Yiziphi izici ezaba nomthelela ekuwohlokeni kocwaningo lwe-AI ngawo-1970?
Context:TUbusika bokuqala be-AI 1974<unk>1980 Ngawo-1970, i-AI yagxekwa futhi yabhekana nezinkinga zezimali. Abacwaningi be - AI behlulekile ukuqonda ubunzima bezinkinga ababhekana nazo. Ukuqiniseka kwabo okukhulu kwakwenze kwaba nokulindela okukhulu kakhulu, futhi lapho imiphumela eyayithenjisiwe ihluleka ukufezeka, imali ye-AI yanyamalala. Ngesikhathi esifanayo, umkhakha we-connectionism (noma amanethiwekhi e-neural) wavalwa cishe ngokuphelele iminyaka eyi-10 ngenxa yokugxeka kukaMarvin Minsky ama-perceptrons. Naphezu kwezinkinga zokuqonda komphakathi i-AI ngasekupheleni kweminyaka yama-70, imibono emisha yahlolwa ekuhleleni okunengqondo, ukucabanga okuvamile nakwezinye izindawo eziningi.  Izinkinga Ngasekuqaleni kwawo-1970, amakhono ezinhlelo ze - AI ayelinganiselwe. Ngisho nezinhlelo ezihlaba umxhwele kakhulu zazikwazi ukuxazulula izinhlobo eziwubala kuphela zezinkinga okwakufanele zixazulule; zonke izinhlelo, ngomqondo othile, 'zaziyamathoyizi.' Abacwaningi be - AI base beqalile ukuhlangabezana nemingcele eminingana eyisisekelo eyayingenakunqotshwa ngawo - 1970. Nakuba eminye yale mingcele yayizonqotshwa emashumini eminyaka alandela, eminye isavimbela insimu kuze kube namuhla.  Amandla wekhompyutha alinganiselwe: Kwakungekho inkumbulo eyanele noma isivinini sokucubungula esanele sokufeza noma yini ewusizo ngempela. Ngokwesibonelo, umsebenzi kaRoss Quillian ophumelelayo ngolimi lwemvelo waboniswa ngesilulumagama samagama angamashumi amabili kuphela, ngoba yilokho kuphela okwakuzongena enkumbulweni. Ngo - 1976 uHans Moravec wagomela ngokuthi amakhompyutha ayesebuthakathaka kakhulu izikhathi eziyizigidi ukuba abonise ukuhlakanipha. Wasikisela umfanekiso: ubuhlakani bokufakelwa budinga amandla e-computer ngendlela efanayo izindiza ezidinga ngayo amahhashi. Ngaphansi komkhawulo othile, akunakwenzeka, kodwa, njengoba amandla anda, ekugcineni kungase kube lula. Ngokuqondene nombono wekhompyutha, uMoravec walinganisela ukuthi ukumane kufanise amakhono okubona emaphethelweni kanye nokunyakaza kwe-retina yomuntu ngesikhathi sangempela kuzodinga ikhompyutha enenhloso ejwayelekile ekwazi ukwenza imisebenzi eyi-109 ngomzuzwana (i-1000 MIPS). Kusukela ngo-2011, izinhlelo zokusebenza ezibukwayo zekhompyutha zidinga i-10,000 kuya ku-1,000,000 MIPS. Uma kuqhathaniswa, i-supercomputer esheshayo ngo-1976, i-Cray-1 (eyabathengisa ngo-$5 million kuya ku-$8 million), yayikwazi kuphela ukwenza cishe i-80 kuya ku-130 MIPS, futhi ikhompyutha ejwayelekile yedeskithophu ngaleso sikhathi yafinyelela ngaphansi kwe-1 MIPS. Ukungathinteki nokuqhuma kokuhlanganiswa. Ngo-1972 uRichard Karp (okwakhela ku-Stephen Cook's 1971 theorem) wabonisa ukuthi kunezinkinga eziningi okungenzeka ukuthi zingaxazululwa kuphela ngesikhathi se-exponential (ngobukhulu bokungena). Ukuthola izixazululo ezinhle kulezi zinkinga kudinga isikhathi esiningi sekhompyutha ngaphandle uma izinkinga zingenangqondo. Cishe lokhu kwakusho ukuthi izixazululo eziningi "zamathoyizi" ezisetshenziswa yi-AI cishe zazingasoze zaba izinhlelo eziwusizo. Ulwazi nokucabanga okunengqondo. Izicelo eziningi ezibalulekile zokuhlakanipha okufakelwayo njengokubona noma ulimi lwemvelo zidinga ulwazi oluningi kakhulu mayelana nezwe: uhlelo ludinga ukuba nomqondo othile walokho okungenzeka lubukeka noma lukhuluma ngakho. Lokhu kudinga ukuba uhlelo lwazi izinto eziningi ezifanayo ngomhlaba njengoba kwenza ingane. Ngokushesha abacwaningi bathola ukuthi lena kwakuyinqwaba yolwazi. Akekho ngo-1970 owayengakha i-database enkulu kangako futhi akekho owayazi ukuthi uhlelo lungafunda kanjani ukwaziswa okuningi kangaka. I-Moravec's paradox: Ukufakazela izisho nokuxazulula izinkinga ze-geometry kulula kakhulu kumakhompyutha, kodwa umsebenzi okuthiwa ulula njengokuqaphela ubuso noma ukuwela igumbi ngaphandle kokushayisana nanoma yini kunzima kakhulu. Lokhu kusiza ekuchazeni ukuthi kungani ucwaningo ngombono namarobhothi lwalungathuthuki kangako phakathi nawo-1970. Izinkinga zesakhiwo nezokufaneleka. Abacwaningi be-AI (njengoJohn McCarthy) abasebenzisa ukucabanga kwengqondo bathola ukuthi abakwazi ukumela iziphetho ezivamile ezihilela ukuhlela noma ukucabanga okuzenzakalelayo ngaphandle kokwenza izinguquko esakhiweni sokucabanga ngokwakho. Bakha ama-logic amasha (njenge-non-monotonic logic nama-modal logic) ukuzama ukuxazulula izinkinga. Ukuphela kokuxhaswa ngezimali Bheka futhi: AI ebusika Ama-ejensi ayexhasa ucwaningo lwe-AI (njengohulumeni waseBrithani, i-DARPA ne-NRC) akhungathekile ngenxa yokuntuleka kwentuthuko futhi ekugcineni anqamula cishe yonke imali yocwaningo olungaqondisiwe ku-AI. Lesi simiso saqala ngo-1966 lapho kuvela umbiko we - ALPAC owawunegunya lokugxeka imizamo yokuhumusha ngomshini. Ngemva kokuchitha izigidi ezingu-20 zamaRandi, i-NRC yayeka konke ukusekela. Ngo-1973, umbiko kaLighthill ngesimo socwaningo lwe-AI eNgilandi wagxeka ukwehluleka okuphelele kwe-AI ukufeza "izinhloso zayo ezinkulu" futhi kwaholela ekuqedeni ucwaningo lwe-AI kulelo zwe. (Umbiko ukhulume ngokukhethekile ngenkinga yokuqhuma kokuhlanganiswa njengesizathu sokwehluleka kwe-AI.) I-DARPA yadumazeka kakhulu ngabacwaningi ababesebenza ohlelweni Lokucwaninga Ngokuqonda Inkulumo eCMU futhi yakhansela isibonelelo saminyaka yonke samadola ayizigidi ezintathu. Ngo-1974, kwakunzima ukuthola imali yezinhlelo ze - AI.  UHans Moravec wasola ukubikezela okungelona iqiniso kozakwabo ngale nkinga. "Abacwaningi abaningi babanjwa ugibe lokweqisa okwandayo". Nokho, kwakunenye inkinga: kusukela ekwamukelweni kweMansfield Amendment ngo-1969, i-DARPA yayicindezelwe kakhulu ukuba isekele "ucwaningo oluqondile oluhloselwe umsebenzi, kunocwaningo oluyisisekelo olungaqondisiwe". Izimali zokucwaninga okunesibindi, okwenziwa ngokukhululeka okwakwenzeke ngawo-60 zazingeke zivele kwa-DARPA. Kunalokho, le mali yayisetshenziselwa amaphrojekthi athile anemigomo ecacile, njengamathangi azimele nezinhlelo zokulawula impi.  Ukugxekwa okuvela kulo lonke ikhampasi Bheka futhi: Ifilosofi yobuhlakani bokufakelwa Izazi zefilosofi eziningana zazikuphikisa kakhulu lokhu okushiwo abacwaningi be-AI. Omunye wabokuqala kwakunguJohn Lucas, owaphikisa ngokuthi i-Gödel's incompleteness theorem yabonisa ukuthi uhlelo olusemthethweni (njengohlelo lwekhompyutha) alukwazi ukubona iqiniso lezitatimende ezithile, kanti umuntu angakwazi. UHubert Dreyfus wahleka usulu izithembiso ezingagcwalisekanga zama-1960 futhi wagxeka ukucabanga kwe-AI, ephikisana nokuthi ukucabanga komuntu empeleni kufaka "ukulungiswa kwezimpawu" okuncane kakhulu futhi kuningi okuhlanganisiwe, okuzenzakalelayo, okungaqondakali "kwazi kanjani". Ukuphikisana kukaJohn Searle kwe-Chinese Room, okwethulwa ngo-1980, kwazama ukubonisa ukuthi uhlelo alunakushiwo ukuthi "luyaqonda" izimpawu oluzisebenzisayo (imfanelo ebizwa ngokuthi "inhloso"). Uma lezi zimpawu zingenayo incazelo emshinini, kusho uSearle, khona-ke umshini awukwazi ukuchazwa ngokuthi "uyacabanga".  Laba bacwaningi be-AI abazange bazithathe ngokungathi sína lezi zigxobo, ngokuvamile ngenxa yokuthi zazibonakala zingafaneleki. Izinkinga ezinjengokungalawuleki nolwazi oluvamile zazibonakala zishesha kakhulu futhi zibucayi. Kwakungacaci ukuthi "ukuqonda" noma "inhloso" kwakwenza umehluko muni ohlelweni lwangempela lwekhompyutha. UMinsky wathi ngoDreyfus noSearle "abaqondi kahle, futhi kufanele banganakwa". UDreyfus, owayefundisa eMIT, wanikwa ithuba: kamuva wathi abacwaningi be-AI "babengalokothi babonwe bedla nami". UJoseph Weizenbaum, umbhali wencwadi ethi ELIZA, waba nomuzwa wokuthi indlela ayesebenzelana ngayo noDreyfus yayingenabo ubuchwepheshe futhi yayiphathwa njengezingane. Nakuba ayegxeka ngokungagwegwesi izikhundla zikaDreyfus, "wakwenza kwacaca ngamabomu ukuthi kwakungeyona indlela yabo yokuphatha umuntu".  U-Weizenbaum waqala ukuba nokungabaza okukhulu ngokuziphatha mayelana ne-AI lapho uKenneth Colby ebhala "uhlelo lwekhompyutha olungaqhuba ingxoxo ye-psychotherapeutic" esekelwe ku-ELIZA. UWeizenbaum wayekhathazekile ngokuthi uColby wayebona uhlelo olungenangqondo njengethuluzi elingathi sína lokwelapha. Kwaqala ukungezwani, futhi isimo asizange sisizwe lapho uColby engazange amnikeze udumo uWeizenbaum ngomnikelo wakhe kulolu hlelo. Ngo-1976, uWeizenbaum washicilela incwadi ethi Computer Power and Human Reason eyayiphikisa ngokuthi ukusetshenziswa kabi kobuhlakani bokufakelwa kunamandla okunciphisa ukuphila komuntu.  Ama-perceptrons nokuhlaselwa kokuxhumeka I-perceptron kwakuwuhlobo lwenethiwekhi ye-neural eyethulwa ngo-1958 nguFrank Rosenblatt, owayengumngane wesikole kaMarvin Minsky eBronx High School of Science. Njengabacwaningi abaningi be - AI, wayenethemba ngamandla abo, ebikezela ukuthi "i - perceptron ekugcineni ingase ikwazi ukufunda, ukwenza izinqumo, nokuhumusha izilimi". Uhlelo lokucwaninga olusebenzayo lwe-paradigm lwenziwa ngawo-1960 kodwa lwafika ngokuphazima kweso ngokushicilelwa kwencwadi kaMinsky noPapert ka-1969 ethi Perceptrons. Sasikisela ukuthi kwakunemikhawulo enzima kulokho ama-perceptrons ayengakwenza nokuthi izibikezelo zikaFrank Rosenblatt zazidlange kakhulu. Umphumela wencwadi waba mubi kakhulu: cishe akukho cwaningo olwenziwe ngokuhlobana phakathi neminyaka eyishumi. Ekugcineni, isizukulwane esisha sabacwaningi sasiyovuselela le ndawo futhi ngemva kwalokho sasiyoba ingxenye ebalulekile futhi ewusizo yobuhlakani bokufakelwa. URosenblatt wayengeke aphile ukuze abone lokhu, njengoba ashona engozini yesikebhe ngokushesha ngemva kokushicilelwa kwencwadi.  Ukucabanga okunengqondo nokungokomfanekiso: "abahlakaniphileyo" I-logic yethulwa ocwaningweni lwe-AI ekuqaleni kuka-1959, nguJohn McCarthy esiphakamisweni sakhe se-Advice Taker. Ngo-1963, uJ. Alan Robinson wayethole indlela elula yokusebenzisa inqubo yokwehlukanisa kuma-computer, i-algorithm yokuhlukanisa nokuhlanganisa. Kodwa-ke, ukuqaliswa okuqondile, njengalezo ezazisetshenziswa uMcCarthy nabafundi bakhe ngasekupheleni kwawo-1960, kwakunzima kakhulu: izinhlelo zazidinga izinombolo zezinkanyezi zezinyathelo ukufakazela izitatimende ezilula. Indlela ephumelela kakhudlwana yokucabanga nge-logic yasungulwa ngawo-1970 nguRobert Kowalski e-University of Edinburgh, futhi ngokushesha lokhu kwaholela ekusebenzisaneni nabacwaningi baseFrance u-Alain Colmerauer noPhilippe Roussel abakha ulimi lokwakha izinhlelo lwe-logic Prolog. I-Prolog isebenzisa iqoqo elincane le-logic (ama-Horn clause, ahlobene kakhulu "nemithetho" kanye "nemithetho yokukhiqiza") evumela ukubala okuphathekayo. Imithetho yayizoqhubeka nokuba nethonya, inikeze isisekelo sezinhlelo zochwepheshe zika-Edward Feigenbaum kanye nomsebenzi oqhubekayo ka-Allen Newell noHerbert A. Simon owawuzoholela kuSoar kanye nemibono yabo ehlanganisiwe yokuqonda.  Abagxeki benqubo enengqondo baphawula, njengoba kwenza uDreyfus, ukuthi abantu abavamile ukusebenzisa ukucabanga okunengqondo lapho bexazulula izinkinga. Ukuhlola okwenziwa izazi zokusebenza kwengqondo ezinjengoPeter Wason, u-Eleanor Rosch, u-Amos Tversky, uDaniel Kahneman nabanye kwanikeza ubufakazi. UMcCarthy waphendula ngokuthi lokho abantu abakwenzayo akubalulekile. Wathi okudingeka ngempela yimishini engaxazulula izinkinga - hhayi imishini ecabanga njengabantu.  Izingqimba nemibhalo: "izingqimba" Phakathi kwabagxeka indlela kaMcCarthy kwakukhona ozakwabo kulo lonke izwe eMIT. UMarvin Minsky, uSeymour Papert noRoger Schank babezama ukuxazulula izinkinga ezinjengokuthi "ukuqonda indaba" nokuthi "ukuqaphela into" okwakudinga ukuba umshini ucabange njengomuntu. Ukuze basebenzise imiqondo evamile enjengokuthi "isihlalo" noma "indawo yokudlela" kwakudingeka benze zonke izinto ezifanayo ezingenangqondo abantu abazenza ngokuvamile. Ngeshwa, imiqondo engacacile enjengalena kunzima ukuyibonisa ngokunengqondo. UGerald Sussman waphawula ukuthi "ukusebenzisa ulimi olunembile ukuze uchaze imiqondo engacacile ngokuyisisekelo akuyenzi ibe nenembile ngokwengeziwe". USchank wachaza izindlela zabo "ezingqubuzana nomqondo" ngokuthi "ezingahlanzekile", ngokungafani nezindlela "ezihlanzekile" ezazisetshenziswa uMcCarthy, uKowalski, uFeigenbaum, uNewell noSimon.  Ngo-1975, ephepheni elaba yinsika, uMinsky waphawula ukuthi abacwaningi abaningi "abangenamusa" ayekanye nabo babesebenzisa uhlobo olufanayo lwethuluzi: uhlaka oluthatha yonke imiqondo yethu evamile mayelana nento ethile. Ngokwesibonelo, uma sisebenzisa umqondo wenyoni, kunenqwaba yamaqiniso afika ngokushesha engqondweni: singase sicabange ukuthi iyabhabha, idla izibungu nokunye. Siyazi ukuthi la maqiniso awahlali eyiqiniso nokuthi iziphetho ezisebenzisa la maqiniso ngeke zibe "ngokunengqondo", kodwa lezi zinqwaba ezihlelekile zokucabanga ziyingxenye yomongo wakho konke esikushoyo nokucabangayo. Wabiza lezi zakhiwo ngokuthi "amafreyimu". USchank wasebenzisa uhlobo lwamafreyimu awabiza ngokuthi "ama-script" ukuze aphendule ngempumelelo imibuzo ephathelene nezindaba ezimfushane ngesiNgisi.
Ukulindela okungenangqondo, ukuntuleka kwemali, inselele yokukhiqiza imiphumela ebalulekile, nokutholakala kwemingcele eyisisekelo ososayensi be-AI abangakwazanga ukuyinqoba ngawo-1970 konke kwaba nomthelela ekwehleni kocwaningo lwe-AI kuleyo minyaka eyishumi.