# Organic Chemistry/Overview of Functional Groups

## Introduction

The number of known organic compounds is quite large. In fact, there are
many times more organic compounds known than all the other (inorganic)
compounds discovered so far, about 7 million organic compounds in total.
Fortunately, organic chemicals consist of a relatively few similar
parts, combined in different ways, that allow us to predict how a
compound we have never seen before may react, by comparing how other
molecules containing the same types of parts are known to react.

These parts of organic molecules are called **functional groups**. The
identification of functional groups and the ability to predict
reactivity based on functional group properties is one of the
cornerstones of organic chemistry.

Functional groups are **specific atoms, ions, or groups of atoms**
having consistent properties. A functional group makes up part of a
larger molecule.

For example, **-OH**, the hydroxyl group that characterizes alcohols, is
an oxygen with a hydrogen attached. It could be found on any number of
different molecules.

Just as elements have distinctive properties, functional groups have
**characteristic chemistries**. An **-OH** group on one molecule will
tend to react similarly, although perhaps not identically, to an **-OH**
on another molecule.

**Organic reactions usually take place at the functional group**, so
learning about the reactivities of functional groups will prepare you to
understand many other things about organic chemistry.

## Memorizing Functional Groups

Don\'t assume that you can simply skim over the functional groups and
move on. As you proceed through the text, the writing will be in terms
of functional groups. It will be assumed that the student is familiar
with most of the ones in the tables below. It\'s simply impossible to
discuss chemistry without knowing the \"lingo\". It\'s like trying to
learn French without first learning the meaning of some of the words.

One of the easiest ways to learn functional groups is by making flash
cards. Get a pack of index cards and write the name of the functional
group on one side, and draw its chemical representation on the other.

For now, a list of the most important ones you should know is provided
here. Your initial set of cards should include, at the very least:
Alkene, Alkyne, Alkyl halide (or Haloalkane), Alcohol, Aldehyde, Ketone,
Carboxylic Acid, Acyl Chloride (or Acid Chloride), Ester, Ether, Amine,
Sulfide, and Thiol. After you\'ve learned all these, add a couple more
cards and learn those. Then add a few more and learn those. Every
functional group below is eventually discussed at one point or another
in the book. But the above list will give you what you need to continue
on.

And don\'t just look at the cards. Say and write the names and draw the
structures. To test yourself, try going through your cards and looking
at the names and then drawing their structure on a sheet of paper. Then
try going through and looking at the structures and naming them. Writing
is a good technique to help you memorize, because it is more active than
simply reading. Once you have the minimal list above memorized backwards
and forwards, you\'re ready to move on. But don\'t stop learning the
groups. If you choose to move on without learning the \"lingo\", then
you\'re not going to understand the language of the chapters to come.
Again, using the French analogy, it\'s like trying to ignore learning
the vocabulary and then picking up a novel in French and expecting to be
able to read it.

### Functional groups containing \...

In organic chemistry **functional
groups** are submolecular structural motifs, characterized by specific
elemental composition and connectivity, that confer reactivity upon the
molecule that contains them.

Common functional groups include:

+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| Sr    | Che   | Group | Fo    | Grap  | P     | S     | Ex    |
| No.   | mical |       | rmula | hical | refix | uffix | ample |
|       | class |       |       | Fo    |       |       |       |
|       |       |       |       | rmula |       |       |       |
+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+=======+
| 1     | Acyl | Halof | RCOX  | !     | h     | -oyl  | ![A   |
|       | hal   | ormyl |       | [Acyl | alofo | h     | cetyl |
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|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | cetyl |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | chlor |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ide\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | *(Eth |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | anoyl |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | chlor |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ide)* |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 2     | Alco | Hyd   | OH    | !     | hyd   | -ol   | ![    |
|       | hol-s |       |       |  "met |
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+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
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|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | dehyd |
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|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | *     |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | (Etha |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | nal)* |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
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|       |       |       |       |       |       |       |      |
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+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
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|       | ene{w |       |       | "){wi |
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|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | Eth  |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ylene |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | \ |
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|       | yne{wi |       |       | lene" |
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|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | etyle |
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|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | yne)* |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
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|       | ide-ske |       |       | e_ske |
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|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | hanam |
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+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
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|       | nes | y#A " |       |  amin |       |       | amine |
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|       |       | ink") |       | idth= |       |       | dth=" |
|       |       |       |       | "75"} |       |       | 75"}\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | Meth |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ylami |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ne\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | *(Met |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | hanam |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ine)* |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| Seco | R     | !     | a     | -     | ![    |       |       |
| ndary | ~2~NH | [Seco | mino- | amine | dimet |       |       |
| am    |       | ndary |       |       | hylam |       |       |
| ine |       |       | D.png |       |       |
| ossar |       | .png  |       |       |  "dim |       |       |
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|       |       |       |       |       | methy |       |       |
|       |       |       |       |       | lamin |       |       |
|       |       |       |       |       | e |       |       |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
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| ine.png |       |       | e_che |       |       |
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|       |       |       |       |       |  |       |       |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
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| amm   | ~N^+^ | Quate | onio- | onium | line] |       |       |
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| ](Qua |       | onium |       |       | kelet |       |       |
| terna |       | catio |       |       | al.sv |       |       |
| ry_am |       | n](Qu |       |       | g "Ch |       |       |
| moniu |       | atern |       |       | oline |       |       |
| m_cat |       | ary-a |       |       | "){wi |       |       |
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| wikil |       | um-ca |       |       | 75"}\ |       |       |
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|       |       | idth= |       |       |       |       |       |
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+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
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|       | und] |       | l](Az |       |       | orang |
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|       | ic_Ch | compo |       | up.pn |       |       | thyl- |
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|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | M    |
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+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
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|       | luene | zylto | omide |
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|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | [B    |
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|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | mide] |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | (w:Be |
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|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | *(1   |
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+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 11    | C    | [Carb | R     | !     |       | alkyl |       |
|       | arbon | onate | OCOOR | [Carb |       | **c   |       |
|       | ate |       | l.svg |       |       |       |
|       | wikil |       |       |  "Car |       |       |       |
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|       |       |       |       | e"){w |       |       |       |
|       |       |       |       | idth= |       |       |       |
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+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 12    | Car  | [C    | RC    | ![Car | car   | -oate | ![S   |
|       | boxyl | arbox | OO^−^ | boxyl | boxy- |       | odium |
|       | ate |       | e-hyb |       |       | D-ske |
|       | y#C " |       |       | rid.p |       |       | letal |
|       | wikil |       |       | ng "C |       |       | .png  |
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|       |       |       |       | ylate |       |       | um ac |
|       |       |       |       | "){wi |       |       | etate |
|       |       |       |       | dth=" |       |       | "){wi |
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|       |       |       |       | !C   |       |       | 75"}\ |
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|       |       |       |       | ylate |       |       | odium |
|       |       |       |       | \ |
|       |       |       |       | xylat |       |       | *(S   |
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|       |       |       |       | idth= |       |       | e     |
|       |       |       |       | "75"} |       |       | thano |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ate)* |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 13    |      | [     | RCOOH | ![    | car   | -oic  | ![A   |
|       | Carbo | Carbo |       | Carbo | boxy- | acid  | cetic |
|       | xylic | xyl |       | c-aci |       |       | d-2D- |
|       | emist |       |       | d-ske |       |       | skele |
|       | ry/Gl |       |       | letal |       |       | tal.s |
|       | ossar |       |       | .svg  |       |       | vg "A |
|       | y#C " |       |       | "Carb |       |       | cetic |
|       | wikil |       |       | oxyli |       |       |  acid |
|       | ink") |       |       | c aci |       |       | "){wi |
|       |       |       |       | d"){w |       |       | dth=" |
|       |       |       |       | idth= |       |       | 75"}\ |
|       |       |       |       | "75"} |       |       | A    |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | cetic |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ac    |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | id\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | *(Eth |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | anoic |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | a     |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | cid)* |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 14    | [     | [Cya  | ROCN  | !     | cya   | alkyl |       |
|       | Cyana | nate] |       | Cyan | nato- | *     |       |
|       | tes |       | oup.p |       |       |       |
|       | ry/Gl |       |       | ng "C |       |       |       |
|       | ossar |       |       | yanat |       |       |       |
|       | y#C " |       |       | e"){w |       |       |       |
|       | wikil |       |       | idth= |       |       |       |
|       | ink") |       |       | "75"} |       |       |       |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| Thi  | RSCN  | ![T   | th    | alkyl |       |       |       |
| ocyan |       | hiocy | iocya | **thi |       |       |       |
| ate |       | e"){w |       |       |       |       |       |
|       |       | idth= |       |       |       |       |       |
|       |       | "75"} |       |       |       |       |       |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 15    | Et   | [Ethe | ROR\' | ![Et  | al    | alkyl | ![Di  |
|       | her |       | eral) |       |       | iethy |
|       | ry/Gl |       |       | .png  |       |       | l_eth |
|       | ossar |       |       | "Ethe |       |       | er_ch |
|       | y#C " |       |       | r"){w |       |       | emica |
|       | wikil |       |       | idth= |       |       | l_str |
|       | ink") |       |       | "75"} |       |       | uctur |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | e.svg |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       |  "Die |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | thyl  |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ether |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | "){wi |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | dth=" |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | 75"}\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | Di   |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ethyl |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ether |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | \ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | *     |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | (Etho |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | xyeth |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ane)* |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 16    | Es   | [Este | RC    | ![    |       | -oate | ![    |
|       | ter |       | ter-s |       |       | (Ethy |
|       | ry/Gl |       |       | kelet |       |       | l_but |
|       | ossar |       |       | al.pn |       |       | yrate |
|       | y#E " |       |       | g "Es |       |       | .png  |
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|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | [     |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | Ethyl |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | buty  |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | rate] |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | (w:Et |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | hyl_b |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | utyra |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | te "w |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ikili |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | nk")\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | *(    |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | Ethyl |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | b     |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | utano |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ate)* |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 17    | [Ha   | [     | RX    | ![H   | halo- | alkyl | ![Chl |
|       | loalk | Halo] |       | alide |       | **hal | oroet |
|       | ane]( | (Halo |       | g     |       | ide** | hane] |
|       | Organ | gen " |       | roup] |       |       | (Chlo |
|       | ic_Ch | wikil |       | (Hali |       |       | roeth |
|       | emist | ink") |       | de-gr |       |       | ane-s |
|       | ry/Gl |       |       | oup.s |       |       | kelet |
|       | ossar |       |       | vg "H |       |       | al.pn |
|       | y#H " |       |       | alide |       |       | g "Ch |
|       | wikil |       |       |  grou |       |       | loroe |
|       | ink") |       |       | p"){w |       |       | thane |
|       |       |       |       | idth= |       |       | "){wi |
|       |       |       |       | "75"} |       |       | dth=" |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | 75"}\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | C    |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | hloro |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ethan |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | e\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | *(    |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | Ethyl |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | chlor |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ide)* |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 18    | Hyd   | H    | ROOH  | ![H   | hy    | alkyl | ![M   |
|       | roper | ydrop |       | ydrop | drope | **    | ethyl |
|       | oxide | eroxy |       | eroxy | roxy- | hydro | ethyl |
|       | (see  |  |       | png " |       |       | yl-et |
|       | rgani |       |       | Hydro |       |       | hyl-k |
|       | c_Che |       |       | perox |       |       | etone |
|       | mistr |       |       | y"){w |       |       | -pero |
|       | y/Glo |       |       | idth= |       |       | xide- |
|       | ssary |       |       | "75"} |       |       | 2D-sk |
|       | #O "w |       |       |       |       |       | eleta |
|       | ikili |       |       |       |       |       | l.png |
|       | nk")) |       |       |       |       |       |  "Met |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | hyl e |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | thyl  |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | keton |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | e per |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | oxide |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | "){wi |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | dth=" |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | 75"}\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | M    |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ethyl |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ethyl |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | k     |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | etone |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | pe    |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | roxid |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | e |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 19    | Im   | Pr    | RC(=N | ![I   | i     | -     |       |
|       | ineR\' | mine] | mino- | imine |       |
|       | Organ | ket   |       | (Imin |       |       |       |
|       | ic_Ch | imine |       | e-(pr |       |       |       |
|       | emist |       |       | imary |       |       |       |
|       | ry/Gl |       |       | )-ske |       |       |       |
|       | ossar |       |       | letal |       |       |       |
|       | y#I " |       |       | .svg  |       |       |       |
|       | wikil |       |       | "Imin |       |       |       |
|       | ink") |       |       | e"){w |       |       |       |
|       |       |       |       | idth= |       |       |       |
|       |       |       |       | "75"} |       |       |       |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| Seco  | R     | !Imi | i     | -     |       |       |       |
| ndary | C(=NR | neR{ | ndary |       |       |       |       |       |
|       | {\'}} | )-ske |       |       |       |       |       |
|       |       | letal |       |       |       |       |       |
|       |       | .svg  |       |       |       |       |       |
|       |       | "Imin |       |       |       |       |       |
|       |       | e"){w |       |       |       |       |       |
|       |       | idth= |       |       |       |       |       |
|       |       | "75"} |       |       |       |       |       |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| Pr    | RC(   | !     | i     | -     |       |       |       |
| imary | =NH)H | Imin | mino- | imine |       |       |       |
| ald   |       | e-ske |       |       |       |       |       |
|       |       | letal |       |       |       |       |       |
|       |       | .svg  |       |       |       |       |       |
|       |       | "Imin |       |       |       |       |       |
|       |       | e"){w |       |       |       |       |       |
|       |       | idth= |       |       |       |       |       |
|       |       | "75"} |       |       |       |       |       |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| Seco  | RC(=N | ![I   | i     | -     |       |       |       |
| ndary | R\')H | mine] | mino- | imine |       |       |       |
| ald   |       | (Aldi |       |       |       |       |       |
| imine |       | mine- |       |       |       |       |       |
|       |       | (seco |       |       |       |       |       |
|       |       | ndary |       |       |       |       |       |
|       |       | )-ske |       |       |       |       |       |
|       |       | letal |       |       |       |       |       |
|       |       | .svg  |       |       |       |       |       |
|       |       | "Imin |       |       |       |       |       |
|       |       | e"){w |       |       |       |       |       |
|       |       | idth= |       |       |       |       |       |
|       |       | "75"} |       |       |       |       |       |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 20    | Is   | [Isoc | RNC   |       | isoc  | alkyl |       |
|       | ocyan | yanid |       |       | yano- | **is  |       |
|       | ide |       |       |       |       |       |
|       | ossar |       |       |       |       |       |       |
|       | y#I " |       |       |       |       |       |       |
|       | wikil |       |       |       |       |       |       |
|       | ink") |       |       |       |       |       |       |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 21    | Iso  | [Isoc | RNCO  | ![Iso | i     | alkyl |       |
|       | cyana | yanat |       | cyana | socya | **is  |       |
|       | tes |       | .svg  |       |       |       |
|       | ossar |       |       | "Isoc |       |       |       |
|       | y#I " |       |       | yanat |       |       |       |
|       | wikil |       |       | e"){w |       |       |       |
|       | ink") |       |       | idth= |       |       |       |
|       |       |       |       | "75"} |       |       |       |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| I    | RNCS  | ![    | isoth | alkyl | ![    |       |       |
| sothi |       | Isoth | iocya | **i   | Allyl |       |       |
| ocyan |       | iocya | nato- | sothi | is    |       |       |
| ate |       | yanat |       |       | letal |       |       |
|       |       | e"){w |       |       | .png  |       |       |
|       |       | idth= |       |       | "Ally |       |       |
|       |       | "75"} |       |       | l iso |       |       |
|       |       |       |       |       | thioc |       |       |
|       |       |       |       |       | yanat |       |       |
|       |       |       |       |       | "){wi |       |       |
|       |       |       |       |       | dth=" |       |       |
|       |       |       |       |       | 75"}\ |       |       |
|       |       |       |       |       | [     |       |       |
|       |       |       |       |       | Allyl |       |       |
|       |       |       |       |       | isoth |       |       |
|       |       |       |       |       | iocya |       |       |
|       |       |       |       |       | nate] |       |       |
|       |       |       |       |       | (w:Al |       |       |
|       |       |       |       |       | lyl_i |       |       |
|       |       |       |       |       | sothi |       |       |
|       |       |       |       |       | ocyan |       |       |
|       |       |       |       |       | ate " |       |       |
|       |       |       |       |       | wikil |       |       |
|       |       |       |       |       | ink") |       |       |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 22    | Ket  | [K    | R     | ![Ket | k     | -one  | ![B   |
|       | one |       | eleta |       |       | ructu |
|       | ossar |       |       | l.png |       |       | re-sk |
|       | y#K " |       |       |  "Ket |       |       | eleta |
|       | wikil |       |       | one|7 |       |       | l.png |
|       | ink") |       |       | 5px") |       |       |  "But |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | anone |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | "){wi |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | dth=" |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | 75"}\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | [M    |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ethyl |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ethyl |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ke    |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | tone] |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | (w:Me |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | thyl_ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ethyl |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | _keto |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ne "w |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ikili |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | nk")\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | *(    |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | Butan |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | one)* |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 23    | Nitr | [Nit  | RCN   | ![N   | c     | alk   | ![Be  |
|       | ile |       | ec).s |       | *     | itril |
|       | ossar |       |       | vg "N |       | *cyan | e_str |
|       | y#N " |       |       | itril |       | ide** | uctur |
|       | wikil |       |       | e"){w |       |       | e.png |
|       | ink") |       |       | idth= |       |       |  "Ben |
|       |       |       |       | "75"} |       |       | zonit |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | rile  |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | "){wi |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | dth=" |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | 75"}\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | B    |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | enzon |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | itril |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | e\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | *(P   |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | henyl |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | cyan  |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ide)* |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 24    | [     | [N    | R     | ![Nit | n     |       | ![    |
|       | Nitro | itro] | NO~2~ | ro](N | itro- |       | Nitro |
|       | compo | (Nitr |       | itro- |       |       | metha |
|       | und]( | o_fun |       | group |       |       | ne](N |
|       | Organ | ction |       | .png  |       |       | itrom |
|       | ic_Ch | al_gr |       | "Nitr |       |       | ethan |
|       | emist | oup " |       | o"){w |       |       | e2.pn |
|       | ry/Gl | wikil |       | idth= |       |       | g "Ni |
|       | ossar | ink") |       | "75"} |       |       | trome |
|       | y#N " |       |       |       |       |       | thane |
|       | wikil |       |       |       |       |       | "){wi |
|       | ink") |       |       |       |       |       | dth=" |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | 75"}\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       |      |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | Nitro |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | metha |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ne |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 25    | [Ni   | [Nit  | RNO   | ![    | nit   |       | ![    |
|       | troso | roso] |       | Nitro | roso- |       | Nitro |
|       | compo | (Nitr |       | so](N |       |       | soben |
|       | und]( | oso " |       | itros |       |       | zene] |
|       | Organ | wikil |       | o-com |       |       | (Nitr |
|       | ic_Ch | ink") |       | pound |       |       | osobe |
|       | emist |       |       | -2D.p |       |       | nzene |
|       | ry/Gl |       |       | ng "N |       |       | .png  |
|       | ossar |       |       | itros |       |       | "Nitr |
|       | y#N " |       |       | o"){w |       |       | osobe |
|       | wikil |       |       | idth= |       |       | nzene |
|       | ink") |       |       | "75"} |       |       | "){wi |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | dth=" |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | 75"}\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | Nitr |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | osobe |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | nzene |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       |  |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 26    |      | P    | ROOR  | ![P   | pe    | alkyl | ![Di- |
|       | Perox | eroxy |       | eroxy | roxy- | **    | tert- |
|       | ide |       | y"){w |       |       | tyl_p |
|       | y#P " |       |       | idth= |       |       | eroxi |
|       | wikil |       |       | "75"} |       |       | de.sv |
|       | ink") |       |       |       |       |       | g "Di |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | -tert |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | -buty |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | l per |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | oxide |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | "){wi |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | dth=" |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | 75"}\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | Di-  |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | tert- |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | butyl |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | p     |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | eroxi |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | de |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 27    | Be   | [P    | RC~6  | ![P   | ph    | -be   | ![Cum |
|       | nzene | henyl | ~H~5~ | henyl | enyl- | nzene | ene |       | png " |       |       | tal.p |
|       | ic_Ch |       |       | Pheny |       |       | ng "C |
|       | emist |       |       | l"){w |       |       | umene |
|       | ry/Gl |       |       | idth= |       |       | "){wi |
|       | ossar |       |       | "75"} |       |       | dth=" |
|       | y#B " |       |       |       |       |       | 75"}\ |
|       | wikil |       |       |       |       |       | Cume |
|       | ink") |       |       |       |       |       | ne\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | *(2-  |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | pheny |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | lprop |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ane)* |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 28    | P    | Phos  | R~3~P | ![A   | phosp | -phos | ![    |
|       | hosph | phino |       | ter   | hino- | phane | Methy |
|       | ine |       |       | "A te |       |       | skele |
|       |       |       |       | rtiar |       |       | tal.s |
|       |       |       |       | y pho |       |       | vg "M |
|       |       |       |       | sphin |       |       | ethyl |
|       |       |       |       | e"){w |       |       | propy |
|       |       |       |       | idth= |       |       | lphos |
|       |       |       |       | "75"} |       |       | phane |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | "){wi |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | dth=" |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | 75"}\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | M     |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ethyl |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | propy |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | lphos |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | phane |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 29    | P    | [Ph   | H     | ![    | phosp | di    | [DN   |
|       | hosph | ospha | OPO(O | Phosp | horic | (*sub | A~2~ | hodie | acid  | stitu | DNA " |
|       | ter | wikil |
|       | Organ | ate " |       | (Phos | (*sub | hy    | ink") |
|       | ic_Ch | wikil |       | phodi | stitu | droge |       |
|       | emist | ink") |       | ester | ent*) | nphos |       |
|       | ry/Gl |       |       | -grou | ester | phate |       |
|       | ossar |       |       | p.png |       |       |       |
|       | y#P " |       |       |  "Pho |       |       |       |
|       | wikil |       |       | sphod |       |       |       |
|       | ink") |       |       | ieste |       |       |       |
|       |       |       |       | r"){w |       |       |       |
|       |       |       |       | idth= |       |       |       |
|       |       |       |       | "75"} |       |       |       |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 30    |      | Phos  | RP(   | !     | phosp | *su   | !B   |
|       | Phosp | phono | =O)(O | [Phos | hono- | bstit | enzyl |
|       | honic |       | H)~2~ | phono |       | uent* | phosp |
|       | a     |       |       | group |       | phosp | honic |
|       | cid |       |       |  grou |       |       | tal.p |
|       |       |       |       | p"){w |       |       | ng "B |
|       |       |       |       | idth= |       |       | enzyl |
|       |       |       |       | "75"} |       |       | phosp |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | honic |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       |  acid |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | "){wi |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | dth=" |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | 75"}\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | B     |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | enzyl |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | phosp |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | honic |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | acid  |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 31    | P    | Phos  | ROP(  | !     | pho   |       | !     |
|       | hosph | phate | =O)(O | [Phos | spho- |       | [Glyc |
|       | ate~2~ | phate |       |       | erald |
|       | Organ |       |       | gr    |       |       | ehyde |
|       | ic_Ch |       |       | oup |       |       | phate |       |       | ng "G |
|       |       |       |       |  grou |       |       | lycer |
|       |       |       |       | p"){w |       |       | aldeh |
|       |       |       |       | idth= |       |       | yde 3 |
|       |       |       |       | "75"} |       |       | -phos |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | phate |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | "){wi |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | dth=" |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | 75"}\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | Glyc |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | erald |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ehyde |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | 3-p   |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | hosph |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ate |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 32    | Pyr  | Pyri | RC~5~ | !     | 4-pyr | -pyr  | !     |
|       | idine | dyl\ |       | tine- |
|       | Organ | ink") |       | 4-pyr | \     |       | 2D-sk |
|       | ic_Ch |       |       | idyl. | 3-pyr |       | eleta |
|       | emist |       |       | svg " | idyl\ |       | l.png |
|       | ry/Gl |       |       | 4-pyr | (pyri |       |  "Nic |
|       | ossar |       |       | idyl  | din-3 |       | otine |
|       | y#P " |       |       | group | -yl)\ |       | "){wi |
|       | wikil |       |       | "){wi | \     |       | dth=" |
|       | ink") |       |       | dth=" | 2-pyr |       | 75"}\ |
|       |       |       |       | 75"}\ | idyl\ |       | Ni   |
|       |       |       |       | !     | (pyr  |       | cotin |
|       |       |       |       | [3-py | idin- |       | e |       | Nicot |
|       |       |       |       | gr    |       |       | ine " |
|       |       |       |       | oup |
|       |       |       |       | idyl. |       |       |       |
|       |       |       |       | svg " |       |       |       |
|       |       |       |       | 3-pyr |       |       |       |
|       |       |       |       | idyl  |       |       |       |
|       |       |       |       | group |       |       |       |
|       |       |       |       | "){wi |       |       |       |
|       |       |       |       | dth=" |       |       |       |
|       |       |       |       | 75"}\ |       |       |       |
|       |       |       |       | !     |       |       |       |
|       |       |       |       | 2-py |       |       |       |
|       |       |       |       | ridyl |       |       |       |
|       |       |       |       | gr    |       |       |       |
|       |       |       |       | oup{wi |       |       |       |
|       |       |       |       | dth=" |       |       |       |
|       |       |       |       | 75"}\ |       |       |       |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 33    | Sulf |       | RSR\' | !Su  |       | di    | ![Dim |
|       | ide | ulfid |
|       | emist |       |       | (Sulf |       | su    | e |       |       | lfide |       |       | imeth |
|       |       |       |       |  grou |       |       | yl su |
|       |       |       |       | p"){w |       |       | lfide |
|       |       |       |       | idth= |       |       | "){wi |
|       |       |       |       | "75"} |       |       | dth=" |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | 75"}\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | Dim  |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ethyl |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | sulf  |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ide |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 34    | Sulf | Sulf | RSO~  | ![Sul | sulf  | di    | ![Dim |
|       | one | ulfon |
|       | emist | wikil |       | ulfon |       | su    | e |       | e.png |       | lfone | SO2.s |
|       | ossar |       |       |  "Sul |       |       | vg "D |
|       | y#S " |       |       | fonyl |       |       | imeth |
|       | wikil |       |       |  grou |       |       | yl su |
|       | ink") |       |       | p"){w |       |       | lfone |
|       |       |       |       | idth= |       |       | "){wi |
|       |       |       |       | "75"} |       |       | dth=" |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | 75"}\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | Dim   |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ethyl |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | sul   |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | fone\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | *(   |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | Methy |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | lsulf |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | onylm |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ethan |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | e)* |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 35    | Sul  | Sulfo | RS    | !Sul | s     | *su   | ![    |
|       | fonic |       | O~3~H | fonyl | ulfo- | bstit | Benze |
|       | a     |       |       | grou  |       | uent* | nesul |
|       | cid{w |       |       | -skel |
|       | ink") |       |       | idth= |       |       | etal. |
|       |       |       |       | "75"} |       |       | png " |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | Benze |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | nesul |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | fonic |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       |  acid |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | "){wi |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | dth=" |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | 75"}\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | Benze |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | nesul |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | fonic |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | acid  |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 36    | S    | [S    | R     | ![Sul | sulf  | di    | ![Dip |
|       | ulfox | ulfin | SOR\' | finyl | inyl- | (*sub | henyl |
|       | ide | foxid |
|       | ic_Ch | ide " |       | foxid |       | **s   | e |       |  "Sul |       | ide** | l-sul |
|       | ossar |       |       | finyl |       |       | foxid |
|       | y#S " |       |       |  grou |       |       | e.png |
|       | wikil |       |       | p"){w |       |       |  "Dip |
|       | ink") |       |       | idth= |       |       | henyl |
|       |       |       |       | "75"} |       |       |  sulf |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | oxide |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | "){wi |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | dth=" |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | 75"}\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | Dip   |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | henyl |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | sulf  |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | oxide |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+
| 37    | Th   | Sulf | RSH   | ![Sul | merca | -     | ![    |
|       | iol |       | .png  |       |       | hiol- |
|       | ossar |       |       | "Sulf |       |       | skele |
|       | y#T " |       |       | hydry |       |       | tal.s |
|       | wikil |       |       | l"){w |       |       | vg "E |
|       | ink") |       |       | idth= |       |       | thane |
|       |       |       |       | "75"} |       |       | thiol |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | "){wi |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | dth=" |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | 75"}\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | Etha |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | nethi |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ol\ |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | *(    |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | Ethyl |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | m     |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | ercap |
|       |       |       |       |       |       |       | tan)* |
+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+

*Note: The table above is adapted from the Functional Groups table on
Wikipedia.*

Combining the names of functional groups with the names of the parent
alkanes generates a powerful systematic
nomenclature for naming organic
compounds.

The non-hydrogen atoms of functional groups are always associated with
each by covalent bonds, as well as with
the rest of the molecule. When the group of atoms is associated with the
rest of the molecule primarily by ionic forces, the group is referred to
more properly as a polyatomic ion or
complex ion. And all of these are called
radicals, by a meaning of the term *radical*
that predates the free radical.

The first carbon after the carbon that attaches to the functional group
is called the alpha carbon.

Alcohol containing two hydroxyl groups are called glycols. They have
both common names and IUPAC names.

## Mnemonics for Functional Groups

These are possible mnemonics for the common functional groups.

`<b>`{=html}Vowels`</b>`{=html}: Remember the vowels \"A\", \"E\", and
\"Y\" for Alkane, Alkene, and Alkyne. Alkanes have only single covalent
bonds. Alkenes have at least one double bond. Alkynes have at least one
triple bond. The letters \"I\", \"O\", and \"U\" are not used.
Furthermore, \"O\" and \"U\" would result in awkward pronunciations.

`<b>`{=html}Alcohol`</b>`{=html}: Look for the \"C-O-H\" in \"Alcohol.\"

`<b>`{=html}Ether`</b>`{=html}: Ethers were anesthetics used in the
1800s. Dr. Kellogg also lived at the same time. Corn Flakes are made by
Kellogg\'s. A rooster or cock (C-O-C) is the cornflake mascot. Or, think
there is a C on \"either\" side of the O.

`<b>`{=html}Amine`</b>`{=html}: Remember the \"N\" stands for nitrogen.

`<b>`{=html}Aldehyde`</b>`{=html}: This sounds like \"Adelaide,\" the
Australian city. Australia is at the end of the Asian islands, and
aldehydes are at the end of the hydrocarbon chain. The \"Y\" indicates a
C=O double bond.

`<b>`{=html}Ketone`</b>`{=html}: Imagine the diagonal strokes of \"K\"
forming the C=O double bond.
![

`<b>`{=html}Carboxylic Acid`</b>`{=html}: \"Box\" stands for boxed wine
or C-O-H, alcohol. The \"Y\" indicates a C=O double bond.

`<b>`{=html}Ester`</b>`{=html}: This sounds like \"Estelle\" George
Costanza\'s mother in the TV show _Seinfeld_.
George\'s nickname was Koko or Coco. So think of O=C-O-C.

`<b>`{=html}Amide`</b>`{=html}: Amine with a \"D\". D for double.

