6836c4609c2caebb3560d7ebed44a342ef9f199a27379f6a3aa3b5513d032749

ensimple/3460.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+
+
+P. l. atrox 
+P. l. europaea 
+P. l. melanochaita (Sensu stricto)
+P. l. sinhaleyus 
+P. l. spelaea
+
+The lion (Panthera leo) is a large mammal of the Felidae (cat) family. Some large males weigh over 250 kg (550 lb).[3]  Today, wild lions live in sub-Saharan Africa and in Asia.[4] Lions are adapted for life in grasslands and mixed areas with trees and grass. The relatively small females are fast runners over short distances, and coordinate their hunting of herd animals.
+
+Lions have disappeared from North Africa and southwest Asia in historic times. Until the late Pleistocene, about 10,000 years ago, the lion was the most widespread large land mammal after humans. They were found in most of Africa, across Eurasia from western Europe to India, and in the Americas from the Yukon to Peru.[5] The lion is now a vulnerable species. There was a decline in its African range of 30–50% over two decades in the second half of the 20th century.[2] Habitat loss and conflicts with humans are the greatest causes of concern.
+
+Lions are often called the "king of the beasts". They are used as symbols representing courage. They appear in heraldry more often than any other animal. They are an icon of courage and royalty.
+
+Lions live for 10 to 14 years when they are in the wild. When they are captured, they can live longer than 20 years. In the wild, males do not usually live longer than 10 years. This is because wounds from fighting with other males make their lives shorter.[6] They usually live in savanna and grassland. These areas do have bushes and trees, but lions are mainly adapted to catch prey on grasslands. Compared to other cats, lions are social. A group of lions is called a pride. In a pride of lions, there are related females, their young, and one or two adult males. Groups of female lions often hunt together.
+
+Lions are carnivores and scavengers.[7]  Lions are apex predators.[8] Lions eat antelope, buffalo, zebras, warthogs, wildebeest, birds, hares, turtles and fish. Lions scavenge animals either dead from natural causes (disease) or killed by other predators. They keep a constant lookout for circling vultures, because this means there is a dead or injured animal close by.[7]
+
+They have an archetypal roar which is used to communicate with other group members and warn different intruders of territorial boundaries.
+
+They have long, retractable claws which help the lion to grab and hold prey. They also have a rough tongue that helps them peel the skin of prey animals away from flesh and flesh away from bone. Across their belly, they have loose skin which allows the species to be kicked by prey with little chance of an injury.
+
+There are about 30,000 lions left in the wild in Africa. Only 350 lions (of the Asiatic lion subspecies) are left in Asia. They live in the Gir Forest[9] in the state of Gujarat, India.
+
+Lions hunt many animals, such as gnus and antelopes. Male lions usually weigh between 150 and 250 kilograms (330 and 550 pounds). Large lions have reached 250 to 270 kg (550 to 600 lb). Females (lionesses) are usually 120 to 182 kg (265 to 401 lb).[3] Mature male lions are the only cats with a mane. The lion has a long body, short legs, large claws, big head, and a yellowish-brown coat.
+
+Lions live in groups that are called prides. 10 to 40 lions may live in a pride. Each pride has a home area that is called its territory. Lions do not allow other carnivores(meat-eating animals) to hunt in their territory. A territory can be as large as 260 square kilometres (100 square miles).
+
+The lions' roar is distinct to each individual. It is used for territorial marking and warning off other lions in separate prides (or lone individuals). This however, is usually carried out by competing males.
+
+Lions are not as built for extreme speed as cheetahs are, but hunt in packs. This is unusual in cats. The females usually do the hunting for the pride. However the males can sometimes help if needed, to take down large animals. After lions have brought down a prey, they suffocate it by biting the front of its face to prevent it breathing. Lions also have long retractable claws which act like grappling hooks, to keep hold of the prey.
+
+Even though a lion is good at killing prey for food, they are not among the most dangerous animals for humans.[10]
+
+A lioness is ready to have young when she is 2–3 years old. Young lions are called cubs. Cubs are born after 3 1/2 months. The cubs are born blind; their eyes do not open until they are about a week old, and cannot see well until they are about two weeks old. Lions do not have a den (home) where they would live for a long time. The lioness conceals the cubs in thick bush, gullies, or rocky outcrops. If the hiding place has been seen by other predators, then the lioness will move the cubs to a new hiding place. The cubs will be introduced to the pride at about 6 weeks old. The cubs are very vulnerable when the lioness goes out to hunt and needs to leave the cubs behind. Also, when a new male takes over a pride from another male, he usually kills all of the cubs. The cubs' mothers will then mate with the new pride male, which means that the first batch of new cubs will be his offspring.  A litter of 2-6 cubs are born. Usually, only 1-2 cubs survive until introduced to the pride, at which point they are protected by the whole pride.
+
+In zoos, lions have been known to breed with tigers. If the parents are a male lion and a female tiger, the offspring is called a liger. If the parents are a male tiger and a female lion, the offspring is called a tigon.
+
+Lions appear in heraldry more often than any other animal. They traditionally symbolise courage, valour and royalty.
+
+Media related to Lion at Wikimedia Commons

ensimple/3461.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+
+
+P. l. atrox 
+P. l. europaea 
+P. l. melanochaita (Sensu stricto)
+P. l. sinhaleyus 
+P. l. spelaea
+
+The lion (Panthera leo) is a large mammal of the Felidae (cat) family. Some large males weigh over 250 kg (550 lb).[3]  Today, wild lions live in sub-Saharan Africa and in Asia.[4] Lions are adapted for life in grasslands and mixed areas with trees and grass. The relatively small females are fast runners over short distances, and coordinate their hunting of herd animals.
+
+Lions have disappeared from North Africa and southwest Asia in historic times. Until the late Pleistocene, about 10,000 years ago, the lion was the most widespread large land mammal after humans. They were found in most of Africa, across Eurasia from western Europe to India, and in the Americas from the Yukon to Peru.[5] The lion is now a vulnerable species. There was a decline in its African range of 30–50% over two decades in the second half of the 20th century.[2] Habitat loss and conflicts with humans are the greatest causes of concern.
+
+Lions are often called the "king of the beasts". They are used as symbols representing courage. They appear in heraldry more often than any other animal. They are an icon of courage and royalty.
+
+Lions live for 10 to 14 years when they are in the wild. When they are captured, they can live longer than 20 years. In the wild, males do not usually live longer than 10 years. This is because wounds from fighting with other males make their lives shorter.[6] They usually live in savanna and grassland. These areas do have bushes and trees, but lions are mainly adapted to catch prey on grasslands. Compared to other cats, lions are social. A group of lions is called a pride. In a pride of lions, there are related females, their young, and one or two adult males. Groups of female lions often hunt together.
+
+Lions are carnivores and scavengers.[7]  Lions are apex predators.[8] Lions eat antelope, buffalo, zebras, warthogs, wildebeest, birds, hares, turtles and fish. Lions scavenge animals either dead from natural causes (disease) or killed by other predators. They keep a constant lookout for circling vultures, because this means there is a dead or injured animal close by.[7]
+
+They have an archetypal roar which is used to communicate with other group members and warn different intruders of territorial boundaries.
+
+They have long, retractable claws which help the lion to grab and hold prey. They also have a rough tongue that helps them peel the skin of prey animals away from flesh and flesh away from bone. Across their belly, they have loose skin which allows the species to be kicked by prey with little chance of an injury.
+
+There are about 30,000 lions left in the wild in Africa. Only 350 lions (of the Asiatic lion subspecies) are left in Asia. They live in the Gir Forest[9] in the state of Gujarat, India.
+
+Lions hunt many animals, such as gnus and antelopes. Male lions usually weigh between 150 and 250 kilograms (330 and 550 pounds). Large lions have reached 250 to 270 kg (550 to 600 lb). Females (lionesses) are usually 120 to 182 kg (265 to 401 lb).[3] Mature male lions are the only cats with a mane. The lion has a long body, short legs, large claws, big head, and a yellowish-brown coat.
+
+Lions live in groups that are called prides. 10 to 40 lions may live in a pride. Each pride has a home area that is called its territory. Lions do not allow other carnivores(meat-eating animals) to hunt in their territory. A territory can be as large as 260 square kilometres (100 square miles).
+
+The lions' roar is distinct to each individual. It is used for territorial marking and warning off other lions in separate prides (or lone individuals). This however, is usually carried out by competing males.
+
+Lions are not as built for extreme speed as cheetahs are, but hunt in packs. This is unusual in cats. The females usually do the hunting for the pride. However the males can sometimes help if needed, to take down large animals. After lions have brought down a prey, they suffocate it by biting the front of its face to prevent it breathing. Lions also have long retractable claws which act like grappling hooks, to keep hold of the prey.
+
+Even though a lion is good at killing prey for food, they are not among the most dangerous animals for humans.[10]
+
+A lioness is ready to have young when she is 2–3 years old. Young lions are called cubs. Cubs are born after 3 1/2 months. The cubs are born blind; their eyes do not open until they are about a week old, and cannot see well until they are about two weeks old. Lions do not have a den (home) where they would live for a long time. The lioness conceals the cubs in thick bush, gullies, or rocky outcrops. If the hiding place has been seen by other predators, then the lioness will move the cubs to a new hiding place. The cubs will be introduced to the pride at about 6 weeks old. The cubs are very vulnerable when the lioness goes out to hunt and needs to leave the cubs behind. Also, when a new male takes over a pride from another male, he usually kills all of the cubs. The cubs' mothers will then mate with the new pride male, which means that the first batch of new cubs will be his offspring.  A litter of 2-6 cubs are born. Usually, only 1-2 cubs survive until introduced to the pride, at which point they are protected by the whole pride.
+
+In zoos, lions have been known to breed with tigers. If the parents are a male lion and a female tiger, the offspring is called a liger. If the parents are a male tiger and a female lion, the offspring is called a tigon.
+
+Lions appear in heraldry more often than any other animal. They traditionally symbolise courage, valour and royalty.
+
+Media related to Lion at Wikimedia Commons

ensimple/3462.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,41 @@
+
+
+P. l. atrox 
+P. l. europaea 
+P. l. melanochaita (Sensu stricto)
+P. l. sinhaleyus 
+P. l. spelaea
+
+The lion (Panthera leo) is a large mammal of the Felidae (cat) family. Some large males weigh over 250 kg (550 lb).[3]  Today, wild lions live in sub-Saharan Africa and in Asia.[4] Lions are adapted for life in grasslands and mixed areas with trees and grass. The relatively small females are fast runners over short distances, and coordinate their hunting of herd animals.
+
+Lions have disappeared from North Africa and southwest Asia in historic times. Until the late Pleistocene, about 10,000 years ago, the lion was the most widespread large land mammal after humans. They were found in most of Africa, across Eurasia from western Europe to India, and in the Americas from the Yukon to Peru.[5] The lion is now a vulnerable species. There was a decline in its African range of 30–50% over two decades in the second half of the 20th century.[2] Habitat loss and conflicts with humans are the greatest causes of concern.
+
+Lions are often called the "king of the beasts". They are used as symbols representing courage. They appear in heraldry more often than any other animal. They are an icon of courage and royalty.
+
+Lions live for 10 to 14 years when they are in the wild. When they are captured, they can live longer than 20 years. In the wild, males do not usually live longer than 10 years. This is because wounds from fighting with other males make their lives shorter.[6] They usually live in savanna and grassland. These areas do have bushes and trees, but lions are mainly adapted to catch prey on grasslands. Compared to other cats, lions are social. A group of lions is called a pride. In a pride of lions, there are related females, their young, and one or two adult males. Groups of female lions often hunt together.
+
+Lions are carnivores and scavengers.[7]  Lions are apex predators.[8] Lions eat antelope, buffalo, zebras, warthogs, wildebeest, birds, hares, turtles and fish. Lions scavenge animals either dead from natural causes (disease) or killed by other predators. They keep a constant lookout for circling vultures, because this means there is a dead or injured animal close by.[7]
+
+They have an archetypal roar which is used to communicate with other group members and warn different intruders of territorial boundaries.
+
+They have long, retractable claws which help the lion to grab and hold prey. They also have a rough tongue that helps them peel the skin of prey animals away from flesh and flesh away from bone. Across their belly, they have loose skin which allows the species to be kicked by prey with little chance of an injury.
+
+There are about 30,000 lions left in the wild in Africa. Only 350 lions (of the Asiatic lion subspecies) are left in Asia. They live in the Gir Forest[9] in the state of Gujarat, India.
+
+Lions hunt many animals, such as gnus and antelopes. Male lions usually weigh between 150 and 250 kilograms (330 and 550 pounds). Large lions have reached 250 to 270 kg (550 to 600 lb). Females (lionesses) are usually 120 to 182 kg (265 to 401 lb).[3] Mature male lions are the only cats with a mane. The lion has a long body, short legs, large claws, big head, and a yellowish-brown coat.
+
+Lions live in groups that are called prides. 10 to 40 lions may live in a pride. Each pride has a home area that is called its territory. Lions do not allow other carnivores(meat-eating animals) to hunt in their territory. A territory can be as large as 260 square kilometres (100 square miles).
+
+The lions' roar is distinct to each individual. It is used for territorial marking and warning off other lions in separate prides (or lone individuals). This however, is usually carried out by competing males.
+
+Lions are not as built for extreme speed as cheetahs are, but hunt in packs. This is unusual in cats. The females usually do the hunting for the pride. However the males can sometimes help if needed, to take down large animals. After lions have brought down a prey, they suffocate it by biting the front of its face to prevent it breathing. Lions also have long retractable claws which act like grappling hooks, to keep hold of the prey.
+
+Even though a lion is good at killing prey for food, they are not among the most dangerous animals for humans.[10]
+
+A lioness is ready to have young when she is 2–3 years old. Young lions are called cubs. Cubs are born after 3 1/2 months. The cubs are born blind; their eyes do not open until they are about a week old, and cannot see well until they are about two weeks old. Lions do not have a den (home) where they would live for a long time. The lioness conceals the cubs in thick bush, gullies, or rocky outcrops. If the hiding place has been seen by other predators, then the lioness will move the cubs to a new hiding place. The cubs will be introduced to the pride at about 6 weeks old. The cubs are very vulnerable when the lioness goes out to hunt and needs to leave the cubs behind. Also, when a new male takes over a pride from another male, he usually kills all of the cubs. The cubs' mothers will then mate with the new pride male, which means that the first batch of new cubs will be his offspring.  A litter of 2-6 cubs are born. Usually, only 1-2 cubs survive until introduced to the pride, at which point they are protected by the whole pride.
+
+In zoos, lions have been known to breed with tigers. If the parents are a male lion and a female tiger, the offspring is called a liger. If the parents are a male tiger and a female lion, the offspring is called a tigon.
+
+Lions appear in heraldry more often than any other animal. They traditionally symbolise courage, valour and royalty.
+
+Media related to Lion at Wikimedia Commons

ensimple/3463.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+A lipid is a type of organic molecule found in living things. It is oily or waxy. Fats are made from lipid molecules. Sources of lipid can be found in algae, seeds, meat, cheese, butter and fish. Lipids are long chains of carbon and hydrogen molecules. Lipids are classified as simple and complex. Examples of complex molecules could be steroids or phospholipids.
+
+A very important biological function of lipids is as lipid bilayers, the basis of many cell membranes. Another function of lipids is to serve as an energy reserve. Lipids can be hydrophobic (non-polar), or amphipatic (containing both polar and non-polar parts).
+
+Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), glycerides, phospholipids, and others. The main biological functions of lipids include storing energy, signalling, and acting as components of cell membranes.[3]

ensimple/3464.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+A lipid is a type of organic molecule found in living things. It is oily or waxy. Fats are made from lipid molecules. Sources of lipid can be found in algae, seeds, meat, cheese, butter and fish. Lipids are long chains of carbon and hydrogen molecules. Lipids are classified as simple and complex. Examples of complex molecules could be steroids or phospholipids.
+
+A very important biological function of lipids is as lipid bilayers, the basis of many cell membranes. Another function of lipids is to serve as an energy reserve. Lipids can be hydrophobic (non-polar), or amphipatic (containing both polar and non-polar parts).
+
+Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), glycerides, phospholipids, and others. The main biological functions of lipids include storing energy, signalling, and acting as components of cell membranes.[3]

ensimple/3465.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+A liquid is a form of matter. It is settled between solid and gas. Liquid has an almost-fixed volume, but no set shape.[1]
+
+Every small force makes a liquid change its shape by flowing. Because of that, gravity makes liquids always take the shape of the container. The molecules that make up the liquid can freely move among themselves.[2]
+
+Fluids that flow slowly have a high viscosity.[3] Some fluids like tar have such a high viscosity that they may seem solid.[4]
+
+It is difficult to compress a liquid. If a liquid is cooled down until it is colder than a certain temperature, it will become a solid.  This temperature is called the melting point or freezing point and is different for every different type of liquid.  If a liquid is heated up it becomes a gas.  The temperature this happens at is called the boiling point.
+
+Examples of liquid are water, oils and blood.
+
+In a liquid, the liquid on the top presses down on the liquid underneath, so at the bottom the pressure, p, is bigger than at the top. The equation for working this out is:
+
+where z is the depth of the point below the surface and g is how strong gravity is pulling on the liquid. ρ is a number that tells us how heavy a set amount of the liquid is. We call this the density and it is different for all liquids.

ensimple/3466.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+A liquid is a form of matter. It is settled between solid and gas. Liquid has an almost-fixed volume, but no set shape.[1]
+
+Every small force makes a liquid change its shape by flowing. Because of that, gravity makes liquids always take the shape of the container. The molecules that make up the liquid can freely move among themselves.[2]
+
+Fluids that flow slowly have a high viscosity.[3] Some fluids like tar have such a high viscosity that they may seem solid.[4]
+
+It is difficult to compress a liquid. If a liquid is cooled down until it is colder than a certain temperature, it will become a solid.  This temperature is called the melting point or freezing point and is different for every different type of liquid.  If a liquid is heated up it becomes a gas.  The temperature this happens at is called the boiling point.
+
+Examples of liquid are water, oils and blood.
+
+In a liquid, the liquid on the top presses down on the liquid underneath, so at the bottom the pressure, p, is bigger than at the top. The equation for working this out is:
+
+where z is the depth of the point below the surface and g is how strong gravity is pulling on the liquid. ρ is a number that tells us how heavy a set amount of the liquid is. We call this the density and it is different for all liquids.

ensimple/3467.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+Reading is what we do when we understand writing.
+
+More fully, it a cognitive process of understanding information represented by printed or written language.[1] It is a way of getting information and insights about something that is written. Reading involves understanding the symbols in that language. It can only be done if one knows the language. Reading and hearing are the two most common ways to get information. Information gained from reading can include entertainment, especially when reading fiction or humor.
+
+Proofreading is a kind of reading that is done to find mistakes in a piece of writing
+
+Directed Reading-Thinking Activity is a method which aims to develop better reading.[2]
+

ensimple/3468.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+Lisa Marie Simpson is a character in the animated television series The Simpsons. The person who does the voice for the character is Yeardley Smith. Matt Groening, the creator of the series, named her after his sister. She is the oldest daughter and middle child of Homer and Marge Simpson, and the sister of Bart and Maggie.
+
+Lisa is an 8-year-old girl.[1] She is one of the most intelligent characters on the series, with an I.Q. of either 156 or 159. She also plays the saxophone and is a vegetarian.
+Despite her cleverness Lisa has typical childhood issues. For example, in the episode "Lost Our Lisa" she gets lost after riding the bus alone.
+

ensimple/3469.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+Lisbon is the capital city of Portugal. It is the largest city of Portugal. The city has a population of about half million people. In Lisbon's urban area live around 2.8 million people, being the 10th-most populous urban area in the European Union. 
+Lisbon is placed on the right bank (western) of the Tagus River, near the outfall. It has a pleasant climate and has about 220 days of sunshine each year. There are many beautiful beaches close to the city. There are also many seafood restaurants, historical sites and monuments. Lisbon is one of the oldest cities in the world.
+
+Amsterdam, Netherlands ·
+Athens, Greece ·
+Berlin, Germany ·
+Bratislava, Slovakia ·
+Brussels, Belgium ·
+Bucharest, Romania ·
+Budapest, Hungary ·
+Copenhagen, Denmark ·
+Dublin, Republic of Ireland ·
+Helsinki, Finland ·
+Lisbon, Portugal ·
+Ljubljana, Slovenia ·
+Luxembourg City, Luxembourg ·
+Madrid, Spain ·
+Nicosia, Cyprus1 ·
+Paris, France ·
+Prague, Czech Republic ·
+Riga, Latvia ·
+Rome, Italy ·
+Sofia, Bulgaria ·
+Stockholm, Sweden ·
+Tallinn, Estonia ·
+Valletta, Malta ·
+Vienna, Austria ·
+Vilnius, Lithuania ·
+Warsaw, Poland ·
+Zagreb, Croatia
+
+Andorra la Vella, Andorra ·
+Ankara, Turkey1 ·
+Belgrade, Serbia ·
+Bern, Switzerland ·
+Chişinău, Moldova ·
+Kyiv, Ukraine ·
+London, United Kingdom ·
+Minsk, Belarus ·
+Monaco-Ville, Monaco ·
+Moscow, Russia1 ·
+Oslo, Norway ·
+Podgorica, Montenegro ·
+Reykjavík, Iceland ·
+San Marino, San Marino ·
+Sarajevo, Bosnia Herzegovina ·
+Skopje, Republic of Macedonia ·
+Tbilisi, Georgia1 ·
+Tirana, Albania ·
+

ensimple/347.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+Archaeology, or archeology,[1] is the study of the past by looking for the remains and objects left by the people who lived long ago. These remains can include old coins, tools, buildings, and inscriptions. Archaeologists, the people who study archaeology, use these remains to understand how people lived.
+
+When archaeologists do fieldwork, they look for remains, often by digging in the ground. As settlements (places where people lived in groups) change and grow, old buildings get buried. Usually, this is a natural process. A typical student project is to leave an object in a place where there is nothing going on. It will get covered rather quickly, because wind, water and plants will bury it. Sometimes buildings are deliberately buried to make way for new buildings. Ancient Rome, for example, is now up to 40 feet (12 metres) below the present city. This process of natural or man-made burial is why archaeological fieldwork involves digging, and is expensive and takes a long time.
+
+When things are found, or even when nothing is found, the results of the fieldwork are taken back to a base. Short term, the base is often on or near the site. Longer term, the results will usually go to a university or museum. Everything is written down on paper or entered into a computer. Gradually, they build up a picture of what happened long ago. Archaeologists publish their research so others can understand what they learned.
+
+Archaeologists do not all study the same topics. They have specialties. Some fields of interest include Ancient Egypt (these specialists are called Egyptologists), Ancient China, or the Vikings. Archaeologists study every civilization that is known, especially the ones where there is no written history. They can study any time period. For example, one might study the beginning of human life in Africa, or study World War II. Marine archaeologists study things that are now underwater. They search for sunken ships or cities that have been lost under the sea.
+
+There are many different ways of doing archaeology. these depend on the methods used, the things studied, and the environment. Some of these subdisciplines overlap with each other.
+
+Archaeology relating to oceans, seas and lakes is usually done underwater. It includes the study of sunken ships and submerged coastlines. "Maritime archaeology" is a part of this subdivision. It refers to the archaeological investigation of past ships and seafaring.[2] A famous example of maritime archaeology is the recovery and restoration of the ship burial at Sutton Hoo.
+
+When a glacier melts, objects that were captured in it are revealed. The recovery and study of these objects is called "ice-patch archaeology".[3] A famous example is Ötzi the Iceman.
+
+Historical archaeology deals with places, things, and issues from the past or present at or related to sites with written records or oral traditions. Or it can be defined as "the archaeological investigation of any past culture that has developed a literate tradition."[4] A prominent example of historical archaeology is the work done at Colonial Williamsburg.
+
+This relatively new branch of archaeology consists of "the systematic study of structures and artefacts as a means of enlarging our understanding of the industrial past."[5]
+
+Archaeozoology, or zooarchaeology, is the study of the relationships between humans and animals in the archaeological record. This includes the study of bones, feathers, teeth and other body parts as well as their interpretation.[6]
+
+This field involves attempts at replicating the actions and conditions of ancient cultures. Good examples are Butser Ancient Farm and Overton Down.
+
+In many countries, governments and other groups of people protect important archaeological sites so they will not be destroyed and so that visitors can always come and see them.
+
+Sometimes archaeological sites are found when foundations are dug for new buildings. Archaeologists have to work quickly when this happens, because people who are building often don't have a lot of time. As soon as the archaeologists are done with their work, the remains that they have found will be covered over, unless they are very important.

ensimple/3470.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,46 @@
+Islam (/ˈɪslɑːm/;[note 1] Arabic: ٱلْإِسْلَام‎, romanized: al-Islām, [alʔɪsˈlaːm] (listen)) is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion.[1] All of its teachings and beliefs are written out in the Quran (also spelled Qur'an or Koran), the holy scripture of Islam. Believers of Islam are called Muslims which means "submitter to God". They believe that the Quran was spoken to Muhammad by the angel Jibril, and that it is the word of God (or Allah). They view Muhammad as a prophet and messenger of God. Other beliefs and rules about what Muslims should do come from reports of what Muhammad taught or hadith.
+
+Muslims believe that there were many other prophets before Muhammad since dawn of humanity, beginning with the Prophet Adam and including the Prophet Noah (Nuh), the Prophet Abraham (Ibrahim), the Prophet Moses (Musa), and the Prophet Jesus (Isa). They believe that all these prophets were given messages by God of the oneness of God to their communities at different times in history of mankind, but Satan (referred to as 'Shaytan' in Arabic) made the past communities deviate from the message of oneness and other social codes. Muslims believe that the content of the Quran (written in Arabic) is protected by Allah as mentioned in the Quran and is the final message of God for all of mankind until the day of judgment.
+
+Most Muslims belong to one of two groups.  The most common is Sunni Islam (75–90% of all Muslims are Sunni Muslims). The second is Shia Islam (10–20% of all Muslims are Shias – also called Shiites). But there are many more groups like the Alevis in Turkey.
+
+With about 1.75 billion followers (24% of the world's population), Islam is the second-largest religion in the world. Islam is also the fastest-growing religion in the world. Islam is also the second-largest and fastest-growing religion in Europe.
+
+According to Islamic tradition, there are five basic things that Muslims should do. They are called "The Five Pillars of Islam":
+
+Note: The Five Pillars of Islam is a term in the view of Sunni Islam that gathered out of the hadith. There is another term Osul al-Din (Religion Principles in English) in Shia Islam. That contains five beliefs : Tawheed, Adl, Nabovah, Imamah, Maad.
+
+In Islamic belief, the Quran is the holy book of Islam and contained to words of Allah (God) and is conveyed to the Prophet Muhammad by the archangel Jibraeel, who had been tasked since Adam as the conveyor of the words of God as guidance to mankind. The Quran is the central point of reference and is a link which connects humanity with God.
+
+The Qur'an contains many passages and chapters which covers the entire aspect of humanity, down to the most minute detail. From the creation and conception of human child to the details of the Earth and beyond. In the aspect of human life it contains stories and tales of old civilizations and past prophets and their life chronicles. The Quran also contains the Syaria' law or hudud, and emphasizes the equal rights man and women alike with mothers given special status where it is sinful to even glare at them.
+
+The Qur'an has a total of 30 juzuks. In each juzuk, contains many surahs or verses, with 114 surahs which begins with Surah al-Fatehah(The Beginning) and ended with Surah an-Naas(Humanity). A Hafeez is a Muslim who has committed the Quran to memory and can accurately recite every word in the Quran without flipping a single page and apply them to daily life.
+
+Other important teachings in Islam are the Sunnah (which tell about Muhammad's life) and the Hadith (which are collections of dialogues of conversation that Muslims believe Muhammad said).
+
+The Qur'an is considered in Islam as a manual to all of humanity and its teachings are to be implemented and shared by its readers.
+
+Muslims pray in a place of worship called the mosque. A mosque is called a masjid in Arabic. Most mosques were mostly recognized having at least a single dome, and some have one or more towers. However many mosques were built without either domes or towers.
+
+Muslims take their shoes off before entering the masjid to pray.  Prayer is one of the most important things that a Muslim does.
+
+The Muslim is called to prayer or solah five times a day. This call to prayer is called Adhan. The muezzin, a man chosen to make the call to prayer, uses a loudspeaker, which carries his voice to the people nearby.  The call to prayer is often done out loud, in public, in Muslim countries.  Being called to solah is a normal part of daily life for most people in Muslim countries.
+
+Muslims pray on a mat, which is called a prayer mat or prayer rug in English.  Common Arabic names[3] for the prayer mat include sajjāda and namazlık.
+
+When it is time to pray, Muslims face the direction of Qibla - the direction they are supposed to pray in, towards Mecca.  They then roll out their prayer mat, and perform their prayers to God.
+
+According to Islamic teachings, Muslims must say "Peace be upon him" (PBUH or pbuh) whenever they hear Prophet's name. In this way, they show respect to Muhammad and other prophets.
+
+In 2009, a study was done in 232 countries and territories.[4] This study found that 23% of the global population or 1.57 billion people are Muslims. Of those, between 75% and 90% are Sunni[5][6] and between ten and twenty five percent are Shi'a.[4][5][7]  A small part belong to other Islamic sects. In about fifty countries, more than half of the people are Muslim.[8] Arabs account for around twenty  percent of all Muslims worldwide. Islam has three holy sites; Jerusalem, Mecca and Medina.
+
+Most Muslims live in Asia and Africa.[9] Around 62% of the world's Muslims live in Asia, with over 683 million followers in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh.[10][11] In the Middle East, non-Arab countries such as Turkey and Iran are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in Africa, Egypt and Nigeria have the biggest Muslim communities.[12]
+
+Most estimates indicate that the People's Republic of China has about 20 to 30 million Muslims (1.5% to 2% of the population).[13][14][15][16] However, data provided by the San Diego State University's International Population Center to U.S. News & World Report suggests that China has 65.3 million Muslims.[17] Islam is the second largest religion after Christianity in many European countries,[18]
+and is slowly catching up to that status in the Americas.
+
+Like with other religions, over time different movements have developed in Islam. These movements are based on different interpretations of the scriptures. The following sections list the most common movements.
+
+General references
+
+Notes

ensimple/3471.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+Sociology is the study of societies and how humans act in groups. Sociology is a social science. People who study sociology are called sociologists. A society is the community of people living in a particular country or region and having shared customs, laws, and organizations.
+
+Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès in 1780 was first to use the term. The problems caused by the change to an industrial society, where many people moved to cities and worked in factories, were an early focus of sociology. Auguste Comte, Max Weber and Émile Durkheim were leading figures in the study of social phenomena. Themes included: community, authority, status, alienation and lack of power.
+
+In the 2000s, some sociologists look at such things as: race, ethnicity, class, gender, the family and social interaction. They also study the breakdown of social structures; crime and divorce.
+
+Sociologists research the structures that organize society, such as race, gender (whether a person is male or female), and social classes (rich or poor). They study the family and examine problems such as crime and drug abuse.
+
+Most sociologists work in one or more specialty areas or "sub-fields". Sociology includes many sub-fields that examine different aspects of society. For example, social stratification studies inequality and class structure in society. The field of demography studies changes in population size or type. The field of criminology examines criminal behavior and crime. Political sociology studies government and laws. Sociology of race and sociology of gender examine how people think about race and gender.
+
+Many sociologists also do research outside of the university. Their research is supposedly intended to help teachers, lawmakers, and government administrators to make better institutions, government programs, and rules.
+
+Sociologists often use statistics to count and measure patterns in how people act or behave. Sociologists also interview people or hold group discussions to find out why people behave in certain ways. Some sociologists combine different research methods.
+
+Social analysis has been done since the time of Plato. Sociology became accepted as a type of science in the early 1800s. European cities were changing as many people moved into cities and began working in factories. Sociologists tried to understand how people interacted and how groups interacted.
+
+The word "sociology" was invented by French thinker Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès in 1780. Early thinkers who wrote about sociology included Auguste Comte and Max Weber.
+
+Sociology was taught in a university for the first time at the University of Kansas in 1890. The first European department of sociology was founded in 1895 at the University of Bordeaux by Émile Durkheim. The first sociology department to be established in Britain was at the London School of Economics and Political Science in 1904. In 1919 a sociology department was established in Germany at the Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich by Max Weber.

ensimple/3472.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,7 @@
+This article lists the 50 states of the United States. It also lists their populations, date they became a state or agreed to the United States Declaration of Independence, their total area, land area, water area and the number of representatives in the United States House of Representatives.
+
+Washington D.C. is not one of the 50 states. It is a city inside the District of Columbia (a federal district that is not part of any state). The United States also has sovereignty over 14 other territories. These are not included in this list.
+
+Click on any state to learn more about this state.
+
+[1]

ensimple/3473.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,62 @@
+Europe is the western part of the continent of Eurasia, sometimes thought of as its own continent. It is separated from Asia by the Ural Mountains in Russia and the Bosporus strait in Turkey.
+
+Europe is bordered by water on three sides. On the west is the Atlantic Ocean. To the north is the Arctic Ocean. The Mediterranean Sea separates Southeastern Europe from Africa. On the eastern border of Europe are the Ural River and Ural Mountains.
+
+There are at least 43 countries in Europe (the European identity of Cyprus, Georgia, Turkey and Russia are disputed). Most of these countries are members of the European Union.
+
+Europe covers about 10,180,000 square kilometers (3,930,000 square miles). This is 2% of the Earth's surface (6.8% of its land area).
+
+As of 2017, about 510 million people lived in Europe.[1]
+
+Europe makes 44% of the world's wine.
+
+Europe contains the world's second most-active volcano, which is Mount Etna that is currently the most-active volcano in the continent.
+
+Europe is a major tourist attraction. People come from all over the world to see its many World Heritage Sites and other attractions.
+
+Europe is named after a princess in Greek mythology called "Europa." The myth says that Zeus kidnapped Europa and took her to Crete, where she became the mother of King Minos (from whom Europe’s first civilization gets its name, the Minoans).
+
+The name "Europa" was later used to describe Greece. Then, as the rest of modern-day Europe started to have cities and empires, the entire area West of the Ural Mountains came to be called "Europa".
+
+The history of Europe is long and has many turns. Many great countries originated from Europe. Greek mythology and the beginning of western civilization came from European nations.
+
+Some of the major periods in European history have been:
+
+Andreas M. Kaplan describes modern Europe as a continent where many different cultures live closely together, "embracing maximum cultural diversity at minimal geographical distances".[2]
+
+There are several major regions of Europe:
+
+Within these regions, there are up to 47 independent European countries (with the identities of 4 transcontinental countries being disputed). The largest is the Russian Federation, which covers 39% of Europe.
+
+The European city with the largest population is Istanbul. The country with the largest population is the Russian Federation. About 15% of Europeans live in Russia.
+
+Two European countries, the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, are on islands called the British Isles.
+
+Most of Europe lies in temperate climate zones.
+
+However, there are many different climates throughout Europe. For example, during the winter, it may be snowing and -30 degrees Celsius for 4–5 months in Finland. Yet it may be much warmer, with no snow at all except on high mountains, in Spain.
+
+The European Union is a confederation of 27 European countries. These countries agree to follow common laws so that their citizens can move and trade in EU countries almost the same as they do in their own. Nineteen of these countries also share the same type of money: the euro.
+
+Africa
+
+Antarctica
+
+Asia
+
+Australia
+
+Europe
+
+North America
+
+South America
+
+Afro-Eurasia
+
+Americas
+
+Eurasia
+
+Oceania
+

ensimple/3474.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+Franz Liszt (born Raiding, nr. Sopron, October 22, 1811; died Bayreuth, July 31, 1886[1]) was a Hungarian composer and pianist. Liszt (pronounced like “list”) was one of the most important musicians of the 19th century. He was the greatest pianist of his time and went on lots of tours through Europe where everyone filled the concert halls to hear him. He wrote a lot of music for piano. Many of his piano pieces were harder to play than anything that had been written before. In this way he developed the technique of piano playing, setting new standards for the future. In his compositions he often used new ideas which sounded very modern in his time. He was very helpful to other composers who lived at that time, helping them to become better known by conducting their works and playing some of their orchestral pieces on the piano.
+
+Liszt’s father was an official who worked for Prince Nikolaus Esterházy, the same noble family who employed the composer Joseph Haydn. When he was seven his father started to teach him the piano. He was a child prodigy, and within a year or two he was already playing in concerts. He was so promising that some rich Hungarians said they would pay for his music education.
+
+In 1821 his family moved to Vienna. He had piano lessons from Czerny and composition lessons from Salieri. He soon became famous although he was still a young boy, and he met famous musicians like Beethoven and Schubert. Beethoven is supposed to have kissed him on the forehead.
+
+In 1823 his family moved again, this time to Paris. He wanted to go to the Conservatoire to study music but Luigi Cherubini would not let him in because he was a foreigner (i.e. not French). So he studied music theory privately with Reicha and composition with Paer. Soon he was asked to play the piano everywhere in Paris. He travelled to London. On his second visit there in 1825 he played to King George IV at Windsor.
+
+Liszt continued to travel to other countries. After his father died he became a piano teacher in Paris. He fell in love with one of his pupils. It was the first of many love affairs he had with various women. He read a lot of books to try to educate himself properly. He met Berlioz and he liked the music of Berlioz very much. In 1831 he met the violinist Niccolò Paganini and he was amazed by his virtuoso playing. Liszt was to do for the piano what Paganini had done for the violin. Both men were drawn by cartoonists as devilish characters. Both men wrote music which was incredibly hard for their instruments.
+
+Soon Liszt met a Countess called Marie d’Agoult. He began to have an affair with her. The Countess left her husband and went to live with Liszt in Geneva. They lived together for several years and had three children. When Liszt gave away a lot of his money to help pay for a monument to Beethoven in Bonn he had to earn money by going on tours again, so the countess left him. He still saw her and the children every summer for a few years but finally they separated completely.
+
+Liszt spent eight years in Rome. He wrote a lot of religious music and took orders in the Catholic church. His daughter Cosima, who had married a famous conductor Hans von Bülow, left her husband and lived with Wagner. They had two children together. Liszt and Wagner quarrelled for many years about this.
+
+Liszt spent most of his last years travelling to and fro between three cities: Rome, Weimar and Budapest. He called this his “vie trifurquée” (three-forked life). He died in Bayreuth July 31, 1886.
+
+Liszt had a very strong personality which affected everyone he met. When he played the piano at concerts he was a great showman.  People drew caricatures of him playing the piano with his wild mop of hair.  He could be very polite and knew how to get on with the aristocracy.  He could be very generous, giving both money and time to other musicians and giving praise where it was deserved.  He was a powerful, unique character and one of the most important romantic composers of his day.  He is known for his dazzling virtuostic piano displays best.
+
+Most of Liszt’s compositions were for piano. He wrote one piano sonata. It is in B minor. Its form is very different from the sonatas of composers like Beethoven. It is a very Romantic work, but it does not tell a story like a lot of Romantic pieces do. Mostly his piano works are shorter pieces which are quite free in form. He often took a theme and transforms it (changes it gradually). He wrote studies which are much more than just pieces to improve one’s piano technique. One collection is called Transcendental Studies. In Switzerland he wrote Années de pèlerinage (Years of Wandering), a collection of pieces to which he gave titles later. Liszt explored all the possible sounds that the piano could make (it was still a fairly new instrument). Sometimes he made it sound like an orchestra. Some of his last piano works are much simpler to play, although the chords would have sounded very modern for his time. They are like the Impressionistic music of Debussy.
+
+Not all Liszt’s piano pieces were original compositions: he also made arrangements or transcriptions. It seems a strange idea to us now to take someone else’s symphony and arrange it for piano. This is what Liszt often did. He took symphonies by Beethoven or songs by Schubert and changed them so that they could be played on the piano. Many people did not have the opportunity to hear concerts very often, and they certainly did not have radios or CDs, so Liszt was making these works more famous, helping them to reach a wider audience. He often made difficult transcriptions which meant that he changed the pieces and added ornamental notes, making a new piece out of an old one.
+
+Liszt’s orchestral music is also very important. He wrote symphonic poems: pieces which tell a story or describe something. The best known one is called Les préludes. He also wrote two piano concertos.
+
+He wrote a lot of church music. Church music was often quite sentimental in those days, but Liszt tried to make his works help people to feel religious devotion.
+
+In many ways Liszt was typical of the Romantic artist. He was always looking for a spiritual meaning to life. He carried a walking stick with the heads of St Francis of Assisi and Gretchen and Mephistopheles, characters from Goethe’s Faust. He was a 19th-century musician but through his thinking and his music he looked forward to the 20th century.
+
+The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie (1980) ISBN 1-56159-174-2

ensimple/3475.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+Lithium (from Greek lithos 'stone') is a soft, silver-white metal with symbol Li. It is the third chemical element in the periodic table. This means that it has 3 protons in its nucleus and 3 electrons around it. Its atomic number is 3. Its mass number is 6.94. It has two common isotopes, 6Li and 7Li. 7Li is more common. 92.5% of lithium is 7Li. Lithium is a soft silvery metal that is very reactive. It is used in lithium batteries and certain medicines.
+
+Lithium is one of the alkali metals. Lithium is a silvery solid metal (when freshly cut). It is very soft. Thus it can be cut easily with a knife. It melts at a low temperature. It is very light, similar to wood. It is the least dense metal and the least dense element in a solid or liquid state. It can hold more heat than any other solid element. It conducts heat and electricity easily.
+
+It will react with water, giving off hydrogen to form a basic solution (lithium hydroxide). Because of this, lithium must be stored in petroleum jelly. Sodium and potassium can be stored in oil but lithium cannot because it is so light. It will just float on the oil and not be protected by it.
+
+Lithium also reacts with halogens. It can react with nitrogen gas to make lithium nitride. It reacts with air to make a black tarnish and then a white powder of lithium hydroxide and lithium carbonate.
+
+Lithium forms chemical compounds with only one oxidation state: +1. Most of them are white and unreactive. They make a bright red color when heated in a flame. They are a little toxic. Most of them dissolve in water. Lithium carbonate is less soluble in water than the other alkali metal carbonates like sodium carbonate.
+
+Lithium nitrate
+
+Lithium hydroxide
+
+Lithium carbonate
+
+Lithium chloride
+
+It does not occur as an element in nature. It only is in the form of lithium compounds. The ocean has a large amount of lithium in it. Certain granites have large amounts of lithium. Most living things have lithium in them. There are some places where much lithium is in the salt. Some silicates have lithium in them.
+
+Lithium (Greek lithos, meaning "stone") was discovered by Johann Arfvedson in 1817. In 1818, Christian Gmelin observed that lithium salts give a bright red color in flame. W.T. Brande and Sir Humphrey Davy later used electrolysis on lithium oxide to isolate the element. Lithium was first used in greases. Then nuclear weapons became a big use of lithium. Lithium was also used to make glass melt easier and make aluminium oxide melt easier in making aluminium. Now lithium is used mainly in batteries.
+
+It was apparently given the name "lithium" because it was discovered from a mineral, while other common alkali metals were first discovered in plant tissue.
+
+It is made by getting lithium chloride from pools and springs. The lithium chloride is melted and electrolyzed. This makes liquid lithium and chlorine.
+
+Its main use is in batteries. Lithium is used as an anode in the lithium battery. It has more power than batteries with zinc, like alkaline cells. Lithium ion batteries also have lithium in them, though not as an element. It is also used in heat transfer alloys. Lithium is used to make organolithium compounds. They are used for very strong bases.
+
+Lithium compounds are used in some drugs known as mood stabilizers. Lithium niobate is used in radio transmitters in cell phones. Some lithium compounds are also used in ceramics. Lithium chloride can absorb water from other things. Some lithium compounds are used to make soap and grease.
+
+Lithium reacts with water, making irritating smoke and heat. It is not as dangerous as the other alkali metals. Lithium hydroxide is very corrosive.
+
+There  are 5 isotopes of Lithium having respectively 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 neutrons in the nucleus. The most common isotope in nature is 3Li7 which makes up 92.58 % of the total. The second isotope which is widely available is 3Li6 which makes up 7.42 % of the total. The other 3 isotopes exist in very small quantities. The atomic mass of Lithium is 6.939.

ensimple/3476.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+The lithosphere[1] is the solid shell of the planet Earth. That means the crust, plus the part of the upper mantle that behaves elastically on long time scales.
+
+Under the lithospere is the asthenosphere, the weaker, hotter, and deeper part of the upper mantle. This part can flow.
+
+The lithosphere provides a conductive lid atop the convecting mantle: it reduces heat transport through the Earth, A lithosphere (Ancient Greek: λίθος [lithos] for "rocky", and σφαίρα [sphaira] for "sphere") is the rigid,[1] outermost shell of a terrestrial-type planet or natural satellite that is defined by its rigid mechanical properties. On Earth, it is composed of the crust and the portion of the upper mantle that behaves elastically on time scales of thousands of years or greater. The outermost shell of a rocky planet, the crust, is defined on the basis of its chemistry and mineralogy.
+
+There are two types of lithosphere:
+
+The lithosphere is divided into tectonic plates, which move gradually relative to one another.
+
+Oceanic lithosphere thickens as it ages and moves away from the mid-ocean ridge. This thickening occurs by conductive cooling, which converts hot asthenosphere into lithospheric mantle, and causes the oceanic lithosphere to become increasingly dense with age. Oceanic lithosphere is less dense than asthenosphere for a few tens of millions of years, but after this becomes increasingly denser than asthenosphere.
+
+When a continental plate comes together with an oceanic plate, at a subduction zones, the oceanic lithosphere always sinks beneath the continental.
+
+New oceanic lithosphere is constantly being produced at mid-ocean ridges and is recycled back to the mantle at subduction zones. As a result, oceanic lithosphere is much younger than continental lithosphere: the oldest oceanic lithosphere is about 200 million years old, while parts of the continental lithosphere are billions of years old.
+
+Another distinguishing characteristic of the lithosphere is its flow properties. Under the influence of the low-intensity, long-term stresses that drive tectonic motion, the lithosphere is like a rigid shell. It changes mainly by breaking ("brittle failure"). The asthenosphere (the layer of the mantle below the lithosphere) is heat-softened and adjusts by plastic changes ("deformation").
+
+Oceanic lithosphere is made up of mostly basalt and gabbro. Continental lithosphere is made up of granite and gneiss.

ensimple/3477.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+A litre (international spelling) or liter (American spelling) is one of the metric units of volume. It is not an SI unit.
+
+One litre is the volume of 1000 cubic centimetres, that is a cube of 10 × 10 × 10 centimetres (1000 cm3). One litre of water at 4 °C (277 K; 39 °F) has the mass of exactly one kilogram. This results from the definition given in 1795, where the gram was defined as the weight of one cubic centimetre of melting ice.[2]
+
+The symbol for litre is l[1] or ℓ.
+
+For smaller volumes, the decilitre is used: 10 dl = one litre.
+
+For smaller volumes, the centilitre is used: 100 cl = one litre.
+
+For smaller volumes, the millilitre is used: 1000 ml = one litre.
+
+The capital letter "L" is preferred by some people as the small "l" can look like the number one "1".
+
+The metric system was first introduced in France in 1791.[3][4] That system did not have its own unit of capacity or volume because volume can be measured in cubic metres.[4] In 1793 work to make the metric system compulsory in France was started by the Temporary Commission of Republican Weights and Measures. Due to public demand,[4] the commission said that the cubic metre was too big for everyday use. They said that a new unit based on the old cadil should be used instead. One cadil was to be 0.001 cubic metres. This was equivalent to a cube with sides 10 cm.[5] The cadil was also known as the pinte or the litron. The pinte had been an old French unit of measure of capacity.[4] In 1795 the definition was revised. The cadil was given the name litre.[6]
+
+In 1795 the kilogram was defined to be exactly one litre of water at 4 °C. In 1799 the kilogram was redefined. The new definition said that the kilogram was the mass of the kilogram des archives. In 1901 scientists measured the volume of one litre of water at 4 °C very carefully.[Note 1]  They found that it occupied about 1.000028 dm3.[7] The BIPM redefined the litre as being exactly the volume of one kilogram of water at 4 °C.[8]
+
+In 1960 the SI was introduced.  The BIPM changed the definition of the litre back to "one dm3". The litre is not part of SI. The BIPM defined the litre[Note 2] as a "Non-SI unit accepted for use with the SI". This was because it is used in many  countries. The BIPM said that the litre should not be used for very accurate work.[9][10]
+
+According to SI rules, the symbol for the litre should be "l". This is because the litre was not named after somebody whose name was "Litre".[Note 3] However the symbol "l" and the number "1" are easily confused. In 1979 the BIPM made an exception for the symbol for the litre. They said that people could use either "L" or "l" as its symbol.[11]

ensimple/3478.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+Literature is a group of works of art made up of words. Most are written, but some are passed on by word of mouth. Literature usually means works of poetry and prose that are especially well written.[1] There are many different kinds of literature, such as poetry, plays, or novels. They can also be put into groups through their language, historical period, origin, genre, and subject.[1] The word literature comes from the Latin word "learning, writing, grammar".[2]
+
+Most of the earliest works were epic poems. Epic poems are long stories or myths about adventures. Ramayana and Mahabharta, two Indian epics, are still read today. Odyssey and Iliad are two famous Greek poems by Homer. They were passed down through speaking and written down around the 8th century BC.
+
+Literature can also mean imaginative or creative writing, which is looked at for its artistic value.

ensimple/3479.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+Literature is a group of works of art made up of words. Most are written, but some are passed on by word of mouth. Literature usually means works of poetry and prose that are especially well written.[1] There are many different kinds of literature, such as poetry, plays, or novels. They can also be put into groups through their language, historical period, origin, genre, and subject.[1] The word literature comes from the Latin word "learning, writing, grammar".[2]
+
+Most of the earliest works were epic poems. Epic poems are long stories or myths about adventures. Ramayana and Mahabharta, two Indian epics, are still read today. Odyssey and Iliad are two famous Greek poems by Homer. They were passed down through speaking and written down around the 8th century BC.
+
+Literature can also mean imaginative or creative writing, which is looked at for its artistic value.

ensimple/348.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,25 @@
+Archaeology, or archeology,[1] is the study of the past by looking for the remains and objects left by the people who lived long ago. These remains can include old coins, tools, buildings, and inscriptions. Archaeologists, the people who study archaeology, use these remains to understand how people lived.
+
+When archaeologists do fieldwork, they look for remains, often by digging in the ground. As settlements (places where people lived in groups) change and grow, old buildings get buried. Usually, this is a natural process. A typical student project is to leave an object in a place where there is nothing going on. It will get covered rather quickly, because wind, water and plants will bury it. Sometimes buildings are deliberately buried to make way for new buildings. Ancient Rome, for example, is now up to 40 feet (12 metres) below the present city. This process of natural or man-made burial is why archaeological fieldwork involves digging, and is expensive and takes a long time.
+
+When things are found, or even when nothing is found, the results of the fieldwork are taken back to a base. Short term, the base is often on or near the site. Longer term, the results will usually go to a university or museum. Everything is written down on paper or entered into a computer. Gradually, they build up a picture of what happened long ago. Archaeologists publish their research so others can understand what they learned.
+
+Archaeologists do not all study the same topics. They have specialties. Some fields of interest include Ancient Egypt (these specialists are called Egyptologists), Ancient China, or the Vikings. Archaeologists study every civilization that is known, especially the ones where there is no written history. They can study any time period. For example, one might study the beginning of human life in Africa, or study World War II. Marine archaeologists study things that are now underwater. They search for sunken ships or cities that have been lost under the sea.
+
+There are many different ways of doing archaeology. these depend on the methods used, the things studied, and the environment. Some of these subdisciplines overlap with each other.
+
+Archaeology relating to oceans, seas and lakes is usually done underwater. It includes the study of sunken ships and submerged coastlines. "Maritime archaeology" is a part of this subdivision. It refers to the archaeological investigation of past ships and seafaring.[2] A famous example of maritime archaeology is the recovery and restoration of the ship burial at Sutton Hoo.
+
+When a glacier melts, objects that were captured in it are revealed. The recovery and study of these objects is called "ice-patch archaeology".[3] A famous example is Ötzi the Iceman.
+
+Historical archaeology deals with places, things, and issues from the past or present at or related to sites with written records or oral traditions. Or it can be defined as "the archaeological investigation of any past culture that has developed a literate tradition."[4] A prominent example of historical archaeology is the work done at Colonial Williamsburg.
+
+This relatively new branch of archaeology consists of "the systematic study of structures and artefacts as a means of enlarging our understanding of the industrial past."[5]
+
+Archaeozoology, or zooarchaeology, is the study of the relationships between humans and animals in the archaeological record. This includes the study of bones, feathers, teeth and other body parts as well as their interpretation.[6]
+
+This field involves attempts at replicating the actions and conditions of ancient cultures. Good examples are Butser Ancient Farm and Overton Down.
+
+In many countries, governments and other groups of people protect important archaeological sites so they will not be destroyed and so that visitors can always come and see them.
+
+Sometimes archaeological sites are found when foundations are dug for new buildings. Archaeologists have to work quickly when this happens, because people who are building often don't have a lot of time. As soon as the archaeologists are done with their work, the remains that they have found will be covered over, unless they are very important.

ensimple/3480.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,55 @@
+– on the European continent  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)  —  [Legend]
+
+Lithuania is a country in northern Europe[10] on the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea. Lithuania is a member of the European Union, NATO, and several other organizations.
+
+About 3,000,000 people live in the country. The official language is Lithuanian which is spoken by more than 82% of the people. Vilnius is the capital and largest city.
+
+The colors of the Lithuanian flag are yellow (at the top), for the sun, green (in the middle), for the fields, and red (at the bottom), for the blood of Lithuanians fighting for its independence.
+
+Lithuania began to turn into a country in the 7th–9th centuries from Baltic nations group. The Balts, the ancestors of Lithuanians and Latvians, came to area between Nemunas, Daugava rivers and the Baltic Sea, from a supposed original homeland of the Proto-Indo-European languages. Many scientists think they came there sometime in the 3rd millennium BC.
+
+The traditional date of the beginning of the country is 1236 when the  Lithuanians won the Battle of Šiauliai (Battle of Sun).
+
+Lithuania (at that time - The Grand Duchy of Lithuania) made a Treaty with Poland in 1569. The country was taken over by the Russian Empire in 1795, ending the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. It got back its independence on February 16, 1918. It was taken over by the Soviet Union on June 16, 1940, by Nazi Germany from 1941-1944 and again the Soviet Union from 1944-1990. Lithuania re-declared its independence on March 11, 1990. Currently Lithuania is an independent, semi-presidential, democratic republic.
+
+Lithuania has been a member of NATO and the European Union since 2004.
+
+Lithuania is a semi presidential republic, that restored its independence and democracy in 1990. Since then, very important reforms were made and Lithuania is now declared as a democratic state that grants the human rights.
+
+The Constitution that was adopted in 1992 declares that the leader of the country is the President, who must be elected to take office. The elections are held every 5 years. If the President breaks their oath, they can be forced to resign by the Parliament. The President also represents Lithuania abroad and is the commander-in-chief.
+
+The legislative power of Lithuania is called the Seimas, or Parliament. There are 141 members of Seimas who are elected for 4-year-terms. Seimas passes the laws that must be executed by the government, that is formed in Seimas and it must be accepted by the President. The Prime Minister is set and fired by the President.
+
+The justice is under the power of the courts. The supreme court in Lithuania is the Constitutional Court.
+
+Lithuania is divided into 10 counties, 60 municipalities and 500 elderates. The counties are:
+
+The county governor rules the county. He or she must be appointed by the central government. Municipalities are governed by the Municipal Councils that are elected for 4 year terms. The head of a municipality is the mayor. The elderates are governed by the elders. The elders are appointed by the municipal councils.
+
+Lithuania is a country in northern Europe. Its neighbours are Poland in the southwest, Russia (Kaliningrad) in west, Latvia in north and Belarus in the east. Lithuania borders the Baltic Sea and 99 kilometres of its coast belong to Lithuania. The highest hill is Aukštojas (294 metres high), the largest lake is Drūkšiai Lake. 31% of the land is suitable for farms.
+
+Lithuania is divided into 5 cultural regions according to their past and traditions:
+
+Lithuania has a fast growing economy. It grew up to 7% in the first quarter of 2008.
+
+GDP per capita, based on purchasing power parity is estimated to be  $19,730 in 2008. The nominal GDP per capita is estimated to be $14,213 at the same year. According to these numbers, Lithuanian per capita GDP reaches only 61% of EU average. However, it is impressive that only in 8 years, since 2000 it grew up from 30% of EU average.
+
+Emigration still creates a problem. According to the official data, emigration in 2006 was 30% lower than previous year, with 3,483 people leaving in four months.
+
+About 80% of people in Lithuania are Lithuanians. There are large national minorities:
+
+Lithuanian is spoken by 82% of the people and it is the only official language. Polish is used mostly in Vilnius County where Polish politicians are elected to represent the Polish minority. The documents and street names must be in Lithuanian.
+
+The biggest cities are Vilnius, 542,287 people, Kaunas, 358,107 people, and Klaipėda, 185,899 people.
+
+The nursery schools and the kindergartens are the first-level education forms. However, they are not compulsory. The children start attending the primary school at age 7, where educational programs last for 4 years; then they must start attending secondary school (5th to 10th grades). After finishing 8th or 10th grade, the student can continue learning at the high school or choose courses at the vocational college. The students who finish the high school can join colleges and universities. Higher education is free for the students whose annual median of grades is 8 or higher. The others have to pay 500 Litass per semester at least.
+
+The higher education schools are universities and colleges. The main universities are:
+
+Lithuanians can choose from many television and radio stations. The first radio station was started in 1926 in Kaunas. The first television station started in 1957. The main radio stations are:
+
+The most popular TV stations are:
+
+The oldest legal newspaper in Lithuania is the Polish Kurier Wilenski. It was first published in the 18th century and is now only popular with the Polish community. The biggest selling newspapers are:
+
+Internet news portals are very popular in Lithuania. They have the latest information and also let people make comments. The most popular Internet sites with news and information are:

ensimple/3481.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,33 @@
+Old Testament
+Books of the Old Agreement common to all Christians and Jews)
+
+Additional Books
+(common to Catholics and Orthodox)
+
+Greek & Slavonic Orthodox
+
+Georgian Orthodox
+
+Genesis (Greek: ἡ γένεσις "origin, birth")[1] is the first book of the Hebrew Bible. It means creation. It begins with the creation of the Universe. It ends with the death of Joseph. The Hebrew name for the book is transliterated Bre'shiyth, which means 'in beginning.'
+
+God created the universe and everything in it in six days. God rested on the seventh day (Sabbath) and declared it a holy day of rest. God provided the Garden of Eden to the first man, Adam, and the first woman, Eve. There was only one thing that they were not allowed to do. God told them not to eat from the tree of knowledge, which would make them aware of good and evil. A snake tricked Eve, and she ate the fruit from the tree of knowledge. She then gave Adam some of the fruit, and he ate as well. Because they did not obey him, God made them leave the garden, so all people had to work for their food.
+
+Adam and Eve's first two children were sons, Cain and Abel. Abel was a shepherd and Cain was a farmer. Cain fell into sin and killed his brother Abel out of jealousy, making him the first person to commit murder. (Genesis 4:1–16)
+
+Later, when the world was full of people who were evil, God chose to kill them and save only the animals and the most morally righteous person alive. He told a man, named Noah, to build a huge boat and gather two of every bird, mammal and lizard onto it.  He was instructed to take 14, or a pair of 7, of clean animals. Only 2 of each could be unclean. Noah built and filled the boat as he was told, and a flood covered the whole world. After 40 days and nights, the rains stopped.  Once the water had receded the boat landed on the mountain of Ararat. God promised never to send another such flood, and he used the rainbow as a sign of that promise.
+
+The people of the world attempted to build a high tower (Tower of Babel) to show the power of mankind and to reach God. God felt insulted and gave people different languages to prevent the tower from ever being finished.
+
+God chose Abram to be "the father of many nations." Abram changed his name to Abraham, and God promised him the land of Canaan (Israel) forever. As a sign of this promise, the sons of Abraham are circumcised. God tested Abraham's loyalty by asking him to kill his son Isaac. Abraham was ready to do it, but God sent an angel to stop him. God told him there would be no more human sacrifice.
+
+God destroyed the evil cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, saving only Abraham's nephew Lot and his daughters.
+
+Isaac and his wife Rebekah had two twin sons, Esau and Jacob. Jacob traded food to Esau for Esau's right to carry the family name. Rebekah helped trick Isaac, who was old and blind, into giving his final blessing to Jacob by dressing him in fur (Isaac felt Jacob's furs and thought he was his hairy twin, Esau). Esau later got a blessing of his own.
+
+Jacob left to find a wife. He found Rachel and worked for her father, Lavan, for seven years to marry her, but was tricked into marrying her sister Leah. He worked for another seven years to marry Rachel. He went back to his home, then moved to Bethel, where God told him to change his name to Israel. Jacob later also marries the servants of Leah and Rachel, whose names are Bilah and Zilpah.
+
+Jacob had twelve sons named Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issaschar, Zebulun, Gad, Dan, Asher, Naftali, Joseph, and Benjamin. His wife Rachel died after she gave birth to Benjamin.
+
+Jacob gave his son Joseph a coat of many colors. Joseph's brothers were jealous, so they sold him into slavery in Egypt. They covered his coat in blood and told their father he had died. Joseph became a great leader in Egypt by predicting a long famine by explaining the pharaoh's dreams. During the famine, his brothers came to Egypt to buy food. They did not know that Joseph was the leader. Joseph first tricked the brothers, but then gave them food and let them stay in Goshen in Egypt.
+
+Jacob blessed his sons and then died.

ensimple/3482.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+A book is a set of printed sheets of paper held together between two covers. The sheets of paper are usually covered with a text, language and illustrations.  The book is a more flexible format than the earlier idea of the scroll.  The change from scrolls to books began in the Roman Empire, and took many centuries to become complete.
+
+A writer of a book is called an author. Someone who draws pictures in a book is called an illustrator. Books can have more than one author or illustrator.
+
+A book can also be a text in a larger collection of texts. That way a book is perhaps written by one author, or it only treats one subject area. Books in this sense can often be understood without knowing the whole collection. Examples are the Bible, the Illiad or the Odyssey – all of them consist of a number of books in this sense of the word. Encyclopedias often have separate articles written by different people, and published as separate volumes. Each volume is a book.
+
+Hardcover books have hard covers made of cardboard covered in cloth or leather and are usually sewn together. Paperback books have covers of stiff paper and are usually glued together. The words in books can be read aloud and recorded on tapes or compact discs. These are called "audiobooks".
+
+Books can be borrowed from a library or bought from a bookstore. People can make their own books and fill them with family photos, drawings, or their own writing. Some books are empty inside, like a diary, address book, or photo album. Most of the time, the word "book" means that the pages inside have words printed or written on them.
+
+Some books are written just for children, or for entertainment, while other books are for studying something in school such as math or history. Many books have photographs or drawings.
+
+There are two main kinds of book text: fiction and non-fiction.
+
+These books are novels, about stories that did not happen, and have been imagined by the author. Some books are based on real events from history, but the author has created imaginary characters or dialogue for the events.
+
+Books of non-fiction are about true facts or things that have really happened. Some examples are dictionaries, cookbooks, textbooks for learning in school, or a biography (someone's life story).
+
+Between the written manuscript and the book lie several inventions. Manuscripts are hand-made, but books are now industrial products.
+
+A common type of manuscript was the scroll, which was a long sheet rolled up. The sheet could have been made of papyrus (made by the Egyptians, by weaving the inner stems of the papyrus plant and then hammering them together), or parchment or vellum (very thin animal skin, first used by the ancient Greeks), or paper (made from plant fibers, invented by the Chinese). Manuscripts of this kind lasted to the 16th century and beyond. Turning the manuscript into a book required several developments.
+
+The Romans were the first people to put separate pieces of manuscript between covers, to form a codex. This was more convenient to handle and store than scrolls, but was not yet a book as we understand it.
+
+Scrolls and codices were written and copied by hand. The Chinese invented woodblock printing, where shapes are carved out of a block of wood, then ink is applied to the carved side, and the block is pressed onto paper. This woodcut method was slow because the symbols and pictures were made by cutting away the surrounding wood.
+
+Johannes Gutenberg was the first to invent a machine for printing, the printing press, in the 15th century. This involved more than just a press, it involved the production of movable metal type suitable for the machine process.
+
+Initially, the machines were slow, and needed a printer's muscle to make them work. The Industrial Revolution brought steam power and later electrification.[1][2][3]
+
+Paper had been invented in China in the 8th century, but it was kept secret for a long time. In Europe hand-made paper was available from about 1450. It was cheaper than parchment but still expensive, and the early printing was a slow process. Therefore, books remained rare. In 1800 the first machines for making paper from wood pulp were invented. New kinds of inks were also invented for various purposes, and machines were driven by steam engines and later by electricity.[4]
+
+The common cheap supply of paper fed the faster printing machines, and books became cheaper. At the same time, in America, Britain and continental Europe, more people learnt to read. So, in the 19th century, many ordinary people could afford to buy books and could actually read them. Also in the 19th century came public libraries, so poorer people could get access to the best books.[5]
+
+Printing was done on large sheets of paper, which were then folded, guillotined (cut) and sewn into the covers. Bookbinding and all the other processes have been done by machines since the 19th century.
+
+Today some of the technologies have been changed, especially those involving illustration and typography. However, books look much the same as they did, with more illustration in colour, but basically the same. That is because experience has shown that readers need certain things for pleasurable reading. Graphic design and typography are the practical arts used to make books attractive and useful to readers.

ensimple/3483.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+A book is a set of printed sheets of paper held together between two covers. The sheets of paper are usually covered with a text, language and illustrations.  The book is a more flexible format than the earlier idea of the scroll.  The change from scrolls to books began in the Roman Empire, and took many centuries to become complete.
+
+A writer of a book is called an author. Someone who draws pictures in a book is called an illustrator. Books can have more than one author or illustrator.
+
+A book can also be a text in a larger collection of texts. That way a book is perhaps written by one author, or it only treats one subject area. Books in this sense can often be understood without knowing the whole collection. Examples are the Bible, the Illiad or the Odyssey – all of them consist of a number of books in this sense of the word. Encyclopedias often have separate articles written by different people, and published as separate volumes. Each volume is a book.
+
+Hardcover books have hard covers made of cardboard covered in cloth or leather and are usually sewn together. Paperback books have covers of stiff paper and are usually glued together. The words in books can be read aloud and recorded on tapes or compact discs. These are called "audiobooks".
+
+Books can be borrowed from a library or bought from a bookstore. People can make their own books and fill them with family photos, drawings, or their own writing. Some books are empty inside, like a diary, address book, or photo album. Most of the time, the word "book" means that the pages inside have words printed or written on them.
+
+Some books are written just for children, or for entertainment, while other books are for studying something in school such as math or history. Many books have photographs or drawings.
+
+There are two main kinds of book text: fiction and non-fiction.
+
+These books are novels, about stories that did not happen, and have been imagined by the author. Some books are based on real events from history, but the author has created imaginary characters or dialogue for the events.
+
+Books of non-fiction are about true facts or things that have really happened. Some examples are dictionaries, cookbooks, textbooks for learning in school, or a biography (someone's life story).
+
+Between the written manuscript and the book lie several inventions. Manuscripts are hand-made, but books are now industrial products.
+
+A common type of manuscript was the scroll, which was a long sheet rolled up. The sheet could have been made of papyrus (made by the Egyptians, by weaving the inner stems of the papyrus plant and then hammering them together), or parchment or vellum (very thin animal skin, first used by the ancient Greeks), or paper (made from plant fibers, invented by the Chinese). Manuscripts of this kind lasted to the 16th century and beyond. Turning the manuscript into a book required several developments.
+
+The Romans were the first people to put separate pieces of manuscript between covers, to form a codex. This was more convenient to handle and store than scrolls, but was not yet a book as we understand it.
+
+Scrolls and codices were written and copied by hand. The Chinese invented woodblock printing, where shapes are carved out of a block of wood, then ink is applied to the carved side, and the block is pressed onto paper. This woodcut method was slow because the symbols and pictures were made by cutting away the surrounding wood.
+
+Johannes Gutenberg was the first to invent a machine for printing, the printing press, in the 15th century. This involved more than just a press, it involved the production of movable metal type suitable for the machine process.
+
+Initially, the machines were slow, and needed a printer's muscle to make them work. The Industrial Revolution brought steam power and later electrification.[1][2][3]
+
+Paper had been invented in China in the 8th century, but it was kept secret for a long time. In Europe hand-made paper was available from about 1450. It was cheaper than parchment but still expensive, and the early printing was a slow process. Therefore, books remained rare. In 1800 the first machines for making paper from wood pulp were invented. New kinds of inks were also invented for various purposes, and machines were driven by steam engines and later by electricity.[4]
+
+The common cheap supply of paper fed the faster printing machines, and books became cheaper. At the same time, in America, Britain and continental Europe, more people learnt to read. So, in the 19th century, many ordinary people could afford to buy books and could actually read them. Also in the 19th century came public libraries, so poorer people could get access to the best books.[5]
+
+Printing was done on large sheets of paper, which were then folded, guillotined (cut) and sewn into the covers. Bookbinding and all the other processes have been done by machines since the 19th century.
+
+Today some of the technologies have been changed, especially those involving illustration and typography. However, books look much the same as they did, with more illustration in colour, but basically the same. That is because experience has shown that readers need certain things for pleasurable reading. Graphic design and typography are the practical arts used to make books attractive and useful to readers.

ensimple/3484.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,64 @@
+Ljubljana is the capital city of Slovenia. It is the largest city in that country. The city became the most important settlement in the area when Romans ruled Slovenia. There are many museums with things from that time in Ljubljana.
+
+As of 2002, there were 265,881 people living in Ljubljana. The University of Ljubljana is in Ljubljana.
+
+The city has an area of 163.8 square kilometers (63.2 sq mi). It is located about 320 kilometers (200 mi) south of Munich, 477 kilometers (296 mi) east of Zürich, 250 kilometers (160 mi) east of Venice, 350 kilometers (220 mi) southwest of Vienna, 224 kilometers (139 mi) south of Salzburg and 400 kilometers (250 mi) southwest of Budapest.
+
+Ljubljana is 295 meters (968 ft) above sea level.
+
+The main bodies of water in Ljubljana are the Ljubljanica, the Sava, the Gradaščica, the Mali Graben, the Iška and the Iščica Rivers.
+
+July and August are the warmest months.  The daily temperatures at these times are generally between 25 and 30 °C (77 and 86 °F).  January is the coldest month with temperatures closer to 0 °C (32 °F).  Ljubljana is also one of the wettest European capitals. Yearly precipitation is about 1,400 mm (55 in).  It can also snow anytime from December to February.
+
+Ljubljana features many kinds of architectural styles.  Prominent buildings include Prešeren Square, Ljubljana Castle, Town Hall, Ljubljana Cathedral, and Nebotičnik.
+
+There are also several parks around the city.  Tivoli City Park (Mestni park Tivoli) is the largest park in Ljubljana.
+
+The most notable bridges of Ljubljana are the Triple Bridge (Tromostovje), the Trnovo Bridge (Trnovski most), the Dragon Bridge (Zmajski most), the Hradecky Bridge (Slovene: Hradeckega most), and the Butchers' Bridge (Mesarski most). The Trnovo Bridge crosses the Gradaščica, whereas the others cross the Ljubljanica.
+
+Amsterdam, Netherlands ·
+Athens, Greece ·
+Berlin, Germany ·
+Bratislava, Slovakia ·
+Brussels, Belgium ·
+Bucharest, Romania ·
+Budapest, Hungary ·
+Copenhagen, Denmark ·
+Dublin, Republic of Ireland ·
+Helsinki, Finland ·
+Lisbon, Portugal ·
+Ljubljana, Slovenia ·
+Luxembourg City, Luxembourg ·
+Madrid, Spain ·
+Nicosia, Cyprus1 ·
+Paris, France ·
+Prague, Czech Republic ·
+Riga, Latvia ·
+Rome, Italy ·
+Sofia, Bulgaria ·
+Stockholm, Sweden ·
+Tallinn, Estonia ·
+Valletta, Malta ·
+Vienna, Austria ·
+Vilnius, Lithuania ·
+Warsaw, Poland ·
+Zagreb, Croatia
+
+Andorra la Vella, Andorra ·
+Ankara, Turkey1 ·
+Belgrade, Serbia ·
+Bern, Switzerland ·
+Chişinău, Moldova ·
+Kyiv, Ukraine ·
+London, United Kingdom ·
+Minsk, Belarus ·
+Monaco-Ville, Monaco ·
+Moscow, Russia1 ·
+Oslo, Norway ·
+Podgorica, Montenegro ·
+Reykjavík, Iceland ·
+San Marino, San Marino ·
+Sarajevo, Bosnia Herzegovina ·
+Skopje, Republic of Macedonia ·
+Tbilisi, Georgia1 ·
+Tirana, Albania ·

ensimple/3485.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+A locomotive is the part of a train that makes the train move. Normally, it is the first part of the train, and has an engine.
+
+A diesel locomotive is a powered by a diesel engine. The diesel engine may drive the locomotive's wheels directly via a gearbox, shaft or chain (called mechanical transmission); by generating electricity which is in turn used to power the wheels (called diesel-electric); or by using a hydraulic transmission system (diesel-hydraulic). Diesel locomotives are extremely popular worldwide, due to their ease of use and reliability. They can be more powerful than steam locomotives and do not need an expensive power grid like electric locomotives.
+
+A steam locomotive uses wood, coal or oil (but mostly coal) as fuel to heat water in a boiler, which turns into steam which pushes pistons to power the train. Steam locomotives were invented in the early 19th century. They are not widely used any more due to their operational costs, especially the fuel costs; steam locomotives are now mostly only used on tourist railroads.
+
+An electric locomotive runs on electricity as the name suggests. Electric locomotives cost the least to buy and operate. However, the railway electrification system is very expensive, so only tracks used by many trains per day are usually electrified. Thus, electrics are only the second next used type, behind diesel locomotives.
+

ensimple/3486.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+A locomotive is the part of a train that makes the train move. Normally, it is the first part of the train, and has an engine.
+
+A diesel locomotive is a powered by a diesel engine. The diesel engine may drive the locomotive's wheels directly via a gearbox, shaft or chain (called mechanical transmission); by generating electricity which is in turn used to power the wheels (called diesel-electric); or by using a hydraulic transmission system (diesel-hydraulic). Diesel locomotives are extremely popular worldwide, due to their ease of use and reliability. They can be more powerful than steam locomotives and do not need an expensive power grid like electric locomotives.
+
+A steam locomotive uses wood, coal or oil (but mostly coal) as fuel to heat water in a boiler, which turns into steam which pushes pistons to power the train. Steam locomotives were invented in the early 19th century. They are not widely used any more due to their operational costs, especially the fuel costs; steam locomotives are now mostly only used on tourist railroads.
+
+An electric locomotive runs on electricity as the name suggests. Electric locomotives cost the least to buy and operate. However, the railway electrification system is very expensive, so only tracks used by many trains per day are usually electrified. Thus, electrics are only the second next used type, behind diesel locomotives.
+

ensimple/3487.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+Computer software, also called software, is a set of instructions and its documentations that tells a computer what to do or how to perform a task. Software includes all different software programs on a computer, such as applications and the operating system. Applications are programs that are designed to perform a specific operation, such as a game or a word processor. The operating system (e.g. Mac OS, Microsoft Windows, Android and various Linux distributions) is a layer of software that is used as a platform for running the applications, and controls all user interface tools including display and the keyboard.
+
+The word software was first used in the late 1960s to emphasize on its difference from computer hardware, which can be physically observed by the user. Software is a set of instructions that the computer follows. Before compact discs (CDs) or development of the Internet age, software was used on various computer data storage media tools like paper punch cards, magnetic discs or magnetic tapes.
+
+The word firmware is sometimes used to describe a style of software that is made specifically for a particular type of computer or an electronic device and is usually stored on a Flash memory or ROM chip in the computer. Firmware usually refers to a piece of software that directly controls a piece of hardware. The firmware for a CD drive or the firmware for a modem are examples of firmware implementation.
+
+Today, software has become an important part of our lives. Software is used everywhere. Software engineers are responsible for producing fault-free software which has literally become an essential part of our daily lives. Changeability and conformity are two of the main properties of software design. There are also different processing models for designing software including Build and Fix, Waterfall and Agile software processing design methods.
+
+The  different types of software can be put into categories based on common function, type, or field of use. There are three broad classifications:

ensimple/3488.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+Free software is software that anyone may run, share, and change, at any time, for any reason. In this case, "free" means "freedom-respecting". The opposite of free software is proprietary software.
+
+In 1984, Richard Stallman started the free software movement when he began the GNU project.
+
+Free software is very similar, but different from open source software.
+
+People who use the name “free software” more, say that they use it because they think every human must have the right to
+
+People who use the name “open source” more, say that they use it because the authors of such software allow others to look at the software and change it, so the others will then help the authors make the software better.
+
+An author who wants to make his computer program free, must allow the people to whom he gives the program as a free program to use it for any reason and purpose, on any computer, in any place at any time, without limits.  This is a free license.
+
+That does not mean that the author must say "I allow you to delete files from the computers of other people without telling them", but he must not say "I prohibit you from deleting files from the computers of other people without telling them".  If deleting files from somebodies' computer is illegal, it will be illegal regardless of what the author of the program says.
+
+If it is legal (for example, if a user wants the program to delete his files without telling him about that), but the author has prohibited it, then the software is not free. It is not free because nobody can change the program to make a useful program which does that, and give it to others.
+
+The author must not prohibit even things which are dangerous, because if the prohibition is not very very very complex and long, it may be used incorrectly. For example, explosive materials can be used for war, but they can also be used in mining.  Some authors would want to prohibit or something else.  If many authors prohibit many different things, then a program which is put together from the programs of those authors will not be usable.
+
+There are also other things which must be allowed.
+
+The word “free” in “free software” is about freedom, not price. People are allowed to sell free software, but the person who buys the software may change it or give it away.
+
+The name “free software” is used in English to mean software that can be downloaded without paying money. Sometimes this software lets people make their own copies for other people. However, this software does not let people do all the things that they can do with other Free software, such as change it. In this case “free” means “free of charge”, “freedom from paying money”. To make the difference more clear, software that does not cost money is called freeware; it is almost always proprietary software.

ensimple/3489.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+Computer software, also called software, is a set of instructions and its documentations that tells a computer what to do or how to perform a task. Software includes all different software programs on a computer, such as applications and the operating system. Applications are programs that are designed to perform a specific operation, such as a game or a word processor. The operating system (e.g. Mac OS, Microsoft Windows, Android and various Linux distributions) is a layer of software that is used as a platform for running the applications, and controls all user interface tools including display and the keyboard.
+
+The word software was first used in the late 1960s to emphasize on its difference from computer hardware, which can be physically observed by the user. Software is a set of instructions that the computer follows. Before compact discs (CDs) or development of the Internet age, software was used on various computer data storage media tools like paper punch cards, magnetic discs or magnetic tapes.
+
+The word firmware is sometimes used to describe a style of software that is made specifically for a particular type of computer or an electronic device and is usually stored on a Flash memory or ROM chip in the computer. Firmware usually refers to a piece of software that directly controls a piece of hardware. The firmware for a CD drive or the firmware for a modem are examples of firmware implementation.
+
+Today, software has become an important part of our lives. Software is used everywhere. Software engineers are responsible for producing fault-free software which has literally become an essential part of our daily lives. Changeability and conformity are two of the main properties of software design. There are also different processing models for designing software including Build and Fix, Waterfall and Agile software processing design methods.
+
+The  different types of software can be put into categories based on common function, type, or field of use. There are three broad classifications:

ensimple/349.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+Bishop is the title of a rank in the clergy of a Christian Church. The diocese which a bishop governs is called a bishopric. A Bishop may be given the rank of Archbishop in an Archdiocese.[1]
+
+Usually, there are priests, then there are bishops. However, some Protestant churches have no bishops or archbishops. The Presbyterian church is an example.[2] The Church of Scotland is headed by a Moderator, who is elected by the General Assembly each year.[3] Other Christian movements have neither bishops nor priests: Quakers are a good example.
+
+In the Catholic church, the Pope is chosen by all the cardinals from amongst their number.[4] According to church law, this does not have to be the case: any male, unmarried, baptized Christian who is judged fit for the office can become pope. However, the last pope who was not a bishop was Urban VI (elected in 1378).
+
+The pope is also 'the Bishop of Rome'.  In fact he rules an independent state within Rome, called the Vatican.  All Roman Catholic bishops answer to the pope (or to patriarchs in some orthodox churches).  In the Anglican church, bishops are governed by Archbishops.
+
+Usually a bishop can be identified by a special hat, called a mitre.

ensimple/3490.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+Free software is software that anyone may run, share, and change, at any time, for any reason. In this case, "free" means "freedom-respecting". The opposite of free software is proprietary software.
+
+In 1984, Richard Stallman started the free software movement when he began the GNU project.
+
+Free software is very similar, but different from open source software.
+
+People who use the name “free software” more, say that they use it because they think every human must have the right to
+
+People who use the name “open source” more, say that they use it because the authors of such software allow others to look at the software and change it, so the others will then help the authors make the software better.
+
+An author who wants to make his computer program free, must allow the people to whom he gives the program as a free program to use it for any reason and purpose, on any computer, in any place at any time, without limits.  This is a free license.
+
+That does not mean that the author must say "I allow you to delete files from the computers of other people without telling them", but he must not say "I prohibit you from deleting files from the computers of other people without telling them".  If deleting files from somebodies' computer is illegal, it will be illegal regardless of what the author of the program says.
+
+If it is legal (for example, if a user wants the program to delete his files without telling him about that), but the author has prohibited it, then the software is not free. It is not free because nobody can change the program to make a useful program which does that, and give it to others.
+
+The author must not prohibit even things which are dangerous, because if the prohibition is not very very very complex and long, it may be used incorrectly. For example, explosive materials can be used for war, but they can also be used in mining.  Some authors would want to prohibit or something else.  If many authors prohibit many different things, then a program which is put together from the programs of those authors will not be usable.
+
+There are also other things which must be allowed.
+
+The word “free” in “free software” is about freedom, not price. People are allowed to sell free software, but the person who buys the software may change it or give it away.
+
+The name “free software” is used in English to mean software that can be downloaded without paying money. Sometimes this software lets people make their own copies for other people. However, this software does not let people do all the things that they can do with other Free software, such as change it. In this case “free” means “free of charge”, “freedom from paying money”. To make the difference more clear, software that does not cost money is called freeware; it is almost always proprietary software.

ensimple/3491.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+A logo is a picture or drawing that is used by a person, group, or company to mark who they are. A wordmark, or 'logotype', is a logo made entirely of a word or words. It is usually the name of a product or organisation.[1]
+
+A company or group can use a 'logo' on the things that they make, like on the things they sell, on letters, and in advertisements. When a person sees the logo picture, that person knows that the thing they see the logo on came from that company.
+
+Logos can have letters and words in them. Many logos have the name of the company or group in them.
+
+Most logos are very simple drawings with only a small number of colors. Some logos are only in black and white.
+
+In many countries, companies and groups should tell their country's government about the logo they are using. If they do this, the government can help stop a different company or group from using the same logo, so that every one can be sure that the logo is only used by the people who used it first. This is sometimes called a 'trade mark'.
+
+Logos are not used only by companies. Many schools have logos. Some cities have logos. Clubs can have logos. Even people can have their own logos if they want. The heraldic badge is probably the oldest form of logo in the world.

ensimple/3492.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+A logo is a picture or drawing that is used by a person, group, or company to mark who they are. A wordmark, or 'logotype', is a logo made entirely of a word or words. It is usually the name of a product or organisation.[1]
+
+A company or group can use a 'logo' on the things that they make, like on the things they sell, on letters, and in advertisements. When a person sees the logo picture, that person knows that the thing they see the logo on came from that company.
+
+Logos can have letters and words in them. Many logos have the name of the company or group in them.
+
+Most logos are very simple drawings with only a small number of colors. Some logos are only in black and white.
+
+In many countries, companies and groups should tell their country's government about the logo they are using. If they do this, the government can help stop a different company or group from using the same logo, so that every one can be sure that the logo is only used by the people who used it first. This is sometimes called a 'trade mark'.
+
+Logos are not used only by companies. Many schools have logos. Some cities have logos. Clubs can have logos. Even people can have their own logos if they want. The heraldic badge is probably the oldest form of logo in the world.

ensimple/3493.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+A logo is a picture or drawing that is used by a person, group, or company to mark who they are. A wordmark, or 'logotype', is a logo made entirely of a word or words. It is usually the name of a product or organisation.[1]
+
+A company or group can use a 'logo' on the things that they make, like on the things they sell, on letters, and in advertisements. When a person sees the logo picture, that person knows that the thing they see the logo on came from that company.
+
+Logos can have letters and words in them. Many logos have the name of the company or group in them.
+
+Most logos are very simple drawings with only a small number of colors. Some logos are only in black and white.
+
+In many countries, companies and groups should tell their country's government about the logo they are using. If they do this, the government can help stop a different company or group from using the same logo, so that every one can be sure that the logo is only used by the people who used it first. This is sometimes called a 'trade mark'.
+
+Logos are not used only by companies. Many schools have logos. Some cities have logos. Clubs can have logos. Even people can have their own logos if they want. The heraldic badge is probably the oldest form of logo in the world.

ensimple/3494.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+The Loire River is the longest river in France. It is 1,013 km long. It originates in the Massif Central. Its mouth is near Nantes by the Atlantic Ocean. The Loire gives its name to 6 French departments. For years, the Loire was very important for France's commerce. When the railway developed in the 19th century, it put an end to its importance.
+
+The Loire's tributaries include the following rivers, in order going upstream:
+
+La Charité
+
+Pont-canal de Briare
+
+Gien
+
+Sully-sur-Loire
+
+Orléans
+
+Meung-sur-Loire
+
+Menars
+
+Blois
+
+Chaumont
+
+Bréhémont
+
+Candes Saint-Martin
+
+Saumur
+
+Chênehutte
+
+Le Thoureil
+
+Les Ponts-de-Cé
+
+Saint-Nazaire
+
+
+

ensimple/3495.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,77 @@
+Isaac Newton (1642–1727) is widely known as the father of dynamics, the study of motion. He developed three laws that are the foundation of classical mechanics. They are believed to be true because the results of experiments by scientists agree with his laws.
+
+A uniform velocity means that an object moves at a constant speed without changing direction (i.e. in a straight line). A net force means that the forces acting on the object are not balanced. In other words, the first law states two things:
+
+The first part states that a table resting on the ground will not move unless pushed. Although gravity is acting on the table, pulling it down, there is a reaction force from the ground which is pushing it back. The forces acting on the table are balanced, so the object will not move.
+
+The second part is harder to explain. A ball rolling along a flat surface will slow down and eventually come to a halt. This is because of friction, which is a force that slows the ball down. A ball rolling down a slope is also affected by friction, but the effect of the force of gravity is stronger than the friction, so there is a net force acting in the direction in which the ball is moving. In a place without the forces of friction, air resistance and gravity (e.g. in outer space) a moving object would keep on moving in a straight line if there were no force to slow it down or change its direction.
+
+Newton's second law states that acceleration of a particle is dependent on the forces acting upon the particle and the particle's mass. For a given particle, if the net force is increased, the acceleration is increased. For a given net force, the more mass a particle has, the less acceleration it has.
+
+For example, weight is a force that we feel on Earth, caused by the gravity. The weight W on a particle is given by
+
+where m is the mass of the particle and g is the local gravitational acceleration (not to be confused with G, the universal gravitational constant), roughly equal to 9.8 meters per second2 (32 feet per second2) on Earth.
+
+We can express Newton's second law in terms of momentum. The momentum p of a particle is defined as the product of its mass m and velocity v:[3]
+
+The acceleration a of a particle is the time derivative of its velocity v:
+
+Therefore,
+
+Thus, we have another way of stating Newton's second law:
+
+In classical mechanics, the two forms of the second law, 
+
+
+
+
+F
+
+=
+m
+
+a
+
+
+
+{\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =m\mathbf {a} }
+
+ and 
+
+
+
+
+F
+
+=
+
+
+
+
+d
+
+
+p
+
+
+
+
+d
+
+t
+
+
+
+
+
+{\displaystyle \mathbf {F} ={\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {p} }{\mathrm {d} t}}}
+
+, are completely equivalent.[2] Note that we assume that the mass m of a particle does not change.[2]
+
+This is best understood with billiard balls, where you can easily see the action/reaction pairs of forces. Likewise, when you kick a football, not only does the ball move, but you feel a force on your foot.
+
+The size of the forces on the first object equals the size of the force on the second object. The direction of the force on the first object is opposite to the direction of the force on the second object. Forces always come in pairs - equal and opposite action-reaction force pairs.
+
+A variety of action-reaction force pairs are evident in nature. Consider the propulsion of a fish through the water. A fish uses its fins to push water backwards. But a push on the water will only serve to accelerate the water. Since forces result from mutual interactions, the water must also be pushing the fish forwards, propelling the fish through the water. The size of the force on the water equals the size of the force on the fish; the direction of the force on the water (backwards) is opposite the direction of the force on the fish (forwards). For every action, there is an equal (in size) and opposite (in direction) reaction force. Action-reaction force pairs make it possible for fish to swim.
+
+Consider the motion of a car on the way to school. A car has wheels which spin forwards. As the wheels spin forwards, they grip the road and push the road backwards. Since forces result from mutual interactions, the road must also be pushing the wheels forward. The size of the force on the road equals the size of the force on the wheels (or car); the direction of the force on the road (backwards) is opposite the direction of the force on the wheels (forwards). For every action, there is an equal (in size) and opposite (in direction) reaction. Action-reaction force pairs make it possible for cars to move along a roadway surface.

ensimple/3496.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,77 @@
+Isaac Newton (1642–1727) is widely known as the father of dynamics, the study of motion. He developed three laws that are the foundation of classical mechanics. They are believed to be true because the results of experiments by scientists agree with his laws.
+
+A uniform velocity means that an object moves at a constant speed without changing direction (i.e. in a straight line). A net force means that the forces acting on the object are not balanced. In other words, the first law states two things:
+
+The first part states that a table resting on the ground will not move unless pushed. Although gravity is acting on the table, pulling it down, there is a reaction force from the ground which is pushing it back. The forces acting on the table are balanced, so the object will not move.
+
+The second part is harder to explain. A ball rolling along a flat surface will slow down and eventually come to a halt. This is because of friction, which is a force that slows the ball down. A ball rolling down a slope is also affected by friction, but the effect of the force of gravity is stronger than the friction, so there is a net force acting in the direction in which the ball is moving. In a place without the forces of friction, air resistance and gravity (e.g. in outer space) a moving object would keep on moving in a straight line if there were no force to slow it down or change its direction.
+
+Newton's second law states that acceleration of a particle is dependent on the forces acting upon the particle and the particle's mass. For a given particle, if the net force is increased, the acceleration is increased. For a given net force, the more mass a particle has, the less acceleration it has.
+
+For example, weight is a force that we feel on Earth, caused by the gravity. The weight W on a particle is given by
+
+where m is the mass of the particle and g is the local gravitational acceleration (not to be confused with G, the universal gravitational constant), roughly equal to 9.8 meters per second2 (32 feet per second2) on Earth.
+
+We can express Newton's second law in terms of momentum. The momentum p of a particle is defined as the product of its mass m and velocity v:[3]
+
+The acceleration a of a particle is the time derivative of its velocity v:
+
+Therefore,
+
+Thus, we have another way of stating Newton's second law:
+
+In classical mechanics, the two forms of the second law, 
+
+
+
+
+F
+
+=
+m
+
+a
+
+
+
+{\displaystyle \mathbf {F} =m\mathbf {a} }
+
+ and 
+
+
+
+
+F
+
+=
+
+
+
+
+d
+
+
+p
+
+
+
+
+d
+
+t
+
+
+
+
+
+{\displaystyle \mathbf {F} ={\frac {\mathrm {d} \mathbf {p} }{\mathrm {d} t}}}
+
+, are completely equivalent.[2] Note that we assume that the mass m of a particle does not change.[2]
+
+This is best understood with billiard balls, where you can easily see the action/reaction pairs of forces. Likewise, when you kick a football, not only does the ball move, but you feel a force on your foot.
+
+The size of the forces on the first object equals the size of the force on the second object. The direction of the force on the first object is opposite to the direction of the force on the second object. Forces always come in pairs - equal and opposite action-reaction force pairs.
+
+A variety of action-reaction force pairs are evident in nature. Consider the propulsion of a fish through the water. A fish uses its fins to push water backwards. But a push on the water will only serve to accelerate the water. Since forces result from mutual interactions, the water must also be pushing the fish forwards, propelling the fish through the water. The size of the force on the water equals the size of the force on the fish; the direction of the force on the water (backwards) is opposite the direction of the force on the fish (forwards). For every action, there is an equal (in size) and opposite (in direction) reaction force. Action-reaction force pairs make it possible for fish to swim.
+
+Consider the motion of a car on the way to school. A car has wheels which spin forwards. As the wheels spin forwards, they grip the road and push the road backwards. Since forces result from mutual interactions, the road must also be pushing the wheels forward. The size of the force on the road equals the size of the force on the wheels (or car); the direction of the force on the road (backwards) is opposite the direction of the force on the wheels (forwards). For every action, there is an equal (in size) and opposite (in direction) reaction. Action-reaction force pairs make it possible for cars to move along a roadway surface.

ensimple/3497.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+Gravity, or gravitation is one of the fundamental forces of the universe.  In this article, we discuss it in three parts:
+
+Some physicists think gravity is caused by gravitons, but they are still unsure.
+
+In everyday talk, we say things fall because the Earth's gravity pulls on them. We talk as if our weight was a "given". Actually, weight changes when the pull of gravity changes. The Moon is much smaller and the pull of gravity on the Moon is about 1/6th that of Earth. So any object on the Moon weighs 1/6th of its weight on Earth. What does not change is the amount of matter in an object. That is called conservation of mass. On Earth, mass and weight are the same for most purposes, though a sensitive gravimeter can detect the difference. The difference can be very different on another world such as the Moon.
+
+From this we learn two things.
+
+The Earth has mass. Every particle of matter has mass. So the Earth pulls on every object and person, and they pull on the Earth. This pulling force is called "gravity" and it gives weight.
+
+These words mean almost the same thing in everyday use. Sometimes scientists use "gravity" for the force that pulls objects towards each other, and "gravitation" for the theory about the attraction.
+
+According to one of his students, Galileo did a famous experiment about gravity where he dropped balls from the Tower of Pisa. He later rolled balls down inclines. With these experiments, Galileo showed that gravitation accelerates all objects at the same rate regardless of weight.
+
+Johannes Kepler studied the motion of planets. In 1609 and 1616 he published his three laws governing the shape of their orbits and their speed along those orbits, but did not discover why they moved that way.
+
+In 1687, English mathematician Isaac Newton wrote the Principia. In this book, he wrote about the inverse-square law of gravitation. Newton, following an idea that had long been discussed by others, said that the closer two objects are to each other, the more gravity will affect them.
+
+Newton's laws were used later to predict the existence of the planet Neptune based on changes in the orbit of Uranus, and again to predict the existence of another planet closer to the Sun than Mercury. When this was done, it was learned that his theory was not entirely correct. These mistakes in his theory were corrected by Albert Einstein's theory of General Relativity. Newton's theory is still commonly used for many things because it is simpler and is accurate enough for many uses.
+
+Why does the Earth not fall into the Sun? The answer is simple but very important. It is because the Earth moving round the Sun is in a dynamic equilibrium. The speed of the Earth's movement creates a centrifugal force which balances the gravitational force between the Sun and the Earth. Why does the Earth continue spinning? Because there is no force to stop it.
+
+Newton's first law: "If a body is at rest it remains at rest or if it is in motion it moves at the same speed until it is acted on by an external force".[1]
+
+There is a kind of analogy between centrifugal force and gravitational force, which led to the "equivalence principle" of general relativity.[2][3]
+
+In free fall an object's motion balances out the pull of gravity on it. This includes being in orbit.
+
+The special theory of relativity describes systems where gravity is not an issue;  by contrast, gravity is the central issue of the general theory of relativity.[4]
+
+In general relativity there is no gravitational force deflecting objects from their natural, straight paths. Instead, gravity is seen as changes in the properties of space and time. In turn, this changes the straightest-possible paths that objects will naturally follow.[5] The curvature is, in turn, caused by the energy–momentum of matter. Spacetime tells matter how to move; matter tells spacetime how to curve.[6]
+
+For weak gravitational fields and slow speeds relative to the speed of light, the theory's predictions converge on those of Newton's law of universal gravitation.[7] Newton's equations are used to plan journeys in our Solar System.
+
+General relativity has a number of physical consequences.
+
+Gravity influences the passage of time. Light sent down into a gravity well is blueshifted, whereas light sent in the opposite direction (i.e., climbing out of the gravity well) is redshifted; collectively, these two effects are known as the gravitational frequency shift.
+
+More generally, processes close to a massive body run more slowly when compared with processes taking place farther away; this effect is known as gravitational time dilation.[8][9]
+
+General relativity predicts that the path of light is bent in a gravitational field; light passing a massive body is deflected towards that body. This effect has been confirmed by observing the light of stars or distant quasars being deflected as it passes the Sun.[10]
+
+Closely related to light deflection is the gravitational time delay (or Shapiro delay), the phenomenon that light signals take longer to move through a gravitational field than they would in the absence of that field. There have been numerous successful tests of this prediction.[11][12]
+
+A parameter called γ encodes the influence of gravity on the geometry of space.[13]
+
+Gravitational waves are ripples in the curvature of spacetime. They move as a wave, travelling outward from the source. Einstein predicted them in 1915 on the basis of his theory of general relativity.[14] In theory, gravitational waves transport energy as gravitational radiation. Sources of detectable gravitational waves might include binary star systems composed of white dwarfs, neutron stars, or black holes. In general relativity, gravitational waves cannot travel faster than the speed of light.
+
+The 1993 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for measurements of the Hulse-Taylor binary star system. These measurements suggested gravitational waves are more than mathematical peculiarities.
+
+On February 11, 2016, the LIGO Scientific Collaboration and Virgo Collaboration teams announced that they had made the first observation of gravitational waves, originating from a pair of merging black holes using the Advanced LIGO detectors. On June 15, 2016, a second detection of gravitational waves from coalescing black holes was announced. Besides LIGO, many other gravitational-wave observatories (detectors) are under construction.

ensimple/3498.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,140 @@
+London is the capital and largest city of England and the United Kingdom, and is the largest urban area in Greater London. The River Thames travels through the city.
+
+London is the biggest city in western Europe, and the world's largest financial centre.[6][7][8]
+
+London is about 2000 years old.  London was founded by the Romans.  It was called Londinium by the Romans. London was also called Lunnainn in Scottish Gaelic,[9] Llundain in Welsh and Londain in Irish.
+
+For a long time, London was a small city. All its people lived inside the walls that were built by the Romans. This area is still called the City of London. There were many villages around the city. Gradually, more people came to live there. Then, step by step, the villages joined together into one huge city.
+
+London is one of the world's most important cities for business, finance  and politics. It is also important for culture, media, entertainment, fashion and art.
+
+The population of London is 8.63 million.[10] Most people in London are British. However, London also has many immigrants. These people come from many different countries. They speak many different languages and have different religions and cultures. There are also many people from different countries who stay in London on business. Many people visit London as tourists. They may see the famous "Sights of London". These sights include palaces, churches and museums.
+
+The Romans built the city of Londinium along the River Thames in the year AD 43  The name Londinium (and later 'London') came from the Celtic language of the Ancient Britons. In the year AD 61, the city was attacked and destroyed. Then the Romans rebuilt the city, and London became an important trading hub.
+
+After the decline of the Roman Empire, few people remained in London. This was partly because the Anglo-Saxon people of Sub-Roman Britain were primarily agricultural. Once the Romans had gone, trade with Continental Europe dwindled. In the 9th century, more people started living in London again. It became the largest city in England. However, it did not become the capital city of England until the 12th century.
+
+After the railways were built, London grew very big. Greater London has 33 London Boroughs (neighbourhoods) and a mayor. The old City of London is only a square mile in size but has its own Lord Mayor.
+
+Another famous old part of Greater London is Westminster, which was always a different city from the City of London. In Westminster is Westminster Abbey (a cathedral), The Palace of Westminster (the Houses of Parliament, with Big Ben), and 10 Downing Street (where the Prime Minister lives).
+
+London has an oceanic, or temperate climate. It is not usually very hot or cold. It is often cloudy.
+
+London has many celebrations, festivals and events.[15]
+
+London has five major business districts: the City, Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington and Lambeth & Southwark.
+
+The London Stock Exchange is the most international stock exchange and the largest in Europe.
+
+London's largest industry is finance.  This includes banks, stock exchanges, investment companies and insurance companies  The Bank of England is located in London and is the second oldest bank in the world.
+
+London has many professional services such as law firms, accountants,
+
+The British Broadcasting Company (BBC) which has many radio and TV stations is in London.
+
+Tourism is one of London's biggest industries. London is the most visited city in the world by international tourists with 18.8 million international visitors per year. Within the UK, London is home to the ten most-visited tourist attractions. Tourism employed about 350,000 full-time workers in London in 2003.  Tourists spend about £15 billion per year.
+
+A growing number of technology companies are based in London.
+
+London is a major retail centre, and in 2010 had the highest non-food retail sales of any city in the world, with a total spend of around £64.2 billion. The UK's fashion industry, centred on London, contributes tens of billions to the economy.
+
+For the 19th and much of the 20th centuries London was a major manufacturing centre (see Manufacturing in London), with over 1.5 million industrial workers in 1960. Many products were made in London including ships, electronics and cars.  Nowadays, most of these manufacturing companies are closed but some drug companies still make medicine in London.
+
+London has twin and sister city agreements with these cities:
+
+London also has a "partnership" agreement with Tokyo, Japan.
+
+The city has a huge network of transport systems including trains, metros (underground) and five main airports.
+
+The Victorians built many train systems in the mid-19th century (1850s). Their main stations are in London, and the lines go to every part of Great Britain. There were originally five major companies but the five companies became a national rail network in modern times.
+
+There are five airports, though only one is actually in London (London City Airport). There is the London end of the London–Birmingham canal, which was important to the industrial 19th century.  The most used airport is Heathrow International Airport  although it is actually outside the city.
+
+The metro or London Underground is a system of electric trains which are in London, United Kingdom. It is the oldest underground railway in the world. It started running in 1863 as the Metropolitan Railway. After the opening the system was copied in many other cities, for example New York and Madrid. Even though it is called the Underground about half of it is above the ground. The "Tube" is a slang name for the London Underground, because the tunnels for some of the lines are round tubes running through the ground. The Underground has got 274 stations and over 408 km of track. From 2006–2007 over 1 billion passengers used the underground.
+
+London Boroughs: 
+Barking and Dagenham • 
+Barnet • 
+Bexley • 
+Brent • 
+Bromley • 
+Camden • 
+Croydon • 
+Ealing • 
+Enfield • 
+Greenwich • 
+Hackney • 
+Hammersmith and Fulham • 
+Haringey • 
+Harrow • 
+Havering • 
+Hillingdon • 
+Hounslow • 
+Islington • 
+Kensington and Chelsea • 
+Kingston • 
+Lambeth • 
+Lewisham • 
+Merton • 
+Newham • 
+Redbridge • 
+Richmond • 
+Southwark • 
+Sutton • 
+Tower Hamlets • 
+Waltham Forest • 
+Wandsworth • 
+Westminster
+Sui generis:
+City of London 
+(Exclaves:
+Inner Temple • 
+Middle Temple)
+
+Amsterdam, Netherlands ·
+Athens, Greece ·
+Berlin, Germany ·
+Bratislava, Slovakia ·
+Brussels, Belgium ·
+Bucharest, Romania ·
+Budapest, Hungary ·
+Copenhagen, Denmark ·
+Dublin, Republic of Ireland ·
+Helsinki, Finland ·
+Lisbon, Portugal ·
+Ljubljana, Slovenia ·
+Luxembourg City, Luxembourg ·
+Madrid, Spain ·
+Nicosia, Cyprus1 ·
+Paris, France ·
+Prague, Czech Republic ·
+Riga, Latvia ·
+Rome, Italy ·
+Sofia, Bulgaria ·
+Stockholm, Sweden ·
+Tallinn, Estonia ·
+Valletta, Malta ·
+Vienna, Austria ·
+Vilnius, Lithuania ·
+Warsaw, Poland ·
+Zagreb, Croatia
+
+Andorra la Vella, Andorra ·
+Ankara, Turkey1 ·
+Belgrade, Serbia ·
+Bern, Switzerland ·
+Chişinău, Moldova ·
+Kyiv, Ukraine ·
+London, United Kingdom ·
+Minsk, Belarus ·
+Monaco-Ville, Monaco ·
+Moscow, Russia1 ·
+Oslo, Norway ·
+Podgorica, Montenegro ·
+Reykjavík, Iceland ·
+San Marino, San Marino ·
+Sarajevo, Bosnia Herzegovina ·
+Skopje, Republic of Macedonia ·
+Tbilisi, Georgia1 ·
+Tirana, Albania ·
+

ensimple/3499.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,140 @@
+London is the capital and largest city of England and the United Kingdom, and is the largest urban area in Greater London. The River Thames travels through the city.
+
+London is the biggest city in western Europe, and the world's largest financial centre.[6][7][8]
+
+London is about 2000 years old.  London was founded by the Romans.  It was called Londinium by the Romans. London was also called Lunnainn in Scottish Gaelic,[9] Llundain in Welsh and Londain in Irish.
+
+For a long time, London was a small city. All its people lived inside the walls that were built by the Romans. This area is still called the City of London. There were many villages around the city. Gradually, more people came to live there. Then, step by step, the villages joined together into one huge city.
+
+London is one of the world's most important cities for business, finance  and politics. It is also important for culture, media, entertainment, fashion and art.
+
+The population of London is 8.63 million.[10] Most people in London are British. However, London also has many immigrants. These people come from many different countries. They speak many different languages and have different religions and cultures. There are also many people from different countries who stay in London on business. Many people visit London as tourists. They may see the famous "Sights of London". These sights include palaces, churches and museums.
+
+The Romans built the city of Londinium along the River Thames in the year AD 43  The name Londinium (and later 'London') came from the Celtic language of the Ancient Britons. In the year AD 61, the city was attacked and destroyed. Then the Romans rebuilt the city, and London became an important trading hub.
+
+After the decline of the Roman Empire, few people remained in London. This was partly because the Anglo-Saxon people of Sub-Roman Britain were primarily agricultural. Once the Romans had gone, trade with Continental Europe dwindled. In the 9th century, more people started living in London again. It became the largest city in England. However, it did not become the capital city of England until the 12th century.
+
+After the railways were built, London grew very big. Greater London has 33 London Boroughs (neighbourhoods) and a mayor. The old City of London is only a square mile in size but has its own Lord Mayor.
+
+Another famous old part of Greater London is Westminster, which was always a different city from the City of London. In Westminster is Westminster Abbey (a cathedral), The Palace of Westminster (the Houses of Parliament, with Big Ben), and 10 Downing Street (where the Prime Minister lives).
+
+London has an oceanic, or temperate climate. It is not usually very hot or cold. It is often cloudy.
+
+London has many celebrations, festivals and events.[15]
+
+London has five major business districts: the City, Westminster, Canary Wharf, Camden & Islington and Lambeth & Southwark.
+
+The London Stock Exchange is the most international stock exchange and the largest in Europe.
+
+London's largest industry is finance.  This includes banks, stock exchanges, investment companies and insurance companies  The Bank of England is located in London and is the second oldest bank in the world.
+
+London has many professional services such as law firms, accountants,
+
+The British Broadcasting Company (BBC) which has many radio and TV stations is in London.
+
+Tourism is one of London's biggest industries. London is the most visited city in the world by international tourists with 18.8 million international visitors per year. Within the UK, London is home to the ten most-visited tourist attractions. Tourism employed about 350,000 full-time workers in London in 2003.  Tourists spend about £15 billion per year.
+
+A growing number of technology companies are based in London.
+
+London is a major retail centre, and in 2010 had the highest non-food retail sales of any city in the world, with a total spend of around £64.2 billion. The UK's fashion industry, centred on London, contributes tens of billions to the economy.
+
+For the 19th and much of the 20th centuries London was a major manufacturing centre (see Manufacturing in London), with over 1.5 million industrial workers in 1960. Many products were made in London including ships, electronics and cars.  Nowadays, most of these manufacturing companies are closed but some drug companies still make medicine in London.
+
+London has twin and sister city agreements with these cities:
+
+London also has a "partnership" agreement with Tokyo, Japan.
+
+The city has a huge network of transport systems including trains, metros (underground) and five main airports.
+
+The Victorians built many train systems in the mid-19th century (1850s). Their main stations are in London, and the lines go to every part of Great Britain. There were originally five major companies but the five companies became a national rail network in modern times.
+
+There are five airports, though only one is actually in London (London City Airport). There is the London end of the London–Birmingham canal, which was important to the industrial 19th century.  The most used airport is Heathrow International Airport  although it is actually outside the city.
+
+The metro or London Underground is a system of electric trains which are in London, United Kingdom. It is the oldest underground railway in the world. It started running in 1863 as the Metropolitan Railway. After the opening the system was copied in many other cities, for example New York and Madrid. Even though it is called the Underground about half of it is above the ground. The "Tube" is a slang name for the London Underground, because the tunnels for some of the lines are round tubes running through the ground. The Underground has got 274 stations and over 408 km of track. From 2006–2007 over 1 billion passengers used the underground.
+
+London Boroughs: 
+Barking and Dagenham • 
+Barnet • 
+Bexley • 
+Brent • 
+Bromley • 
+Camden • 
+Croydon • 
+Ealing • 
+Enfield • 
+Greenwich • 
+Hackney • 
+Hammersmith and Fulham • 
+Haringey • 
+Harrow • 
+Havering • 
+Hillingdon • 
+Hounslow • 
+Islington • 
+Kensington and Chelsea • 
+Kingston • 
+Lambeth • 
+Lewisham • 
+Merton • 
+Newham • 
+Redbridge • 
+Richmond • 
+Southwark • 
+Sutton • 
+Tower Hamlets • 
+Waltham Forest • 
+Wandsworth • 
+Westminster
+Sui generis:
+City of London 
+(Exclaves:
+Inner Temple • 
+Middle Temple)
+
+Amsterdam, Netherlands ·
+Athens, Greece ·
+Berlin, Germany ·
+Bratislava, Slovakia ·
+Brussels, Belgium ·
+Bucharest, Romania ·
+Budapest, Hungary ·
+Copenhagen, Denmark ·
+Dublin, Republic of Ireland ·
+Helsinki, Finland ·
+Lisbon, Portugal ·
+Ljubljana, Slovenia ·
+Luxembourg City, Luxembourg ·
+Madrid, Spain ·
+Nicosia, Cyprus1 ·
+Paris, France ·
+Prague, Czech Republic ·
+Riga, Latvia ·
+Rome, Italy ·
+Sofia, Bulgaria ·
+Stockholm, Sweden ·
+Tallinn, Estonia ·
+Valletta, Malta ·
+Vienna, Austria ·
+Vilnius, Lithuania ·
+Warsaw, Poland ·
+Zagreb, Croatia
+
+Andorra la Vella, Andorra ·
+Ankara, Turkey1 ·
+Belgrade, Serbia ·
+Bern, Switzerland ·
+Chişinău, Moldova ·
+Kyiv, Ukraine ·
+London, United Kingdom ·
+Minsk, Belarus ·
+Monaco-Ville, Monaco ·
+Moscow, Russia1 ·
+Oslo, Norway ·
+Podgorica, Montenegro ·
+Reykjavík, Iceland ·
+San Marino, San Marino ·
+Sarajevo, Bosnia Herzegovina ·
+Skopje, Republic of Macedonia ·
+Tbilisi, Georgia1 ·
+Tirana, Albania ·
+

ensimple/35.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,26 @@
+
+
+Former range
+     Low density
+     Medium density
+     High density
+
+A cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) is a medium large cat which lives in Africa. It is the fastest land animal and can run up to 112 kilometers per hour for a short time. Most cheetahs live in the savannas of Africa. There are a few in Asia. Cheetahs are active during the day, and hunt in the early morning or late evening.
+
+The cheetah compared to other big cats is light and slimly built. Its long thin legs and long spotted tail are necessary for fast running.[2] Its lightly built, thin form is in sharp contrast with the robust build of other big cats. The head-and-body length ranges from 112–150 centimetres (44–59 in).[2] The cheetah stands 70 to 90 cm at the shoulder, and weighs 21–72 kilograms (46–159 lb).[2][3]
+
+The slightly curved claws are only weakly retractable (semi-retractable).[2] This is a major point of difference between the cheetah and the other big cats, which have fully retractable claws.
+
+Cheetahs are active during the day, and hunt in the early morning or late evening. Cheetahs are carnivores. They prey on antelope, wildebeest, zebras, warthogs, hares, birds, rodents, snakes, fish, lizards and even jackals.
+
+When the cheetah hunts, it slowly and secretly moves toward its prey. When it is close to the prey (about 10–30 meters), it runs after it very quickly. Cheetahs kill their prey by tripping it during the chase. To kill medium- to large-sized prey, the cheetah bites the prey's throat to suffocate it to death. A bite on the back of the neck or the snout is enough to kill smaller prey.[4]
+
+The cheetah cannot defend itself against lions or hyenas who would take the cheetah's prey away. The prey is taken to a shaded place. The cheetah, exhausted after the chase, rests beside the kill and pants heavily for some time. Once they recover, cheetahs eat fast, and consume large quantities as soon as they can.
+
+Pregnant females give birth to about 3 to 5 cubs or kittens after three months pregnancy. It takes two years of full-time supervision by the mother before the cubs are ready to live independent lives. They need to learn how to catch prey, and that takes time. The young are vulnerable to larger predators: lions especially try to kill cheetahs.
+
+The cheetah has unusually low genetic variability and a very low sperm count. Their sperms also suffer from deformed flagellae, and so their movement is damaged.[5] Apparently, cheetahs went through a great reduction in numbers during the last ice age. Inbreeding after the event further reduced the variation (genetic drift).
+
+Due to the fact that cheetah never attack and kill humans it was extremely popular as a hunting pet since antiquity and especially in medieval times in the Near and Middle East.
+
+In the modern times cheetah probably is the  most difficult to have as a pet among wild cats, due to  necessity of wide open spaces for cheetah to run with the full speed for they proper development. And especially it's very important to feed them properly, because cheetah in captivity have to be fed only lean steamed meat so cheetah don't get sick and perish.

ensimple/350.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+Franz Ferdinand Karl Ludwig Josef of Austria, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Este (Franz Ferdinand Karl Ludwig Josef; German: Erzherzog von Österreich-Este) (18 December 1863 – 28 June 1914) was an Archduke (like a prince) of Austria and, from 1896 until his death, next in line to be the emperor of the former country called Austria-Hungary. He was killed in the city Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip. Because of this, Austria declared war against Serbia, which started the first World War.

ensimple/3500.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+Longitude is a way to say where a place is on the Earth. It is measured starting from an imaginary north-south line called the Prime Meridian. (A meridian is an imaginary line drawn from the North Pole to the South Pole.) Longitude says how far east (positive numbers) or west (negative numbers) of the Prime Meridian any place is.
+
+Longitude is measured using degrees, the same way an angle ihs. The Prime Meridian is 0° (zero degrees), and the farthest away is +180° eastward and -180° westward. Unlike latitude, which has the equator as a natural starting position, there is no natural starting position for longitude. Other meridians have been used in the past, but most scientists now agree to use the Prime Meridian.
+
+For centuries navigators at sea were seldom able to know their longitude. The problem was solved by making better clocks (chronometers) in the early 19th century.
+
+Longitude, as opposed to latitude does not maintain a constant distance between degrees since meridians all come together at the poles and are far apart at the equator. This means people near the North or South Pole can cross many degrees of longitude by travelling a short distance.
+

ensimple/3501.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+Length is a property of a thing that can be measured. One of the methods of measurement is either using a ruler or a Geometric Square. We generally measure the length of small shapes but we have made a range of sizes so you can either have an 'easy to go' degree of accuracy or an close to exact measurement in millimeters, or even more accurate ways of saying that length, the more longer the object seems the lesser the degree of accuracy we tend to measure it.  The length of something is the distance between two ends of the thing. Short means of small length. Long means of much length. Short and long are opposites. For two dimensional things, length is usually the longer side of measurement.
+
+Length is also a property of time. An amount of time has a length.
+
+John sits down at one o'clock, or 1h. John waits until three o'clock, or 3h. John stands up at three o'clock, or 3h. John was sitting for 2 hours. The length of time John was sitting was two hours.

ensimple/3502.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron (22 January 1788 – 19 April 1824) was an English peer, nobleman, politician, and poet. He was christened George Gordon Byron, but changed his name later in life. He adopted the surname Noel, so he that could inherit half his mother-in-law's estate.
+
+Lord Byron was the son Captain John Byron and Catherine Gordon.
+
+He was a leading figure in Romanticism. He was regarded as one of the greatest European poets and still many people read his works. Among his best-known works are the narrative poems Childe Harold's Pilgrimage and Don Juan.
+
+Lord Byron is also famous for the way he lived his life. He was a dandy, living extravagantly, with many love affairs and debts. His fight against the Turks in the Greek War of Independence lead to his death from a fever in Messolonghi in Greece. He is buried in the family vault in St. Mary Magdalene Church, Hucknall Torkard, Nottinghamshire, England. A memorial was not raised to him in Poet's Cornerin Westminster Abbey until 1969.[1]
+
+He was bisexual[2] (homosexual acts between males were against the law at the time) and he was believed to have been guilty of incest with his half-sister. Lady Caroline Lamb, who was his lover for a time, said that he was "mad, bad, and dangerous to know."
+
+His daughter, Ada Lovelace, was famous because she collaborated with Charles Babbage on the "analytical engine", a predecessor to modern computers.

ensimple/3503.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,71 @@
+A computer is a machine that accepts data as input, processes that data using programs, and outputs the processed data as information. Many computers can store and retrieve information using hard drives. Computers can be connected together to form networks, allowing connected computers to communicate with each other.
+
+The two principal characteristics of a computer are: It responds to a specific instruction set in a well-defined manner and it can execute a prerecorded list of instructions call a program. There are four main processing steps in a computer: inputting, storage, outputting and processing.
+
+Modern computers can do billions of calculations in a second. Being able to calculate many times per second allows modern computers to multi-task, which means they can do many different tasks at the same time. Computers do many different jobs where automation is useful. Some examples are controlling traffic lights, vehicle , security systems, washing machines and digital televisions.
+
+Computers can be designed to do almost anything with information. Computers are used to control large and small machines which in the past were controlled by humans. Most people have used a personal computer in their home or at work. They are used for things such as calculation, listening to music, reading an article, writing etc.
+
+Modern computers are electronic computer hardware. They do mathematical arithmetic very quickly but computers do not really "think". They only follow the instructions in their software programs. The software uses the hardware when the user gives it instructions, and gives useful output.
+
+Humans control computers with user interfaces. Input devices include keyboards, computer mice, buttons, and touch screens. Some computers can also be controlled with voice commands, hand gestures or even brain signals through electrodes implanted in the brain or along nerves.
+
+Computer programs are designed or written by computer programmers. A few programmers write programs in the computer's own language called machine code. Most programs are written using a programming language like C, C++, Java. These programming languages are more like the language with which one talks and writes every day. The compiler translates the user's instructions into binary code (machine code) that the computer will understand and do what is needed.
+
+Most humans have a problem with math. To show this, try doing 584 × 3,220 in your head. It is hard to remember all the steps! People made tools to help them remember where they were in a math problem. The other problem people have is that they have to do the same problem over and over and over again. A cashier had to make change every day in her head or with a piece of paper. That took a lot of time and made mistakes. So, people made calculators that did those same things over and over. This part of computer history is called the "history of automated calculation," which is a fancy phrase for "the history of machines that make it easy for me to do this same math problem over and over without making mistakes."
+
+The abacus, the slide rule,  the astrolabe and the Antikythera mechanism (which dates from about 150-100 BC) are examples of automated calculation machines.
+
+People do not want a machine that would do the same thing over and over again. For example, a music box is a machine that plays the same music over and over again. Some people wanted to be able to tell their machine to do different things. For example, they wanted to tell the music box to play different music every time. They wanted to be able to program the music box- to order the music box to play different music. This part of computer history is called the "history of programmable machines" which is a fancy phrase for "The history of machines that I can order to do different things if I know how to speak their language."
+
+One of the first examples of this was built by Hero of Alexandria (c. 10–70 AD). He built a mechanical theater which performed a play lasting 10 minutes and was operated by a complex system of ropes and drums. These ropes and drums were the language of the machine- they told what the machine did and when. Some people argue that this is the first programmable machine.[1]
+
+Historians disagree on which early machines are "computers". Many say the "castle clock", an astronomical clock invented by Al-Jazari in 1206, is the first known programmable analog computer.[2][3]  The length of day and night could be adjusted every day in order to account for the changing lengths of day and night throughout the year.[4] Some count this daily adjustment as computer programming.
+
+Others say the first computer was made by Charles Babbage.[4] Ada Lovelace is considered to be the first programmer.[5][6][7]
+
+At the end of the Middle Ages, people started thinking math and engineering were more important. In 1623, Wilhelm Schickard made a mechanical calculator. Other Europeans made more calculators after him. They were not modern computers because they could only add, subtract, and multiply- you could not change what they did to make them do something like play Tetris. Because of this, we say they were not programmable. Now engineers use computers to design and plan.
+
+In 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard used punched paper cards to tell his textile loom what kind of pattern to weave. He could use punch cards to tell the loom what to do, and he could change the punch cards, which means he could program the loom to weave the pattern he wanted. This means the loom was programmable.
+
+Charles Babbage wanted to make a similar machine that could calculate. He called it "The Analytical Engine".[8] Because Babbage did not have enough money and always changed his design when he had a better idea, he never built his Analytical Engine.
+
+As time went on, computers were used more. People get bored easily doing the same thing over and over. Imagine spending your life writing things down on index cards, storing them, and then having to go find them again. The U.S. Census Bureau in 1890 had hundreds of people doing just that. It was expensive, and reports took a long time. Then an engineer worked out how to make machines do a lot of the work. Herman Hollerith invented a tabulating machine that would automatically add up information that the Census bureau collected. The Computing Tabulating Recording Corporation (which later became IBM) made his machines. They leased the machines instead of selling them. Makers of machines had long helped their users understand and repair them, and CTR's tech support was especially good.
+
+Because of machines like this, new ways of talking to these machines were invented, and new types of machines were invented, and eventually the computer as we know it was born.
+
+In the first half of the 20th century, scientists started using computers, mostly because scientists had a lot of math to figure out and wanted to spend more of their time thinking about science questions instead of spending hours adding numbers together. For example, if they had to launch a rocket ship, they needed to do a lot of math to make sure the rocket worked right. So they put together computers. These analog computers used analog circuits, which made them very hard to program. In the 1930s, they invented digital computers, and soon made them easier to program. However this is not the case as many consecutive attempts have been made to bring arithmetic logic to l3.Analog computers are mechanical or electronic devices which solve problems.Some are used to control machines as well.
+
+Scientists figured out how to make and use digital computers in the 1930s to 1940s. Scientists made a lot of digital computers, and as they did, they figured out how to ask them the right sorts of questions to get the most out of them. Here are a few of the computers they built:
+
+Several developers of ENIAC saw its problems. They invented a way to for a computer to remember what they had told it, and a way to change what it remembered. This is known as "stored program architecture" or von Neumann architecture. John von Neumann talked about this design in the paper First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC, distributed in 1945. A number of projects to develop computers based on the stored-program architecture started around this time. The first of these was completed in Great Britain. The first to be demonstrated working was the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM or "Baby"), while the EDSAC, completed a year after SSEM, was the first really useful computer that used the stored program design. Shortly afterwards, the machine originally described by von Neumann's paper—EDVAC—was completed but was not ready for two years.
+
+Nearly all modern computers use the stored-program architecture. It has become the main concept which defines a modern computer. The technologies used to build computers have changed since the 1940s, but many current computers still use the von-Neumann architecture.
+
+In the 1950s computers were built out of mostly vacuum tubes. Transistors replaced vacuum tubes in the 1960s because they were smaller and cheaper. They also need less power and do not break down as much as vacuum tubes. In the 1970s, technologies were based on integrated circuits. Microprocessors, such as the Intel 4004 made computers smaller, cheaper, faster and more reliable. By the 1980s, microcontrollers became small and cheap enough to replace mechanical controls in things like washing machines. The 1980s also saw home computers and personal computers. With the evolution of the Internet, personal computers are becoming as common as the television and the telephone in the household.
+
+In 2005 Nokia started to call some of its mobile phones (the N-series) "multimedia computers" and after the launch of the Apple iPhone in 2007, many are now starting to add the smartphone category among "real" computers. In 2008, if smartphones are included in the numbers of computers in the world, the biggest computer maker by units sold, was no longer Hewlett-Packard, but rather Nokia.[9]
+
+There are many types of computers. Some include:
+
+A "desktop computer" is a small machine that has a screen (which is not part of the computer). Most people keep them on top of a desk, which is why they are called "desktop computers." "Laptop computers" are computers small enough to fit on your lap. This makes them easy to carry around. Both laptops and desktops are called personal computers, because one person at a time uses them for things like playing music, surfing the web, or playing video games.
+
+There are bigger computers that many people at a time can use. These are called "Mainframes," and these computers do all the things that make things like the internet work. You can think of a personal computer like this:  the personal computer is like your skin: you can see it, other people can see it, and through your skin you feel wind, water, air, and the rest of the world. A mainframe is more like your internal organs: you never see them, and you barely even think about them, but if they suddenly went missing, you would have some very big problems.
+
+An embedded computer, also called embedded system is a computer that does one thing and one thing only, and usually does it very well. For example, an alarm clock is an embedded computer: it tells the time. Unlike your personal computer, you cannot use your clock to play Tetris. Because of this, we say that embedded computers cannot be programmed, because you cannot install more programs on your clock. Some mobile phones, automatic teller machines, microwave ovens, CD players and cars are operated by embedded computers.
+
+All-in-one computers are desktop computers that have all of the computer's inner mechanisms in the same case as the monitor. Apple has made several popular examples of all-in-one computers, such as the original Macintosh of the mid-1980s and the iMac of the late 1990s and 2000s.
+
+Computers store data and the instructions as numbers, because computers can do things with numbers very quickly. These data are stored as binary symbols (1s and 0s). A 1 or a 0 symbol stored by a computer is called a bit, which comes from the words binary digit. Computers can use many bits together to represent instructions and the data that these instructions use. A list of instructions is called a program and is stored on the computer's hard disk. Computers work through the program by using a central processing unit, and they use fast memory called RAM also known as (Random Access Memory) as a space to store the instructions and data while they are doing this. When the computer wants to store the results of the program for later, it uses the hard disk because things stored on a hard disk can still be remembered after the computer is turned off.
+
+An operating system tells the computer how to understand what jobs it has to do, how to do these jobs, and how to tell people the results. Millions of computers may be using the same operating system, while each computer can have its own application programs to do what its user needs. Using the same operating systems makes it easy to learn how to use computers for new things. A user who needs to use a computer for something different, can learn how to use a new application program. Some operating systems can have simple command lines or a fully user-friendly GUI.
+
+One of the most important jobs that computers do for people is helping with communication. Communication is how people share information. Computers have helped people move forward in science, medicine, business, and learning, because they let experts from anywhere in the world work with each other and share information. They also let other people communicate with each other, do their jobs almost anywhere, learn about almost anything, or share their opinions with each other. The Internet is the thing that lets people communicate between their computers.
+
+A computer is now almost always an electronic device. It usually contains materials that will become electronic waste when discarded. When a new computer is bought in some places, laws require that the cost of its waste management must also be paid for. This is called product stewardship.
+
+Computers can become obsolete quickly, depending on what programs the user runs. Very often, they are thrown away within two or three years, because some newer programs require a more powerful computer. This makes the problem worse, so computer recycling happens a lot. Many projects try to send working computers to developing nations so they can be re-used and will not become waste as quickly, as most people do not need to run new programs. Some computer parts, such as hard drives, can break easily. When these parts end up in the landfill, they can put poisonous chemicals like lead into the ground-water. Hard drives can also contain secret information like credit card numbers. If the hard drive is not erased before being thrown away, an identity thief can get the information from the hard drive, even if the drive doesn't work, and use it to steal money from the previous owner's bank account.
+
+Computers come in different forms, but most of them have a common design.
+
+A computer has several main parts. When comparing a computer to a human body, the CPU is like a brain. It does most of the thinking and tells the rest of the computer how to work. The CPU is on the Motherboard, which is like the skeleton. It provides the basis for where the other parts go, and carries the nerves that connect them to each other and the CPU. The motherboard is connected to a power supply, which provides electricity to the entire computer. The various drives (CD drive, floppy drive, and on many newer computers, USB flash drive) act like eyes, ears, and fingers, and allow the computer to read different types of storage, in the same way that a human can read different types of books. The hard drive is like a human's memory, and keeps track of all the data stored on the computer. Most computers have a sound card or another method of making sound, which is like vocal cords, or a voice box. Connected to the sound card are speakers, which are like a mouth, and are where the sound comes out. Computers might also have a graphics card, which helps the computer to create visual effects, such as 3D environments, or more realistic colors, and more powerful graphics cards can make more realistic or more advanced images, in the same way a well trained artist can.

ensimple/3504.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,35 @@
+Das Rheingold (The Rhinegold) is an opera by Richard Wagner. It is the first of the four operas that together tell a story called Der Ring des Nibelungen (The Ring of the Nibelung).
+
+Das Rheingold is an opera in one act, divided into four scenes. It is a very long act, lasting 2 ½ hours, but it is normally played without an interval as the music is continuous, even between the scenes.
+
+The characters in the opera are Gods, Giants, Nibelungs and the Rhinedaughters. The Nibelungs are a race of dwarfs. They are cunning and evil and live underneath the surface of the earth.
+
+The first scene takes place in the river Rhine where the three Rhinemaidens: Woglinde, Wellgunde and Flosshilde, are guarding the precious Rhine gold. Alberich, an evil Nibelung, arrives and tries to catch the Rhinemaidens. From what they say Alberich learns that the gold they are guarding has magic powers. Alberich wants the gold, but the Rhinemaidens say that anyone who wants to have it has to renounce (give up) love. They think that Alberich will not do that because he is very fond of girls, but Alberich does renounce love and so he gets the gold.
+
+The second scene takes place in Valhalla, which is where the gods live. Wotan, the chief god, is there with his wife Fricka. Two giants have been building an enormous castle for the gods. Wotan has promised them that he would pay them for their work by giving them Freia, the Goddess of Youth and Beauty. Fricka is worried about the promise that Wotan has made, but Wotan tells his wife that he is not going to keep his promise. He thinks he can find a way of tricking the giants. Freia enters. She is frightened because the giants are coming for her.
+
+The giants, Fasolt and Fafner, enter. They want to have Freia in payment for having built the castle. The problem for the gods is that Freia has a garden in which she grows golden apples. If the gods no longer have these golden apples they will grow old and die. Wotan does not know what to do.
+
+Loge, the god of fire, enters. Wotan is cross with Loge for not having found something else to pay the giants with. Loge says he has been all over the world looking for something. He tells everyone that the gold from the Rhine has magic power, and how Alberich renounced love so that he could steal it from the Rhinemaidens. He tells them that a ring can be made from the gold, and that whoever has the ring will have power over all the world. The giants hear what Loge is saying and decide that they want the gold instead of Freia. They take Freia as hostage, saying that they will be back later to collect the gold. If they do not get it then they will keep Freia forever.
+
+Wotan asks Loge how they are going to get the gold. Loge tells them that they should steal it from Alberich. After all, Alberich stole it from the Rhinemaidens, so it does not belong to him. Wotan and Loge go down below the earth to the Nibelungs.
+
+Underneath the earth Alberich is forcing the Nibelungs to work for him. They are hammering at the anvil. Mime, who is Alberich’s brother, has used some of the gold to make a helmet. This helmet is called the Tarn helmet. Anyone who wears it can change their shape or become invisible. Alberich treats his brother very cruelly.
+
+Wotan and Loge tell Alberich that they have heard how clever he is. They ask him to show them what he can do with the Tarn helmet. Alberich puts on the helmet and changes himself into a huge dragon. Wotan and Loge pretend to be impressed. They ask him whether he can change himself into something small. Alberich show off again, changing himself into a frog. Wotan immediately puts his foot on him and catches him. Wotan and Loge take all the gold and go back to Valhalla.
+
+Wotan and Loge tease Alberich. Alberich asks them what they want so that he can be free. Wotan demands the gold. The Nibelungs pile the gold up. Alberich is not too worried, because he still has the ring which gives him magic power. He thinks he can use this power later to get the gold back. Wotan sees the ring on Alberich’s finger. He tells him to give him the ring. Alberich is terrified, but Wotan tears it from his finger. Before Alberich goes he puts a curse on the ring. Whoever has had the ring will die. This is very important to the whole story of the four operas.
+
+The two giants appear with Freia. The gods have become very weak, but once Freia returns they start to become stronger again. Wotan tells the giants they can have their gold. The giants say that they must pile up the gold in front of Freia until they cannot see her. They do this, but the giants say there is still a tiny hole through which they can see Freia’s eye. They see the ring on Wotan’s finger and tell him to put it in the hole. Wotan says they can have anything they want but not the ring.
+
+Erda appears. Erda is the Earth Goddess. She is very wise. She reminds Wotan that there is a curse on the ring and that he should quickly give the ring to the giants. Wotan has no choice. He puts the ring in the hole. Now the giants are happy.
+
+Immediately, however, the giants start to argue with one another and Fafner kills Fasolt. The curse on the ring is working. Loge tells Wotan he was wise to give up the ring. However, Fricka is still worried because Wotan did have the ring.
+
+Donner, the god of Thunder, enters and swings his hammer. There is a flash of lightning and a crash of thunder. The clouds vanish, a rainbow makes a bridge to Valhalla and the gods enter Valhalla. The Rhinemaidens are heard crying out to Wotan to give the gold back, but Wotan takes no notice. The gods are now at the height of their glory. We shall see, at the end of the fourth opera, that the curse will catch up with them and that they, too, will die.
+
+The music of Das Rheingold is beautifully written to fit every person and every situation. The famous opening starts with a low chord of E flat which describes the bottom of the river Rhine. At first the notes of the chords are held on, then gradually a ripple of broken chords and arpeggios suggest the ripples of the water. The harps make a sound like the waves. The harmony just consists of the same E flat chord for the first 136 bars until the Rhine Maidens start to sing.
+
+Each character in the opera has his own musical leitmotif which can change and combine to show their changing moods and situations. There are big, heavy chords for the giants, creepy chromatic winding music for Loge, the god of fire, who is supposed to be very crafty, dignified music for the Earth Goddess Erda etc. There is a special leitmotif for the curse, which is heard at various times in all four operas.
+
+Wagner actually called "Das Rheingold" a "prologue" to the other three operas, which he saw as the main operas of the cycle.