title: David Puttnam

text: Puttnam is the recipient of over 50 honorary degrees and fellowships from the UK and overseas: he received an Honorary Doctorate from Heriot-Watt University in 2001, and from Trinity College Dublin in 2016; he was awarded The Royal Photographic Society's President's Medal and Honorary Fellowship (HonFRPS) in recognition of a sustained, significant contribution to the art of photography in 2003; and in May 2006, he was made an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts.


title: David Puttnam

text: On 12 July 2007, Puttnam was given the freedom of the City of Sunderland. In 2008, he received an Honorary Degree of Doctor of Science from Nottingham Trent University in recognition of his extraordinary contribution to the cultural landscape of the UK, in both economic and creative terms, and for his notable support for the Nottingham City-based GameCity Festival. He was elected to the Royal Irish Academy in 2017.


title: David Puttnam

text: In 2009, in partnership with Sir Michael Barber, Puttnam released "We Are the People We've Been Waiting For", an education documentary featuring high-profile figures discussing their own experiences of education.


title: David Puttnam

text: All in all, Puttnam's films have won 10 Oscars, 31 BAFTAs, 13 Golden Globes, nine Emmys, four David di Donatellos in Italy and the Palme d'Or at Cannes.


title: David Puttnam

text: Puttnam was deputy Chairman of Channel 4 Television from 2006 to 2012. He is president of the Film Distributors' Association (FDA) and chair of the TSL Advisory Board.


title: David Puttnam

text: Puttnam co-authored (with Neil Watson) "Movies and Money", published in January 2000 by Vintage Books.


title: David Puttnam

text: When Puttnam became the chairman of Profero, a London-based digital marketing agency in April 2007, he explained the move saying: "My experience over the past forty-odd (some very odd) years has encompassed marketing, entertainment and social issues, a fascinating mix that is integral to the daily lives of consumers and citizens. A business that can combine and magnify these dynamics can only create incredible value for their clients and, as a by-product, themselves. To me Profero is in just such a position, and it's now my job to help them realise their potential."


title: David Puttnam

text: Puttnam, who had produced Ian Charleson's star-making film "Chariots of Fire", contributed a chapter to the 1990 book, "For Ian Charleson: A Tribute".


title: David Puttnam

text: On 19 August 2007, Puttnam gave the oration at the annual Michael Collins commemoration in Béal na Bláth, County Cork.


title: David Puttnam

text: He has also preached at Durham Cathedral at the feast of the cathedral's commemoration of its founders and benefactors.


title: David Puttnam

text: On 21 June 2022, Puttnam announced via Twitter that he and his wife Patsy had obtained Irish citizenship. The couple have lived in Skibbereen, west Cork, since 1998.


title: David Puttnam

text: Puttnam greenlit and "picked up" a number of films while head of the studio, only some of which had been released by the time he left the position. They included:


title: Asian Australians

text: Asian Australians refers to Australians of Asian ancestry, whether full or partial, including naturalised Australians who are immigrants from specific regions in Asia and descendants of such immigrants. At the 2021 census, the number of ancestry responses categorised within Asian ancestral groups as a proportion of the total population amounted to approximately 17.4% (including 6.5% Southern and Central Asian, 6.4% North-East Asian, and 4.5% South-East Asian).


title: Asian Australians

text: The Australian Bureau of Statistics and Australian Census does not specifically collect data based on race. Instead, it collects information on distinct ancestries, of which census respondents can select up to two. For the purposes of aggregating data, the Australian Bureau of Statistics in its "Australian Standard Classification of Cultural and Ethnic Groups (ASCCEG)" has grouped certain ancestries into certain categories, including:


title: Asian Australians

text: Notably, Australians of Middle Eastern ancestries are not classified as Asian ancestries under the ASCCEG and are separately classified under North African and Middle Eastern. This includes Australians of Arab, Turkish and Iranian ancestries, but not for example Armenian which are classified as "Central Asian" and therefore Asian Australian.


title: Asian Australians

text: Given that ancestry is the primary statistical measure of ethnicity or cultural origins in Australia, and that the distinct ancestry groups may be historically, culturally and geographically far-removed from each other, information on Australians with ancestry from Asia is found at the respective articles for each separate article (e.g. Chinese Australian, Indian Australian, etc.)


title: Asian Australians

text: Although the Chinese had been arriving in Australia as early as 1818 (e.g. John Shying), Chinese immigration to Australia increased dramatically as a result of the Victorian gold rushes (c. 1850s to 1860s). New Chinese and Australian communities came into conflict due to prejudice and misunderstanding, resulting in several riots at Lambing Flat and Buckland. Earlier anti-Chinese laws enacted by the individual Australian colonies were the background to the White Australia policy (1901–1973).


title: Asian Australians

text: In the 1870s and 1880s, the trade union movement began a series of protests against foreign labour. The union movement was critical of Asians, mainly Chinese, who did not join unions, and who were prepared to work for lower wages and conditions. Wealthy land owners in rural areas countered with the argument Asians working on lower wages and conditions were necessary for development in tropical Queensland and the Northern Territory. It was claimed that without Asian workers these regions would be abandoned. Under growing pressure from the union movement, each Australian colony enacted legislation between 1875 and 1888 excluding further Chinese and by extension, Asian immigration.


title: Asian Australians

text: Historically, Taiwanese Australians have had a significant presence in Tatura and Rushworth, two neighbouring countryside towns respectively located in the regions of Greater Shepparton and Campaspe (Victoria), in the fertile Goulburn Valley. During World War II, ethnic-Japanese (from Australia, Southeast Asia and the Pacific) and ethnic-Taiwanese (from the Netherlands East Indies) were interned nearby to these towns as a result of anti-espionage/collaboration policies enforced by the Australian government (and WWII Allies in the Asia-Pacific region). Roughly 600 Taiwanese civilians (entire families, including mothers, children and the elderly) were held at "Internment Camp No. 4", located in Rushworth but nominally labelled as being part of the "Tatura Internment Group", between January 1942 and March 1946. Most of the Japanese and Taiwanese civilians were innocent and had been arrested for racist reasons "(see the related article "Internment of Japanese Americans", an article detailing similar internment in America)". Several Japanese and Taiwanese people were born in the internment camp and received British (Australian) birth certificates from a nearby hospital. Several Japanese people who were born in the internment camp were named "Tatura" in honour of their families' wartime internment at Tatura. During wartime internment, many working age adults in the internment camp operated small businesses (including a sewing factory) and local schools within the internment camp. Regarding languages, schools mainly taught English, Japanese, Mandarin and Taiwanese languages (Hokkien, Hakka, Formosan). Filipinos are purported to have also been held at the camp, alongside Koreans, Manchus (possibly from Manchukuo), New Caledonians, New Hebrideans, people from the South Seas Mandate, people from Western New Guinea (and presumably also Papua New Guinea) and Aboriginal Australians (who were mixed-Japanese).


title: Asian Australians

text: After the war, internees were resettled in their country of ethnic origin, rather than their country of nationality or residence, with the exception of Japanese Australians, who were generally allowed to remain in Australia. Non-Australian Japanese, who originated from Southeast Asia and the Pacific, were repatriated to Occupied Japan. On the other hand, Taiwanese, most of whom originated from the Netherlands East Indies, were repatriated to Occupied Taiwan. The repatriation of Taiwanese during March 1946 caused public outcry in Australia due to the allegedly poor living conditions aboard the repatriating ship "Yoizuki", in what became known as the "Yoizuki Hellship scandal". Post-WWII, the Australian government was eager to expel any Japanese internees who did not possess Australian citizenship, and this included the majority of Taiwanese internees as well. However, the Republic of China (ROC) was an ally of Australia, and since the ROC had occupied Taiwan during October 1945, many among the Australian public believed that the Taiwanese internees should be deemed citizens of the ROC, and, therefore, friends of Australia, not to be expelled from the country, or at least not in such allegedly appalling conditions. This debate concerning the citizenship of Taiwanese internees—whether they were Chinese or Japanese—further inflamed public outrage at their allegedly appalling treatment by the Australian government. Additionally, it was technically true that several "camp babies"—internees who had been born on Australian soil whilst their parents were interned—possessed Australian birth certificates, which made them legally British subjects. However, many of these camp babies were also deported from the country alongside their non-citizen parents. There was also a minor controversy regarding the destination of repatriation, with some of the less Japan-friendly Taiwanese fearing that they would be repatriated to Japan, though this was resolved when they learnt that they were being repatriated to Taiwan instead.


title: Asian Australians

text: On January 5, 1993, a plaque was erected at the site of the internment camp at Tatura (Rushworth) to commemorate the memory of wartime internment. Forty-six Japanese and Taiwanese ex-internees, as well as a former (Australian) camp guard, are listed on the plaque.


title: Asian Australians

text: The government began to expand access to citizenship for non-Europeans in 1957 by allowing access to 15-year residents, and in 1958 by reforming entry permits via the "Migration Act 1958". In March 1966, the immigration ministry began a policy of allowing the immigration of skilled and professional non-Europeans, and of expanding the availability of temporary residency to these groups. These cumulatively had the effect of increasing immigration numbers from non-European countries. In 1973, prime minister Gough Whitlam took steps to dismantle White Australia and to bring about a more non-discriminatory immigration policy—temporarily bringing down overall immigration numbers. The eventual evolution of immigration policy has been along a trajectory of non-discrimination, dismantling European-only policies, and the broadening of pathways to citizenship for Asians.


title: Asian Australians

text: During the Fraser government, with the increased intake of Vietnamese refugees in the aftermath of the Vietnam War, Australia experienced the largest intake of Asian immigrants since the arrival of the Chinese gold miners during the gold rush of the 1850s and 1860s. In 1983, the level of British immigration was below the level of Asian immigration for the first time in Australian history.


title: Asian Australians

text: Notably, Australia does not collect statistics on the racial origins of its residents, instead collecting data at each five-yearly census on distinct ancestries, of which each census respondent may choose up to two.


title: Asian Australians

text: At the 2021 census, the number of ancestry responses categorised within the Asian groups as a proportion of the total population amounted to 17.4% (including 6.5% Southern and Central Asian, 6.4% North-East Asian, and 4.5% South-East Asian).


title: Asian Australians

text: At the 2021 census, the most commonly nominated Asian ancestries were as set out in the following table.


title: Asian Australians

text: 30% of Asians in Australia go to university, 20% of all Australian doctors are Asian, and 37% of Asian Australians take part in some form of organised sport. Second and third generation Chinese and Indian Australians are already present in large numbers. Sydney and Melbourne have made up a large proportion of Asian immigration, with Chinese Australians constituting Sydney's fourth largest ancestry (after English, Australian and Irish). Chinese, Indian and Vietnamese-Australians are among Sydney's five largest overseas-born communities.


title: Asian Australians

text: Support for the view that Asian-Australians experience discrimination is not an overly partisan issue. Labor and Greens voters were more likely to agree that Asian-Australians experience discrimination (87.7 per cent and 88.2 per cent respectively) than other voters. However, more than three-quarters of those who said they would vote for the Liberal/National Coalition (76.2 per cent) concurred.


title: Asian Australians

text: Asian Australians have been the targets of discrimination and violence based on their race and or ethnicity.


title: Asian Australians

text: As a result of the September 11 attacks, some Sikh Australians have become subject to discrimination, specifically because their religious garments can be mistaken as being Arab or Muslim.


title: Asian Australians

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia, concern has grown due to an increase in anti-Asian sentiment in Australia.


title: Asian Australians

text: There is a perception among Anglo-Celtic Australians that Asian Australians are not "Australian" but are instead "perpetual foreigners", a common sentiment also present in other Anglophone countries such as Canada, New Zealand and the United States.


title: Asian Australians

text: 9.3% of the Australian labour force is Asian born, however Asian Australians are significantly under-represented in leadership roles, with only 4.9% who make it to senior executive level.


title: Asian Australians

text: Asian Australians are over-represented in high-performing schools, gifted and talented programs and prestigious university courses. However, there are major disparities that exist among Asian Australians when specific ethnic groups are examined.


title: Asian Australians

text: Cambodian Australians have lower rates of educational qualifications than the general Australian population (13 per cent compared to a national average of 58 per cent), and higher participation in semi-skilled and unskilled occupations (43 per cent are labourers and machinery operators compared to a national average of 8.8 per cent).


title: Asian Australians

text: According to the 2016 Census, 35.6 per cent of Laotian Australians aged 15 years and over had some form of higher non-school qualification compared to 60.1 per cent of the Australian population. Laotian Australians participation rate in the labour force was 58.9 per cent (compared to the total Australian population participation rate of 64.6 per cent) and the unemployment rate was 9.3 per cent (compared to the total Australian population unemployment rate of 6.9 per cent).


title: Asian Australians

text: In 2013, Vietnamese Australian participation rate in the labour force was 61% which is slightly below the national average of around 65% and the unemployment rate was 7.8% which is higher than average and above the national rate of 5.8%.


title: Asian Australians

text: In 1987, 35 per cent of Hmong Australians in Sydney were unemployed and of those employed, 93 per cent were process workers doing unskilled factory jobs. In 1995, the unemployment rate had come down to 27 per cent (12.5 per cent among females and 33 per cent among males) with a significant proportion of those employed doing semi-skilled or unskilled jobs, compared to 93 per cent in 1987. The number of skilled workers had also increased (30 per cent among females and 19 per cent among males). The few who could obtain formal qualifications seemed to be in more secure and well-paid jobs.


title: Asian Australians

text: The educational levels of Bangladeshi Australians are higher than for the total Australian population; 79.0 per cent of the had some form of higher non-school qualification, 8.4 per cent had no qualifications and were still attending an educational institution. The participation rate in the labour force was 74.1 per cent and the unemployment rate was 10.9 per cent. 44.7 per cent were employed in either a skilled managerial, professional or trade occupation.


title: Asian Australians

text: For principal lists of notable people, see the relevant articles for each relevant ethnicity, for example: Chinese Australians, Indian Australians, Vietnamese Australians, Malaysian Australians, Filipino Australians, Korean Australians and Indonesian Australians, etc.


title: Eureka effect

text: The eureka effect (also known as the Aha! moment or eureka moment) refers to the common human experience of suddenly understanding a previously incomprehensible problem or concept. Some research describes the Aha! effect (also known as insight or epiphany) as a memory advantage, but conflicting results exist as to where exactly it occurs in the brain, and it is difficult to predict under what circumstances one can predict an Aha! moment.


title: Eureka effect

text: Insight is a psychological term that attempts to describe the process in problem solving when a previously unsolvable puzzle becomes suddenly clear and obvious. Often this transition from not understanding to spontaneous comprehension is accompanied by an exclamation of joy or satisfaction, an Aha! moment. A person utilizing insight to solve a problem is able to give accurate, discrete, all-or-nothing type responses, whereas individuals not using the insight process are more likely to produce partial, incomplete responses.


title: Eureka effect

text: A recent theoretical account of the Aha! moment started with four defining attributes of this experience. First, the Aha! moment appears suddenly; second, the solution to a problem can be processed smoothly, or fluently; third, the Aha! moment elicits positive affect; fourth, a person experiencing the Aha! moment is convinced that a solution is true. These four attributes are not separate but can be combined because the experience of processing fluency, especially when it occurs surprisingly (for example, because it is sudden), elicits both positive affect and judged truth.


title: Eureka effect

text: Insight can be conceptualized as a two phase process. The first phase of an Aha! experience requires the problem solver to come upon an impasse, where they become stuck and even though they may seemingly have explored all the possibilities, are still unable to retrieve or generate a solution. The second phase occurs suddenly and unexpectedly. After a break in mental fixation or re-evaluating the problem, the answer is retrieved. Some research suggest that insight problems are difficult to solve because of our mental fixation on the inappropriate aspects of the problem content. In order to solve insight problems, one must "think outside the box". It is this elaborate rehearsal that may cause people to have better memory for Aha! moments. Insight is believed to occur with a break in mental fixation, allowing the solution to appear transparent and obvious.


title: Eureka effect

text: The effect is named from a story about ancient Greek polymath Archimedes. In the story, Archimedes was asked (c. 250 BC) by the local king to determine whether a crown was pure gold. During a subsequent trip to a public bath, Archimedes noted that water was displaced when his body sank into the bath, and particularly that the volume of water displaced equaled the volume of his body immersed in the water. Having discovered how to measure the volume of an irregular object, and conceiving of a method to solve the king's problem, Archimedes allegedly leaped out and ran home naked, shouting εὕρηκα ("eureka", "I have found it!"). This story is now thought to be fictional, because it was first mentioned by the Roman writer Vitruvius nearly 200 years after the date of the alleged event, and because the method described by Vitruvius would not have worked. However, Archimedes certainly did important, original work in hydrostatics, notably in his "On Floating Bodies".


title: Eureka effect

text: Research on the Aha! moment dates back more than 100 years, to the Gestalt psychologists' first experiments on chimpanzee cognition. In his 1921 book, Wolfgang Köhler described the first instance of insightful thinking in animals: One of his chimpanzees, Sultan, was presented with the task of reaching a banana that had been strung up high on the ceiling so that it was impossible to reach by jumping. After several failed attempts to reach the banana, Sultan sulked in the corner for a while, then suddenly jumped up and stacked a few boxes upon each other, climbed them and thus was able to grab the banana. This observation was interpreted as insightful thinking. Köhler's work was continued by Karl Duncker and Max Wertheimer.


title: Eureka effect

text: The Eureka effect was later also described by Pamela Auble, Jeffrey Franks and Salvatore Soraci in 1979. The subject would be presented with an initially confusing sentence such as "The haystack was important because the cloth ripped". After a certain period of time of non-comprehension by the reader, the cue word (parachute) would be presented, the reader could comprehend the sentence, and this resulted in better recall on memory tests. Subjects spend a considerable amount of time attempting to solve the problem, and initially it was hypothesized that elaboration towards comprehension may play a role in increased recall. There was no evidence that elaboration had any effect for recall. It was found that both "easy" and "hard" sentences that resulted in an Aha! effect had significantly better recall rates than sentences that subjects were able to comprehend immediately. In fact equal recall rates were obtained for both "easy" and "hard" sentences which were initially noncomprehensible. It seems to be this noncomprehension to comprehension which results in better recall. The essence of the aha feeling underlining insight problem solving was systemically investigated by Danek et al. and Shen and his colleagues. Recently an attempt has been made in trying to understand the neurobiological basis of Eureka moment.


title: Eureka effect

text: Currently there are two theories for how people arrive at the solution for insight problems. The first is the progress monitoring theory. The person will analyze the distance from their current state to the goal state. Once a person realizes that they cannot solve the problem while on their current path, they will seek alternative solutions. In insight problems this usually occurs late in the puzzle. The second way that people attempt to solve these puzzles is the representational change theory. The problem solver initially has a low probability for success because they use inappropriate knowledge as they set unnecessary constraints on the problem. Once the person relaxes his or her constraints, they can bring previously unavailable knowledge into working memory to solve the problem. The person also utilizes chunk decomposition, where he or she will separate meaningful chunks into their component pieces. Both constraint relaxation and chunk decomposition allow for a change in representation, that is, a change in the distribution of activation across working memory, at which point they may exclaim, "Aha!" Currently both theories have support, with the progress monitoring theory being more suited to multiple step problems, and the representational change theory more suited to single step problems.


title: Eureka effect

text: The Eureka effect on memory occurs only when there is an initial confusion. When subjects were presented with a clue word before the confusing sentence was presented, there was no effect on recall. If the clue was provided after the sentence was presented, an increase in recall occurred.


title: Eureka effect

text: It had been determined that recall is greater for items that were generated by the subject versus if the subject was presented with the stimuli. There seems to be a memory advantage for instances where people are able to produce an answer themselves, recall was higher when Aha! reactions occurred. They tested sentences that were initially hard to understand, but when presented with a cued word, the comprehension became more apparent. Other evidence was found indicating that effort in processing visual stimuli was recalled more frequently than the stimuli that were simply presented. This study was done using connect-the-dots or verbal instruction to produce either a nonsense or real image. It is believed that effort made to comprehend something when encoding induces activation of alternative cues that later participate in recall.


title: Eureka effect

text: Functional magnetic resonance imaging and electroencephalogram studies have found that problem solving requiring insight involves increased activity in the right cerebral hemisphere as compared with problem solving not requiring insight. In particular, increased activity was found in the right hemisphere anterior superior temporal gyrus.


title: Eureka effect

text: Some unconscious processing may take place while a person is asleep, and there are several cases of scientific discoveries coming to people in their dreams. Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz claimed that the ring structure of benzene came to him in a dream where a snake was eating its own tail. Studies have shown increased performance at insight problems if the subjects slept during a break between receiving the problem and solving it. Sleep may function to restructure problems, and allow new insights to be reached. Henri Poincaré stated that he valued sleep as a time for "unconscious thought" that helped him break through problems.


title: Eureka effect

text: Professor Stellan Ohlsson believes that at the beginning of the problem-solving process, some salient features of the problem are incorporated into a mental representation of the problem. In the first step of solving the problem, it is considered in the light of previous experience. Eventually, an impasse is reached, where all approaches to the problem have failed, and the person becomes frustrated. Ohlsson believes that this impasse drives unconscious processes which change the mental representation of a problem, and cause novel solutions to occur.


title: Eureka effect

text: When studying insight, or the Aha! effect, ERP or EEG general methods are used. Initially a baseline measurement is taken, which generally asks the subject to simply remember an answer to a question. Following this, subjects are asked to focus on the screen while a logogriph is shown, and then they are given time with a blank screen to get the answer, once they do they are required to press a key. After which the answer appears on the screen. The subjects are then asked to press one key to indicate that they thought of the correct answer and another to indicate if they got the answer wrong, finally, not to press a key at all if they were unsure or did not know the answer.


title: Eureka effect

text: Resting-state neural activity has a standing influence on cognitive strategies used when solving problems, particularly in the case of deriving solutions by methodical search or by sudden insight. The two cognitive strategies used involve both search and analysis of current state of a problem, to the goal state of that problem, while insight problems are a sudden awareness of the solution to a problem.


title: Eureka effect

text: Subjects studied were first recorded on the base-line resting state of thinking. After being tested using the method described in the General Procedure for Conducting ERP and EEG Studies, the ratio of insight versus non-insight solution were made to determine whether an individual is classified as a high insight (HI) or a low insight (LI) individual. Discriminating between HI and LI individuals were important as both groups use different cognitive strategies to solve anagram problems used in this study. Right hemisphere activation is believed to be involved in Aha! effects, so it comes as no surprise that HI individuals would show greater activation in the right hemisphere than the left hemisphere when compared to the LI individuals. Evidence was found to support this idea, there was greater activation in HI subjects at the right dorsal-frontal (low-alpha band), right inferior-frontal (beta and gamma bands) and the right parietal (gamma band) areas. As for LI subjects, left inferior-frontal and left anterior-temporal areas were active (low-alpha band).


title: Eureka effect

text: There were also differences in attention between individuals of HI and LI. It has been suggested that individuals who are highly creative exhibit diffuse attention, thus allowing them a greater range of environmental stimuli. It was found that individuals who displayed HI would have less resting state occipital alpha-band activity, meaning there would be less inhibition of the visual system. Individuals that were less creative were found to focus their attention, thus causing them to sample less of their environment. Although, LI individuals were shown to have more occipital beta activity, consistent with heightened focused attention.


title: Eureka effect

text: These results are more reflective of models, rather than empirical evidence, as source localization is hard to determine precisely.


title: Eureka effect

text: Due to the nature of these studies that use Chinese logographs, there is a difficulty in an exact translation; a language barrier certainly exists.


title: Eureka effect

text: There are some difficulties that exist in brain imaging when it comes to insight, thus making it hard to discuss neural mechanisms. Issues include: that insight occurs when an unwarranted mental fixation is broken and when novel task related associations are formed on top of old cognitive skills.


title: Eureka effect

text: One theory discussed found that "Aha" answers produced more negative ERP results, N380 in the ACC, than the "No-Aha" answers, 250–500 ms, after an answer was produced. The authors suspected that this N380 in the ACC, which plays the role of a warning sign of breaking the mental set, was a reflection of the Aha! effect. Another study was done showed that an Aha! effect was elicited at N320 which has a strong activation in the central-posterior region. These previous studies reflective the premise of the study, that the Aha! effect occurs in the anterior cingulate cortex, while this study finds results indicating the posterior cingulate cortex is responsible. It was found that there was a N350 in the posterior cingulate cortex for successful guessing of logographs, not in the anterior cingulate cortex. The posterior cingulate cortex seems to play a more non-executive function in monitoring and inhibiting the mind set and cognitive function.


title: Eureka effect

text: Another significant finding of this study done by Qiu and Zhang (2008), was a late positive component (LPC) in successful guessing of the logograph and then recognition of the answer at 600 and 700 ms, post-stimulus, in the parahippocampal gyrus (BA34). The data suggests that the parahippocampus is involved in searching of a correct answer by manipulating it in working memory, and integrating relationships between the base of the target logograph. The parahippocampal gyrus may reflect the formation of novel associations while solving insight problem.


title: Eureka effect

text: Another ERP study is fairly similar to the Qiu and Zhang, 2008 study, however, this study claims to have anterior cingulate cortex activation at N380, which may be responsible for the mediation of breaking the mental set. Other areas of interest were prefrontal cortex (PFC), the posterior parietal cortex, and the medial temporal lobe. If subjects failed to solve the riddle, and then were shown the correct answer, they displayed the feeling of insight, which reflected the electroencephalogram recordings.


title: Eureka effect

text: Overall, it is quite apparent that there are many aspects that can explain the Aha! effect. No particular area has been determined but from the information gathered, it seems that insight occurs in many parts of the brain, within a given time period.


title: Eureka effect

text: A study with the goal of recording the activity that occurs in the brain during an Aha! moment using fMRIs was conducted in 2003 by Jing Luo and Kazuhisa Niki. Participants in this study were presented with a series of Japanese riddles, and asked to rate their impressions toward each question using the following scale: (1) I can understand this question very well and know the answer; (2) I can understand this question very well and feel it is interesting, but I do not know the answer; or (3) I cannot understand this question and do not know the answer.


title: Eureka effect

text: This scale allowed the researchers to only look at participants who would experience an Aha! moment upon viewing the answer to the riddle. In previous studies on insight, researchers have found that participants reported feelings of insight when they viewed the answer to an unsolved riddle or problem.


title: Eureka effect

text: Luo and Niki had the goal of recording these feelings of insight in their participants using fMRIs. This method allowed the researchers to directly observe the activity that was occurring in the participant's brains during an Aha! moment.


title: Eureka effect

text: Participants were given 3 minutes to respond to each riddle, before the answer to the riddle was revealed. If the participant experienced an Aha! moment upon viewing the correct answer, any brain activity would be recorded on the fMRI.


title: Eureka effect

text: The fMRI results for this study showed that when participants were given the answer to an unsolved riddle, the activity in their right hippocampus increased significantly during these Aha! moments. This increased activity in the right hippocampus may be attributed to the formation of new associations between old nodes. These new associations will in turn strengthen memory for the riddles and their solutions.


title: Eureka effect

text: Although various studies using EEGs, ERPs, and fMRI's report activation in a variety of areas in the brain during Aha! moments, this activity occurs predominantly in the right hemisphere. More details on the neural basis of insight see a recent review named "New advances in the neural correlates of insight: A decade in review of the insightful brain"


title: Eureka effect

text: The problem consists of a 3 × 3 square created by 9 black dots. The task is to connect all 9 dots using exactly 4 straight lines, without retracing or removing one's pen from the paper. Kershaw & Ohlsson report that in a laboratory setting with a time limit of 2 or 3 minutes, the expected solution rate is 0%.


title: Eureka effect

text: The difficulty with the Nine Dot Problem is that it requires respondents to look beyond the conventional figure-ground relationships that create subtle, illusory spatial constraints and (literally) "think outside of the box". Breaking the spatial constraints shows a shift in attention in working memory and utilizing new knowledge factors to solve the puzzle.


title: Eureka effect

text: Example: "A man was washing windows on a high-rise building when he fell from the 40-foot ladder to the concrete path below. Amazingly, he was unhurt. Why? [Answer] He slipped from the bottom rung!"


title: Eureka effect

text: A subset of matchstick puzzles, matchstick arithmetic, which was developed and used by G. Knoblich, involves matchsticks that are arranged to show a simple but incorrect math equation in Roman numerals. The task is to correct the equation by moving only one matchstick.


title: Eureka effect

text: Anagrams involve manipulating the order of a given set of letters in order to create one or many words. The original set of letters may be a word itself, or simply a jumble.


title: Eureka effect

text: Rebus puzzles, also called "wordies", involve verbal and visual cues that force the respondent to restructure and "read between the lines" (almost literally) to solve the puzzle.


title: Eureka effect

text: The Remote Associates Test (known as the RAT) was developed by Martha Mednick in 1962 to test creativity. However, it has recently been utilized in insight research.


title: Eureka effect

text: The test consists of presenting participants with a set of words, such as "lick", "mine", and "shaker". The task is to identify the word that connects these three seemingly unrelated ones. In this example, the answer is "salt". The link between words is associative, and does not follow rules of logic, concept formation or problem solving, and thus requires the respondent to work outside of these common heuristical constraints.


title: Eureka effect

text: In this problem a set of 8 coins is arranged on a table in a certain configuration, and the subject is told to move 2 coins so that all coins touch exactly three others. The difficulty in this problem comes from thinking of the problem in a purely 2-dimensional way, when a 3-dimensional approach is the only way to solve the problem.


title: Eureka effect

text: Insight research is problematic because of the ambiguity and lack of agreement among psychologists of its definition. This could largely be explained by the phenomenological nature of insight, and the difficulty in catalyzing its occurrence, as well as the ways in which it is experimentally "triggered".


title: Eureka effect

text: The pool of insight problems currently employed by psychologists is small and tepid, and due to its heterogeneity and often high difficulty level, is not conducive of validity or reliability.


title: Eureka effect

text: One of the biggest issues surrounding insight problems is that for most participants, they are simply too difficult. For many problems, this difficulty revolves around the requisite restructuring or re-conceptualization of the problem or possible solutions, for example, drawing lines beyond the square composed of dots in the Nine-Dot Problem.


title: Eureka effect

text: Furthermore, there are issues related to the taxonomy of insight problems. Puzzles and problems that are utilized in experiments to elicit insight may be classified in two ways. "Pure" insight problems are those that necessitate the use of insight, whereas "hybrid" insight problems are those that can be solved by other methods, such as the trial and error. As Weisberg (1996) points out, the existence of hybrid problems in insight research poses a significant threat to any evidence gleaned from studies that employ them. While the phenomenological experience of insight can help to differentiate insight-solving from non-insight solving (by asking the respondent to describe how they solved the problem, for example), the risk that non-insight solving has been mistaken for insight solving still exists. Likewise, issues surrounding the validity of insight evidence is also threatened by the characteristically small sample sizes. Experimenters may recruit an initially adequate sample size, but because of the level of difficulty inherent to insight problems, only a small fraction of any sample will successfully solve the puzzle or task given to them; placing serious limits on usable data. In the case of studies using hybrid problems, the final sample is at even greater risk of being very small by way of having to exclude whatever percentage of respondents solved their given puzzle without utilizing insight.


title: Eureka effect

text: There are several examples of scientific discoveries being made after a sudden flash of insight. One of the key insights in developing his special theory of relativity came to Albert Einstein while talking to his friend Michele Besso:


title: Eureka effect

text: However, Einstein has said that the whole idea of special relativity did not come to him as a sudden, single eureka moment, and that he was "led to it by steps arising from the individual laws derived from experience". Similarly, Carl Friedrich Gauss said after a eureka moment: "I have the result, only I do not yet know how to get to it."


title: Eureka effect

text: Sir Alec Jeffreys had a eureka moment in his lab in Leicester after looking at the X-ray film image of a DNA experiment at 9:05 am on Monday 10 September 1984, which unexpectedly showed both similarities and differences between the DNA of different members of his technician's family. Within about half an hour, he realized the scope of DNA profiling, which uses variations in the genetic code to identify individuals. The method has become important in forensic science to assist detective work, and in resolving paternity and immigration disputes. It can also be applied to non-human species, such as in wildlife population genetics studies. Before his methods were commercialised in 1987, Jeffreys' laboratory was the only centre carrying out DNA fingerprinting in the world.


title: Rockfield Studios

text: Rockfield Studios is a residential recording studio located in the Wye Valley just outside the village of Rockfield, Monmouthshire, Wales. It was originally founded in 1963 by brothers Kingsley and Charles Ward.


title: Rockfield Studios

text: Rockfield is a two-studio facility consisting of The Coach House and The Quadrangle. Both studios reside within converted solid-stone farm buildings. One of the world's first residential recording studios, Rockfield offers living accommodations for clients recording at the studio for an extended period of time.


title: Rockfield Studios

text: Constructed in 1968, The Coach House includes a large 150-square-metre live area with stone walls, a wooden ceiling, and a Yamaha grand piano. In addition to the live room, there is one stone drum room, an acoustically variable second drum room, and two isolation booths. Recording equipment in The Coach House is based around a customised Neve 8121 recording console with vintage outboard processing, including Neve 1060 microphone amps, Rockfield's original Rosser Electronics microphone amps, API 550 equalisers and UREI 1176 compressors.


title: Rockfield Studios

text: Artists who have recorded in The Coach House include Oasis, Bullet for My Valentine, Sepultura, Jayce Lewis, Simple Minds and Opeth.


title: Rockfield Studios

text: Constructed in 1973, The Quadrangle offers a total of 170 square metres of recording space spread between the main area with Bösendorfer grand piano, two large variable acoustic drum rooms and three isolation booths. Recording equipment in The Quadrangle's 6m x 7m central control room is based around an MCI 500 Series in-line mixing console with outboard processing, including Neve 1061 microphone amps, Rockfield's original Rosser Electronics microphone amps, API 550 equalisers, and UREI 1176 compressors.


title: Rockfield Studios

text: Best known for the recording of Queen's "Bohemian Rhapsody", The Quadrangle has hosted such notable artists as Manic Street Preachers, Robert Plant, Shop Front Heroes, and Coldplay.


title: Rockfield Studios

text: The Ward family bought Amberley Court Farm in Rockfield in the early 1950s. Originally a Shire horse breeding centre, they ran it as a livestock farm, with 500 pigs and a herd of milking cows.


title: Rockfield Studios

text: Brothers Kingsley and Charles Ward were educated at Abergavenny Grammar School. While there Charles got into the early rock and roll music of Elvis Presley and began playing an acoustic guitar that he purchased for £5. In 1960 the brothers formed a band named the Charles Kingsley Combo and Kingsley wrote a couple of songs, which the brothers recorded using a tape deck borrowed from a local businessman. Deciding to pursue a record deal, the brothers drove to EMI's pressing plant in Middlesex, London, but were redirected to the label's offices in Manchester Square where, on that same day without an appointment they met producer George Martin. Martin decided not to sign the brothers, but noted that the reason he was compelled to take the meeting was because they were the first artists he had seen bring a portable reel-to-reel tape deck.


title: Rockfield Studios

text: The Ward brothers returned to London the following year and met with Joe Meek at his studio. Meek signed them, and the brothers recorded songs as The Charles Kingsley Creation and as The Thunderbolts while observing Meek's studio techniques. Back home, the brothers set up a recording studio in an attic space with a Rosser Electronics mixing console and a Ferrograph tape machine. In 1961 the brothers began recording local bands in their studio, which they named Future Sounds Ltd, charging £5 per acetate.


title: Rockfield Studios

text: In 1963 the Ward brothers converted an existing farmhouse into a recording studio by investing in an 8-track tape deck and lining it with pig feed bags to create sound deadening. In 1965, they became the world's first residential studio, set up so that bands could come and stay in the peaceful rural surroundings to record.


title: Rockfield Studios

text: The first big hit recorded in the studios was Dave Edmunds' "I Hear You Knocking" in 1970. In the early 1970s, the studios were used to record seven albums by Budgie, several by Hawkwind, one by Hobo, Peter Hammill's second solo album "Chameleon in the Shadow of the Night" in 1973, Ace's hit single "How Long" in 1974, and Queen's album "Sheer Heart Attack". Queen first worked on developing their album "A Night at the Opera" and the song "Bohemian Rhapsody" for a month at Ridge Farm Studio during the summer of 1975, then moved to Rockfield in August 1975 to begin recording the album, which became the band's first Platinum-selling album in the US. Motörhead made their first recordings at the studios in 1975 and were, briefly, signed to the Rockfield record label. Cyril Jordan of the Flamin' Groovies (who recorded at Rockfield several times between 1972 and 1978) said in 2014, "We thought Rockfield was the new Sun recording studios."


title: Rockfield Studios

text: As the trend moved from rock music of the 1970s and 80's to the electronic music of the 1990s, which had a far greater use of technology and could almost be produced from a bedroom, the need for space and complex analogue recording systems reduced. Rockfield also faced more competition, with many of the main recording labels creating their own residential recording studios, such as Virgin's "The Manor". With the Rockfield company facing dire financial consequences, the Ward brothers decided to split the farm, with Kingsley retaining the Rockfield half, whilst Charles refurbished a semi-derelict manor house on the opposite side of the valley to create Monnow Valley Studio.


title: Rockfield Studios

text: Facing financial difficulties, and with his wife Anne working full-time as a book keeper, Kingsley was approached by friend and record producer John Leckie to record the first album of Manchester band The Stone Roses. Resident for 14 months to record both their first and second albums, the band saved the studio financially. The band's residency created interest from other bands, resulting in recording sessions for other bands including Oasis.


title: Rockfield Studios

text: During a 12-month period in 1996–97, Rockfield sessions resulted in five UK Number One albums, by Oasis, Black Grape, The Charlatans and the Boo Radleys.


title: Rockfield Studios

text: In July 2020 the documentary "Rockfield: The Studio on the Farm", directed by Hannah Berryman, was broadcast by BBC Four.


title: Drop tank

text: In aviation, a drop tank (external tank, wing tank or belly tank) is used to describe auxiliary fuel tanks externally carried by aircraft. A drop tank is expendable and often capable of being jettisoned. External tanks are commonplace on modern military aircraft and occasionally found in civilian ones, although the latter are less likely to be discarded except in an emergency.


title: Drop tank

text: The primary disadvantage with drop tanks is that they impose a drag penalty on the aircraft. External fuel tanks will also increase the moment of inertia, thereby reducing roll rates for air maneuvers. Some of the drop tank's fuel is used to overcome the added drag and weight of the tank. Drag in this sense varies with the square of the aircraft's speed. The use of drop tanks also reduces the number of external hardpoints available for weapons, reduces the weapon-carrying capacity and increases the aircraft's radar signature. Usually the fuel in the drop tanks is consumed first, and only when all the fuel in the drop tanks has been used, the fuel selector is switched to the airplane's internal tanks. Some modern combat aircraft use conformal fuel tanks (CFTs) instead of or in addition to conventional external fuel tanks. CFTs produce less drag and do not take up external hardpoints but some versions can only be removed on the ground.


title: Drop tank

text: The drop tank was used during the Spanish Civil War to allow fighter aircraft to carry additional fuel for long-range escort flights without requiring a dramatically larger, heavier, less maneuverable fuselage.


title: Drop tank

text: Mitsubishi A5M, designed by Jiro Horikoshi, began carring an external underside drop tank to provide fuel for extended range in 1937 and during World War II, the "Luftwaffe" began using external fuel tanks with the introduction of a light alloy model for the Ju 87R, a long-range version of the "Stuka" dive bomber, in early 1940. The Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighter also used this type of drop tank, starting with the Bf 109E-7 variant introduced in August 1940. Fitted also to the Focke-Wulf Fw 190, the tank, available in at least four construction formats — including at least one impregnated paper material, single-use version — and varying only slightly in appearance, became the standard volume for most drop tanks in Luftwaffe service, with a rarely used , fin-stabilized large capacity drop tank used with some marks of the Messerschmitt Bf 110 heavy fighter and other twin-engined "Luftwaffe" combat aircraft.


title: Drop tank

text: The first drop tanks were designed to be discarded when empty or in the event of combat or emergency to reduce drag, weight, and to increase maneuverability. Modern external tanks may be retained in combat, to be dropped in an emergency. The Allies commonly used them to allow fighters increased range and patrol time over continental Europe. The RAF used such external fuel tanks in 1942, during the transit of Supermarine Spitfires to Malta. The Imperial Japanese Navy design specification for what came to be the Japanese Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighter included endurance with drop tanks of two hours at full power, or six to eight hours at cruising speed. Drop tanks were commonly used with the Zero, even on combat air patrol (CAP). The Zero entered service in 1940.


title: Drop tank

text: American bomber theorists (the so-called Bomber Mafia) wanted to create vast fleets of heavy bombers. They insisted formations of heavy bombers with multiple machine-gun positions would be self-defending, and that long-range escort fighters would be unnecessary, or even impossible to design. They were also concerned that long-range medium bombers might compete for resources. For all these reasons, official policy in the United States held that drop tanks should not be developed or encouraged. In the face of such entrenched attitudes in 1941 airmen such as Benjamin S. Kelsey and Oliver P. Echols worked quietly to get drop tank technology added to American fighters, beginning with the Lockheed P-38 Lightning. It was only with drop tanks supplying of extra fuel per fighter that P-38s could carry out Operation Vengeance, the downing of Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto's aircraft. (For this mission, each fighter carried one drop tank of approximately , and a larger one of approximately .


title: Drop tank

text: Even after such experience showed the necessity for drop tanks, inflexible thinkers such as 8th Air Force General Ira C. Eaker had to be transferred out of commanding positions (and replaced with Maj. Gen. Jimmy Doolittle) so that drop tanks and range extension plans could be widely implemented in 1944 for American escort fighters. External drop tanks turned the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt from a short-range interceptor aircraft into a long-range escort and air superiority fighter, enabling it to accompany bombers from the British Isles into Germany and made it possible for heavy bomber formations to undertake daylight raids under escort by North American P-51 Mustangs. The P-38 could also carry two drop tanks for its longest sorties. This teardrop-shaped tank design was long and in diameter at its widest point.


title: Drop tank

text: Faced by wartime metal shortages and a need to extend the range of fighter craft, the British came up with drop tanks made of glue-impregnated kraft paper, which had excellent tolerance characteristics for extreme heat and cold necessary for operation on an aircraft as well as being waterproof.


title: Drop tank

text: Since the glue would slowly dissolve from the solvent effects of the fuel (sometimes developing leaks within a few hours of being loaded with fuel) these were strictly a single-use item, used in typically chilly Northern European conditions, filled immediately before take off, jettisoned in the event of an aborted mission and only being required for the outbound portion of a flight. Such papier-mâché tanks were assembled from three main components, the nose cone, tail cone and the body, each shaped over wooden forms, the center section created by wrapping layers of the impregnated paper around a cylinder, the end caps hand-laminated with petal-shaped pieces sometimes called gores.


title: Drop tank

text: Before final assembly wooden anti-slosh baffles were installed, pipes and fittings were attached and the interiors coated with fuel-resistant lacquer and the three pieces were bonded together in press. Once the tank had cured, it was pressure tested to and passing tanks were given two coats of cellulose dope followed by two coats of aluminium paint. (British paper drop tanks can be distinguished from outwardly similar metal tanks by colour, paper tanks were silver in appearance, while metal tanks were grey.) Some 13,000 papier-mâché tanks were made and used by the RAF, the vast majority during the war, conserving a considerable amount of metal. Very few examples survive due to their expendable nature, low intrinsic value and the fact that they are not inherently robust. While probably a nuisance for those under the flight path when the empty tanks were released, they were lightweight and comparatively fragile. Though they were likely to cause nothing but anxiety, the German authorities went so far as to distribute leaflets explaining that drop tanks were not bombs.


title: Drop tank

text: U.S. paper tanks were developed by Col. Bob Shafer and Col. Cass Hough, who spent many hours developing a 110-gallon (416 liter) paper tank, then getting them into series production at Bowater-Lloyd's of London, only to be told by experts at Wright Field "paper tanks are absolutely unfeasible and will not do the job for which they are intended". Since by the time the experts made that pronouncement 8th Air Force fighters had already used more than 15,000 paper tanks without a failure, the criticism was not taken seriously. It may explain why the most often-used fuel tanks for single-engined American fighters operating in Northern Europe were the 75-gallon (284 liter) capacity all-metal tank (made from two halves of formed aluminium with a prominent horizontal seam running along the tank's midline). Another common metal drop tank was the model used by P-51s, P-47s and P-38s.


title: Drop tank

text: The Matra JL-100 is a special hybrid drop tank and rocket pack; it combines a rocket launcher in front with 19 SNEB rockets and of fuel behind into one single aerodynamically-shaped pod for mounting on combat aircraft such as the Dassault Mirage IIIs and English Electric Lightnings. The Convair B-58 Hustler, the first operational bomber capable of Mach 2 flight, had no bomb bay: it carried a single nuclear weapon plus fuel in a combination bomb/fuel pod underneath the fuselage.


title: Drop tank

text: After World War II, hot rodders raced the dry lakes of California to set new land speed records. War surplus drop tanks (aka belly pods) were plentiful, aerodynamically neutral and it did not take long to convert one into a car, dubbed a lakester. According to GM historians, Bill Burke of the So-Cal Speed Shop first attempted to convert a P-51 Mustang belly tank, before switching to the larger P-38 Lightning tank. Even now, lakesters compete at the Bonneville Salt Flats.


title: Guess Who?

text: Guess Who? is a two-player board game where players each guess the identity of the other's chosen character. The game was developed by Israeli game inventors Ora and Theo Coster, also known as Theora Design, and first manufactured by Milton Bradley in 1979. It is now owned by Hasbro. The game was first brought to the UK by Jack Barr Sr. in 1982. The classic edition is currently being produced by Winning Moves Games USA.


title: Guess Who?

text: Each player starts the game with a board that includes cartoon images of 24 people and their first names with all the images standing up. Each player selects a card of their choice from a separate pile of cards containing the same 24 images. The objective of the game is to be the first to determine which card one's opponent has selected. Players alternate asking various yes or no questions to eliminate candidates, such as:


title: Guess Who?

text: The player will then eliminate candidates (based on the opponent's response) by flipping those images down until only one is left. Well-crafted questions allow players to eliminate one or more possible cards.


title: Guess Who?

text: Special editions which have different faces have been released, including Star Wars, Marvel Comics and Disney. There are smaller, "travel" editions that have only 20 different faces. In 2008 and 2010, extra and mix and match games were released. A computer game based on the series was released in 1999 by Hasbro Interactive.


title: Guess Who?

text: In the United States, advertisements for the board game often showed the characters on the cards coming to life and making witty comments to each other. This caused later editions of such ads to carry the spoken disclaimer line "game cards do not actually talk" to meet Federal Trade Commission advertising guidelines requiring full disclosure of toy features unable to be replicated with the actual product.


title: Guess Who?

text: Popular belief is that a binary search is the most efficient approach to the game, where each question halves the number of possible identities. This can be applied by asking complex questions - such as "Does your character have red hair, "or" glasses, "or" a big nose?" - where a yes or a no eliminates exactly half of the remaining characters. Such a strategy takes only four questions to reduce the field to three people, giving the fifth question a 50/50 chance of identifying the opponent's character.


title: Guess Who?

text: The game was strongly solved by Mihai Nica in 2016. Nica's research found that while a player was ahead their optimal strategy was a binary search, and when behind they should instead make "bold plays" that had a chance of narrowing things down significantly, in order to pull ahead of the other player. Using this method, the first player has a 63% chance of winning under optimal play by both sides.


title: Guess Who?

text: Modern commentators have noted a bias toward white and male characters in "Guess Who". In 2012, a six-year-old girl wrote to Hasbro asking why there were only five female characters to choose from, against nineteen male. Hasbro's response noted that each characteristic in the game – such as wearing glasses, or having red hair – was based on a numerical equation, and deliberately appeared exactly five times. The company wrote that the game was intended to "draw attention away from using gender or ethnicity as the focal point, and to concentrate on those things that we all have in common, rather than focus on our differences".


title: Guess Who?

text: In response to Hasbro's statement, the child's mother said that she thought identifying physical differences was "the whole point" of the game, and asked "Why is female gender regarded as a 'characteristic', while male gender is not?" "The New Statesman" criticized the "tone-deafness" of Hasbro's remarks. Blogger Avital Norman Nathman suggested that the decision to include five women in the game may not have been a conscious choice, and that this was is a problem in itself.


title: Guess Who?

text: The original version of "Guess Who" featured only one non-white character Anne, who was redrawn in a subsequent edition as a white woman. More recently, Hasbro has redesigned the board to feature a more racially diverse set of people.


title: Guess Who?

text: A planned unscripted television adaptation of the board game was in early development at NBC and will be produced by Endemol Shine North America and Entertainment One (Hasbro's subsidiary).


title: Boxer at Rest

text: The Boxer at Rest, also known as the Terme Boxer, Seated Boxer, Defeated Boxer, or Boxer of the Quirinal, is a Hellenistic Greek bronze sculpture of a sitting nude boxer at rest, still wearing his himantes (, plural of ), a type of leather hand-wrap. It has been given various dates within the period of about 330 to 50 BCE. It was excavated in Rome in 1885, and is now in the collection of the National Museum of Rome, normally displayed in the Palazzo Massimo alle Terme.


title: Boxer at Rest

text: The "Boxer at Rest" is one of the finest examples of bronze sculptures to have survived from the ancient world; survivals from the period are rare, as they were easily melted down and transformed into new objects. The work comes from a period in Greek art where there is a movement away from idealized heroic depictions of the body and youth, and an exploration of emotional as well as psychological themes and greater realism. These traits are typical of Hellenistic art and thoroughly displayed in this sculpture, making it a hallmark of the Hellenistic style.


title: Boxer at Rest

text: The Boxer is one of two unrelated bronzes (the other being the unidentified "Hellenistic Prince") discovered on the slopes of the Quirinal within a month of each other in 1885, possibly from the remains of the Baths of Constantine. It appears that both had been carefully buried in antiquity. The archaeologist Rodolfo Lanciani, who was present at the sculpture's discovery, wrote:


title: Boxer at Rest

text: I have witnessed, in my long career in the active field of archaeology, many discoveries; I have experienced surprise after surprise; I have sometimes and most unexpectedly met with real masterpieces; but I have never felt such an extraordinary impression as the one created by the sight of this magnificent specimen of a semi-barbaric athlete, coming slowly out of the ground, as if awakening from a long repose after his gallant fights.


title: Boxer at Rest

text: The statue is a masterpiece of Hellenistic athletic professionalism, with a top-heavy over-muscled torso and scarred and bruised face, penis bound by a kynodesme, cauliflower ears, broken nose, and a mouth suggesting broken teeth. The boxer was also depicted as bearded, which would have been a typical characteristic of ancient boxers. R.R.R. Smith believes that the statue does not show a true portrait: this is genre realism, individuality removed in favor of a generic character of "boxer". A reconstruction project executed by the Frankfurt Liebieghaus Polychromy Research Project and headed by Vinzenz Brinkmann follows the interpretation of Otto Rossbach (1898) and Phyllis L. Williams (1945) and identifies the statue as Amykos, King of the Bebryces.


title: Boxer at Rest

text: In 1989, both bronzes were meticulously conserved by Nikolaus Himmelmann, in preparation for their exhibition at the Akademisches Kunstmuseum in Bonn. The sculpture is soldered together from eight segments, separately cast through the lost-wax process; the joins have been filed and finished to be virtually invisible. The lips and wounds and scars about the face were originally inlaid with copper, and further copper inlays on the right shoulder, forearm, caestus and thigh represented drops and trickles of blood. The fingers and toes were worn from being rubbed by passers-by in ancient times, which has suggested that the "Boxer" was carefully buried to preserve its talismanic value, when the Baths were abandoned after the Goths cut the aqueducts that fed them. These baths remained mostly unused until the 6th and 7th century when Pilgrims being treated nearby in the Xenodochium of "Santi Nereo ed Achilleo" were buried at the location of the baths.


title: Boxer at Rest

text: The statue was displayed in the United States for the first time from June to July 2013 at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City as part of the "Year of Italian Culture in the United States".


title: Boxer at Rest

text: The literary and aesthetic reception of the statue continues to be of high regard for its aesthetic virtues. In 1991, Thom Jones wrote "The Pugilist at Rest", a short story which includes the aesthetic reflection upon the statue's rare quality as seen through the eyes of a worn and weary boxer contemplating its inspiration. He suggested that the sitter may be the famed Ancient boxer, Theogenes. During the time of its display in New York during the summer of 2013 (ended 20 July), "New York" magazine published on 15 July 2013 a full page dedication to the special qualities and attributes of the statue.


title: Boxer at Rest

text: Jerry Saltz, the author of this magazine article enumerated the six distinctive features of the statue as follows: (i) The Pose, distinct for its massiveness and "elemental" form, (ii) The Face, noted for the large brow and columnar neck, (iii) The Blood, noted by its inlaid copper upon the bronze statue itself, (iv) The Scarred Genitals, distinct for being infibulated for cultural and aesthetic purposes of ancient times, (v) The Hands, noted for being astounding yet gentle at the same time, and (vi) The Foresight, referring to the sculptor's strength of vision which resembles and conjures Goya's "Giant" as well as comparison with "Velazquez and Rembrandt", as Saltz completes his list.


title: Boxer at Rest

text: The Italian poet Gabriele Tinti has written essays and some poems on sculpture and presented a series of readings in front of the statue at the J. Paul Getty Museum with the actor Robert Davi and at the National Roman Museum with the actor Franco Nero. On 2 August 2019, American actor Kevin Spacey read Tinti's poetry inspired by the statue at the National Roman Museum in Palazzo Massimo.


title: Erika Sawajiri

text: In 2007, Sawajiri went on hiatus after her public image was affected by her controversial statements and personal relationships. She later returned to acting in 2010 and starred in "Helter Skelter", for which she received a Best Leading Actress nomination at the 36th Japan Academy Film Prize. On November 16, 2019, she was arrested for drug possession, and during her trial in January 2020, she stated that she had no plans on continuing her career.


title: Erika Sawajiri

text: Erika Sawajiri was born in Nerima, Tokyo to a Japanese father and an Algerian (Kabyle, raised in France) mother and is the youngest of three children. Her father owned 16 racehorses, including , giving her ample opportunities to engage in horseback riding as a child. Her father disappeared from home when she was nine years old and returned when she was in her third year at junior high school, only to die from cancer that year. Her second eldest brother died in a traffic accident when she was in her first year at high school. Her eldest brother is a former actor. Her mother managed a Mediterranean restaurant where she occasionally helped.


title: Erika Sawajiri

text: In 1999, Sawajiri passed the Stardust audition after graduating from elementary school. She became part of the idol girl group Angel Eyes and began modeling for junior fashion magazines such as "Cutie" and "Nicola". She later won the grand prize for the 2001 "Seikore" and became a regular on the BS news program "Harajuku Launchers". In 2002, Sawajiri started her career in film as well as extending her modeling career as a gravure idol. Her first film was "Mondai no nai Watashitachi".


title: Erika Sawajiri

text: Sawajiri became one of Fuji TV's Visual Queens in 2002. On the NTV variety show "The Yoru mo Hit Parade", she became a regular from April till late June, shortly after leaving the program for the CX news program "Chou VIP Fortune no Tobira" from mid-June till late August. In November, she was on the CBC variety show "Bijou Dokyuu" and TBS show "B-1". She was cast in the TBS TV drama "Hotman". Her most notable role was in "1 Litre of Tears" in 2005 when she portrayed a girl with the degenerative disease spinocerebellar degeneration.


title: Erika Sawajiri

text: Sawajiri first started her music career under the name "Kaoru Amane", the name of her character in her last drama, the TV adaptation of "A Song to the Sun". The single went into number 1 in its second and fourth week. It was certified Triple Platinum for cell phone downloads of 750,000. On July 16, 2007, Erika released her debut single under the name "Erika", "Free". The single was immediately ranked on its first day as number one on the Oricon Charts. "Free" was certified Platinum for cell phone downloads of 250,000. Oricon stated that she is the only artist in 39 years to get their first two single hit number one since Hiroko Yakushimaru in 1983.


title: Erika Sawajiri

text: Sawajiri had planned to attend the 12th Busan International Film Festival on October 6, 2007, but she cancelled. Sawajiri and her mother both stated on separate occasions that she would return to Japan and make a comeback as soon as late summer 2009. In 2012, Sawajiri was originally scheduled to star in the live action film version of "Space Battleship Yamato" but was replaced by Meisa Kuroki.


title: Erika Sawajiri

text: In 2013, Sawajiri won Best Actress in a Leading Role at the 36th Japan Academy Awards for her performance in "Helter Skelter".


title: Erika Sawajiri

text: After Sawajiri's November 2019 arrest, she was replaced in the television drama "Kirin ga Kuru" with Haruna Kawaguchi. She later stated in January 2020 that she had no plans on continuing her career. In February 2020, Avex ended their contract with her.


title: Erika Sawajiri

text: Sawajiri dated Tsuyoshi Takashiro as early as October 2007. She returned to Japan on March 29, 2008 after nearly three months in London with Takashiro. While in London, she attended a language school and has become fluent enough in English to handle ordinary conversation. On January 20, 2009, Sawajiri married Takashiro at Meiji Shrine in Yoyogi and had registered their marriage on January 7. On December 28, 2013, at the press conference, they announced they had divorced.


title: Erika Sawajiri

text: On November 16, 2019, Sawajiri was arrested on suspicion of possessing MDMA at her home. She reportedly admitted to using drugs for the past 10 years, including marijuana, LSD and cocaine. During her criminal trial on January 31, 2020, Sawajiri pled guilty to the charges and admitted she had been using drugs since she was 19 years old. On February 6, 2020, the Tokyo District Court sentenced her to 18 months in prison, suspended for three years.


title: Erika Sawajiri

text: During the premiere for "Closed Note" on September 29, 2007, Sawajiri, seemingly unhappy with the film, gave terse answers to the reporters. Subsequently, her actions were widely criticized for disrespecting her co-stars and the staff of the film. She issued an apology on her website and during her interview on "Super Morning", where she also denied the rumors that she was being suspended by her management. The incident, compounded with Sawajiri's relationship with Takashiro, affected her public image greatly, and she withdrew her appearance at the Busan International Film Festival because of it. She later abruptly put her acting career on hiatus and Stardust Promotion eventually dropped her as an act in 2009. On September 1, 2010, in an interview with "CNN Go", Sawajiri regretted apologizing and claimed that her management had pressured her to do so. Since the incident, the phrase , one of her responses to the reporters, became a viral phenomenon, and she was featured in a Snickers commercial in 2011 parodying herself.


title: Yoshiaki Tsutsumi

text: Tsutsumi was born May 29, 1934, to businessman Yasujirō Tsutsumi and his mistress Ishizaka Tsuneko. He was one of Yasujirō's seven children, and spent his childhood in a Tokyo suburb with Tsuneko and his two younger brothers, Yasuhiro and Yuji. When he was around 7 years old, he met his then-14-year-old half-brother Seiji Tsutsumi; the two were said to have an immediate disdain for each other.


title: Yoshiaki Tsutsumi

text: Tsutsumi was said to have inherited his father's personality; he claimed to have begun assisting his father's business in elementary school, beginning with simple tasks like holding blueprints. Though his father subjected him to physical discipline, Tsutsumi was said to be his favorite—something that gained him significant corporate and political influence.


title: Yoshiaki Tsutsumi

text: Tsutsumi made his earliest forays into business as a university student: in 1956, he opened the Karuizawa Skate Center in Nagano. Upon graduating in 1957, he was employed by Kokudo Keikaku Kogyo (later Kokudo Corporation), of which his father was the chairman.


title: Yoshiaki Tsutsumi

text: In April 1964, Tsutsumi's father Yasujirō died. Despite the disagreement of his widow Masao, the thirty-year-old Yoshiaki Tsutsumi inherited control of the Seibu Corporation. Most observers had expected the designated successor to be his elder half-brother Seiji Tsutsumi, who instead inherited the Seibu department stores. Though Seiji subsequently parlayed these stores into the Credit Saison empire, perceived rivalry between the two brothers' fiefdoms provided fodder for the popular press.


title: Yoshiaki Tsutsumi

text: As chairman, Tsutsumi focused on developing and expanding the vast land holdings inherited from his father. At one point, his companies were believed to own one-sixth of all the land in Japan.


title: Yoshiaki Tsutsumi

text: A significant portion of Tsutsumi's business ventures went towards sports: he served as chairman of the Japan Ice Hockey Federation and owned the Seibu Tetsudo hockey club. Though he reportedly did not have much knowledge of baseball, 1979 saw his purchase of the Seibu Lions baseball team and the construction of a new stadium in the greater Tokyo area. He later served as the first chairman of the Japan Olympic Committee, resigning in 1990, after less than a year. Despite his resignation, he continued to exert significant control over the committee by selecting future chairmen, which effectively prevented his opponents from serving in the position.


title: Yoshiaki Tsutsumi

text: Tsutsumi's total net worth has been unclear, as it is unknown how much he owned in assets: he almost always refused interviews, and did not permit Seibu spokespeople to reveal company information.


title: Yoshiaki Tsutsumi

text: When Nagano bid to host the 1998 Winter Olympics, Tsutsumi—then head of the Japan Olympic Committee—used his financial and political influence, as well as a connection to the International Olympic Committee president, to give Nagano an edge on the bid. He continued to work with them even after stepping down from the committee, and has been cited by former Japan Olympic Committee members as the reason for Nagano's successful bid.


title: Yoshiaki Tsutsumi

text: The decision to host the Winter Olympics in Nagano was heavily criticized by environmentalist groups, noting that the construction of the ski runs necessitated the removal of forestry, and the ski runs themselves infringed upon protected land. Also criticized was the financial conflict of interest: many of the businesses in the region were owned by Seibu.


title: Yoshiaki Tsutsumi

text: The January 17, 2005 edition of "The Wall Street Journal" made an investigation on Tsutsumi and the Seibu Corporation public to English readers. According to the paper, the Seibu corporation's headquarters were raided by police, who allegedly found evidence of several Japanese business law-breaking incidents. The police, for example, claimed that the company declared that their major shareholders accounted only for 64 percent of the company's shareholders, but that, in reality, the major shareholders at Seibu actually owned 88 percent of the company's shares. Such bogus ownership statement is suspected to be illegal falsification. Major shareholders can only get up to 80 percent of a Japanese company's stock to be listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange.


title: Yoshiaki Tsutsumi

text: That scandal was originally opened in 2002 in Japan, after which Tsutsumi was ordered by a court out of the company, but he remained in it, although at a much less paid employment.


title: Yoshiaki Tsutsumi

text: While multiple Seibu employees were involved in the scandal, Tsutsumi was considered the ringleader, as a result of position in the company and his authoritarian management style.


title: Yoshiaki Tsutsumi

text: On March 3, 2005, Tsutsumi was arrested on suspicion of violation of securities trading law. Tsutsumi pleaded guilty, and on October 27, 2005, the Tokyo District Court sentenced him to 30 months in prison, suspended for 4 years, and a fine of 5 million yen. His suspended sentence expired in October 2009 and he remains indirectly a major shareholder in Seibu Holdings.


title: Yoshiaki Tsutsumi

text: Seibu Corporation later sought legal action against Tsutsumi. The parties reached a settlement in 2016, with Seibu receiving ¥25.6 billion.


title: Ravi Bishnoi

text: Ravi Bishnoi (born 5 September 2000) is an Indian international cricketer. He plays for the Indian cricket team in white ball cricket. He is a Right-arm leg-break bowler. He made his International debut in February 2022. He plays for Lucknow Super Giants in the Indian Premier League and Rajasthan in domestic cricket. He first came in limelight when he played for India in the 2020 Under-19 Cricket World Cup, finishing as the tournament's highest wicket-taker with 17 dismissals.


title: Ravi Bishnoi

text: Ravi Bishnoi was born and raised in Marwari Bishnoi Family in the Birami villageof Jodhpur, Rajasthan. Due to the lack of cricket culture and facilities in West Rajasthan, he, along with his friends and with the help of two coaches built a cricket academy named Spartans Cricket Academy where they themselves did all the mason work owing to financial difficulties so that he could train. He was snubbed for the U-16 trials once and for the U-19 trial twice by the selectors before his coaches asked them to give him another chance and finally got selected for the U-19 Rajasthan squad. In March 2018, he was called up by Rajasthan Royals as a net bowler.


title: Ravi Bishnoi

text: He made his Twenty20 debut for Rajasthan in the 2018–19 Syed Mushtaq Ali Trophy on 21 February 2019. He made his List A debut on 27 September 2019, for Rajasthan in the 2019–20 Vijay Hazare Trophy. In October 2019, he was named in India A's squad for the 2019–20 Deodhar Trophy.


title: Ravi Bishnoi

text: In December 2019, in the 2020 IPL auction, he was bought by Kings XI Punjab ahead of the 2020 Indian Premier League. On 20 September 2020, Bishnoi made his IPL debut against Delhi Capitals and picked up Rishabh Pant as his maiden wicket and finished with the bowling figures 1/22 in four overs, but ended up on the losing side. He finished the season with 12 wickets and was nominated for the Emerging Player award.


title: Ravi Bishnoi

text: In February 2022, Bishnoi was drafted in by the new franchise Lucknow Super Giants ahead of the 2022 Indian Premier League tournament.


title: Ravi Bishnoi

text: In December 2019, he was named in India's squad for the 2020 Under-19 Cricket World Cup. On 21 January 2020, in India's match against Japan, Bishnoi took four wickets without conceding a run, before finishing his spell with four wickets for five runs from eight overs, with India winning by ten wickets, and he was named the man of the match. He finished the tournament as the leading wicket-taker.


title: Ravi Bishnoi

text: In January 2022, Bishnoi was named in India's One Day International (ODI) and Twenty20 International (T20I) squads for their home series against the West Indies. He made his T20I debut on 16 February 2022, for India against the West Indies cricket team, taking two wickets for 17 runs and being named the player of the match. In October 2022, he was named in India's ODI squad, for their series against South Africa. He made his ODI debut on 6 October 2022 against the South Africa.


title: Shotgun (Breaking Bad)

text: "Shotgun" is the fifth episode of the fourth season of the American television drama series "Breaking Bad", and the 38th overall episode of the series. It originally aired on AMC in the United States on August 14, 2011.


title: Shotgun (Breaking Bad)

text: Walter White is racing to Los Pollos Hermanos to confront Gus Fring about Jesse Pinkman's disappearance. Worried about what will happen, Walter leaves a voicemail for Skyler White and his children, saying only that he loves them. Walter learns that Gus is not in, and Mike Ehrmantraut eventually calls, explaining that Jesse is with him and will not be harmed, and telling Walter to go back to work.


title: Shotgun (Breaking Bad)

text: Over the course of the day, Mike drives Jesse to seven isolated drop-off spots all over New Mexico, where Gus's dealers leave the money from meth sales for pickup. Jesse assumes he was brought along to watch Mike's back, but Mike angrily denies this after being asked repeatedly. He insists he doesn't know why he was asked to take Jesse, revealing how much he is left in the dark by Gus. While waiting in the car alone at the last drop-off spot, Jesse notices two robbers approaching, one armed with a shotgun. He slams the car in reverse, rams into their car, and drives off. When Jesse returns, Mike hints that he is impressed. It is later revealed that Gus set up the entire scene so that Jesse would consider himself a "hero", and take his life and work more seriously.


title: Shotgun (Breaking Bad)

text: Meanwhile, Walter and Skyler officially buy the car wash. After Skyler hears the voicemail Walter left earlier, the two have sex and she offers to let Walter move back in, but Walter leaves for the lab without giving an answer. Jesse has returned to the lab and explains to Walt that he will be working in the lab and also helping Mike with pickups from now on. Walter Jr. excitedly reveals to his father that Skyler already set the date for Walt to move back in, which seems to unnerve him. He notices that Walter Jr. is drinking from a Beneke Fabricators mug, upsetting him further.


title: Shotgun (Breaking Bad)

text: During dinner at Hank and Marie Schrader's, a brooding Walter gets increasingly tipsy on wine. Hank explains that he gave up investigating Gale further, having found a sense of closure in the death of the man he believed to be "Heisenberg," but lauds Gale's genius. A prideful Walter then insists that Gale was not a genius, and suggests that he was copying someone else's work. This convinces Hank to take another look at the case files, and he notices that the strictly vegan Gale had notes scribbled on a napkin from Los Pollos Hermanos.


title: Shotgun (Breaking Bad)

text: The episode received positive reviews. Matt Richenthal of TV Fanatic awarded the episode 4.5 out of 5. Donna Bowman reviewing for "The A.V. Club" gave the episode a "B+". Seth Amitin reviewing for IGN awarded the episode 7.5 out of 10, the lowest score for any episode in the series and the only episode with a score of less than 8.


title: Carin Göring

text: Carin Axelina Hulda Göring (née Fock; formerly Countess von Kantzow; 21 October 1888 – 17 October 1931) was the Swedish first wife of Hermann Göring.


title: Carin Göring

text: She was born in Stockholm in 1888. Her father, Baron Carl Alexander Fock, was a Swedish Army colonel. The Fock family were of Baltic-German origin, which had emigrated from Westphalia to the Duchy of Estonia, then part of Sweden, in the 17th century, and matriculated into the Swedish nobility. Her paternal great-grandfather was the Swedish zoologist Bengt Fredrik Fries. Her mother, whose name was Huldine Beamish, was born in 1860 into an Irish family famous for brewing Beamish and Crawford stout in Cork. Her great-great-grandfather, William Beamish, was one of the founders of Beamish and Crawford, and her grandfather had served in Britain's Coldstream Guards. Carin's maternal grandmother, Hulda Elisabet Consantia Mosander, who was of Swedish origin, daughter of professor of chemistry Carl Gustaf Mosander, had founded a private religious sisterhood, the Edelweiss Society. She was the fourth of five daughters; her sisters were Fanny von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff (1882–1956), Mary von Rosen (1886–1967), Elsa, and Lily. Mary was married to Count Eric von Rosen (1879–1948), one of the founding members of the "Nationalsocialistiska Blocket" ("National Socialist Bloc"), a Swedish National Socialist political party.


title: Carin Göring

text: In 1910, she married a Swedish Army officer, Nils von Kantzow. Their only child, Thomas von Kantzow, was born in 1913.


title: Carin Göring

text: In 1920, while she was estranged from her first husband, Carin met Hermann Göring at Rockelstad Castle while she was visiting her sister Mary. Four years younger than she, he was working in Sweden as a commercial pilot for the short-lived airline "Svensk Lufttrafik" and was at the castle because he had flown Count Eric von Rosen, her sister Mary's husband, there. Göring fell in love with Carin and soon started meeting her in Stockholm, even though, scandalous at the time, she was a separated married woman with a young child. She divorced von Kantzow and married Göring on 3 January 1923.


title: Carin Göring

text: After their marriage, the Görings first lived in a house in the suburbs of Munich. Carin followed her husband and became a member of the Nazi Party. When Göring was badly injured in the groin while marching alongside Hitler in the failed Beer Hall Putsch in November 1923, Carin took him to Austria, then on to Italy, and nursed him back to health, Carin and Göring's romantic love-story was used by the propaganda machine of Goebbels, and the couple toured around the nation to boost the popularity of the Nazi Party.


title: Carin Göring

text: Carin suffered from tuberculosis by her early forties. When her mother, Huldine Fock, died unexpectedly on 25 September 1931, it came as a great shock to the 42-year-old Carin. Although her health was still fragile, she went to Sweden for her mother's funeral. The next day, she suffered a heart attack in Stockholm. On the news reaching Göring, he joined her there and stayed with her until she died of heart failure on 17 October 1931, four days before her 43rd birthday.


title: Carin Göring

text: After her death, Carin's older sister Fanny wrote a biography of her which quickly became a bestseller in Germany. By 1943, it had sold 900,000 copies.


title: Carin Göring

text: Carin's death came as a great blow to Göring. In 1933 he began to build a hunting lodge, which became his main home, and named it Carinhall in her honour. It was there that he had her body re-interred from her original grave in Sweden, in a funeral attended by Adolf Hitler. Göring filled Carinhall with images of Carin, as he did his flat in Berlin, where he created an altar in memory of her which remained even after he remarried in 1935. Carinhall was demolished on Göring's orders as Soviet troops advanced in 1945.


title: Carin Göring

text: After World War II, remains believed to be those of Carin were recovered by the Fock family, cremated, and re-buried in Sweden. In 1991, remains were found that could also be Carin's and were sent to Sweden for identification. Evidence suggested that the new remains were hers and were reburied.


title: Diesel cycle

text: The Diesel cycle is a combustion process of a reciprocating internal combustion engine. In it, fuel is ignited by heat generated during the compression of air in the combustion chamber, into which fuel is then injected. This is in contrast to igniting the fuel-air mixture with a spark plug as in the Otto cycle (four-stroke/petrol) engine. Diesel engines are used in aircraft, automobiles, power generation, diesel–electric locomotives, and both surface ships and submarines.


title: Diesel cycle

text: The Diesel cycle is assumed to have constant pressure during the initial part of the combustion phase (formula_1 to formula_2 in the diagram, below). This is an idealized mathematical model: real physical diesels do have an increase in pressure during this period, but it is less pronounced than in the Otto cycle. In contrast, the idealized Otto cycle of a gasoline engine approximates a constant volume process during that phase.


title: Diesel cycle

text: The image shows a p-V diagram for the ideal Diesel cycle; where formula_3 is pressure and V the volume or formula_4 the specific volume if the process is placed on a unit mass basis. The "idealized" Diesel cycle assumes an ideal gas and ignores combustion chemistry, exhaust- and recharge procedures and simply follows four distinct processes:


title: Diesel cycle

text: The Diesel engine is a heat engine: it converts heat into work. During the bottom isentropic processes (blue), energy is transferred into the system in the form of work formula_5, but by definition (isentropic) no energy is transferred into or out of the system in the form of heat. During the constant pressure (red, isobaric) process, energy enters the system as heat formula_6. During the top isentropic processes (yellow), energy is transferred out of the system in the form of formula_7, but by definition (isentropic) no energy is transferred into or out of the system in the form of heat. During the constant volume (green, isochoric) process, some of energy flows out of the system as heat through the right depressurizing process formula_8. The work that leaves the system is equal to the work that enters the system plus the difference between the heat added to the system and the heat that leaves the system; in other words, net gain of work is equal to the difference between the heat added to the system and the heat that leaves the system.


title: Diesel cycle

text: The net work produced is also represented by the area enclosed by the cycle on the P-V diagram. The net work is produced per cycle and is also called the useful work, as it can be turned to other useful types of energy and propel a vehicle (kinetic energy) or produce electrical energy. The summation of many such cycles per unit of time is called the developed power. The formula_7 is also called the gross work, some of which is used in the next cycle of the engine to compress the next charge of air.


title: Diesel cycle

text: The maximum thermal efficiency of a Diesel cycle is dependent on the compression ratio and the cut-off ratio. It has the following formula under cold air standard analysis:


title: Diesel cycle

text: formula_26 can be approximated to the flame temperature of the fuel used. The flame temperature can be approximated to the adiabatic flame temperature of the fuel with corresponding air-to-fuel ratio and compression pressure, formula_27.


title: Diesel cycle

text: This formula only gives the ideal thermal efficiency. The actual thermal efficiency will be significantly lower due to heat and friction losses. The formula is more complex than the Otto cycle (petrol/gasoline engine) relation that has the following formula:


title: Diesel cycle

text: The additional complexity for the Diesel formula comes around since the heat addition is at constant pressure and the heat rejection is at constant volume. The Otto cycle by comparison has both the heat addition and rejection at constant volume.


title: Diesel cycle

text: Comparing the two formulae it can be seen that for a given compression ratio (), the "ideal" Otto cycle will be more efficient. However, a "real" diesel engine will be more efficient overall since it will have the ability to operate at higher compression ratios. If a petrol engine were to have the same compression ratio, then knocking (self-ignition) would occur and this would severely reduce the efficiency, whereas in a diesel engine, the self ignition is the desired behavior. Additionally, both of these cycles are only idealizations, and the actual behavior does not divide as clearly or sharply. Furthermore, the ideal Otto cycle formula stated above does not include throttling losses, which do not apply to diesel engines.


title: Diesel cycle

text: Diesel engines have the lowest specific fuel consumption of any large internal combustion engine employing a single cycle, 0.26 lb/hp·h (0.16 kg/kWh) for very large marine engines (combined cycle power plants are more efficient, but employ two engines rather than one). Two-stroke diesels with high pressure forced induction, particularly turbocharging, make up a large percentage of the very largest diesel engines.


title: Diesel cycle

text: In North America, diesel engines are primarily used in large trucks, where the low-stress, high-efficiency cycle leads to much longer engine life and lower operational costs. These advantages also make the diesel engine ideal for use in the heavy-haul railroad and earthmoving environments.


title: Diesel cycle

text: Many model airplanes use very simple "glow" and "diesel" engines. Glow engines use glow plugs. "Diesel" model airplane engines have variable compression ratios. Both types depend on special fuels.


title: Diesel cycle

text: Some 19th-century or earlier experimental engines used external flames, exposed by valves, for ignition, but this becomes less attractive with increasing compression. (It was the research of Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot that established the thermodynamic value of compression.) A historical implication of this is that the diesel engine could have been invented without the aid of electricity.


title: Dorothy Fay

text: Dorothy Fay (born Dorothy Alice Fay Southworth, April 4, 1915 – November 5, 2003) was an American actress mainly known for her appearances in Western movies.


title: Dorothy Fay

text: She was born Dorothy Fay Southworth in Prescott, Arizona, the daughter of Harry T. Southworth and Harriet Fay Fox. Her father was a medical doctor. Fay attended the Caroline Leonetti School, the University of London, and the University of Southern California in Los Angeles, California. She also studied acting at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in London.


title: Dorothy Fay

text: Fay began her motion picture career in the late 1930s, performing in several B grade westerns. In 1938, she appeared opposite George Houston in "Frontier Scout" at Grand National Pictures. She also appeared with Western stars Buck Jones and William Elliott.


title: Dorothy Fay

text: Fay made four movies with her husband, country singer and actor Tex Ritter, at Monogram Pictures: "Song of the Buckaroo" (1938), "Sundown on the Prairie" (1939), "Rollin' Westward" (1939) and "Rainbow Over the Range" (1940). She played a heroine in "The Green Archer" (1940) and "White Eagle" (1941), both at Columbia Pictures. Fay also made a few small appearances in other genres, such as the crime drama "Missing Daughters" (1939). In 1940, she asked Monogram to give her a different part and was loaned to MGM for a small role in "The Philadelphia Story", which starred Cary Grant, James Stewart, and Katharine Hepburn. She also appeared as a debutante in the MGM musical "Lady Be Good" (1941) starring Ann Sothern, Eleanor Powell, Robert Young and Lionel Barrymore.


title: Dorothy Fay

text: Fay married singer/actor Tex Ritter on June 14, 1941; the marriage ended with his death on January 2, 1974. They had two sons, Thomas and John. Among her grandchildren are actors Jason Ritter and Tyler Ritter.


title: Dorothy Fay

text: Fay made several more movies after she and Ritter married, but then retired from show business in late 1941. In 1965, she and Ritter moved to Nashville, because of his singing and recording career. For a time, she was an official greeter at the "Grand Ole Opry". She returned to Southern California in 1981. Fay turned down several offers to return to movie work, including an opportunity to appear on the ABC television series "The Love Boat" playing the mother of real-life son, John. But she did appear with him in the TV special "Superstars and their Moms" in 1987. She was also a frequent guest at western movie conventions.


title: Dorothy Fay

text: In 1987, Fay suffered a stroke that impacted her speech. She moved to the Motion Picture & Television Country House and Hospital in Woodland Hills, California, in 1989. In August 2001, her death was mistakenly reported in the obituary section of "The Daily Telegraph" in London. This reportedly happened when a nurse at the Motion Picture Hospital returned after a holiday to find her not in her room. When told that she had "gone," as she had, but only to another wing, the nurse promptly called one of Dorothy Fay's friends, who happened to be a regular contributor to the "Telegraph" obituaries desk. Fay and her family found the blunder amusing and took it in good sport.


title: Dorothy Fay

text: Fay died of natural causes at the age of 88 at the Motion Picture and Television Home in Woodland Hills, California, less than two months after the death of her son, John. She is interred with her parents at Mountain View Cemetery in her hometown of Prescott, Arizona. Tex Ritter is interred at Oak Bluff Memorial Park in Port Neches, Texas. John Ritter is interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Hollywood Hills, California.