# Geometric Optics

## The Law of Refraction


### Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:
1. Determine the index of refraction, given the speed of light in a medium.
It is easy to notice some odd things when looking into a fish tank. For example, you may see the same fish appearing to be in two different places. (See .) This is because light coming from the fish to us changes direction when it leaves the tank, and in this case, it can travel two different paths to get to our eyes. The changing of a light ray’s direction (loosely called bending) when it passes through variations in matter is called refraction. Refraction is responsible for a tremendous range of optical phenomena, from the action of lenses to voice transmission through optical fibers.
Why does light change direction when passing from one material (medium) to another? It is because light changes speed when going from one material to another. So before we study the law of refraction, it is useful to discuss the speed of light and how it varies in different media.

### The Speed of Light

Early attempts to measure the speed of light, such as those made by Galileo, determined that light moved extremely fast, perhaps instantaneously. The first real evidence that light traveled at a finite speed came from the Danish astronomer Ole Roemer in the late 17th century. Roemer had noted that the average orbital period of one of Jupiter’s moons, as measured from Earth, varied depending on whether Earth was moving toward or away from Jupiter. He correctly concluded that the apparent change in period was due to the change in distance between Earth and Jupiter and the time it took light to travel this distance. From his 1676 data, a value of the speed of light was calculated to be  (only 25% different from today’s accepted value). In more recent times, physicists have measured the speed of light in numerous ways and with increasing accuracy. One particularly direct method, used in 1887 by the American physicist Albert Michelson (1852–1931), is illustrated in . Light reflected from a rotating set of mirrors was reflected from a stationary mirror 35 km away and returned to the rotating mirrors. The time for the light to travel can be determined by how fast the mirrors must rotate for the light to be returned to the observer’s eye.
            

The speed of light is now known to great precision. In fact, the speed of light in a vacuum  is so important that it is accepted as one of the basic physical quantities and has the fixed value
where the approximate value of  is used whenever three-digit accuracy is sufficient. The speed of light through matter is less than it is in a vacuum, because light interacts with atoms in a material. The speed of light depends strongly on the type of material, since its interaction with different atoms, crystal lattices, and other substructures varies. We define the index of refraction  of a material to be
where  is the observed speed of light in the material. Since the speed of light is always less than  in matter and equals  only in a vacuum, the index of refraction is always greater than or equal to one.
That is, .  gives the indices of refraction for some representative substances. The values are listed for a particular wavelength of light, because they vary slightly with wavelength. (This can have important effects, such as colors produced by a prism.) Note that for gases,  is close to 1.0. This seems reasonable, since atoms in gases are widely separated and light travels at  in the vacuum between atoms. It is common to take  for gases unless great precision is needed. Although the speed of light  in a medium varies considerably from its value  in a vacuum, it is still a large speed.

### Law of Refraction

 shows how a ray of light changes direction when it passes from one medium to another. As before, the angles are measured relative to a perpendicular to the surface at the point where the light ray crosses it. (Some of the incident light will be reflected from the surface, but for now we will concentrate on the light that is transmitted.) The change in direction of the light ray depends on how the speed of light changes. The change in the speed of light is related to the indices of refraction of the media involved. In the situations shown in , medium 2 has a greater index of refraction than medium 1. This means that the speed of light is less in medium 2 than in medium 1. Note that as shown in (a), the direction of the ray moves closer to the perpendicular when it slows down. Conversely, as shown in (b), the direction of the ray moves away from the perpendicular when it speeds up. The path is exactly reversible. In both cases, you can imagine what happens by thinking about pushing a lawn mower from a footpath onto grass, and vice versa. Going from the footpath to grass, the front wheels are slowed and pulled to the side as shown. This is the same change in direction as for light when it goes from a fast medium to a slow one. When going from the grass to the footpath, the front wheels can move faster and the mower changes direction as shown. This, too, is the same change in direction as for light going from slow to fast.

The amount that a light ray changes its direction depends both on the incident angle and the amount that the speed changes. For a ray at a given incident angle, a large change in speed causes a large change in direction, and thus a large change in angle. The exact mathematical relationship is the law of refraction, or “Snell’s Law,” which is stated in equation form as
Here  and  are the indices of refraction for medium 1 and 2, and  and  are the angles between the rays and the perpendicular in medium 1 and 2, as shown in . The incoming ray is called the incident ray and the outgoing ray the refracted ray, and the associated angles the incident angle and the refracted angle. The law of refraction is also called Snell’s law after the Dutch mathematician Willebrord Snell (1591–1626). While the law has been named after Snell, the Arabian physicist, Ibn Sahl, found the law of refraction in 984 and used it in his work On Burning Mirrors and Lenses. Snell’s experiments showed that the law of refraction was obeyed and that a characteristic index of refraction  could be assigned to a given medium. Snell was not aware that the speed of light varied in different media, but through experiments he was able to determine indices of refraction from the way light rays changed direction.

### Test Prep for AP Courses


### Section Summary

1. The changing of a light ray’s direction when it passes through variations in matter is called refraction.
2. The speed of light in vacuum 
3. Index of refraction , where  is the speed of light in the material,  is the speed of light in vacuum, and  is the index of refraction.
4. Snell’s law, the law of refraction, is stated in equation form as .

### Conceptual Questions


### Problems & Exercises
