# Circuits and DC Instruments

## DC Circuits Containing Resistors and Capacitors

When you use a flash camera, it takes a few seconds to charge the capacitor that powers the flash. The light flash discharges the capacitor in a tiny fraction of a second. Why does charging take longer than discharging? This question and a number of other phenomena that involve charging and discharging capacitors are discussed in this module.

### RC Circuits

An  is one containing a resistor R and a capacitor C. The capacitor is an electrical component that stores electric charge.
 shows a simple RC circuit that employs a DC (direct current) voltage source. The capacitor is initially uncharged. As soon as the switch is closed, current flows to and from the initially uncharged capacitor. As charge increases on the capacitor plates, there is increasing opposition to the flow of charge by the repulsion of like charges on each plate.
In terms of voltage, this is because voltage across the capacitor is given by , where  is the amount of charge stored on each plate and  is the capacitance. This voltage opposes the battery, growing from zero to the maximum emf when fully charged. The current thus decreases from its initial value of  to zero as the voltage on the capacitor reaches the same value as the emf. When there is no current, there is no  drop, and so the voltage on the capacitor must then equal the emf of the voltage source. This can also be explained with Kirchhoff’s second rule (the loop rule), discussed in Kirchhoff’s Rules, which says that the algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop must be zero.
The initial current is , because all of the  drop is in the resistance. Therefore, the smaller the resistance, the faster a given capacitor will be charged. Note that the internal resistance of the voltage source is included in , as are the resistances of the capacitor and the connecting wires. In the flash camera scenario above, when the batteries powering the camera begin to wear out, their internal resistance rises, reducing the current and lengthening the time it takes to get ready for the next flash.
Voltage on the capacitor is initially zero and rises rapidly at first, since the initial current is a maximum. (b) shows a graph of capacitor voltage versus time () starting when the switch is closed at . The voltage approaches emf asymptotically, since the closer it gets to emf the less current flows. The equation for voltage versus time when charging a capacitor  through a resistor , derived using calculus, is
where  is the voltage across the capacitor, emf is equal to the emf of the DC voltage source, and the exponential e = 2.718 … is the base of the natural logarithm. Note that the units of  are seconds. We define
where  (the Greek letter tau) is called the time constant for an  circuit. As noted before, a small resistance  allows the capacitor to charge faster. This is reasonable, since a larger current flows through a smaller resistance. It is also reasonable that the smaller the capacitor , the less time needed to charge it. Both factors are contained in .
More quantitatively, consider what happens when . Then the voltage on the capacitor is
This means that in the time , the voltage rises to 0.632 of its final value. The voltage will rise 0.632 of the remainder in the next time . It is a characteristic of the exponential function that the final value is never reached, but 0.632 of the remainder to that value is achieved in every time, . In just a few multiples of the time constant , then, the final value is very nearly achieved, as the graph in (b) illustrates.

### Discharging a Capacitor

Discharging a capacitor through a resistor proceeds in a similar fashion, as  illustrates. Initially, the current is , driven by the initial voltage  on the capacitor. As the voltage decreases, the current and hence the rate of discharge decreases, implying another exponential formula for . Using calculus, the voltage  on a capacitor  being discharged through a resistor  is found to be
The graph in (b) is an example of this exponential decay. Again, the time constant is . A small resistance  allows the capacitor to discharge in a small time, since the current is larger. Similarly, a small capacitance requires less time to discharge, since less charge is stored. In the first time interval  after the switch is closed, the voltage falls to 0.368 of its initial value, since .
During each successive time , the voltage falls to 0.368 of its preceding value. In a few multiples of , the voltage becomes very close to zero, as indicated by the graph in (b).
Now we can explain why the flash camera in our scenario takes so much longer to charge than discharge; the resistance while charging is significantly greater than while discharging. The internal resistance of the battery accounts for most of the resistance while charging. As the battery ages, the increasing internal resistance makes the charging process even slower. (You may have noticed this.)
The flash discharge is through a low-resistance ionized gas in the flash tube and proceeds very rapidly. Flash photographs, such as in , can capture a brief instant of a rapid motion because the flash can be less than a microsecond in duration. Such flashes can be made extremely intense.
During World War II, nighttime reconnaissance photographs were made from the air with a single flash illuminating more than a square kilometer of enemy territory. The brevity of the flash eliminated blurring due to the surveillance aircraft’s motion. Today, an important use of intense flash lamps is to pump energy into a laser. The short intense flash can rapidly energize a laser and allow it to reemit the energy in another form.

### RC Circuits for Timing

 circuits are commonly used for timing purposes. A mundane example of this is found in the ubiquitous intermittent wiper systems of modern cars. The time between wipes is varied by adjusting the resistance in an  circuit. Another example of an  circuit is found in novelty jewelry, Halloween costumes, and various toys that have battery-powered flashing lights. (See  for a timing circuit.)
A more crucial use of  circuits for timing purposes is in the artificial pacemaker, used to control heart rate. The heart rate is normally controlled by electrical signals generated by the sino-atrial (SA) node, which is on the wall of the right atrium chamber. This causes the muscles to contract and pump blood. Sometimes the heart rhythm is abnormal and the heartbeat is too high or too low.
The artificial pacemaker is inserted near the heart to provide electrical signals to the heart when needed with the appropriate time constant. Pacemakers have sensors that detect body motion and breathing to increase the heart rate during exercise to meet the body’s increased needs for blood and oxygen.

### Test Prep for AP Courses


### Section Summary

1. An  circuit is one that has both a resistor and a capacitor.
2. The time constant  for an  circuit is .
3. When an initially uncharged ( at ) capacitor in series with a resistor is charged by a DC voltage source, the voltage rises, asymptotically approaching the emf of the voltage source; as a function of time,
    
4. Within the span of each time constant , the voltage rises by 0.632 of the remaining value, approaching the final voltage asymptotically.
5. If a capacitor with an initial voltage  is discharged through a resistor starting at , then its voltage decreases exponentially as given by
    
6. In each time constant , the voltage falls by 0.368 of its  remaining initial value, approaching zero asymptotically.

### Conceptual questions


### Problem Exercises
