# Psychologia społeczna

## Wprowadzenie

Ludzie różnią się między sobą i czasami te różnice utrudniają im porozumiewanie się. Przejmującym przykładem jest historia Trayvona Martina (1995-2012), czarnoskórego 17-latka, który został zastrzelony w 2012 roku przez George'a Zimmermana (ur. 1983) pełniącego wolontariacką sąsiedzką służbę wartowniczą w dzielnicy zamieszkanej w większości przez białych Amerykanów. Spotkany na ulicy nastolatek ubrany w bluzę z kapturem wzbudził podejrzenie Zimmermana, który poszedł za chłopcem. W wyniku sprzeczki, która przerodziła się w przepychankę, Zimmerman zastrzelił Martina. Zimmerman później zeznał, że strzał padł w akcie samoobrony. Martin nie miał przy sobie broni. Podczas procesu, jaki odbył się na Florydzie, ława przysięgłych orzekła, że Zimmerman nie jest winien zabójstwa ani nieumyślnego zabójstwa.
Sprawa wywołała protesty wielu grup społecznych, oskarżały one sprawcę o brutalną zbrodnię motywowaną profilowaniem rasowym dokonaną na nieuzbrojonym czarnoskórym mężczyźnie. Zimmerman, sam będący synem Peruwianki i Niemca, został oskarżony o rasizm.
Skąd biorą się tego rodzaju konflikty? Być może podsycają je przekazy medialne. Niektóre przekazy medialne były krytykowane za nadmierne podkreślanie kwestii polityki rasowej. Warto podkreślić, że mimo takich konfliktów ludzie potrafią także współpracować, by zmieniać świat na lepsze. Przykładem wspólnego działania były protesty po atakach terrorystycznych z 11 września 2001 roku oraz ogromne wpłaty na cele charytatywne (Brown i Minty, 2006). W tym rozdziale zastanowimy się, w jaki sposób obecność innych ludzi wpływa na zachowanie jednostek, diad i grup. Czynniki społeczne mogą kierować działanie człowieka tak w stronę konfliktu, jak i porozumienia.
Oczywiście Stany Zjednoczone nie stanowią wyjątku w zakresie pojawiających się ataków na tle rasowym, narodowościowym czy ideologicznym. W Europie i w Polsce nastroje bazujące na uprzedzeniach nadal są zauważalne i w ostatnich latach się nasilają.

### References

Adams, H. E., Wright, L. W., Jr., Lohr, B.A. (1996). Is homophobia associated with homosexual arousal? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 105, 440–445.
Albarracín, D., Wyer, R. S. (2001). Elaborative and nonelaborative processing of a behavior-related communication. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 691–705.
Alexander, M. (2001, 22 sierpnia). Thirty years later, Stanford prison experiment lives on. Stanford Report. Pobrane z: http://news.stanford.edu/news/2001/august22/prison2-822.html.
Allport, G. W. (1954). The Nature of Human Prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.
American Psychological Association (2010). Bullying: What parents, teachers can do to stop it. Pobrane z: http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2010/04/bullying.aspx.
Aronson, E., Mills, J. (1959). The effect of severity of initiation on liking for a group. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59, 177–181.
Asch, S. E. (1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American, 193, 31–35.
Barlińska, i Szuster,2014). Cyberprzemoc. O zagrożeniach i szansach na ograniczenie zjawiska wśród adolescentów. Warszawa: Wydawnictwa UW. ISBN/ISSN: 978-83-235-1531-9.
Baron, R. M., Albright, L., Malloy, T. E. (1995). Effects of behavioral and social class information on social judgment. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 308–315.
Batson, C. D. (1991). The altruism question: Toward a social-psychological answer. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bandura, A. (1999). Moral disengagement in the perpetration of inhumanities. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3(3), 193–209. doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0303_3.
Berkowitz, A. D. (2004). The social norms approach: Theory, research and annotated bibliography. Pobrane z: http://www.alanberkowitz.com/articles/social_norms.pdf.
Berkowitz, L. (1993). Aggression: Its causes, consequences, and control. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Betz, N. E. (2008). Women’s career development. In F. Denmark & M. Paludi (Eds.), Psychology of women: Handbook of issues and theories (wydanie 2., s. 717–752). Westport, CT: Praeger.
Blau, F. D., Ferber, M. A., Winkler, A. E. (2010). The economics of women, men, and work (wydanie 6.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Bond, C. F., Titus, L. J. (1983). Social facilitation: A meta-analysis of 241 studies. Psychological Bulletin, 94, 265–292.
Bond, R., Smith, P. B. (1996). Culture and conformity: A meta-analysis of studies using Asch’s (1952b, 1956) line judgment task. Psychological Bulletin, 119(1), 111–137.
Bowen, L. (2011). Bullying may contribute to lower test scores. Monitor on Psychology, 42(9), 19.
Brown, P., Minty, J. (2006, 1 grudnia). Media coverage and charitable giving after the 2004 tsunami. Series Report 855. William Davidson Institute, University of Michigan. Pobrane z: http://www.wdi.umich.edu/files/Publications/WorkingPapers/wp855.pdf
Brown, R. (2010). Prejudice: Its social psychology (wydanie 2.). Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Buss, D. M. (2004). Evolutionary psychology: The new science of the mind (wydanie 2.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Buss, D. M. (1989). Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 12, 1–49.
Ceci, S. J., Williams, W. M. (2011). Understanding current causes of women’s underrepresentation in science. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108, 3157–3162.
Choi, I., Nisbett R. E. (1998). Situational salience and cultural differences in the correspondence bias and actor-observer bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 24(9), 949–960. DOI: 10.1177/0146167298249003.
Cialdini, R. B. (2001). Harnessing the science of persuasion. Harvard Business Review, 79, 72–81.
Cialdini, R. B., Brown, S. L., Lewis, B. P., Luce, C., Neuberg, S. L. (1997). Reinterpreting the empathy-altruism relationship: When one into one equals oneness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 481–494.
Colin Powell regrets Iraq war intelligence. (2011). Pobrane 23 marca 2014 r. z: http://www.aljazeera.com/news/americas/2011/09/20119116916873488.html.
Cozby, P. C. (1973). Self-disclosure: A literature review. Psychological Bulletin, 79, 73–91.
Crisp, R. J., Turner, R. N. (2009). Can imagined interactions produce positive perceptions? Reducing prejudice through simulated social contact. American Psychologist, 64, 231–240.
Crowley, A. E., Hoyer, W. D. (1994). An integrative framework for understanding two-sided persuasion. Journal of Consumer Research, 20(4), 561–574.
Croyle, R. T., Cooper, J. (1983). Dissonance arousal: Physiological evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 782–791.
Cuddy, A. J., Norton, M. I., & Fiske, S. T. (2005). This old stereotype: The pervasiveness and persistence of the elderly stereotype. Journal of Social Issues, 61, 267–285.
Deutsch, M., Gerard, H. (1955). A study of normative and informational social influences upon individual judgment. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51, 629–636.
Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5–18.
Devine, P. G., Elliot, A. J. (1995). Are racial stereotypes really fading? The Princeton trilogy revisited. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 1139–1150.
Dixon, T. L., Linz D. (2000). Overrepresentation and underrepresentation of African Americans and Latinos as lawbreakers on television news. Journal of Communication, 50(2), 131–154.
Dodge, K. A., Schwartz, D. (1997). Social information processing mechanisms in aggressive behavior. W: D. M. Stoff, J. Breiling (red.), Handbook of Antisocial Behavior (s. 171–180). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons.
Dollard, J., Miller, N. E., Doob, L. W., Mowrer, O. H., Sears, R. R. (1939). Frustration and aggression. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Dariusz Doliński, D. i Grzyb, T. (2017). Posłuszni do bólu. O uległości wobec autorytetu w 50 lat po eksperymencie Milgrama, Wydawnictwo Smak Słowa.
Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L. (2004). On the nature of contemporary prejudice. W: P. S. Rothenberg (red.), Race, class, and gender in the United States: An integrated study (wydanie 6., s. 132–142). New York, NY: Worth.
Dovidio, J. F., Gluszek, A., John, M. S., Ditlmann, R., Lagunes, P. (2010). Understanding bias toward Latinos: Discrimination, dimensions of difference, and experience of exclusion. Journal of Social Issues, 66, 59–78.
Eagly, A. H., Chaiken, S. (1975). An attribution analysis of the effect of communicator characteristics on opinion change: The case of communicator attractiveness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32, 136–144.
Eagly, A. H., Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College.
East Haven mayor suggests “he might have tacos” to repair relations with Latinos. (2012). Pobrane 27 kwietnia 2014r. z: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PCUwtfqF4wU.
Ehrlinger, J., Gilovich, T., Ross, L. (2005). Peering into the bias blind spot: People's assessments of bias in themselves and others. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 680–692.
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Festinger, L., Maccoby, N. (1964). On resistance to persuasive communications. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 68, 359–366.
Festinger, L., Schachler, S., Back, K. W. (1950). Social pressures in informal groups: A study of human factors in housing. New York, NY: Harper.
Fink, B., Neave, N., Manning, J. T., Grammer, K. (2006). Facial symmetry and judgments of attractiveness, health and personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 491–499.
Fiske, S. T., Cuddy, A. J., Glick, P., Xu, J. (2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 878–902.
Fiske, S. T., Gilbert, D. T., Lindzey, G. (2010). Handbook of social psychology (wydanie 5.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Freedman, J. L., Fraser, S. C. (1966). Compliance without pressure: The foot-in-the-door technique. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4, 195–202.
Geen, R. G. (1989). Alternative conceptions of social facilitation. W: P. B. Paulus (red.), Psychology of group influence (wydanie 2., s. 15–51). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Greenberg, J., Schimel, J., Martens, A. (2002). Ageism: Denying the face of the future. W: T. D. Nelson (Ed.), Ageism: Stereotyping and prejudice against older persons (s. 27–48). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., Schwartz, J. L. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464–1480.
Greenwald, A. G., Ronis, D. L. (1978). Twenty years of cognitive dissonance: Case study of the evolution of a theory. Psychological Review, 85, 53–57.
Grove, J. R., Hanrahan, S. J., McInman, A. (1991). Success/failure bias in attributions across involvement categories in sport. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17(1), 93–97.
Gupta, P. B., Lord, K. R. (1998). Product placement in movies: The effect of prominence and mode on recall. Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising, 20, 47–59.
Hare, A. P. (2003). Roles, relationships, and groups in organizations: Some conclusions and recommendations. Small Group Research, 34, 123–154.
Harvard University, Department of Psychology. (2019). Mary Whiton Calkins. Pobrane z: https://psychology.fas.harvard.edu/people/mary-whiton-calkins.
Haugtvedt, C. P., Wegener, D. T. (1994). Message order effects in persuasion: An attitude strength perspective. Journal of Consumer Research, 21, 205–218.
Hebl, M. R., Foster, J. B., Mannix, L. M., Dovidio, J. F. (2002). Formal and interpersonal discrimination: A field study of bias toward homosexual applicants. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(6), 815–825.
Heckert, T. M., Latier, A., Ringwald-Burton, A., Drazen, C. (2006). Relations among student effort, perceived class difficulty appropriateness, and student evaluations of teaching: Is it possible to "buy" better evaluations through lenient grading? College Student Journal, 40(3), 588.
Herek, G. M., McLemore, K. A. (2013). Sexual prejudice. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 309–33. DOI: 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143826.
Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Wiley.
Hinduja, S., Patchin, J. W. (2010). Bullying, cyberbullying, and suicide. Archives of Suicide Research, 14(3), 206–221.
Hinduja, S. Patchin, J. W. (2011). Cyberbullying research summary: Bullying, cyberbullying, and sexual orientation. Cyberbullying Research Center. Retrieved April 27, 2014, from http://www.cyberbullying.us/cyberbullying_sexual_orientation_fact_sheet.pdf.
Hodge, S. R., Burden, J. W., Jr., Robinson, L. E., Bennett, R. A., III. (2008). Theorizing on the stereotyping of black male student-athletes. Journal for the Study of Sports and Athletes in Education, 2, 203–226.
Hoff, D. L., Mitchell, S. N. (2009). Cyberbullying: Causes, effects, and remedies. Journal of Education, 47, 652–665.
Hovland, C. I., Janis, I. L. and Kelley, H. H. (1953). Communications and persuasion: Psychological studies in opinion change. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Hovland, C.I., Weiss, W. (1951, Winter). The influence of source credibility on communication effectiveness. Public Opinion Quarterly, 15(4), 635–650.
Igou, E. R., Bless, H. (2003). Inferring the importance of arguments: Order effects and conversational rules. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 91–99.
Ito, T. A., Urland, G. R., (2003). Race and gender on the brain: Electrocortical measures of attention to race and gender of multiply categorizable individuals. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 85, 616–626.
Jackson, J. M., Williams, K. D. (1985). Social loafing on difficult tasks: Working collectively can improve performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 49, 937–942.
Janis, I. L. (1972). Victims of groupthink. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Jones, E. E., Nisbett, R. E. (1971). The actor and the observer: Divergent perceptions of the causes of behavior. New York: General Learning Press.
Jost, J. T., Banaji, M. R., Nosek, B. A. (2004). A decade of system justification theory: Accumulated evidence of conscious and unconscious bolstering of the status quo. Political Psychology, 25, 881–919.
Jost, J. T., Major, B. (Eds.). (2001). The psychology of legitimacy: Emerging perspectives on ideology, justice, and intergroup relations. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Karau, S. J., Williams, K. D. (1993). Social loafing: A meta-analytic review and theoretical integration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 681–706.
Krosnick, J. A., Alwin, D. F. (1989). Aging and susceptibility to attitude change. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 416–425.
Kumkale, G. T., Albarracín, D. (2004). The sleeper effect in persuasion: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 130(1), 143–172. DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.130.1.143.
Larsen, K. S. (1990). The Asch conformity experiment: Replication and transhistorical comparisons. Journal of Social Behavior & Personality, 5(4), 163–168.
Latané, B., Darley, J. M. (1968). Group inhibition of bystander intervention in emergencies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10, 215–221.
Latané, B., Williams, K. and Harkins, S. G. (1979). Many hands make light the work: The causes and consequences of social loafing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 822–832.
Laurenceau, J.-P., Barrett, L. F., Pietromonaco, P. R. (1998). Intimacy as an interpersonal process: The importance of self-disclosure, partner disclosure, and perceived partner responsiveness in interpersonal exchanges. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(5), 1238–1251. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.74.5.1238.
Lerner, M. J., Miller, D. T. (1978). Just world research and the attribution process: Looking back and ahead. Psychological Bulletin, 85, 1030–1051.
Lewin., K. (1936). Principles of Topological Psychology. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Lumsdaine, A. A., Janis, I. L. (1953). Resistance to “counterpropaganda” produced by one-sided and two-sided “propaganda” presentations. Public Opinion Quarterly, 17, 311–318.
Malle, B. F. (2006). The actor–observer asymmetry in attribution: A (surprising) meta-analysis [Supplemental material]. Psychological Bulletin, 132(6), 895–919. DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.132.6.895.
Malloy, T. E., Albright, L., Kenny, D. A., Agatstein, F., Winquist, L. (1997). Interpersonal perception and metaperception in non-overlapping social groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 390–398.
Markus, H. R., Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224–253.
Martin, C. H., Bull, P. (2008). Obedience and conformity in clinical practice. British Journal of Midwifery, 16(8), 504–509.
McPherson, M., Smith-Lovin, L., Cook, J. M. (2001). Birds of a feather: Homophily in social networks. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 415–444. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.415.
Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67, 371–378.
Milgram, S. (1965). Some conditions of obedience and disobedience to authority. Human Relations, 18, 57–76.
Miller, D. T., Ross, M. (1975). Self-serving biases in the attribution of causality: Fact or fiction? Psychological Bulletin, 82, 213–225.
Miller, N., Campbell, D. T. (1959). Recency and primacy in persuasion as a function of the timing of speeches and measurements. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59, 1–9.
Mischel, W. (1977). The interaction of person and situation. Personality at the crossroads: Current issues in interactional psychology, 333, 352.
Mitchell, D. H., Eckstein, D. (2009). Jury dynamics and decision-making: A prescription for groupthink. International Journal of Academic Research, 1(1), 163–169.
Moscovici, S. (1976). Social influence and social change. London: Academic Press.
Moscovici, S., i Personnaz, B. (1980). Studies in social influence: V. Minority influence and conversion behavior in a perceptual task. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 16(3), 270–282.
Nelson, T. (red.). (2004). Ageism: Stereotyping and prejudice against older persons. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Nisbett, R. E., Caputo, C., Legant, P., Marecek, J. (1973). Behavior as seen by the actor and as seen by the observer. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27, 154–164.
Nisbett, R. E., Peng, K., Choi, I., Norenzayan, A. (2001). Culture and systems of thought: Holistic versus analytic cognition. Psychological Review, 108, 291–310.
Nosek, B. A. (2005). Moderators of the relationship between implicit and explicit evaluation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 134(4), 565–584.
O'Keeffe, G. S., Clarke-Pearson, K. (2011). The impact of social media on children, adolescents, and families. Pediatrics, (127)4, 800–4. DOI: 10.1542/peds.2011-0054.
Olson, M. A., Fazio, R. H. (2003). Relations between implicit measures of prejudice what are we measuring? Psychological Science, 14, 636–639.
Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.
Penton-Voak, I. S., Jones, B. C., Little, A. C., Baker, S., Tiddeman, B., Burt, D. M., Perrett, D. I. (2001). Symmetry, sexual dimorphism in facial proportions and male facial attractiveness. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 268, 1617–1623.
Petty, R. E., Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. In Communication and persuasion: Central and peripheral routes to attitude change (s. 1–24). New York, NY: Springer. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4612-4964-1.
Petty, R. E., Wegener, D. T., Fabrigar, L. R. (1997). Attitudes and attitude change. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 609–647.
Pliner, P., Hart, H., Kohl, J., Saari, D. (1974). Compliance without pressure: Some further data on the foot-in-the-door technique. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 10, 17–22.
Plant, E. A., Devine, P. G. (1998). Internal and external motivation to respond without prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 811–832.
Regan, P. C., Berscheid, E. (1997). Gender differences in characteristics desired in a potential sexual and marriage partner. Journal of Psychology & Human Sexuality, 9, 25–37.
Rhodes, N., Wood, W. (1992). Self-esteem and intelligence affect influenceability: The mediating role of message reception. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 156–171.
Richard, F. D., Bond, C. F., Jr., Stokes-Zoota, J. J. (2003). One hundred years of social psychology quantitatively described. Review of General Psychology, 7(4), 331–363. DOI: 10.1037/1089-2680.7.4.331.
Riggio, H. R., Garcia, A. L. (2009). The power of situations: Jonestown and the fundamental attribution error. Teaching of Psychology, 36(2), 108–112. DOI: 10.1080/00986280902739636.
Rikowski, A., Grammer, K. (1999). Human body odour, symmetry and attractiveness. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 266(1422), 869–874. DOI: 10.1098/rspb.1999.0717.
Roesch, S. C., Amirkham, J. H. (1997). Boundary conditions for self-serving attributions: Another look at the sports pages. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 27, 245–261.
Rojek, J., Rosenfeld, R., Decker, S. (2012). Policing race: The racial stratification of searches in police traffic stops. Criminology, 50, 993–1024.
Rosenberg, M. J., Hovland, C. I. (1960). Cognitive, affective and behavioral components of attitudes. In Attitude organization and change: An analysis of consistency among attitude components (s. 1–14). New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
Rosenthal, R., Jacobson, L. F. (1968). Teacher expectations for the disadvantaged. Scientific American, 218, 19–23.
Ross, L. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in the attribution process. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 10, 173–220.
Ross, L., Amabile, T. M., Steinmetz, J. L. (1977). Social roles, social control, and biases in social-perception processes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 485–494.
Ross, L., Nisbett, R. E. (1991). The person and the situation: Perspectives of social psychology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Rudman, L. A. (1998). Self-promotion as a risk factor for women: The costs and benefits of counterstereotypical impression management. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(3), 629–645.
Rusbult, C. E., Van Lange, P. A. (2003). Interdependence, interaction, and relationships. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 351–575.
Schank, R. C., Abelson, R. (1977). Scripts, plans, goals, and understanding: An inquiry into human knowledge. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Shepperd, J. A., Taylor, K. M. (1999). Social loafing and expectancy-value theory. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 1147–1158.
Singh, D. (1993). Adaptive significance of female physical attractiveness: Role of waist-to-hip ratio. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 293–307.
Sommers, S. R., Ellsworth, P. C. (2000). Race in the courtroom: Perceptions of guilt and dispositional attributions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 1367–1379.
Spears, B., Slee, P., Owens, L., Johnson, B. (2009). Behind the scenes and screens: Insights into the human dimension of covert and cyberbullying. Journal of Psychology, 217(4), 189–196. DOI: 10.1027/0044-3409.217.4.189.
Sternberg, R. J. (1986). A triangular theory of love. Psychological Review, 93, 119–135.
Stewart, J. B. (2002). Heart of a soldier. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.
Sutton, R.M., Douglas, K.M. (2005). Justice for all, or just for me? More support for self-other differences in just world beliefs. Personality and Individual Differences, 9(3), 637-645.
Tajfel, H. (1974). Social identity and intergroup behaviour. Social Science Information, 13(2), 65–93.
Tajfel, H., Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. W: W. G. Austin, S. Worchel (red.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (s. 33–48). Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole.
Tavris, C., Aronson, E. (2008). Mistakes were made (but not by me): Why we justify foolish beliefs, bad decisions, and hurtful acts. New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Taylor, L. S., Fiore, A. T., Mendelsohn, G. A., Cheshire, C. (2011). “Out of my league”: A real-world test of the matching hypothesis. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(7), 942–954. DOI: 10.1177/0146167211409947.
Teger, A. I., Pruitt, D. G. (1967). Components of group risk taking. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 3, 189–205.
Triandis, H. C. (2001). Individualism-collectivism and personality. Journal of Personality, 69, 907–924.
van Veen, V., Krug, M. K., Schooler, J. W., Carter, C. S. (2009). Neural activity predicts attitude change in cognitive dissonance. Nature Neuroscience, 12, 1469–1474.
Vandebosch, H., Van Cleemput, K. (2009). Cyberbullying among youngsters: Profiles of bullies and victims. New media & Society, 11(8), 1349–1371. DOI: 10.1177/1461444809341263.
Walker, M. B., Andrade, M. G. (1996). Conformity in the Asch task as a function of age. The Journal of Social Psychology, 136, 367–372.
Walster, E., Festinger, L. (1962). The effectiveness of “overheard” persuasive communications. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 65, 395–402.
Wason, P. C., Johnson-Laird, P. N. (1972). The psychology of deduction: Structure and content. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Weiner, B. (1979). A theory of motivation for some classroom experiences. Journal of Educational Psychology, 71(1), 3–25.
Wilson, M., Daly, M. (1985). Competitiveness, risk taking, and violence: The young male syndrome. Ethology and Sociobiology, 6, 59–73.
Wilson, T. D., Lindsey, S., Schooler, T. Y. (2000). A model of dual attitudes. Psychological Review, 107, 101–126.
Wojciszke "Psychologia Społeczna" GWP 2019
Zajonc, R. (2001). Facylitacja Społeczna. w: J. Siuta (red.) Konteksty ludzkich zachowań. Kraków: Wyd. UJ. s. 127-140
Zimbardo, P. G. (2013). An end to the experiment [Slide show of the Stanford prison experiment]. Retrieved from http://www.prisonexp.org/psychology/37.