title: Temple of Poseidon, Sounion

text: The original, Archaic-period temple of Poseidon on the site, which was built of tufa, was probably destroyed in 480 BC by Persian troops during Xerxes I's invasion of Greece. Although there is no direct evidence for Sounion, Xerxes certainly had the temple of Athena, and everything else on the Acropolis of Athens, razed as punishment for the Athenians' defiance. After they defeated Xerxes in the naval Battle of Salamis, the Athenians placed an entire captured enemy trireme (warship with three banks of oars) at Sounion as a trophy dedicated to Poseidon.


title: Temple of Poseidon, Sounion

text: The temple of Poseidon at Sounion was constructed from 444 to 440 BC. This was during the ascendancy of the Athenian statesman Pericles, who also rebuilt the Parthenon in Athens.


title: Temple of Poseidon, Sounion

text: The temple of Poseidon was built on the ruins of a temple dating from the Archaic period, about which the Greek geographer Strabo noted: "Geraistos [in Euboia] . . . is conveniently situated for those who are sailing across from Asia to Attica since it is near Sounion. It has a sanctuary (hieron) of Poseidon, the most notable of those in that part of the world, and also a noteworthy settlement."


title: Temple of Poseidon, Sounion

text: The Greeks often chose temple locations that were physically related to or suggestive of the deity honored in the temples. Peak sanctuaries, for example, were often dedicated to Zeus, the god of the heavens and weather.


title: Temple of Poseidon, Sounion

text: The choice of location was however also often influenced by practical considerations. According to the authors of "Ancient Greece – Temples and Sanctuaries", the decision to build the temple at Sounion is clearly related to the visibility of the sea lanes to and from Piraeus, which provided the first and final vantage points from which incoming and exiting ships could be seen. The Cape of Sounion can be found on the coast of the Myrtoan Sea in the southern part of Greece.


title: Temple of Poseidon, Sounion

text: Jessica Paga and Margaret M. Miles argue that the most plausible explanation for the location of the temple was connected with the increasing strength and prominence of the Athenian navy. Coupled with the ongoing conflict of Athens with the islanders of Aegina was the threat to Athens from the Boeotians and Chalkidians in 506/5 BC. The placement of the temple can be seen as serving both military and economic strategies. Cape Sounion, the most southern part of Attica, witnessed a lot of mercantile naval traffic. A temple there could also have served the purpose of surveillance for potential enemy attacks. According to archaeologists from the University of Vienna's Institute of Classical Archeology, the degree of access or accessibility of Sounion itself for Athenians and members of the cult of Poseidon from other demes remains unclear.


title: Temple of Poseidon, Sounion

text: Secured by its own "peribolos" (court enclosed by a wall), propylaea (gateway), and two stoas (covered walkways or porticos), the construction of the ancient Temple of Poseidon around 490 BC was likely a large investment made by the state of Athens. Between 508/7 and 480/79 BC Athens is believed to have supported the founding and expansion of several sanctuaries in Attica, including those at Rhamnous, Mounychia in Piraeus, and Eleusis.


title: Temple of Poseidon, Sounion

text: As already explained above, one reason for the construction of the temple may have been militarily important and strategic location of the temple. Following the battle with the Persians at Marathon, the Athenians were weak and were vulnerable to a naval strike. Athens at the time faced nearby enemies, like the island of Aigina, that could have taken advantage of Athen's recovering army by attacking by sea. Therefore, Athens needed a lookout, for which Cape Sounion was the perfect place because anyone traveling by the coast of Attica needed to go around Cape Sounion. So construction of the temple right beside the water was a military tactic that secured an outpost in a highly trafficked area in order to keep tabs on the movements of enemies.


title: Temple of Poseidon, Sounion

text: As indicated by literary and archaeological evidence, the "leveled summit" on the coast of Cape Sounion was likely a cult site from as early as the end of the eighth century BC. Two cult centers dedicated to Athena and Poseidon respectively are believed to have been established by 700 BC.


title: Temple of Poseidon, Sounion

text: Excluding the corner blocks, each side of the temple was composed of twenty-three intermediate blocks.At the centre of the temple, beyond the colonnade, there would have been the hall of worship ("naos"), a windowless rectangular room, similar to the partly intact hall at the Temple of Hephaestus. It would have contained, at one end facing the entrance, the cult image, a colossal, ceiling-height () bronze statue of Poseidon. It has been found that the original plan for the temple was to construct 6x12 columns rather than the 6x13 columns that we find at the temple today, which was discovered by German archaeologist Wilhelm Dorpfeld. At the temple, it can be seen that there are large stretches of the paintings on the temple were preserved from erosion on the marble. The parts that did suffer erosion still have remnants of the outline of the art that once covered the surface.


title: Temple of Poseidon, Sounion

text: American architectural historian William Dinsmoor argues that the marble ceilings of the flanks of the temple are rare in the design of Greek temples. Of the slot type they presented having marble beams wider than the slots. The holes formed by this design were then enveloped by two thin slabs of marble. Similar to the architecture of the Hephaisteion, the temple of Hephaestus, the ceilings of the porches including those behind the end colonnades were of the coffer type and normal beam.


title: Temple of Poseidon, Sounion

text: There are many materials that went into the construction of the Temple of Poseidon at Sounion. The main temple we see today is mainly made out of marble with an intricate taenia (the fancy borders on the ceiling). The marble is an Agrileza marble. The marble used on the Temple of Poseidon at Sounion came from the marble quarries, a place where marble is removed from the earth, in the Agrileza mines. This type of marble was 'coarsed grained' meaning that it had a rougher texture than smooth, shiny marble. What makes the Temple of Poseidon at Sounion so interesting is that it was built on top of another old temple. The materials that the older temple was made out of was limestone rock, which was also integrated into the structure of the current remains of the temple. This was discovered in 1884 by German archeologist Wilhelm Dorpfeld. Dorpfeld found that the new temple, considered Classical, was built on top of another temple from a different time period regarded as the Archaic period. When building the new temple on top of the old, the marble was laid on top of the old limestone crepidoma, in a way that enveloped it. The Archaic period dates back to 800 BCE to 650 BCE a period of time that began after the Persians left Greece. The classical period dates from 480-323 BCE.


title: Temple of Poseidon, Sounion

text: Two "euthynteria" blocks of the archaic temple remain somewhat visible and "in situ" lying beneath the southeast corner of the modern version of the temple. Their overall dimensions are difficult to determine given the overlap between modern limestone and ancient marble. There are visible indentations, however, from what were likely close-tined claw-tooth chisels. With nineteen individual step blocks along the east and south sides of the temple, these blocks remain distinguishable by the consistency in length, height, lifting bosses, and chamfered edges. Several of these blocks appear discolored, providing a potential indication of burning.


title: Temple of Poseidon, Sounion

text: At least forty-one column limestone drums have been identified. Several of these drums contain cuttings that are diverse in their depth and size, ranging from 0.065-0.075m per side. At least one third of the column drums possess an articulated band that were likely used to properly arrange and align the drums into the correct placement or order within the column shaft.


title: Temple of Poseidon, Sounion

text: Executed between 1897 and 1915, Valerios Stais’ excavations of the Temple of Poseidon and the Temple of Athena at Sounion were, and continue to remain, the most elaborate and thorough excavations of these sites. As a result of his excavation, Stais uncovered a significant array of pottery, which included terracotta relief and painted plaques, small, terracotta sculptures, seals, scarabs, faience amulets, and metal objects that were likely remnants of jewelry or weapons. Stais also uncovered inscriptions that offered greater insight into who the temples were built for, falsifying Pausanias’ claim that the temple on the cliff was dedicated to the goddess Athena, rather than the god Poseidon. In his excavations of both the Temple of Poseidon at Sounion and the Temple of Athena at Sounion, Stais found large pits ("bothros") filled with fragments of marble sculptures and remnants of votive offerings, leading him to believe that these remains came as a result of the destruction of both temples by the Persians in 479.


title: Temple of Poseidon, Sounion

text: At the temple of Poseidon at Sounion, there are many remnants of pottery and handmade ceramics. It has been observed that there are many handmade votives and made remarkable observations about the gendered figurines. Many terracotta artifacts have been found at the sanctuary. Votives in ancient Greece were a symbol and a representation that one visited and was present at the temple. The votives served as an offering to the god to whom the temple was dedicated. For example, three votives that are worth noting are the three plaques found at the Temple of Poseidon at Sounion. Notable remnants found at the temple are three plaques that each depict different images. One is of a god; it is believed that the figure on this plaque is a god because the figure on it has wings. Another plaque has an image of a piece of clothing called a chiton that was used by both men and women during that time period. This second plaque however does not show the entire figure, so it is unknown if it is male or female because only the lower half is depicted. The last one is the image of a male and it is believed that it due to the characteristics of the man, he was a chariot driver, also known as a charioteer.


title: Temple of Poseidon, Sounion

text: Of particular significance of the "bothros" he uncovered was in 1907, just outside the old polygonal wall at the south-east corner of the sanctuary. Inside the bothros were a variety of offerings including "scarabs" and seals, terracotta relief plaques, pottery, and "faience" figurines, the majority of which could be date to the late eighth to the early fifth centuries BC.


title: Temple of Poseidon, Sounion

text: The most significant of these offerings is the intricate metalwork. Consisting of twenty four copper based artifacts found not too far from the Laurion mines, it is very possible that several of these objects were produced locally. These artifacts include a human figurine depicting that of a warrior god from the east with two spiral rings from the eighth century BC, the sculpture of bull from the mid-seventh century, and a cylinder shaped bead, six functional arrowheads, seven plain-finger rings, a pair of tweezers and a nail cap, one "ex-voto" double axe, and one ex-voto spearhead all from the seventh-sixth centuries BC.


title: Temple of Poseidon, Sounion

text: Zoomorphic figurines also compose a large portion of the offerings uncovered in the bothros. At least two thirds of those found are chariot groups and horses with and without a rider. The remaining third of figurines includes bovines, goats, rams, a dove, and a dog.


title: Temple of Poseidon, Sounion

text: In 1884, Wilhelm Dörpfeld conducted a systematic excavation of the area surrounding the Temple of Poseidon. Of his most significant findings, Dörpfeld uncovered the remnants of a previous Archaic limestone temple beneath the modern Temple of Poseidon. This led Dörpfeld to argue that the previous temple had been demolished by the Persians in 480/479 BC, thereby providing explanations for the archaic temple’s unfluted columns, lack of a roof, and evidence of a tremendous fire. During his excavations, Valerios Stais uncovered part of the inner foundation that likely supported an interior colonnade of the previous temple. According to archaeologists Jessica Paga and Margaret M. Miles, although not complete in its construction at the time of its demise, this archaic temple possessed measurements (ca. 13.06 x 30.20 m.) that are consistent with today's temple. The Archaic temple, before its destruction, is likely to have been considerably close to being completed. Archaeologists have found that the Archaic temple may have had at least its walls up before it was destroyed. The construction is believed to have reached to geison-level, and possibly have been partially roofed with just the wooden structure. It is very likely that the Archaic temple's peristyle was as tall as the geison and columns of the current temple. The Archaic temple and modern temple share very similar features and dimensions. However, the modern temple was constructed just slightly large enough to cover the crepidoma of the old temple. The crepidoma is the slightly raised structure at the base of a Greek temple, which are considered as the steps that lead into the temple. Based upon its architectural style, this earlier temple was likely constructed sometime around the first quarter of the 5th century.


title: Temple of Poseidon, Sounion

text: Some archaeologists have argued that disaster struck the Archaic temple, the date of which is unknown. Staїs, for example, theorizes that the temple’s collapse could have been due to the strength of high winds or by an earthquake. Based upon the architectural style of the remains, archaeologists argue that the archaic temple was built around 500 BC. It is worth noting that the construction of such an extravagant building likely required the receiving of funds and administrative support from central Athens. Given the evidence of advanced organizations dedicated to administration and finances, Athens was likely capable of supporting the construction of these temples.


title: Temple of Poseidon, Sounion

text: According to the Ministry of Culture and Sports, the sanctuary is open to visitors during the winter and summer seasons, from 9:30 am to sunset. Free admission days include the sixth of March (to remember and honor Melina Mercouri), International Monuments Day (April 18th), International Museums Day (May 18th), the last weekend of September every year, October 28th, and the first Sunday of the month beginning November 1st to March 31st. The full price of admission is €10 and the reduced rate is €5. The sanctuary is closed on March 25th in celebration of Greek Independence Day.


title: Temple of Poseidon, Sounion

text: Currently there are five known column drums of the temple located in England. Four drums are displayed in the garden of Chatsworth House as a base of a bust of the sixth Duke of Devonshire. They are presumably the bottom, third, fourth and the sixth drum taken from a single column. The British Museum preserves another one which is probably the seventh..


title: Dear Abby

text: Dear Abby is an American advice column founded in 1956 by Pauline Phillips under the pen name "Abigail Van Buren" and carried on today by her daughter, Jeanne Phillips, who now owns the legal rights to the pen name.


title: Dear Abby

text: According to Pauline Phillips, she came up with the pen name "Abigail Van Buren" by combining the name of Biblical figure Abigail in the Book of Samuel, with the last name of former US president Martin Van Buren.


title: Dear Abby

text: The column was syndicated by the McNaught Syndicate from 1956 until 1966, when it moved to Universal Press Syndicate. Dear Abby's current syndication company claims the column is "well-known for sound, compassionate advice, delivered with the straightforward style of a good friend."


title: Dear Abby

text: Abby was born Pauline Esther Friedman, and her twin sister was born Esther Pauline Friedman. Abby was known as Popo, and her sister was Eppie (a nickname from E.P.).


title: Dear Abby

text: Pauline Phillips started her Dear Abby column a few months after her twin sister, Eppie Lederer, took over the Ask Ann Landers column. This produced a rivalry and lengthy estrangement between the two sisters.


title: Dear Abby

text: On February 13, 1987, the "Chicago Tribune" announced that the Ann Landers column was moving to the "Tribune", which had published the Dear Abby column for years. The "Tribune" ran both columns, Landers every day and Abby six days a week.


title: Dear Abby

text: In comparing the columns written by each of the sisters, the Jewish Women's Archive wrote that "Both columns were characterized by a straightforward tone, practical advice, and a firm but modern moral sensibility" and that "both women used humor, including sarcasm and one-liners, in their responses."


title: Dear Abby

text: Pauline Phillips wrote the column herself until 1987, at which time her daughter, Jeanne Phillips, began writing the column with her. In December 2000, the elder Phillips wrote a column identifying her daughter as her "co-creator" and added, "I will continue to work on this column until my Maker calls me home." Twenty months later, the Phillips family revealed that Pauline was suffering from Alzheimer's disease.


title: Dear Abby

text: Although the change in authorship took place in 2000, the official statement—which included adding "Dear Abby is written by Abigail Van Buren, also known as Jeanne Phillips, and was founded by her mother, Pauline Phillips" to the bottom of each column—was not made until July 2002.


title: Dear Abby

text: "Dear Abby" (which has a readership estimated at 110 million in 2016) and which "The New York Times" described as "a staple in American households for decades," has been accused of being out of step with changing times. A 2016 column seemed to place the blame on a teen girl who had been sexually assaulted, and a 2018 column, which said that traditional Western names are preferable for newborns with half-Indian heritage, gave rise to accusations of xenophobia.


title: Kuttram Kuttrame

text: Kuttram Kuttrame () is a 2022 Indian Tamil-language crime thriller film written and directed by Suseenthiran and produced by D Company and presented by Axess Film Factory. The film stars Jai in the lead role with a supporting cast including Bharathiraja, Harish Uthaman, Smruthi Venkat and Divya Duraisamy. The film's music is composed by Ajesh, with cinematography handled by R. Velraj and editing done by Kasi Viswanathan. The film was released as a television premiere directly via Kalaignar TV on 14 April 2022 coinciding with Tamil New Year.


title: Kuttram Kuttrame

text: The film begins with a schoolgirl falling in a river and dying on March 9, 2005. The story then shifts to March 5, 2021, where a schoolgirl meets with a car accident and is admitted in a hospital. There, the doctor says there is no hope to save the girl and to prays to God.


title: Kuttram Kuttrame

text: Then, the story shifts to the morning of March 20, 2020. Kokila is found unconscious, and her husband Eeshwaran takes her to the hospital. Doctors announce Kokila's death due to an overdose of sleeping pills, but her uncle, SI Naatrayan believes this to be a murder, and Kokila's parents believe Eeshwaran is innocent.


title: Kuttram Kuttrame

text: In Naatrayan's investigation, it is revealed that both Eeshwaran and Kokila had been fighting with each other and he hit her brutally. There was also a rumor that Eeshwaran is having an affair with his niece Priya and they both stayed together in a lodge for an entire night. During the investigation, it is also shown that Priya was trying to hide something from Naatrayan and burns some medical reports which Naatrayan ends up seeing. Based on this information, he concludes that Eeshwaran and Priya murdered Kokila so that they can be together and Eeshwaran married Kokila for her wealth. Naatrayan shows all the evidence he has collected to Kokila's parents. Kokila's mother believes this claim and gives a complaint to Naatrayan.


title: Kuttram Kuttrame

text: DSP Muthukaruppan starts investigating and finds that Eeshwaran's uncle wanted him to take care of managing the farmlands owned by him. After seeing his diligence, he wants his daughter Kokila to get married to Eeshwaran so that relationships are maintained. Both Eeshwaran and Kokila loved each other, then got married, living a seemingly happy life. But Priya and Kokila were not on good terms with each other due to possessiveness on Eeshwaran. During Kokila's pregnancy, this fight reaches a point where Kokila's parents came to mediate it with Eeshwaran and suggest that shifting Priya to Coimbatore would be helpful for her studies and resolve this issue. Eeshwaran has already suggested this to Priya, but she is not willing to move out the house as from a young age, she wanted to marry Eeshwaran. However, she was hearbroken when he married Kokila and states her only happiness is him and to let her stay at his house.


title: Kuttram Kuttrame

text: Understanding the situation, Kokila's parents try to take Kokila with them for a few days for her peace of mind. With no choice, Eeshwaran takes Priya to a lodge and stays there, then met with Kokila's parents about the issue. It is also revealed that Kokila accidentally killed her child since she had problems with her breast milk secretion and someone suggested to Kokila that eating apple seed paste will help her. But by mistake, she fed it to her baby, who died. Kokila was depressed, and during an argument with her husband, he slapped her, causing a head injury. Priya took her to the hospital without Eeshwaran's knowledge, and those are the medical records she burnt at the start since it might make Eeshwaran look suspicious.


title: Kuttram Kuttrame

text: Meanwhile, Naatrayan is enraged by the verdict. He gets drunk and kidnaps Priya, still believing she is the murderer. Later, he tries to hang her and explains that he can convince the village that she committed suicide due to the guilt of killing Kokila. A fight ensues between Naatrayan and Eeshwaran, and it is revealed that Naatrayan is also at blame for Kokila's suicide. Kokila pushed her childhood friend Chitra from a bridge into a river below accidentally over a little fight. Naatrayan tells to cover it up and hide it from everyone. As Kokila's child dies on the same day Chitra died, she believes it is God's punishment and the guilt was part of the reason why she died.


title: Kuttram Kuttrame

text: A few months later, Muthu meets Eeshwaran and asks who suggested to use apple seed paste in the first place. When Chitra was pushed, Naatrayan's friend witnessed this too and blackmailed Naattrayan for money to keep his mouth shut. Recently, in a little argument, Naatrayan blackmails his friend, who decides to tell the truth to Muthu, Chitra's brother. Enraged, he decides to kill Kokila, but unexpectedly, her child died. Eeshwaran states he did not take revenge against Muthu as his mother already lost a child and he has a family, but he mentions that Muthu will definitely get his karma. Later, it is revealed that the girl who met with the car accident at the start was Muthu's daughter. Muthu commits suicide and hopes God will save his daughter.


title: Kuttram Kuttrame

text: The soundtrack and score is composed by Ajesh and the album featured two songs. The audio rights were acquired by Think Music.


title: Kuttram Kuttrame

text: Avinash Ramachandran of "Cinema Express" praised the film and wrote that "With multiple stories being narrated one after the other, it is up to Jai and Harish Uthaman to hold the film together, and both of them do a commendable job of it".


title: Simla Conference

text: The Simla Conference of 1945 was a meeting between the Viceroy of India Lord Wavell and the major political leaders of British India at the Viceregal Lodge in Simla. When it was clear that British intended to leave India, they desperately needed an agreement on what should happen when they leave.


title: Simla Conference

text: Talks, however, stalled on the issue of the selection of Muslim representatives. Seeking to assert itself and its claim to be the sole representative of Indian Muslims, the All-India Muslim League refused to back any plan in which the Indian National Congress, the dominant party in the talks, appointed Muslim representatives. This scuttled the conference, and perhaps the last viable opportunity for a united, independent India. When the Indian National Congress and the All India Muslim League reconvened under the Cabinet Mission the next year, the Indian National Congress was far less sympathetic to the Muslim League's requests despite Jinnah's approval of the British plan.


title: Simla Conference

text: On 14 June 1945 Lord Wavell announced a plan for a new Executive Council in which all members except the Viceroy and the Commander in Chief would be Indians. This executive council was to be a temporary measure until a new permanent constitution could be agreed upon and come into force. All portfolios except Defense would be held by Indian members.


title: Simla Conference

text: Prime Minister Winston Churchill as head of the war cabinet proposed Field Marshal Wavell's name to his cabinet in mid-June 1943, as India's next Viceroy. General Sir Claude Auchinleck who had followed Wavell in his Middle Eastern command was to be the next Commander in Chief of the Indian army after Lord Wavell. In October 1943 the British Government decided to replace Lord Linlithgow with Lord Wavell as the Viceroy of India. Before assuming the vice royalty, Lord Wavell had been head of the Indian army and thus had an understanding of the Indian situation. On becoming Viceroy, Wavell’s most important task was to present a formula for the future government of India which would be acceptable to both the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League.


title: Simla Conference

text: Gandhi launched the Quit India Movement in August 1942, after which he was arrested with other Congress lieutenants like Nehru and Patel. He was held separately in the Agha Khan's Pune palace while others were kept in the Ahmednagar Fort. Now he decided to launch his <nowiki>"</nowiki>Satyagraha"<nowiki>"</nowiki>," he commenced after the early morning breakfast on 10 February 1943 a fast for 21 days. Weighing 109 pounds when he began, Gandhi lost eighteen pounds after his 22-day fast. Fearing the death of Gandhi in prison as before him Kasturba, his wife and Mahadev Desai, his private secretary died in the same prison in Pune Palace, Lord Linlithgow recommended to Churchill the immediate unconditional release of Gandhi. Churchill wrote back to Linlithgow, "it seems almost certain that the old rascal [Gandhi] will emerge all better for his so-called fast.<nowiki>"</nowiki> Gandhi broke his fast on 3 March 1943. Gandhi suffered from malaria, and after that his health seriously deteriorated. The new Viceroy Archibald Wavell, recommended his unconditional release, Leo Amery the secretary of state for India convinced Churchill to release Gandhi on medical grounds, so he was released. After his release, Gandhi managed to recover. Upon hearing of this Churchill is said to have sent Wavell a peevish telegram asking <nowiki>"why Gandhi has not died yet?"</nowiki>


title: Simla Conference

text: Communal division was the greatest hurdle in the path of any political progress in India, so Wavell also began to agree with Amery's conviction that until the ""Aged Trinity"" (Gandhi, Churchill and Jinnah) continued to lead there was little chance of any political advance. Lord Wavell had a plan in mind and was eager to invite key leaders to a summit, but he was waiting for something to come out of the Gandhi-Jinnah meetings rescheduled on 9 September. C. Rajagopalachari presented a formula before that meeting accepting the Muslim right for a separate homeland. The talks began on 9 September 1944 at Jinnah's residence in Malabar Hill, Bombay where both leaders spent three and a half hours of secret discussion but Gandhi later with C. R. called it a "test of my patience and nothing else and I am amazed at my own patience." Their second meeting proved no more fruitful than the first, Jinnah sensed by this time the futility of the talks. Then there was a session of written correspondence on 11, 12, 13 and 14 September, and on 24, 25 and 26 September 1944, but nothing came out of it. Gandhi by now believed that "Jinnah was a good person but he suffers hallucination when he imagines the unnatural division of India and creation of Pakistan". Wavell wired to Amery, "Gandhi wants independence first and then is willing to resolve communal problem afterwards as he is profoundly a Hindu and wants transfer of full power to some nebulous national", while Jinnah wants to settle the communal problem first and then wants independence as he has lost his trust in Congress and Hindus." Wavell viewed this mini-summit breakdown as a personal challenge to bring together the two parties. He had plans in mind and was willing to use his influence and power to settle the communal deadlock. He would try to bring some moderate Indian leaders to a settlement by calling them to Shimla (India's summer capital). His list included as he told to Amery, "Gandhi and one "other" of the Congress party, Jinnah and one other member of the Muslim League, Dr. Ambedkar to represent the "Depressed classes", Tara Singh to represent the Sikhs, M. N. Roy for labor representation, and some other to represent Non-Congress and Non-League Hindus and Muslims.


title: Simla Conference

text: After correspondence with Amery in October, Wavell decided to write to Churchill directly and he tried to convince Churchill in this regard though he was sure that Churchill was reluctant to hold or attend any summit as "he hated India and anything to do with it". Churchill informed Amery that he would not be able to see Wavell until March 1945, Wavell on his own behalf met with Jinnah on 6 December, and tried to convince him to live in a united India as that would be much more beneficial for all because it would be a stronger nation at an international level. Jinnah argued that "Indian unity was only a British creation". Bengal's governor Richard Casey was well informed about Congress-League relations and he wrote to Wavell saying, "Congress is basically responsible for the growth of the Pakistan idea, by the way they treated the Muslims especially by refusing to allow them into the coalition provincial governments." Wavell agreed with everything Casey said about Pakistan, writing in his reply "I do not believe that Pakistan will work". Churchill chaired his war cabinet that reviewed and rejected Wavell's proposal for constitutional reforms in India on December 18. But Wavell was invited to visit England, and met with Churchill and Cabinet in May 1945. Wavell was allowed to fly back to India in June 1945 to release Congress Working Committee members and start the talks that would later be called the Simla Conference. Wavell decided to call all key leaders of India in Simla on 25 June 1945 and broadcast a message to all Indians on 14 June 1945 showing British willingness to give India dominion status as soon as possible if the communal deadlock was broken down. "India needs a surgical operation", Nehru noted after considering Wavell's idea, "We have to get rid of our preoccupation with a petty problem" as he considered the demand for Pakistan a petty problem. Jinnah accepted the invitation but only if he could meet with Wavell alone first on 24 June.


title: Simla Conference

text: One day before the conference was convened on 24 June, Wavell met with Abul Kalam Azad, Gandhi and Jinnah to assess their approach. He noted in his diary, "Gandhi & Jinnah are behaving like very temperamental prima donnas". Lord Wavell officially opened the summit at 11:00 am on 25 June 1945. In the beginning Azad being president of Congress spoke of its "non-communal" character. Jinnah responded to this by speaking of Congress' predominantly Hindu character and at that point there was a tug of war which had to be quieted down by Wavell. On the morning of 29 June the conference was reconvened and Wavell asked parties to submit a list of candidates for his new council, Azad agreed while Jinnah refused to submit a list before consulting the Muslim League's working committee. The conference was adjourned till 14 July, meanwhile Wavell met with Jinnah on 8 July and tried to convince him as Jinnah was determined to nominate all the proposed Muslim members from the Muslim League as he considered the Congress' Muslim representatives to be "show boys". Wavell gave him a letter that was placed in front of the Muslim League's Working Committee on 9 July. Jinnah replied after careful consideration of the Working Committee, "I regret to inform you that you have failed to give assurance relating to the nomination of all Muslim members form Muslim League's platform so we are not able to submit a list." The Viceroy was equally resolved not to give at that point and wired to Amery at that night his own list of new council members. Four were to be Muslim League members (Liaquat Ali Khan, Khawaja Nazimuddin, Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman and Eassak Sait) and another Non-League Muslim Muhammad Nawaz Khan (a Punjabi landlord). The five 'Caste Hindus' had to be Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, Madhav Shrihari Aney, B. N. Rau. Tara Singh was to represent the Sikhs and B. R. Ambedkar to represent the "untouchables", John Mathai was the only Christian thus bringing the total to sixteen including the Viceroy and Commander-in-Chief. Amery asked Wavell to consult this list with Jinnah, when Jinnah was asked about the Muslim names he adamantly refused to allow any League member to be part of the government until the League's right to be the sole representative of Muslims of India was acknowledged. Wavell found this demand impossible thus half an hour later he told Gandhi about his failure, Gandhi took the news calmly and said "His Majesty King George will sooner or later have to take the Hindu or Muslim point of view as they were irreconcilable." Thus the Wavell plan that was later to be called the Simla Conference failed in its objective and set the trend for the immediate topics that would dominate discourse until Indian independence.


title: Simla Conference

text: In May 1945 Wavell visited London and discussed his ideas with the British Government. These London talks resulted in the formulation of a definite plan of action which was officially made public simultaneously on 14 June 1945 by L.S. Amery, the Secretary of State for India, in the House of Commons and by Wavell in a broadcast speech delivered from Delhi. The plan, commonly known as the Wavell Plan, proposed the following:


title: Simla Conference

text: 1. The Viceroy’s Executive Council would be immediately reconstituted and the number of its members would be increased.


title: Simla Conference

text: 5. An Indian would be appointed as the member for Foreign Affairs in the Council. However, a British commissioner would be responsible for trade matters.


title: Simla Conference

text: 6. The defense of India would remain in British hands until power was ultimately transferred to Indians.


title: Simla Conference

text: 7. The Viceroy would convene a meeting of Indian politicians including the leaders of Congress and the Muslim League at which they would nominate members of the new Council.


title: Simla Conference

text: 8. If this plan were to be approved for the central government, then similar councils of local political leaders would be formed in all the provinces.


title: Simla Conference

text: 9. None of the changes suggested would in any way prejudice or prejudge the essential form of the future permanent Constitution of India.


title: Simla Conference

text: To discuss these proposals with Indian leaders, Wavell summoned them to a conference in Simla on 25 June 1945.


title: Simla Conference

text: The Wavell Plan, in essence, proposed the complete Indianisation of the Executive Council, but instead of asking all the parties to nominate members to the Executive Council from all the communities, seats were reserved for members on the basis of religion and caste, with the caste Hindus and Muslims being represented on it on the basis of parity. Even Mahatma Gandhi resented the use of the words “caste Hindus”.


title: Simla Conference

text: While the plan proposed immediate changes to the composition of the Executive Council it did not contain any guarantee of Indian independence, nor did it contain any mention of a future constituent assembly or any proposals for the division of power between the various parties of India.


title: Simla Conference

text: Meanwhile, a general election had been held in the United Kingdom in July 1945 which had brought the Labour Party to power. The Labour party wanted to transfer power to the Indians as quickly as possible. The new government sent the Cabinet Mission to India and this proved to be the final nail in the coffin of the Wavell Plan.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a type of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL), comprising about 6% of NHL cases. There are only about 15,000 patients presently in the United States with mantle cell lymphoma. It is named for the mantle zone of the lymph nodes.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: MCL is a subtype of B-cell lymphoma, due to CD5 positive antigen-naive pregerminal center B-cell within the mantle zone that surrounds normal germinal center follicles. MCL cells generally over-express cyclin D1 due to the , a chromosomal translocation in the DNA.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: At diagnosis, patients typically are in their 60s and present to their physician with advanced disease. About half have B symptoms such as fever, night sweats, or unexplained weight loss (over 10% of body weight). Enlarged lymph nodes (for example, a "bump" on the neck, armpits or groin) or enlargement of the spleen are usually present. Bone marrow, liver and gastrointestinal tract involvement occurs relatively early in the course of the disease. Mantle cell lymphoma has been reported in rare cases to be associated with severe allergic reactions to mosquito bites. These reactions involve extensive allergic reactions to mosquito bites which range from greatly enlarged bite sites that may be painful and involve necrosis to systemic symptoms (e.g. fever, swollen lymph nodes, abdominal pain, and diarrhea), or, in extremely rare cases, to life-threatening anaphylaxis. In several of these cases, the mosquito bite allergy (MBA) reaction occurred prior to the diagnosis of MCL suggesting that MBA can be a manifestation of early-developing mantle cell lymphoma.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: MCL, like most cancers, results from the acquisition of a combination of (non-inherited) genetic mutations in somatic cells. This leads to a clonal expansion of malignant B lymphocytes. The factors that initiate the genetic alterations are typically not identifiable, and usually occur in people with no particular risk factors for lymphoma development. Because it is an acquired genetic disorder, MCL is neither communicable nor inheritable.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: A defining characteristic of MCL is mutation and overexpression of cyclin D1, a cell cycle gene, that contributes to the abnormal proliferation of the malignant cells. MCL cells may also be resistant to drug-induced apoptosis, making them harder to cure with chemotherapy or radiation. Cells affected by MCL proliferate in a "nodular" or "diffuse" pattern with two main cytologic variants, "typical" or "blastic". Typical cases are small to intermediate-sized cells with irregular nuclei. Blastic (aka "blastoid") variants have intermediate to large-sized cells with finely dispersed chromatin, and are more aggressive in nature. The tumor cells accumulate in the lymphoid system, including lymph nodes and the spleen, with non-useful cells eventually rendering the system dysfunctional. MCL may also replace normal cells in the bone marrow, which impairs normal blood cell production.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: Diagnosis generally requires stained slides of a surgically removed part of a lymph node. Other methods are also commonly used, including cytogenetics and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and CER3 clonotypic primers are additional methods, but are less often used.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: The immunophenotype profile consists of CD5+ (in about 80% of cases), CD10-/+, and it is usually CD5+ and CD10-. CD20+, CD23-/+ (though plus in rare cases). Generally, cyclin D1 is expressed. Cyclin D1-negative mantle cell lymphoma can be diagnosed by detecting the SOX11 marker. The workup for mantle cell lymphoma is similar to the workup for many indolent lymphomas and certain aggressive lymphomas.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: Mantle cell lymphoma is a systemic disease with frequent involvement of the bone marrow and gastrointestinal tract (generally showing polyposis in the lining). There is also a not-uncommon leukemic phase, marked by its presence in the blood. For this reason, both the peripheral blood and bone marrow are evaluated for the presence of malignant cells. Chest, abdominal, and pelvic CT scans are routinely performed.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: Since mantle cell lymphoma may present a lymphomatous polyposis coli and colon involvement is common, colonoscopy is considered a routine part of the evaluation. Upper endoscopy and neck CT scan may be helpful in selected cases. In some patients with the blastic variant, lumbar puncture is done to evaluate the spinal fluid for involvement.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: There are no proven standards of treatment for MCL, and there is no consensus among specialists on how to treat it optimally. Many regimens are available and often get good response rates, but patients almost always get disease progression after chemotherapy. Each relapse is typically more difficult to treat, and relapse is generally faster. Regimens are available that treat relapses, and new approaches are under test. Because of the aforementioned factors, many MCL patients enroll in clinical trials to get the latest treatments.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: There are four classes of treatments in general use: chemotherapy, immunotherapy, radioimmunotherapy and biologic agents. The phases of treatment are generally: frontline, following diagnosis, consolidation, after frontline response (to prolong remissions), and relapse. Relapse is usually experienced multiple times.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: Chemotherapy is widely used as frontline treatment, and often is not repeated in relapse due to side effects. Alternate chemotherapy is sometimes used at first relapse. For frontline treatment, CHOP with rituximab is the most common chemotherapy, and often given as outpatient by IV. A stronger chemotherapy with greater side effects (mostly hematologic) is HyperCVAD, often given in the hospital setting, with rituximab and generally to fitter patients (some of which are over 65). HyperCVAD is becoming popular and showing promising results, especially with rituximab. It can be used on some elderly (over 65) patients, but seems only beneficial when the baseline Beta-2-MG blood test was normal. It is showing better complete remissions (CR) and progression-free survival (PFS) than CHOP regimens. A less intensive option is bendamustine with rituximab.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: Second line treatment may include fludarabine, combined with cyclophosphamide and/or mitoxantrone, usually with rituximab. Cladribine and clofarabine are two other medications being investigated in MCL. A relatively new regimen that uses old medications is PEP-C, which includes relatively small, daily doses of prednisone, etoposide, procarbazine, and cyclophosphamide, taken orally, has proven effective for relapsed patients. According to Dr. John Leonard, PEP-C may have anti-angiogenetic properties, something that he and his colleagues are testing through an ongoing drug trial.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: Another approach involves using very high doses of chemotherapy, sometimes combined with total body irradiation (TBI), in an attempt to destroy all evidence of the disease. The downside to this is the destruction of the patient's entire immune system as well, requiring rescue by transplantation of a new immune system (hematopoietic stem cell transplantation), using either autologous stem cell transplantation, or those from a matched donor (an allogeneic stem cell transplant). A presentation at the December 2007 American Society of Hematology (ASH) conference by Christian Geisler, chairman of the Nordic Lymphoma Group claimed that according to trial results, mantle cell lymphoma is potentially curable with very intensive chemo-immunotherapy followed by a stem cell transplant, when treated upon first presentation of the disease.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: These results seem to be confirmed by a large trial of the European Mantle Cell Lymphoma Network indicating that induction regimens containing monoclonal antibodies and high dose ARA-C (Cytarabine) followed by ASCT should become the new standard of care of MCL patients up to approximately 65 years.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: A study released in April 2013 showed that patients with previously untreated indolent lymphoma, bendamustine plus rituximab can be considered as a preferred first-line treatment approach to R-CHOP because of increased progression-free survival and fewer toxic effects.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: Immune-based therapy is dominated by the use of the rituximab monoclonal antibody, sold under the trade name Rituxan (or as Mabthera in Europe and Australia). Rituximab may have good activity against MCL as a single agent, but it is typically given in combination with chemotherapies, which prolongs response duration. There are newer variations on monoclonal antibodies combined with radioactive molecules known as radioimmunotherapy (RIT). These include Zevalin and Bexxar. Rituximab has also been used in small numbers of patients in combination with thalidomide with some effect. In contrast to these antibody-based 'passive' immunotherapies, the field of 'active' immunotherapy tries to activate a patient's immune system to specifically eliminate their own tumor cells. Examples of active immunotherapy include cancer vaccines, adoptive cell transfer, and immunotransplant, which combines vaccination and autologous stem cell transplant. Though no active immunotherapies are currently a standard of care, numerous clinical trials are ongoing.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: Two Bruton tyrosine kinase inhibitors (BTKi), one In November 2013, ibrutinib (trade name Imbruvica, Pharmacyclics LLC) and in October 2017, acalabrutinib (trade name Calquence, AstraZeneca Pharmaceuticals LP) were approved in the United States for treating MCL.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: Other targeted agents include the proteasome inhibitor bortezomib, mTOR inhibitors such as temsirolimus, and the P110δ inhibitor GS-1101.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: In November 2019, zanubrutinib (Brukinsa) was approved in the United States with an indication for the treatment of adults with mantle cell lymphoma who have received at least one prior therapy.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: Brexucabtagene autoleucel (Tecartus) was approved for medical use in the United States in July 2020, with an indication for the treatment of adults with relapsed or refractory mantle cell lymphoma. It was approved for medical use in the European Union in December 2020.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: Each dose of brexucabtagene autoleucel is a customized treatment created using the recipient's own immune system to help fight the lymphoma. The recipient's T cells, a type of white blood cell, are collected and genetically modified to include a new gene that facilitates the targeting and killing of the lymphoma cells. These modified T cells are then infused back into the recipient.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: Recent clinical advances in mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) have seen standard‐of‐care treatment algorithms transformed. Frontline rituximab combination therapy, high dose cytarabine‐based induction in younger patients and, more recently, Bruton Tyrosine Kinase (BTK) inhibitors in the relapse setting have all demonstrated survival advantage in clinical trials (Wang et al., 2013; Eskelund et al., 2016; Rule et al., 2016). Over the last 15 years these practices have gradually become embedded in clinical practice and real‐world data has observed corresponding improvements in patient survival (Abrahamsson et al., 2014; Leux et al., 2014).


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: The overall 5-year survival rate for MCL is generally 50% (advanced stage MCL) to 70% (for limited-stage MCL).


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: Prognosis for individuals with MCL is problematic and indexes do not work as well due to patients presenting with advanced stage disease. Staging is used but is not very informative, since the malignant B-cells can travel freely though the lymphatic system and therefore most patients are at stage III or IV at diagnosis. Prognosis is not strongly affected by staging in MCL and the concept of metastasis does not really apply.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: The Mantle Cell Lymphoma International Prognostic Index (MIPI) was derived from a data set of 455 advanced stage MCL patients treated in series of clinical trials in Germany/Europe. Of the evaluable population, approximately 18% were treated with high-dose therapy and stem cell transplantation in first remission. The MIPI is able to classify patients into three risk groups: low risk (median survival not reached after median 32 months follow-up and 5-year OS rate of 60%), intermediate risk (median survival 51 months) and high risk (median survival 29 months). In addition to the 4 independent prognostic factors included in the model, the cell proliferation index (Ki-67) was also shown to have additional prognostic relevance. When the Ki67 is available, a biologic MIPI can be calculated.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: MCL is one of the few NHLs that can cross the boundary into the brain, yet it can be treated in that event.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: There are a number of prognostic indicators that have been studied. There is not universal agreement on their importance or usefulness in prognosis.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: Ki-67 is an indicator of how fast cells mature and is expressed in a range from about 10% to 90%. The lower the percentage, the lower the speed of maturity, and the more indolent the disease. Katzenberger et al. Blood 2006;107:3407 graphs survival versus time for subsets of patients with varying Ki-67 indices. He shows median survival times of about one year for 61-90% Ki-67 and nearly 4 years for 5-20% Ki-67 index.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: MCL cell types can aid in prognosis in a subjective way. Blastic is a larger cell type. Diffuse is spread through the node. Nodular are small groups of collected cells spread through the node. Diffuse and nodular are similar in behavior. Blastic is faster growing and it is harder to get long remissions. Some thought is that given a long time, some non-blastic MCL transforms to blastic. Although survival of most blastic patients is shorter, some data shows that 25% of blastic MCL patients survive to 5 years. That is longer than diffuse type and almost as long as nodular (almost 7 yrs).


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: Beta-2 microglobulin is another risk factor in MCL used primarily for transplant patients. Values less than three have yielded 95% overall survival to six years for auto SCT where over three yields a median of 44 most overall survival for auto SCT (Khouri 03). This is not yet fully validated.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: Testing for high levels of Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in NHL patients is useful because LDH is released when body tissues break down for "any" reason. While it cannot be used as a sole means of diagnosing NHL, it is a surrogate for tracking tumor burden in those diagnosed by other means. The normal range is approximately 100–190.


title: Mantle cell lymphoma

text: 6% of non-Hodgkin lymphoma cases are mantle cell lymphoma. , the ratio of males to females affected is about 4:1.


title: William Bludworth

text: William Bludworth is a fictional character in the "Final Destination" film series, portrayed by Tony Todd. He appears in "Final Destination", "Final Destination 2", and "Final Destination 5". William Bludworth is the owner of Bludworth Funeral Homes and has the most knowledge of Death and its forces or capacities, and can basically be seen as the Grim Reaper throughout.


title: William Bludworth

text: In the first film, Alex Browning and Clear Rivers sneak inside the morgue to glimpse at Tod Waggner's corpse. Bludworth catches them in the act and asks why they came. Offering his help, he explains to them the rule of Death: those who cheat death will be revisited by Death once more to claim back their lives which should've been lost. He also tells them about Death's list (a list of the order of deaths of the survivors in the original incident) and how it will work on them once again. Finally, he states that ruining the list can affect the remaining survivors. Bludworth claims that if Alex and Clear can figure out death's design, then they may have a chance to beat it. He warns them about the consequences of tampering with the design however by telling them, "beware the risk of cheating the plan, disrespecting the design...could initiate a horrifying fury that would terrorize even the Grim Reaper...and you don't even want to fuck with that mack daddy."


title: William Bludworth

text: In the second film, Bludworth is revisited by Clear, together with Kimberly Corman and Thomas Burke, to obtain help about cheating death. He is seen de-accessorizing the corpse of Evan Lewis. However, he only mentions to them the rule of life and death: new life can defeat Death.


title: William Bludworth

text: Despite being absent from the third and fourth films, Bludworth reappears in the fifth film. In this film, he is seen as a coroner who the characters encounter several times, and informs them only that by taking a life can they live, for they will receive the lifespan of the person they've killed. The point they neglect to realize however is that they have no way of knowing how long the person they would kill has to live on their remaining lifespan.


title: William Bludworth

text: Tony Todd, who played Candyman in the 1992 film "Candyman", was cast as mortician William Bludworth. Writer Glen Morgan initially wanted Todd for the role for his deep voice that would give the film an eerie tone.


title: William Bludworth

text: Todd's performance in "Final Destination" has received positive reviews among critics. Joe Leydon of "Variety" complimented his performance, saying that "Todd --- an old hand at scary stories after the "Candyman" series --- overplays with enough relish to position himself as a probable returnee for a "Final Destination 2."". Brett Gallman of "Oh, The Horror!" described Todd's wry and sinister portrayal "has crafted one of the genre's most memorable characters in recent memory


title: William Bludworth

text: On the other hand, Todd's role in "Final Destination 2" received mixed reviews among critics, most complaining about Todd's minimal screentime. Robert Koehler of "Variety" remarked that Todd's "single, distinctly flat scene" was wasted by the filmmakers. Gallman of "Oh, The Horror!" is enticed by Todd's role "whose purpose has still yet to be revealed in the franchise."


title: Ram Raksha Stotra

text: Shri Rama Raksha Stotram (Sanskrit: श्रीरामरक्षास्तोत्रम्) is a Sanskrit stotra, hymn of praise dedicated to Rama, used as a prayer for protection. The composer of the Rama Raksha Stotra was "Budha Kaushika", which is said to be another name of Rishi Vishvamitra.


title: Compare-and-swap

text: In computer science, compare-and-swap (CAS) is an atomic instruction used in multithreading to achieve synchronization. It compares the contents of a memory location with a given value and, only if they are the same, modifies the contents of that memory location to a new given value. This is done as a single atomic operation. The atomicity guarantees that the new value is calculated based on up-to-date information; if the value had been updated by another thread in the meantime, the write would fail. The result of the operation must indicate whether it performed the substitution; this can be done either with a simple boolean response (this variant is often called compare-and-set), or by returning the value read from the memory location ("not" the value written to it).


title: Compare-and-swap

text: A compare-and-swap operation is an atomic version of the following pseudocode, where denotes access through a pointer:


title: Compare-and-swap

text: This operation is used to implement synchronization primitives like semaphores and mutexes, as well as more sophisticated lock-free and wait-free algorithms. Maurice Herlihy (1991) proved that CAS can implement more of these algorithms than atomic read, write, or fetch-and-add, and assuming a fairly large amount of memory, that it can implement all of them. CAS is equivalent to load-link/store-conditional, in the sense that a constant number of invocations of either primitive can be used to implement the other one in a wait-free manner.


title: Compare-and-swap

text: Algorithms built around CAS typically read some key memory location and remember the old value. Based on that old value, they compute some new value. Then they try to swap in the new value using CAS, where the comparison checks for the location still being equal to the old value. If CAS indicates that the attempt has failed, it has to be repeated from the beginning: the location is re-read, a new value is re-computed and the CAS is tried again. Instead of immediately retrying after a CAS operation fails, researchers have found that total system performance can be improved in multiprocessor systems—where many threads constantly update some particular shared variable—if threads that see their CAS fail use exponential backoff—in other words, wait a little before retrying the CAS.


title: Compare-and-swap

text: As an example use case of compare-and-swap, here is an algorithm for atomically incrementing or decrementing an integer. This is useful in a variety of applications that use counters. The function performs the action , atomically (again denoting pointer indirection by , as in C) and returns the final value stored in the counter. Unlike in the pseudocode above, there is no requirement that any sequence of operations is atomic except for .


title: Compare-and-swap

text: In this algorithm, if the value of changes after (or while!) it is fetched and before the CAS does the store, CAS will notice and report this fact, causing the algorithm to retry.


title: Compare-and-swap

text: Some CAS-based algorithms are affected by and must handle the problem of a false positive match, or the ABA problem. It is possible that between the time the old value is read and the time CAS is attempted, some other processors or threads change the memory location two or more times such that it acquires a bit pattern which matches the old value. The problem arises if this new bit pattern, which looks exactly like the old value, has a different meaning: for instance, it could be a recycled address, or a wrapped version counter.


title: Compare-and-swap

text: A general solution to this is to use a double-length CAS (DCAS). E.g., on a 32-bit system, a 64-bit CAS can be used. The second half is used to hold a counter. The compare part of the operation compares the previously read value of the pointer "and" the counter, with the current pointer and counter. If they match, the swap occurs - the new value is written - but the new value has an incremented counter. This means that if ABA has occurred, although the pointer value will be the same, the counter is exceedingly unlikely to be the same (for a 32-bit value, a multiple of 2 operations would have to have occurred, causing the counter to wrap and at that moment, the pointer value would have to also by chance be the same).


title: Compare-and-swap

text: An alternative form of this (useful on CPUs which lack DCAS) is to use an index into a freelist, rather than a full pointer, e.g. with a 32-bit CAS, use a 16-bit index and a 16-bit counter. However, the reduced counter lengths begin to make ABA possible at modern CPU speeds.


title: Compare-and-swap

text: One simple technique which helps alleviate this problem is to store an ABA counter in each data structure element, rather than using a single ABA counter for the whole data structure.


title: Compare-and-swap

text: A more complicated but more effective solution is to implement safe memory reclamation (SMR). This is in effect lock-free garbage collection. The advantage of using SMR is the assurance a given pointer will exist only once at any one time in the data structure, thus the ABA problem is completely solved. (Without SMR, something like a freelist will be in use, to ensure that all data elements can be accessed safely (no memory access violations) even when they are no longer present in the data structure. With SMR, only elements actually currently in the data structure will be accessed).


title: Compare-and-swap

text: CAS, and other atomic instructions, are sometimes thought to be unnecessary in uniprocessor systems, because the atomicity of any sequence of instructions can be achieved by disabling interrupts while executing it. However, disabling interrupts has numerous downsides. For example, code that is allowed to do so must be trusted not to be malicious and monopolize the CPU, as well as to be correct and not accidentally hang the machine in an infinite loop or page fault. Further, disabling interrupts is often deemed too expensive to be practical. Thus, even programs only intended to run on uniprocessor machines will benefit from atomic instructions, as in the case of Linux's futexes.


title: Compare-and-swap

text: In multiprocessor systems, it is usually impossible to disable interrupts on all processors at the same time. Even if it were possible, two or more processors could be attempting to access the same semaphore's memory at the same time, and thus atomicity would not be achieved. The compare-and-swap instruction allows any processor to atomically test and modify a memory location, preventing such multiple-processor collisions.


title: Compare-and-swap

text: On server-grade multi-processor architectures of the 2010s, compare-and-swap is cheap relative to a simple load that is not served from cache. A 2013 paper points out that a CAS is only 1.15 times more expensive than a non-cached load on Intel Xeon (Westmere-EX) and 1.35 times on AMD Opteron (Magny-Cours).


title: Compare-and-swap

text: Compare-and-swap (and compare-and-swap-double) has been an integral part of the IBM 370 (and all successor) architectures since 1970. The operating systems that run on these architectures make extensive use of this instruction to facilitate process (i.e., system and user tasks) and processor (i.e., central processors) parallelism while eliminating, to the greatest degree possible, the "disabled spinlocks" which had been employed in earlier IBM operating systems. Similarly, the use of test-and-set was also eliminated. In these operating systems, new units of work may be instantiated "globally", into the global service priority list, or "locally", into the local service priority list, by the execution of a single compare-and-swap instruction. This substantially improved the responsiveness of these operating systems.


title: Compare-and-swap

text: In the x86 (since 80486) and Itanium architectures this is implemented as the compare and exchange (CMPXCHG) instruction (on a multiprocessor the prefix must be used).


title: Compare-and-swap

text: As of 2013, most multiprocessor architectures support CAS in hardware, and the compare-and-swap operation is the most popular synchronization primitive for implementing both lock-based and non-blocking concurrent data structures.


title: Compare-and-swap

text: The atomic counter and atomic bitmask operations in the Linux kernel typically use a compare-and-swap instruction in their implementation.


title: Compare-and-swap

text: The SPARC-V8 and PA-RISC architectures are two of the very few recent architectures that do not support CAS in hardware; the Linux port to these architectures uses a spinlock.


title: Compare-and-swap

text: Many C compilers support using compare-and-swap either with the C11 codice_1 functions, or some non-standard C extension of that particular C compiler, or by calling a function written directly in assembly language using the compare-and-swap instruction.


title: Compare-and-swap

text: The following C function shows the basic behavior of a compare-and-swap variant that returns the old value of the specified memory location; however, this version does not provide the crucial guarantees of atomicity that a real compare-and-swap operation would:


title: Compare-and-swap

text: codice_2 is always returned, but it can be tested following the codice_3 operation to see if it matches codice_4, as it may be different, meaning that another process has managed to succeed in a competing codice_3 to change the reg value from codice_4.


title: Compare-and-swap

text: For example, an election protocol can be implemented such that every process checks the result of codice_3 against its own PID (= newval). The winning process finds the codice_3 returning the initial non-PID value (e.g., zero). For the losers it will return the winning PID.


title: Compare-and-swap

text: Since CAS operates on a single pointer-sized memory location, while most lock-free and wait-free algorithms need to modify multiple locations, several extensions have been implemented.


title: Petrópolis

text: Petrópolis (; ), also known as The Imperial City, is a municipality in the Southeast Region of Brazil. It is located in the state of Rio de Janeiro, northeast of the city of Rio de Janeiro. According to the 2010 National Brazilian Census, Petrópolis municipality had 295,917 inhabitants that year, up from 286,537 inhabitants at the last census. Besides being the largest and most populous city in the , the city also has the largest GDP and HDI in the region.


title: Petrópolis

text: The town's name ("city of Peter") honors Pedro II, the last Emperor of Brazil, who is entombed there at the Cathedral of Saint Peter of Alcantara. The city was the summer residence of the Brazilian Emperors and aristocrats in the 19th century, and was the official capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro during the First Brazilian Republic, between 1894 and 1902.


title: Petrópolis

text: There are projects to annex Petrópolis again to the Metropolitan Region of Rio de Janeiro, because it is linked to the capital by political and economic ties, and contains one of the state's highest HDIs.


title: Petrópolis

text: Until the 18th century, the region was inhabited by the "índios coroados" (crowned Indians), which earned it the Portuguese name of ""Sertão dos Índios Coroados"". It was only with the discovery of gold in Minas Gerais and the consequent opening of the new way of the mines that passed through Petrópolis in that century that the region began to be occupied by non-Indians. The town's origins can be traced to Bernardo Soares de Proença, who between 1722 and 1725 opened an alternative route between Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais, across the Serra da Estrela called ""Caminho Novo das Minas"" (New Road to Mines).


title: Petrópolis

text: While traveling to Minas Gerais along this route in 1822, Emperor Pedro I stayed at a farm owned by a Catholic priest, named Correia, and found the region's climate pleasant. As the priest's sister and heiress refused to sell his property, the Emperor bought the neighboring one, called, the Córrego Seco Farm, in 1830. He had his summer palace built there, but never saw it finished, because he stepped down from the throne, on April 7, 1831. Other Brazilian aristocrats eventually followed suit.


title: Petrópolis

text: His son, Emperor Pedro II, on March 16, 1843, signed an imperial decree ordering the construction of a settlement (to be formed with the arrival of German immigrants) and the construction of the dreamy summer palace on his outlying lands, the cornerstone of which was settled by the Emperor in May 1845, and that was ready in 1847. Conceived by Major Julius Friedrich Koeler, it is considered to be the second planned city in Brazil (after Recife, designed during the Dutch period), being composed of an urban nucleus – the city (now the center), where the Imperial Palace, Public buildings, commerce and services.


title: Petrópolis

text: From then on, the city became the "de facto" capital of the Empire of Brazil during the summer, with the whole court moving. Large numbers of well to do inhabitants of the city of Rio de Janeiro also spent the summer to Petrópolis to escape the outbreaks of yellow fever. Emperor Pedro II ruled for 49 years, and remained in Petrópolis over at least forty summers, for up to five months. On 29 September 1857, the town was elevated to the status of a city. In 1861, the first Macadamized Highway in Brazil, Estrada União e Indústria, was inaugurated, connecting the city to the city of Juiz de Fora in Minas Gerais. In 1883, a railroad arrived at the city on the initiative of the Baron of Mauá. Also in 1877, the first telephone line in Brazil (and the first outside of the United States) was built, connecting Pedro's summer palace to his farm headquarters.


title: Petrópolis

text: Regardless of the time of year, foreign diplomatic representatives lived in Petrópolis for most of the imperial period.


title: Petrópolis

text: Even after the establishment of the Republic and the exile of the Imperial family in 1889, the city continued to play a significant role in Brazilian history. It was a frequent choice as a summer residence for Presidents of the republic, who lodged at the Palácio Rio Negro (Black River Palace). The most frequent of them was Getúlio Vargas, whose stays, during Estado Novo, lasted up to three months.


title: Petrópolis

text: Between 1894 and 1902, the city was capital of the State of Rio de Janeiro, replacing Niterói, due to the two Navy Revolts. Also in this period, was chosen Hermogênio Silva, the only Deputy Governor of Rio de Janeiro whose political base was in Petrópolis. In 1897, the first cinema session took place in the city, with cinematographer showing of the Lumière brothers' first films. In 1903, the Treaty of Petrópolis, which gave Brazil the Acre territory, was signed between Brazil and Bolivia, at the residence of the Baron of Rio Branco. The sanitarian Oswaldo Cruz was named its first mayor in 1916. In the premises of the Quitandinha Palace, the declaration of war of the American countries to the Axis Powers was signed during World War II (1939–1945).


title: Petrópolis

text: During the Brazilian military government in 1970s, there was a center for torture, called "the house of death".


title: Petrópolis

text: In 1973 the remains of Isabel, Princess Imperial of Brazil (1846–1921) and her husband, the Count of Eu, were brought to be buried in the Imperial Mausoleum. The Princess received a funeral of Head of State with the presence of the most important leaders of the Republic and the Brazilian Imperial Family and was declared a public holiday.


title: Petrópolis

text: On 15 February 2022, over 150 people were killed by floods in Petrópolis following intense rainfall that caused mudslides.


title: Petrópolis

text: Nestled among the forested hills of the Serra dos Órgãos, in the valley of the Quitandinha and Piabanha rivers, Petrópolis is a popular winter holiday spot. Besides the climate and surroundings, the main attraction is the former Summer Palace of the last Brazilian Emperor, which is now the Imperial Museum, specializing in Imperial history and memorabilia.


title: Petrópolis

text: Petrópolis is home to the National Laboratory for Scientific Computing, a research unit of the Ministry of Science and Technology of the Brazilian Federal Government. The municipality holds part of the Central Rio de Janeiro Atlantic Forest Mosaic of conservation units, created in 2006.


title: Petrópolis

text: The Petrópolis Municipal Nature Park is in the historical center of the city of Petrópolis. It is part of the Petrópolis Environmental Protection Area and the Atlantic Forest Biosphere Reserve. The municipality also contains the Pedra do Elefante Natural Monument.


title: Petrópolis

text: Petrópolis has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: "Cwa") caused by elevation with humid summers. The rainfall is approximately per annum.


title: Petrópolis

text: The municipality contains part of the Tinguá Biological Reserve, a strictly protected Atlantic Forest conservation unit created in 1989.


title: Petrópolis

text: The temperatures are mild. The annual average is around . In warmer months, the average temperature is and the average of the coldest month is . According to the National Institute of Meteorology (), the lowest temperature recorded was on August 2, 1955, and the highest temperature recorded was , on November 6, 2009.


title: Petrópolis

text: Petrópolis experienced a strong population growth in the late nineteenth century, which remained less significant throughout the twentieth century, having its population began to stagnate and then to contract (even if in a mild way) around the beginning 2000. According to 2010 data, 52.3% (approximately 155 thousand people) of the population belong to the female sex and 48.7% (about 145 thousand people) to the male sex.


title: Petrópolis

text: According to the 2010 demographic census, Petrópolis was home to 186,642 White people (63.5%), 75,025 Mixed people (25.4%), 31,463 Black people (10.6%), 970 Asian people (0.4%) and 281 Amerindian people (0.1%).


title: Petrópolis

text: The main peoples to participate in the ethnic/cultural formation of Petrópolis were the Germans and the Portuguese (mainly from the region of the Azores). Other ethnic groups like Italian, French, English and Lebanese also had expressive participation in the formation of the city.


title: Petrópolis

text: Petrópolis is divided into five districts, which are subdivided into smaller neighborhoods. These districts are subdivided into neighborhoods and / or urban and rural locations.


title: Petrópolis

text: Petrópolis' economy is based on tourism, services and industry. It is the 2nd largest beer production centre in the country and the headquarters of major Brazilian brewery companies such as Grupo Petrópolis (which owns the beer brands Itaipava, Crystal, Lokal, Black Princess and Petra) and Bohemia, and also has a Brasil Kirin Factory.


title: Petrópolis

text: Other companies also have their headquarters in the city, such as the Mundo Verde network (Brazilian retailer of natural products) and the chocolate maker Katz. Currently the project is being developed for the Industrial District of Posse, which aims to encourage industries in the 5th district of the city. Petrópolis has the 9th largest GDP of the state of Rio de Janeiro, in front of cities such as Nova Friburgo and Teresópolis, and, in national scope, more than six state capitals, such as Aracaju, Palmas and Macapá.


title: Petrópolis

text: The high season of tourism in Petrópolis begins in July, with the beginning of Bauernfest, and the beginning of winter, which attracts tourists to the city by the cold weather. In 2014, some attractions increased more than 30%, compared to the same period of 2013, due to the FIFA World Cup Brazil 2014.


title: Petrópolis

text: It is the city of the mountain region of Rio de Janeiro that receives more tourists per year. Petrópolis was the non-capital that progressed most in the Competitiveness Index of the National Tourism in 2014, prepared by the Ministry of Tourism. According to the developers, the city is among the 15 best placed in Brazil in the overall ranking of competitiveness in tourism.


title: Petrópolis

text: In the city, there are two public universities, the University of the State of Rio de Janeiro (UERJ), and the Fluminense Federal University (UFF), both of which have nationally recognized excellence levels, respectively, offering Architecture and Production Engineering courses. There is also in the city a unit of the Federal Center of Technological Education Celso Suckow of Fonseca (CEFET-RJ), with the courses of Degree in Physics, Bachelor in Tourism and Computer Engineering.


title: Petrópolis

text: In addition to these, the city has the Catholic University of Petrópolis, the Petrópolis Medical School, Arthur Sá Earp Neto College, Estácio de Sá University, FAETERJ – Faculty of Technological Education of the State of Rio de Janeiro (Faculdade Estadual do Rio de Janeiro), which offers courses in Information Technology and Communication, and private higher education institutions that offer several undergraduate courses and also postgraduate courses (lato sensu and stricto sensu).


title: Petrópolis

text: The municipality houses one of the teaching centers of the Distance Learning Center of the State of Rio de Janeiro, a consortium formed by public institutions of higher education in the state of Rio de Janeiro. This consortium offers free undergraduate courses in Pedagogy, Mathematics, Biology and Public Safety. The National Laboratory of Scientific Computing offers free masters and doctorate courses in the areas of Computation, Mathematics, Biology, Physics and Engineering.


title: Petrópolis

text: In the field of basic education, the municipal education network reached the goal of the IDEB for 2011 and had its mark above the averages of the state and the country.


title: Petrópolis

text: According to the IBGE census, in the year 2014 the total fleet of Petrópolis had 142,576 vehicles, approximately 1 vehicle for 2.1 inhabitants.


title: Petrópolis

text: Of these were: 96,384 automobiles; 21,133 motorcycles; 8,048 pickup trucks; 6,753 vans; 3,092 heavy trucks; 2,769 scooters; 1,289 utilities; 926 buses; 680 micro-buses; 290 tractor-trucks; And 1,232 other types of vehicles. The public transport in the city is made by several companies, being the greater one, Petrolta.


title: Petrópolis

text: The culture of Petrópolis is directly linked to the imperial period of Brazil. Being nicknamed as Imperial City, the city has a large collection of theaters, museums, and palaces that refer to the period. In addition, much of the culture of the city was influenced by the immigration that participated in the formation of the identity of Petrópolis, where the German, Portuguese, Syrian, Lebanese and Italian groups stand out. Even today the city has the second largest festival of German culture in Brazil, the Bauernfest, only losing to the Oktoberfest in the south of the country. In addition, festivals are held every year that bring back the culture of other peoples, such as the Serra Serata, in honor of Italian immigration, and Bunka-Sai, a celebration of Japanese culture. The Cultural Foundation promotes every year (since 2009) the Maestro Guerra-Peixe de Cultura Prize, which honors the most outstanding artists and cultural agents during the year; The patron César Guerra-Peixe was an illustrious composer Petropolitan.


title: Petrópolis

text: The city has a unique architecture, such as the Palácio Quitandinha, the Petropolitan Academy of Letters, the House Museum of Santos Dumont, the Imperial Museum of Brazil, the Dom Pedro Theater, the "Casa do Colono Museum" and the Cathedral of Saint Peter of Alcantara. The palace is the main building of the so-called "historic center", where Koeler Avenue stands out, surrounded by mansions and palaces of the 19th century. The road is perpendicular to the facade of the Cathedral of Saint Peter of Alcantara and, in the other direction, the Ruy Barbosa Square and the facade of the Catholic University.


title: Petrópolis

text: In the so-called "historic center", there are also buildings such as ""Encantada"" (summer house of Santos Dumont); The Crystal Palace; The Yellow Palace (City Council); The Rio Negro Palace, bordering the city hall (Sérgio Fadel Palace) and curious buildings, such as the "castelinho" of the self-proclaimed "Duke of Belfort", on the corner of Koeler and Ruy Barbosa Square, or the old house of the Rocha Miranda family, on Avenida Ipiranga – same address of another residence of the same family, in a sixties style. Modern lines are also present in the house of Lúcio Costa, in the neighborhood of Samambaia.


title: Petrópolis

text: Petrópolis has 2 theaters. The "Teatro Dom Pedro", created in Art Deco style and inaugurated in 1933 by D'Angelo & Cia, is one of the largest in the state. The place was created with different styles, with mythological and futuristic references, making the theater considered an eclectic style, becoming a cultural and artistic reference for Petrópolis. The city also owns the Teatro Santa Cecília, built in 1955, located in Rua Aureliano Coutinho in the center of the city.


title: Petrópolis

text: Petrópolis has great tradition as an imperial city. For this reason, today it owns one of the most important museums of history of Brazil, the Imperial Museum. Built between 1845 and 1862 as the summer Palace of the Imperial Family, it has a collection of pieces linked to the Brazilian monarchy, including furniture, documents, works of art and personal objects belonging to the Imperial Family. The Palace turned museum in 1943 by decree of the then president Getúlio Vargas. In addition, the city has the Petrópolis Wax Museum, "Casa Santos Dumont Museum", "Casa do Colono Museum", "Princess Isabel House" and Rio Negro Palace, all located in the city center.


title: Petrópolis

text: With more than 321.000 visitors, the Imperial Museum in Petrópolis was the most visited museum in Brazil in 2016, according to data from the Brazilian Institute of Museums (Ibram) of the Ministry of Culture.


title: Petrópolis

text: The Petropolis culture is directly linked to German immigration. Since 1989, Bauernfest, a typical feast in honor of German immigrants, is held every year. The festival in 2012 lasted 11 days, had the participation of 368.000 visitors and raised R$55 million. The festival welcomes foreign tourists from all over Brazil, especially from the city of Rio de Janeiro. It is the most influential party of the city and includes competitions of chope the meter, presentations, typical cuisine, exhibition of chocolates, among other attractions.


title: Petrópolis

text: The city also holds the Serra Serata, an annual festival that celebrates immigration and Italian culture.


title: Petrópolis

text: Petrópolis also hosts the Winter Festival, promoted by SESC, with several attractions for this period of the year, which usually happens in the Quitandinha Palace. The festival is already traditional in the cities of Petrópolis, Nova Friburgo and Teresópolis. In 2014 was held the 13th edition, counting on concerts, theatrical presentations and cultural events.


title: Petrópolis

text: The city also hosts Bunka-Sai, the annual festival of Japanese culture, which had its first edition in 2009. It has cultural presentations, in addition to the Japanese gastronomic festival.


title: Petrópolis

text: In 2013, the carnival of the city was canceled, for the application of the funds in the approximate amount of R$1 million, previously used in the parades, in the area of health, thus making Petrópolis a refuge of Cariocas of the Carnival. The decision was made during a meeting between the mayor and the Foundation for Culture and Tourism.


title: Petrópolis

text: The main television station transmitting news related to the city is "InterTV Serra + Mar", as well as other local broadcasters such as SBT Rio and Band Rio, which present news from the mountain region of Rio de Janeiro, mainly related to Petrópolis and Nova Friburgo. The city also has local television networks with a certain influence: Rede Petrópolis de Televisão, TV Vila Imperial and TV Cidade de Petrópolis, with headquarters located in the center.


title: Petrópolis

text: The main written newspaper of the city is the "Tribuna de Petrópolis", one of the oldest in the country, created in 1909, published from Tuesday to Sunday, whose headquarters are in the center. Also worthy of note is the newspaper "Diário de Petrópolis", published daily, of great influence in the city.


title: Petrópolis

text: The main and most listened radio stations with headquarters in Petrópolis are "Radio Tribuna" FM (88.5 MHz), "Radio UCP" (106.3 MHz), "Radio Supernova FM" (98.7 MHz) and "Radio Imperial" (1550 AM). In addition, radio stations based in the city of Rio de Janeiro, such as the "MIX FM Rio Radio", which already owned an exclusive domain of Radio MIX in Petrópolis, which was later purchased by Rádio UCP, are also very much heard.


title: Petrópolis

text: In recent years, the internet has proved to be one of the main sources for news. In Petrópolis, the main ones are the G1 of the Serrana Region, the online portal of the Tribuna de Petrópolis, and the Diário de Petrópolis, besides the site Acontece in Petrópolis and the portal with live broadcast of TVC 16 (TV Cidade de Petrópolis). Also worth mentioning is the online portal of the RPT (Rede Petrópolis de Televisão).


title: Count Paris

text: Count Paris () or County Paris is a fictional character in William Shakespeare's "Romeo and Juliet". He is a suitor of Juliet. He is handsome, wealthy, and a kinsman to Prince Escalus.


title: Count Paris

text: Luigi da Porto adapted the story as "Giulietta e Romeo" and included it in his "Historia novellamente ritrovata di due Nobili Amanti" published in 1530. Da Porto drew on "Pyramus and Thisbe" and Boccacio's "Decameron". He gave it much of its modern form, including the lovers' names, the rival Montecchi and Capuleti families, and the location in Verona. He also introduces characters corresponding to Shakespeare's Mercutio, Tybalt, and Paris. Da Porto presents his tale as historically true and claims it took place in the days of Bartolomeo II della Scala (a century earlier than Salernitano). Montecchi and Capuleti were actual 13th-century political factions, but the only connection between them is a mention in Dante's "Purgatorio" as an example of civil dissension.


title: Count Paris

text: Paris makes his first appearance in Act I, Scene II, where he offers to make Juliet his wife and the mother of his children. Juliet's father, Capulet, demurs, telling him to wait until she is older. Capulet invites Paris to attend a family ball being held that evening, and grants him permission to woo Juliet. Later in the play, however, after her cousin, Tybalt, dies by Romeo's hand, Juliet refuses to become Paris's "joyful bride". Capulet threatens to disown Juliet and turn her out of his house if she does not marry Paris. Juliet's mother, too, turns her back on Juliet shortly after Capulet storms out of the scene ("Talk not to me, for I'll not speak a word; do as thou wilt, for I have done with thee"), as does the Nurse. Then, at Friar Lawrence's cell at the church, Paris tries to woo Juliet by addressing her as his wife and saying they are to be married on Thursday. As he leaves at the Friar's request, he kisses her. When he has gone Juliet, threatens to kill herself if the Friar cannot help her avoid this impending marriage.


title: Count Paris

text: Paris's final appearance in the play is in the cemetery where Juliet, who has taken something to put her in a deathlike state, has been laid to rest in the Capulet family tomb. Believing her to be dead, Paris has come to mourn her in solitude and privacy and sends his manservant away. He professes his love to Juliet, saying he will nightly weep for her. Shortly thereafter, Romeo, deranged by grief himself, also goes to the Capulet's tomb and is confronted by Count Paris, who believes Romeo came to desecrate Juliet's tomb. A duel ensues and Paris is killed. Romeo drags Paris's body inside the Capulet tomb and lays him out on the floor beside Juliet's body, fulfilling Paris's dying wish.


title: Count Paris

text: The earliest versions of the text (First Quarto, Second Quarto and First Folio) all call him "Countie Paris". Some versions of the text call him "County Paris". "County" was in common usage at the time of writing, and Shakespeare's choice was dictated by the needs of the metre.


title: Count Paris

text: As a father, the chief role Capulet plays in Juliet's life is that of a matchmaker. He has raised and cared for Juliet for nearly fourteen years, but he must find a suitable husband who will care for her for the remainder of her life. Juliet, as a young woman and as an aristocrat in general, cannot support herself in the society of her day, her only available career choices are either wife or nun. Thus it falls upon her father and her husband to support her.


title: Count Paris

text: Count Paris would be an excellent match for Juliet. He, too, is an aristocrat and of a higher social order. He is a well-established and wealthy business/government person who could support and provide for Juliet rather well. He is also, most probably, well connected politically, making him a good family contact for Capulet and his wife. This probably means that he is a quite mature being at least twenty-five years old, while Juliet has not yet turned fourteen. Nevertheless, within the historical context of the play, there is nothing peculiar in their age difference. Though the typical age of marriage for Italian men in this period was 29 and women was about 25, for the higher class, including the aristocracy and wealthy merchant class, arranged marriages were common during the teenage years.


title: Count Paris

text: Although Paris is not as developed as other characters in the play, he stands as a complication in the development of Romeo and Juliet's relationship. His love of Juliet stands as he overthrows Romeo's impetuous love. In Act V, Scene III, Paris visits the crypt to quietly and privately mourn the loss of his would-be fiancée, before approaching Romeo whom he thinks has returned to Verona to vandalise the Capulet tomb. After refusing Romeo's pleas for him to leave, Paris and Romeo draw their swords and fight. Romeo eventually kills him during the sword fight, and his dying wish is for Romeo to lay him next to Juliet, which Romeo does. This scene is often omitted from modern stage and screen performances as it complicates what would otherwise be a simple love story between the title characters.


title: Count Paris

text: Men often used Petrarchan sonnets to exaggerate the beauty of women who were impossible for them to attain, as in Romeo's situation with Rosaline. Capulet's wife uses this sonnet form to describe Count Paris to Juliet as a handsome man. When Romeo and Juliet meet, the poetic form changes from the Petrarchan (which was becoming archaic in Shakespeare's day) to a then more contemporary sonnet form, using "pilgrims" and "saints" as metaphors. Finally, when the two meet on the balcony, Romeo attempts to use the sonnet form to pledge his love, but Juliet breaks it by saying, "Dost thou love me?" By doing this, she searches for true expression, rather than a poetic exaggeration of their love. Juliet uses monosyllabic words with Romeo, but uses formal language with Paris. Other forms in the play include an epithalamium by Juliet, a rhapsody in Mercutio's Queen Mab speech, and an elegy by Paris.


title: Dunvegan Castle

text: Dunvegan Castle is located to the north of Dunvegan on the Isle of Skye, off the west coast of Scotland. It is the seat of the MacLeod of MacLeod, chief of the Clan MacLeod. Probably a fortified site from the earliest times, the castle was first built in the 13th century and developed piecemeal over the centuries. In the 19th century the whole castle was remodelled in a mock-medieval style. The castle is built on an elevated rock overlooking an inlet on the eastern shore of Loch Dunvegan, a sea loch.


title: Dunvegan Castle

text: The promontory was enclosed by a curtain wall in the 13th century, and a four-storey tower house was built in the late 14th century. This tower was similar in style to contemporary structures at Kisimul Castle and Caisteal Maol. Alasdair Crotach, the 8th chief, added the Fairy Tower as a separate building around 1500. During the 17th century, new ranges of buildings were put up between the old tower and the Fairy Tower, beginning in 1623 with the state apartment built by Ruaraidh Mor. The old tower was subsequently abandoned until the late 18th century, when the 23rd chief began the process of homogenising the appearance of the castle. This process continued under the 24th and 25th chiefs, with the addition of mock battlements and the new approach over a drawbridge from the east. The present appearance of the castle dates from around 1840 when this process of "baronialisation" was completed. The castle is a Category A listed building.


title: Dunvegan Castle

text: Dunvegan Castle occupies the summit of a rock some above sea level, which projects on to the eastern shore of a north-facing inlet or bay. On the eastern, landward side of the site is a partly natural ditch around deep.


title: Behavioralism

text: Behaviouralism (or behavioralism) is an approach in political science that emerged in the 1930s in the United States. It represented a sharp break from previous approaches in emphasizing an objective, quantified approach to explain and predict political behaviour. It is associated with the rise of the behavioural sciences, modeled after the natural sciences. Behaviouralism claims it can explain political behaviour from an unbiased, neutral point of view.


title: Behavioralism

text: Behaviouralists seek to examine the behaviour, actions, and acts of individuals – rather than the characteristics of institutions such as legislatures, executives, and judiciaries – and groups in different social settings and explain this behavior as it relates to the political system.


title: Behavioralism

text: From 1942 through the 1970s, behaviouralism gained support. It was probably Dwight Waldo who coined the term for the first time in a book called "Political Science in the United States" which was released in 1956. It was David Easton however who popularized the term. It was the site of discussion between traditionalist and new emerging approaches to political science. The origins of behaviouralism is often attributed to the work of University of Chicago professor Charles Merriam, who in the 1920s and 1930s emphasized the importance of examining political behaviour of individuals and groups rather than only considering how they abide by legal or formal rules.


title: Behavioralism

text: Prior to the "behaviouralist revolution", political science being a science at all was disputed. Critics saw the study of politics as being primarily qualitative and normative, and claimed that it lacked a scientific method necessary to be deemed a science.


title: Behavioralism

text: Behaviouralists used strict methodology and empirical research to validate their study as a social science. The behaviouralist approach was innovative because it changed the attitude of the purpose of inquiry. It moved toward research that was supported by verifiable facts. In the period of 1954-63, Gabriel Almond spread behaviouralism to comparative politics by creation of a committee in SSRC. During its rise in popularity in the 1960s and '70s, behaviouralism challenged the realist and liberal approaches, which the behaviouralists called "traditionalism", and other studies of political behaviour that was not based on fact.


title: Behavioralism

text: To understand political behaviour, behaviouralism uses the following methods: sampling, interviewing, scoring and scaling, and statistical analysis.


title: Behavioralism

text: Behaviouralism studies how individuals behave in group positions realistically rather than how they should behave. For example, a study of the United States Congress might include a consideration of how members of Congress behave in their positions. The subject of interest is how Congress becomes an 'arena of actions' and the surrounding formal and informal spheres of power.


title: Behavioralism

text: David Easton was the first to differentiate behaviouralism from behaviourism in the 1950s (behaviourism is the term mostly associated with psychology). In the early 1940s, behaviourism itself was referred to as a behavioural science and later referred to as behaviourism. However, Easton sought to differentiate between the two disciplines:


title: Behavioralism

text: Behavioralism was not a clearly defined movement for those who were thought to be behavioralists. It was more clearly definable by those who were opposed to it, because they were describing it in terms of the things within the newer trends that they found objectionable. So some would define behavioralism as an attempt to apply the methods of natural sciences to human behavior. Others would define it as an excessive emphasis upon quantification. Others as individualistic reductionism. From the inside, the practitioners were of different minds as what it was that constituted behavioralism. [...] And few of us were in agreement.