Zvinhu zvipi zvakakonzera kuderera kwebasa rokutsvakurudza AI muma1970?
Context:Nguva yechando yokutanga ya1974 kusvika muna 1980 Mumakore okuma1970, AI yakashoropodzwa uye yakasangana nematambudziko emari. Vatsvakurudzi veAI vakanga vatadza kunzwisisa kuoma kwezvinetso zvavakasangana nazvo. Tariro dzavo dzakanga dzakakwirira zvisingaiti, uye pavakaona kuti zvavakanga vavimbisa hazvina kuitika, mari yavakanga vachida kushandisa pakugadzira zvinhu zvakagadzirwa nevanhu yakaderera. Panguva imwe cheteyo, munda weconnectionism (kana kuti neural nets) wakavharwa chose chose kwamakore 10 nokutsoropodza kunoparadza kwaMarvin Minsky kwema perceptrons. Pasinei nezvinetso zvomurangariro wavanhu weAI mukupera kwema1970, pfungwa itsva dzakaongororwa mukuronga kwepfungwa, kufunga kwakanaka uye dzimwe nzvimbo dzakawanda.  Zvinetso Mukutanga kwema1970, mano epurogiramu dzeAI akanga ari mashoma. Kunyange mapurogiramu akaisvonaka zvikuru aigona kubata bedzi shanduro dzisina basa dzezvinetso zvaifanira kupedzwa; mapurogiramu ose akanga ari, mupfungwa yakati, "zvokutambisa". Vanzveri veAI vakanga vatanga kupinda mumiganhu inokosha inoverengeka iyo yaisagona kukurirwa muma1970. Kunyange zvazvo mimwe yemiganhu iyi yaizokundwa mumakumi emakore akatevera, mimwe ichiri kutadzisa munda kusvikira kuzuva rino.  Simba rekombiyuta rakaganhurirwa: Kwakanga kusina ndangariro yakakwana kana kuti kumhanyisa kwokushandisa kuti uite chinhu chipi nechipi chinobetsera chaizvoizvo. Somuenzaniso, basa rakabudirira raRoss Quillian pamitauro yomusikirwo rakaratidzirwa neshoko remashoko makumi maviri bedzi, nokuti izvozvo ndizvo zvose zvaizokwana mundangariro. Hans Moravec akataura muna 1976 kuti makombiyuta akanga achiri asina simba zvikuru zvakapetwa nemamiriyoni kuti aratidze ungwaru. Akapa mufananidzo wokuti: Uchenjeri hwokugadzira zvinhu hunoda simba remakombiyuta sezvinongoita ndege dzinoda simba remabhiza. Pazasi peimwe nhanho, hazvibviri, asi, sezvo simba rinowedzera, pakupedzisira zvingava nyore. Nezve kuona kwekombiyuta, Moravec akafungidzira kuti kungoenzanisa kumucheto uye kugona kwekuona kwekufamba kwe retina yemunhu munguva chaiyo kwaizoda komputa yechinangwa chese inokwanisa kuita 109 operations / sekondi (1000 MIPS). Kubva muna 2011, kushandiswa kwemaziso emakombiyuta kunoda 10,000 kusvika ku1,000,000 MIPS. Mukuenzanisa, supercomputer yakakurumidza muna 1976, Cray-1 (kutengesa pamadhora mamiriyoni mashanu kusvika kumadhora masere emadhora), yaingokwanisa kutenderedza 80 kusvika 130 MIPS, uye komputa yedesktop yenguva iyoyo yakawana isingasviki 1 MIPS. Intractability uye kuputika kwokubatanidza. Muna 1972 Richard Karp (achivaka pamusoro paStephen Cook's 1971 theorem) akaratidza kuti pane zvinetso zvizhinji izvo zvichida zvinogona kugadziriswa bedzi munguva inoratidzira (muukuru hwezvinopinda). Kuwana mhinduro dzakanakisisa dzezvinetso izvi kunoda nguva isingafungidziriki yekombiyuta kunze kweapo zvinetso zvacho zvisingakoshi. Izvi zvinenge zvichireva kuti mhinduro zhinji dze"toyi" dzinoshandiswa neAI dzingasazosvika pakuva masisitimu anobatsira. Zivo ine mufungo uye kufunga. Zvikumbiro zvizhinji zvinokosha zvoungwaru hwekunyepedzera zvakadai sokuona kana kuti mutauro womuzvarirwo zvinongoda mashoko akawanda kwazvo pamusoro penyika: purogiramu yacho inoda kuva nepfungwa yakati yezvingave iri kutarisa kana kuti iri kutaura pamusoro peicho. Ikoku kunoda kuti purogiramu izive zvinhu zvakawanda zvakafanana pamusoro penyika izvo mwana anoziva. Vatsvakurudzi vakakurumidza kuziva kuti ichi chaiva chiverengero chikuru chose chose choruzivo. Hapana munhu muna 1970 aigona kuvaka dhatabhesi hombe kudaro uye hapana munhu aiziva kuti purogiramu yaigona sei kudzidza mashoko akawanda kudaro. Moravec's paradox: Kuratidza theorems uye kupedza zvinetso zvejometri kuri nyore zvikuru nokuda kwemakombiyuta, asi basa rinofungidzirwa kuva riri nyore rakafanana nokuziva chiso kana kuti kuyambuka kamuri pasina kugumburwa nechinhu chipi nechipi rakaoma zvikuru. Ikoku kunobetsera kutsanangura chikonzero nei kunzvera chiono namarobhoti kwakanga kwaita fambiro mberi shomanene zvikuru pakati pama1970. Zvinetso zvechimiro nezvezvinodiwa. Vatsvakurudzi veAI (vakadai saJohn McCarthy) avo vaishandisa pfungwa vakawana kuti vaisagona kumiririra kuderedzwa kwakajairika kwaisanganisira kuronga kana kufunga kwekutanga pasina kuita shanduko kuchimiro chepfungwa pachayo. Vakagadzira pfungwa itsva (dzakadai sedzisina kufanana nedzimwe uye pfungwa dzomutauro) kuti vaedze kugadzirisa zvinetso. Kuguma kwemari Onawo: AI yechando Masangano aipa mari kuAI research (akadai sehurumende yeBritain, DARPA neNRC) akaodzwa mwoyo nokushayikwa kwekufambira mberi uye pakupedzisira akagura inenge mari yose yekutsvakurudza kusina kunanga kuAI. Muitiro wacho wakatanga kare kare muna 1966 apo mushumo weALPAC wakaoneka uchishora nhamburiko dzokushandura kwemichina. Pashure pokushandisa mamiriyoni 20 emadhora, NRC yakagumisa tsigiro yose. Muna 1973, mushumo weLighthill pamusoro pemamiriro ekutsvakurudza kweAI muEngland yakatsoropodza kukundikana kwakakwana kweAI kuti ibudirire "zvinangwa zvayo zvikuru" uye yakatungamirira kukuparadzwa kwekutsvakurudza kweAI munyika iyoyo. (Mushumo wacho wakataura zvakananga chinetso chokuputika kwokubatanidza sechikonzero chokukundikana kweAI.) DARPA yakanga yaodzwa mwoyo zvikuru nevatsvakurudzi vaishanda papurogiramu yokutsvakurudza yokunzwisisa kutaura paCMU uye yakabvisa mari yegore negore yemadhora mamiriyoni matatu. Pakazosvika 1974, mari yemapurojekiti eAI yakanga yava kuoma kuwana.  Hans Moravec akapa mhaka yedambudziko racho kufanotaura kusiri kwechokwadi kwevashandi biyake. "Vatsvakurudzi vakawanda vakabatwa mumusungo wokuwedzeredza". Zvisinei, kwaiva neimwe nhau: chifo chokupfuura kweMansfield Amendment muna 1969, DARPA yakanga iri pasi pezvinetso zvinowedzera zvokutsigira "tsvakurudzo yakananga yakanangidzirwa pabasa, panzvimbo pokutsvakurudza kusiri kwakanangidzirwa". Mari yokutsvakurudza kwokusika, kwokusununguka kwakanga kwapfuurira muma60s yaisazobva kuDARPA. Panzvimbo pezvo, mari yacho yakanangidzirwa kumapurojekiti chaiwo ane zvinangwa zvakajeka, zvakadai sematangi anozvimirira oga uye gadziriro dzokutarisira hondo.  Vatsoropodzi vanobva kumativi ose ekoreji Onawo: Philosophy of artificial intelligence Vazivi vanoverengeka vakapokana zvakasimba nezvakataurwa nevatsvakurudzi veAI. Mumwe wevokutanga aiva John Lucas, uyo akataura kuti Gödel's incompleteness theorem yakaratidza kuti gadziriro yepamutemo (yakadai sepurogiramu yekombiyuta) haigoni kuona chokwadi chemamwe mashoko, nepo munhu aigona. Hubert Dreyfus akaseka zvipikirwa zvakaputsika zvema1960 uye akashoropodza fungidziro dzeAI, achipokana kuti kufunga kwevanhu chaiko kunosanganisira zvishoma kwazvo "kugadziriswa kwechiratidzo" uye huwandu hwakawanda hwepanyama, hwepamoyo, husingazivi "ziva sei". John Searle's Chinese Room nharo, yakaratidzwa muna 1980, yakaedza kuratidza kuti purogiramu haigoni kunzi "inonzwisisa" zviratidzo zvainoshandisa (chimiro chinonzi "chinangwa"). Kana zviratidzo zvisina zvazvinoreva kumuchina wacho, Searle akataura kudaro, ipapo muchina wacho haugoni kurondedzerwa so"kufunga".  Kutsoropodza uku hakuna kutorwa zvakakomba nevatsvakurudzi veAI, kazhinji nemhaka yokuti zvaiita sezvakanga zvisingabatsiri. Zvinetso zvakadai sokusava nomufungo uye zivo yomuzvarirwo zvakaratidzika kuva zvokukurumidza zvikuru uye zvakakomba zvikuru. Kwakanga kusina kujeka kuti musiyanoi uyo "unyanzvi" kana kuti "chinangwa" zvaiita kuchirongwa chaichoicho chekombiyuta. Minsky akati nezvaDreyfus naSearle "havanzwisisi, uye vanofanira kufuratirwa". Dreyfus, uyo aidzidzisa paMIT, haana kubvumirwa: akazotaura kuti vatsvakurudzi veAI "havana kuedza kuonekwa vachidya neni". Joseph Weizenbaum, munyori weELIZA, akanzwa kuti kubata kwaaishanda navo Dreyfus kwakanga kusina unyanzvi uye kwaiva kwouduku. Kunyange zvazvo akanga ari mutsoropodzi akajeka wezvimiro zvaDreyfus, iye "akaita kuti zvive pachena kuti yavo yakanga isiri nzira yokubata nayo munhu".  Weizenbaum akatanga kuva nekusahadzika kwakakomba pamusoro peAI apo Kenneth Colby akanyora "purogiramu yekombiyuta inogona kuitisa hurukuro yepfungwa" yakavakirwa paELIZA. Weizenbaum akanetseka kuti Colby akaona purogiramu isina mufungo sechishandiso chakakomba chokurapa. Kurwisana kwakavamba, uye mugariro wacho hauna kubetserwa apo Colby haana kupa Weizenbaum mbiri nokuda kwegoverano yake papurogiramu yacho. Muna 1976, Weizenbaum akabudisa bhuku rinonzi Computer Power and Human Reason iro raiti kushandiswa zvisina kufanira kwounyanzvi hwokugadzira zvinhu kunogona kuita kuti upenyu hwevanhu huve husingakoshi.  Perceptrons uye kurwiswa kwechokuwirirana A perceptron aiva chimiro neural network yakatangwa muna 1958 naFrank Rosenblatt, uyo akanga ari chikoro shamwari Marvin Minsky panguva Bronx High School of Science. Kufanana nevatsvakurudzi vakawanda veAI, aiva netariro pamusoro pesimba rayo, achifanotaura kuti "perceptron pakupedzisira ingazokwanisa kudzidza, kuita zvisarudzo, uye kushandura mitauro". Purogiramu yokutsvakurudza inoshanda muparadigm yakaitwa muma1960 asi yakangoerekana yamira nokubudiswa kwebhuku raMinsky naPapert ra1969 rinonzi Perceptrons. Rakaratidza kuti paiva nemiganhu yakakomba pane izvo maperceptron aigona kuita uye kuti kufungidzira kwaFrank Rosenblatt kwakanga kwanyanyisa zvikuru. Mugumisiro webhuku racho wakanga uri wokuparadza: kunenge kuti hapana tsvakurudzo ipi neipi yakaitwa pamusoro pechinzwano kwamakore 10. Pakupedzisira, chizvarwa chitsva chevanzveri chaizomutsiridza munda wacho uye pashure pacho chaizova rutivi runokosha nerunobetsera rwoungwaru hwekunyepedzera. Rosenblatt haana kurarama kuti aone izvi, sezvo akafa mutsaona yechikepe nguva pfupi pashure pokunge bhuku racho rabudiswa.  Kufunga kwokufananidzira uye kwokunzwisisa: "vanonyatsoziva" Logic yakaunzwa mukutsvakurudza kweAI kare kare sa1959, naJohn McCarthy muchirongwa chake cheAdvice Taker. Muna 1963, J. Alan Robinson akanga awana mutoo uri nyore wokushandisa kupfupikisa pamakombiyuta, chisarudzo neunification algorithm. Zvisinei, kushandiswa kwakananga, kwakadai seizvo zvakaedzwa naMcCarthy nevadzidzi vake mukupera kwema1960, kwakanga kwakanyanya kuoma: mapurogiramu aida nhamba dzomuchadenga dzematanho kuti aratidze zvirevo zviri nyore. Nzira yakabudirira zvikuru yokufunga nayo yakagadzirwa muma1970 naRobert Kowalski paYunivhesiti yeEdinburgh, uye nokukurumidza izvi zvakatungamirira mukubatana nevanotsvakurudza veFrance Alain Colmerauer naPhilippe Roussel avo vakagadzira mutauro unobudirira wokuronga purogiramu Prolog. Prolog inoshandisa subset of logic (Horn clauses, yakabatana zvikuru ne "mitemo" uye "mitemo yekugadzira") inobvumira kuverenga kunogadziriswa. Mitemo yaizoramba ichikosha, ichipa hwaro hwehunyanzvi hwehunyanzvi hwaEdward Feigenbaum uye basa rinopfuurira raAllen Newell naHerbert A. Simon raizotungamira kuSoar nedzidziso dzavo dzakabatana dzekuziva.  Vatsoropodzi vomurangariro wokunzwisisa vakacherechedza, sezvakaita Dreyfus, kuti vanhu havawanzoshandisi pfungwa apo vanopedza zvinetso. Miedzo yakaitwa nenyanzvi dzepfungwa dzakadai saPeter Wason, Eleanor Rosch, Amos Tversky, Daniel Kahneman nevamwe yakapa uchapupu. McCarthy akapindura kuti zvinoitwa nevanhu hazvina basa. Akataura kuti chinonyatsodiwa michina inokwanisa kugadzirisa zvinetso - kwete michina inofunga sezvinoita vanhu.  Zvirongwa uye magwaro: "zvinhu zvinovhiringidza" Pakati pavanotsoropodza nzira yaMcCarthy paiva nevamwe vake munyika yose paMIT. Marvin Minsky, Seymour Papert naRoger Schank vakanga vachiedza kupedza zvinetso zvakadai so"kunzwisisa nhau" uye "kuziva chinhu" izvo zvaida kuti muchina ufunge somunhu. Kuti vashandise pfungwa dzenguva dzose dzakadai se"chigaro" kana kuti "resitorendi" vaifanira kuita fungidziro dzisina mufungo dzakafanana idzo vanhu vaiwanzoita. Zvinosuruvarisa kuti pfungwa dzisina kunyatsojeka dzakadai seidzi dzakaoma kurondedzera mupfungwa. Gerald Sussman akacherechedza kuti "kushandisa mutauro wakarurama kurondedzera pfungwa dzisina kunyatsojeka hakuiti kuti dzive dzakarurama zvikuru". Schank akarondedzera nzira dzavo dze"anti-logic" se"zvisina kurongeka", mukusiyana ne"zvakanaka" paradigms yakashandiswa naMcCarthy, Kowalski, Feigenbaum, Newell naSimon.  Muna 1975, mune imwe nyaya inokosha, Minsky akacherechedza kuti vakawanda vevamwe vake "vasina kuchena" vaitsvakurudza vakanga vachishandisa rudzi rumwe chete rwomushandisirwo: gadziriro inobata fungidziro dzedu dzose dzakanaka pamusoro pechimwe chinhu. Somuenzaniso, kana tikashandisa pfungwa yeshiri, pane zvinhu zvakawanda zvinouya mupfungwa pakarepo: tingafungidzira kuti inobhururuka, inodya makonye uye zvichingodaro. Tinoziva kuti aya maidi haasi echokwadi nguva dzose uye kuti kuderedza kunoshandisa aya maidi hakuzovi "kunonzwisisika", asi aya mapoka akarongwa ezvokufungidzira rutivi rwomugariro wechinhu chiri chose chatinotaura nokufunga. Akadana zvivako izvi kuti "zvimiro". Schank akashandisa chimiro chemafirimu chaakadana kuti "zvinyorwa" kuti apindure zvinobudirira mibvunzo pamusoro penhau pfupi muChirungu.
Zvinotarisirwa zvisingaiti, kushayikwa kwemari, chinetso chokugadzira migumisiro inokosha, uye kuwanikwa kwezvikanganiso zvakakosha izvo masayendisiti eAI aisagona kukunda muma1970 zvose zvakakonzera kuderera kwekutsvakurudza kweAI mumakore gumi iwayo.