# Introduction to Paleoanthropology/Hominids Acheulean



## The hominids

### African *Homo erectus*: *Homo ergaster*

*H. ergaster* existed between 1.8 million and 1.3 million years ago.

Like *H. habilis*, the face shows:

-   protruding jaws with large molars;
-   no chin;
-   thick brow ridges;
-   long low skull, with a brain size varying between 750 and 1225 cc.

!Facial reconstruction of Turkana
Boy{width="300"}
Early *H. ergaster* specimens average about 900 cc, while late ones have
an average of about 1100 cc. The skeleton is more robust than those of
modern humans, implying greater strength.

Body proportions vary:

:   Ex. Turkana Boy is tall and slender, like modern humans from the
    same area, while the few limb bones found of Peking Man indicate a
    shorter, sturdier build.

Study of the Turkana Boy skeleton indicates that H. ergaster may have
been more efficient at walking than modern humans, whose skeletons have
had to adapt to allow for the birth of larger-brained infants.

*Homo habilis* and all the australopithecines are found only in Africa,
but H. erectus/ergaster was wide-ranging, and has been found in Africa,
Asia, and Europe.

### Asian *Homo erectus*

!Replica skull of \"Peking Man\", an Asian *Homo
Erectus*_presented_at_Paleozoological_Museum_of_China.jpg "Replica skull of "Peking Man", an Asian Homo Erectus")
Specimens of *H. erectus* from Eastern Asia differ morphologically from
African specimens:

-   features are more exaggerated;
-   skull is thicker, brow ridges are more pronounced, sides of skull
    slope more steeply, the sagittal crest is more exaggerated;
-   Asian forms do not show the increase in cranial capacity.

As a consequence of these features, they are less like humans than the
African forms of *H. erectus*.

Paleoanthropologists who study extinct populations are forced to decide
whether there was one species or two based on morphological traits
alone. They must ask whether eastern and western forms are as different
from each other as typical species.

If systematics finally agree that eastern and western populations of *H.
erectus* are distinct species, then the eastern Asian form will keep the
name *H. erectus*. The western forms have been given a new name: *Homo
ergaster* (means \"work man\") and was first applied to a very old
specimen from East Turkana in East Africa.

### *Homo georgicus*

Specimens recovered recently exhibit characteristic *H. erectus*
features: sagittal crest, marked constriction of the skull behind the
eyes. But they are also extremely different in several ways, resembling
*H. habilis*:

-   small brain size (600 cc);
-   prominent browridge;
-   projection of the face;
-   rounded contour of the rear of skull;
-   huge canine teeth.

Some researchers propose that these fossils might represent a new
species of Homo: *H. georgicus*.

### *Homo antecessor*

Named in 1997 from fossils (juvenile specimen) found in Atapuerca
(Spain). Dated to at least 780,000 years ago, it makes these fossils the
oldest confirmed European hominids.

Mid-facial area of antecessor seems very modern, but other parts of
skull (e.g., teeth, forehead and browridges) are much more primitive.
Fossils assigned to new species on grounds that they exhibit unknown
combination of traits: they are less derived in the Neanderthal
direction than later mid-Quaternary European specimens assigned to Homo
heidelbergensis.

### *Homo heidelbergensis*

Archaic forms of Homo sapiens first appeared in Europe about 500,000
years ago (until about 200,000 years ago) and are called Homo
heidelbergensis.

Found in various places in Europe, Africa and maybe Asia.

This species covers a diverse group of skulls which have features of
both Homo erectus and modern humans. !Facial reconstruction of *Homo
Heidelbergensis*{width="300"}
Fossil features:

-   brain size is larger than erectus and smaller than most modern
    humans: averaging about 1200 cc;
-   skull is more rounded than in erectus;
-   still large brow ridges and receding foreheads;
-   skeleton and teeth are usually less robust than erectus, but more
    robust than modern humans;
-   mandible is human-like, but massive and chinless; shows expansion of
    molar cavities and very long cheek tooth row, which implies a long,
    forwardly projecting face.

Fossils could represent a population near the common ancestry of
Neanderthals and modern humans.

Footprints of H. heidelbergensis (earliest human footprints) have been
found in Italy in 2003.

## Phylogenic relationships

For almost three decades, paleoanthropologists have often divided the
genus Homo among three successive species:

-   *Homo habilis*, now dated between roughly 2.5 Myrs and 1.7 Myrs ago;
-   *Homo erectus*, now placed between roughly 1.7 Myrs and 500,000
    years ago;
-   *Homo sapiens*, after 500,000 years ago.

In this view, each species was distinguished from its predecessor
primarily by larger brain size and by details of cranio-facial
morphology:

:   Ex. Change in braincase shape from more rounded in *H. habilis* to
    more angular in H. erectus to more rounded again in *H. sapiens*.

!A hypothesised family tree for *Homo*, proposed in
2012
The accumulating evidence of fossils has increasingly undermined a
scenario based on three successive species or evolutionary stages. It
now strongly favors a scheme that more explicitly recognizes the
importance of branching in the evolution of Homo.

This new scheme continues to accept *H. habilis* as the ancestor for all
later Homo. Its descendants at 1.8-1.7 million mears ago may still be
called H. erectus, but H. ergaster is now more widely accepted. By
600,000-500,000 years ago, *H. ergaster* had produced several lines
leading to H. neanderthalensis in Europe and *H. sapiens* in Africa.
About 600,000 years ago, both of these species shared a common ancestor
to which the name H. heidelbergensis could be applied.

## \"Out-of-Africa 1\" model

Homo erectus in Asia would be as old as Homo ergaster in Africa. Do the
new dates from Dmanisi and Java falsify the hypothesis of an African
origin for *Homo erectus*? Not necessarily.

If the species evolved just slightly earlier than the oldest African
fossils (2.0-1.9 million years ago) and then immediately began its
geographic spread, it could have reached Europe and Asia fairly quickly.

But the \"Out-of-Africa 1\" migration is more complex. Conventional
paleoanthropological wisdom holds that the first human to leave Africa
were tall, large-brained hominids (*Homo ergaster/erectus*). New fossils
discovered in Georgia (Dmanisi) are forcing scholars to rethink that
scenario completely. These Georgian hominids are far smaller and more
primitive in both anatomy and technology than expected, leaving experts
wondering not only why early humans first ventured out of Africa, but
also how.

## Summary

*Homo ergaster* was the first hominid species whose anatomy fully
justify the label human:

-   Unlike australopithecines and *Homo habilis*, in which body form and
    proportions retained apelike features suggesting a continued
    reliance on trees for food or refuge, *H. ergaster* achieved
    essentially modern forms and proportions;
-   Members also differed from australopithecines and*H. habilis* in
    their increased, essentially modern stature and in their reduced
    degree of sexual dimorphism.

