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+Feathers are the things which cover birds. They help keep birds warm.  Feathers also protect them from injury. In most kinds of birds, feathers help them to fly.
+
+The main feathers which cover the outside of a bird are called vaned feathers. Vaned feather have a stiff center, with soft barbs on the side, which seem like hairs. The center is called a quill. This type of feather is called pennaceous (= like a pen).
+
+Young birds have small feathers, called down, which keep them warm, but cannot be used for flying.  Down is very soft.  Adult birds have down, but also have vaned feathers on top of the down. Down is also used in blankets. Down feathers are just one example of plumaceous feathers (the word means 'fluffy'). Another example is the feathers on flightless birds such as the ostrich.
+
+Birds lose their feathers at certain times.  This is called moulting.  By moulting, a bird can replace old feathers with new ones.  Many birds moult once every year.
+
+Feathers give birds colour.  The function of colour in birds is extremely important. It includes:
+
+People use feathers for many purposes.  In the past, quills were commonly used as pens, and colorful feathers were worn on hats.  Many pillows, cushions, mattresses, coats, and quilts are stuffed with down. Feathers are also used by people of many tribes for decoration.

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+Pluto is the god of the underworld in Roman mythology. Pluto was also the god of wealth because diamonds and other jewels come from underground.
+
+A myth about Pluto is that he took Proserpina, who was the daughter of Ceres, to the underworld to be his wife. Ceres cried and did not let plants grow on the Earth. People needed the plants so much that the god Jupiter made Pluto give her up. The deal they worked out was that for six months, Pluto got Proserpina. While Proserpina was in the underworld, no plants could grow on Earth and it was winter. When Proserpina went back to her mother, it was summer. This was how the Romans explained the seasons. Pluto also had a three-headed dog named Cerberus that guarded the gates to the underworld.
+
+The dwarf planet Pluto was named after this god.
+
+
+

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+Pluto is a dwarf planet in Earth's solar system.
+
+Pluto can also mean:

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+Pluto is the god of the underworld in Roman mythology. Pluto was also the god of wealth because diamonds and other jewels come from underground.
+
+A myth about Pluto is that he took Proserpina, who was the daughter of Ceres, to the underworld to be his wife. Ceres cried and did not let plants grow on the Earth. People needed the plants so much that the god Jupiter made Pluto give her up. The deal they worked out was that for six months, Pluto got Proserpina. While Proserpina was in the underworld, no plants could grow on Earth and it was winter. When Proserpina went back to her mother, it was summer. This was how the Romans explained the seasons. Pluto also had a three-headed dog named Cerberus that guarded the gates to the underworld.
+
+The dwarf planet Pluto was named after this god.
+
+
+

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+Autism is the name of a disorder affecting brain development. It is one of a group of disorders called autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Asperger syndrome, atypical autism and childhood autism are kinds of autism spectrum disorders.[1]
+
+ASD is a condition that affects the way a person relates to their environment. The word spectrum is used because not all people with autism have the same traits and difficulties. Some people find interacting more difficult than others. Autism may be very apparent in someone or they may show no outward signs of it. The main areas of difficulty are in social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication and restricted or repetitive behaviors and interests. In most cases of autism, motor communication {doing things} is affected. All these signs develop in the child's first two to three years of age.[2]
+
+People who have autism find it difficult to act in a way that other people think is "normal". They may find it difficult to talk to other people and to look at other people. Some people with autism do not like being touched. A person who has autism can seem to be turned inwards. They may talk only to themselves, rock themselves backwards and forwards, and laugh at their own thoughts. They might not like any type of change and may find it very difficult to learn a new behaviour like using a toilet or going to school.
+
+Autism is caused by the way that the brain develops, both before and after a baby is born. About one in every 160 children has an autism spectrum disorder.[3]
+
+The word “autism” comes from the Greek word “autos”, meaning “self.” The term describes conditions in which a person is removed from social interaction—hence, an “isolated self”.[4] The term "autism" was first used by a psychiatrist named Eugen Bleuler in 1911 to describe one group of symptoms of schizophrenia.[5] Sigmund Freud considered this idea and thought it was related to narcissism.[6]
+
+Three decades later, researchers in the United States began to use the term autism to describe children with emotional or social problems. Two researchers by the name of Hans Asperger and Leo Kanner were the pioneers of the research study for autism in the 1940s.
+
+In 1943 Leo Kanner (a doctor from Johns Hopkins University) did a study of 11 children. The children were very intelligent. He found out that they had difficulties such as changing environments, being sensitive to certain stimuli, having speech problems and allergies to food. Later he named the children’s condition “early infantile autism”.,[7] now called autism.
+
+In 1944 Hans Asperger studied separately a group of children and found very similar conditions. The children in Hans Asperger's group did not repeat words and they had no speech problems like Kanner's did. However, the children did have problems with fine motor skills such as holding a pencil. The children he studied seemed to be clumsier than other children. They also had “[...] a lack of empathy, little ability to form friendships, one-sided conversation, intense absorption in a special interest and clumsy movements”.[8] Hans Asperger described a "milder" form of autism, his discovery is now called Asperger syndrome.[8]
+
+In 1943 and 1949, Kanner described the children he studied in scientific papers. In these papers, he wrote that he thought the children's parents were not loving them enough. He wrote that this might be part of the reason why the children had autism.[9][10] For example, in 1949 he wrote that the children's parents showed no warmth, or love, to their children.[10] He thought the parents were so "cold" that he compared them to refrigerators:
+
+“[The children] were left neatly in refrigerators which did not defrost. Their withdrawal seems to be an act of turning away from such a situation to seek comfort in solitude”.[10]
+
+This idea became known as the refrigerator mother theory. For decades parents were blamed for causing their children's autism by not loving their children enough.[11] By now, we know this is not true.[12]
+
+Schizophrenia and autism were linked in many researchers’ studies. Only since the 1960s, medical professionals began to have a separate understanding of these two disorders. Since 1980, Kanner’s so called early infantile autism is listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). Precisely because of the vague distinction between schizophrenia and autism, the DSM came out with a more accurate definition of autism in 1987. Henceforth, early infantile autism is called autism disorder. Furthermore, for the first time the DSM introduced standardised criteria to diagnose autism. The fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders expanded the definition of autism and included milder cases of autism. But especially the Asperger’s syndrome was added in 1994. With the release of the fifth edition of the DSM in 2013 the subtypes of autism are summarized into the general term Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Individuals are now diagnosed on an autism spectrum with varying levels of intensity (mild, moderate and severe).[13]
+
+Different studies resulted in different numbers of the frequency of autism spectrum disorders. One study stated ten cases of classical autism, 2.5 cases of Asperger's syndrome and 15 cases of mild autism (PDD-NOS) in 10,000 people - tendency: increasing.[17] Other sources speak about 60 autism spectrum disorder cases in 10,000 people.[18] However, the number of autism cases is not equal in men and in women. Here, the results of studies vary highly. Researchers in general say that 3-4 men are diagnosed for every woman that is diagnosed. This ratio decreases for severe cases to 1:1. It increases for high-functioning cases and in Asperger's syndrome reaches a ratio of 8:1.[19] Recently, the awareness has increased that this ratio may be so high because studies are simply missing female autistic people.[20] This could be because tests for autism typically focus on male autism traits.[21] Another possible explanation is that autistic females may be better at adapting to social expectations and hiding their social problems.[21] Studies have suggested that the brains of autistic females may rather be like neurotypical men’s (non-autistic men) brains of the same age.[22] These could be reasons why it is not so easy to realise whether a woman is autistic - and therefore, why more men than women are diagnosed.
+
+Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are seen or diagnosed more often in males than females.[23] The ratio is near one female for every four males diagnosed. But there is evidence that females may be diagnosed later than males. Researchers have argued whether there may be a gender bias playing a role in girls and women being underdiagnosed or being diagnosed late.[24] Although males may have autism spectrum conditions more often, females show different symptoms of autism than males. Autistic females also have different behaviors.[24]
+
+Over the past years, individuals have been using the terms "autism" and "autism spectrum disorder" like they mean the same thing. Autism is a spectrum disorder. This means that some people who have autism are only mildly affected. These people may go to regular schools, go to work, and have partners and families. Some people are affected worse than others. These people may be able to take care of most of their own needs at home like dressing and getting food, but not be able to have a regular job or travel alone. A person who has severe autism may need to be cared for all their life.[25] Few people with autism are extraordinarily gifted or talented. These people are said to have savant syndrome.[26] They are often very good at just one thing in particular, like mathematics, playing the piano or remembering football scores.
+
+The overall category of the Autism Spectrum Disorder is called Pervasive Developmental Disorder. The name describes medical conditions with developmental problems in a number of fields. In most cases, when referring to the Autism Spectrum Disorder, we are referring to the most common disorders:[27]
+
+Additionally, only one or two of the three categories (social interaction, communication and behaviour) are affected
+
+The different categories, the so-called “International Classification of Diseases” (ICD), are defined by the World Health Organization. As shown in the table, the diseases vary in several points. These are the age of onset, social interaction, communication and behaviour. An individual belongs to a certain category, depending on the areas of impairment. All three may seem similar in symptoms, yet are not the same. Still, people within one group show similar symptoms. The groups can be used to search for an underlying cause of the disease and to provide a better treatment.[25]
+
+Scientists do not know exactly what causes autism. There may be many different causes for the different types of Autism Spectrum Disorder.[28] Scientists do know about some things that make a person more likely to have an Autism Spectrum Disorder.
+
+The autism spectrum disorders are highly heritable disorders.[18] This means that it is very likely (over 90%) that the child of an autistic person will also be on the autism spectrum. The reason for this are certain genes. These genes are linked to autism and are passed on from a parent to the child. Already Leo Kanner and Hans Asperger noticed that fathers of autistic children often preferred being on their own over being with people. Therefore, Kanner and Asperger suspected a genetic cause. Studies with families with a child on the autism spectrum were done to investigate this theory. They found that sometimes the children’s parents (fathers as well as mothers) also show social difficulties, shyness and problems with understanding contextual information when talking to someone. Some studies have found this in only 10 out of 100 families, some in as much as 45 out of every 100 families.[17]
+
+Other than the studies done on children who had autistic parents, recently a couple of studies were done on children who either had a sibling or a twin showing autistic signs. Similar to the outcomes in the autistic parents studies, most children having autistic siblings/ twins were found out to be showing autistic signs. According to a recent study, around fifty percent of infants with autistic siblings showed some kind of atypical behaviour, around one forth of them showed delays and deficits in achieving infancy milestones and around 17% of all were later diagnosed with ASD (Autism Spectrum Disorder).[29]
+
+Moreover, twin studies showed that it is much more likely that identical twins are both on the autism spectrum than that non-identical twins are both on the autism spectrum. Identical twins have nearly the same DNA. Therefore, it is highly probable that they are either both autistic or both not autistic. Non-identical twins share only half of their genes which makes it less likely that they both have the disorder. Scientists have shown that the recurrence risk (the likelihood that a child is on the autism spectrum if it has a sister or a brother that is autistic as well) is 20 to 80 times higher than the probability for having the disorder in the average population.[30]
+
+However, it is not a single gene that increases the risk for autism spectrum disorders. Several genes have been linked to the disorder. All of the identified genes can in sum only explain one or two out of every ten autism cases. None of the genes that have been found to play a role in autism can explain more than one out of every 100 cases.
+
+The genetic influences include:[19][31]
+
+The affected genes influence:[32]
+
+Researchers have not found a single neuronal correlate for autism spectrum disorders, i.e. no abnormal functioning of the brain is the only cause of autism. Nevertheless, scientists found some differences between the brains of autistic people and the typical human brain. These differences lie in the anatomy of the brain, the activity in certain brain regions as well as in the connections between brain regions. It is a general tendency that autistic people use the same brain regions as other people but show different activity. In some areas the activity is less, in others it is stronger. However, this may only be true for male autists. Throughout the last years, studies have shown that brains of autistic women might be like normal men's brains.[22]
+
+Some researchers grouped autistic people's difficulties into three main areas in order to investigate their neuronal basis.
+
+Researchers say that building a Theory of mind is one of the main problems for autistic people. This makes it difficult for them to interact with others. Problems in social interaction are probably worsened by low preference for social stimuli, such as faces. This tendency has been found in studies tracking the person’s eye movements[33] and in EEG studies. EEG studies showed lower than normal activity in the fusiform face area (FFA), a brain region that is usually active when seeing faces.[34] However, the results of other studies could not show this.
+
+Also, scientists measured brain activity of people on the autism spectrum with fMRI while they were thinking about their own emotions. They found activity in the same brain regions as in non-autistic people. The difference was that some regions which are important for thinking about oneself and emotions (especially the anterior insula) were less active in autistic people.[35] Other brain regions were much more active. These findings may explain the difficulties people with autism experience when trying to understand complex facial expressions and emotions (such as shame, jealousy).
+
+People on the autism spectrum show a lower ability for executive function. Executive function means physical, emotional and cognitive self-control. This includes planning actions, focusing, shifting attention and flexibility of behaviour and thinking. Autistic people's ability can improve but it will remain below non-autistic people's ability in executive function.
+
+Problems with executive function are probably caused by large networks in the brain.[36] Grey matter and white matter irregularities have a negative influence on the way different brain regions work together (functional integration).[37] A smaller corpus callosum leads to abnormalities in working memory (an active process of keeping a memory until it is needed) and planning actions.[38]
+
+Central coherence is the ability to build wholes out of parts. It is weak in people with autism. This means that autistic people focus more on details. They cannot build wholes out of them. Not being able to pay attention to wholes results in difficulties with perception and language. Therefore, people with autism usually need more time for dealing with information coming from their surroundings. As a consequence, they typically also need more time for responding. However, performance varies between people on the autism spectrum. Moreover, the term central coherence may include many interacting aspects. This makes it difficult to find the cause for it in the brain. Neural correlates for central coherence are not yet known.[36]
+
+The risk for autism spectrum disorders can be increased if the mother uses thalidomide, valproic acid or drinks too much alcohol during pregnancy.[17] The risk for autism also increases with the age of father and mother at the time of pregnancy.[19]
+
+Scientists know that parents do not cause their children's autism by not being loving enough.[11]
+
+Scientists do know for sure that vaccines do not cause autism.[3][39][40] Vaccines do not even make a person more likely to have autism - even if they are already at a high risk for autism before they get their vaccines.[41]
+
+In 1997 A. Wakefield and others found autism signs one month after the measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccine was applied. They released a paper[42] in which they claimed that autism is caused by the MMR vaccine. However, the study had several flaws:
+
+Also, no plausible biological mechanism could explain how the MMR vaccine leads to autism.[43] Since then many case-control studies have been done to investigate the relationship between vaccines and autism. This means, they compared a group which was vaccinated with a group that was not vaccinated but apart from that identical. They did not find MMR vaccines to be the cause of autism. Neither did they find an increased risk for autism by the vaccination.[17]
+
+Parents also worried that thiomersal (US: thimerosal - a substance that makes vaccines and other medicines usable for a longer time) might cause autism because it contains mercury. No harm from the amount of ethylmercury in vaccines was known. Yet, vaccines for infants containing mercury were taken from the market. Nevertheless, thiomersal as a cause for autism is biologically also not biologically. Mercury poisoning triggers clearly different symptoms than autism. Still, researchers did studies about this topic. They did not find a connection between thiomersal and autism.
+
+Finally, a third theory was suggested. It was stated that many vaccines at the same time would weaken the immune system of infants. However, autism is not a disorder that is related to the immune system. Furthermore, single and also many vaccines do not weaken the immune system.[43]
+
+Diagnosing autism is difficult since there is no medical test like a blood test. Instead, an evaluation is made by a team of doctors and other health professionals who are experienced in autism and know the individual.[44]
+
+A reliable diagnosis can first be given at the age of two. At the age of 18 and 24 months, children should get a check-up. If anything wrong is noticed, a further evaluation is done. In this, a team of professionals will interview the child’s guardians about the child’s behaviour and see what they are like in different settings. This may also include behavioural or physical assessments as well as intelligence tests or developmental tests. A good, detailed, history of the child is often very useful in receiving a diagnosis.[45]
+
+Adults can be diagnosed in adults as well as children. This can be difficult because autism has symptoms that can overlap with other disorders, such as OCD, that may have appeared by adulthood. An expert will usually ask the adult about concerns, challenges in life (such as socially or behaviourally) as well as standardised testing in these areas. They also often ask for a developmental history.[46]
+
+In 2013, the American Psychiatric Association published the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V). In order to be diagnosed with autism, a person must fulfill two standardized criteria. It is important that individuals must show symptoms from early childhood, even if those symptoms are recognized later. These symptoms have to limit everyday functioning. Additionally, these symptoms cannot be explained by an intellectual disability or a developmental delay.[47]
+
+Autism Spectrum Disorder is characterized by difficulties in social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication and repetitive behaviours.[47]
+
+Autism spectrum disorder includes a wide range of symptoms, skills and levels of disability. Some autistic people also have learning disabilities, mental health issues or other conditions. This means that autism can also co-occur with other conditions and symptoms of the following disorders:[48]
+
+In the DSM-V, a diagnosis of autism excludes making a formal diagnosis of other psychiatric disorders. Therefore, other mental health conditions may be undiagnosed in an autistic person, because it is impossible to make a comorbid clinical diagnosis.[48]
+
+Since autism is a spectrum, every person with autism is different. Different treatments help different people. There are a few different categories of treatment. The main ones are medication, different therapies and diets. The treatment is fitted depending on what a person with autism needs.
+
+It is still unclear what causes autism. There may be a few causes. At the moment, it is only possible to lower the symptoms of autism. A full recovery from autism is not possible.[49] If therapies cannot reduce the symptoms of autism, medications are used additionally.[50] Often, several medications are used at the same time to treat different symptoms of autism.[49]
+
+Serotonin is a chemical messenger that transports signals between cells and is very important for normal function, such as with sensory perception, memory, learning and sleep, all of which are impaired in autistic people.
+
+Researchers have not yet found a link between autism and serotonin, although they have been successful in treating autism with SSRIs, which stop cells from absorbing serotonin, meaning more is used for signals.[49]
+
+They can be used to treat repetitive behaviour, aggression, hyperactive behaviour and outbursts of anger.[51] The SSRIs can have many side-effects. Usually the medication is better tolerated by adults than by children. Examples of SSRIs are Clomipramine, Fluvoxamine, Sertraline, Venlafaxine, Trazodone and Mirtazapine.[52]
+
+Dopamine is a chemical messenger in the brain. It helps to do movements, release hormones and strengthen cognitive abilities. Researchers found that increasing the amount of dopamine in the brain will worsen the symptoms of autism. Substances that help to reduce symptoms of autism are the antipsychotic drugs. There are two types of antipsychotic medications. One of the types are typical antipsychotics. They block the sites where dopamine would bind to a cell. Atypical antipsychotic drugs on the other hand block the sites where dopamine or serotonin would bind to a cell.[50] Antipsychotic medicine is the most successful treatment for excitability in autism.[52] It can also help to reduce aggression, self-injury, hyperactivity and repetitive, although it may have many side-effects.[50] Originally, antipsychotic medications were used to treat mental disorders like depression, bipolar disorder or schizophrenia.[53] Examples of antipsychotic drugs are Haloperidol, Clozapine, Risperidone and Paliperidone.[52]
+
+In the beginning, psychostimulants were only used for patients with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Researchers found out that they can also help patients with autism. The medication can reduce hyperactivity and inattention in people with autism. The medication can have many side-effects. Examples are Methylphenidate, Clonidine and Guanfacine.[52]
+
+People with autism often have problems with their digestive organs like the stomach or gut. These problems could be inflammations, abdominal pain, gas, diarrhea or bacterial overgrowth. The reasons may be malnutrition, food intolerances or allergies. Specific food products causing these problems are excluded from the diet. In many cases, products containing gluten or casein, the main protein occurring in dairy products, are excluded. In many cases vitamins, minerals as well as essential fatty acids are additionally provided. A big problem is that many autistic people cannot tell that they have pain. Therefore, many problems concerning the digestive organs stay undetected.[54]
+
+Therapy can be used to minimize distress caused by sensory overload. Individual therapy plans are created. The therapist tries to help the autistic person in many different aspects.
+
+One part of this is sensory integration. The therapist will help the patient to make sense of different sensory inputs. For example, they may ask a child patient to play with finger paints or collect objects from a bad of dried beans.
+
+Another part is the training of daily life activities. The therapist may help the patient to get used to things like getting dressed, eating, hygiene, shopping and financial management. These may be done one step at a time if the activity involves multiple steps, such as cooking.
+
+Play therapy is also helpful, especially for children. It can be useful to learn about certain emotions, which can be hard for autistic people. This can also be used to help learn social conventions, such as shaking hands instead of hugging when meeting a stranger.[55]
+
+Often animals are used to help autistic people. Most often dogs or horses are used. The people diagnosed with autism can care for these animals, pet them and, in the case of the horse, even ride on them. Studies showed that the interaction between an autistic person and animals can increase communication, reduce stress, fear, aggression and reduce the severity of the symptoms of autism.[56]
+
+Music therapy consists of two parts: One is an active listening part. Here, the therapist is making music himself or playing music from a record. In the other part, the autistic person can make music himself like playing an instrument or singing. Music therapy will improve different aspects of communication.[57]
+
+Here, different materials and techniques are used to draw pictures. The aim of art therapy is to make the autistic person more flexible and relaxed and to improve communication skills, self-image and learning skills. The effects of the therapy can be long lasting and transferred to the school, work or home setting.[58]
+
+Scientific studies

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+Pluto is a dwarf planet in the Solar System.[7] Its formal name is 134340 Pluto. The dwarf planet is the ninth largest body that moves around the Sun. At first, Pluto was called a planet. Now, it is the largest body in the Kuiper belt.
+
+Like other members of the Kuiper belt, Pluto is mainly made of rock and ice. It is quite small. It is about a fifth (⅕) of the weight of the Earth's Moon. It is only a third (⅓) its volume. Pluto is very far from the Sun, so its temperature is very low. The average temperature on Pluto is -223 degrees Celsius. It has an odd orbit and this orbit is very sloped. It takes Pluto to 30 to 49 AU (4.4–7.4 billion km) from the Sun. This causes Pluto to sometimes go closer to the Sun than Neptune.
+
+Since it was discovered in 1930, Pluto was thought to be the Solar System's ninth planet. In the late 1970s, the minor planet 2060 Chiron was found and people learned that Pluto had a small size.[8]
+Later, in the early 21st century, the scattered disc object Eris and other objects like Pluto were discovered. Eris was initially believed to be 27% larger than Pluto, but was later found to be slightly smaller.[9] On August 24, 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) gave a definition to the word "planet" for the first time. By this definition, Pluto was not a planet anymore. It became a "dwarf planet" along with Eris and Ceres.[10] After this, Pluto was put on the list of minor planets and was downgraded in 2006 by astronomer Michael E Brown.[11] It was given the number 134340.[12][13] A number of scientists continue to hold that Pluto should be classified as a planet.[14]
+
+Pluto and its largest moon, Charon, are sometimes called a "binary system". This is because the barycentre of their orbits does not lie within them.[15] The IAU has yet to formalise a definition for binary dwarf planets, and until it passes such a ruling, they classify Charon as a moon of Pluto.[16] Pluto has four known smaller moons, Nix and Hydra, discovered in 2005,[17] Kerberos, discovered in 2011, and Styx, discovered in 2012.
+
+In the 1840s, using Newtonian mechanics, Urbain Le Verrier predicted the planet Neptune existed. He discovered this after studying the orbit of Uranus.[18] Neptune was seen later in the late 19th century. Astronomers then felt that another planet was disturbing Uranus's orbit. In 1906, Percival Lowell, a person from Boston began an extensive to search the ninth planet. He called it "Planet X".[19] By 1909, Lowell and William H. Pickering had suggested many possible places in the Solar System where the planet could be.[20] Lowell continued the research till 1916. However, it fetched no good result. On March 19, 1915, his observatory had captured two images of Pluto. Lowell did not know this. The pictures were not recognized then for what they were.[20][21]
+
+Constance Lowell, Percival's widow had a ten-year long legal battle for Percival's estate. For this reason, the search for Planet X again started in 1929.[22] The director of the mission, Vesto Melvin Slipher, gave the job to Clyde Tombaugh, a 23-year-old Kansas man. Tombaugh had  just come at the Lowell Observatory. Slipher had been impressed by his astronomical drawings.[22]
+
+Tombaugh's had to systematically get pictures of the night sky in pairs every two weeks.  Then, he had to look at each pair, to see whether any object had shifted.  He used a machine called a blink comparator. He quickly shifted between the different views of each of the plates. This helped him to see whether any object had changed their position. On February 18, 1930, Tombaugh discovered an object which seemed to move from the photographic plates taken on January 23 and January 29 of the year. Another picture taken on January 21 confirmed this.[23] After the observatory did more research about it, news of the discovery was telegraphed to the Harvard College Observatory on March 13, 1930.[20]
+
+The discovery made headlines across the Earth. The Lowell Observatory had the right to name the new object. They received over 1000 suggestions from all over the world. Some proposed Atlas as the name. Others wanted to name it Zymal.[24] Tombaugh urged Slipher to suggest a name for the new object quickly before someone else did.[24] Constance Lowell proposed Zeus, then Lowell, and finally Constance. These suggestions were not used.[25]
+
+The name Pluto was proposed by Venetia Burney (later Venetia Phair). She was an 11-year-old schoolgirl in Oxford, England then.[26] Venetia was interested in classical mythology and astronomy. The name was of the Roman god of the underworld. She thought it was a good name for a dark and cold world. She suggested it when she was talking with her grandfather Falconer Madan. He was a former librarian at the University of Oxford's Bodleian Library. Madan passed the name to Professor Herbert Hall Turner. Turner told this proposed name to the astronomers in the United States.[27]
+
+The object was officially named on March 24, 1930.[28][29] Each member of the Lowell Observatory was allowed to vote on a short-list of three names. The names were Minerva (which was already the name for an asteroid), Cronus, and Pluto. Pluto received all votes.[30] The name was announced on May 1, 1930.[26] Upon the announcement, Madan gave Venetia five pounds as a reward.[26]
+
+The name became popular in culture. The Disney character, Pluto, was introduced in the same year. He was named in the object's honor.[31] In 1941, Glenn T. Seaborg named the newly created element plutonium after Pluto. This was to keep the tradition of naming new elements after newly discovered planets. For example, uranium had been named after Uranus, and neptunium after Neptune.[32]
+
+After a debate, in August 2006 an IAU resolution created an official definition for the term "planet". According to this resolution, there are three conditions for an object in the Solar System to be considered a planet:
+
+Pluto fails to meet the third condition.[33] Its mass is much less than the combined mass of the other objects in its orbit: 0.07 times. Earth, by contrast, is 1.7 million times the remaining mass in its orbit (excluding the moon). The IAU also decided that bodies which, like Pluto, meet criteria 1 and 2 but do not meet criterion 3, would be called dwarf planets.
+
+In September 2006, the IAU included Pluto, and Eris and its moon Dysnomia, in their Minor Planet Catalogue. it gave them the official minor planet designations "(134340) Pluto", "(136199) Eris", and "(136199) Eris I Dysnomia".[34]

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+Pluto is a dwarf planet in the Solar System.[7] Its formal name is 134340 Pluto. The dwarf planet is the ninth largest body that moves around the Sun. At first, Pluto was called a planet. Now, it is the largest body in the Kuiper belt.
+
+Like other members of the Kuiper belt, Pluto is mainly made of rock and ice. It is quite small. It is about a fifth (⅕) of the weight of the Earth's Moon. It is only a third (⅓) its volume. Pluto is very far from the Sun, so its temperature is very low. The average temperature on Pluto is -223 degrees Celsius. It has an odd orbit and this orbit is very sloped. It takes Pluto to 30 to 49 AU (4.4–7.4 billion km) from the Sun. This causes Pluto to sometimes go closer to the Sun than Neptune.
+
+Since it was discovered in 1930, Pluto was thought to be the Solar System's ninth planet. In the late 1970s, the minor planet 2060 Chiron was found and people learned that Pluto had a small size.[8]
+Later, in the early 21st century, the scattered disc object Eris and other objects like Pluto were discovered. Eris was initially believed to be 27% larger than Pluto, but was later found to be slightly smaller.[9] On August 24, 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) gave a definition to the word "planet" for the first time. By this definition, Pluto was not a planet anymore. It became a "dwarf planet" along with Eris and Ceres.[10] After this, Pluto was put on the list of minor planets and was downgraded in 2006 by astronomer Michael E Brown.[11] It was given the number 134340.[12][13] A number of scientists continue to hold that Pluto should be classified as a planet.[14]
+
+Pluto and its largest moon, Charon, are sometimes called a "binary system". This is because the barycentre of their orbits does not lie within them.[15] The IAU has yet to formalise a definition for binary dwarf planets, and until it passes such a ruling, they classify Charon as a moon of Pluto.[16] Pluto has four known smaller moons, Nix and Hydra, discovered in 2005,[17] Kerberos, discovered in 2011, and Styx, discovered in 2012.
+
+In the 1840s, using Newtonian mechanics, Urbain Le Verrier predicted the planet Neptune existed. He discovered this after studying the orbit of Uranus.[18] Neptune was seen later in the late 19th century. Astronomers then felt that another planet was disturbing Uranus's orbit. In 1906, Percival Lowell, a person from Boston began an extensive to search the ninth planet. He called it "Planet X".[19] By 1909, Lowell and William H. Pickering had suggested many possible places in the Solar System where the planet could be.[20] Lowell continued the research till 1916. However, it fetched no good result. On March 19, 1915, his observatory had captured two images of Pluto. Lowell did not know this. The pictures were not recognized then for what they were.[20][21]
+
+Constance Lowell, Percival's widow had a ten-year long legal battle for Percival's estate. For this reason, the search for Planet X again started in 1929.[22] The director of the mission, Vesto Melvin Slipher, gave the job to Clyde Tombaugh, a 23-year-old Kansas man. Tombaugh had  just come at the Lowell Observatory. Slipher had been impressed by his astronomical drawings.[22]
+
+Tombaugh's had to systematically get pictures of the night sky in pairs every two weeks.  Then, he had to look at each pair, to see whether any object had shifted.  He used a machine called a blink comparator. He quickly shifted between the different views of each of the plates. This helped him to see whether any object had changed their position. On February 18, 1930, Tombaugh discovered an object which seemed to move from the photographic plates taken on January 23 and January 29 of the year. Another picture taken on January 21 confirmed this.[23] After the observatory did more research about it, news of the discovery was telegraphed to the Harvard College Observatory on March 13, 1930.[20]
+
+The discovery made headlines across the Earth. The Lowell Observatory had the right to name the new object. They received over 1000 suggestions from all over the world. Some proposed Atlas as the name. Others wanted to name it Zymal.[24] Tombaugh urged Slipher to suggest a name for the new object quickly before someone else did.[24] Constance Lowell proposed Zeus, then Lowell, and finally Constance. These suggestions were not used.[25]
+
+The name Pluto was proposed by Venetia Burney (later Venetia Phair). She was an 11-year-old schoolgirl in Oxford, England then.[26] Venetia was interested in classical mythology and astronomy. The name was of the Roman god of the underworld. She thought it was a good name for a dark and cold world. She suggested it when she was talking with her grandfather Falconer Madan. He was a former librarian at the University of Oxford's Bodleian Library. Madan passed the name to Professor Herbert Hall Turner. Turner told this proposed name to the astronomers in the United States.[27]
+
+The object was officially named on March 24, 1930.[28][29] Each member of the Lowell Observatory was allowed to vote on a short-list of three names. The names were Minerva (which was already the name for an asteroid), Cronus, and Pluto. Pluto received all votes.[30] The name was announced on May 1, 1930.[26] Upon the announcement, Madan gave Venetia five pounds as a reward.[26]
+
+The name became popular in culture. The Disney character, Pluto, was introduced in the same year. He was named in the object's honor.[31] In 1941, Glenn T. Seaborg named the newly created element plutonium after Pluto. This was to keep the tradition of naming new elements after newly discovered planets. For example, uranium had been named after Uranus, and neptunium after Neptune.[32]
+
+After a debate, in August 2006 an IAU resolution created an official definition for the term "planet". According to this resolution, there are three conditions for an object in the Solar System to be considered a planet:
+
+Pluto fails to meet the third condition.[33] Its mass is much less than the combined mass of the other objects in its orbit: 0.07 times. Earth, by contrast, is 1.7 million times the remaining mass in its orbit (excluding the moon). The IAU also decided that bodies which, like Pluto, meet criteria 1 and 2 but do not meet criterion 3, would be called dwarf planets.
+
+In September 2006, the IAU included Pluto, and Eris and its moon Dysnomia, in their Minor Planet Catalogue. it gave them the official minor planet designations "(134340) Pluto", "(136199) Eris", and "(136199) Eris I Dysnomia".[34]

ensimple/4682.html.txt

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+Poetry is a type of art form and a type of literature.
+
+Poetry uses the qualities of words, in different ways, to be artistic.
+
+(Poetry can be as short as a few words, or as long as a book (an epic).
+
+There are many "poetic forms" (forms of poetry).
+Some of them are : Sonnet, Haiku, Ballad, Stev, Ode, Free verse, Blank verse, thematic, limerick and nursery rhymes.
+
+Poetry can be used to describe (comparing, talking about, or expressing emotion) many things. It can make sense or be nonsense, it can rhyme or not. It can have many shapes and sizes; it can be serious or funny.
+
+"To say something poetically" means to give information in an artistic way.
+
+
+
+Title: posters

ensimple/4683.html.txt

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+Poetry is a type of art form and a type of literature.
+
+Poetry uses the qualities of words, in different ways, to be artistic.
+
+(Poetry can be as short as a few words, or as long as a book (an epic).
+
+There are many "poetic forms" (forms of poetry).
+Some of them are : Sonnet, Haiku, Ballad, Stev, Ode, Free verse, Blank verse, thematic, limerick and nursery rhymes.
+
+Poetry can be used to describe (comparing, talking about, or expressing emotion) many things. It can make sense or be nonsense, it can rhyme or not. It can have many shapes and sizes; it can be serious or funny.
+
+"To say something poetically" means to give information in an artistic way.
+
+
+
+Title: posters

ensimple/4684.html.txt

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+Cardinal directions or cardinal points are the four main directions or points of the compass: north, east, south and west. These direction are also written in short form as N, E, S and W.
+
+North and south are directed towards the north and south poles of the Earth. The Earth's rotation defines east and west. The sun rises in the morning in the east, and sets in the evening in the west.
+
+If a needle is magnetised and allowed to move freely (for example floated on water) it will align itself with the Earth's magnetic field which is almost in the same direction as north. The direction of the needle in this situation is called magnetic north which in some places differs from the direction of the North Pole by a few degrees.
+
+Through history, different cultures have given different values to each direction. For example, in old Asian culture, each direction is given a color, as follows:
+

ensimple/4685.html.txt

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+
+
+Leek is a vegetable. It belongs to the genus Allium. This is the same genus as the onion and garlic. It can be used for cooking.
+It is similar to the Chinese onion but it is bigger in size.
+

ensimple/4686.html.txt

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+
+
+About 30 species; see text
+
+A pear is an edible fruit. Its shape is a teardrop. The flavor of pears is best when they are cool. They are juicy. Pears do not ripen well on trees. They can be soft in the center. They can be baked, canned, frozen, or eaten fresh. They can be made into jams, jellies or juice. They can also be made into pies and put into salads or baby food. They are eighty three percent water. It has a green, red, yellow, or brown skin. The pear originated from Europe, Africa and Asia. Pear trees grow in heavy soil.
+
+Pears are in the subfamily Maloideae with apples. It is a subfamily of  the family Rosaceae.
+
+The pear comes from the tree Pyrus communis, also called the common pear tree. The tree can be 10 to 20 metres (33 to 66 feet) high. They live an average of 65 years. It starts as a pyramid-shaped tree. As it grows becomes rounded. It ends up becoming oval. This tree has gray bark covered with cracks. Its leaves are dark green and 10 centimetres (3.9 inches) long. The flowers are pink or white and up to 1.5 centimetres (0.59 inches) long.[1]
+
+The pear needs soil that is neither too dry nor too wet. It grows best in temperate and humid climates.
+
+According to Pear Bureau Northwest, about 3000 known varieties of pears are grown worldwide.[2]
+
+The pear comes from Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It grew during the Neolithic era. Its standard form is the result of different hybridizations from wild specimens.
+
+The pear was also cultivated by the Romans, who ate the fruits raw or cooked, just like apples.[3]
+
+Pear cut open
+
+Pear Blossoms

ensimple/4687.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+
+
+About 30 species; see text
+
+A pear is an edible fruit. Its shape is a teardrop. The flavor of pears is best when they are cool. They are juicy. Pears do not ripen well on trees. They can be soft in the center. They can be baked, canned, frozen, or eaten fresh. They can be made into jams, jellies or juice. They can also be made into pies and put into salads or baby food. They are eighty three percent water. It has a green, red, yellow, or brown skin. The pear originated from Europe, Africa and Asia. Pear trees grow in heavy soil.
+
+Pears are in the subfamily Maloideae with apples. It is a subfamily of  the family Rosaceae.
+
+The pear comes from the tree Pyrus communis, also called the common pear tree. The tree can be 10 to 20 metres (33 to 66 feet) high. They live an average of 65 years. It starts as a pyramid-shaped tree. As it grows becomes rounded. It ends up becoming oval. This tree has gray bark covered with cracks. Its leaves are dark green and 10 centimetres (3.9 inches) long. The flowers are pink or white and up to 1.5 centimetres (0.59 inches) long.[1]
+
+The pear needs soil that is neither too dry nor too wet. It grows best in temperate and humid climates.
+
+According to Pear Bureau Northwest, about 3000 known varieties of pears are grown worldwide.[2]
+
+The pear comes from Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It grew during the Neolithic era. Its standard form is the result of different hybridizations from wild specimens.
+
+The pear was also cultivated by the Romans, who ate the fruits raw or cooked, just like apples.[3]
+
+Pear cut open
+
+Pear Blossoms

ensimple/4688.html.txt

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+
+
+Amphiprion
+Premnas
+
+The clown fish is a kind of fish. Clownfish habitat usually is a coral reefs. Clownfish live in the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, from north west Australia, the coast of South East Asia as far north as Japan.[1] Often, they live in a symbiosis with other animals, for instance the sea anemone. They live in anemones which are like plants under the sea. Anemones eat fish by killing them with their tentacles which are poisonous. Scientists believe that clown fish are protected from the poison because they are coated in a type of mucus.[1]
+
+Some kinds of clown fish can grow up and reach 18 centimeters (7.1 inches). Sometimes clownfish only grow 10 centimeters (3.9 inches). They can be orange, yellow or they may look a little red.
+
+Clownfish eat small invertebrates that are dangerous to the anemones. That helps the anemones and the clownfish. This is called mutualism.
+
+Many people like having clownfish in their aquarium because they are some of the easiest salt water fish to keep and care.There are 28 species of Clownfish. Clownfish are born male but when they grow older some develop into females.
+

ensimple/4689.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+
+
+Amphiprion
+Premnas
+
+The clown fish is a kind of fish. Clownfish habitat usually is a coral reefs. Clownfish live in the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, from north west Australia, the coast of South East Asia as far north as Japan.[1] Often, they live in a symbiosis with other animals, for instance the sea anemone. They live in anemones which are like plants under the sea. Anemones eat fish by killing them with their tentacles which are poisonous. Scientists believe that clown fish are protected from the poison because they are coated in a type of mucus.[1]
+
+Some kinds of clown fish can grow up and reach 18 centimeters (7.1 inches). Sometimes clownfish only grow 10 centimeters (3.9 inches). They can be orange, yellow or they may look a little red.
+
+Clownfish eat small invertebrates that are dangerous to the anemones. That helps the anemones and the clownfish. This is called mutualism.
+
+Many people like having clownfish in their aquarium because they are some of the easiest salt water fish to keep and care.There are 28 species of Clownfish. Clownfish are born male but when they grow older some develop into females.
+

ensimple/469.html.txt

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+Autism is the name of a disorder affecting brain development. It is one of a group of disorders called autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Asperger syndrome, atypical autism and childhood autism are kinds of autism spectrum disorders.[1]
+
+ASD is a condition that affects the way a person relates to their environment. The word spectrum is used because not all people with autism have the same traits and difficulties. Some people find interacting more difficult than others. Autism may be very apparent in someone or they may show no outward signs of it. The main areas of difficulty are in social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication and restricted or repetitive behaviors and interests. In most cases of autism, motor communication {doing things} is affected. All these signs develop in the child's first two to three years of age.[2]
+
+People who have autism find it difficult to act in a way that other people think is "normal". They may find it difficult to talk to other people and to look at other people. Some people with autism do not like being touched. A person who has autism can seem to be turned inwards. They may talk only to themselves, rock themselves backwards and forwards, and laugh at their own thoughts. They might not like any type of change and may find it very difficult to learn a new behaviour like using a toilet or going to school.
+
+Autism is caused by the way that the brain develops, both before and after a baby is born. About one in every 160 children has an autism spectrum disorder.[3]
+
+The word “autism” comes from the Greek word “autos”, meaning “self.” The term describes conditions in which a person is removed from social interaction—hence, an “isolated self”.[4] The term "autism" was first used by a psychiatrist named Eugen Bleuler in 1911 to describe one group of symptoms of schizophrenia.[5] Sigmund Freud considered this idea and thought it was related to narcissism.[6]
+
+Three decades later, researchers in the United States began to use the term autism to describe children with emotional or social problems. Two researchers by the name of Hans Asperger and Leo Kanner were the pioneers of the research study for autism in the 1940s.
+
+In 1943 Leo Kanner (a doctor from Johns Hopkins University) did a study of 11 children. The children were very intelligent. He found out that they had difficulties such as changing environments, being sensitive to certain stimuli, having speech problems and allergies to food. Later he named the children’s condition “early infantile autism”.,[7] now called autism.
+
+In 1944 Hans Asperger studied separately a group of children and found very similar conditions. The children in Hans Asperger's group did not repeat words and they had no speech problems like Kanner's did. However, the children did have problems with fine motor skills such as holding a pencil. The children he studied seemed to be clumsier than other children. They also had “[...] a lack of empathy, little ability to form friendships, one-sided conversation, intense absorption in a special interest and clumsy movements”.[8] Hans Asperger described a "milder" form of autism, his discovery is now called Asperger syndrome.[8]
+
+In 1943 and 1949, Kanner described the children he studied in scientific papers. In these papers, he wrote that he thought the children's parents were not loving them enough. He wrote that this might be part of the reason why the children had autism.[9][10] For example, in 1949 he wrote that the children's parents showed no warmth, or love, to their children.[10] He thought the parents were so "cold" that he compared them to refrigerators:
+
+“[The children] were left neatly in refrigerators which did not defrost. Their withdrawal seems to be an act of turning away from such a situation to seek comfort in solitude”.[10]
+
+This idea became known as the refrigerator mother theory. For decades parents were blamed for causing their children's autism by not loving their children enough.[11] By now, we know this is not true.[12]
+
+Schizophrenia and autism were linked in many researchers’ studies. Only since the 1960s, medical professionals began to have a separate understanding of these two disorders. Since 1980, Kanner’s so called early infantile autism is listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). Precisely because of the vague distinction between schizophrenia and autism, the DSM came out with a more accurate definition of autism in 1987. Henceforth, early infantile autism is called autism disorder. Furthermore, for the first time the DSM introduced standardised criteria to diagnose autism. The fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders expanded the definition of autism and included milder cases of autism. But especially the Asperger’s syndrome was added in 1994. With the release of the fifth edition of the DSM in 2013 the subtypes of autism are summarized into the general term Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Individuals are now diagnosed on an autism spectrum with varying levels of intensity (mild, moderate and severe).[13]
+
+Different studies resulted in different numbers of the frequency of autism spectrum disorders. One study stated ten cases of classical autism, 2.5 cases of Asperger's syndrome and 15 cases of mild autism (PDD-NOS) in 10,000 people - tendency: increasing.[17] Other sources speak about 60 autism spectrum disorder cases in 10,000 people.[18] However, the number of autism cases is not equal in men and in women. Here, the results of studies vary highly. Researchers in general say that 3-4 men are diagnosed for every woman that is diagnosed. This ratio decreases for severe cases to 1:1. It increases for high-functioning cases and in Asperger's syndrome reaches a ratio of 8:1.[19] Recently, the awareness has increased that this ratio may be so high because studies are simply missing female autistic people.[20] This could be because tests for autism typically focus on male autism traits.[21] Another possible explanation is that autistic females may be better at adapting to social expectations and hiding their social problems.[21] Studies have suggested that the brains of autistic females may rather be like neurotypical men’s (non-autistic men) brains of the same age.[22] These could be reasons why it is not so easy to realise whether a woman is autistic - and therefore, why more men than women are diagnosed.
+
+Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are seen or diagnosed more often in males than females.[23] The ratio is near one female for every four males diagnosed. But there is evidence that females may be diagnosed later than males. Researchers have argued whether there may be a gender bias playing a role in girls and women being underdiagnosed or being diagnosed late.[24] Although males may have autism spectrum conditions more often, females show different symptoms of autism than males. Autistic females also have different behaviors.[24]
+
+Over the past years, individuals have been using the terms "autism" and "autism spectrum disorder" like they mean the same thing. Autism is a spectrum disorder. This means that some people who have autism are only mildly affected. These people may go to regular schools, go to work, and have partners and families. Some people are affected worse than others. These people may be able to take care of most of their own needs at home like dressing and getting food, but not be able to have a regular job or travel alone. A person who has severe autism may need to be cared for all their life.[25] Few people with autism are extraordinarily gifted or talented. These people are said to have savant syndrome.[26] They are often very good at just one thing in particular, like mathematics, playing the piano or remembering football scores.
+
+The overall category of the Autism Spectrum Disorder is called Pervasive Developmental Disorder. The name describes medical conditions with developmental problems in a number of fields. In most cases, when referring to the Autism Spectrum Disorder, we are referring to the most common disorders:[27]
+
+Additionally, only one or two of the three categories (social interaction, communication and behaviour) are affected
+
+The different categories, the so-called “International Classification of Diseases” (ICD), are defined by the World Health Organization. As shown in the table, the diseases vary in several points. These are the age of onset, social interaction, communication and behaviour. An individual belongs to a certain category, depending on the areas of impairment. All three may seem similar in symptoms, yet are not the same. Still, people within one group show similar symptoms. The groups can be used to search for an underlying cause of the disease and to provide a better treatment.[25]
+
+Scientists do not know exactly what causes autism. There may be many different causes for the different types of Autism Spectrum Disorder.[28] Scientists do know about some things that make a person more likely to have an Autism Spectrum Disorder.
+
+The autism spectrum disorders are highly heritable disorders.[18] This means that it is very likely (over 90%) that the child of an autistic person will also be on the autism spectrum. The reason for this are certain genes. These genes are linked to autism and are passed on from a parent to the child. Already Leo Kanner and Hans Asperger noticed that fathers of autistic children often preferred being on their own over being with people. Therefore, Kanner and Asperger suspected a genetic cause. Studies with families with a child on the autism spectrum were done to investigate this theory. They found that sometimes the children’s parents (fathers as well as mothers) also show social difficulties, shyness and problems with understanding contextual information when talking to someone. Some studies have found this in only 10 out of 100 families, some in as much as 45 out of every 100 families.[17]
+
+Other than the studies done on children who had autistic parents, recently a couple of studies were done on children who either had a sibling or a twin showing autistic signs. Similar to the outcomes in the autistic parents studies, most children having autistic siblings/ twins were found out to be showing autistic signs. According to a recent study, around fifty percent of infants with autistic siblings showed some kind of atypical behaviour, around one forth of them showed delays and deficits in achieving infancy milestones and around 17% of all were later diagnosed with ASD (Autism Spectrum Disorder).[29]
+
+Moreover, twin studies showed that it is much more likely that identical twins are both on the autism spectrum than that non-identical twins are both on the autism spectrum. Identical twins have nearly the same DNA. Therefore, it is highly probable that they are either both autistic or both not autistic. Non-identical twins share only half of their genes which makes it less likely that they both have the disorder. Scientists have shown that the recurrence risk (the likelihood that a child is on the autism spectrum if it has a sister or a brother that is autistic as well) is 20 to 80 times higher than the probability for having the disorder in the average population.[30]
+
+However, it is not a single gene that increases the risk for autism spectrum disorders. Several genes have been linked to the disorder. All of the identified genes can in sum only explain one or two out of every ten autism cases. None of the genes that have been found to play a role in autism can explain more than one out of every 100 cases.
+
+The genetic influences include:[19][31]
+
+The affected genes influence:[32]
+
+Researchers have not found a single neuronal correlate for autism spectrum disorders, i.e. no abnormal functioning of the brain is the only cause of autism. Nevertheless, scientists found some differences between the brains of autistic people and the typical human brain. These differences lie in the anatomy of the brain, the activity in certain brain regions as well as in the connections between brain regions. It is a general tendency that autistic people use the same brain regions as other people but show different activity. In some areas the activity is less, in others it is stronger. However, this may only be true for male autists. Throughout the last years, studies have shown that brains of autistic women might be like normal men's brains.[22]
+
+Some researchers grouped autistic people's difficulties into three main areas in order to investigate their neuronal basis.
+
+Researchers say that building a Theory of mind is one of the main problems for autistic people. This makes it difficult for them to interact with others. Problems in social interaction are probably worsened by low preference for social stimuli, such as faces. This tendency has been found in studies tracking the person’s eye movements[33] and in EEG studies. EEG studies showed lower than normal activity in the fusiform face area (FFA), a brain region that is usually active when seeing faces.[34] However, the results of other studies could not show this.
+
+Also, scientists measured brain activity of people on the autism spectrum with fMRI while they were thinking about their own emotions. They found activity in the same brain regions as in non-autistic people. The difference was that some regions which are important for thinking about oneself and emotions (especially the anterior insula) were less active in autistic people.[35] Other brain regions were much more active. These findings may explain the difficulties people with autism experience when trying to understand complex facial expressions and emotions (such as shame, jealousy).
+
+People on the autism spectrum show a lower ability for executive function. Executive function means physical, emotional and cognitive self-control. This includes planning actions, focusing, shifting attention and flexibility of behaviour and thinking. Autistic people's ability can improve but it will remain below non-autistic people's ability in executive function.
+
+Problems with executive function are probably caused by large networks in the brain.[36] Grey matter and white matter irregularities have a negative influence on the way different brain regions work together (functional integration).[37] A smaller corpus callosum leads to abnormalities in working memory (an active process of keeping a memory until it is needed) and planning actions.[38]
+
+Central coherence is the ability to build wholes out of parts. It is weak in people with autism. This means that autistic people focus more on details. They cannot build wholes out of them. Not being able to pay attention to wholes results in difficulties with perception and language. Therefore, people with autism usually need more time for dealing with information coming from their surroundings. As a consequence, they typically also need more time for responding. However, performance varies between people on the autism spectrum. Moreover, the term central coherence may include many interacting aspects. This makes it difficult to find the cause for it in the brain. Neural correlates for central coherence are not yet known.[36]
+
+The risk for autism spectrum disorders can be increased if the mother uses thalidomide, valproic acid or drinks too much alcohol during pregnancy.[17] The risk for autism also increases with the age of father and mother at the time of pregnancy.[19]
+
+Scientists know that parents do not cause their children's autism by not being loving enough.[11]
+
+Scientists do know for sure that vaccines do not cause autism.[3][39][40] Vaccines do not even make a person more likely to have autism - even if they are already at a high risk for autism before they get their vaccines.[41]
+
+In 1997 A. Wakefield and others found autism signs one month after the measles-mumps-rubella (MMR) vaccine was applied. They released a paper[42] in which they claimed that autism is caused by the MMR vaccine. However, the study had several flaws:
+
+Also, no plausible biological mechanism could explain how the MMR vaccine leads to autism.[43] Since then many case-control studies have been done to investigate the relationship between vaccines and autism. This means, they compared a group which was vaccinated with a group that was not vaccinated but apart from that identical. They did not find MMR vaccines to be the cause of autism. Neither did they find an increased risk for autism by the vaccination.[17]
+
+Parents also worried that thiomersal (US: thimerosal - a substance that makes vaccines and other medicines usable for a longer time) might cause autism because it contains mercury. No harm from the amount of ethylmercury in vaccines was known. Yet, vaccines for infants containing mercury were taken from the market. Nevertheless, thiomersal as a cause for autism is biologically also not biologically. Mercury poisoning triggers clearly different symptoms than autism. Still, researchers did studies about this topic. They did not find a connection between thiomersal and autism.
+
+Finally, a third theory was suggested. It was stated that many vaccines at the same time would weaken the immune system of infants. However, autism is not a disorder that is related to the immune system. Furthermore, single and also many vaccines do not weaken the immune system.[43]
+
+Diagnosing autism is difficult since there is no medical test like a blood test. Instead, an evaluation is made by a team of doctors and other health professionals who are experienced in autism and know the individual.[44]
+
+A reliable diagnosis can first be given at the age of two. At the age of 18 and 24 months, children should get a check-up. If anything wrong is noticed, a further evaluation is done. In this, a team of professionals will interview the child’s guardians about the child’s behaviour and see what they are like in different settings. This may also include behavioural or physical assessments as well as intelligence tests or developmental tests. A good, detailed, history of the child is often very useful in receiving a diagnosis.[45]
+
+Adults can be diagnosed in adults as well as children. This can be difficult because autism has symptoms that can overlap with other disorders, such as OCD, that may have appeared by adulthood. An expert will usually ask the adult about concerns, challenges in life (such as socially or behaviourally) as well as standardised testing in these areas. They also often ask for a developmental history.[46]
+
+In 2013, the American Psychiatric Association published the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-V). In order to be diagnosed with autism, a person must fulfill two standardized criteria. It is important that individuals must show symptoms from early childhood, even if those symptoms are recognized later. These symptoms have to limit everyday functioning. Additionally, these symptoms cannot be explained by an intellectual disability or a developmental delay.[47]
+
+Autism Spectrum Disorder is characterized by difficulties in social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication and repetitive behaviours.[47]
+
+Autism spectrum disorder includes a wide range of symptoms, skills and levels of disability. Some autistic people also have learning disabilities, mental health issues or other conditions. This means that autism can also co-occur with other conditions and symptoms of the following disorders:[48]
+
+In the DSM-V, a diagnosis of autism excludes making a formal diagnosis of other psychiatric disorders. Therefore, other mental health conditions may be undiagnosed in an autistic person, because it is impossible to make a comorbid clinical diagnosis.[48]
+
+Since autism is a spectrum, every person with autism is different. Different treatments help different people. There are a few different categories of treatment. The main ones are medication, different therapies and diets. The treatment is fitted depending on what a person with autism needs.
+
+It is still unclear what causes autism. There may be a few causes. At the moment, it is only possible to lower the symptoms of autism. A full recovery from autism is not possible.[49] If therapies cannot reduce the symptoms of autism, medications are used additionally.[50] Often, several medications are used at the same time to treat different symptoms of autism.[49]
+
+Serotonin is a chemical messenger that transports signals between cells and is very important for normal function, such as with sensory perception, memory, learning and sleep, all of which are impaired in autistic people.
+
+Researchers have not yet found a link between autism and serotonin, although they have been successful in treating autism with SSRIs, which stop cells from absorbing serotonin, meaning more is used for signals.[49]
+
+They can be used to treat repetitive behaviour, aggression, hyperactive behaviour and outbursts of anger.[51] The SSRIs can have many side-effects. Usually the medication is better tolerated by adults than by children. Examples of SSRIs are Clomipramine, Fluvoxamine, Sertraline, Venlafaxine, Trazodone and Mirtazapine.[52]
+
+Dopamine is a chemical messenger in the brain. It helps to do movements, release hormones and strengthen cognitive abilities. Researchers found that increasing the amount of dopamine in the brain will worsen the symptoms of autism. Substances that help to reduce symptoms of autism are the antipsychotic drugs. There are two types of antipsychotic medications. One of the types are typical antipsychotics. They block the sites where dopamine would bind to a cell. Atypical antipsychotic drugs on the other hand block the sites where dopamine or serotonin would bind to a cell.[50] Antipsychotic medicine is the most successful treatment for excitability in autism.[52] It can also help to reduce aggression, self-injury, hyperactivity and repetitive, although it may have many side-effects.[50] Originally, antipsychotic medications were used to treat mental disorders like depression, bipolar disorder or schizophrenia.[53] Examples of antipsychotic drugs are Haloperidol, Clozapine, Risperidone and Paliperidone.[52]
+
+In the beginning, psychostimulants were only used for patients with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Researchers found out that they can also help patients with autism. The medication can reduce hyperactivity and inattention in people with autism. The medication can have many side-effects. Examples are Methylphenidate, Clonidine and Guanfacine.[52]
+
+People with autism often have problems with their digestive organs like the stomach or gut. These problems could be inflammations, abdominal pain, gas, diarrhea or bacterial overgrowth. The reasons may be malnutrition, food intolerances or allergies. Specific food products causing these problems are excluded from the diet. In many cases, products containing gluten or casein, the main protein occurring in dairy products, are excluded. In many cases vitamins, minerals as well as essential fatty acids are additionally provided. A big problem is that many autistic people cannot tell that they have pain. Therefore, many problems concerning the digestive organs stay undetected.[54]
+
+Therapy can be used to minimize distress caused by sensory overload. Individual therapy plans are created. The therapist tries to help the autistic person in many different aspects.
+
+One part of this is sensory integration. The therapist will help the patient to make sense of different sensory inputs. For example, they may ask a child patient to play with finger paints or collect objects from a bad of dried beans.
+
+Another part is the training of daily life activities. The therapist may help the patient to get used to things like getting dressed, eating, hygiene, shopping and financial management. These may be done one step at a time if the activity involves multiple steps, such as cooking.
+
+Play therapy is also helpful, especially for children. It can be useful to learn about certain emotions, which can be hard for autistic people. This can also be used to help learn social conventions, such as shaking hands instead of hugging when meeting a stranger.[55]
+
+Often animals are used to help autistic people. Most often dogs or horses are used. The people diagnosed with autism can care for these animals, pet them and, in the case of the horse, even ride on them. Studies showed that the interaction between an autistic person and animals can increase communication, reduce stress, fear, aggression and reduce the severity of the symptoms of autism.[56]
+
+Music therapy consists of two parts: One is an active listening part. Here, the therapist is making music himself or playing music from a record. In the other part, the autistic person can make music himself like playing an instrument or singing. Music therapy will improve different aspects of communication.[57]
+
+Here, different materials and techniques are used to draw pictures. The aim of art therapy is to make the autistic person more flexible and relaxed and to improve communication skills, self-image and learning skills. The effects of the therapy can be long lasting and transferred to the school, work or home setting.[58]
+
+Scientific studies

ensimple/4690.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+Fish (plural: fish) are an aquatic group of vertebrates which live in water and respire (get oxygen) with gills. They do not have limbs, like arms or legs, and they do have digits (fingers & toes). This is a definition which does not quite work: some amphibia also live in water and have external gills, but they are not fish.
+
+Fish used to be a class of vertebrates.  Now the term covers five classes of aquatic vertebrates:
+
+There are more fish than tetrapods (land vertebrates): there are over 33,000 described species of fish.[4] Fish are usually covered with scales. They have two sets of paired fins and several unpaired fins. Most fish are cold-blooded (poikilotherm). A fish takes in the oxygen from the water using gills. There are many different kinds of fish. They live in fresh water in lakes and rivers, and in salt water in the ocean. Some fish are less than one centimeter long. The largest fish is the whale shark, which can be almost 15 meters long and weigh 15 tons. Most fish live in the water. A group of fish called the lungfish have developed lungs because they live in rivers and pools which dry up in certain parts of the year. They burrow into mud and aestivate until the water returns.
+
+'Fish' is a paraphyletic term in cladistics because it lacks a monophyletic group of descendants. It does not include the land vertebrates or tetrapods, which descended from fish.
+
+Though often used interchangeably, these words have different meanings. Fish is used either as singular noun or to describe a group of specimens from a single species. Fishes describes a group of different species.[5]
+
+Fish, the oldest vertebrate group, includes a huge range of types, from the Middle Ordovician, about 490 million years ago, to the present day. These are the main groups:[5][6][7]
+
+Certain animals that have the word fish in their name are not really fish: Crayfish are crustaceans, and jellyfish are Cnidarians. Some animals look like fish, but are not. Whales and dolphins are mammals, for example.
+
+Most kinds of fish have bones. Some kinds of fish, such as sharks and rays, do not have real bones. Their skeletons are made of cartilage, and so they are known as cartilaginous fish.
+
+All fish are covered with overlapping scales, and each major group of fish has its own special type of scale. Teleosts ('modern' fish) have what are called leptoid scales. These grow in concentric circles and overlap in a head to tail direction like roof tiles. Sharks and other chondrichthyes have placoid scales made of denticles, like small versions of their teeth. These also overlap in a head to tail direction, producing a tough outer layer. Shark skin is available for purchase as shagreen, a leather which as original is smooth in one direction, and rough in the other direction. It may be polished for use, but is always rough in texture and resistant to slipping.
+
+The scales are usually covered with a layer of slime which improves passage through the water, and makes the fish more slippery to a predator.
+
+41% of all fish live in freshwater. There are also some important fish which breed in rivers, and spend the rest of their life in the seas. Examples are salmon, trout, the sea lamprey,[9] and three-spined stickleback. Some other fish are born in salt water, but live most of their adult lives in fresh water: for example the eels.
+Species like these change their physiology to cope with the amount of salt in the water.
+
+Fish swim by exerting force against the surrounding water. There are exceptions, but this is usually done by the fish contracting muscles on either side of its body in order to generate waves of flexion that travel the length of the body from nose to tail, generally getting larger as they go along. Most fishes generate thrust using lateral movements of their body & tail fin (caudal fin). However, there are also species which move mainly using their median and paired fins. The latter group profits from the gained manoeuvrability that is needed when living in coral reefs for example. But they can not swim as fast as fish using their bodies & caudal fins.[10]
+
+Fish can swim slowly for many hours using red muscle fibres. They also make short, fast bursts using white muscle. The two types of muscle have a fundamentally different physiology. The red fibres are usually alongside a much greater number of white fibres.
+
+The white fibres get their energy by converting the carbohydrate glycogen to lactate (lactic acid). This is anaerobic metabolism, that is, it does not need oxygen. They are used for fast, short bursts. Once the lactic acid builds up in the muscles, they stop working, and it takes time for the lactate to be removed, and the glycogen replaced.[11] Using their white fibres, fish can reach speeds of 10 lengths per second for short bursts.[11]
+
+Swimming for long periods needs oxygen for the red fibres. The oxygen supply has to be constant because these fibres only operate aerobically. They are red because they have a rich blood supply, and they contain myoglobin. Myoglobin transports the oxygen to the oxidising systems. Red muscle gets its energy by oxidising fat, which weight for weight has twice as much energy as carbohydrate or protein.[11] Using their red fibres, fish can keep up a speed of 3–5 lengths per second for long periods.[11]
+
+Many fish swim in groups.  Schools of fish can swim together for long distances, and may be chased by predators which also swim in schools. Casual groups are called 'shoals'.
+
+The shape of the body of a fish is important to its swimming. This is because streamlined body shapes makes the water drag less. Here are some common fish shapes:-
+
+The picture on the right shows a shark. This shark's shape is called fusiform, and it is an ovoid shape where both ends of the fish are pointy. This is the best shape for going through water quickly.[12][13] Fishes with fusiform shapes can chase prey and escape predators quickly. Many live in the open ocean and swim constantly, like marlins, swordfish, and tuna. Ichthyosaurs, porpoises, dolphins, killer whales all have similar shapes. This is an example of convergent evolution.
+
+The long, ribbon-like shape of an eel's body shows another shape.  This enables them to hide in cracks, springing out quickly to capture prey, then returning quickly to their hiding spot.
+
+Flatfish live on the bottom of the ocean or lake. Most use camouflage: they change colors to match the ocean floor.
+
+Fish with compressed shapes have flat, vertical bodies, with one eye on each side. They swim upright and can be very thin. They usually live in reefs where their flat bodies can slip in and out among the corals, sponges, and rocks, keeping hidden from predators. Angelfish, surgeonfish, and butterflyfish are all compressed fish.
+
+Some people eat many different kinds of fish. These include carp, cod, herring, perch, sardines, sturgeon, tilapia, trout, tuna, and many others.  A person who buys and sells fish for eating is called a fishmonger.
+
+The word to fish is also used for the activity of catching fishes.  People catch fish with small nets from the side of the water or from small boats, or with big nets from big boats.  People can also catch fish with fishing poles and fishhooks with bait.  This is often called angling.  Anglers also different types of fishing lures.
+
+Because people are catching too many fish for food or other uses, there are less and less fish in the sea. This is a problem known as Overfishing.
+
+Selective breeding of carp made them into the domesticated koi in Japan, and goldfish in China. This breeding began over 2,000 years ago. The Chinese brought their goldfish indoors during the Song Dynasty. They kept them in large ceramic vessels. That we now do in glass fish tanks.

ensimple/4691.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,24 @@
+
+
+Goldfish (Carassius auratus) are a species of domesticated fish.  Goldfish are in the carp family. They were domesticated in China during the Tang Dynasty.[1] Goldfish can reach up to 59 cm in size, and 3 kg in weight. However, most goldfish grow to only half that size. In captivity, goldfish can live for up to 30 years. In the aquarium, however, most will die earlier. This is because the aquarium is too small. Goldfish need a lot of space so they have room to swim and so the water does not get dirty too fast. 
+Goldfish live best in temperatures between 10 degrees Celsius and 30 degrees Celsius.
+
+It was once thought that goldfish have short memories, but scientists have proven that this is not true. In experiments, a goldfish was trained to kick a small ball under water. Another goldfish learned to swim through a maze.
+
+There are many kinds of goldfish. The most common kind is golden-colored, but goldfish come in many different shapes and sizes. Many gold fish have fancy tails. Another common kind is called a black moor, which is black colored. Wild goldfish are called prussian carp and are silver-green in colour.
+
+Goldfish are very sensitive and should not be touched. This can hurt them and make them sick. They may also get other health problems. Their stomachs can fill with liquids (water). They can get sick because of bad bacteria. Some lose control of swimming because a special organ in their belly, called a swim bladder, gets sick and stops working. However, sick goldfishes can be cured with medicine. Pet shops or veterinarians can help goldfish get better when they are sick. One simple way to help a goldfish if it has indigestion is to feed it peas, as this will help their digestive tract work properly.
+
+The most anterior parts of a fish's brain are the olfactory bulbs. These connect to the two lobes of the cerebrum by stalks. The cerebrum is involved with the sense of smell. It also seems to control behaviors such as taking care of the young and exploring the natural environment. The optic lobes process information from the eyes. The cerebellum coordinates body movements. The medulla controls internal organ functions and helps maintains balance.
+
+Farther back in the brain is the spinal cord, which is the hollow dorsal nerve cord that chordates have. The spinal cord is protected by the vertebral column. Between each set of vertebrae, a pair of spinal nerves exits the cord and connects to the internal organs and muscles. Most fish have well designed sense organs. Chemoreceptors (chemical) are located all over the head and much of the body surface. Most fish have ears inside their heads, but they do not hear well. However, a series of pores connected to canals beneath the skin cover the head and the sides of their body. This system, called the lateral line system, detects movement.
+
+Once food is in the goldfish’s mouth, it’s pushed to the back of the throat where a set of teeth grind and crush it. The ground down food passes down a tube called the oesophagus, which squeezes out excess water.  The oesophagus is lined with taste buds and cells that produce mucus to keep things moving on. The oesophagus empties into an expandable section of the goldfish’s digestive which is not to be confused with the stomach. It is simply a buffer zone to hold excess food as needed. Just before this expanded section, chemicals from the gallbladder and pancreas are pumped in with the food.  The ones from the gallbladder make up bile, which is used to break down fats; the ones from the pancreas contain enzymes that are used to break down proteins. All along the digestive tract are cells that secrete enzymes that act on carbohydrates, breaking them down into sugars. From the expanded section to the goldfish’s anus, lots of mucus is produced and as much useful material as possible is absorbed into the bloodstream to be used for energy, growth, protection and repair.[2]
+
+Goldfish get their oxygen from water. As a fish swims, it gulps up water. The water which has oxygen goes through an opening in the fish’s throat that leads to the gills. Gills have many blood vessels within them. Oxygen moves from the water to the blood as the water flows over the gills. The blood vessels gather and store the oxygen that travels over the gills. At the same time, carbon dioxide moves out of the blood and into the water. Now, the water flows out of the slits beneath the gills. These gills are located under the operculum.[3]
+
+The circulatory system of fish is responsible for transporting blood and nutrients throughout the body. Blood travels across the body through the network of blood vessels. Unlike humans, fish have single cycle circulation, where the oxygen-deprived blood comes to the heart, from where it is pumped to the gills and then circulated to the entire body. The circulatory system of fish consists of a heart, blood and blood vessels. The heart of a fish is a simple muscular structure that is located between the posterior gill arches. In most fish, the heart consists of an atrium, a ventricle, a sac-like thin walled structure known as sinus venosus and a tube, known as bulbus arteriosus. In spite of containing four parts, the heart of a fish is considered two-chambered. The blood contains plasma (the fluid portion of blood) and the blood cells. The red blood cells contain hemoglobin, a protein that facilitates the transport of oxygen to the entire body, while the white blood cells are an indispensable part of the immune system. The thrombocytes help in blood clotting. Blood is circulated throughout the body with the help of arteries and veins (blood vessels). The arteries are responsible for carrying oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body, while the veins return deoxygenated blood from the different parts of the body to the heart.
+
+The skeletal system of a goldfish is mainly to protect the goldfish, support its structure and leverage, and helps with its red blood cell production. A goldfish’s skeletal system is made of almost all small bones and cartilage and it barely has any big bones. The bones are made of almost all calcium. There are 3 main muscles in a goldfish’s muscular system, the tail and trunk muscles, the jaw muscles, and the fin muscles. In the tail and trunk muscles, there are myotomes which are muscles blocks and there are myosepta which are connective tissues that separate myotomes. The horizontal septum separates myotomes into two sections, ventral or dorsal. In the jaw muscles, the goldfish uses adductor muscles to close its jaw and abductor muscles to open its jaw. In a gold fish’s fin muscles, there are also adductor and abductor muscles. These muscles move a gold fish’s fins away from and close to its body. There are also erector muscles in the fins that help with the stability and flexibility of the fish’s fins.[4]
+
+Goldfish have a memory-span of at least three months and can distinguish between different shapes, colors and sounds.[5][6]  With positive reinforcement, goldfish can be trained to recognize and treact to light signals of different colors[7] or perform tricks.[8] Fish learn to anticipate feedings provided they occur at around the same time every day.

ensimple/4692.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,50 @@
+Fish (plural: fish) are an aquatic group of vertebrates which live in water and respire (get oxygen) with gills. They do not have limbs, like arms or legs, and they do have digits (fingers & toes). This is a definition which does not quite work: some amphibia also live in water and have external gills, but they are not fish.
+
+Fish used to be a class of vertebrates.  Now the term covers five classes of aquatic vertebrates:
+
+There are more fish than tetrapods (land vertebrates): there are over 33,000 described species of fish.[4] Fish are usually covered with scales. They have two sets of paired fins and several unpaired fins. Most fish are cold-blooded (poikilotherm). A fish takes in the oxygen from the water using gills. There are many different kinds of fish. They live in fresh water in lakes and rivers, and in salt water in the ocean. Some fish are less than one centimeter long. The largest fish is the whale shark, which can be almost 15 meters long and weigh 15 tons. Most fish live in the water. A group of fish called the lungfish have developed lungs because they live in rivers and pools which dry up in certain parts of the year. They burrow into mud and aestivate until the water returns.
+
+'Fish' is a paraphyletic term in cladistics because it lacks a monophyletic group of descendants. It does not include the land vertebrates or tetrapods, which descended from fish.
+
+Though often used interchangeably, these words have different meanings. Fish is used either as singular noun or to describe a group of specimens from a single species. Fishes describes a group of different species.[5]
+
+Fish, the oldest vertebrate group, includes a huge range of types, from the Middle Ordovician, about 490 million years ago, to the present day. These are the main groups:[5][6][7]
+
+Certain animals that have the word fish in their name are not really fish: Crayfish are crustaceans, and jellyfish are Cnidarians. Some animals look like fish, but are not. Whales and dolphins are mammals, for example.
+
+Most kinds of fish have bones. Some kinds of fish, such as sharks and rays, do not have real bones. Their skeletons are made of cartilage, and so they are known as cartilaginous fish.
+
+All fish are covered with overlapping scales, and each major group of fish has its own special type of scale. Teleosts ('modern' fish) have what are called leptoid scales. These grow in concentric circles and overlap in a head to tail direction like roof tiles. Sharks and other chondrichthyes have placoid scales made of denticles, like small versions of their teeth. These also overlap in a head to tail direction, producing a tough outer layer. Shark skin is available for purchase as shagreen, a leather which as original is smooth in one direction, and rough in the other direction. It may be polished for use, but is always rough in texture and resistant to slipping.
+
+The scales are usually covered with a layer of slime which improves passage through the water, and makes the fish more slippery to a predator.
+
+41% of all fish live in freshwater. There are also some important fish which breed in rivers, and spend the rest of their life in the seas. Examples are salmon, trout, the sea lamprey,[9] and three-spined stickleback. Some other fish are born in salt water, but live most of their adult lives in fresh water: for example the eels.
+Species like these change their physiology to cope with the amount of salt in the water.
+
+Fish swim by exerting force against the surrounding water. There are exceptions, but this is usually done by the fish contracting muscles on either side of its body in order to generate waves of flexion that travel the length of the body from nose to tail, generally getting larger as they go along. Most fishes generate thrust using lateral movements of their body & tail fin (caudal fin). However, there are also species which move mainly using their median and paired fins. The latter group profits from the gained manoeuvrability that is needed when living in coral reefs for example. But they can not swim as fast as fish using their bodies & caudal fins.[10]
+
+Fish can swim slowly for many hours using red muscle fibres. They also make short, fast bursts using white muscle. The two types of muscle have a fundamentally different physiology. The red fibres are usually alongside a much greater number of white fibres.
+
+The white fibres get their energy by converting the carbohydrate glycogen to lactate (lactic acid). This is anaerobic metabolism, that is, it does not need oxygen. They are used for fast, short bursts. Once the lactic acid builds up in the muscles, they stop working, and it takes time for the lactate to be removed, and the glycogen replaced.[11] Using their white fibres, fish can reach speeds of 10 lengths per second for short bursts.[11]
+
+Swimming for long periods needs oxygen for the red fibres. The oxygen supply has to be constant because these fibres only operate aerobically. They are red because they have a rich blood supply, and they contain myoglobin. Myoglobin transports the oxygen to the oxidising systems. Red muscle gets its energy by oxidising fat, which weight for weight has twice as much energy as carbohydrate or protein.[11] Using their red fibres, fish can keep up a speed of 3–5 lengths per second for long periods.[11]
+
+Many fish swim in groups.  Schools of fish can swim together for long distances, and may be chased by predators which also swim in schools. Casual groups are called 'shoals'.
+
+The shape of the body of a fish is important to its swimming. This is because streamlined body shapes makes the water drag less. Here are some common fish shapes:-
+
+The picture on the right shows a shark. This shark's shape is called fusiform, and it is an ovoid shape where both ends of the fish are pointy. This is the best shape for going through water quickly.[12][13] Fishes with fusiform shapes can chase prey and escape predators quickly. Many live in the open ocean and swim constantly, like marlins, swordfish, and tuna. Ichthyosaurs, porpoises, dolphins, killer whales all have similar shapes. This is an example of convergent evolution.
+
+The long, ribbon-like shape of an eel's body shows another shape.  This enables them to hide in cracks, springing out quickly to capture prey, then returning quickly to their hiding spot.
+
+Flatfish live on the bottom of the ocean or lake. Most use camouflage: they change colors to match the ocean floor.
+
+Fish with compressed shapes have flat, vertical bodies, with one eye on each side. They swim upright and can be very thin. They usually live in reefs where their flat bodies can slip in and out among the corals, sponges, and rocks, keeping hidden from predators. Angelfish, surgeonfish, and butterflyfish are all compressed fish.
+
+Some people eat many different kinds of fish. These include carp, cod, herring, perch, sardines, sturgeon, tilapia, trout, tuna, and many others.  A person who buys and sells fish for eating is called a fishmonger.
+
+The word to fish is also used for the activity of catching fishes.  People catch fish with small nets from the side of the water or from small boats, or with big nets from big boats.  People can also catch fish with fishing poles and fishhooks with bait.  This is often called angling.  Anglers also different types of fishing lures.
+
+Because people are catching too many fish for food or other uses, there are less and less fish in the sea. This is a problem known as Overfishing.
+
+Selective breeding of carp made them into the domesticated koi in Japan, and goldfish in China. This breeding began over 2,000 years ago. The Chinese brought their goldfish indoors during the Song Dynasty. They kept them in large ceramic vessels. That we now do in glass fish tanks.

ensimple/4693.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,45 @@
+Pokémon (ポケモン, Pokémon, English pronunciation: /ˈpoʊkeɪmɒn, ˈpɒkimɒn/; often spelled wrongly as "Pokemon") is a media franchise owned by The Pokémon Company. It is based on the concept of catching, collecting, raising, trading and battling with hundreds of different creatures. The concept was made by Satoshi Tajiri, Pokémon's creator. It is represented in many types of media, most famously video games, a still-running anime series, manga, and a trading card game. There are eight regions in these games. Although there are 890 different types of Pokémon, most people will know of the mascot of the company, an electric mouse Pokémon known as Pikachu.
+
+The video games have sold more copies than every other series except Nintendo's Mario series.[1]
+
+A number of Pokémon games have been released, mostly on Nintendo systems, with the exception of Pokémon GO as The Pokémon Company is owned by Nintendo.
+
+Most games are based on catching, training and battling Pokémon, and the player is a Pokémon trainer who does all these things. There are a number of aspects to the games.
+
+In the games, Pokémon are creatures that trainers catch (using various types of capture devices known as Poké Balls), train, battle, collect, and trade with each other. As of the seventh generation, there are 802 of them. One of the most popular Pokémon in competitive battling is Mega Kangaskhan, because of its ability to hit the target twice with each move.
+
+Another Pokemon game is the famous Pokemon GO that can be played only on touch phones. It has a big difference from the other games but its basics are the same. This game uses Augmented Reality and the phone's GPS to give the player a very real sense of play. People literally walk around their neighborhoods, explore new places and catch Pokemon which can be captured along with your surrounding environment by using the phone's camera. People can also go to special places or landmarks where there would be Poké Stops and Gyms which can be used to collect items, battle other Pokemon etc. This game has been a huge success when it was released and is widely considered as the beginning of the AR era.
+
+The gameplay of the Pokémon series of role-playing video games involves the capture and training of many of fictional creatures called "Pokémon" and using them to battle other trainers. Each generation of games builds upon this idea by introducing new Pokémon, items, and gameplay concepts. Some of the general ideas were featured elsewhere before being introduced in the games; double battles appeared in the anime long before appearing in the games, and Pokémon abilities are similar to the Pokémon Powers first seen in the Pokémon Trading Card Game.
+
+Not long after Pokémon Red and Blue (the first Pokémon video games) were released, a Pokémon anime was created. It was first shown in Japan in late 1997, and in the United States in late 1998. The anime started what has been called "Pokémania", which meant that after the anime came out, it became very popular among children, and many parents assumed it was a fad and no one would care about it in a couple years. However, it was never cancelled, and it is still running, although it is not as popular as in 1998 and 1999.
+
+The interesting thing about the Pokémon Anime is that when a new Pokémon game is released that is not a remake, the whole Anime focuses on that with new Pokémon and the world that is in that Pokémon game.
+
+The anime shows the adventures of Ash Ketchum, (with the exception of some special series)  a ten-year-old Pokémon trainer who has many adventures, meeting many new people and Pokémon. His most famous Pokémon, and probably the most famous Pokémon, is Pikachu.
+
+A number of Pokémon films have also been made that relate to the anime. The first one was Pokémon: The First Movie (released in 1998 in Japan and 1999 in United States). There are more movies still being made. There have now been seventeen films released.
+
+A Pokémon trading card game also exists. Players use Pokémon cards to battle each other and collect them by opening packs. There are also live tournaments hosted by Nintendo. Pokémon's damage is counted by "damage counters" or objects which are placed on the cards to keep track of damage. After you add up all of the numbers on the damage counters, you subtract it from the card's HP (health points) to find out how much HP is left. Only 60 cards are used in a player's deck, and six of these are set aside in a pile called "prize cards." After one player knocks out an opponent's card, the defeater takes just one face-down prize card for non-EX Pokémon. Meanwhile, when someone makes an EX Pokémon faint, he or she gets two prize cards. There is one discard pile for each player, where fainted Pokémon go. Some ways to win are taking all of your prize cards, and/or making your opponent draw all of his or her cards.
+
+There are cards designed as various Pokémon, which usually need "Energy" cards to use attacks. There are also "Trainer" cards, which are used for additional things other than direct Pokémon attacks, like giving Pokemon more HP. Most fans of the series agree that a good deck is made of about twenty "Pokémon" cards, twenty "Energy" cards, and twenty "Trainer" cards.
+
+Players can evolve their Benched or Active Pokémon. The Bench is a spot that can hold Pokémon, and these Pokémon can be evolved with its evolution card. Active Pokémon can evolve too, but can also use attacks. To evolve a Pokémon, you can just put its evolution card on top of it.
+
+All Pokémon cards have types. The type affects how effective an attack is. For example, a certain Lightning-type Pikachu card can use an attack that normally deals 80 damage. If the Pikachu uses it against a Pokémon with a Weakness of +20 to Lighting, you add 20 more damage to the normal damage to make it 100. Types can also make things less effective.
+
+There is also a special kind of Pokémon in the trading card game called "EX" Pokémon. EX & GX Pokémon are stronger than regular ones, but when they are knocked out, the player's opponent draws two of their prize cards (with regular Pokémon it is just one.) Also, there is another special type of Pokémon in the trading card game called "Delta Species" Pokémon, which have types that are different than typical cards, like an Electric-type Charmander, who is usually Fire-type. In the "Diamond & Pearl" trading card game expansion, "LV.X" cards were introduced. These are a little like evolution cards, but they can only be used on Active Pokémon. In the "HeartGold & SoulSilver" expansion, The Pokémon Company released new cards, called LEGEND cards. LEGEND cards are two cards sold separately that when put together make one picture. They can be used only when the two cards they are made of are put together; they cannot work separately.
+
+The Pokémon media franchise, especially the anime, has been often criticized by organizations such as PETA.
+
+An episode of the anime called "Dennō Senshi Porygon" ("Electric Soldier Porygon" in the United States) was first shown in Japan on December 16, 1997. One part of the episode showed quickly flashing red and blue lights. This caused 685 Japanese children to have epileptic seizures.[2] Because of this, the anime went on a four-month break, and several laws were put in place regarding the flashing lights.
+
+Porygon, one of the main characters in the episode, has not appeared again in the anime ever since "Dennō Senshi Porygon". It has two evolved forms, Porygon2 and Porygon-Z, and neither of them have appeared in the anime at all, even though it was Ash Ketchum's Pikachu that made the explosion that caused the flashing lights.
+
+An episode of The Simpsons called "Thirty Minutes Over Tokyo" made fun of "Dennō Senshi Porygon". So did an episode of South Park called "Chinpokomon".
+
+Jynx, a species of Pokémon, was criticized because it looked like it was using blackface (an old film-making technique that makes white actors look African-American).[3]  It was also criticized because it looked like a drag queen (a man who dresses as a woman). This was not an issue in Japan, but it caused a lot of argument in the United States because of the United States' history of racism. Ever since then, Jynx has purple skin instead of black skin, and anime episodes featuring it were banned due to argument.
+
+Registeel, one of the regi-trios was criticized for being too similar to a Hitler's salute. In the Gen IV sprites for Registeel, it appears it is saluting. This only took place in the Japanese copies. When the English translations got released they have censored in such a way it was not saluting.
+
+Another Nazi-related censorship was the card Koga's Ninga Trick. In this card, there are various symbols, one of them being the swastika. In the Asian culture, this symbol meant peace and relaxation/ While over the last century, it has turned into a demonic symbol. In the English translation, it has turned into another symbol.

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+Pokémon (ポケモン, Pokémon, English pronunciation: /ˈpoʊkeɪmɒn, ˈpɒkimɒn/; often spelled wrongly as "Pokemon") is a media franchise owned by The Pokémon Company. It is based on the concept of catching, collecting, raising, trading and battling with hundreds of different creatures. The concept was made by Satoshi Tajiri, Pokémon's creator. It is represented in many types of media, most famously video games, a still-running anime series, manga, and a trading card game. There are eight regions in these games. Although there are 890 different types of Pokémon, most people will know of the mascot of the company, an electric mouse Pokémon known as Pikachu.
+
+The video games have sold more copies than every other series except Nintendo's Mario series.[1]
+
+A number of Pokémon games have been released, mostly on Nintendo systems, with the exception of Pokémon GO as The Pokémon Company is owned by Nintendo.
+
+Most games are based on catching, training and battling Pokémon, and the player is a Pokémon trainer who does all these things. There are a number of aspects to the games.
+
+In the games, Pokémon are creatures that trainers catch (using various types of capture devices known as Poké Balls), train, battle, collect, and trade with each other. As of the seventh generation, there are 802 of them. One of the most popular Pokémon in competitive battling is Mega Kangaskhan, because of its ability to hit the target twice with each move.
+
+Another Pokemon game is the famous Pokemon GO that can be played only on touch phones. It has a big difference from the other games but its basics are the same. This game uses Augmented Reality and the phone's GPS to give the player a very real sense of play. People literally walk around their neighborhoods, explore new places and catch Pokemon which can be captured along with your surrounding environment by using the phone's camera. People can also go to special places or landmarks where there would be Poké Stops and Gyms which can be used to collect items, battle other Pokemon etc. This game has been a huge success when it was released and is widely considered as the beginning of the AR era.
+
+The gameplay of the Pokémon series of role-playing video games involves the capture and training of many of fictional creatures called "Pokémon" and using them to battle other trainers. Each generation of games builds upon this idea by introducing new Pokémon, items, and gameplay concepts. Some of the general ideas were featured elsewhere before being introduced in the games; double battles appeared in the anime long before appearing in the games, and Pokémon abilities are similar to the Pokémon Powers first seen in the Pokémon Trading Card Game.
+
+Not long after Pokémon Red and Blue (the first Pokémon video games) were released, a Pokémon anime was created. It was first shown in Japan in late 1997, and in the United States in late 1998. The anime started what has been called "Pokémania", which meant that after the anime came out, it became very popular among children, and many parents assumed it was a fad and no one would care about it in a couple years. However, it was never cancelled, and it is still running, although it is not as popular as in 1998 and 1999.
+
+The interesting thing about the Pokémon Anime is that when a new Pokémon game is released that is not a remake, the whole Anime focuses on that with new Pokémon and the world that is in that Pokémon game.
+
+The anime shows the adventures of Ash Ketchum, (with the exception of some special series)  a ten-year-old Pokémon trainer who has many adventures, meeting many new people and Pokémon. His most famous Pokémon, and probably the most famous Pokémon, is Pikachu.
+
+A number of Pokémon films have also been made that relate to the anime. The first one was Pokémon: The First Movie (released in 1998 in Japan and 1999 in United States). There are more movies still being made. There have now been seventeen films released.
+
+A Pokémon trading card game also exists. Players use Pokémon cards to battle each other and collect them by opening packs. There are also live tournaments hosted by Nintendo. Pokémon's damage is counted by "damage counters" or objects which are placed on the cards to keep track of damage. After you add up all of the numbers on the damage counters, you subtract it from the card's HP (health points) to find out how much HP is left. Only 60 cards are used in a player's deck, and six of these are set aside in a pile called "prize cards." After one player knocks out an opponent's card, the defeater takes just one face-down prize card for non-EX Pokémon. Meanwhile, when someone makes an EX Pokémon faint, he or she gets two prize cards. There is one discard pile for each player, where fainted Pokémon go. Some ways to win are taking all of your prize cards, and/or making your opponent draw all of his or her cards.
+
+There are cards designed as various Pokémon, which usually need "Energy" cards to use attacks. There are also "Trainer" cards, which are used for additional things other than direct Pokémon attacks, like giving Pokemon more HP. Most fans of the series agree that a good deck is made of about twenty "Pokémon" cards, twenty "Energy" cards, and twenty "Trainer" cards.
+
+Players can evolve their Benched or Active Pokémon. The Bench is a spot that can hold Pokémon, and these Pokémon can be evolved with its evolution card. Active Pokémon can evolve too, but can also use attacks. To evolve a Pokémon, you can just put its evolution card on top of it.
+
+All Pokémon cards have types. The type affects how effective an attack is. For example, a certain Lightning-type Pikachu card can use an attack that normally deals 80 damage. If the Pikachu uses it against a Pokémon with a Weakness of +20 to Lighting, you add 20 more damage to the normal damage to make it 100. Types can also make things less effective.
+
+There is also a special kind of Pokémon in the trading card game called "EX" Pokémon. EX & GX Pokémon are stronger than regular ones, but when they are knocked out, the player's opponent draws two of their prize cards (with regular Pokémon it is just one.) Also, there is another special type of Pokémon in the trading card game called "Delta Species" Pokémon, which have types that are different than typical cards, like an Electric-type Charmander, who is usually Fire-type. In the "Diamond & Pearl" trading card game expansion, "LV.X" cards were introduced. These are a little like evolution cards, but they can only be used on Active Pokémon. In the "HeartGold & SoulSilver" expansion, The Pokémon Company released new cards, called LEGEND cards. LEGEND cards are two cards sold separately that when put together make one picture. They can be used only when the two cards they are made of are put together; they cannot work separately.
+
+The Pokémon media franchise, especially the anime, has been often criticized by organizations such as PETA.
+
+An episode of the anime called "Dennō Senshi Porygon" ("Electric Soldier Porygon" in the United States) was first shown in Japan on December 16, 1997. One part of the episode showed quickly flashing red and blue lights. This caused 685 Japanese children to have epileptic seizures.[2] Because of this, the anime went on a four-month break, and several laws were put in place regarding the flashing lights.
+
+Porygon, one of the main characters in the episode, has not appeared again in the anime ever since "Dennō Senshi Porygon". It has two evolved forms, Porygon2 and Porygon-Z, and neither of them have appeared in the anime at all, even though it was Ash Ketchum's Pikachu that made the explosion that caused the flashing lights.
+
+An episode of The Simpsons called "Thirty Minutes Over Tokyo" made fun of "Dennō Senshi Porygon". So did an episode of South Park called "Chinpokomon".
+
+Jynx, a species of Pokémon, was criticized because it looked like it was using blackface (an old film-making technique that makes white actors look African-American).[3]  It was also criticized because it looked like a drag queen (a man who dresses as a woman). This was not an issue in Japan, but it caused a lot of argument in the United States because of the United States' history of racism. Ever since then, Jynx has purple skin instead of black skin, and anime episodes featuring it were banned due to argument.
+
+Registeel, one of the regi-trios was criticized for being too similar to a Hitler's salute. In the Gen IV sprites for Registeel, it appears it is saluting. This only took place in the Japanese copies. When the English translations got released they have censored in such a way it was not saluting.
+
+Another Nazi-related censorship was the card Koga's Ninga Trick. In this card, there are various symbols, one of them being the swastika. In the Asian culture, this symbol meant peace and relaxation/ While over the last century, it has turned into a demonic symbol. In the English translation, it has turned into another symbol.

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+Poker is a game which people play with a normal set (or deck) of 52 cards.  Poker is a gambling game which involves some luck, but also some skill.  In poker, players make bets against each other depending on the value of their poker hand. Bets are usually made with plastic or ceramic discs called chips.  Bets may also be made with real money, but chips are more often used because they are easier to handle and count. At the end of the game, players either swap their chips for money, or the chips are counted to determine the order of winners.
+
+There are many different kinds of poker. In draw poker, each player is dealt five cards.  A player can decide to throw away a number of these cards and then take (draw) new cards to replace them.
+
+In stud poker (for example, seven-card stud), some of each player's cards are laid (face-up) on the table so that the other players can see them.   In community card poker (for example, Texas hold 'em), players share some of their cards in the center of the table.[1]
+
+The history of poker is a matter of some debate.  The name of the game likely descended from the French poque, which descended from the German pochen ('to knock'), but it is not clear whether the origins of poker itself lie with the games bearing those names.  It closely resembles the Persian game of as nas, and may have been taught to French settlers in New Orleans by Persian sailors.  It is commonly regarded as sharing ancestry with the Renaissance game of primero and the French brelan.  The English game brag (earlier bragg) clearly descended from brelan and incorporated bluffing (though the concept was known in other games by that time).  It is quite possible that all of these earlier games influenced the development of poker as it exists now.
+
+English actor Joseph Crowell reported that the game was played in New Orleans in 1829, with a deck of 20 cards, four players betting on which player's hand was the most valuable. [2] Jonathan H. Green's book, An Exposure of the Arts and Miseries of Gambling (G. B. Zieber, Philadelphia, 1843), described the spread of the game from there to the rest of the country by Mississippi riverboats, on which gambling was a common pastime.
+
+Soon after this spread, the full 52-card English deck was used, and the flush was introduced.  During the American Civil War, many additions were made, including draw poker, stud poker (the five-card variant), and the straight.  Further American developments followed, such as the wild card (around 1875), lowball and split-pot poker (around 1900), and community card poker games (around 1925).  Spread of the game to other countries, particularly in Asia, is often attributed to the U.S. military.
+
+The game and jargon of poker have become important parts of American culture and English culture.  Such phrases as ace in the hole, beats me, blue chip, call the bluff, cash in, pass the buck, poker face, stack up, up the ante, when the chips are down, wild card, and others are used in everyday conversation even by those unaware of their origins at the poker table.
+
+Modern tournament play became popular in American casinos after the World Series of Poker began in 1970.  It was also during that decade that the first serious strategy books appeared, notably The Theory of Poker by David Sklansky (ISBN 1880685000), Super System by Doyle Brunson (ISBN 1580420818),  and The Book of Tells by Mike Caro (ISBN 0897461002).
+
+Poker’s popularity has experienced an unprecedented spike in recent years, largely due to the introduction of online poker and the invention of the hole-card camera which finally turned the game into a spectator sport. Viewers can now follow the action and drama of the game, and broadcasts of poker tournaments such as the World Series of Poker and the World Poker Tour have brought in huge audiences for cable and satellite TV distributors.
+
+The game of poker is played in hundreds of variations, but the following overview of game play applies to most of them.
+
+Depending on the game rules, one or more players may be required to place an initial amount of money into the pot before the cards are dealt.  These are called forced bets and come in three forms: antes, blinds, and bring-ins.
+
+Like most card games, the dealer shuffles the deck of cards. The deck is then cut, and the appropriate number of cards are dealt face-down to the players. In a casino a "house" dealer handles the cards for each hand, but a button (any small item used as a marker, also called a buck) is rotated among the players to determine the order of dealing and betting in certain games. In a home game, the right to deal the cards typically rotates among the players clockwise, but a button may still be used.
+
+After the initial deal, the first of what may be several betting rounds begins. Between rounds, the players' hands develop in some way, often by being dealt additional cards or replacing cards previously dealt. During a round of betting, there will always be a current bet amount, which is the total amount of money bet in this round by the player who bet last in this round.  To keep better track of this, it is conventional for players to not place their bets directly into the pot (called splashing the pot), but rather place them in front of themselves toward the pot, until the betting round is over.  When the round is over, the bets are then gathered into the pot.
+
+After the first betting round is completed (every participating player having called an equal amount), there may be more rounds in which more cards are dealt in various ways, followed by further rounds of betting (into the same central pot).  At any time during the first or subsequent betting rounds, if one player makes a bet and all other players fold, the deal ends immediately, the single remaining player is awarded the pot, no cards are shown, no more rounds are dealt, and the next deal begins.  This is what makes it possible to bluff.
+
+At the end of the last betting round, if more than one player remains, there is a showdown in which the players reveal their previously hidden cards and evaluate their hands.  The player with the best hand according to the poker variant being played wins the pot.
+
+The following are poker hands, from best to worst:
+
+Poker chips are small disks. They made by various materials including molded plastic, colored metal  molded clays. They are used in table games as play money. Modern poker traces its roots towards the 1800s, and in those days, players used what you could to help keep a tally. Coins, gold dust and nuggets were used until they considered replacing with something which would indicate them. Thus, the casino chips happen to be introduced within the gambling business.
+
+Poker rooms started using casino chips to simply manage the cash and then collect charges. In those days, casino chips were created of ivory, bone, paper  wood. However, the most generally used chips were created of composite clay. One problem made an appearance due to the developing casino chips which was cheating. Some players considered sneaking some chips in their hands. To avoid this, manufacturers created differentiated disks. Consequently, a range of styles was created. With time, other manufacturers could use many other materials for making casino chips, for example, plastic and metal.[3]

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+Empoldering is a method of reclaiming land from the sea. Empoldering involves the use of polders, and is also a way to control floods. A polder is a piece of land in a low-lying area that has been reclaimed from a body of water by building dikes and drainage canals.
+
+Although empoldering is usually carried out in low-lying coastal areas, it can be also  carried out in inland areas such as lakes and rivers. It is commonly carried out in countries like the Netherlands, where much of the country is below sea level and subject to flooding. About one-fifth of the land in the Netherlands has been reclaimed from the sea. Their largest and most successful project is the Zuider Zee project.
+
+Polders have 2 distinct features. Firstly, they are enclosed by dikes to keep the water out. The dikes also serve to protect the polder from erosion. Secondly, polders are continually maintained by systems of drainage canals and pumps which prevent them from becoming waterlogged and hence, suitable for cultivation.
+
+Stage 1: Dike constructed around the area to be reclaimed to keep water from coming in.
+
+Stage 2: The area is drained using pumps and drainage canals.
+
+Stage 3: "Reeds"(a type of salt tolerant plant) are sown by aircraft to help the soil form.
+
+Stage 4: After 3 years, reeds are burnt and the ash is used as fertilizers for the soil.
+
+Stage 5: After a period of up to 15 years, the polder is ready for growing crops, building houses and constructing roads.
+
+1. Cost of reclaiming from deeper waters
+
+2. Availability of sand
+
+3. Dispute over territorial boundaries
+

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+In physics, magnetism is a force that can attract (pull closer) or repel (push away) objects that have a magnetic material like iron inside them (magnetic objects). In simpler words, it is a property of certain substances which pull closer or repel other objects.
+
+Magnetism can be made by a permanent magnet, or by electricity in a wire.  This is called an electromagnet.  When magnets are put near magnetic objects, the magnet and the object are pulled toward each other.  This is called magnetic attraction.  Magnets can also repel (push away) other magnets.  Most objects that are attracted to magnets have iron in them. This is ferromagnetism. Some metals, such as aluminum, are much more weakly attracted. This is paramagnetism. A few metals are weakly repelled. This is diamagnetism.
+
+Magnets have an unseen area around them called a "magnetic field". Magnetic objects inside this unseen field are attracted to the magnet. Magnetic things outside the magnetic field are not attracted to the magnet. This is why a magnet must be close to an object to attract it.
+
+The poles of two magnets repel or attract each other. Different poles attract each other. For example, if the south pole of one magnet is put near the south pole of another magnet, the magnets will repel each other. This will also happen with two north poles that are put near each other. If a north pole is put near a south pole, the magnets will attract each other until they stick to each other and can be hard to pull apart.
+
+Magnetism is caused by electrons (the negative particles in atoms that are also electric charges) spinning. The more a group of electrons spin in the same direction, the stronger the magnetic force. In a magnet, many electrons are spinning in the same direction.
+
+We can magnetize a small piece of iron by 'rubbing' it with a magnet. The electrons in the iron get 'spun' by the passing magnet just like a basketball player spinning a basketball.
+
+Magnets have many uses. One of them was found long ago when explorers found that a magnet could be used as a compass to show the direction of north & south.
+
+Electromagnets are another kind of magnet. They only work when electricity is running through them. An electric current makes a magnetic field. If you wrap the wire into a coil, the electrons spin around the coil and make a stronger magnetic domain.
+
+Often, these magnets work by using a coil of wire that makes a magnetic field when there is a current in it. In addition to this coil of wire, a large piece of metal, usually iron, is placed inside the coil to increase the magnetic field made. Though most large electromagnets employ many solenoids to lift heavy objects, smaller solenoids are used in everyday electronics. For example, they are used to change voltage in a transformer.
+
+Electromagnets are used to make many things work like computers, televisions and radios and also doorbells.
+
+Electromagnetic radiation including radio waves and light waves are used for communication including broadcasting and optical fiber, and for many other purposes.
+
+The North Magnetic Pole is the point on the surface of Earth's northern hemisphere where the planet's magnetic field points vertically downwards. There is only one place where this occurs, near to (but distinct from) the Geographic North Pole.[1]
+
+Its southern hemisphere counterpart is the South Magnetic Pole. Since the Earth's magnetic field is not exactly symmetrical, a line drawn from one to the other does not pass through the geometric centre of the Earth.
+
+The North Magnetic Pole moves over time due to magnetic changes in the Earth's core.[2] In 2001, it was near Ellesmere Island in northern Canada at 81°18′N 110°48′W / 81.3°N 110.8°W / 81.3; -110.8 (Magnetic North Pole 2001).  As of 2015, the pole is thought to have moved east beyond the Canadian Arctic territorial claim to 86°18′N 160°00′W / 86.3°N 160.0°W / 86.3; -160.0 (Magnetic North Pole 2012 est).[3]
+
+Earth does change its magnetic poles every million years (plus or minus 200,000 years). Before a change of magnetic field, the Earth's magnetic field becomes weaker and moves around, like a spinning top would before it falls. The Earth has already had hundreds of changes (flip flops). Scientists know this as a result of studies of magnetism on the sea floor, near the mid-Atlantic ridge. The lava slowly moves out of this crevasse (gap in the sea floor) and then it cools with its iron oxide molecules all pointing in the new direction of the Earth's magnetic field. We can look at the history of this magnetic field today to look back at the many flips in the past.[4]
+
+Reversals occur at intervals from less than 0.1 million years to as much as 50 million years. The most recent geomagnetic reversal, called the Brunhes–Matuyama reversal, occurred about 780,000 years ago.[5][6] Another global reversal of the Earth's field, called the Laschamp event, occurred during the last ice age (41,000 years ago). However, because of its brief duration it is called an "excursion".[7][2]

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+Police are a group of people whose job is to enforce laws, help with emergencies, solve crimes and protect property. A person who carries out this duty is known as a police officer. They work out of a police station. Police are trained in first aid and rescue, because police officers are often one of the first people to get to a place where people are sick or injured, such as a car accident, or a fire.
+
+A police agency may be called a police force, police department, police service, constabulary, civil guard or protective service. A gendarmerie is a police force that is part of the military, although its members rarely do actual military work.
+
+Most police forces in the United States name themselves as "[Place] Police Department", such as New York City Police Department. State police forces are usually known as either "[State] Highway Patrol" or "[State] State Police". In the United Kingdom, most are "[Place] Police" or "[Place] Constabulary". In Canada and other English-speaking countries, "[Place] Police Service" is common. Ireland's police are called the Garda Síochána.
+
+A law enforcement agency is any agency that enforces the law. In the United States, there are some law enforcement agencies that are not called police forces but carry out similar work, such as the Federal Bureau of Investigations. One common type is a sheriff's office (also sheriff's department), an agency that is led by a sheriff.
+
+Those who carry out policing duties are known as police officers. They may also be known as policemen (men only), policewomen (women only), peace officers, constables, rangers or civil guards. In a sheriff's office, they are known as sheriff's deputies or deputies for short. In Ireland they are known by the Irish language word gardaí (garda if singular) or as guards.
+
+The police have different powers to help them do their job. These powers are different in different countries. Most police officers have the power to arrest people, search people, and search houses/properties. They sometimes carry equipment such as guns, batons, tasers, or pepper spray. The area where police officers can use these powers is called their jurisdiction. If officers are outside of their jurisdiction, another police force with jurisdiction can then use their powers.
+
+The police deal with:
+
+Most police departments have officers in two main groups: a "patrol" group with officers who wear uniforms, and a "detective" group with officers who wear normal clothing.
+
+Not all countries use the same words to describe these groups. In the United Kingdom, for example, patrol officers form the "uniform branch", while detectives work within the CID ("Criminal Investigation Department"). Also in the United Kingdom, not all police officers are armed, these police officers form an "Armed Response Unit" which comes under other names in different constabularies, in the Metropolitan Police Service, it falls under SFC (Specialist Firearms Command) which all MET Armed Police fall under
+
+Police uniforms, equipment and methods vary depending on the country. In some places, groups of police train for special jobs such as dealing with riots or dealing with highly dangerous criminals.
+
+Different countries have different ways of organizing their police. Some countries like South Africa, Ireland and New Zealand have just one police force. Other countries have more than one. France has two police forces, one for cities and another for rural areas. Chile also has two, one for patrol and another for investigations.
+
+Some countries have two or more levels of police forces. For example, most policing in Australia is carried out by the six state police forces, but there is also the Australian Federal Police who police the whole country. Germany has a similar system. The United Kingdom and Switzerland have many local police forces and several national agencies, but no actual national police force. In Canada, local governments can choose to either run their own police force or give the job to a bigger one. So most Canadian cities have their own police, while most rural areas are policed by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, which is also the national police.
+
+The United States has over 17,000 law enforcement agencies. Many areas have four levels of law enforcement agencies. For example, Los Angeles has the Los Angeles Police Department but there are many other agencies that can work in the city. This includes the county-level Los Angeles Sheriff's Department, the state-level California Highway Patrol and over 100 federal (or national) law enforcement agencies.
+
+Worldwide, police are a small percentage of the number of people they serve. On average there are 303.3 police officers per 100,000 people.[1]
+
+In most countries, police officers carry guns during their normal duties. In the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Ireland and a few other countries, most police officers do not carry guns.
+
+Officers communicate using radio devices. The radios can be on both the uniform and in the patrol vehicle.

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+A police officer is a serving member of a police force.  Police officers arrest criminals, prevent crime, protect and help the public, and keep public order. Officers have legally authorised powers, which in Britain is called a warrant.
+
+A police officer's job is to protect the public, make sure people obey the law and make people feel safe.  Not all police officers wear a uniform and patrol.  Some police officers have specialist jobs, such as being a detective, a traffic officer or a police dog handler. In some countries, not all police carry guns, so a police officer could choose to become an armed police officer after a lot of experience.
+
+As a part of their job, police officers have rights that other people do not have.  This might include the power to arrest a person who they think has committed a crime, the power to search a person, the power to stop cars and direct traffic, the power to ask for a person's name and address, the power to give out tickets or fines or the power to make a person come to court.  Without these powers the police would not be able to gain any sort of control over society.
+
+Being a police officer can be dangerous.  Police officers are sometimes killed or hurt by criminals when they are sent to incidents, so that is why the police have to carry the equipment needed to defend themselves. Police officers have the right to carry weapons, such as a gun or a baton in order to stop crime even if the weapon laws are strict and limited to the general public.
+
+In different countries, police officers are given different equipment to deal with the crime that is in their country.  Police officers are armed with weapons that they can use to defend themselves or other people that need help.  Most police officers carry these things:
+
+Police officers have to patrol and respond to emergencies as quickly as possible.  Some police officers will walk on foot patrol, but often police officers will patrol in a police car.  This is so that they can get to emergencies faster and carry more equipment.  Sometimes officers patrol on bicycles, motorbikes or on horses if they are in a unit that does this.

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+Adolescence is the time between being a child and a mature adult, that is the period of time during which a person grows into an adult, but are emotionally not mature. Adolescence in the English speaking world usually corresponds to the teenage years of 13-19 which are so named because of the end of the English words "thirteen" to "nineteen".  [1]
+
+The ages when one is no longer a child, and when one becomes an adult, vary by culture. In many cultures they are marked by rites of passage. The word comes from the  Latin verb adolescere meaning "to grow up." During this time, a person's body, emotions and academic standing change a lot. When adolescence starts, in America, children usually finish elementary school and enter secondary education, such as middle school or high school.
+
+During this period of life, most children go through the physical stages of puberty, which can often begin before a person has reached the age of 13. Most cultures think of people as becoming adults at various ages of the teenage years. For example, Jewish tradition thinks that people are adults at age 13, and this change is celebrated in the Bar Mitzvah (for boys) and the Bat Mitzvah (for girls) ceremony. Usually, there is a formal age of majority when adolescents formally (under the law) become adults.

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+An autobiography is a biography in which the author writes about his or her own life.
+The word comes from the Greek stems "auto" (meaning "self"), "bio“ (meaning "life"), and "graph" (meaning "write").

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+A police officer is a serving member of a police force.  Police officers arrest criminals, prevent crime, protect and help the public, and keep public order. Officers have legally authorised powers, which in Britain is called a warrant.
+
+A police officer's job is to protect the public, make sure people obey the law and make people feel safe.  Not all police officers wear a uniform and patrol.  Some police officers have specialist jobs, such as being a detective, a traffic officer or a police dog handler. In some countries, not all police carry guns, so a police officer could choose to become an armed police officer after a lot of experience.
+
+As a part of their job, police officers have rights that other people do not have.  This might include the power to arrest a person who they think has committed a crime, the power to search a person, the power to stop cars and direct traffic, the power to ask for a person's name and address, the power to give out tickets or fines or the power to make a person come to court.  Without these powers the police would not be able to gain any sort of control over society.
+
+Being a police officer can be dangerous.  Police officers are sometimes killed or hurt by criminals when they are sent to incidents, so that is why the police have to carry the equipment needed to defend themselves. Police officers have the right to carry weapons, such as a gun or a baton in order to stop crime even if the weapon laws are strict and limited to the general public.
+
+In different countries, police officers are given different equipment to deal with the crime that is in their country.  Police officers are armed with weapons that they can use to defend themselves or other people that need help.  Most police officers carry these things:
+
+Police officers have to patrol and respond to emergencies as quickly as possible.  Some police officers will walk on foot patrol, but often police officers will patrol in a police car.  This is so that they can get to emergencies faster and carry more equipment.  Sometimes officers patrol on bicycles, motorbikes or on horses if they are in a unit that does this.

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+A politician (from Classical Greek πόλις, "polis") is a person active in party politics, or a person holding or seeking office in government.  In democratic countries, politicians seek elective positions within a government through elections or, at times, temporary appointment to replace politicians who have died, resigned or have been otherwise removed from office.  In non-democratic countries, they employ other means of reaching power through appointment, bribery, revolutions and intrigues.
+
+Some politicians are experienced in the art or science of government.[1]  Politicians propose, support and create laws or policies that govern the land and, by extension, its people.  The word politician is sometimes replaced with the euphemism statesman.  Basically, a "politician" can be anyone who seeks to achieve political power in any bureaucratic institution.
+
+Politicians have always used language, as in speeches or campaign advertisements.  They use common themes to develop their political positions in terms familiar to the voters.[2]  Politicians become experts at using the media [3]  With the rise of mass media in the 19th century they made heavy use of newspapers, magazines, and pamphlets, as well as posters.[4]  The 20th century brought radio and television, and television commercials became the single most expensive part of an election campaign.[5]  In the 21st century, they have become increasingly involved with social media based on the Internet and smartphones.[6]

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+Politics is the way that people living in groups make decisions. 
+Politics is about making agreements between people so that they can live together in groups such as tribes, cities, or countries. In large groups, such as countries, some people may spend a lot of their time making such agreements. These people are called politicians. Politicians, and sometimes other people, may get together to form a government. The study of politics in universities is called political science, political studies, or public administration.
+
+The government  tries to lead the whole group. Governments do things such as:
+
+One of the ways the government leads the group is by making laws and rules which tell everybody what they can and can not do. The government makes these laws so that society will be safe and well-ordered. The law that "you must not drink alcohol while driving a car" stops people from drunk driving, which could kill people. The law "you must wear a helmet on a motorcycle" makes sure that people protect themselves
+
+The government can also control people and what happens in a country in other ways besides making laws.
+
+Politics is often compared to ethics (ideas about right and wrong). Ethics is a more abstract study of right and wrong. Ethics is usually more concerned with principle than law or politics or diplomacy, so many people think ethics is not practical. But without some agreement on ethics, there is probably no way to even have a debate, laws or an election. There is always some agreement on ethics and personal conduct in a political system.
+
+In most countries, people have formed political parties to put forward their ideas. There is usually some disagreement between people within a party, but they work together because they feel that they agree on enough things, and they will have more power if they join together. They agree to take the same position on many issues, and agree to support the same changes to law and the same leaders. An election is usually a competition between different parties. Some examples of parties are the Liberal party, the Labor party and the Greens.
+
+The Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote that humans are a political animal and that ethics and politics are closely linked.
+
+Niccolò Machiavelli wrote, in his 1532 book, The Prince, that politics was firstly about having and keeping power. He said that without power, a leader could do nothing.
+
+In 1651, Thomas Hobbes wrote Leviathan, a book about politics. Hobbes wrote that people living in groups often give up some of their rights in exchange for some protections from a government.
+
+In the 1800s, John Stuart Mill developed the "liberal" idea of politics. Mill said that democracy is the most important political development of the 1800s. He said that there should be more protection for individual rights against the government.
+
+Bernard Crick wrote a list of the political virtues, which were about best practices of politics itself.
+
+There are also disagreements between different countries. Attempts to solve the problem with meetings are called diplomacy. This is politics between nations instead of politics within nations. If the problems are not resolved by diplomatic meetings they can lead to war or terrorism.

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+Pollen is a powder made of pollen grains, which produce sperm cells (male cells used for reproduction) of seed plants. The pollen grains are actually haploid male gametophytes.[1]
+
+The anther contains microsporangia. Each microsporangium contains pollen mother cells. These undergo meiosis, and produce pollen grains, which produce the male gametes (sperm).
+
+The pollen is released by the opening of the anther. The pollen is carried by some agent (wind, or some animal) to the receptive surface of the carpel of the same or another flower. This process is known as pollination. After successful pollination, the pollen grain (immature microgametophyte) completes its development by growing a pollen tube and undergoing mitosis to produce two male gametes.
+
+There are two main kinds of pollination. One kind happens when pollen from a stamen sticks to the pistil of the same plant.[2] That is self-pollination.
+
+The other kind of pollination takes place when pollen from one plant travels to the pistil of another plant. Most plants use this kind of pollination. Plants need help for this kind of pollination, because they cannot move. So, they need another way to move pollen from one plant to another plant.[2]
+
+The wind helps move pollen between plants. The pollen of some plants is very light.[2] Wind blows it from the flowers on one plant to the flowers on another plant. The wind can move pollen a long way before the pollen hits the sticky top of a pistil.
+
+Animals also help move pollen between plants. Many flowers are colourful and their scent attracts some animals. These flowers also make a sweet juice called nectar. Sometimes an animal, such as a bee, sees or smells a flower.[2] Then, it lands on the flower to get nectar. As the bee drinks the nectar, the stamens brush pollen onto its body. Then, the bee flies to another flower that has a pistil. The pollen on the bee's body brushes onto the sticky top of the flower's pistil. The pollen is used as protein for the bee larvae.
+
+The plants help feed the animal. In return, the animal helps the plants by moving pollen from flower to flower.[2] The relationship has evolved together; it is a kind of co-evolution called mutualism or symbiosis.

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+Pollination is part of sexual reproduction in plants. It describes how the pollen grains get to the female parts of a plant. Pollen grains, which contain the male gametes, need to get to where the female gamete(s) are.
+
+What happens is basically the same as sexual reproduction in animals. Each pollen grain is haploid: it has half of the DNA (genetic information) that is needed to make a new plant. During fertilization this combines with the DNA that is in the egg of the female part and a zygote is formed. In seed plants a seed is started.
+
+In flowering plants, pollen has to get from one flower to another.[1] There are two main ways that this can happen: by non-living things like wind or water, or by living things such as insects or birds.
+
+Maize (called corn in some parts of the world) is pollinated by wind. The male anthers let go of their pollen and it blows over to a nearby female flower on another corn plant. Most of the flowers are either male or female on a corn plant (monoecious), rather than both sexes in one flower (hermaphrodite).
+
+Maize flowers have evolved (changed over time) to use wind for pollination. They do not need pretty petals. The pollen is light so it can blow around, and the ends of the female parts (stigma) are fluffy to catch all the tiny pollen grains.
+
+With tomato plants, bees move the pollen from the male parts of one flower (anthers), to the female parts of another flower (stigma). The bee moves between flowers as it collects the nectar that the flowers make. The bees take the nectar and some pollen back to their hive, and the tomato plants get to reproduce (make new tomato plants).
+
+Because the tomato flowers have evolved to attract bees, they have spread-out petals and are white to human eyes (bees, like most insects, can see into the ultraviolet range as well as our visual range of wavelengths). The pollen is often stuck together in clumps called pollinia, which in turn get stuck to the bee. Bees are extremely hairy, and carry tiny electric charges which attract the pollen onto their bodies. Honey bees have special pollen baskets, usually on their rear legs; they groom the pollen off their bodies into these pockets.
+
+Much of the pollen gets taken back to the nest or hive, where it is used as a source of protein, most needed by the larvae. Some gets rubbed off on the next flower, where the female stigma is sticky. A pollen tube grows down to permit the male gamete to fertilize an egg and make a seed.
+
+90% of flowering plants are pollinated by animals, and only 10% use abiotic (non-living) pollination. Of these abiotic pollinations, 98% is done by wind and just 2% by water.[2]
+
+What happens after pollination is fertilisation. In plants it is a double fertilisation in which two sperm cells fertilize cells in the plant ovary. One of these is a normal fertilisation, which produces the embryo. The other is a unique kind of fertilisation which produces the seed endosperm.
+
+The process begins when a pollen grain sticks to the stigma of the pistil (female reproductive structure). Then it germinates, and grows a long pollen tube. While this pollen tube is growing, a haploid cell travels down the tube behind the tube nucleus. This cell divides by mitosis into two haploid sperm cells.
+
+As the pollen tube grows, it makes its way from the stigma, down the style and into the ovary. Here the pollen tube reaches the ovule and releases its contents (which include the sperm cells). One sperm makes its way to fertilize the egg cell, producing a diploid (2n) zygote. The second sperm cell fuses with two cell nuclei, producing a triploid (3n) cell.
+
+As the zygote develops into an embryo, the triploid cell develops into the endosperm, which serves as the embryo's food supply. The ovary now will develop into a fruit and the ovule will develop into a seed.
+
+
+
+There is evidence that some gymnosperms were insect-pollinated in the Triassic period, but pollination by animals is not the main method in this group.  Most are wind-pollinated.  Some gymnosperms and their insect pollinators are co-evolved for pollination.  The best-known examples are members of the order Cycadales and their associated species of beetle.
+
+Really widespread and specialised animal pollination came with the Angiosperms (flowering plants). Different families of flowering plants usually specialise in a particular pollination method. Sometimes a few genera shift from one method to another.[3]p53
+
+Pollination syndrome is the set of adaptive traits which help flowers to get pollinated.
+
+Wind pollinated flowers are usually small and inconspicuous (not showy). They do not have a scent or produce nectar. The anthers may produce a large number of pollen grains, while the stamens are generally long and stick up out of the flower. Their stigmas may be large and feathery to catch the pollen grains. Insects may visit them to collect pollen; there are some examples of flowers which are both wind and insect pollinated.
+
+Beetle-pollinated flowers are usually large, greenish or off-white in color and heavily scented. Scents may be spicy, fruity, or similar to decaying organic material. Most beetle-pollinated flowers are flattened or dish shaped, with pollen easy to get at. They may have traps to keep the beetle longer. The plant's ovaries are usually well protected from the biting mouthparts of the beetles.[4] Beetles are important pollinators in some parts of the world, such as dry areas of southern Africa and southern California,[5] and the montane grasslands of KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa.[6]
+
+Some flies feed on nectar and pollen as adults (particularly bee flies and hoverflies). The flowers they visit often have a strong scent, and tend to be purple, violet, blue, and white.[7]
+
+On the other hand, male fruit flies are attracted to some wild orchids which do not produce nectar. Instead, they produce a precursor of the fly's sex pheromone.[8][9] Flies which normally visit dead animals or dung are attracted to flowers that mimic these smelly items. They get no reward and would quickly leave, but the plant may have traps to slow them down. These plants have a strong, unpleasant odor, and are brown or orange in colour.[10]
+
+Their sheer numbers and the presence of some flies throughout the year make them important pollinators for many plants.[4] Flies tend to be important pollinators in high-altitudes and high-latitudes where they are numerous, and other insect groups may be lacking.[11]
+
+Bee-pollinated flowers tend to be yellow or blue, often with ultraviolet nectar guides and scent. Nectar and/or pollen are offered as rewards in varying amounts. The sugar in the nectar tends to be mostly sucrose. There are different types of bees which differ in size, tongue length and behaviour (some solitary, some colonial).[12] Some plants can only be pollinated by bees because their anthers release pollen internally, and it must be shaken out by buzzing ("sonication"). Bumblebees are the only animals that do this.
+
+Bee pollination from mobile beehives is of great economic value for orchards such as apple or almond.
+
+Wasps are also responsible for the pollination of several plants species, being important pollen vectors and, in some cases, even more efficient pollinators than bees.[13]
+
+Butterfly-pollinated flowers tend to be large and showy, pink or lavender in colour, often have a landing area, and are usually scented. Since butterflies do not digest pollen (with one exception), more nectar is offered than pollen. The flowers have simple nectar guides with the nectaries usually hidden in narrow tubes or spurs, reached by the long tongue of the butterflies.
+
+Among the more important moth pollinators are the hawk moths (Sphingidae). Their behaviour is similar to hummingbirds: they hover in front of flowers with rapid wingbeats. Most are nocturnal or twilight feeders. So moth-pollinated flowers tend to be white, night-opening, large and showy with tubular corollas and a strong, sweet scent produced in the evening, night or early morning. A lot of nectar is produced to fuel the high metabolic rates needed to power their flight.
+
+Other moths fly slowly and settle on the flower. They do not need as much nectar as the fast-flying hawk moths, and the flowers tend to be small (though they may be aggregated in heads).[14]
+
+Hummingbirds are the most familiar nectar-feeding birds for North Americans, there are analogous species in other parts of the world.[15][15] Flowers attractive to hummingbirds, which hover in front of the flower, tend to be large red or orange tubes with a lot of dilute nectar produced during the day. Since birds do not have a strong response to scent, they tend to be odourless. Perching birds need a substantial landing platform, so sunbirds, honeyeaters, and the like are less associated with tubular flowers.
+
+Bat-pollinated flowers tend to be large and showy, white or light coloured, open at night and have strong odours. They are often large and bell-shaped. Bats drink the nectar, and these plants typically offer nectar for long periods. Sight, smell, and echo-location are used to initially find the flowers, and excellent spatial memory is used to visit them repeatedly.[16] In fact, bats can identify nectar-producing flowers using echolocation.[16][17] Bat-pollinated plants have bigger pollen than their relatives.[18]
+
+Honey guides, nectar guides or floral guides are markings on flowers which tell insects where to go for nectar (many insects can see in the ultraviolet range). Most of these guides are invisible to humans unless seen in ultraviolet light. The benefit to the plant is that the guides increase the supply of pollinators at a relatively low cost.
+
+A full understanding of pollination is quite recent.
+
+In 1672 Nehemiah Grew had some idea that pollen was the means of fertilisation in higher plants.[19] Using a microscope, he was the first to describe pollen in detail. This led to the discovery that all pollen grains in a species were alike.[20] The study of pollen grains is called palynology. It is much used in micropaleontology. Sex in plants was discovered in 1694, when Rudolf Camerarius put his discovery into a letter.[21]
+
+In 1793 Christian Sprengel  (1750–1816) published a work on the pollination of flowers by insects which made all the main points.[22] Unfortunately, "his work was so far outside the standard thinking and interests of the period that it was almost completely ignored".[23][24]
+
+Two lines of work solved the main issues. One was done by studies of how the pollen cells worked to fertilise the ovum,[25] and the other was to recognise the coevolution of the animal pollinators and the flowering plants.[26][27] Both these lines of work became essentially 'modern' in the middle of the nineteenth century.[28][29][30]

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+Pollution is when harmful substances are added to the environment and then change it in a bad way. There are five kinds of pollution of the environment: water pollution, air pollution, noise pollution, soil pollution and thermal pollution.
+
+As pollution grows, ways to combat it have grown. Solar energy and wind energy give people clean ways to power their homes. When people  use these alternative forms of energy, they put less carbon dioxide into the environment.  [1]
+
+Water pollution is the presence of harmful materials in water, such as sewage, dissolved metal, waste from farms, factories and crude oil spilled from oil tankers. The three main substances that pollute water are nitrates from fertilizers, sewage and detergents.
+
+Activities such as bathing and washing clothes near lakes, ponds or rivers add nutrients like nitrate and phosphate into the water bodies.This leads to excessive growth of algae on the surface of water. It blocks the penetration of sunlight and air, thus reducing oxygen.
+
+It causes harm to organisms living in water and can also harm people's health. In extreme cases, it may cause diseases like cancer.[2]It also leads to loss of a large amount of aquatic life.
+
+Air can be polluted by many things.  Examples include poisonous gases, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and very small particulates.  Smoke and harmful gases released by fires, industries, and thermal power plants cause air pollution.  Using coal and wood as fuels for fire causes a lot of air pollution.  Petroleum produces less pollution per ton, but it causes a lot of pollution since a lot of it is burned globally.  Air pollution may cause health problems such as asthma or other breathing problems.
+
+Air pollution causes global warming and acid rain. This makes it difficult for some living things to survive.
+
+Noise pollution also known as sound pollution is harmful to the brain and hearing of all animals and humans. This includes the sound of vehicles, loud speakers, airplanes, jets, train horns etc. Noise pollution can cause ear problems or even permanent deafness, especially to older people. The schools which are beside the roads suffer from noise pollution. Students cannot concentrate in their studies. People in hospitals near main roads also suffer.
+
+Thermal pollution is the harmful release of heated liquid into a body of water or heat released into the air as a waste product of a industry.
+
+
+
+A common cause of thermal pollution is using water as a coolant by power stations and industrial manufacturers. This puts back warm water, and so raises the temperature and decreases how much oxygen is in the water. The heat released into the air will make the air warmer which increase global warming.

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+– on the European continent  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)  —  [Legend]
+
+Poland is a country in Central Europe.[9] It is on the east of Germany (along Oder and Lusatian Neisse). The Czech Republic and Slovakia are to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, and the Baltic Sea, Lithuania, and the Russian exclave Kaliningrad to the north. The total land area of Poland is about 312,679 km2[10] (120,728 mi2), slightly larger than Oman. This makes Poland the 77th largest country [10] in the world with over 38.5 million people. Most Polish people live in large cities, including the capital, Warsaw (Polish: Warszawa), Łódź, Cracow (Polish: Kraków), the second capital of Poland (first was Gniezno), Szczecin, Gdańsk, Wrocław and Poznań.
+
+The word "Poland" was written officially for the first time in 966. In 1569, Poland formed a strong union with Lithuania called the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. At some point in its history, it was the largest state in Europe and became very influential. Much of the territory that now makes up Central European states used to belong to that Commonwealth. Eventually, after a slow decline, the Commonwealth collapsed in 1795. Poland regained its independence in 1918 after World War I. In 1921, Poland defeated Soviet Russia in the Polish-Soviet War that started in 1919.
+
+However, Poland lost independence again not long after the beginning of World War II, after suffering a defeat by both the USSR and Nazi Germany. More than six million people died during the war, including 3 million Jews in the Holocaust. The Polish Government in Exile, Polish forces in the West, and Polish underground fought on during the occupation. However, following the Soviet defeat of Germany in the Eastern front, Poland became a communist country within the Eastern Bloc.
+
+In 1989, Poland ceased being a communist country and became a liberal democracy. Its change of government was the first in a series of events that led to the states of Eastern and Central Europe regaining their independence and the fall of the USSR in 1991. After the democratic consolidation, Poland joined the European Union on 1 May 2004. Poland is also a member of NATO, the United Nations, and the World Trade Organization.
+
+The first sign of humans in Polish lands was 500,000 years ago. The Bronze Age started around 2400-2300 BC. The Iron Age started around 750-700 BC. At that time the Polish lands were under the influence of the Lusatian culture. About 400 BC Celtic and Germanic tribes lived there. Those people had trade contacts with the Roman Empire.
+
+Over time, Slavs came to Polish lands. Some of those Slavs, now commonly referred to as Western Slavs (though in reality a diverse group of tribes with shared ethnic and cultural features), stayed there and started to create new nations. The most powerful tribe was called the Polans, who united all of the other Slavic tribes living there, and this is where the name "Poland" comes from.
+
+Poland began to form into a country around the middle of the 10th century in the Piast dynasty. In 966, Prince Mieszko I became a Christian, and so the Polish people also became Christians. The next king was Bolesław I of Poland (called Bolesław the Brave). He conquered many lands and he became the first King of Poland. Casimir I of Poland changed the Polish capital from Gniezno to Kraków. In the 12th century Poland broke into some smaller states after the death of King Bolesław III Wrymouth in 1138 because of his will. Those states were later attacked by Mongol armies in 1241, which slowed down the unification of the small states into the big country of Poland. This happened eighty years later, in 1320, when Władysław I became the King of the United Poland. His son Casimir III the Great reformed the Polish economy, built new castles and won the war against the Ruthenian Dukedom. Many people emigrated to Poland, becoming a haven for emigrants . Many Jewish people also moved into Poland during that time. The Black Death, which affected many parts of Europe from 1347 to 1351, did not come to Poland.[11]
+
+After the death of the last Piast on the Polish throne, Casimir III, Louis I of Hungary and his daughter Jadwiga of Poland began their rule. She married the Lithuanian prince Jogaila. Their marriage started a new dynasty in Poland: the Jagiellon dynasty. Under the Jagiellon dynasty, Poland made an alliance with its neighbor Lithuania.
+
+In the 17th century Sweden attacked almost all of Poland (this was called “the Deluge”). Many wars against the Ottoman Empire, Russia, Cossacks, Transylvania and Brandenburg-Prussia ended in 1699. For the next 80 years, the government and the nation were weak, making Poland dependent on Russia. Russian tsars took advantage of this by offering money to dishonest members of the Polish government, who would block new ideas and solutions. Russia, Prussia, and Austria broke Poland into three pieces in 1772, 1793 and 1795, which dissolved the country. Before the second split, a Constitution called "The Constitution of 3 May" was made in 1791. The Polish people did not like the new kings, and often rebelled (two big rebellions in 1830[11] and 1863[12]).
+Napoleon made another Polish state, “the Duchy of Warsaw”, but after the Napoleonic wars, Poland was split again by the countries at the Congress of Vienna. The eastern part was ruled by the Russian tsar. 
+During World War I all the Allies agreed to save Poland. Soon after the surrender of Germany in November 1918, Poland became the Second Polish Republic (II Rzeczpospolita Polska). It got its freedom after several military conflicts; the largest was in 1919-1921 Polish-Soviet War.
+
+On September 1, 1939, World War II started when Nazi Germany attacked Poland. The Soviet Union attacked Poland on September 17, 1939. Warsaw was defeated on September 28, 1939. Poland was split into two pieces, one half owned by Nazi Germany, the other by the Soviet Union. More than 6 million Polish people died, and half of these people were Jewish. Most of these deaths were part of the Holocaust, in which 6 million Jews were killed. At the war's end, Poland's borders were moved west, pushing the eastern border to the Curzon line.[13] The western border was moved to the Oder-Neisse line. The new Poland became 20% smaller by 77,500 square kilometers (29,900 sq mi). The shift forced millions of Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, and Jews to move.
+
+After these events Poland gradually became a communist country. It was supposedly an independent country. But in reality the new government was appointed by Joseph Stalin. It was also under the control of the Soviet Union. The country was then renamed the People's Republic of Poland. There are many Poles in the neighboring countries Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania (these three countries were part of the Soviet Union until 1991), as well as in other countries. The most Poles outside of Poland are in the United States, especially in Chicago. Germany and the United Kingdom are also home to a large Polish diaspora. The most recent mass emigration of Poles to western countries began after 1989.
+
+In 1989 Solidarity - a trade union led by Lech Wałęsa - helped defeat the communist government in Poland. Even before that event, Lech Wałęsa was given a Nobel Prize for leading the first non-communist trade union fighting for democracy in the Communist Block. When Communism ended in Poland there were many improvements in human rights, such as freedom of speech, democracy, etc. In 1991 Poland became a member of the Visegrad Group and joined NATO in 1999 along with the Czech Republic and Hungary. Polish voters then voted to join the European Union in a vote in June 2003. The country joined the EU on May 1, 2004.
+
+Currently, the Prime Minister is Mateusz Morawiecki. On 10 April 2010 the President Lech Kaczyński died in a government plane crash in Smolensk in Russia. The president is elected directly by the citizens for a five-year term. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President and confirmed by the "Sejm". The Sejm is the lower chamber of Parliament legislature for the country. It has 460 deputies elected every four years.
+
+Poland's territory is a plain reaching from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Carpathian Mountains in the south. Within that plain, the land varies from east to west.
+
+The Polish Baltic coast is mostly smooth but has natural harbors in the Gdańsk-Gdynia region and Szczecin in the far northwest. This coast has several spits, dunes and coastal lakes. Coast lakes are former bays that have been cut off from the sea. These areas are sometimes called lagoons. Szczecin Lagoon is on the western border with Germany. The Vistula Lagoon is on the eastern border with Kaliningrad, province of Russia. The longest river in Poland, the Vistula river, empties into the Vistula Lagoon and also directly into the Baltic Sea.
+
+The northeastern region is densely wooded, sparsely populated and lacks agricultural and industrial resources. The geographical region has four hilly districts of moraines and lakes created by moraines. These formed during and after the Pleistocene ice age. The Masurian Lake District is the largest of the four districts and covers much of northeastern Poland.
+
+Poland has many lakes. In Europe only Finland has more lakes. The largest lakes are Śniardwy and Mamry. In addition to the lake districts in the north, there are also many mountain lakes in the Tatras mountains.
+
+South of the northeastern region is the regions of Silesia and Masovia, which are marked by broad ice age river valleys. Silesia region has many resources and people. Coal is abundant. Lower Silesia has large copper mining. Masovian Plain is in central Poland. It is in the valleys of three large rivers: Vistula, Bug and Narew.
+
+Further south is the Polish mountain region. These mountains include the Sudetes and the Carpathian Mountains. The highest part of the Carpathians is the Tatra mountains which is along Poland’s southern border. The tallest mountain in Poland, Rysy at 2,503 m (8,210 ft), is in the High Tatras.
+
+Poland is made of sixteen regions known as voivodeships (województwa, singular - województwo). They are basically created from the country's historical regions, whereas those of the past two decades (till 1998) had been focused on and named for separate cities. The new units range in areas from under 10,000 km2 (Opole Voivodeship) to over 35,000 km2 (Masovian Voivodeship). Voivodeships are controlled by voivod governments, and their legislatures are called voivodeship sejmiks.
+
+The sixteen voivodeships that make up Poland are further divided into powiaty (singular powiat), second-level units of administration, which are about the same as to a county, district or prefecture in other countries.
+
+
+
+Almost no Polish literature remains before Christianisation in the 10th century. Polish literature was written in the Latin language during the Middle Ages. The Polish language was accepted as equal to Latin after the Renaissance for literature.
+
+Jan Kochanowski was a leading poet of European Renaissance literature in the 16th century. Other great Polish poets include Adam Mickiewicz who wrote Pan Tadeusz epic in 1834.
+
+Several Polish novelists have won the Nobel prize. Henryk Sienkiewicz won in 19 dramatized versions of famous events in Polish history. Władysław Reymont won a Nobel prize in 1924. He wrote the novel Chłopi. Two polish poets won Nobel prize as well. One is Wisława Szymborska (1996) and the second Czesław Miłosz (1980).
+
+Stanisław Lem is a famous science fiction author in the modern era. His Solaris novel was made twice into a feature film.
+
+In the past, Poland was inhabited by people from different nations and of different religions (mainly Catholics, Orthodox and Judaism). This changed after 1939, because of the Nazi Holocaust which killed many Polish Jews. After World War II, the country was changed into a communist country, by the Warsaw Pact which included most central European countries and Russia Russia.
+
+Today 38,038,000 people live in Poland (2011). In 2002 96.74% of the population call themselves Polish, while 471,500 people (1.23%) claimed another nationality. 774,900 people (2.03%) did not declare any nationality. Nationalities, or ethnic groups in Poland are Silesians, Germans (most in the former Opole Voivodeship), Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Russians, Jews and Belarusians. The Polish language is part of the West Slavic section of the Slavic languages. It is also the official language of Poland. English and German are the most common second languages studied and spoken.
+
+In the past few years, Poland's population has gone down because of an increase in emigration and a sharp drop in the birth rate. In 2006, the census office estimated the total population of Poland at 38,536,869, a very small rise on the 2002 figure of 38,230,080. Since Poland's accession to the European Union, many Polish people have moved to work in Western European countries like the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland. Some organizations state people have left because of high unemployment (10.5%) and better opportunities for work somewhere else. In April 2007, the Polish population of the United Kingdom had risen to about 300,000 people and estimates predict about 65,000 Polish people living in the Republic of Ireland. However, in recent years strong growth of Polish economy and increasing value of Polish currency (PLN) makes many Polish immigrants to go back home. In 2007, the number of people leaving the country was lower than people who are coming back. Poland became an attractive place to work for people from other countries (mainly Ukraine).
+
+A Polish minority is still present in neighboring countries of Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania, as well as in other countries. The largest number of ethnic Poles outside of the country can be found in the United States.
+
+The lists below show the population count of Poland's largest cities based on 2005 estimates.

ensimple/4707.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+– on the European continent  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)  —  [Legend]
+
+Poland is a country in Central Europe.[9] It is on the east of Germany (along Oder and Lusatian Neisse). The Czech Republic and Slovakia are to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, and the Baltic Sea, Lithuania, and the Russian exclave Kaliningrad to the north. The total land area of Poland is about 312,679 km2[10] (120,728 mi2), slightly larger than Oman. This makes Poland the 77th largest country [10] in the world with over 38.5 million people. Most Polish people live in large cities, including the capital, Warsaw (Polish: Warszawa), Łódź, Cracow (Polish: Kraków), the second capital of Poland (first was Gniezno), Szczecin, Gdańsk, Wrocław and Poznań.
+
+The word "Poland" was written officially for the first time in 966. In 1569, Poland formed a strong union with Lithuania called the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. At some point in its history, it was the largest state in Europe and became very influential. Much of the territory that now makes up Central European states used to belong to that Commonwealth. Eventually, after a slow decline, the Commonwealth collapsed in 1795. Poland regained its independence in 1918 after World War I. In 1921, Poland defeated Soviet Russia in the Polish-Soviet War that started in 1919.
+
+However, Poland lost independence again not long after the beginning of World War II, after suffering a defeat by both the USSR and Nazi Germany. More than six million people died during the war, including 3 million Jews in the Holocaust. The Polish Government in Exile, Polish forces in the West, and Polish underground fought on during the occupation. However, following the Soviet defeat of Germany in the Eastern front, Poland became a communist country within the Eastern Bloc.
+
+In 1989, Poland ceased being a communist country and became a liberal democracy. Its change of government was the first in a series of events that led to the states of Eastern and Central Europe regaining their independence and the fall of the USSR in 1991. After the democratic consolidation, Poland joined the European Union on 1 May 2004. Poland is also a member of NATO, the United Nations, and the World Trade Organization.
+
+The first sign of humans in Polish lands was 500,000 years ago. The Bronze Age started around 2400-2300 BC. The Iron Age started around 750-700 BC. At that time the Polish lands were under the influence of the Lusatian culture. About 400 BC Celtic and Germanic tribes lived there. Those people had trade contacts with the Roman Empire.
+
+Over time, Slavs came to Polish lands. Some of those Slavs, now commonly referred to as Western Slavs (though in reality a diverse group of tribes with shared ethnic and cultural features), stayed there and started to create new nations. The most powerful tribe was called the Polans, who united all of the other Slavic tribes living there, and this is where the name "Poland" comes from.
+
+Poland began to form into a country around the middle of the 10th century in the Piast dynasty. In 966, Prince Mieszko I became a Christian, and so the Polish people also became Christians. The next king was Bolesław I of Poland (called Bolesław the Brave). He conquered many lands and he became the first King of Poland. Casimir I of Poland changed the Polish capital from Gniezno to Kraków. In the 12th century Poland broke into some smaller states after the death of King Bolesław III Wrymouth in 1138 because of his will. Those states were later attacked by Mongol armies in 1241, which slowed down the unification of the small states into the big country of Poland. This happened eighty years later, in 1320, when Władysław I became the King of the United Poland. His son Casimir III the Great reformed the Polish economy, built new castles and won the war against the Ruthenian Dukedom. Many people emigrated to Poland, becoming a haven for emigrants . Many Jewish people also moved into Poland during that time. The Black Death, which affected many parts of Europe from 1347 to 1351, did not come to Poland.[11]
+
+After the death of the last Piast on the Polish throne, Casimir III, Louis I of Hungary and his daughter Jadwiga of Poland began their rule. She married the Lithuanian prince Jogaila. Their marriage started a new dynasty in Poland: the Jagiellon dynasty. Under the Jagiellon dynasty, Poland made an alliance with its neighbor Lithuania.
+
+In the 17th century Sweden attacked almost all of Poland (this was called “the Deluge”). Many wars against the Ottoman Empire, Russia, Cossacks, Transylvania and Brandenburg-Prussia ended in 1699. For the next 80 years, the government and the nation were weak, making Poland dependent on Russia. Russian tsars took advantage of this by offering money to dishonest members of the Polish government, who would block new ideas and solutions. Russia, Prussia, and Austria broke Poland into three pieces in 1772, 1793 and 1795, which dissolved the country. Before the second split, a Constitution called "The Constitution of 3 May" was made in 1791. The Polish people did not like the new kings, and often rebelled (two big rebellions in 1830[11] and 1863[12]).
+Napoleon made another Polish state, “the Duchy of Warsaw”, but after the Napoleonic wars, Poland was split again by the countries at the Congress of Vienna. The eastern part was ruled by the Russian tsar. 
+During World War I all the Allies agreed to save Poland. Soon after the surrender of Germany in November 1918, Poland became the Second Polish Republic (II Rzeczpospolita Polska). It got its freedom after several military conflicts; the largest was in 1919-1921 Polish-Soviet War.
+
+On September 1, 1939, World War II started when Nazi Germany attacked Poland. The Soviet Union attacked Poland on September 17, 1939. Warsaw was defeated on September 28, 1939. Poland was split into two pieces, one half owned by Nazi Germany, the other by the Soviet Union. More than 6 million Polish people died, and half of these people were Jewish. Most of these deaths were part of the Holocaust, in which 6 million Jews were killed. At the war's end, Poland's borders were moved west, pushing the eastern border to the Curzon line.[13] The western border was moved to the Oder-Neisse line. The new Poland became 20% smaller by 77,500 square kilometers (29,900 sq mi). The shift forced millions of Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, and Jews to move.
+
+After these events Poland gradually became a communist country. It was supposedly an independent country. But in reality the new government was appointed by Joseph Stalin. It was also under the control of the Soviet Union. The country was then renamed the People's Republic of Poland. There are many Poles in the neighboring countries Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania (these three countries were part of the Soviet Union until 1991), as well as in other countries. The most Poles outside of Poland are in the United States, especially in Chicago. Germany and the United Kingdom are also home to a large Polish diaspora. The most recent mass emigration of Poles to western countries began after 1989.
+
+In 1989 Solidarity - a trade union led by Lech Wałęsa - helped defeat the communist government in Poland. Even before that event, Lech Wałęsa was given a Nobel Prize for leading the first non-communist trade union fighting for democracy in the Communist Block. When Communism ended in Poland there were many improvements in human rights, such as freedom of speech, democracy, etc. In 1991 Poland became a member of the Visegrad Group and joined NATO in 1999 along with the Czech Republic and Hungary. Polish voters then voted to join the European Union in a vote in June 2003. The country joined the EU on May 1, 2004.
+
+Currently, the Prime Minister is Mateusz Morawiecki. On 10 April 2010 the President Lech Kaczyński died in a government plane crash in Smolensk in Russia. The president is elected directly by the citizens for a five-year term. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President and confirmed by the "Sejm". The Sejm is the lower chamber of Parliament legislature for the country. It has 460 deputies elected every four years.
+
+Poland's territory is a plain reaching from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Carpathian Mountains in the south. Within that plain, the land varies from east to west.
+
+The Polish Baltic coast is mostly smooth but has natural harbors in the Gdańsk-Gdynia region and Szczecin in the far northwest. This coast has several spits, dunes and coastal lakes. Coast lakes are former bays that have been cut off from the sea. These areas are sometimes called lagoons. Szczecin Lagoon is on the western border with Germany. The Vistula Lagoon is on the eastern border with Kaliningrad, province of Russia. The longest river in Poland, the Vistula river, empties into the Vistula Lagoon and also directly into the Baltic Sea.
+
+The northeastern region is densely wooded, sparsely populated and lacks agricultural and industrial resources. The geographical region has four hilly districts of moraines and lakes created by moraines. These formed during and after the Pleistocene ice age. The Masurian Lake District is the largest of the four districts and covers much of northeastern Poland.
+
+Poland has many lakes. In Europe only Finland has more lakes. The largest lakes are Śniardwy and Mamry. In addition to the lake districts in the north, there are also many mountain lakes in the Tatras mountains.
+
+South of the northeastern region is the regions of Silesia and Masovia, which are marked by broad ice age river valleys. Silesia region has many resources and people. Coal is abundant. Lower Silesia has large copper mining. Masovian Plain is in central Poland. It is in the valleys of three large rivers: Vistula, Bug and Narew.
+
+Further south is the Polish mountain region. These mountains include the Sudetes and the Carpathian Mountains. The highest part of the Carpathians is the Tatra mountains which is along Poland’s southern border. The tallest mountain in Poland, Rysy at 2,503 m (8,210 ft), is in the High Tatras.
+
+Poland is made of sixteen regions known as voivodeships (województwa, singular - województwo). They are basically created from the country's historical regions, whereas those of the past two decades (till 1998) had been focused on and named for separate cities. The new units range in areas from under 10,000 km2 (Opole Voivodeship) to over 35,000 km2 (Masovian Voivodeship). Voivodeships are controlled by voivod governments, and their legislatures are called voivodeship sejmiks.
+
+The sixteen voivodeships that make up Poland are further divided into powiaty (singular powiat), second-level units of administration, which are about the same as to a county, district or prefecture in other countries.
+
+
+
+Almost no Polish literature remains before Christianisation in the 10th century. Polish literature was written in the Latin language during the Middle Ages. The Polish language was accepted as equal to Latin after the Renaissance for literature.
+
+Jan Kochanowski was a leading poet of European Renaissance literature in the 16th century. Other great Polish poets include Adam Mickiewicz who wrote Pan Tadeusz epic in 1834.
+
+Several Polish novelists have won the Nobel prize. Henryk Sienkiewicz won in 19 dramatized versions of famous events in Polish history. Władysław Reymont won a Nobel prize in 1924. He wrote the novel Chłopi. Two polish poets won Nobel prize as well. One is Wisława Szymborska (1996) and the second Czesław Miłosz (1980).
+
+Stanisław Lem is a famous science fiction author in the modern era. His Solaris novel was made twice into a feature film.
+
+In the past, Poland was inhabited by people from different nations and of different religions (mainly Catholics, Orthodox and Judaism). This changed after 1939, because of the Nazi Holocaust which killed many Polish Jews. After World War II, the country was changed into a communist country, by the Warsaw Pact which included most central European countries and Russia Russia.
+
+Today 38,038,000 people live in Poland (2011). In 2002 96.74% of the population call themselves Polish, while 471,500 people (1.23%) claimed another nationality. 774,900 people (2.03%) did not declare any nationality. Nationalities, or ethnic groups in Poland are Silesians, Germans (most in the former Opole Voivodeship), Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Russians, Jews and Belarusians. The Polish language is part of the West Slavic section of the Slavic languages. It is also the official language of Poland. English and German are the most common second languages studied and spoken.
+
+In the past few years, Poland's population has gone down because of an increase in emigration and a sharp drop in the birth rate. In 2006, the census office estimated the total population of Poland at 38,536,869, a very small rise on the 2002 figure of 38,230,080. Since Poland's accession to the European Union, many Polish people have moved to work in Western European countries like the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland. Some organizations state people have left because of high unemployment (10.5%) and better opportunities for work somewhere else. In April 2007, the Polish population of the United Kingdom had risen to about 300,000 people and estimates predict about 65,000 Polish people living in the Republic of Ireland. However, in recent years strong growth of Polish economy and increasing value of Polish currency (PLN) makes many Polish immigrants to go back home. In 2007, the number of people leaving the country was lower than people who are coming back. Poland became an attractive place to work for people from other countries (mainly Ukraine).
+
+A Polish minority is still present in neighboring countries of Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania, as well as in other countries. The largest number of ethnic Poles outside of the country can be found in the United States.
+
+The lists below show the population count of Poland's largest cities based on 2005 estimates.

ensimple/4708.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+Polish (język polski, polszczyzna) is the official language of Poland. It is the most common Western Slavic language and the second Slavic language, after Russian.
+
+Polish has been an important language in Central and Eastern Europe. Polish is now spoken by over 38.5 million people as their first language in Poland. It is also spoken as a second language in western parts of Belarus, Lithuania and Ukraine. Because of emigration from Poland during different times, millions of Polish-speakers can be found in Australia, Brazil, Canada, United Kingdom, United States and elsewhere. There are over 50 million speakers around the world.
+
+There are 9 letters in Polish that English does not have. They look like English letters with marks above or below them.
+
+In lower case, the 9 letters are: ą ć ę ł ń ś ó ź ż
+
+In upper case, the 9 letters are: Ą Ć Ę Ł Ń Ś Ó Ź Ż
+
+There are 3 English letters not used in Polish: q, v, x.
+
+There are 7 combinations of 2 letters that are like a single letter sound (similar to "th" or "qu" in English). These include "ch", "cz", "dz", "dź", "dż", "rz", "sz".
+
+Many letters have the same sound in Polish and English, such as "f" "m", and others, but other letters sound different: Polish "w" sounds like an English "v", and Polish "ł" sounds like an English "w". There are also some Polish sounds that do not exist in English and some English sounds that do not exist in Polish.
+
+The vowels "ą" and "ę" are nasal and so they are pronounced by blowing air partly out of both the nose and the mouth.
+
+Most words are pronounced with an accent on the second-last syllable: "student" (which means the same as the English word) is pronounced with the accent on "stu" ("STU-dent"), and "studenci" (the plural form of "student") is pronounced with the accent on "den" (stu-DEN-ci).
+
+The Polish language has several dialects but they are more similar to one another than most other European languages. There are small differences, but all speakers can understand one another, and non-native speakers often cannot notice the differences.
+
+Grammar is complex, and has features that are unlike English.
+
+Like many other languages, Polish has grammatical gender. A table (stół) is masculine, a book (książka) is feminine, and a window (okno) is neuter.
+
+Nouns and adjectives and verbs have many endings, depending on their role in a sentence. There are 7 cases that show the role of a noun in a Polish sentence. Each has its own ending, which also depends on the gender of the noun.
+
+Word order is freer than in English, partly because endings help to understand the role of the noun. In English, "The boy bites the dog" is quite different from "The dog bites the boy", but in Polish, both orders can be used without confusion.
+
+Dzień dobry (Dz'yehn DOH-brih) - Good morning or Good afternoon
+
+Dobry wieczór (DOH-brih v-YETCH-oor) - Good evening'
+
+Do widzenia (doh vee-DZEN-yah) - Good bye
+
+Cześć! (tsheshch) - Hi, Hello! or Bye
+
+Tak (tahk) - Yes (in Polish, long-short answers like Yes, I did are not needed, and Tak is enough)
+
+Nie (nyeh) - No or Not (in Polish, long-short answers like No, I won't are not needed, and Nie is enough)
+
+Jak się masz? (yahk shyeh mahsh) - How do you do?
+
+Co robisz? (tsoh robish) - What you doing?
+
+Jak się nazywasz? (YAHK shyeh nahZYvash) or Jak masz na imię? (YAHK mahsh nah EE-myeng/EE-myeh) - What's your name?
+
+Nazywam się... (nah-ZIH-vahm shyeh) - My (name and) surname is...
+
+Mam na imię... (mahm nah EE-myeng/EE-myeh) - My (given) name is...
+
+Nie mówię po polsku (nyeh MOW-vyeng/MOW-vyeh poh POL-skoo) - I do not speak Polish
+
+Lubię Cię (loo-bee-EH chyeh) - I like you
+
+Kocham Cię (koh-hahm chyeh) - I love you
+
+Nie mówię po angielsku (nyeh MOW-vyeng/MOW-vyeh poh ahng-YEL-skoo) - I do not speak English
+
+Jak dojechać na lotnisko/dworzec (yak do-YEH-khatch nah lot-NEE-sco/dvo-ZHETS) - How to get the airport/rail station?(where dworzec - station means rail station by default)

ensimple/4709.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,61 @@
+Polish (język polski, polszczyzna) is the official language of Poland. It is the most common Western Slavic language and the second Slavic language, after Russian.
+
+Polish has been an important language in Central and Eastern Europe. Polish is now spoken by over 38.5 million people as their first language in Poland. It is also spoken as a second language in western parts of Belarus, Lithuania and Ukraine. Because of emigration from Poland during different times, millions of Polish-speakers can be found in Australia, Brazil, Canada, United Kingdom, United States and elsewhere. There are over 50 million speakers around the world.
+
+There are 9 letters in Polish that English does not have. They look like English letters with marks above or below them.
+
+In lower case, the 9 letters are: ą ć ę ł ń ś ó ź ż
+
+In upper case, the 9 letters are: Ą Ć Ę Ł Ń Ś Ó Ź Ż
+
+There are 3 English letters not used in Polish: q, v, x.
+
+There are 7 combinations of 2 letters that are like a single letter sound (similar to "th" or "qu" in English). These include "ch", "cz", "dz", "dź", "dż", "rz", "sz".
+
+Many letters have the same sound in Polish and English, such as "f" "m", and others, but other letters sound different: Polish "w" sounds like an English "v", and Polish "ł" sounds like an English "w". There are also some Polish sounds that do not exist in English and some English sounds that do not exist in Polish.
+
+The vowels "ą" and "ę" are nasal and so they are pronounced by blowing air partly out of both the nose and the mouth.
+
+Most words are pronounced with an accent on the second-last syllable: "student" (which means the same as the English word) is pronounced with the accent on "stu" ("STU-dent"), and "studenci" (the plural form of "student") is pronounced with the accent on "den" (stu-DEN-ci).
+
+The Polish language has several dialects but they are more similar to one another than most other European languages. There are small differences, but all speakers can understand one another, and non-native speakers often cannot notice the differences.
+
+Grammar is complex, and has features that are unlike English.
+
+Like many other languages, Polish has grammatical gender. A table (stół) is masculine, a book (książka) is feminine, and a window (okno) is neuter.
+
+Nouns and adjectives and verbs have many endings, depending on their role in a sentence. There are 7 cases that show the role of a noun in a Polish sentence. Each has its own ending, which also depends on the gender of the noun.
+
+Word order is freer than in English, partly because endings help to understand the role of the noun. In English, "The boy bites the dog" is quite different from "The dog bites the boy", but in Polish, both orders can be used without confusion.
+
+Dzień dobry (Dz'yehn DOH-brih) - Good morning or Good afternoon
+
+Dobry wieczór (DOH-brih v-YETCH-oor) - Good evening'
+
+Do widzenia (doh vee-DZEN-yah) - Good bye
+
+Cześć! (tsheshch) - Hi, Hello! or Bye
+
+Tak (tahk) - Yes (in Polish, long-short answers like Yes, I did are not needed, and Tak is enough)
+
+Nie (nyeh) - No or Not (in Polish, long-short answers like No, I won't are not needed, and Nie is enough)
+
+Jak się masz? (yahk shyeh mahsh) - How do you do?
+
+Co robisz? (tsoh robish) - What you doing?
+
+Jak się nazywasz? (YAHK shyeh nahZYvash) or Jak masz na imię? (YAHK mahsh nah EE-myeng/EE-myeh) - What's your name?
+
+Nazywam się... (nah-ZIH-vahm shyeh) - My (name and) surname is...
+
+Mam na imię... (mahm nah EE-myeng/EE-myeh) - My (given) name is...
+
+Nie mówię po polsku (nyeh MOW-vyeng/MOW-vyeh poh POL-skoo) - I do not speak Polish
+
+Lubię Cię (loo-bee-EH chyeh) - I like you
+
+Kocham Cię (koh-hahm chyeh) - I love you
+
+Nie mówię po angielsku (nyeh MOW-vyeng/MOW-vyeh poh ahng-YEL-skoo) - I do not speak English
+
+Jak dojechać na lotnisko/dworzec (yak do-YEH-khatch nah lot-NEE-sco/dvo-ZHETS) - How to get the airport/rail station?(where dworzec - station means rail station by default)

ensimple/471.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+An autobiography is a biography in which the author writes about his or her own life.
+The word comes from the Greek stems "auto" (meaning "self"), "bio“ (meaning "life"), and "graph" (meaning "write").

ensimple/4710.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+– on the European continent  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)  —  [Legend]
+
+Poland is a country in Central Europe.[9] It is on the east of Germany (along Oder and Lusatian Neisse). The Czech Republic and Slovakia are to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, and the Baltic Sea, Lithuania, and the Russian exclave Kaliningrad to the north. The total land area of Poland is about 312,679 km2[10] (120,728 mi2), slightly larger than Oman. This makes Poland the 77th largest country [10] in the world with over 38.5 million people. Most Polish people live in large cities, including the capital, Warsaw (Polish: Warszawa), Łódź, Cracow (Polish: Kraków), the second capital of Poland (first was Gniezno), Szczecin, Gdańsk, Wrocław and Poznań.
+
+The word "Poland" was written officially for the first time in 966. In 1569, Poland formed a strong union with Lithuania called the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. At some point in its history, it was the largest state in Europe and became very influential. Much of the territory that now makes up Central European states used to belong to that Commonwealth. Eventually, after a slow decline, the Commonwealth collapsed in 1795. Poland regained its independence in 1918 after World War I. In 1921, Poland defeated Soviet Russia in the Polish-Soviet War that started in 1919.
+
+However, Poland lost independence again not long after the beginning of World War II, after suffering a defeat by both the USSR and Nazi Germany. More than six million people died during the war, including 3 million Jews in the Holocaust. The Polish Government in Exile, Polish forces in the West, and Polish underground fought on during the occupation. However, following the Soviet defeat of Germany in the Eastern front, Poland became a communist country within the Eastern Bloc.
+
+In 1989, Poland ceased being a communist country and became a liberal democracy. Its change of government was the first in a series of events that led to the states of Eastern and Central Europe regaining their independence and the fall of the USSR in 1991. After the democratic consolidation, Poland joined the European Union on 1 May 2004. Poland is also a member of NATO, the United Nations, and the World Trade Organization.
+
+The first sign of humans in Polish lands was 500,000 years ago. The Bronze Age started around 2400-2300 BC. The Iron Age started around 750-700 BC. At that time the Polish lands were under the influence of the Lusatian culture. About 400 BC Celtic and Germanic tribes lived there. Those people had trade contacts with the Roman Empire.
+
+Over time, Slavs came to Polish lands. Some of those Slavs, now commonly referred to as Western Slavs (though in reality a diverse group of tribes with shared ethnic and cultural features), stayed there and started to create new nations. The most powerful tribe was called the Polans, who united all of the other Slavic tribes living there, and this is where the name "Poland" comes from.
+
+Poland began to form into a country around the middle of the 10th century in the Piast dynasty. In 966, Prince Mieszko I became a Christian, and so the Polish people also became Christians. The next king was Bolesław I of Poland (called Bolesław the Brave). He conquered many lands and he became the first King of Poland. Casimir I of Poland changed the Polish capital from Gniezno to Kraków. In the 12th century Poland broke into some smaller states after the death of King Bolesław III Wrymouth in 1138 because of his will. Those states were later attacked by Mongol armies in 1241, which slowed down the unification of the small states into the big country of Poland. This happened eighty years later, in 1320, when Władysław I became the King of the United Poland. His son Casimir III the Great reformed the Polish economy, built new castles and won the war against the Ruthenian Dukedom. Many people emigrated to Poland, becoming a haven for emigrants . Many Jewish people also moved into Poland during that time. The Black Death, which affected many parts of Europe from 1347 to 1351, did not come to Poland.[11]
+
+After the death of the last Piast on the Polish throne, Casimir III, Louis I of Hungary and his daughter Jadwiga of Poland began their rule. She married the Lithuanian prince Jogaila. Their marriage started a new dynasty in Poland: the Jagiellon dynasty. Under the Jagiellon dynasty, Poland made an alliance with its neighbor Lithuania.
+
+In the 17th century Sweden attacked almost all of Poland (this was called “the Deluge”). Many wars against the Ottoman Empire, Russia, Cossacks, Transylvania and Brandenburg-Prussia ended in 1699. For the next 80 years, the government and the nation were weak, making Poland dependent on Russia. Russian tsars took advantage of this by offering money to dishonest members of the Polish government, who would block new ideas and solutions. Russia, Prussia, and Austria broke Poland into three pieces in 1772, 1793 and 1795, which dissolved the country. Before the second split, a Constitution called "The Constitution of 3 May" was made in 1791. The Polish people did not like the new kings, and often rebelled (two big rebellions in 1830[11] and 1863[12]).
+Napoleon made another Polish state, “the Duchy of Warsaw”, but after the Napoleonic wars, Poland was split again by the countries at the Congress of Vienna. The eastern part was ruled by the Russian tsar. 
+During World War I all the Allies agreed to save Poland. Soon after the surrender of Germany in November 1918, Poland became the Second Polish Republic (II Rzeczpospolita Polska). It got its freedom after several military conflicts; the largest was in 1919-1921 Polish-Soviet War.
+
+On September 1, 1939, World War II started when Nazi Germany attacked Poland. The Soviet Union attacked Poland on September 17, 1939. Warsaw was defeated on September 28, 1939. Poland was split into two pieces, one half owned by Nazi Germany, the other by the Soviet Union. More than 6 million Polish people died, and half of these people were Jewish. Most of these deaths were part of the Holocaust, in which 6 million Jews were killed. At the war's end, Poland's borders were moved west, pushing the eastern border to the Curzon line.[13] The western border was moved to the Oder-Neisse line. The new Poland became 20% smaller by 77,500 square kilometers (29,900 sq mi). The shift forced millions of Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, and Jews to move.
+
+After these events Poland gradually became a communist country. It was supposedly an independent country. But in reality the new government was appointed by Joseph Stalin. It was also under the control of the Soviet Union. The country was then renamed the People's Republic of Poland. There are many Poles in the neighboring countries Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania (these three countries were part of the Soviet Union until 1991), as well as in other countries. The most Poles outside of Poland are in the United States, especially in Chicago. Germany and the United Kingdom are also home to a large Polish diaspora. The most recent mass emigration of Poles to western countries began after 1989.
+
+In 1989 Solidarity - a trade union led by Lech Wałęsa - helped defeat the communist government in Poland. Even before that event, Lech Wałęsa was given a Nobel Prize for leading the first non-communist trade union fighting for democracy in the Communist Block. When Communism ended in Poland there were many improvements in human rights, such as freedom of speech, democracy, etc. In 1991 Poland became a member of the Visegrad Group and joined NATO in 1999 along with the Czech Republic and Hungary. Polish voters then voted to join the European Union in a vote in June 2003. The country joined the EU on May 1, 2004.
+
+Currently, the Prime Minister is Mateusz Morawiecki. On 10 April 2010 the President Lech Kaczyński died in a government plane crash in Smolensk in Russia. The president is elected directly by the citizens for a five-year term. The Prime Minister is appointed by the President and confirmed by the "Sejm". The Sejm is the lower chamber of Parliament legislature for the country. It has 460 deputies elected every four years.
+
+Poland's territory is a plain reaching from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Carpathian Mountains in the south. Within that plain, the land varies from east to west.
+
+The Polish Baltic coast is mostly smooth but has natural harbors in the Gdańsk-Gdynia region and Szczecin in the far northwest. This coast has several spits, dunes and coastal lakes. Coast lakes are former bays that have been cut off from the sea. These areas are sometimes called lagoons. Szczecin Lagoon is on the western border with Germany. The Vistula Lagoon is on the eastern border with Kaliningrad, province of Russia. The longest river in Poland, the Vistula river, empties into the Vistula Lagoon and also directly into the Baltic Sea.
+
+The northeastern region is densely wooded, sparsely populated and lacks agricultural and industrial resources. The geographical region has four hilly districts of moraines and lakes created by moraines. These formed during and after the Pleistocene ice age. The Masurian Lake District is the largest of the four districts and covers much of northeastern Poland.
+
+Poland has many lakes. In Europe only Finland has more lakes. The largest lakes are Śniardwy and Mamry. In addition to the lake districts in the north, there are also many mountain lakes in the Tatras mountains.
+
+South of the northeastern region is the regions of Silesia and Masovia, which are marked by broad ice age river valleys. Silesia region has many resources and people. Coal is abundant. Lower Silesia has large copper mining. Masovian Plain is in central Poland. It is in the valleys of three large rivers: Vistula, Bug and Narew.
+
+Further south is the Polish mountain region. These mountains include the Sudetes and the Carpathian Mountains. The highest part of the Carpathians is the Tatra mountains which is along Poland’s southern border. The tallest mountain in Poland, Rysy at 2,503 m (8,210 ft), is in the High Tatras.
+
+Poland is made of sixteen regions known as voivodeships (województwa, singular - województwo). They are basically created from the country's historical regions, whereas those of the past two decades (till 1998) had been focused on and named for separate cities. The new units range in areas from under 10,000 km2 (Opole Voivodeship) to over 35,000 km2 (Masovian Voivodeship). Voivodeships are controlled by voivod governments, and their legislatures are called voivodeship sejmiks.
+
+The sixteen voivodeships that make up Poland are further divided into powiaty (singular powiat), second-level units of administration, which are about the same as to a county, district or prefecture in other countries.
+
+
+
+Almost no Polish literature remains before Christianisation in the 10th century. Polish literature was written in the Latin language during the Middle Ages. The Polish language was accepted as equal to Latin after the Renaissance for literature.
+
+Jan Kochanowski was a leading poet of European Renaissance literature in the 16th century. Other great Polish poets include Adam Mickiewicz who wrote Pan Tadeusz epic in 1834.
+
+Several Polish novelists have won the Nobel prize. Henryk Sienkiewicz won in 19 dramatized versions of famous events in Polish history. Władysław Reymont won a Nobel prize in 1924. He wrote the novel Chłopi. Two polish poets won Nobel prize as well. One is Wisława Szymborska (1996) and the second Czesław Miłosz (1980).
+
+Stanisław Lem is a famous science fiction author in the modern era. His Solaris novel was made twice into a feature film.
+
+In the past, Poland was inhabited by people from different nations and of different religions (mainly Catholics, Orthodox and Judaism). This changed after 1939, because of the Nazi Holocaust which killed many Polish Jews. After World War II, the country was changed into a communist country, by the Warsaw Pact which included most central European countries and Russia Russia.
+
+Today 38,038,000 people live in Poland (2011). In 2002 96.74% of the population call themselves Polish, while 471,500 people (1.23%) claimed another nationality. 774,900 people (2.03%) did not declare any nationality. Nationalities, or ethnic groups in Poland are Silesians, Germans (most in the former Opole Voivodeship), Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Russians, Jews and Belarusians. The Polish language is part of the West Slavic section of the Slavic languages. It is also the official language of Poland. English and German are the most common second languages studied and spoken.
+
+In the past few years, Poland's population has gone down because of an increase in emigration and a sharp drop in the birth rate. In 2006, the census office estimated the total population of Poland at 38,536,869, a very small rise on the 2002 figure of 38,230,080. Since Poland's accession to the European Union, many Polish people have moved to work in Western European countries like the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland. Some organizations state people have left because of high unemployment (10.5%) and better opportunities for work somewhere else. In April 2007, the Polish population of the United Kingdom had risen to about 300,000 people and estimates predict about 65,000 Polish people living in the Republic of Ireland. However, in recent years strong growth of Polish economy and increasing value of Polish currency (PLN) makes many Polish immigrants to go back home. In 2007, the number of people leaving the country was lower than people who are coming back. Poland became an attractive place to work for people from other countries (mainly Ukraine).
+
+A Polish minority is still present in neighboring countries of Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania, as well as in other countries. The largest number of ethnic Poles outside of the country can be found in the United States.
+
+The lists below show the population count of Poland's largest cities based on 2005 estimates.

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+Pollution is when harmful substances are added to the environment and then change it in a bad way. There are five kinds of pollution of the environment: water pollution, air pollution, noise pollution, soil pollution and thermal pollution.
+
+As pollution grows, ways to combat it have grown. Solar energy and wind energy give people clean ways to power their homes. When people  use these alternative forms of energy, they put less carbon dioxide into the environment.  [1]
+
+Water pollution is the presence of harmful materials in water, such as sewage, dissolved metal, waste from farms, factories and crude oil spilled from oil tankers. The three main substances that pollute water are nitrates from fertilizers, sewage and detergents.
+
+Activities such as bathing and washing clothes near lakes, ponds or rivers add nutrients like nitrate and phosphate into the water bodies.This leads to excessive growth of algae on the surface of water. It blocks the penetration of sunlight and air, thus reducing oxygen.
+
+It causes harm to organisms living in water and can also harm people's health. In extreme cases, it may cause diseases like cancer.[2]It also leads to loss of a large amount of aquatic life.
+
+Air can be polluted by many things.  Examples include poisonous gases, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide and very small particulates.  Smoke and harmful gases released by fires, industries, and thermal power plants cause air pollution.  Using coal and wood as fuels for fire causes a lot of air pollution.  Petroleum produces less pollution per ton, but it causes a lot of pollution since a lot of it is burned globally.  Air pollution may cause health problems such as asthma or other breathing problems.
+
+Air pollution causes global warming and acid rain. This makes it difficult for some living things to survive.
+
+Noise pollution also known as sound pollution is harmful to the brain and hearing of all animals and humans. This includes the sound of vehicles, loud speakers, airplanes, jets, train horns etc. Noise pollution can cause ear problems or even permanent deafness, especially to older people. The schools which are beside the roads suffer from noise pollution. Students cannot concentrate in their studies. People in hospitals near main roads also suffer.
+
+Thermal pollution is the harmful release of heated liquid into a body of water or heat released into the air as a waste product of a industry.
+
+
+
+A common cause of thermal pollution is using water as a coolant by power stations and industrial manufacturers. This puts back warm water, and so raises the temperature and decreases how much oxygen is in the water. The heat released into the air will make the air warmer which increase global warming.

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+Colour or color[1] is a property of light as seen by people. Most of the world's spelling of the word is colour, the word color is used in American English.
+
+The most common colour names are:
+
+"Primary colours" can be mixed to make the other colours. Red, yellow and blue are the three traditional primary colours. The primary colours for television screens and computer monitors are red, green and blue. Printers use magenta, yellow and cyan as their primary colours; they also use black.
+
+People who can not see colours or have a distorted sense of colour are called colour blind. Most colour blind people are male.
+
+Colours are sometimes added to food. Food colouring is used to colour food, but some foods have natural colourings, like beta carotene.
+
+When something has no colour, it is transparent. An example is air.
+
+A translucent material is not the same as a colourless material because it can still have a colour, like stained glass.
+

ensimple/4713.html.txt

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+A polygon is a closed two-dimensional shape. It is a simple curve that is made up of straight line segments. It usually has three sides/corners or more.
+
+It could also be referred to as 'A closed plane figure bound by three or more straight line segments'. It has a number of edges. These edges are connected by lines. A square is a polygon because it has four sides. The smallest possible polygon in a Euclidean geometry or "flat geometry" is the triangle, but on a sphere, there can be a digon and a henagon.
+
+If the edges (lines of the polygon) do not intersect (cross each other), the polygon is called simple, otherwise it is complex.
+
+In computer graphics, polygons (especially triangles) are often used to make graphics.
+
+A complex pentagon
+
+A simple concave hexagon
+
+A non-regular heptagon
+
+A non-regular octagon
+
+A non-regular decagon
+
+A enneacontakaienneagon

ensimple/4714.html.txt

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+This is a list of gods, goddesses, people and other figures from Greek mythology. They are sorted into sections below. The immortals include gods (deities), spirits and giants. Being immortal means that they live forever. The mortals include heroes, kings, Amazons and other people. The list does not include creatures.
+
+These figures are described by ancient writers, the oldest of which are Homer and Hesiod.[1][2] The Greeks created images of their deities for many reasons. A temple would house the statue of a god or goddess, or several deities. The statue might be decorated with relief scenes depicting myths. These were also often painted on pottery and minted on coins.
+
+Roman mythology includes many of the same figures, but uses different names: calling Zeus by the name of Jupiter and Aphrodite by the name of Venus, for example. This is called the Venetian creole language. It is called Venetian band.
+
+The main and most important gods were the Twelve Olympians. The home of these gods is at the top of Mount Olympus. There was some variation as to which deities were included in the Twelve.[3] As such, the list below numbers fourteen. It includes all those who are commonly named as one of the Twelve in art and poetry. Dionysus was a later addition; in some descriptions, he replaced Hestia. Hades is not usually included among the Olympians, because his home was the underworld. Some writers, however, such as Plato, named him as one of the Twelve.[4][5]
+
+Goddess of love, beauty and desire. She was married to Hephaestus, but she had many lovers, including Ares, Adonis and Anchises. She was depicted as a beautiful woman and often naked. Her symbols include roses and other flowers, the scallop shell, and myrtle wreath. Her sacred animals are doves and sparrows. The Roman version of Aphrodite was Venus.
+
+Image: Cnidian Aphrodite, a Roman work based on an original by Praxiteles
+
+God of light,  healing, music, poetry, plague, prophecy, and more. He is the son of Zeus and Leto, and the twin brother of Artemis. Apollo was associated with the Sun; while Artemis was the Moon. Both use a bow and arrow. In the earliest myths, Apollo fights with his half-brother Hermes. In sculpture, Apollo was depicted as a handsome young man with long hair and a perfect physique. His attributes include the laurel wreath and lyre. He often appears in the company of the Muses. Animals sacred to Apollo include roe deer, swans, cicadas, hawks, ravens, crows, foxes, mice and snakes.
+
+Image: Apollo holding a lyre and pouring a libation, on a drinking cup from a tomb at Delphi
+
+God of war and bloodshed. He was the son of Zeus and Hera. He was depicted as a young man, either naked with a helmet and spear or sword, or as an armed warrior. Ares generally represents the chaos of war in contrast to Athena, who represented strategy and skill. Ares' sacred animals are the vulture, venomous snakes, dogs and boars. The Roman version of Ares is Mars.
+
+Image: Roman marble head of the war god, modelled after a Greek bronze original
+
+Goddess of hunting, wilderness, animals and childbirth. In later times she became associated with the Moon. She is the daughter of Zeus and Leto, and the twin sister of Apollo. She is depicted as a young virgin woman. In art she is often shown holding a hunting bow and arrows. Her attributes include hunting spears, animal furs, deer and other wild animals. Her sacred animals are deer, bears and wild boars. The Roman version of Artemis is Diana.
+
+Image: Artemis reaching for arrow (missing) from her quiver, with a hunting dog
+
+Goddess of wisdom and skill, warfare and tactics. According to most traditions, she was born from Zeus's head fully formed and wearing armour. She was depicted with a helmet, holding a shield and a spear, and wearing the Aegis over a long dress. Poets describe her as having very bright, keen eyes. She was a special patron of heroes such as Odysseus. She was also the patron of the city Athens (which is named after her). Born from the head of Zeus (her father) and her mother is Metis, the first wife of Zeus. Her symbol is the olive tree. She is often shown beside her sacred animal, the owl. The Roman version of Athena is Minerva.
+
+Image: Athena on a red-figure cup, dating from 500–490 BCE
+
+Goddess of farming, the harvest and fertility. Demeter is a daughter of Cronus and Rhea. Her brother is Zeus, with whom she had Persephone. She was one of the main deities of the Eleusinian Mysteries. She was depicted as an older woman, often wearing a crown and holding bunches of wheat. Her symbols are the cornucopia, wheat-ears, the winged snake, and the lotus staff. Her sacred animals are pigs and snakes. The Roman version of Demeter is Ceres.
+
+Image: Demeter, sitting down, on a relief from Turkey
+
+God of wine, parties and festivals, madness and ecstasy. He was depicted in art as either an older man with a beard or a pretty young man with long hair. His attributes include the thyrsus (a pinecone-tipped staff), drinking cup, grape vine, and a crown of ivy. He is often shown with his thiasos, a group of followers that includes satyrs, maenads, and his teacher Silenus. The consort of Dionysus was Ariadne. Animals sacred to him include dolphins, snakes and donkeys. Dionysus was a later addition to the Olympians; in some descriptions, he replaced Hestia. "Bacchus" was another name for him in Greek, and this was used by the Romans for their version of the god.
+
+Image: Dionysus sitting on a leopard
+
+King of the underworld and god of the dead. His consort is Persephone. His attributes are the cornucopia, key, sceptre, and the three-headed dog Cerberus. The owl was sacred to him. He was one of three sons of Cronus and Rhea, and therefore was ruler of one of the three realms of the universe, the underworld. He is not very often included as one of the Olympians, however. In Athenian literature, "Ploutōn" (Πλούτων) was his preferred name, while "Hades" was more common as a name for the underworld. The Romans translated "Ploutōn" as Pluto, the name for their version of Hades.
+
+Image: Hades lying down, holding a giant drinking horn and offering a bowl to Persephone
+
+God of fire, metalworking and crafts. He was the son of Hera by parthenogenesis. He is the smith of the gods and the husband of Aphrodite. He was usually depicted as a bearded man with hammer, tongs and anvil—the tools of a smith—and sometimes riding a donkey. His sacred animals are the donkey, the guard dog and the crane. One of his many creations was the armour of Achilles. Hephaestus used fire to create things. The Roman version, however, Vulcan, was feared for his destructive power; he was associated with volcanoes.
+
+Image: Thetis receives the armour made for her son Achilles by Hephaestus
+
+Queen of the heavens and goddess of marriage, women and birth. She is the wife of Zeus and daughter of Cronus and Rhea. She was usually depicted as a regal woman, wearing a crown and veil and holding a lotus-tipped staff. Although she was the goddess of marriage, Zeus's many affairs drive her to jealousy and anger. Her sacred animals are the heifer, the peacock and the cuckoo. The Roman version of Hera is Juno.
+
+Image: Bust of Hera wearing a crown
+
+God of travel, animal husbandry, writing, trade, and more. He is the son of Zeus and Maia, Hermes is the messenger of the gods. He also leads the souls of the dead into the afterlife. He was depicted either as a handsome and fit young man, or as an older bearded man. He was often shown wearing sandals with small wings on them. His sacred animals are the tortoise, the ram and the hawk. The Roman version of Hermes was Mercury.
+
+Image: Hermes holding his caduceus and wearing a cloak and hat for travel
+
+Goddess of the hearth, home and chastity. She was described as a virgin. She is a daughter of Rhea and Cronus, and sister of Zeus. She could not often be identified in Greek art. She appeared as a veiled woman. Her symbols are the hearth and kettle. In some descriptions, she gave up her seat as one of the Twelve Olympians to Dionysus, and she plays a minor role in Greek myths. The Roman version of Hestia, however, Vesta, was a major goddess in Roman culture.
+
+Image: Hestia from a relief depicting all twelve Olympians in procession
+
+God of the sea, rivers, floods, droughts, earthquakes, and the creator of horses. He is a son of Cronus and Rhea, and brother to Zeus and Hades. He rules one of the three realms of the universe as king of the sea and the waters. In classical artwork, he was depicted as an older man with a very large beard, and holding a trident. The horse and the dolphin are sacred to him. His wife is Amphitrite. The Roman version of Poseidon was Neptune.
+
+Image: Sculpture of Poseidon, from the National Archaeological Museum of Athens
+
+King of the gods, and ruler of Mount Olympus. He is the god of the sky, thunder and lightning, law and order, and fate. He is the youngest son of Cronus and Rhea. He overthrew his father and took the throne of heaven for himself. In artwork, he was depicted as a regal, older man with a dark beard. His usual attributes are the royal sceptre and the lightning bolt. His sacred animals are the eagle and the bull. The Roman version of Zeus, Jupiter, was also the main god of the Romans.
+
+Image: Coin made under Alexander the Great showing Zeus on his throne holding a sceptre and eagle.
+
+The primordial deities are the first beings that existed. They are what makes up the universe. All other gods descend from them. The first among them is usually said to be Chaos. Chaos is the nothingness from which all of the others were made. These gods are usually depicted as a place or a realm. Tartarus, for example, is depicted as the deepest pit in the underworld. His brother Erebus is also depicted as a place of darkness, or the emptiness of space. Gaia is depicted as nature or the Earth. Pontus is depicted as the oceans, lakes, and rivers. Chronos is depicted as time.
+
+The Titans are the older kind of gods in Greek mythology. The original Twelve Titans were children of Gaia (Mother Earth) and Uranus (Father Sky).[7] Their leader was Cronus, who overthrew his father Uranus and became ruler of the gods. Cronus' consort was his sister Rhea. Their children were Zeus, Hades, Poseidon, Hera, Demeter and Hestia. Cronus and the Titans were overthrown by Zeus, his youngest son. They fought a war called the Titanomachy. The Titans are depicted in Greek art less often than the Olympians.
+
+The Giants (Γίγαντες, Gigantes) were the children of Gaia. She was fertilised by the blood of Uranus, after Uranus was castrated by his son Cronus. After the Titans' lost their war against the Olympians, Gaia made the Giants rise up against the Olympians to restore the Titans' rule. The Olympians got help from the hero Heracles to stop the Giants. This war was the Gigantomachy.[9]
+
+These deities lived in the underworld. The ruler of the underworld was Hades, who is listed further above under "Olympians".
+
+Seers were prophets, people who were said to be able to see the future or predict events before they happened.

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+Polytheism means believing in many gods. A person that believes in polytheism is called a polytheist. A religion with polytheism can be called a polytheistic religion.
+
+Polytheism is well documented in historical religions of classical antiquity, especially those of ancient Greeks and Romans. Other ancient people who were polytheists include German pagans, Ancient Egyptians, the Celts and the Norse.
+
+There are various polytheistic religions practiced today, for example  Shinto, Chinese folk religion, Thelma, Wicca, Druidism, Taoism, Asatru and Candomblé.
+
+Usually, a polytheistic religion has a set of stories about the gods. This is called mythology.
+
+The opposite of polytheism is monotheism, which is the belief in only one god, practiced by the monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Sikhism, etc.

ensimple/4716.html.txt

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+Polytheism means believing in many gods. A person that believes in polytheism is called a polytheist. A religion with polytheism can be called a polytheistic religion.
+
+Polytheism is well documented in historical religions of classical antiquity, especially those of ancient Greeks and Romans. Other ancient people who were polytheists include German pagans, Ancient Egyptians, the Celts and the Norse.
+
+There are various polytheistic religions practiced today, for example  Shinto, Chinese folk religion, Thelma, Wicca, Druidism, Taoism, Asatru and Candomblé.
+
+Usually, a polytheistic religion has a set of stories about the gods. This is called mythology.
+
+The opposite of polytheism is monotheism, which is the belief in only one god, practiced by the monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Sikhism, etc.

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+
+
+A potato is a root vegetable, the Solanum tuberosum.[2] It is a small plant with large leaves. The part of the potato that people eat is a tuber that grows under the ground.
+
+A potato contains a lot of starch and other carbohydrates. Potato usually has a light-brown or yellowish skin and is white or yellow inside. If the potato gets light on it, the tuber turns green and will be poisonous.[3][4]
+
+The potato is originally from the high and cool areas of the Andes mountains.  It was grown as a food crop thousands of years ago.[5]  When Spanish conquistadores came to South America in the 1500s they took potatoes back to Europe.[5]
+
+It took nearly 200 years for the potato to become a widely grown crop.  In the 1780s the farmers in Ireland began growing potatoes because they grew well in the poor soils.  They also have most of the vitamins that people need to live.  When a potato plague destroyed the crop in 1845 the Irish Potato Famine killed many people.[5][6]
+
+The potato plant is now grown in many different parts of the world. Captain William Bligh planted potatoes on Bruny Island, Tasmania in 1792.[7]  In Australia they are now the largest vegetable crop.[3]
+
+The English word "potato" comes from the Spanish word "patata".
+
+Scientists in Germany have used genetic engineering to make a potato called the Amflora, which could be grown to make starch for making other things in factories.[13]
+
+Potatoes are almost always eaten cooked. People cook potatoes by boiling, baking, roasting, or frying them. French fries or "chips" are potatoes cut into long pieces and fried until they are soft. Potato chips, often called crisps, are potatoes cut into very thin round pieces and fried until they are hard.
+
+William Shakespeare wrote that the potato was an aphrodisiac,[14] but there is no evidence to show this is true.

ensimple/4718.html.txt

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+The apple tree (Malus domestica) is a tree that grows fruit (such as apples) in the rose family best known for its juicy, tasty fruit. It is grown worldwide as a fruit tree. It is considered to be a low-cost fruit harvestable all over the world.
+
+The tree originated in Central Asia. Apples have been grown for thousands of years in Asia and Europe. They were brought to North America by European settlers. Apples have religious and mythological significance in many cultures.
+
+Apples are generally propagated by grafting, although wild apples grow readily from seed. Apple trees are large if grown from seed, but small if grafted onto roots (rootstock). There are more than 7,500 known cultivars of apples, with a range of desired characteristics. Different cultivars are bred for various tastes and uses: cooking, eating raw and cider production are the most common uses.
+
+Trees and fruit are attacked by fungi, bacteria and pests.   In 2010, the fruit's genome was sequenced as part of research on disease control and selective breeding in apple production.
+
+Worldwide production of apples in 2013 was 90.8 million tonnes. China grew 49% of the total.[1]
+
+The apple has a small, leaf-shedding tree that grows up to 3 to 12 metres (9.8 to 39.4 ft) tall. The apple tree has a broad crown with thick twigs.
+The leaves are alternately arranged simple ovals. They are 5 to 12 centimetres long and 3–6centimetres (1.2–2.4in) wide. It has a sharp top with a soft underside. Blossoms come out in spring at the same time that the leaves begin to bud. The flowers are white. They also have a slightly pink color. They are five petaled, and 2.5 to 3.5 centimetres (0.98 to 1.4 in) in diameter. The fruit matures in autumn. It is usually 5 to 9 centimetres (2.0 to 3.5 in) in diameter. There are five carpels arranged in a star in the middle of the fruit. Every carpel has one to three seeds.
+
+The wild ancestor of apple trees is Malus sieversii. They grow wild in the mountains of Central Asia in the north of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Xinjiang, China,[2] and possibly also Malus sylvestris.[3] Unlike domesticated apples, their leaves become red in autumn.[4] They are being used recently to develop Malus domestica to grow in colder climates.[5]
+
+The apple tree was possibly the earliest tree to be cultivated.[6] Its fruits have become better over thousands of years. It is said that Alexander the Great discovered dwarf apples in Asia Minor in 300 BC. Asia and Europe have used winter apples as an important food for thousands of years. From when Europeans arrived, Argentina and the United States have used apples as food as well.[6] Apples were brought to North America in the 1600s. The first apple orchard on the North American continent was said to be near Boston in 1625. In the 1900s, costly fruit industries, where the apple was a very important species, began developing.[5]
+
+In Norse mythology, the goddess Iðunn gives apples to the gods in Prose Edda (written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson) that makes them young forever. English scholar H. R. Ellis Davidson suggests that apples were related to religious practices in Germanic paganism. It was from there, she claims, that Norse paganism developed. She points out that buckets of apples were discovered in the place of burial for the Oseberg ship in Norway. She also remarks that fruit and nuts (Iðunn having been described as changing into a nut in Skáldskaparmál) have been discovered in the early graves of the Germanic peoples in England. They have also been discovered somewhere else on the continent of Europe. She suggests that this may have had a symbolic meaning. Nuts are still a symbol of fertility in Southwest England.
+
+Sometimes apples are eaten after they are cooked. Often apples are eaten uncooked. Apples can also be made into drinks. Apple juice and apple cider are apple drinks.
+
+The flesh of the fruit is firm with a taste anywhere from sour to sweet. Apples used for cooking are sour, and need to be cooked with sugar, while other apples are sweet, and do not need cooking. There are some seeds at the core, that can be removed with a tool that removes the core, or by carefully using a knife.
+
+The scientific name of the apple tree genus in the Latin language is Malus. Most apples that people grow are of the Malus domestica species.
+
+Most apples are good to eat raw (not cooked), and are also used in many kinds of baked foods, such as apple pie. Apples are cooked until they are soft to make apple sauce.
+
+Apples are also made into the drinks apple juice and cider. Usually, cider contains a little alcohol, about as much as beer. The regions of Brittany in France and Cornwall in England are known for their apple ciders.
+
+If one wants to grow a certain type of apple it is not possible to do this by planting a seed from the wanted type. The seed will have DNA from the apple that the seeds came from, but it will also  have DNA from the apple flower that pollinated the seeds, which may well be a different type. This means that the tree which would grow from planting would be a mixture of two. In order to grow a certain type of apple, a small twig, or 'scion', is cut from the tree that grows the type of apple desired, and then added on to a specially grown stump called a rootstock. The tree that grows will only create apples of the type needed.
+
+There are more than 7,500 known cultivars of apples.[7] Different cultivars are available for temperate and subtropical climates. One large collection of over 2,100[8] apple cultivars is at the National Fruit Collection in England. Most of these cultivars are grown for eating fresh (dessert apples). However, some are grown simply for cooking or making cider. Cider apples are usually too tart to eat immediately. However, they give cider a rich flavor that dessert apples cannot.[9]
+
+Most popular apple cultivars are soft but crisp. Colorful skin, easy shipping, disease resistance, 'Red Delicious' apple shape, and popular flavor are also needed.[10] Modern apples are usually sweeter than older cultivars. This is because popular tastes in apples have become different. Most North Americans and Europeans enjoy sweet apples.[11] Extremely sweet apples with hardly any acid taste are popular in Asia[11] and India.[9]
+
+In the United Kingdom there are about 3000 different types of apples. The most common apple type grown in England is the 'Bramley seedling', which is a popular cooking apple.
+
+Apple orchards are not as common as they were in the early 1900s, when apples were rarely brought in from other countries. Organizations such as Common Ground teach people about the importance of rare and local varieties of fruit. 'Apple Day' is celebrated each October 21 in many countries.
+
+Many apples are grown in temperate parts of the United States and Canada. In many areas where apple growing is important, people have huge celebrations:
+
+There are lots of different varieties of apples, including:
+
+Apples are in the group Maloideae. It is a subfamily of the family Rosaceae. They are in the same subfamily as pears. Its family is the family of rose like plants, and roses are in the family.

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+
+
+A potato is a root vegetable, the Solanum tuberosum.[2] It is a small plant with large leaves. The part of the potato that people eat is a tuber that grows under the ground.
+
+A potato contains a lot of starch and other carbohydrates. Potato usually has a light-brown or yellowish skin and is white or yellow inside. If the potato gets light on it, the tuber turns green and will be poisonous.[3][4]
+
+The potato is originally from the high and cool areas of the Andes mountains.  It was grown as a food crop thousands of years ago.[5]  When Spanish conquistadores came to South America in the 1500s they took potatoes back to Europe.[5]
+
+It took nearly 200 years for the potato to become a widely grown crop.  In the 1780s the farmers in Ireland began growing potatoes because they grew well in the poor soils.  They also have most of the vitamins that people need to live.  When a potato plague destroyed the crop in 1845 the Irish Potato Famine killed many people.[5][6]
+
+The potato plant is now grown in many different parts of the world. Captain William Bligh planted potatoes on Bruny Island, Tasmania in 1792.[7]  In Australia they are now the largest vegetable crop.[3]
+
+The English word "potato" comes from the Spanish word "patata".
+
+Scientists in Germany have used genetic engineering to make a potato called the Amflora, which could be grown to make starch for making other things in factories.[13]
+
+Potatoes are almost always eaten cooked. People cook potatoes by boiling, baking, roasting, or frying them. French fries or "chips" are potatoes cut into long pieces and fried until they are soft. Potato chips, often called crisps, are potatoes cut into very thin round pieces and fried until they are hard.
+
+William Shakespeare wrote that the potato was an aphrodisiac,[14] but there is no evidence to show this is true.

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+Photography is a way of making a picture using a camera.[1] A person who makes pictures using a camera is called a photographer.[1] A picture made using a camera is called a photograph or photo.[1] Photography became popular in the middle 19th century with Daguerreotype. Later wet plate and dry plate methods were invented. Most photography in the 20th century was on photographic film and most in the 21st uses digital cameras.
+
+A "camera" is, in its simplest form, like a box with a hole in front of it. There is a special piece of glass in front of the hole called a lens. To take a photograph of something, the lens makes a small picture of the object inside the camera. The lens does this by focusing light. A lens in a camera works like a lens in glasses (spectacles) or a magnifying glass. One type of camera called the Pinhole camera has no lens but uses a very small hole to focus light.
+
+To make a photograph with a camera the shutter release button is pressed. Pressing the button opens the shutter. The shutter is like a door. It covers the hole in the camera box. The shutter is behind the lens. When the shutter is closed no light can enter the camera box. When the shutter is open light can enter the camera. When the button is pressed the shutter opens and then closes. This happens very fast. The amount of time the shutter stays open for is called the shutter speed. The shutter speed can change between 1/1000th of a second (0.001 s) to a few seconds. Normally the time taken for the shutter to open and close is far less than 1 second.
+
+Some cameras have an aperture ring.  It controls how much light enters the camera box.
+
+The photograph in a camera may be made on film or, if it is a digital camera, using an electronic sensor.
+
+The picture the lens makes is recorded on photographic film. Film is placed inside the camera box. Light coming through the lens, aperture and open shutter shines on the film. Photographic film is coated with chemicals that react when light shines on it. Letting light shine on the film is called exposing the film.
+
+There are many different types of photographic film.  There are films for taking colour photographs and films for taking black and white photographs.  There are different sizes of film.  The most common size is 35 mm. It is called 35 mm because the width of the film is 35 millimetres.
+
+Another difference between films is how sensitive they are to light. Films have a code number, called an ISO number.  The number tells how fast a film reacts when light shines on it.
+
+Once the film has been exposed it is processed. Processing has to be done in total darkness or the film will be exposed too much and the picture will be lost. Processing stops the film reacting to light any more. After the film has been processed the picture can be seen on the film.
+
+A photographic print is a photograph made on paper. A light sensitive paper is used. The picture on the film is placed in an enlarger. An enlarger is a machine that shines light through the film and makes a bigger picture on the light sensitive paper. A chemical reaction happens in the paper, which turns the areas hit with light black when the paper is 'developed'. (The more light, the darker the area.) Developing makes the picture appear on the paper – now it is a photograph. Then the paper is put into other chemicals that make it not sensitive to light any more. This is called "fixing". Last, the paper is washed so that there are no more chemicals on it and then dried. Then it is finished.
+
+Digital photography uses a digital camera. Sometimes it is called digital imaging. Like other cameras a digital camera has a lens, aperture, and shutter. The picture the lens makes is recorded by a light-sensitive electronic sensor. A digital camera does not use photographic film to record a picture. Digital photographs are stored in storage devices such as SD cards. They can later be transferred to a computer. Paper prints can also be made from digital pictures. Digital cameras are also not expensive to use, as there is no film to buy.
+
+One of the most important things when taking a photograph is focusing the lens. If the lens is not focused well, the photograph will be blurry. Autofocus cameras focus automatically when the shutter release is pressed. There are also manual focus cameras (usually older ones).
+
+Three other things are important when taking a photograph. These control how bright or dark the photograph will be.
+
+A slower shutter speed, a bigger aperture, and faster film/higher ISO sensor all make a brighter picture. A faster shutter speed, a smaller aperture, and a slower film/lower ISO sensor all make a darker picture. A good picture is not too bright and not too dark. When it is too bright it would be called "overexposed". An automatic camera changes these things by itself when the shutter release is pressed.