# Introduction to Paleoanthropology/Origin



## Beginning of the 20th Century

In 1891, Eugene Dubois discovers remains of hominid fossils (which he
will call *Pithecanthropus*) on the island of Java, in southeast Asia.
The two main consequences of this discovery:

-   stimulated research for a \"missing link\" in our origins
-   oriented research interest toward southeast Asia as possible cradle
    of humanity

Yet, in South Africa, 1924, Raymond Dart accidentally discovered the
remains of child (at Taung) during exploitation of a quarry and
publishes them in 1925 as a new species - *Australopithecus africanus*
(which means \"African southern ape\"). Dart, a British-trained
anatomist, was appointed in 1922 professor of anatomy at the University
of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa. Through this
discovery, Dart:

-   documented the ancient age of hominids in Africa and
-   questioned the SE Asian origin of hominids, arguing for a possible
    African origin.

Nevertheless, Raymond Dart\'s ideas were not accepted by the scientific
community at the time because:

-   major discoveries carried out in Europe (such as Gibraltar, and the
    Neander Valley in Germany) and Asia (Java) and
-   remains of this species were the only ones found and did not seem to
    fit in phylogenetic tree of our origins and
-   ultimately considered simply as a fossil ape.

It took almost 20 years before Dart\'s ideas could be accepted, due to
notable new discoveries:

-   in 1938, identification of a second species of Australopithecine,
    also in South Africa: *Paranthropus (Australopithecus) robustus*.
    Robert Broom collected at Kromdraai Cave the remains of a skull and
    teeth,
-   in 1947, other remains of *Australopithecus africanus* found at
    Sterkfontein and Makapansgat, and
-   in 1948, other remains of *Paranthropus robustus* found at
    Swartkrans, also by R. Broom.

## 1950s - 1970s

During the first half of the 20th century, most discoveries essential
for paleoanthropology and human evolution were done in South Africa.

After World War II, research centered in East Africa. The couple Mary
and Louis Leakey discovered a major site at Olduvai Gorge, in Tanzania:

-   many seasons of excavations at this site - discovery of many layers
    (called beds), with essential collection of faunal remains and stone
    tools, and several hominid species identified for the first time
    there;
-   In 1959, discovery in Bed I of hominid remains (OH5), named
    *Zinjanthropus (Australopithecus) boisei*;
-   L. Leakey first considered this hominid as the author of stone
    tools, until he found (in 1964) other hominid fossils in the same
    Bed I, which he attributed to different species - *Homo habilis*
    (OH7).

Another major discovery of paleoanthropological interest comes from the
Omo Valley in Ethiopia:

-   from 1967 to 1976, nine field seasons were carried out;
-   In 1967, discovery of hominid fossils attributed to new species -
    *Australopithecus aethiopicus*
-   217 specimens of hominid fossils attributed to five hominid species:
    *A. afarensis*, *A. aethiopicus*, *A. boisei*, *H. rudolfensis*, *H.
    erectus*, dated to between 3.3 and 1 Million years ago.

Also in 1967, Richard Leakey starts survey and excavation on the east
shore of Lake Turkana (Kenya), at a location called Koobi Fora:

-   research carried out between 1967 and 1975
-   very rich collection of fossils identified, attributed to *A.
    afarensis* and *A. boisei*

In 1972, a French-American expedition led by Donald Johanson and Yves
Coppens focuses on a new locality (Hadar region) in the Awash Valley
(Ethiopia):

-   research carried out between 1972-1976
-   in 1973, discovery of most complete skeleton to date, named Lucy,
    attributed (in 1978 only) to *A. afarensis*
-   more than 300 hominid individuals were recovered
-   discoveries allow for a detailed analysis of locomotion and
    bipedalism among early hominids

From 1976 to 1979, Mary Leakey carries out research at site of Laetoli,
in Tanzania:

-   In 1976, she discovers animal footprints preserved in tuff (volcanic
    ash), dated to 3.7 million years ago (MYA).
-   In 1978-1979, discovery of site with three series of hominid
    (australopithecine) footprints, confirming evidence of bipedalism.

## 1980 - The Present

### South Africa

Four australopithecine foot bones dated at around 3.5 million years were
found at Sterkfontein in 1994 by Ronald Clarke:

-   oldest hominid fossils yet found in South Africa
-   They seem to be adapted to bipedalism, but have an intriguing
    mixture of ape and human features

Since then, eight more foot and leg bones have been found from the same
individual, who has been nicknamed \"Little Foot\".

### Eastern Africa

Recent discovery of new *A. boisei* skull is:

-   one of the most complete known, and the first known with an
    associated cranium and lower jaw;
-   It also has a surprising amount of variability from other *A.
    boisei* skulls, which may have implications for how hominid fossils
    are classified.

Recent research suggests that the some australopithecines were capable
of a precision grip, like that of humans but unlike apes, which would
have meant they were capable of making stone tools.

The oldest known stone tools have been found in Ethiopia in sediments
dated at between 2.5 million and 2.6 million years old. The makers are
unknown, but may be either early *Homo* or *A. garhi*

A main question is, how have these species come to exist in the
geographical areas so far apart from one another?

### Chad

A partial jaw found in Chad (Central Africa) greatly extends the
geographical range in which australopithecines are known to have lived.
The specimen (nicknamed Abel) has been attributed to a new species -
*Australopithecus bahrelghazali*.

In June 2002, publication of major discovery of earliest hominid known:
*Sahelanthropus tchadensis* (nickname: \"Toumai\").

