera equipment, props, and lighting equipment to the film's actors, who were each isolating at their respective homes, and explained how to set up equipment over Zoom calls. Cinematographer Kevin Duggin helped the actors rig lights and set up camera shots, while hair and makeup department head Stefanie Terzo sent the actors video tutorials on how to create artificial bruises and wounds using makeup.


title: Untitled Horror Movie

text: One portion of the film presents the narrative through a computer screen, with the characters interacting via a video chat. The rest of the film is shot in a more traditional found footage style.


title: Untitled Horror Movie

text: The film had its livestreamed premiere on June 12, 2021. It was made available for viewing by (Yet) Another Distribution Company on video-on-demand services and digital platforms like iTunes and Amazon.com on June 15, 2021.


title: Royal Corps of Signals

text: The Royal Corps of Signals (often simply known as the Royal Signals – abbreviated to R SIGNALS or R SIGS) is one of the combat support arms of the British Army. Signals units are among the first into action, providing the battlefield communications and information systems essential to all operations. Royal Signals units provide the full telecommunications infrastructure for the Army wherever they operate in the world. The Corps has its own engineers, logistics experts and systems operators to run radio and area networks in the field. It is responsible for installing, maintaining and operating all types of telecommunications equipment and information systems, providing command support to commanders and their headquarters, and conducting electronic warfare against enemy communications.


title: Royal Corps of Signals

text: In 1870, 'C' Telegraph Troop, Royal Engineers, was founded under Captain Montague Lambert. The Troop was the first formal professional body of signallers in the British Army and its duty was to provide communications for a field army by means of visual signalling, mounted orderlies and telegraph. By 1871, 'C' Troop had expanded in size from 2 officers and 133 other ranks to 5 officers and 245 other ranks. In 1879, 'C' Troop first saw action during the Anglo-Zulu War. On 1 May 1884, 'C' Troop was amalgamated with the 22nd and 34th Companies, Royal Engineers, to form the Telegraph Battalion Royal Engineers; 'C' Troop formed the 1st Division (Field Force, based at Aldershot) while the two Royal Engineers companies formed the 2nd Division (Postal and Telegraph, based in London). Signalling was the responsibility of the Telegraph Battalion until 1908, when the Royal Engineers Signal Service was formed. As such, it provided communications during the First World War. It was about this time that motorcycle despatch riders and wireless sets were introduced into service.


title: Royal Corps of Signals

text: A Royal Warrant for the creation of a Corps of Signals was signed by the Secretary of State for War, Winston Churchill, on 28 June 1920. Six weeks later, King George V conferred the title Royal Corps of Signals.


title: Royal Corps of Signals

text: Before the Second World War, Royal Signals recruits were required to be at least 5 feet 2 inches tall. They initially enlisted for eight years with the colours and a further four years with the reserve. They trained at the Signal Training Centre at Catterick Camp and all personnel were taught to ride.


title: Royal Corps of Signals

text: During the Second World War (1939–45), members of the Royal Corps of Signals served in every theatre of war. In one notable action, Corporal Thomas Waters of the 5th Parachute Brigade Signal Section was awarded the Military Medal for laying and maintaining the field telephone line under heavy enemy fire across the Caen Canal Bridge during the Allied invasion of Normandy in June 1944.


title: Royal Corps of Signals

text: In the immediate post-war period, the Corps played a full and active part in numerous campaigns including Palestine, the Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation, Malaya and the Korean War. Until the end of the Cold War, the main body of the Corps was deployed with the British Army of the Rhine confronting Soviet Bloc forces, providing the British Forces' contribution to NATO with its communications infrastructure. Soldiers from the Royal Signals delivered communications in the Falklands War in 1982 and the first Gulf War in 1991.


title: Royal Corps of Signals

text: In 1994, The Royal Corps of Signals moved its training regiments, 11th Signal Regiment (the Recruit Training Regiment) and 8th Signal Regiment (the Trade Training School), from Catterick Garrison to Blandford Camp.


title: Royal Corps of Signals

text: In late 2012, 2nd (National Communications) Signal Brigade was disbanded. Soldiers from the Royal Corps of Signals saw extensive service during the eight years of the Iraq War before withdrawal of troops in 2011, and the 13 years of the War in Afghanistan before it ended in 2014.


title: Royal Corps of Signals

text: Under Army 2020 Refine a number of changes planned for the Corps were made public in 2013-14. A presentation by the Master of Signals indicated that 16 Signal Regiment would shift from 11 Signal Brigade to 1 Signal Brigade and focus on supporting communications for logistic headquarters. Similarly, 32 and 39 Signal Regiments were planned to shift to 1 Signal Brigade. 15 Signal Regiment would no longer be focused on Information Systems but would support 12th Armoured Infantry Brigade, while 21 and 2 Signal Regiments were planned to support the 1st and second Strike Brigades respectively. Furthermore, a new regiment, 13th Signal Regiment, was planned to form up under 1st Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance Brigade and work with 14th Signal Regiment on cyber and electromagnetic activity.


title: Royal Corps of Signals

text: In 2017 the Royal Signals Motorcycle Display Team, then in its 90th year, was disbanded; senior officers had complained that it "failed to reflect the modern-day cyber communication skills in which the Royal Signals are trained".


title: Royal Corps of Signals

text: On 28 June 2020, the Royal Corps of Signals marked the 100th anniversary of its foundation. Constrained by COVID-19 rules, many Royal Signals 100 celebrations were organised online, including the #100for100 challenge that involved hundreds of members of the Corps running 100 km for the Royal Signals Charity. The Princess Royal, the Colonel-In-Chief of the Corps, delivered a video message of congratulations, and the Foreman of Signals Course students successfully took a photograph of the Royal Signals 100 badge in space, completing a challenge that was set for them.


title: Royal Corps of Signals

text: Royal Signals officers receive general military training at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst, followed by specialist communications training at the Royal School of Signals, Blandford Camp, Dorset. Other ranks are trained both as field soldiers and tradesmen. Their basic military training is delivered at the Army Training Regiment at Winchester or Army Training Centre Pirbright before undergoing trade training at 11th (Royal School of Signals) Signal Regiment. There are currently six different trades available to other ranks, each of which is open to both men and women:


title: Royal Corps of Signals

text: On selection for promotion to Sergeant, soldiers may choose to volunteer for selection to a Supervisory roster. Currently there are 4 Supervisor roles:


title: Royal Corps of Signals

text: If a soldier chooses not to follow the Supervisor route, they will remain employed 'in trade' until promoted to Warrant Officer, where they will then be classed as on the Regimental Duty (RD) roster and will oversee the daily routine, and administration of a unit's personnel and equipment.


title: Royal Corps of Signals

text: The Corps wears a blue and white tactical recognition flash. This is worn horizontally on the right arm with the blue half charging forward.


title: Royal Corps of Signals

text: The flag and cap badge feature Mercury (Latin: "Mercurius"), the winged messenger of the gods, who is referred to by members of the corps as "Jimmy". The origins of this nickname are unclear. According to one explanation, the badge is referred to as "Jimmy" because the image of Mercury was based on the late mediaeval bronze statue by the Italian sculptor Giambologna, and shortening his name over time reduced it to "Jimmy". The most widely accepted origin is a Royal Signals boxer, Jimmy Emblen, who was the British Army Champion in 1924 and represented the Royal Corps of Signals from 1921 to 1924.


title: Royal Corps of Signals

text: On , and Dress, the Corps wears a dark blue lanyard on the right side signifying its early links with the Royal Engineers. The Airborne Signals Unit wears a drab green lanyard made from parachute cord.


title: Royal Corps of Signals

text: The Corps deploys and operates a broad range of specialist military and commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) communications systems. The main categories are as follows:


title: Royal Corps of Signals

text: The structure of the Royal Signals changed under Army 2020. The listing below shows the present location of units and their future location.


title: Royal Corps of Signals

text: The Royal Corps of Signals reserve component was severely reduced after the 2009 Review of Reserve Forces, losing many full regiments, with their respective squadrons mostly reduced to troops.


title: Royal Corps of Signals

text: The Royal Corps of Signals is the sponsoring Corps for several Army Cadet Force and Combined Cadet Force units, such as in Blandford Forum, home to the Royal School of Signals.


title: Vernazza

text: Vernazza (, locally ; ) is a town and located in the province of La Spezia, Liguria, northwestern Italy. It is one of the five towns that make up the Cinque Terre region. Vernazza is the fourth town heading north, has no car traffic, and remains one of the truest "fishing villages" on the Italian Riviera. It is the only natural port of Cinque Terre and is famous for its elegant houses.


title: Vernazza

text: Vernazza's name is derived from the Latin adjective , meaning "native". The aptly named indigenous wine, "vernaccia" ("local" or "ours"), helped give birth to the village's moniker.


title: Vernazza

text: The first records recognizing Vernazza as a fortified town date to 1080. Referred to as an active maritime base of the Obertenghi, a family of Italian nobility, it was a likely point of departure for naval forces in defence from pirates.


title: Vernazza

text: Over the next two centuries, Vernazza was vital in Genova's conquest of Liguria, providing port, fleet, and soldiers. In 1209, approximately 90 of the most powerful families of Vernazza pledged their allegiance to the republic of Genova.


title: Vernazza

text: The first documented presence of a church dates to 1251, with the parish of San Pietro cited in 1267. Reference to the Church of Santa Margherita d'Antiochia of Vernazza occurs in 1318. Some scholars are of the opinion, due to the use of materials and mode of construction, that the actual creation of the Church of Santa Margherita d'Antiochia took place earlier, some time in the 12th century. The Church of Santa Margherita d'Antiochia was expanded upon and renovated over the course of the 16th and 17th centuries, and thereafter was erected the octagonal bell tower that rises from the apse.


title: Vernazza

text: In the 15th century, Vernazza focused its defence against the dreadful and regularly occurring pirate raids, erecting a fortifying wall. In the mid-17th century, like many of the Cinque Terre villages, Vernazza suffered a period of decline that negatively affected wine production, and prolonged the construction of the trail system and harbour "molo" (mole constructed to protect against heavy seas).


title: Vernazza

text: In the 19th century, after a long period of stagnation, Vernazza returned to wine production, enlarging and creating new terraced hillsides. The result was a revitalisation of Vernazza's commerce. Also at this time, the construction of the Genoa–La Spezia rail line began, putting an end to Vernazza's long isolation. The population of Vernazza increased by 60% as a result. Meanwhile, the construction of La Spezia's naval base also proved important to Vernazza in providing employment for many members of the community.


title: Vernazza

text: With the arrival of the 20th century, Vernazza experienced a wave of emigration as working the land was viewed as dangerous and the cause of disease, and the ability to further exploit agriculture diminished.


title: Vernazza

text: In 1997, the Cinque Terre was recognised as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO and in 1999 the National Park of the Cinque Terre was created. Today the main source of revenue for Vernazza is tourism. However, as a testimony to the strength of centuries-old tradition, fishing, wine and olive oil production still continue.


title: Vernazza

text: On 25 October 2011, Vernazza was struck by torrential rains, massive flooding, and mudslides affecting not only Cinque Terre, but also Val di Vara and Val di Magra within Liguria, as well as the province of Lunigiana.


title: Vernazza

text: The flood left the town buried in over 4 metres of mud and debris (submerging even the train station in mud), causing over 100 million euro worth of damage. The town was evacuated and remained in a state of emergency for many months.


title: Vernazza

text: The 2016 video game "Hitman" features a fictional town called Sapienza which is heavily influenced by Vernazza, including iconic sites such as the Chapel of Santa Marta and the Doria Castle.


title: Vernazza

text: The 2021 animated film "Luca" was inspired by Vernazza and other Cinque Terre towns. Pixar animators visited Vernazza, and based the piazza of Portorosso on Vernazza's in particular.


title: Battlement

text: A battlement in defensive architecture, such as that of city walls or castles, comprises a parapet (i.e., a defensive low wall between chest-height and head-height), in which gaps or indentations, which are often rectangular, occur at intervals to allow for the launch of arrows or other projectiles from within the defences. These gaps are termed "crenels" (also known as "carnels", or "embrasures"), and a wall or building with them is called crenellated; alternative (older) terms are castellated and embattled. The act of adding crenels to a previously unbroken parapet is termed crenellation.


title: Battlement

text: The function of battlements in war is to protect the defenders by giving them something to hide behind, from which they can pop out to launch their own missiles. A defensive building might be designed and built with battlements, or a manor house might be fortified by adding battlements, where no parapet previously existed, or cutting crenellations into its existing parapet wall. A distinctive feature of late medieval English church architecture is to crenellate the tops of church towers, and often the tops of lower walls. These are essentially decorative rather than functional, as are many examples on secular buildings.


title: Battlement

text: The solid widths between the crenels are called merlons. Battlements on walls have protected walkways ("chemin de ronde") behind them. On tower or building tops, the (often flat) roof is used as the protected fighting platform.


title: Battlement

text: The term originated in about the 14th century from the Old French word "", "to fortify with "batailles"" (fixed or movable turrets of defence). The word "crenel" derives from the ancient French "cren" (modern French "cran"), Latin "crena", meaning a notch, mortice or other gap cut out often to receive another element or fixing; see also crenation. The modern French word for crenel is "créneau", also used to describe a gap of any kind, for example a parking space at the side of the road between two cars, interval between groups of marching troops or a timeslot in a broadcast.


title: Battlement

text: In medieval England and Wales a licence to crenellate granted the holder permission to fortify their property. Such licences were granted by the king, and by the rulers of the counties palatine within their jurisdictions, e.g. by the Bishops of Durham and the Earls of Chester and after 1351 by the Dukes of Lancaster. The castles in England vastly outnumbered the licences to crenellate. Royal pardons were obtainable on the payment of an arbitrarily-determined fine by a person who had fortified without licence. The surviving records of such licences, generally issued by letters patent, provide valuable evidence for the dating of ancient buildings. A list of licences issued by the English Crown between the 12th and the 16th centuries was compiled by Turner & Parker and expanded and corrected by Philip Davis and published in "The Castle Studies Group Journal".


title: Battlement

text: There has been academic debate over the purpose of licensing. The view of military-focused historians is that licensing restricted the number of fortifications that could be used against a royal army. The modern view, proposed notably by Charles Coulson, is that battlements became an architectural status-symbol much sought after by the socially ambitious, in Coulson's words: "Licences to crenellate were mainly symbolic representations of lordly status: castellation was the architectural expression of noble rank". They indicated to the observer that the grantee had obtained "royal recognition, acknowledgment and compliment". They could, however, provide a basic deterrent against wandering bands of thieves, and it is suggested that the function of battlements was comparable to the modern practice of householders fitting highly visible CC


title: Battlement

text: TV and burglar alarms, often merely dummies. The crown usually did not charge for the granting of such licences, but occasionally charged a fee of about half a mark.


title: Battlement

text: Battlements may be stepped out to overhang the wall below, and may have openings at their bases between the supporting corbels, through which stones or burning objects could be dropped onto attackers or besiegers; these are known as machicolations.


title: Battlement

text: Battlements have been used for thousands of years; the earliest known example is in the fortress at Buhen in Egypt. Battlements were used in the walls surrounding Assyrian towns, as shown on "bas reliefs" from Nimrud and elsewhere. Traces of them remain at Mycenae in Greece, and some ancient Greek vases suggest the existence of battlements. The Great Wall of China has battlements.


title: Battlement

text: In the European battlements of the Middle Ages the crenel comprised one-third of the width of the merlon: the latter, in addition, could be provided with arrow-loops of various shapes (from simply round to cruciform), depending on the weapon being utilized. Late merlons permitted fire from the first firearms. From the 13th century, the merlons could be connected with wooden shutters (mantlets) that provided added protection when closed. The shutters were designed to be opened to allow shooters to fire against the attackers, and closed during reloading.


title: Battlement

text: The Romans used low wooden pinnacles for their first "aggeres" (terrepleins). In the battlements of Pompeii, additional protection derived from small internal buttresses or spur walls, against which the defender might stand so as to gain complete protection on one side.


title: Battlement

text: Loop-holes were frequent in Italian battlements, where the merlon has much greater height and a distinctive cap. Italian military architects used the so-called Ghibelline or "swallowtail" battlement, with V-shaped notches in the tops of the merlon, giving a horn-like effect. This would allow the defender to be protected whilst shooting standing fully upright. The normal rectangular merlons were later nicknamed Guelph.


title: Battlement

text: Many South Asian battlements are made up of parapets with peculiarly shaped merlons and complicated systems of loopholes, which differ substantially from rest of the world. Typical Indian merlons were semicircular and pointed at the top, although they could sometimes be fake: the parapet may be solid and the merlons shown in relief on the outside, as is the case in Chittorgarh. Loopholes could be made both in the merlons themselves, and under the crenels. They could either look forward (to command distant approaches) or downward (to command the foot of the wall). Sometimes a merion was pierced with two or three loopholes, but typically, only one loophole was divided into two or three slits by horizontal or vertical partitions. The shape of loopholes, as well as the shape of merlons, need not have been the same everywhere in the castle, as shown by Kumbhalgarh.


title: Battlement

text: In Muslim and African fortifications, the merlons often were rounded. The battlements of the Arabs had a more decorative and varied character, and were continued from the 13th century onwards not so much for defensive purposes as for a crowning feature to the walls. They serve a function similar to the cresting found in the Spanish Renaissance architecture.


title: Battlement

text: "Irish" crenellations are a distinctive form that appeared in Ireland between the 14th and 17th centuries. These were battlements of a "stepped" form, with each merlon shaped like an inverted 'T'.


title: Battlement

text: European architects persistently used battlements as a purely decorative feature throughout the Decorated and Perpendicular periods of Gothic architecture. They not only occur on parapets but on the transoms of windows and on the tie-beams of roofs and on screens, and even on Tudor chimney-pots. A further decorative treatment appears in the elaborate paneling of the merlons and that portion of the parapet walls rising above the cornice, by the introduction of quatrefoils and other conventional forms filled with foliage and shield.


title: Great barracuda

text: Sphyraena barracuda, commonly known as the great barracuda, is a species of barracuda: large, predatory ray-finned fish found in subtropical oceans around the world.


title: Great barracuda

text: The great barracuda is present in tropical to warm temperate waters, in subtropical parts of the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic oceans, from mangrove areas to deep reef, with a lower depth limit of 110 meters. They are reported to be declining in Florida, and the Florida fish and wildlife conservation commission are considering imposing catch limits.


title: Great barracuda

text: Great barracudas are large fish, and one of the largest of the Barracudas. Mature specimens are usually around in length and weigh . Exceptionally large specimens can exceed and weigh over . The record-sized specimen caught on rod-and-reel weighed and measured , while an even longer example measured . The largest great barracuda was said to have measured .


title: Great barracuda

text: The Great barracuda is blue-gray above, fading to silvery and chalky-white below. Sometimes, a row of darker cross-bars occurs on its upper side, with black blotches on each lower side. The second dorsal fin and the anal and caudal fins range from dark violet to black with white tips.


title: Great barracuda

text: In general, barracudas are elongated fish with powerful jaws. The lower jaw of the large mouth juts out beyond the upper. Barracudas possess strong, fang-like teeth that are unequal in size and set in sockets in the jaws and on the roof of the mouth. The head is quite large and is pointed and pike-like in appearance. The gill covers do not have spines and are covered with small scales. The two dorsal fins are widely separated, with the first having five spines and the second having one spine and 9 soft rays. The second dorsal fin equals the anal fin in size and is situated more or less above it. The lateral line is prominent and extends straight from head to tail. The spinous dorsal fin is situated above the pelvis. The hind end of the caudal fin is forked or concave, and it is set at the end of a stout peduncle. The pectoral fins are placed low down on the sides. The barracuda has a large swim bladder.


title: Great barracuda

text: Barracudas appear in open seas. They are voracious predators and hunt by ambush. They rely on surprise and short bursts of speed up to 27 mph (43 km/h) to overrun their prey, sacrificing maneuverability. Barracudas are more or less solitary in their habits. Young and half-grown fish frequently congregate in shoals.


title: Great barracuda

text: Barracudas can reach at least 14 years of age. The spawning season lasts from April to October. Females can release about 5,000 to 30,000 eggs. The diets of these top predators of reefs are composed almost totally of fish, cephalopods, and occasionally shrimp. Large barracudas, when gorged, may attempt to herd a school of prey fish in shallow water where they guard over them until they are ready for another hunt.


title: Great barracuda

text: Barracudas are scavengers, and may mistake snorkelers for large predators, following them in hopes of eating the remains of their prey. Swimmers have been reported being bitten by barracuda, but such incidents are rare and possibly caused by poor visibility. Barracudas may mistake objects that glint and shine for prey.


title: Great barracuda

text: Barracuda attacks on humans are rare, although bites can result in lacerations and the loss of some tissue. They are a popular target for recreational fishing, due to the strong fight they put up when hooked. However they are also known for the pungent odor they release upon being caught, and their meat has a chance of causing Ciguatera fish poisoning when eaten.


title: Reggie Mantle

text: Reginald "Reggie" Mantle is a fictional teenager in stories published by Archie Comics; he is introduced by writer-artist Bob Montana and John L. Goldwater in "Jackpot Comics" #5 (cover-dated Spring 1942). He also appears in CW's "Riverdale". He is the frenemy of Archie Andrews, as well as the bassist of The Archies. The live-action version of Reggie is portrayed by Charles Melton in "Riverdale".


title: Reggie Mantle

text: Reggie Mantle debuted in "Jackpot Comics" #5 (cover-dated Spring 1942). An enduring character, he appears across the Archie Comics line and headlined the series "Archie's Rival Reggie" (14 issues, 1949 n.d. – Aug. 1954), which returned a decade later as "Reggie" for the sporadically published issues #15-18 (Sept. 1963 – Nov. 1965). The series was renamed "Reggie and Me" for issues #19 – #126 (Aug. 1966 – Sept. 1980).


title: Reggie Mantle

text: Other series include "Reggie's Wise Guy Jokes" (55 issues, Aug. 1968 – Sept. 1980), and the three-issue miniseries "Reggie's Revenge" (Spring 1994 – Spring 1995).


title: Reggie Mantle

text: Reggie appears as a main character in the 2015 "Archie" and "Jughead" titles that launched the New Riverdale reboot. On 20 September 2016, it was announced that a five-issue miniseries titled "Reggie and Me" would be published as part of the launch. It was written by Tom DeFalco with art by Sandy Jarrell.


title: Reggie Mantle

text: Reggie Mantle is arrogant and selfish, and frequently in conflict with Archie, despite their apparent friendship. He is usually depicted as athletic, and is seen as attractive and desirable by girls. He says in one story that he was born in Texas. Reggie's family is upper class, although nowhere near the level of Veronica Lodge; the latter often uses Reggie to make Archie jealous when she is upset with Archie for some reason, which Reggie relishes. In Reggie's debut story, Archie refers to him as, 'that snooty Reggie Mantle', indicating his upper-class background.


title: Reggie Mantle

text: Compared to the families of the other main characters, Reggie's family members have made very few appearances in the comics through the decades. His father, Ricky Mantle, owns a newspaper-publishing company, one of his publications is "The Riverdale Gazette". (Reggie seems to show journalistic aspirations himself, often working as the editor of the high school paper, Blue and Gold. He is quick to use the term "freedom of the press" to defend controversial or inflammatory articles.) Little is known of his mother, though her name was eventually revealed to be Vicky Mantle. Reggie has a brother, Oliver Mantle, who has appeared in "Life With Archie" issue #26. His cousin May is often mistaken for a pre-teen. After a makeover, she attracts attention at a school dance, but chooses to dance with Dilton (a short, nerdy boy). Another cousin, Regina, displays Reggie's cruel humor and bullying tendencies, but after a date with Jughead she appears to have enjoyed herself. Reggie also has a number of relatives whom he often uses to get favors.


title: Reggie Mantle

text: Reggie has been known to boast that his family is the only one in Riverdale that has its own coat of arms.


title: Reggie Mantle

text: Reggie Mantle's chief characteristics are his love of sarcasm and practical jokes, his vanity, his athletic abilities, and his interest in dating multiple women.


title: Reggie Mantle

text: Reggie is a naturally gifted and talented athlete who excels at nearly every major sport, including football, baseball, and basketball, along with more obscure sports such as cross country running and Kung Fu. He often works as a surfing or skiing instructor. Sometimes, if his skills are not enough to secure victory, Reggie cheats, and he often shows little team spirit. Once in a while, Reggie tries to win competitions on a technicality by pulling out a rulebook.


title: Reggie Mantle

text: The most common accessories associated with Reggie are the mirror and the comb. A lot of jokes in the comics are about his vanity, earning him the nickname "Reggie 'I-Love-Me' Mantle". Somewhat of a fashion plate, Reggie is the character who most frequently experiments with his hairstyle to match current trends. These looks have lasted months (rather than been contained within a single story) and have included several incarnations of sideburns, pomaded, short, shaggy, and even a ponytail in the early 1990s.


title: Reggie Mantle

text: Reggie, along with Archie and Jughead, is one of the founding members of the band "The Archies". Reggie is a bassist for The Archies and occasionally lead guitarist after Archie, and thinks of himself as the most important and talented member of the group—and has gone to great lengths to prove it, such as hiring groupies to scream his name during concerts. Reggie has also demonstrated skill in singing, acting, and piano-playing.


title: Reggie Mantle

text: His sharp, quick wit has led him to working part-time as a stand-up comedian at a Riverdale comedy club, and hoping to perform professionally someday. In spite of his evident upper-middle class status, he is remarkably cheap, and the first time his schoolmates remember him inviting them to a party, he had filled the room with vending machines from which to obtain the party food.


title: Reggie Mantle

text: Reggie is Riverdale High's resident prankster. It is not unusual for Reggie's practical jokes to backfire. His pranks are usually meant to embarrass his victims rather than physically hurt them. When he tries to humiliate Chuck Clayton during a sledding contest, Reggie digs a pit for Chuck to fall into when he landed. Reggie fills the pit with sawdust to soften the blow, adding crankcase oil to make it stick and covering it with snow to conceal it.


title: Reggie Mantle

text: Reggie likes to chase girls, delighting in the pursuit, but is not usually interested in having a serious relationship with one girl. Reggie likes to play the field, and openly announces himself 'a true practitioner of the art'. He has expressed horror at the idea of being tied down to one solitary female, saying that, "having one girl is like having one peanut, one potato chip."


title: Reggie Mantle

text: Reggie is Archie Andrews's rival, and has a perennial crush on Veronica Lodge. The fact that she loves Archie makes Reggie jealous, so he spends most of his time trying to outwit Archie, and playing practical jokes on him. Despite the rivalry, he and Archie are generally amicable, and often spend time together pursuing dates or practicing athletics. In "Archie's Double Digest" #201, during the possibility of Archie moving, he eventually admits he would miss Archie, whom he calls his best friend. In a lot of the older Archie Comics stories, Reggie and Archie team up to play pranks on Jughead Jones. Their schemes usually backfire as Jughead outwits them. Jughead and Archie are best friends since the creation of the characters.


title: Reggie Mantle

text: Other than Veronica, Reggie is romantically interested in Midge Klump, who is the girlfriend of one of Reggie's athletic teammates, the physically big and strong but not too bright Moose Mason, who is very jealous of anyone appearing to try to become romantically involved with Midge. Reggie's relentless efforts to spend time with Midge without attracting Moose's ire are a running gag. He occasionally seeks to date other women, including Betty Cooper. Reggie and Betty frequently join forces to try and break up Archie and Veronica. In some stories, Reggie and Betty are shown to be a couple, even though their respective interests still lie with Veronica and Archie. The "Life with Archie" series looks to a future where Archie marries Veronica and Betty and Reggie are a loving couple. It has been hinted that they are thinking about getting married.


title: Reggie Mantle

text: In the rare occasions when Reggie is genuinely trying to help someone, the others usually believe he has nefarious motives, and are wary of trusting him.


title: Reggie Mantle

text: Reggie is insanely jealous of anyone else but him being in the spotlight, and will sometimes deliberately cause them trouble to get what he wants.


title: Reggie Mantle

text: Reggie is also known to date Cheryl Blossom occasionally. The two have very similar personalities and, at one point, before she dates a boy named George, try going out together. Like Betty and Veronica, however, Cheryl mainly uses Reggie as an alternative to Archie.


title: Reggie Mantle

text: On certain occasions, Reggie shows a kinder side where he will come to the aid of his friends or total strangers, although he prefers to keep these good deeds secret. In one comic, he has a close childhood friendship with an elderly woman named Mrs. Finklehoff.


title: Reggie Mantle

text: In one storyline, Reggie is shown to have fallen in love with Veronica's cousin, Harper. They have a long-distance relationship, so there aren't many times they are shown together. Harper is a disabled author, blogger, and fashion designer with an automated, bedazzled, bright pink wheelchair.


title: Reggie Mantle

text: In "Afterlife with Archie", Reggie Mantle caused the zombie apocalypse. Midge asks him for money so she can pay for an abortion. This frustrates and angers him to the point that when he sees Hot Dog on the side of the road he swerves to hit him. He immediately regrets his actions and tries to carry Hot Dog to a vet, failing that, he takes him to Jughead's lawn so that he can die at home. Hot Dog's subsequent reanimation results in him infecting Jughead and starting the zombie apocalypse.


title: Reggie Mantle

text: Reggie survives with the others on the road, growing increasingly bitter towards Archie for becoming a natural leader and thriving while he is continually wracked with guilt for starting all this horror. Archie remains oblivious to this, intending to make Reggie the best man at his wedding to Betty. Reggie eventually goes out hunting with Kevin and tells him how he caused the apocalypse, how he killed Hot Dog, how he fears he might be a sociopath and how he thinks the only way to end the zombie plague is by offering himself up to the horde so they can have their revenge and hopefully stop their rampage. He wanders off alone into the woods. Kevin tells the others his story, and Archie wants to go after him but Veronica and Betty convince him otherwise.


title: Reggie Mantle

text: Reggie walks into the horde, expecting to be torn limb from limb, but instead they part for him until he reaches the zombified Jughead. The zombified Hot Dog walks forward, and Reggie kneels before it, expecting it to kill him and accepting his fate. But, at that moment a vision of Sabrina Spellman appears before him. She tells him that they will make the zombified Midge whole once again and make her do whatever Reggie wants if Reggie returns to his friend and kills Betty Cooper. Reggie's resolve to redeem himself crumbles upon being offered Midge and he responds with "Kill Betty Cooper... sure, why not?"


title: Mosquito net

text: A mosquito net is a type of meshed curtain that is circumferentially draped over a bed or a sleeping area, to offer the sleeper barrier protection against bites and stings from mosquitos, flies, and other pest insects, and thus against the diseases they may carry. Examples of such preventable insect-borne diseases include malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, zika virus, Chagas disease and various forms of encephalitis, including the West Nile virus.


title: Mosquito net

text: To be effective the mesh of a mosquito net must be fine enough to exclude such insects without obscuring visibility or ventilation to unacceptable levels. It is possible to increase the effectiveness of a mosquito net greatly by pretreating it with an appropriate insecticide or insect repellent. Research has shown mosquito nets to be an extremely effective method of malaria prevention, averting approximately 663 million cases of malaria over the period 2000–2015.


title: Mosquito net

text: Mosquito netting is mainly used for the protection against the malaria transmitting vector, "Anopheles gambiae". The first record of malaria-like symptoms occurred as early as 2700 BCE from China. The vector for this disease was not identified until 1880 when Sir Ronald Ross identified mosquitoes as a vector for malaria.


title: Mosquito net

text: Mosquito netting has a long history. Though use of the term dates from the mid-18th century, Indian literature from the late medieval period has references to the usage of mosquito nets in ritual Hindu worship. Poetry composed by Annamayya, the earliest known Telugu musician and poet, references "domatera", which means "mosquito net" in Telugu.


title: Mosquito net

text: Use of mosquito nets has been dated to prehistoric times. It is said that Cleopatra, the last active pharaoh of Ancient Egypt, also slept under a mosquito net. Mosquito nets were used during the malaria-plagued construction of the Suez Canal.


title: Mosquito net

text: Mosquito netting can be made from cotton, polyethylene, polyester, polypropylene, or nylon. A mesh size of stops mosquitoes, and smaller, such as , stops other biting insects such as biting midges/no-see-ums.


title: Mosquito net

text: A mosquito bar is an alternate form of a mosquito net. It is constructed of a fine see-through mesh fabric mounted on and draped over a box-shaped frame. It is designed to fit over an area or item such as a sleeping bag to provide protection from insects. A mosquito bar could be used to protect oneself from mosquitoes and other insects while sleeping in jungle areas. The mesh is woven tightly enough to stop insects from entering but loosely enough to not interfere with ventilation. The frame is usually self-supporting or freestanding although it can be designed to be attached from the top to an alternative support such as tree limbs.


title: Mosquito net

text: Mosquito nets are often used where malaria or other insect-borne diseases are common, especially as a tent-like covering over a bed. For effectiveness, it is important that the netting not have holes or gaps large enough to allow insects to enter. It is also important to 'seal' the net properly because mosquitoes are able to 'squeeze' through improperly secured nets. Because an insect can bite a person through the net, the net must not rest directly on the skin.


title: Mosquito net

text: Mosquito netting can be hung over beds from the ceiling or a frame, built into tents, or installed in windows and doors. When hung over beds, rectangular nets provide more room for sleeping without the danger of netting contacting skin, at which point mosquitoes may bite through untreated netting. Some newer mosquito nets are designed to be both easy to deploy and foldable after use.


title: Mosquito net

text: Where mosquito nets are freely or cheaply distributed, local residents sometimes opportunistically use them inappropriately, for example as fishing nets. When used for fishing, mosquito nets have harmful ecological consequences because the fine mesh of a mosquito net retains almost all fish, including bycatch such as immature or small fish and fish species that are not suitable for consumption. In addition, insecticides with which the mesh has been treated, such as permethrin, may be harmful to the fish and other aquatic fauna.


title: Mosquito net

text: Mosquito nets treated with insecticides—known as insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) or bednets—were developed and tested in the 1980s for malaria prevention by Dr. P. Carnevale and his team in Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso. ITNs are estimated to be twice as effective as untreated nets, and offer greater than 70% protection compared with no net. These nets are dip-treated using a synthetic pyrethroid insecticide such as deltamethrin or permethrin which will double the protection over a non-treated net by killing and repelling mosquitoes. For maximum effectiveness, ITNs should be re-impregnated with insecticide every six months. This process poses a significant logistical problem in rural areas. Newer, long-lasting insecticidal nets (LLINs) have now replaced ITNs in most countries.


title: Mosquito net

text: The distribution of mosquito nets or bednets impregnated with insecticides such as permethrin or deltamethrin has been shown to be an extremely effective method of malaria prevention. According to a 2015 "Nature" study, mosquito nets averted 68% of an estimated 663 million averted cases of malaria infection since 2000. It is also one of the most cost-effective methods of prevention. These nets can often be obtained for around $2.50–$3.50 (2–3 euros) from the United Nations, the World Health Organization (WHO), and others. ITNs have been shown to be the most cost-effective prevention method against malaria and are part of WHO's Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Generally LLINs are purchased by donor groups and delivered through in-country distribution networks.


title: Mosquito net

text: ITNs protect people sleeping under them and simultaneously kill mosquitoes that contact the nets. Some protection is provided to others by this method, including people sleeping in the same room but not under the net. However, mathematical modeling has suggested that disease transmission may be exacerbated after bed nets have lost their insecticidal properties under certain circumstances. Although ITN users are still protected by the physical barrier of the netting, non-users could experience an increased bite rate as mosquitoes are deflected away from the non-lethal bed net users. The modeling suggests that this could increase transmission when the human population density is high or at lower human densities when mosquitoes are more adept at locating their blood meals.


title: Mosquito net

text: In December 2019 it was reported that West African populations of Anopheles gambiae include mutants with higher levels of sensory appendage protein 2 (a type of chemosensory protein in the legs), which binds to pyrethroids, sequestering them and so preventing them from functioning, thus making the mosquitoes with this mutation more likely to survive contact with bednets.


title: Mosquito net

text: While some experts argue that international organizations should distribute ITNs and LLINs to people for free to maximize coverage (since such a policy would reduce price barriers), others insist that cost-sharing between the international organization and recipients would lead to greater use of the net (arguing that people will value a good more if they pay for it). Additionally, proponents of cost-sharing argue that such a policy ensures that nets are efficiently allocated to the people who most need them (or are most vulnerable to infection). Through a "selection effect", they argue, the people who most need the bed nets will choose to purchase them, while those less in need will opt out.


title: Mosquito net

text: However, a randomized controlled trial study of ITNs uptake among pregnant women in Kenya, conducted by economists Pascaline Dupas and Jessica Cohen, found that cost-sharing does not necessarily increase the usage intensity of ITNs nor does it induce uptake by those most vulnerable to infection, as compared to a policy of free distribution. In some cases, cost-sharing can decrease demand for mosquito nets by erecting a price barrier. Dupas and Cohen's findings support the argument that free distribution of ITNs can be more effective than cost-sharing in increasing coverage and saving lives. In a cost-effectiveness analysis, Dupas and Cohen note that "cost-sharing is at best marginally more cost-effective than free distribution, but free distribution leads to many more lives saved."


title: Mosquito net

text: The researchers base their conclusions about the cost-effectiveness of free distribution on the proven spillover benefits of increased ITN usage. ITNs protect the individuals or households that use them, and they protect people in the surrounding community in one of two ways.


title: Mosquito net

text: When a large number of nets are distributed in one residential area, their chemical additives help reduce the number of mosquitoes in the environment. With fewer mosquitoes, the chances of malaria infection for recipients and non-recipients are significantly reduced. (In other words, the importance of the physical barrier effect of ITNs decreases relative to the positive externality effect of the nets in creating a mosquito-free environment when ITNs are highly concentrated in one residential cluster or community.)


title: Mosquito net

text: Unfortunately, standard ITNs must be replaced or re-treated with insecticide after six washes and, therefore, are not seen as a convenient, effective long-term solution to the malaria problem.


title: Mosquito net

text: As a result, the mosquito netting and pesticide industries developed so-called long-lasting insecticidal mosquito nets, which also use pyrethroid insecticides. There are three types of LLINs — polyester netting which has insecticide bound to the external surface of the netting fibre using a resin; polyethylene which has insecticide incorporated into the fibre and polypropylene which has insecticide incorporated into the fibre. All types can be washed at least 20 times, but physical durability will vary. A survey carried out in Tanzania concluded that effective life of polyester nets was 2 to 3 years; with polyethylene LLINs there are data to support over 5 years of life with trials in showing nets which were still effective after 7 years. When calculating the cost of LLINs for large-scale malaria prevention campaigns, the cost should be divided by the number of years of expected life: A more expensive net may be cheaper over time. In addition the logistical costs of replacing nets should be added to the calculation.


title: Mosquito net

text: A review of 22 randomized controlled trials of ITNs found (for "Plasmodium falciparum" malaria) that ITNs can reduce deaths in children by one fifth and episodes of malaria by half.


title: Mosquito net

text: More specifically, in areas of stable malaria "ITNs reduced the incidence of uncomplicated malarial episodes by 50% compared to no nets, and 39% compared to untreated nets" and in areas of unstable malaria "by 62% compared to no nets and 43% compared to untreated nets". As such the review calculated that for every 1000 children protected by ITNs, 5.5 lives would be saved each year.


title: Mosquito net

text: Through the years 1999 and 2010 the abundance of female anopheles gambiae densities in houses throughout western Kenya were recorded. This data set was paired with the spatial data of bed net usage in order to determine correlation. Results showed that from 2008 to 2010 the relative population density of the female anopheles gambiae decreased from 90.6% to 60.7%. The conclusion of this study showed that as the number of houses which used insecticide treated bed nets increased the population density of female anopheles gambiae decreased. This result did however vary from region to region based on the local environment.


title: Mosquito net

text: A 2019 study in "PLoS ONE" found that a campaign to distribute mosquito bednets in the Democratic Republic of Congo led to a 41% decline mortality for children under five who lived in areas with a high malaria risk.


title: Mosquito net

text: Malaria and other arboviruses are known to contribute to economic disparity within that country and vice versa. This opens the stage for corruption associated to the distribution of self-protection aides. The least wealthy members of society are both more likely to be in closer proximity to the vectors' prime habitat and less likely to be protected from the vectors. This increase in probability of being infected increases the demand for self-protection which therefore allows for higher pricing and uneven distribution of self-protection means. A decrease in per capita income exaggerates a high demand for resources such as water and food resulting in civil unrest among communities. Protecting resources as well as attempting to obtain resources are both a cause for conflict.


title: Mosquito net

text: Mosquito nets have been observed to be used in fisheries across the world, where their strength, light weight and free or cheap accessibility make them an attractive tool for fishing. People who use them for fishing catch vast numbers of juvenile fish.


title: Mosquito net

text: Mosquito nets do reduce air flow to an extent and sleeping under a net is hotter than sleeping without one, which can be uncomfortable in tropical areas without air-conditioning.


title: Ethan Zohn

text: Ethan Zohn (born November 12, 1973) is an American motivational speaker, former professional soccer player, and reality television series contestant who won "", the third season of the reality TV series "Survivor". He went on to compete in "" and "", where he placed 11th and 18th, respectively.


title: Ethan Zohn

text: After winning "Survivor: Africa", Zohn co-founded Grassroot Soccer, which uses soccer to raise money and awareness to fight HIV/AIDS. In 2010, he ranked 14th in USL Second Division's Top 15 of the Decade list as one of the most influential players of the United Soccer League Second Division in the previous decade.


title: Ethan Zohn

text: Zohn was a soccer goalkeeper at Lexington High School and Vassar College, and played professionally for the Hawaii Tsunami and Cape Cod Crusaders of the United Soccer Leagues and in Zimbabwe for Highlanders F.C. He donated some of his winnings from Survivor to starting Grassroot Soccer, an organization whose goal is to "mobilize the global soccer community to combat the AIDS epidemic in Africa". Shortly after winning Survivor Africa, Ethan was hired by ESPN to serve as a sideline reporter for the US National Team's matches in the 2002 FIFA World Cup.


title: Ethan Zohn

text: In 2005, Zohn began to co-host the Metro Soccer Report (later renamed MSG Soccer Report) on the MSG Network, a weekly show dedicated to New York Red Bulls (formerly MetroStars) of Major League Soccer. As of April 2006, Zohn hosts FC Fox on the Fox Soccer Channel.


title: Ethan Zohn

text: For his combined humanitarian efforts to spread HIV education throughout Africa via soccer teams for youth and young adults, Zohn received the Courage of Conscience Award from The Peace Abbey in Sherborn, Massachusetts.


title: Ethan Zohn

text: As part of the Boran tribe, Zohn did not become an immediate target in the game; he was seen as a strong player who could potentially help to win many tribal immunities. When his tribe lost two back-to-back immunity challenges, he joined the majority to vote off Diane Ogden and Jessie Camacho in episodes one and two. Over the next few days, Ethan would form a long-term alliance with Lex Van den Berghe and Tom Buchanan from his Boran tribe.


title: Ethan Zohn

text: But a twist in episode five saw both of Zohn's alliance members and Kelly Goldstein switch from Boran to the Samburu tribe, leaving Ethan alone with fellow Boran members Kim Johnson and Clarence Black. Two of the new Boran members from the Samburu tribe, Teresa Cooper and Frank Garrison, had an old misunderstanding with another former Samburu member, Silas Gaither. So, by consensus, after Zohn's tribe lost the immunity challenge Gaither was voted out. Both of Zohn's alliance members Buchanan and Van den Berghe remained safe on the Samburu tribe, carrying all three into the merge.


title: Ethan Zohn

text: Zohn's alliance soon began to control the game, with other members Johnson and Goldsmith. They immediately targeted Black due to his physical strength, among other events that had occurred earlier in the game, and he was voted out. But Van den Berghe had received another vote at tribal council, a vote he believed had come from Goldsmith, but which actually came from Cooper. This led Van den Berghe on a witch-hunt against Goldsmith which almost led to the demise of Zohn's alliance when Goldsmith possessed the power with the other four ex-Samburu members, Cooper, Garrison, Kim Powers and Brandon Quinton. But at the last minute, Quinton switched his vote, saving Van den Berghe, and voting out Goldsmith. But this move came back to haunt Quinton when Zohn's alliance saw him as untrustworthy and voted him out at the next tribal council.


title: Ethan Zohn

text: Zohn, Van den Berghe, Buchanan, and Johnson regained control of the game, outing previous Samburu members Garrison, Powers and Cooper in the next three tribal councils, carrying them into the final four. At the next immunity challenge, Johnson, the next target to be voted out, won immunity, leading to the alliance having to resort to voting one of their own out, despite the fact that the challenge contained . At any rate, Zohn joined Van den Berghe and Johnson in voting out Buchanan, carrying them into the Final Three.


title: Ethan Zohn

text: At the final three immunity challenge, older tribe member Johnson outlasted the two young, fit men to win immunity in an endurance challenge. With Johnson holding the power to choose who she would sit next to in the Final Two, she chose Zohn.


title: Ethan Zohn

text: In the end, Zohn beat out Johnson in a 5-2 vote to become the Sole Survivor, gaining the votes of Goldsmith, Garrison, Cooper, Buchanan, and Van den Berghe.


title: Ethan Zohn

text: Zohn was invited to participate in "", which he gladly accepted. Originally part of the Saboga tribe, Zohn was immediately targeted as a previous winner, along with "" winner Tina Wesson. When Saboga lost immunity, the rest of the tribe decided to vote out Wesson first, needing Zohn's strength to win future challenges. When Saboga lost immunity once again, Zohn was spared once more over physical liability Rudy Boesch, who had hurt his ankle previously.


title: Ethan Zohn

text: In Episode 5, Zohn and the rest of the Saboga tribe were disbanded after losing a challenge. Zohn and Jerri Manthey joined the Mogo Mogo tribe, while Jenna Lewis and Rupert Boneham joined Chapera. Later in that episode, Zohn joined the rest of his new tribe to vote out "" winner Richard Hatch.


title: Ethan Zohn

text: In Episode 7, Zohn was on the outs when the alliance of Manthey, Lex Van den Berghe, and Shii Ann Huang left him out in their decision to vote out Colby Donaldson. Zohn was shocked at the decision, feeling betrayed by old "" alliance member Van den Berghe.


title: Ethan Zohn

text: In Episode 8, Mogo Mogo lost immunity once again, and Zohn, the last former winner, was the sixth person voted out in 11th place, and the eighth person eliminated overall, by a vote of 4-1. He was the most successful of the four previous winners who competed on All-Stars, lasting longer than Wesson, Hatch, and Jenna Morasca, who quit the game on day 9 to be with her ailing mother.


title: Ethan Zohn

text: Zohn returned as a contestant on the fortieth season of Survivor, "", where he was a member of the Sele tribe. Along with "All-Stars" castmate Amber Mariano, Zohn broke Kelly Wiglesworth's record for the longest gap between seasons. He was placed on the Sele tribe, where he joined an alliance of "Old-School" players formed by Rob Mariano and Parvati Shallow. Zohn was targeted by Jeremy Collins and Michele Fitzgerald shortly after as a ploy to weaken Mariano and Shallow, and he was the 4th person voted out. Zohn remained at the Edge of Extinction for the remaining duration of the season, during which he openly spoke out about his health issues and his drive to never give up. He was defeated by Tyson Apostol and Natalie Anderson respectively at the two Edge return challenges and became a permanent member of the jury on day 35. He later voted for Anderson to win the season, although she finished second to Tony Vlachos.


title: Ethan Zohn

text: Zohn was a contestant on a February 28, 2005, episode of "Fear Factor", in which he competed against other reality TV competition winners, including his then-girlfriend Jenna Morasca, who was the winner of "". He finished second, losing to former "Bachelorette" winner Ryan Sutter. Later that year, he appeared on "Kill Reality", which followed various reality television personalities as they filmed a horror movie called "The Scorned".


title: Ethan Zohn

text: In October 2006 Zohn appeared on an episode of the VH1 series Celebrity Paranormal Project. He and his team investigated alleged paranormal activity at the Warson Asylum for the Criminally Insane.


title: Ethan Zohn

text: In 2008 Zohn hosted "Earth Tripping", a six-episode TV series, in which he demonstrated how to be "an earth-friendly traveler", and shows viewers "how to employ new, natural and environmentally conscious methods when they travel". During the series Zohn visited New York City, Mexico City, Singapore, Kuala Lumpur, Santiago, Chile, and Buenos Aires, Argentina.


title: Ethan Zohn

text: In 2011, Zohn and his longtime girlfriend and fellow "Survivor" winner Jenna Morasca participated in the 19th season of "The Amazing Race". They were one of the two teams eliminated in the double-elimination leg, and finished 10th for the season after two legs.


title: Ethan Zohn

text: Zohn appeared in the 11th episode of the Discovery Channel show "PitchMen", in which he presented the EZ Crunch Bowl, a cereal bowl he designed to in which the cereal is kept in the shallow end and the milk in the deeper end in order to keep the cereal "crunchy" and not soggy. The bowl was picked by the show's co-stars, Billy Mays and Anthony Sullivan, for manufacturing and marketing by Telebrands. The EZ Crunch Bowl was sent to Telebrands product engineers for improvement before being made available to the public.


title: Ethan Zohn

text: On April 30, 2002, Zohn called into the Howard Stern Show and shared he was working as a motivational speaker, often in Jewish venues where he shared how Judaism helped him achieve success. He also revealed he had gone on five dates with Jennifer Love Hewitt after meeting her back stage at the Live With Regis and Kelly show, and the two were regularly in touch by telephone (at the time).


title: Ethan Zohn

text: Zohn began dating fellow "Survivor" champion Jenna Morasca after her victory on "" in 2003. They both lived in Manhattan. In an interview on "Rob Has a Podcast", it was revealed that Zohn and Morasca were considered to return in "", after applying for "The Amazing Race". The couple declined the offer, saying they were not interested in competing against each other. In February 2013, Zohn and Morasca confirmed that they had amicably ended their relationship. On July 21, 2015, Zohn announced his engagement to New York City interior designer Lisa Heywood. They were married on July 16, 2016 in North Bennington, Vermont in a Jewish ceremony.


title: Ethan Zohn

text: On April 30, 2009, Zohn was diagnosed with a rare type of cancer called CD20-positive Hodgkin's lymphoma. He started chemotherapy in May 2009. On September 14, 2009, he disclosed that after three months of intensive chemotherapy, his cancer returned. He underwent a new treatment, including a stem-cell transplant, to battle the rare form of Hodgkin's disease. Zohn received a "clean CT scan" in late April 2010 and remained in remission for nearly 20 months. In September 2011, Zohn confirmed that the cancer had returned in his chest. In early March 2013, Zohn announced via "The Jeff Probst Show" that he was cancer-free due to two rounds of stem cell transplants that he received from his brother.


title: George Habash

text: George Habash (), also known by his laqab "al-Hakim" (, "the wise one" or "the doctor"; 2 August 1926 – 26 January 2008) was a Palestinian Christian politician who founded the Marxist–Leninist Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP). Habash served as General Secretary of the PFLP until 2000, when ill health forced him to resign.


title: George Habash

text: Habash was born in Lydda (today's Lod) to a Greek Orthodox Christian Palestinian family in 1926. As a child, he sang in the church choir. Habash, a medical student at the American University of Beirut, was visiting his family during the 1948 Arab–Israeli war. In July 1948, the Israeli Defence Force captured Lydda from Jordanian and Arab Liberation Army forces, resulting in all of the town's Arab residents leaving and the death of Habash's sister. Habash and his remaining family became refugees and were not allowed to return home.


title: George Habash

text: Political thinkers who were influences on Habash at this period included Constantin Zureiq, whose lectures at AUB on 'Arab nationalism and the Zionist danger' in the late 1940s and early 1950s Habash had attended, and Sati' al-Husri an Arab Muslim intellectual who emphasized national cohesiveness, territorial patriotism, and loyalty to the state, and gave priority to Arab unity over Islamic unity.


title: George Habash

text: In 1951, after graduating first in his class from medical school, Habash worked in refugee camps in Jordan and ran a clinic with Wadie Haddad in Amman. He firmly believed that the state of Israel should be ended by all possible means, including political violence. In an effort to recruit the Arab world to this cause, Habash founded the Arab Nationalist Movement (ANM) in 1951 and aligned the organization with Gamal Abdel Nasser's Arab nationalist ideology.


title: George Habash

text: He was implicated in the 1957 coup attempt in Jordan, which had originated among Palestinian members of the National Guard. Habash was convicted in absentia, after having gone underground when Hussein of Jordan proclaimed martial law and banned all political parties. In 1958 he fled to Syria (then part of the United Arab Republic), but was forced to return to Beirut in 1961 by the tumultuous breakup of the UAR.


title: George Habash

text: Habash was a leading member of the Palestine Liberation Organization until 1967 when he was sidelined by Fatah leader Yasser Arafat, with whom he had a complex relationship described as a mix of "camaraderie and rivalry" and "a love-hate relationship". In response, Habash founded the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine.


title: George Habash

text: In 1964 he began reorganizing the ANM, regrouping the Palestinian members of the organization into a "regional command." After the Six-Day War in 1967, disillusion with Nasser became widespread. This prompted the foundation, led by Habash, of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) as a front of several Palestinian factions, like the "heroes of return" and "Palestinian Liberation Front", along with the ANM on 11 December, when he also became its first secretary-general. Habash was arrested by Abdelkarim al-Joundi and briefly imprisoned in Syria under the accusation of plotting to overthrow the Baathist ruling party in 1968 but escaped with the help of Wadie Haddad who with four others extracted Habash from a maximum security prison whilst disguised as military police. In the same year, he also came into conflict with long-time ally Wadie Haddad, but both remained in the PFLP.


title: George Habash

text: At a 1969 congress, the PFLP re-designated itself a Marxist–Leninist movement and has remained a Communist organization ever since. Its pan-Arab leanings have been diminished since the ANM days, but popular support for a united Arab front has remained, especially in regard to Israeli and western political pressures. It holds a firm position regarding Israel, demanding its complete eradication as a racist state through military struggle and promotes a one-state solution (one secular, democratic, non-denominational state).


title: George Habash

text: The 1969 congress also saw an ultra-leftist faction under Nayef Hawatmeh and Yasser Abd Rabbo split off as the Popular Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PDFLP), later to become the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine (DFLP). During Habash's time as secretary-general, the PFLP became known as one of the most radical and militant Palestinian factions and gained world notoriety after a string of aircraft hijackings and attacks against Israel affiliated companies as well as Israeli ambassadors in Europe mostly planned by Haddad. The PFLP's pioneering of modern international terror operations brought the group, and the Palestinian issue, onto newspaper front pages worldwide, but it also provoked intense criticism from other parts of the Palestine Liberation Organization.


title: George Habash

text: In 1970, Habash was evicted from Jordan due to the key role of the Popular Front in the Black September clashes. In 1974, the Palestinian National Council adopted a resolution recognizing a two-state solution to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict and Habash, who opposed this, formed the Rejectionist Front from several other opposition parties.


title: George Habash

text: Habash aligned the PFLP with the PLO and the Lebanese National Movement, but stayed neutral during the Lebanese Civil War in the late 1970s. After a stroke in 1980, when he was living in Damascus, his health declined and other PFLP members rose to the top.


title: George Habash

text: After the Oslo Agreements, Habash formed another opposition alliance of Rejectionists, including Islamist organizations such as Hamas and the Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine, that became prominent during the First Intifada. In 2000, he resigned from his leadership post of the PFLP due to poor health and was succeeded by Abu Ali Mustafa. He continued to be an activist for the group until 2008 when he died of a heart attack in Amman.


title: George Habash

text: The PFLP ignored tensions with the mainstream leadership of Yasser Arafat's Fatah faction, and instead focused on bringing about revolutionary change in Jordan. Habash expressed the opinion that what proceeded was not "only military but also psychological warfare" and one had to "hold the Israelis under permanent pressure".


title: George Habash

text: In the 1970 Dawson's Field hijackings, Habash masterminded the hijackings of four Western airliners over the United States, Europe, the Far East and the Persian Gulf. The aircraft were forced to fly to a World War II airfield in Jordan, the passengers and crews were disembarked and the planes were then blown up.


title: George Habash

text: The Dawson's Field hijackings were instrumental in provoking the Black September crackdown, which came close to destroying the PLO. The hijackings led Hussein of Jordan of Jordan to carry out a major offensive against militant strongholds in his kingdom resulting in the deaths of thousands of Palestinians. In autumn 1970, Habash visited Beijing. After Black September, the PLO fedayeen relocated to Lebanon.


title: George Habash

text: In 1972, Habash experienced failing health and gradually began to lose influence within the organization. The Palestinian National Council's (PNC) adoption of a resolution viewed by the PFLP as a two-state solution in 1974, prompted Habash to lead his organization out of active participation in the PLO and to join the Iraqi-backed Rejectionist Front. Only in 1977 would the PFLP opt to rejoin, as the Palestinian factions rallied their forces in opposition to Anwar Sadat's overtures towards Israel, pro-U.S. policies and fragmentation of the Arab world. During the Lebanese Civil War that broke out in 1975, PFLP forces were decimated in the battle against Syria. Later, the PFLP would draw close to Syria, as Syria's government shifted, but PFLP involvement in the Lebanese war remained strong until the US-negotiated evacuation of PLO units from Beirut in 1982 and continued on a smaller scale after that.


title: George Habash

text: After the signing of the Oslo Peace Accords in 1993, Habash and the PFLP again broke completely with Arafat, accusing him of selling out the Palestinian revolution. The group set up an anti-Arafat and anti-Oslo alliance in Damascus, for the first time joined by non-PLO Islamist groups such as Hamas and the Palestinian Islamic Jihad, which had grown to prominence during the First Intifada. After finding the position sterile, with Palestinian political dynamics playing out on the West Bank and Gaza areas of the Palestinian National Authority (PNA), Habash carefully sought to repair ties to Arafat, and gain a hold in post-Oslo politics without compromising PFLP principles. However, there is no indication that he ever accepted the two-state solution. This balancing act could not save the PFLP from being eclipsed by the militant Islamist factions on the one hand, and the resource-rich Fatah with its PNA patronage network on the other. The significance of the PFLP in Palestinian politics has diminished considerably since the mid-90s. The PFLP participated in the Palestinian legislative elections of 2006 as Ahmad Sa'adat won 4.2% of the popular vote.


title: George Habash

text: In the late 1990s, Habash's medical condition worsened. In 2000 he resigned from the post as secretary-general, citing health reasons. He was succeeded as head of the PFLP by Abu Ali Mustafa who was assassinated by Israel during the Second Intifada. Habash went on to set up a PFLP-affiliated research center, but he remained active in the PFLP's internal politics. Until his death he was still popular among many Palestinians, who appreciate his revolutionary ideology, his determination and principles, the rejection of the Oslo Agreements and his intellectual style.


title: George Habash

text: Habash died on 26 January 2008, at the age of 81 of a heart attack in the Jordan Hospital, Amman, where Habash was a cancer patient. The President of the Palestinian National Authority, Mahmoud Abbas called for three days of national mourning. Habash was buried in a suburban cemetery of Amman with processions by the Eastern Orthodox Church. Abbas said Habash was a "historic leader" and called for Palestinian flags to be flown half-mast. Abdel Raheem Mallouh, PFLP deputy secretary-general, called Habash a "distinguished leader... who struggled for more than 60 years without a stop for the rights and the interests of his people". Hamas leader and dismissed Palestinian Prime Minister Ismail Haniyeh sent his condolences, saying Habash "spent his life defending Palestine".


title: Nissan Ariya

text: The Nissan Ariya is a battery electric compact crossover SUV produced by the Japanese automobile manufacturer Nissan. It was introduced in July 2020 as the first battery electric SUV produced by Nissan. It is produced at its Tochigi plant in Japan since January 2022.


title: Nissan Ariya

text: Originally slated to hit the market in 2021 at a starting price of $40,000, the Ariya production version was unveiled in July 2020. Due to chip shortage caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, the Ariya's launch was delayed to 2022 from its original 2021 launch.


title: Nissan Ariya

text: In November 2021, pricing was revealed for the US market. Deliveries are expected to begin in the US in the fall of 2022 for the 2023 model year.


title: Nissan Ariya

text: The Ariya is available in both front-wheel drive and all-wheel drive (e-4ORCE) variants and with a 63 kWh or 87 kWh battery size. The 63 kWh battery is only available on the Engage base trim. Standard technology on the Ariya includes Nissan's Safety Shield 360 system, which includes the ProPILOT driver assist system. The more advanced ProPILOT 2.0 system, which allows hands-free driving under certain conditions in available on some trims.


title: Nissan Ariya

text: The Nissan Ariya concept car was presented on 24 October 2019 at the 2019 Tokyo Motor Show. It is a 100% electric coupe SUV concept car measuring in length. The concept car was fitted with 21-inch rims, LED headlamps and an illuminated logo on its grille, which itself takes the form of a large "V" characteristic of Nissan design. Inside, the dashboard is equipped with two 12.3-inch screens assembled to form a large screen, from which ProPilot 2.0, the second generation of Nissan's driver assistance system, is controlled. The manufacturer has not distributed information on the capacity of the battery to be used in the production Ariya, but indicated that it will be recharged by direct current (DC) compatible with standard CHAdeMO. It will accelerate from zero to 60 miles per hour in 5.1 seconds. The Ariya will support the CCS standard in the US and Europe.


title: Nissan Ariya

text: The Ariya Single Seater Concept was unveiled in December 2021, as part of the manufacturer's Futures event. The concept car, which is a demonstration of an all-electric motorsports vehicle similar to ones used in Formula E racing, shares its powertrain with the Ariya SUV. The concept also shares multiple design cues with its SUV counterpart, including the illuminated "V" shape at its front and its overall form, which, according to the Nissan, "looks like it was shaped by the air itself". Tommaso Volpe, who is the manufacturer's global motorsports director, stated that the Ariya Single Seater Concept acts as "a powerful demonstration of just how thrilling electric vehicles could be."


title: Tanks in China

text: This article on military tanks deals with the history of tanks employed by various military forces belonging to the Kuomintang and Communist Party of China within China. From the early half of the 20th century, tanks were initially obtained from other countries; eventually indigenously designed Chinese tanks started manufacture and became used during the Cold War and towards the modern era.


title: Tanks in China

text: The first tanks and armored cars in Chinese hands were whatever imports they could acquire and some armoured vehicles they fashioned ad hoc, as China had few factories and a weak industrial base to build them. Warlords set up their own armies and bought what tanks and weapons they could. Standardization was functionally non-existent. The use of tanks along with artillery in the Chinese army was generally in ones and twos, and they were usually hoarded to enhance the power and prestige of a commander, governor or warlord (the last two were often one and the same). The training of armored forces along with artillery crews was cursory and rudimentary, and there was very little understanding of indirect fire, targeting and observation, fire and maneuver, counter-battery fire, barrage fire. The Chinese use of armored fighting vehicles prior to 1943 suffered from many of the same problems as that of the artillery, and most of China's small inventory of AFVs were quickly lost in combat, or were simply allowed to break down due to lack of maintenance and spare parts. Armor was not used en masse for shock, but in penny packets in an infantry support role exclusively; tank against tank fighting with the Japanese was never contemplated and never attempted. During the entire Sino-Japanese war from 1937 to 1945 there was not one single major tank on tank confrontation between Chinese and Japanese armor.


title: Tanks in China

text: After the decline and overthrow of the Qing Dynasty following the Xinhai Revolution, China was left without any generally recognized central authority and the army quickly fragmented into forces of combating warlords, nominally the Beiyang Army, but actually fighting each other. Those warlord armies would have their own suppliers and were equipped with non-standard material, differing wildly from region to region, and even with different calibers within the same subunits. The strongest of those warlords were Wu Peifu, "The Jade Marshal", and Chang Tso-ling, "The Tiger of the North". The former imported French Citroën-Kégresse halftracks, while the latter got Renault FT and Schneider tanks. The Tiger of the North was also the first to get armoured trains from the defeated White Russian armies in Siberia after the fall of Vladivostok in 1922; with other trains being built locally under Russian supervision.


title: Tanks in China

text: Foreign advisers were commonplace, with Japanese and Russian advisers being employed by the many warlords. The Russians included renegade White Russians, experienced veterans of the Russian Civil War; they primarily manned technical positions such as artillery and the armoured trains - the latter a paramount asset in the vast, roadless distances of China. The warlord Chang T'sung-chang, "The Dogmeat General", was one of the foremost employers of White Russians, with some 3,000 "White Guards" under the Menshikov brothers. The armoured trains were intended to be used offensively and could carry troops, weapons and supplies; with them being considered so valuable in the campaign of 1927–1928, that captured or surrendered train crews were shot on the spot.


title: Tanks in China

text: Sun Yat-sen, first provisional president of China and his protégé Chiang Kai-shek tried to bring the warlords under control in order to establish order throughout the nation; to do so, Sun Yat-sen founded the Kuomintang ("Chinese National People's Party"). In the early 1920s this revolutionary army was just another warlord army, small and very poorly equipped, even by warlord standards. Being from the south, from Canton, it was typically in the "low end" of warlord armies and so had a poor military reputation. This began to change when a Soviet military advisory mission was established in late 1923. In 1924, Sun Yat-sen set up the Whampoa Military Academy to train and indoctrinate cadets as the leaders who would take the fight to the warlords. The extremely poorly equipped National Revolutionary Army (NRA) started receiving large quantities of Soviet material from 1924 to 1926, when it felt ready to face the warlord coalition of the Beiyang governament, the National Pacification Army (NPA) in the Northern Expedition (1926-1928). Chiang Kai-shek took Sun's place at the head of the party when the latter died in 1925 and led the Northern Expedition to unify the country, becoming China's overall leader.


title: Tanks in China

text: Weimar Germany started a military cooperation with the NRA from 1926 that would endure until 1941. This cooperation intensified with the Nazi takeover of Germany in 1933 and would end in 1941 when, in July, Hitler officially recognised Wang Jingwei's puppet government in Nanking. Before that, Japan asked Germany to withdraw its military advisors in 1938. This German military mission, under Hans von Seeckt from 1933 to 1935, supplied small arms, artillery, armoured cars, and Panzer I light tanks to the NRA. The NRA armoured force was organized in three armoured battalions, with the first and 2nd battalions having 29 Vickers-Carden Loyd amphibious tanks each, with 20 Vickers 6-Ton tanks being distributed among the 1st and 2nd battalions. Also, 29 Carden Loyd Mark VI tankettes served in the 2nd battalion. The third battalion had 15 Panzer I Ausf. A, bought in 1936, 20 Italian CV-35 tankettes and 15 Leichter Panzerspähwagen (mostly SdKfz 222, two SdKfz 221, with at least one SdKfz 260).


title: Tanks in China

text: In the course of 1937, the NRA's three tanks battalions were wiped out by the Japanese, with the remnants being regrouped into the new 200 Division, that was augmented by Soviet T-26 light tanks. Created in 1938, this unit would survive up to 1949 through different reorganizations. From 1941 onwards the Chinese Nationalists would rely more and more on the United States, receiving large quantities of M3 and M5 Stuart light tanks and M4 Sherman medium tanks. After the Japanese surrender in 1945, the NRA and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) engaged into a power struggle for control of China. Both sides used Japanese captured tanks and US-supplied tanks, mainly Stuart light tanks.


title: Tanks in China

text: The leader of the Communists, Mao Zedong, established the People's Republic of China (PRC) in mainland China in 1949, with Chiang Kai-shek and the Nationalists fleeing to the Island of Formosa, now Republic of China (ROC). On 1 October 1949, the CCP's People's Liberation Army (PLA) held a major parade in the capital Beijing, with smaller parades in other major cities, with the tanks being a mixture of Japanese tanks captured by the NRA and then captured by the PLA, American tanks supplied to the NRA through Lend-Lease and captured by the PLA, and Soviet T-26 supplied by the Soviet Union to the PLA.


title: Tanks in China

text: In October 1950, Mao made the decision to send the People's Volunteer Army into Korea against the United Nations forces led by the U.S. in the Korean War; Chinese armies fighting there were equipped with Soviet-made heavy weapons, including T-34 tanks. During the early 1950s, China began producing copies of the Soviet T-34 tank and established its own manufacturing plants to build further improved designs (predominantly copies of Soviet designs) until the current and contemporary Chinese tanks which bear their own domestic influences.


title: Tanks in China

text: The Chinese warlord Zhang Zuolin introduced tanks to China. France had dispatched a small contingent of Renault FT tanks to Vladivostok in 1919, during the joint Allied intervention that began in August 1918 with the tanks being later acquired by the Manchurian Army under Zhang Zuolin.


title: Tanks in China

text: Surprised during the Northern Expedition by Chiang Kai-shek's National Revolutionary Army, he bought several Renault FT tanks armed with 37 mm guns from France in 1927. However, by 1929 the FTs were under the Chinese Nationalists and nominally attached to the 1st Cavalry Brigade of the Chinese National Revolutionary Army (NRA), which by 1930 had acquired 36 FTs. However, the Japanese Army seized nearly all of Chinese/Manchurian FTs in 1931 when they occupied Manchuria. The tanks captured by the Japanese army were deployed in the Kwantung Army and later used during the Mukden Incident.


title: Tanks in China

text: Influenced by the Japanese tank performance during the First Battle of Shanghai, the Chinese Nationalist government started the mechanisation of the army in 1933, with the 24 British Carden Loyd Mk VI tankettes. Later they bought 20 Vickers 6-ton tanks between 1934 and 1936, which were used in combat against the Japanese in the Battle of Shanghai in 1937. They also bought 29 Vickers Amphibious Tanks, which were developed in 1932 but not used in the United Kingdom.


title: Tanks in China

text: The Sino-German cooperation, which had begun between Germany and China since before World War I had been instrumental in modernizing the industry and the armed forces of the Republic of China, so it was natural to look to German military advisers to help them. The Chinese urgency to modernize the military and its national defense industry, coupled with Germany's need for a stable supply of raw materials, put the two countries on the road of close relations from the late 1920s to the late 1930s.


title: Tanks in China

text: In 1927, after the dissolution of the First United Front between the Nationalists and the Communists, the ruling Kuomintang purged its leftist members and largely eliminated Soviet influence from its ranks, and General Chiang Kai-shek severed the ties with the Soviets. Chiang Kai-shek then turned to Germany, historically a great military power, for the reorganisation and modernisation of the National Revolutionary Army, and German advisors started to come in. The Nationalists hired many German military advisers to help them with their buildup of the mechanisation and training of the army.


title: Tanks in China

text: When Adolf Hitler became Chancellor in 1933 and disregarded the Treaty, the anti-communist NSDAP and the anti-communist KMT were soon engaged in close cooperation with Germany training Chinese troops and expanding Chinese infrastructure, while China opened its markets and natural resources to Germany.


title: Tanks in China

text: The German military advisers made the Nationalists purchase many European weapons through a German company with which the German advisers cooperated. The Nationalists bought Italian CV-35 tankettes, German Panzer I Ausf. A light tanks, and British 12-ton tanks. The exact name of the British 12-ton tank is unknown. The Nationalists bought 29 Vickers Carden Loyd amphibious tank in 1935, and they were organized into the 1st tank battalion. Also, 20 of the British Vickers 6-Ton Mk E & F tanks were purchased by the Nationalists and used in the 1st and 2nd tank battalions. They also purchased other British designs, such as the Carden Loyd M1936, two-man light tank, fitted with radio equipment, in service in 1936. 29 more of the British VCL Mk VI Carrier's were purchased in 1936 and used as part of the 2nd tank battalion.


title: Tanks in China

text: There is an information, that in the 1930s, Poland sold three companies of Renault FTs to China, but it was only to cover up their sale to Republican Spain. Also about 6 or 10 Renault UE light armoured carriers armed with Browning MG were bought in France. There were also some Fiat-Ansaldo CV-35 Italian tanks that were purchased, twenty CV-35 tankettes were sold to China. In 1937, 15 Panzer I tanks Ausf. As were sold to China which were used in the Battle of Nanjing by the 3rd Armored Battalion.