# Descriptive Statistics

## Measures of the Location of the Data

The common measures of location are quartiles and percentiles.
Quartiles are special percentiles. The first quartile, Q1, is the same as the 25th percentile, and the third quartile, Q3, is the same as the 75th percentile. The median, M, is called both the second quartile and the 50th percentile.
To calculate quartiles and percentiles, you must order the data from smallest to largest. Quartiles divide ordered data into quarters. Percentiles divide ordered data into hundredths. Recall that a percent means one-hundredth. So, percentiles mean the data is divided into 100 sections. To score in the 90th percentile of an exam does not mean, necessarily, that you received 90 percent on a test. It means that 90 percent of test scores are the same as or less than your score and that 10 percent of the test scores are the same as or greater than your test score.
Percentiles are useful for comparing values. For this reason, universities and colleges use percentiles extensively. One instance in which colleges and universities use percentiles is when SAT results are used to determine a minimum testing score that will be used as an acceptance factor. For example, suppose Duke accepts SAT scores at or above the 75th percentile. That translates into a score of at least 1220.
Percentiles are mostly used with very large populations. Therefore, if you were to say that 90 percent of the test scores are less, and not the same or less, than your score, it would be acceptable because removing one particular data value is not significant. 
The median is a number that measures the center of the data. You can think of the median as the middle value, but it does not actually have to be one of the observed values. It is a number that separates ordered data into halves. Half the values are the same number or smaller than the median, and half the values are the same number or larger. For example, consider the following data:
1, 11.5, 6, 7.2, 4, 8, 9, 10, 6.8, 8.3, 2, 2, 10, 1
Ordered from smallest to largest:
1, 1, 2, 2, 4, 6, 6.8, 7.2, 8, 8.3, 9, 10, 10, 11.5
When a data set has an even number of data values, the median is equal to the average of the two middle values when the data are arranged in ascending order (least to greatest). When a data set has an odd number of data values, the median is equal to the middle value when the data are arranged in ascending order.
Since there are 14 observations (an even number of data values), the median is between the seventh value, 6.8, and the eighth value, 7.2. To find the median, add the two values together and divide by two.
The median is seven. Half of the values are smaller than seven and half of the values are larger than seven.
Quartiles are numbers that separate the data into quarters. Quartiles may or may not be part of the data. To find the quartiles, first find the median, or second, quartile. The first quartile, Q1, is the middle value of the lower half of the data, and the third quartile, Q3, is the middle value, or median, of the upper half of the data. To get the idea, consider the same data set:
1, 1, 2, 2, 4, 6, 6.8, 7.2, 8, 8.3, 9, 10, 10, 11.5
The data set has an even number of values (14 data values), so the median will be the average of the two middle values (the average of 6.8 and 7.2), which is calculated as 
 
   and equals 7.
So, the median, or second quartile (
 
  ), is 7.
The first quartile is the median of the lower half of the data, so if we divide the data into seven values in the lower half and seven values in the upper half, we can see that we have an odd number of values in the lower half. Thus, the median of the lower half, or the first quartile (
 
  ) will be the middle value, or 2. Using the same procedure, we can see that the median of the upper half, or the third quartile (
 
  ) will be the middle value of the upper half, or 9.
The quartiles are illustrated below:
The interquartile range is a number that indicates the spread of the middle half, or the middle 50 percent of the data. It is the difference between the third quartile (Q3) and the first quartile (Q1)
IQR = Q3 – Q1. The IQR for this data set is calculated as 9 minus 2, or 7.
The IQR can help to determine potential outliers. A value is suspected to be a potential outlier if it is less than 1.5 × . Potential outliers always require further investigation.
In the example above, you just saw the calculation of the median, first quartile, and third quartile. These three values are part of the five number summary. The other two values are the minimum value (or min) and the maximum value (or max). The five number summary is used to create a box plot.

### A Formula for Finding the kth Percentile

If you were to do a little research, you would find several formulas for calculating the kth percentile. Here is one of them.
k = the kth percentile. It may or may not be part of the data.
i = the index (ranking or position of a data value)
n = the total number of data
1. Order the data from smallest to largest.
2. Calculate 
 
3. If i is an integer, then the kth percentile is the data value in the ith position in the ordered set of data.
4. If i is not an integer, then round i up and round i down to the nearest integers. Average the two data values in these two positions in the ordered data set. The formula and calculation are easier to understand in an example.

### A Formula for Finding the Percentile of a Value in a Data Set

1. Order the data from smallest to largest.
2. x = the number of data values counting from the bottom of the data list up to but not including the data value for which you want to find the percentile.
3. y = the number of data values equal to the data value for which you want to find the percentile.
4. n = the total number of data.
5. Calculate (100). Then round to the nearest integer.

### Interpreting Percentiles, Quartiles, and Median

A percentile indicates the relative standing of a data value when data are sorted into numerical order from smallest to largest. Percentages of data values are less than or equal to the pth percentile. For example, 15 percent of data values are less than or equal to the 15th percentile.
1. Low percentiles always correspond to lower data values.
2. High percentiles always correspond to higher data values.
A percentile may or may not correspond to a value judgment about whether it is good or bad. The interpretation of whether a certain percentile is good or bad depends on the context of the situation to which the data apply. In some situations, a low percentile would be considered good; in other contexts a high percentile might be considered good. In many situations, there is no value judgment that applies. A high percentile on a standardized test is considered good, while a lower percentile on body mass index might be considered good. A percentile associated with a person's height doesn't carry any value judgment.
Understanding how to interpret percentiles properly is important not only when describing data, but also when calculating probabilities in later chapters of this text.

### References

Cauchon, D., and Overberg, P. (2012). Census data shows minorities now a majority of U.S. births. USA Today. Retrieved from http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/nation/story/2012-05-17/minority-birthscensus/55029100/1
The Mercury News. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.mercurynews.com/
Time. (n.d.). Survey by Yankelovich Partners, Inc.
U.S. Census Bureau. (1990). 1990 census. Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/main/www/cen1990.html
U.S. Census Bureau. (n.d.). Data. Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/

### Chapter Review

The values that divide a rank-ordered set of data into 100 equal parts are called percentiles. Percentiles are used to compare and interpret data. For example, an observation at the 50th percentile would be greater than 50 percent of the other observations in the set. Quartiles divide data into quarters. The first quartile (Q1) is the 25th percentile, the second quartile (Q2 or median) is the 50th percentile, and the third quartile (Q3) is the 75th percentile. The interquartile range, or IQR, is the range of the middle 50 percent of the data values. The IQR is found by subtracting Q1 from Q3 and can help determine outliers by using the following two expressions.
1. Q3 + IQR(1.5)
2. Q1 – IQR(1.5)

### Formula Review


 

where i = the ranking or position of a data value,
k = the kth percentile,
n = total number of data.
Expression for finding the percentile of a data value
 (100)
where x = the number of values counting from the bottom of the data list up to but not including the data value for which you want to find the percentile,
y = the number of data values equal to the data value for which you want to find the percentile,
n = total number of data.
Use  to calculate the following values.

### Homework
