# Electric Current, Resistance, and Ohm's Law

## Resistance and Resistivity


### Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:
1. Explain the concept of resistivity.
2. Use resistivity to calculate the resistance of specified configurations of material.
3. Use the thermal coefficient of resistivity to calculate the change of resistance with temperature.

### Material and Shape Dependence of Resistance

The resistance of an object depends on its shape and the material of which it is composed. The cylindrical resistor in  is easy to analyze, and, by so doing, we can gain insight into the resistance of more complicated shapes. As you might expect, the cylinder’s electric resistance  is directly proportional to its length , similar to the resistance of a pipe to fluid flow. The longer the cylinder, the more collisions charges will make with its atoms. The greater the diameter of the cylinder, the more current it can carry (again similar to the flow of fluid through a pipe). In fact,  is inversely proportional to the cylinder’s cross-sectional area .
For a given shape, the resistance depends on the material of which the object is composed. Different materials offer different resistance to the flow of charge. We define the resistivity  of a substance so that the resistance  of an object is directly proportional to . Resistivity  is an intrinsic property of a material, independent of its shape or size. The resistance  of a uniform cylinder of length , of cross-sectional area , and made of a material with resistivity , is
 gives representative values of . The materials listed in the table are separated into categories of conductors, semiconductors, and insulators, based on broad groupings of resistivities. Conductors have the smallest resistivities, and insulators have the largest; semiconductors have intermediate resistivities. Conductors have varying but large free charge densities, whereas most charges in insulators are bound to atoms and are not free to move. Semiconductors are intermediate, having far fewer free charges than conductors, but having properties that make the number of free charges depend strongly on the type and amount of impurities in the semiconductor. These unique properties of semiconductors are put to use in modern electronics, as will be explored in later chapters.

### Temperature Variation of Resistance

The resistivity of all materials depends on temperature. Some even become superconductors (zero resistivity) at very low temperatures. (See .) Conversely, the resistivity of conductors increases with increasing temperature. Since the atoms vibrate more rapidly and over larger distances at higher temperatures, the electrons moving through a metal make more collisions, effectively making the resistivity higher. Over relatively small temperature changes (about  or less), resistivity  varies with temperature change  as expressed in the following equation
where  is the original resistivity and  is the temperature coefficient of resistivity. (See the values of  in  below.) For larger temperature changes,  may vary or a nonlinear equation may be needed to find . Note that  is positive for metals, meaning their resistivity increases with temperature. Some alloys have been developed specifically to have a small temperature dependence. Manganin (which is made of copper, manganese and nickel), for example, has  close to zero (to three digits on the scale in ), and so its resistivity varies only slightly with temperature. This is useful for making a temperature-independent resistance standard, for example.
Note also that  is negative for the semiconductors listed in , meaning that their resistivity decreases with increasing temperature. They become better conductors at higher temperature, because increased thermal agitation increases the number of free charges available to carry current. This property of decreasing  with temperature is also related to the type and amount of impurities present in the semiconductors.
The resistance of an object also depends on temperature, since  is directly proportional to . For a cylinder we know , and so, if  and  do not change greatly with temperature,  will have the same temperature dependence as . (Examination of the coefficients of linear expansion shows them to be about two orders of magnitude less than typical temperature coefficients of resistivity, and so the effect of temperature on  and  is about two orders of magnitude less than on .) Thus,
is the temperature dependence of the resistance of an object, where  is the original resistance and  is the resistance after a temperature change . Numerous thermometers are based on the effect of temperature on resistance. (See .) One of the most common is the thermistor, a semiconductor crystal with a strong temperature dependence, the resistance of which is measured to obtain its temperature. The device is small, so that it quickly comes into thermal equilibrium with the part of a person it touches.

### Test Prep for AP Courses


### Section Summary

1. The resistance  of a cylinder of length  and cross-sectional area  is , where  is the resistivity of the material.
2. Values of  in  show that materials fall into three groups—conductors, semiconductors, and insulators.
3. Temperature affects resistivity; for relatively small temperature changes , resistivity is , where  is the original resistivity and 
 
    is the temperature coefficient of resistivity.
4.  gives values for , the temperature coefficient of resistivity.
5. The resistance  of an object also varies with temperature: , where  is the original resistance, and 
 
    is the resistance after the temperature change.

### Conceptual Questions


### Problems & Exercises
