30c34e9cdf6bcb99bcb6759489a19f21fbc53ab7ca7f45dfedc6cae33413015f

ensimple/4225.html.txt

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+
+
+The Indian Ocean is the ocean surrounded by Asia to the north, Australia and the Pacific Ocean to the east, the Southern Ocean to the south, and Africa and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. It is named for the river Indus and Ancient India on its north shore. The Bay of Bengal, the Arabian Sea, the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea are all parts of this ocean.
+
+The deepest point in the Indian Ocean is in the Java Trench near the Sunda Islands in the east, 7500 m (25,344 feet) deep. The average depth is 3,890 m (12,762 ft). The Indian Ocean is the third largest ocean, 28,350,000 square miles in size. The majority is in the southern hemisphere.
+

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+
+
+The Pacific Ocean is the body of water between Asia and Australia in the west, the Americas in the east, the Southern Ocean to the south, and the Arctic Ocean to the north. It is the largest named ocean and it covers one-third of the surface of the entire world. It joins the Atlantic Ocean at a line drawn  south from Cape Horn, Chile/Argentina to Antarctica, and joins the Indian Ocean at a line drawn  south from Tasmania, Australia to Antarctica.
+
+As the Atlantic slowly gets wider, the Pacific is slowly shrinking. It does this by folding the sea floor in towards the centre of the Earth - this is called subduction.  This bumping and grinding is hard so there are many earthquakes and volcanoes when the pressure builds up and is quickly released as large explosions of hot rocks and dust. When an earthquake happens under the sea, the quick jerk causes a tsunami.  This is why tsunamis are more common around the edge of the Pacific than anywhere else.  Many of the Earth's volcanoes are either islands in the Pacific, or are on continents within a few hundred kilometers of the ocean's edge. Plate tectonics are another reason which makes Pacific Ocean smaller.

ensimple/4227.html.txt

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+
+
+The Pacific Ocean is the body of water between Asia and Australia in the west, the Americas in the east, the Southern Ocean to the south, and the Arctic Ocean to the north. It is the largest named ocean and it covers one-third of the surface of the entire world. It joins the Atlantic Ocean at a line drawn  south from Cape Horn, Chile/Argentina to Antarctica, and joins the Indian Ocean at a line drawn  south from Tasmania, Australia to Antarctica.
+
+As the Atlantic slowly gets wider, the Pacific is slowly shrinking. It does this by folding the sea floor in towards the centre of the Earth - this is called subduction.  This bumping and grinding is hard so there are many earthquakes and volcanoes when the pressure builds up and is quickly released as large explosions of hot rocks and dust. When an earthquake happens under the sea, the quick jerk causes a tsunami.  This is why tsunamis are more common around the edge of the Pacific than anywhere else.  Many of the Earth's volcanoes are either islands in the Pacific, or are on continents within a few hundred kilometers of the ocean's edge. Plate tectonics are another reason which makes Pacific Ocean smaller.

ensimple/4228.html.txt

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+(An ocean is a large area of water between continents. Oceans are very big and they join smaller seas together. Together, the oceans are like one "ocean", because all the "oceans" are joined. Oceans (or marine biomes) cover 72% of our planet.[1] 
+The largest ocean is the Pacific Ocean. It covers 1/3 (one third) of the Earth's surface. Big and small fish of different types live in oceans. Crabs, starfish, sharks, whales etc are also found in oceans.)
+
+The smallest ocean is the Arctic Ocean.
+Different water movements separate the Southern Ocean from the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. The Southern ocean is also called the Antarctic Ocean, because it covers the area around Antarctica. Older maps may not use the names Arctic Ocean and Southern Ocean.
+
+The deepest ocean is the Pacific ocean. The deepest point is the Mariana Trench, being about 11,000 metres (36,200 feet) deep. The deep ocean is characterized by cold temperatures, high pressure, and complete darkness. Some very unusual organisms live in this part of the ocean. They do not require energy from the sun to survive, because they use chemicals  from deep inside the Earth (see hydrothermal vent).
+
+Although many people believe that the oceans are blue because the water reflects the blue sky, this is actually not true.  Water has a very slight blue color that can only be seen when there is a lot of water. However, the main cause of the blue or blue/green color of the oceans is that water absorbs the red part of the incoming light, and reflects the green and blue part of the light.  We then see the reflected light as the color of water.
+
+Organisms that live in oceans can live in salt water. They are affected by sunlight, temperature, water pressure, and water movement. Different ocean organisms live near the surface, in shallow waters, and in deep waters. Small plant organisms that live near the surface and use sunlight to produce food are called phytoplankton. Almost all animals in the ocean depend directly or indirectly on these plants. In shallow water, you may find lobsters and crabs. In deeper water, marine animals of many different shapes and sizes swim through the ocean. These include many types of fish, such as tuna, swordfish and marine mammals like dolphins and whales. The skies above the open ocean are home to large sea birds, such as the albatross.[1]
+
+Nations like Russia and Japan have lots of huge ships that go to some of the world's best fishing areas for many months. These large ships have libraries, hospitals, schools, repair (fixing) shops and other things that are needed for fishermen and their families.
+
+Many people look at the sea as a source of food, minerals and energy.
+
+According to the FishBase.org website, there are 33,200 known species of fish, and many of them live in the oceans.[2]  Many of these fish are a fine source of protein, so many people eat them. Fishing industries are very important because they make jobs and give food to millions of people. Today, usually through ocean fishing, the ocean supplies about 2% of the calories needed by people.[3] Tuna, anchovies, and herring are harvested close to the surface of the ocean.[3] Pollock, flounder and cod are caught near the ocean floor.[3] More than a million tons of herring are caught every year in the North Pacific and North Atlantic, and almost eight fish out of ten fish are eaten as food for humans. The other fish are used as fertilizer, glue, and pet and other animal food.[3]
+
+There are many different ocean temperatures in the open ocean, both vertically (from top to bottom) and horizontally. Icebergs are made over very cold waters at either pole, while waters at the equator are pretty warm.[3] Water cools and warms more slowly than land does, so land influenced by the ocean has later and milder seasons than land that is farther away from the ocean.
+
+The surface part of the ocean, also called the mixed layer, is not much colder even when we go deeper down.[3] Below this surface zone is a layer of sudden temperature difference, called a thermocline. This is a middle layer hat is from the surface zone down to about 2,600 feet (800 m). Thermoclines may happen only at seasons or permanently, and may change depending on where and how deep it is. As evaporation happens, it begins cooling, and if the water evaporates very quickly, the water becomes saltier. The salty, cold water is denser, so it sinks. This is why warm and cold waters do not easily mix. Most animals and plants live in the warm upper layer. Below the thermocline, temperature in the deep zone is so cold it is just above freezing - between 32–37.4 °F (0–3 °C).[3]

ensimple/4229.html.txt

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+Augustus (Latin: Imperator Caesar Dīvī Fīlius Augustus; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August 14 AD) was the first Roman Emperor, ruling from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He led Rome in its transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire.
+
+Octavian, as he was originally called, was the adopted son of the dictator of the Roman Republic, Julius Caesar. Octavian came into power in the Second Triumvirate. This was three men ruling over the Roman Republic: Mark Antony, Lepidus and Octavian.
+
+All three were loyal to Julius Caesar, the assassinated dictator, killed in 44 BC. Following his death a civil war broke out across Rome, between those loyal to Caesar, and the conspirators, led by two of Caesar's assassins, Brutus and Cassius.
+
+At first, Octavian was the junior partner in the triumvirate. Lepidus was more experienced in government, and Mark Antony was a fine military leader. The triumvirate defeated Brutus and Cassius at the Battle of Philippi, 42 BC, largely due to Antony's leadership. Then they split the leadership of the Republic three ways. Antony took the east, Lepidus took Spain and part of North Africa, and Octavian took Italy.
+
+Antony followed in Caesar's footsteps by going to Egypt and becoming Cleopatra's lover. They had three children together. His absence from Rome allowed the intelligent Octavian to build up support.
+
+The triumvirate broke up in 33 BC, and disagreement turned to civil war in 31 BC. Antony was defeated by Octavian at the naval Battle of Actium and then at Alexandria. He committed suicide, as did his lover, Cleopatra VII of Egypt, in 30 BC. Lepidus was sidelined, blamed for a revolt in Sicily, and removed from government. He died peacefully in exile in Circeii in Italy in the year 13 BC.
+
+After winning the power struggle, Octavian was voted as Emperor by the Roman Senate in 31 BC. He took the name "Augustus" (which meant 'exalted'). He ruled until AD 14,[1] when his stepson and son-in-law Tiberius became Emperor in his place.
+
+During his reign, some of those who were against his government were murdered (especially those senators who wanted to keep the Roman Republic). He promised to make Rome a Republic again, but instead proclaimed himself High Priest (Pontifex Maximus). Many temples in the provinces set up statues of him as one of their gods. The name of the month "August" in English (and most other European languages) comes from him.
+
+His main accomplishment was the creation of the Roman Empire, a political structure that lasted for nearly five centuries more. He first recruited and set up the Praetorian Guard.
+
+Historians often use the Res Gestae Divi Augusti as a source for Augustus. It was written by him as an inscription on his tomb which recorded all his achievements.
+
+The historian Tacitus is often used by historians. He gives an anti-Augustan perspective, whereas many other sources and histories were written to flatter Augustus (propaganda). Some examples of writers like these are Velleius Paterculus, Virgil, Ovid. The most famous work of Augustan propaganda is the Virgil's Aeneid
+
+Cassius Dio presents a quite impartial account of Augustus as emperor: he was writing in the reign of a later emperor.
+
+Bust of Augustus, palace of Versailles, 17th century
+
+Bust of Augustus in old-age, palace of Versailles

ensimple/423.html.txt

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+Asunción (full name: Nuestra Señora Santa María de la Asunción), is the capital city and largest city of Paraguay. The city has more than 1.2 million inhabitants, and the metropolitan area has more than 1.8 million inhabitants. It is on the left bank of the Paraguay River and is the main seaport of Paraguay.
+
+The Spanish word "asunción" means assumption in English. It refers to the Assumption of Mary; the full name means Our Lady, Holy Mary of the Assumption.
+

ensimple/4230.html.txt

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+Augustus (Latin: Imperator Caesar Dīvī Fīlius Augustus; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August 14 AD) was the first Roman Emperor, ruling from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He led Rome in its transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire.
+
+Octavian, as he was originally called, was the adopted son of the dictator of the Roman Republic, Julius Caesar. Octavian came into power in the Second Triumvirate. This was three men ruling over the Roman Republic: Mark Antony, Lepidus and Octavian.
+
+All three were loyal to Julius Caesar, the assassinated dictator, killed in 44 BC. Following his death a civil war broke out across Rome, between those loyal to Caesar, and the conspirators, led by two of Caesar's assassins, Brutus and Cassius.
+
+At first, Octavian was the junior partner in the triumvirate. Lepidus was more experienced in government, and Mark Antony was a fine military leader. The triumvirate defeated Brutus and Cassius at the Battle of Philippi, 42 BC, largely due to Antony's leadership. Then they split the leadership of the Republic three ways. Antony took the east, Lepidus took Spain and part of North Africa, and Octavian took Italy.
+
+Antony followed in Caesar's footsteps by going to Egypt and becoming Cleopatra's lover. They had three children together. His absence from Rome allowed the intelligent Octavian to build up support.
+
+The triumvirate broke up in 33 BC, and disagreement turned to civil war in 31 BC. Antony was defeated by Octavian at the naval Battle of Actium and then at Alexandria. He committed suicide, as did his lover, Cleopatra VII of Egypt, in 30 BC. Lepidus was sidelined, blamed for a revolt in Sicily, and removed from government. He died peacefully in exile in Circeii in Italy in the year 13 BC.
+
+After winning the power struggle, Octavian was voted as Emperor by the Roman Senate in 31 BC. He took the name "Augustus" (which meant 'exalted'). He ruled until AD 14,[1] when his stepson and son-in-law Tiberius became Emperor in his place.
+
+During his reign, some of those who were against his government were murdered (especially those senators who wanted to keep the Roman Republic). He promised to make Rome a Republic again, but instead proclaimed himself High Priest (Pontifex Maximus). Many temples in the provinces set up statues of him as one of their gods. The name of the month "August" in English (and most other European languages) comes from him.
+
+His main accomplishment was the creation of the Roman Empire, a political structure that lasted for nearly five centuries more. He first recruited and set up the Praetorian Guard.
+
+Historians often use the Res Gestae Divi Augusti as a source for Augustus. It was written by him as an inscription on his tomb which recorded all his achievements.
+
+The historian Tacitus is often used by historians. He gives an anti-Augustan perspective, whereas many other sources and histories were written to flatter Augustus (propaganda). Some examples of writers like these are Velleius Paterculus, Virgil, Ovid. The most famous work of Augustan propaganda is the Virgil's Aeneid
+
+Cassius Dio presents a quite impartial account of Augustus as emperor: he was writing in the reign of a later emperor.
+
+Bust of Augustus, palace of Versailles, 17th century
+
+Bust of Augustus in old-age, palace of Versailles

ensimple/4231.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+Augustus (Latin: Imperator Caesar Dīvī Fīlius Augustus; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August 14 AD) was the first Roman Emperor, ruling from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. He led Rome in its transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire.
+
+Octavian, as he was originally called, was the adopted son of the dictator of the Roman Republic, Julius Caesar. Octavian came into power in the Second Triumvirate. This was three men ruling over the Roman Republic: Mark Antony, Lepidus and Octavian.
+
+All three were loyal to Julius Caesar, the assassinated dictator, killed in 44 BC. Following his death a civil war broke out across Rome, between those loyal to Caesar, and the conspirators, led by two of Caesar's assassins, Brutus and Cassius.
+
+At first, Octavian was the junior partner in the triumvirate. Lepidus was more experienced in government, and Mark Antony was a fine military leader. The triumvirate defeated Brutus and Cassius at the Battle of Philippi, 42 BC, largely due to Antony's leadership. Then they split the leadership of the Republic three ways. Antony took the east, Lepidus took Spain and part of North Africa, and Octavian took Italy.
+
+Antony followed in Caesar's footsteps by going to Egypt and becoming Cleopatra's lover. They had three children together. His absence from Rome allowed the intelligent Octavian to build up support.
+
+The triumvirate broke up in 33 BC, and disagreement turned to civil war in 31 BC. Antony was defeated by Octavian at the naval Battle of Actium and then at Alexandria. He committed suicide, as did his lover, Cleopatra VII of Egypt, in 30 BC. Lepidus was sidelined, blamed for a revolt in Sicily, and removed from government. He died peacefully in exile in Circeii in Italy in the year 13 BC.
+
+After winning the power struggle, Octavian was voted as Emperor by the Roman Senate in 31 BC. He took the name "Augustus" (which meant 'exalted'). He ruled until AD 14,[1] when his stepson and son-in-law Tiberius became Emperor in his place.
+
+During his reign, some of those who were against his government were murdered (especially those senators who wanted to keep the Roman Republic). He promised to make Rome a Republic again, but instead proclaimed himself High Priest (Pontifex Maximus). Many temples in the provinces set up statues of him as one of their gods. The name of the month "August" in English (and most other European languages) comes from him.
+
+His main accomplishment was the creation of the Roman Empire, a political structure that lasted for nearly five centuries more. He first recruited and set up the Praetorian Guard.
+
+Historians often use the Res Gestae Divi Augusti as a source for Augustus. It was written by him as an inscription on his tomb which recorded all his achievements.
+
+The historian Tacitus is often used by historians. He gives an anti-Augustan perspective, whereas many other sources and histories were written to flatter Augustus (propaganda). Some examples of writers like these are Velleius Paterculus, Virgil, Ovid. The most famous work of Augustan propaganda is the Virgil's Aeneid
+
+Cassius Dio presents a quite impartial account of Augustus as emperor: he was writing in the reign of a later emperor.
+
+Bust of Augustus, palace of Versailles, 17th century
+
+Bust of Augustus in old-age, palace of Versailles

ensimple/4232.html.txt

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+October (Oct.) is the tenth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between September and November. It has 31 days. The name comes from the Latin octo for "eight". It was the eighth month of the year before January and February were added to the beginning of the year.
+
+October begins on the same day of the week as January in common years, but doesn't begin on the same day of the week as any other month in leap years. October always ends on the same day of the week as February, and additionally, January in common years.
+
+October is the tenth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming after September and before November. It has 31 days. Its name comes from Latin octo, meaning eight, as it was the eighth month of the year in the Old Roman Calendar before January and February were added to the beginning of the year, though its name did not change. The tenth month at the time was December.
+
+October is an Autumn (Fall) month in the Northern Hemisphere and a Spring month in the Southern Hemisphere. In each Hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of April in the other.
+
+October begins on the same day of week as January in common years, but no other month in leap years begins on the same day of the week as October. October ends on the same day of the week as January in common years and February every year, as each other's last days are 39 weeks (273 days) and 35 weeks (245 days) apart respectively.
+
+In common years, October starts on the same day of the week as May of the previous year, and in leap years, August of the previous year. In common years, October finishes on the same day of the week as May of the previous year, and in leap years, August and November of the previous year.
+
+In years immediately before common years, October starts on the same day of the week as April and July of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, September and December of the following year. In years immediately before common years, October finishes on the same day of the week as July of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, April and December of the following year.
+
+October is the month of the Rosary devotion.[1]
+
+October 31/November 1 is Samhain in old Pagan tradition. Several current observances at this time are believed to be related to it. They are: Halloween (October 31) in many western traditions, All Saints Day (November 1), All Souls Day (November 2), and the Day of the Dead (October 31 to November 2), which is celebrated in Mexico.
+
+edit
+
+January | 
+February | 
+March | 
+April | 
+May | 
+June | 
+July | 
+August | 
+September | 
+October |
+November | 
+December
+
+edit
+
+SMM2 Ver 3.0.0
+
+Stop Using Yooka-laylee in october 2021
+
+Stop making Yooka-laylee nintendo switch cartridges in october 2021
+
+Say goodbye to Yooka-laylee in october 2021
+
+Pedro is going to use Super Mario Maker 2 Ver 3.0.0 in October 2021
+
+Pedro Going Added New course parts have been added.
+
+SMB2 Mushroom
+
+Frog Suit
+
+Power Balloon
+
+Super Acorn
+
+Boomerang Flower
+
+Cannon Box
+
+Propeller Box
+
+Goomba Mask
+
+Bullet Bill Mask
+
+Red POW Box
+
+Larry
+
+Iggy
+
+Wendy
+
+Lemmy
+
+Roy
+
+Morton
+
+Ludwig
+
+Mechakoopa
+
+Blasta Mechakoopa
+
+Zappa Mechakoopa
+
+Cursed Key
+
+ON/OFF Trampoline
+
+Dotted-line Block For Super Mario 3D World Style
+
+WORLD MAKER
+
+Worldbot
+
+Super Worlds
+
+Added the following tags: Art, Technical, Shooter, Boss battle, Single player, and Link.
+
+Smm2 october 2021 new course parts patch notes
+
+new levels
+
+new games

ensimple/4233.html.txt

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+A polygon is a closed two-dimensional shape. It is a simple curve that is made up of straight line segments. It usually has three sides/corners or more.
+
+It could also be referred to as 'A closed plane figure bound by three or more straight line segments'. It has a number of edges. These edges are connected by lines. A square is a polygon because it has four sides. The smallest possible polygon in a Euclidean geometry or "flat geometry" is the triangle, but on a sphere, there can be a digon and a henagon.
+
+If the edges (lines of the polygon) do not intersect (cross each other), the polygon is called simple, otherwise it is complex.
+
+In computer graphics, polygons (especially triangles) are often used to make graphics.
+
+A complex pentagon
+
+A simple concave hexagon
+
+A non-regular heptagon
+
+A non-regular octagon
+
+A non-regular decagon
+
+A enneacontakaienneagon

ensimple/4234.html.txt

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+A polygon is a closed two-dimensional shape. It is a simple curve that is made up of straight line segments. It usually has three sides/corners or more.
+
+It could also be referred to as 'A closed plane figure bound by three or more straight line segments'. It has a number of edges. These edges are connected by lines. A square is a polygon because it has four sides. The smallest possible polygon in a Euclidean geometry or "flat geometry" is the triangle, but on a sphere, there can be a digon and a henagon.
+
+If the edges (lines of the polygon) do not intersect (cross each other), the polygon is called simple, otherwise it is complex.
+
+In computer graphics, polygons (especially triangles) are often used to make graphics.
+
+A complex pentagon
+
+A simple concave hexagon
+
+A non-regular heptagon
+
+A non-regular octagon
+
+A non-regular decagon
+
+A enneacontakaienneagon

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+Odessa or Odesa[1] (Ukrainian: Одеcа, [ɔˈdɛsɑ]; also referred to as Odessa) is a city in southwestern Ukraine on the Black Sea shore. It is the administrative center of the Odessa Oblast (province), and is its own separate district within the oblast. Odessa is a major port on the Black Sea. The mayor of Odessa is Hennadiy Trukhanov.
+
+In 2004, about 1,012,500 people lived in Odessa.
+
+Odessa is a warm water port, but of small military value. Because Turkey controls the Dardanelles and Bosphorus, NATO can control ships moving between Odessa and the Mediterranean Sea.  The city has two important ports: Odessa itself and Yuzhne.  Yuzhne is an oil terminal that is important to the world.  It is in Odessa's suburbs. Another important port, Chornomorsk, is in the same oblast, to the south-west of Odessa. Important transportation comes together at these ports. Railways and pipelines come to these ports. Pipelines connect Odessa's oil and chemical factories to Russia's and the EU's.
+
+Odessa is the fifth-largest city in Ukraine and its most important trading city. In the 19th century it was the fourth city of Imperial Russia, after Moscow and St. Petersburg, and Warsaw.[2] Its old buildings seem more Mediterranean than Russian. They were made like French and Italian buildings. People in Odessa could always laugh and had a spirit of freedom.  The reason is probably because it is a nice place and because the people accept others.  They let others be the kind of people that they are.
+
+A very old Greek colony named Olbia (Greek: Ολβία, glorious) probably was where the city is now. Many monuments from old times link this place  to the Eastern Mediterranean.  In the Middle Ages these lands were a part of the Kievan Rus, Galich and Volyn Principality, the Golden Horde, the Great Lithuanian Principality, the Crimean Khanate and the Ottoman Empire. Crimean Tatars traded there in the 14th century. At the time of the Russian–Turkish wars these lands were captured by Russia.  That was at the end of the 18th century.[3]
+
+From 1819–1858 Odessa was a free port (porto franco). During the Soviet time it was the most important port of trade in the U.S.S.R. and a Soviet naval base. On January 1, 2000 the Quarantine Pier of Odessa trade sea port was made a free port and free economic zone for 25 years.
+
+In the 15th century AD, nomadic tribes of the Nogays under the government of the Khanate of Crimea lived in the place that is now Odessa. During the reign of Khan Haci I Giray, the Khanate was in danger from the Golden Horde and the Ottoman Turks.  To get help, the khan gave Odessa to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
+The place now named Odessa was then named Khadjibey (also spelled as Khadjibei, Khadzhibei, or Gadzhibei; Lithuanian: Chadžibėjus; Crimean Tatar and Turkish: Hacibey).  It was part of the Dykra region.  Few people lived in that region.  They were part of the Turkic tribes.  The land was mostly empty steppes.
+
+The Ottoman Empire controlled Khadjibey after 1529.  The region surrounding Khadjibey was named Yedisan.  In the middle of the 18th century, the Ottomans rebuilt a fortress at Khadjibey.  It was named Eni Dunia (Turkish: Yeni Dünya, literally "new world").
+
+At the time of the war between Russia and Turkey (1787–1792), on 25 September 1789, Ivan Gudovich led a group of Russian soldiers to Khadjibey.  They took Khadjibey and Yeni Dünya for the Russian Empire.  A Spaniard in the Russian army named Major General José de Ribas led one group of soldiers.  Russians named him Osip Mikhailovich Deribas.  The main street in Odessa today is named Deribasovskaya street after him.  Turkey let Russia keep the city in the Treaty of Jassy (agreement of Jassy) in 1792.  Russians made it a part of a place they named Novorossiya (New Russia).
+
+The Russian government decided to build a naval fortress on the ruins of Khadjibey city in 1794.  This became the city named Odessa by January 1795.  In that year its new name was first written in government letters. The reasons for the new name are lost but people have made stories.  According to one of the stories, when someone said Odessos should be the name for the new Russian port, Catherine II said that all names in the South of the Empire were already 'masculine,' and she did not want another one, so she decided to change it to more 'feminine' Odessa. This story may be false.  There were at least two cities (Eupatoria and Theodosia) with names that sound 'feminine' for a Russian; also, Catherine II did not speak Russian when she was a child, and lastly, all cities are feminine in Greek (and in Latin).  Another story is that the name 'Odessa' is from word-play in French.  French was then the language spoken at the Russian court. 'Plenty of water' is assez d'eau in French.  If one says this backwards, it sounds like the Greek colony's name.  Word-play about water makes sense. Odessa is next to a very big body of water but has a little fresh water.  Anyhow, there is still a link with the name of the old Greek colony.  So there may be some truth in the things people said long ago.
+
+The new city quickly became a major success. Its early growth owed much to the work of the Duc de Richelieu, who was the city's governor between 1803–1814. Having fled the French Revolution, he had served in Catherine's army against the Turks. He is credited with designing the city and organising its amenities and infrastructure, and is considered one of the founding fathers of Odessa, together with another Frenchman, Count Alexandre Langeron, who succeeded him in office. Richelieu is commemorated by a bronze statue, unveiled in 1828 to a design by Ivan Martos.
+
+In 1819 the city was made a free port, a status it retained until 1859. It became home to an extremely diverse population of Ukrainians, Russians, Jews, Greeks, Bulgarians, Albanians, Armenians, Italians, Frenchmen, Germans and traders representing many other European nationalities (hence numerous 'ethnic' names on the city's map, e.g., Frantsuszkiy (French) and Italianskiy (Italian) Boulevards, Grecheskaya (Greek), Evreyskaya (Jewish), Arnautskaya (Albanian) Streets). Its cosmopolitan nature was documented by the great Russian poet Alexander Pushkin, who lived in internal exile in Odessa between 1823–1824. In his letters he wrote that Odessa was a city where "you can smell Europe.  French is spoken and there are European papers and magazines to read".
+
+Odessa's growth was interrupted by the Crimean War of 1853–1856, during which it was bombarded by British and French naval forces.  It soon recovered and the growth in trade made Odessa Russia's largest grain-exporting port.  In 1866 the city was linked by rail with Kiev and Kharkiv as well as Iaşi, Romania.
+
+The city became the home of a large Jewish community during the 19th century, and by 1897 Jews were estimated to be about 37% of the population.  They were, however, repeatedly subjected to severe persecution.  Pogroms were carried out in 1821, 1859, 1871, 1881, and 1905.  Many Jews fled abroad, particularly to Palestine after 1882, and the city became an important base of support for Zionism.
+
+In 1905 Odessa was the place of a workers' uprising supported by the crew of the Russian battleship Potemkin (also see Battleship Potemkin uprising) and Lenin's Iskra.  Sergei Eisenstein's famous motion picture The Battleship Potemkin commemorated the uprising and included a scene where hundreds of Odessan citizens were killed on the great stone staircase (now popularly known as the "Potemkin Steps"), in one of the most famous scenes in motion picture history.  At the top of the steps, which lead down to the port, stands a statue of Richelieu.  The actual massacre took place in streets nearby, not on the steps themselves, but the movie caused many to visit Odessa to see the site of the "slaughter".  The steps continue to be a tourist attraction.  The film was made at Odessa's Cinema Factory, one of the oldest cinema studios in the former Soviet Union.
+
+Following the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 during World War I, Odessa was occupied by several groups, including the Ukrainian Tsentral'na Rada, the French Army, the Red Army and the White Army.  Finally, in 1920, the Red Army took control of Odessa and united it with the Ukrainian SSR, which later became part of the USSR.
+
+The people of Odessa suffered from a great famine that occurred in 1921–1922 as a result of the war.   Romanian and German forces from 1941–1944 occupied the city during World War II, causing severe damage and many casualties.
+
+Under the Axis occupation, approximately 60,000 Odessans (mostly Jews) were either massacred or deported.  Many parts of Odessa were damaged during its fall and later recapture in April 1944, when the city was finally liberated by the Soviet Army.  It was one of the first four Soviet cities to be awarded the title of "Hero City" in 1945.
+
+During the 1960s and 1970s the city grew tremendously.  Nevertheless, between the 1970s and 1990s, the majority of Odessa's surviving Jews emigrated to Israel, the United States and other Western countries.  Large-scale domestic migrationof Odessan middle and upper classes to Moscow and Leningradthat offered even greater opportunities for career advancement.  But the city's grew rapidly by filling the void with new rural migrants elsewhere from Ukraine, industrial professionals invited from Russia as well as other Soviet republics.  Despite being part of Ukraine Socialist Republic, the city preserved and somewhat reinforced its unique cosmopolitan mix of Russian/Ukrainian/Mediterranean culture and a predominantly Russophone environment with a uniquely accented dialect of Russian spoken in the city.  The city's Russian, Ukrainian, Greek, Armenian, Moldovan and Azeri and Jewish communities have influenced different aspects of Odessa.
+
+In 1991, after the collapse of Communism, the city became part of newly independent Ukraine.  Today Odessa is a city of around 1.1 million people.  The city's industries include shipbuilding, oil refining, chemicals, metalworking and food processing.  Odessa is also a Ukrainian naval base and home to a fishing fleet.  It is also known for its huge outdoor market, the Seventh-Kilometer Market.
+
+The transportation network of Odessa consists of trams[4] (streetcars), trolleybuses, buses; and marshrutkas.
+
+Odessa is (Google Map) on terraced hills overlooking a small harbor, approximately 31 km (19 mi.) north of the estuary of the Dniester river and some 443 km (275 mi) south of the Ukrainian capital Kiev. The city has a continental climate (Dfa in the Köppen climate classification) with average temperatures in January of -2 °C (29 °F), and July of 22 °C (73 °F). It averages only 350 mm (14 in) of precipitation annually.
+
+The primary language spoken is Russian, with Ukrainian being less common despite its being an official language in Ukraine. The city is a mix of many nationalities and ethnic groups, including Ukrainians, Russians, Jews, Greeks, Moldovans, Bulgarians, Armenians and Turks among others.
+
+Odessa is a popular tourist destination, with many resorts in and around the city.
+
+The Tolstoy, Vorontsov, and Potocki families owned palaces in Odessa, which can still be visited.
+
+The writer Isaac Babel was born in the city, which has also produced several famous musicians, including the violinists Nathan Milstein, Mischa Elman and David Oistrakh, and the pianists Benno Moiseiwitsch, Sviatoslav Richter and Emil Gilels. The chess player Efim Geller was born in the city. (All listed, except for Richter, are representatives of the city's Jewish community.)
+
+The most popular Russian show-business people from Odessa are Yakov Smirnoff (comedian), Mikhail Zhvanetsky (legendary humorist writer, who began his career as port engineer) and Roman Kartsev (comedian).  Their success in 1970s contributed to Odessa's status of a "capital of Soviet humour". Later several humour festivals were established in the city, including the celebration of the April Fools' Day.
+
+Most of the city's 19th century houses were built of limestone mined nearby. Abandoned mines were later used and broadened by local smugglers.  This created a complicated labyrinth of underground tunnels beneath Odessa, known as "catacombs".  They are a now a great attraction for extreme tourists. Such tours, however, are not officially sanctioned and are dangerous because the layout of the catacombs has not been fully mapped and the tunnels themselves are unsafe. These tunnels are a primary reason why subway was never built in Odessa.
+
+The economy of Odessa is based its port and close distance to nearby ice-free ports in the mouths of the Dnieper, the Southern Bug, the Dniester and the Danube rivers.  During the Soviet period Odessa was the USSR's largest trading port. Since Ukraine's independence, Odessa remains the busiest international port in the country. Odessa is also a home to almost 5% of all IT companies registered in Ukraine.[5] That helps the city to thrive and attract software programmers from other cities of Ukraine and abroad.[6]

ensimple/4236.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+Olfaction is the sense of smell. The sense of smell is how a human or animal notices a smell (or odour or odor) by using the nose. Many animals have better noses than people. Some animals can detect small particles in the air or sometimes water that people cannot.
+
+People have special cells in the nose that can detect some chemicals. These are special nerve cells attached to the olfactory epithelium. All vertebrates have these cells. The smell is first processed by the olfactory system. The information is given to the olfactory bulb in the front of the forebrain.
+
+In insects, smells are sensed by sensilia on the antennae and first processed by the antennal lobe.
+
+The olfactory reception (OR) cells are neurons (nerve cells). Many tiny hair-like cilia stick out of these cells into the mucus covering the surface of the epithelium.[1] The surface of these cilia is covered with olfactory receptors, a kind of protein.[2]
+
+There are about 1000 different genes which code for the ORs, though only about a third are functional.[3] The rest are pseudogenes. The OR genes are the largest gene family. An odor molecule dissolves into the mucus of the olfactory epithelium and then binds to an OR. Various odor molecules bind to various ORs. The basis of the sense of smell is that different groups of scent molecules bind to different receptor cells and so fire different groups of neurons.[4] Inside the olfactory region of the brain, the firing of neurons produces the perceived smell.
+
+When the OR is activated, changes start in the cells. Positive ions come in and  negative ions go out of the cells. This causes the neuron to fire an impulse (generate an action potential).[5][6]

ensimple/4237.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,8 @@
+In Greek mythology, Odysseus was the great grandson of the Greek god Hermes. He was the king of the island Ithaca. He was married to Penelope. Odysseus and Penelope had a son called Telemachos. Odysseus is a major character in Homer's Iliad and Odyssey.
+
+Odysseus fought in the Trojan War. He invented the Trojan Horse, which helped the Greeks win the war. After the war, his adventurous journey home took 10 years. The story of that journey is told in the Odyssey. Odysseus angered Poseidon, the god of seas, when he half blinded his cyclops son Polyphemos. In anger, Poseidon stopped him from leaving the island. The Latin name for Odysseus is "Ulysses".
+
+There have been many movies about Odysseus, because of his heroic and intelligent battle strategies.
+
+Media related to Odysseus at Wikimedia Commons
+

ensimple/4238.html.txt

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+A tropical cyclone is a circular air movement that starts over the warm ocean waters in the warm part of Earth near the Equator. Most tropical cyclones create fast winds and great rains. While some tropical cyclones stay out in the sea, others pass over land. They can be dangerous because of flooding and because the winds pick up objects, including things as big as small boats. Tropical cyclones can throw these things at high speeds.
+
+Tropical cyclones, hurricanes or typhoons form when convection causes warm, moist air above the ocean to rise.  They begin as a group of storms when the water gets as hot as 80 °F (27 °C) or hotter.  The Coriolis effect made by the Earth's rotation causes the winds to rotate.  Warm air rises quickly. Tropical cyclones usually move westward in the tropics, and can later move north or south into the temperate zone.  The "eye of the storm" is the center.  It has little rain or wind.  The eyewall has the heaviest rain and the fastest winds.  It is surrounded by rainbands which also have fast winds.
+
+Tropical cyclones are powered by warm, humid ocean air. When they go onto land, they weaken. They die when they spend a long time over land or cool ocean water.
+
+The term "tropical cyclone" is a summary term.  In various places tropical cyclones have other local names such as "hurricane" and "typhoon".[1]  A tropical cyclone that forms in the Atlantic Ocean is called a hurricane.[1]  The word hurricane is also used for those that form in the eastern, central and northern Pacific.[2] In the western Pacific a tropical cyclone is called a typhoon.[2]  In the Indian Ocean it is called a "cyclone".
+
+Tropical cyclones are usually given names because it helps in forecasting, locating, and reporting. They are named once they have steady winds of 62 km/h. Committees of the World Meteorological Organization pick names. Once named, a cyclone is usually not renamed.[3]
+
+For several hundred years hurricanes were named after saints.[4] In 1887, Australian meteorologist Clement Wragge began giving women's names to tropical cyclones.[5] He thought of history and mythology for names. When he used men's names, they were usually of politicians he hated.[5] By World War II cyclone names were based on the phonetic alphabet (Able, Baker, Charlie).[6] In 1953 the United States stopped using phonetic names and began using female names for these storms.[6] This ended in 1978 when both male and female names were used for Pacific storms. In 1979 this practice was added for hurricanes in the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic.[6]
+
+In the past these storms sank many ships. Better weather forecasting in the 20th century helped most ships avoid them. When tropical cyclones reach land, they may break things. Sometimes they kill people and destroy cities. In the last 200 years, about 1.5 million people have been killed by tropical cyclones.
+
+Wind can cause up to 83% of the total damages of a storm. Broken wreckage from destroyed objects can become deadly flying pieces.[7] Flooding can also occur when a lot of rain falls and/or when storm surges push water onto the land.[8]
+
+There is a possibility of "indirect" deaths after a tropical cyclone passes. For example, New Orleans, Louisiana suffered from poor health conditions after Hurricane Katrina hit in 2005.[9]
+
+Tropical cyclones are classified into different categories by their strength and location. The National Hurricane Center, which observes hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean and Eastern and Central Pacific Ocean, classifies them using the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale.
+
+Tropical cylones in other places such as the Western Pacific Ocean or the Southern Hemisphere are classified on scales that are quite a bit like the Saffir-Simpson Scale. For example; if a tropical storm in the western Pacific reaches hurricane-strength winds, it is then officially called a typhoon.
+
+A tropical depression is an organized group of clouds and thunderstorms with a clear circulation in air near the ocean and maximum continuing winds of less than 17 m/s (33 kt, 38 mph, or 62 km/h). It has no eye and does not usually have the spiral shape that more powerful storms have. Only the Philippines are known to name tropical depressions.
+
+A tropical storm is an organized system of strong thunderstorms with a very clear surface circulation and continuing winds between 17 and 32 m/s (34–63 kt, 39–73 mph, or 62–117 km/h). At this point, the cyclonic shape starts to form, although an eye does not usually appear in tropical storms. Most tropical cyclone agencies start naming cyclonic storms at this level, except for the Philippines which have their own way of naming cyclones.
+
+A hurricane or typhoon or a cyclone is a large cyclonic weather system with continuing winds of at least 33 m/s (64 kt, 74 mph, or 118 km/h). A tropical cyclone with this wind speed usually develops an eye, which is an area of calm conditions at the center of its circulation. The eye is often seen from space as a small, round, cloud-free spot. Around the eye is the eyewall, an area where the strongest thunderstorms and winds spin around the storm's center. The fastest possible continuing wind speed found in tropical cyclones is thought to be around 85 m/s (165 kt, 190 mph, 305 km/h).

ensimple/4239.html.txt

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+The eye is a round organ for sensing light so organisms can see. It is the first part of the visual system. About 97 percent of animals have eyes.[1]  Image-resolving eyes are present in cnidaria, molluscs, vertebrates,[2] annelids and arthropods.[1][3]
+
+In mammals, two kinds of cells, rods and cones, allow sight by sending signals through the optic nerve to the brain.
+
+Some animals can see light that humans cannot see. They can see ultraviolet or infrared light.
+
+The lens on the front part of the eye acts like a camera lens. It can be pulled flatter by muscles inside the eye, or allowed to become rounder. As some people get older, they may not be as able to do this perfectly. Many people are born with other small problems or get them later in life, and they may need eyeglasses (or contact lenses) to fix the problem.
+
+The human eye is composed of several different parts. These parts may or may not be the same in other animals. They are:
+
+Today, ten different types of eyes are known. Most ways of capturing an image have evolved at least once.
+
+One way to categorize eyes is to look at the number of "chambers". Simple eyes are made of only one concave chamber, perhaps with a lens. Compound eyes have many such chambers with their lenses on a convex surface.[1]
+
+Eyes also can be grouped according to how the photoreceptor is made. Photoreeptors are either cillated, or rhabdomic.[4] and some annelids possess both.[5]
+
+Pit eyes are set in a depression in the skin. This reduces the angles at which light can enter. It allows the organism to say where the light is coming from.[1]
+
+Such eyes can be found in about 85% of phyla. They probably came before the development of more complex eyes. Pit eyes are small. They are made of up to about hundred cells, covering about 100 µm.[1] The directionality can be improved by reducing the size of the opening, and by putting a reflective layer behind the receptor cells.[1]
+
+The pinhole eye is an advanced form of pit eye. It has several bits, most notably a small aperture and deep pit. Sometimes, the aperture can be changed. It is only found in the Nautilus.[1] Without a lens to focus the image, it produces a blurry image. Consequently, nautiloids can not discriminate between objects with a separation of less than 11°.[1] Shrinking the aperture would produce a sharper image, but let in less light.[1]
+
+The resolution of pit eyes can be improved a lot by adding a material to make a lens. This will reduce the radius of the blurring, and increase the resolution that can be achieved.[1] The most basic form can still be seen in some gastropods and annelids. These eyes have a lens of one refractive index. It is possible to get a better image with materials that have a high refractive index which decreases towards the edges. This decreases the focal length and allows a sharp image to form on the retina.[1]
+
+This eye creates an image that is sharp enough that motion of the eye can cause significant blurring. To minimize the effect of eye motion while the animal moves, most such eyes have stabilizing eye muscles.[1]
+
+The ocelli of insects have a simple lens, but their focal point always lies behind the retina.They can never form a sharp image.  This limits the function of the eye.  Ocelli (pit-type eyes of arthropods) blur the image across the whole retina. They are very good at responding to rapid changes in light intensity across the whole visual field — this fast response is accelerated even more by the large nerve bundles which rush the information to the brain.[6] Focusing the image would also cause the sun's image to be focused on a few receptors. These could possibly be damaged by the intense light; shielding the receptors would block out some light and  reduce their sensitivity.[6]
+
+This fast response has led to suggestions that the ocelli of insects are used mainly in flight, because they can be used to detect sudden changes in which way is up (because light, especially UV light which is absorbed by vegetation, usually comes from above).[6]
+
+The eyes of most land-living vertebrates (as well as those of some spiders, and insect larvae) contain a fluid that has a higher refractive index than the air. The cornea is sharply curved and refracts light towards the focus. The lens need not do all of the refracting. This lets the lens adjust the focus more easily, for much higher resolution.[1]
+
+Instead of using a lens it is also possible to have cells inside the eye that act like mirrors. The image can then be reflected to focus at a central point. This design also means that someone looking into such an eye will see the same image as the organism which has them.[1]
+
+Many small organisms such as rotifers, copeopods and platyhelminthes use such this design, but their eyes are too small to produce usable images.[1]  Some larger organisms, such as scallops, also use reflector eyes.  The scallop  Pecten has up to 100 millimeter-scale reflector eyes fringing the edge of its shell.  It detects moving objects as they pass successive lenses.[1]
+
+Compound eyes are different from simple eyes. Instead of having one organ that can sense light, they put together many such organs. Some compound eyes have thousands of them. The resulting image is put together in the brain, based on the signals of the many eye units. Each such unit is called ommatidium, several are called ommatidia. The ommatidia are located on a convex surface, each of them points in a slighly different direction. Unlike simple eyes, compound eyes have a very large angle of view. They can detect fast movement, and sometimes the polarization of light.[7]
+
+Compound eyes are common in arthropods, annelids, and some bivalved molluscs[8]
+
+The evolution of eyes started with simplest light-sensitive patches in unicellular organisms. These eye-spots do nothing but detect if the surroundings are light or dark. Most animals have a biochemical 'clock' inside. These simple eye-spots are used to adjust this daily clock, which is called circadian rhythm. Some snails, for example, see no image (picture) at all, but they sense light, which helps them stay out of bright sunlight.[9][10]
+
+More complex eyes have not lost this function. A special type of cells in the eye senses light for a different purpose than seeing. These cells are called ganglion cells. They are located in the retina. They send their information about light to the brain along a different path (the retinohypothalamic tract). This information adjusts (synchronizes) the animal's circadian rhythm to nature's light/dark cycle of 24 hours. The system also works for some blind people who cannot see light at all.
+
+Eyes that are a little bit better are shaped like cups, which lets the animal know where the light is coming from.
+
+More complex eyes give the full sense of vision, including color, motion, and texture. These eyes have a round shape that makes light rays focus on the back part of the eye, called the retina.
+
+Good fliers like flies or honey bees, or prey-catching insects like praying mantis or dragonflies, have specialized zones of ommatidia organized into a fovea area which gives sharp vision. In this zone the eyes are flattened and the facets  are larger. The flattening allows more ommatidia to receive light from a spot. This gives a higher resolution.
+
+The body of Ophiocoma wendtii, a type of brittle star, is covered with ommatidia, turning its whole skin into a compound eye. The same is true of many chitons.

ensimple/424.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+Asunción (full name: Nuestra Señora Santa María de la Asunción), is the capital city and largest city of Paraguay. The city has more than 1.2 million inhabitants, and the metropolitan area has more than 1.8 million inhabitants. It is on the left bank of the Paraguay River and is the main seaport of Paraguay.
+
+The Spanish word "asunción" means assumption in English. It refers to the Assumption of Mary; the full name means Our Lady, Holy Mary of the Assumption.
+

ensimple/4240.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,51 @@
+The eye is a round organ for sensing light so organisms can see. It is the first part of the visual system. About 97 percent of animals have eyes.[1]  Image-resolving eyes are present in cnidaria, molluscs, vertebrates,[2] annelids and arthropods.[1][3]
+
+In mammals, two kinds of cells, rods and cones, allow sight by sending signals through the optic nerve to the brain.
+
+Some animals can see light that humans cannot see. They can see ultraviolet or infrared light.
+
+The lens on the front part of the eye acts like a camera lens. It can be pulled flatter by muscles inside the eye, or allowed to become rounder. As some people get older, they may not be as able to do this perfectly. Many people are born with other small problems or get them later in life, and they may need eyeglasses (or contact lenses) to fix the problem.
+
+The human eye is composed of several different parts. These parts may or may not be the same in other animals. They are:
+
+Today, ten different types of eyes are known. Most ways of capturing an image have evolved at least once.
+
+One way to categorize eyes is to look at the number of "chambers". Simple eyes are made of only one concave chamber, perhaps with a lens. Compound eyes have many such chambers with their lenses on a convex surface.[1]
+
+Eyes also can be grouped according to how the photoreceptor is made. Photoreeptors are either cillated, or rhabdomic.[4] and some annelids possess both.[5]
+
+Pit eyes are set in a depression in the skin. This reduces the angles at which light can enter. It allows the organism to say where the light is coming from.[1]
+
+Such eyes can be found in about 85% of phyla. They probably came before the development of more complex eyes. Pit eyes are small. They are made of up to about hundred cells, covering about 100 µm.[1] The directionality can be improved by reducing the size of the opening, and by putting a reflective layer behind the receptor cells.[1]
+
+The pinhole eye is an advanced form of pit eye. It has several bits, most notably a small aperture and deep pit. Sometimes, the aperture can be changed. It is only found in the Nautilus.[1] Without a lens to focus the image, it produces a blurry image. Consequently, nautiloids can not discriminate between objects with a separation of less than 11°.[1] Shrinking the aperture would produce a sharper image, but let in less light.[1]
+
+The resolution of pit eyes can be improved a lot by adding a material to make a lens. This will reduce the radius of the blurring, and increase the resolution that can be achieved.[1] The most basic form can still be seen in some gastropods and annelids. These eyes have a lens of one refractive index. It is possible to get a better image with materials that have a high refractive index which decreases towards the edges. This decreases the focal length and allows a sharp image to form on the retina.[1]
+
+This eye creates an image that is sharp enough that motion of the eye can cause significant blurring. To minimize the effect of eye motion while the animal moves, most such eyes have stabilizing eye muscles.[1]
+
+The ocelli of insects have a simple lens, but their focal point always lies behind the retina.They can never form a sharp image.  This limits the function of the eye.  Ocelli (pit-type eyes of arthropods) blur the image across the whole retina. They are very good at responding to rapid changes in light intensity across the whole visual field — this fast response is accelerated even more by the large nerve bundles which rush the information to the brain.[6] Focusing the image would also cause the sun's image to be focused on a few receptors. These could possibly be damaged by the intense light; shielding the receptors would block out some light and  reduce their sensitivity.[6]
+
+This fast response has led to suggestions that the ocelli of insects are used mainly in flight, because they can be used to detect sudden changes in which way is up (because light, especially UV light which is absorbed by vegetation, usually comes from above).[6]
+
+The eyes of most land-living vertebrates (as well as those of some spiders, and insect larvae) contain a fluid that has a higher refractive index than the air. The cornea is sharply curved and refracts light towards the focus. The lens need not do all of the refracting. This lets the lens adjust the focus more easily, for much higher resolution.[1]
+
+Instead of using a lens it is also possible to have cells inside the eye that act like mirrors. The image can then be reflected to focus at a central point. This design also means that someone looking into such an eye will see the same image as the organism which has them.[1]
+
+Many small organisms such as rotifers, copeopods and platyhelminthes use such this design, but their eyes are too small to produce usable images.[1]  Some larger organisms, such as scallops, also use reflector eyes.  The scallop  Pecten has up to 100 millimeter-scale reflector eyes fringing the edge of its shell.  It detects moving objects as they pass successive lenses.[1]
+
+Compound eyes are different from simple eyes. Instead of having one organ that can sense light, they put together many such organs. Some compound eyes have thousands of them. The resulting image is put together in the brain, based on the signals of the many eye units. Each such unit is called ommatidium, several are called ommatidia. The ommatidia are located on a convex surface, each of them points in a slighly different direction. Unlike simple eyes, compound eyes have a very large angle of view. They can detect fast movement, and sometimes the polarization of light.[7]
+
+Compound eyes are common in arthropods, annelids, and some bivalved molluscs[8]
+
+The evolution of eyes started with simplest light-sensitive patches in unicellular organisms. These eye-spots do nothing but detect if the surroundings are light or dark. Most animals have a biochemical 'clock' inside. These simple eye-spots are used to adjust this daily clock, which is called circadian rhythm. Some snails, for example, see no image (picture) at all, but they sense light, which helps them stay out of bright sunlight.[9][10]
+
+More complex eyes have not lost this function. A special type of cells in the eye senses light for a different purpose than seeing. These cells are called ganglion cells. They are located in the retina. They send their information about light to the brain along a different path (the retinohypothalamic tract). This information adjusts (synchronizes) the animal's circadian rhythm to nature's light/dark cycle of 24 hours. The system also works for some blind people who cannot see light at all.
+
+Eyes that are a little bit better are shaped like cups, which lets the animal know where the light is coming from.
+
+More complex eyes give the full sense of vision, including color, motion, and texture. These eyes have a round shape that makes light rays focus on the back part of the eye, called the retina.
+
+Good fliers like flies or honey bees, or prey-catching insects like praying mantis or dragonflies, have specialized zones of ommatidia organized into a fovea area which gives sharp vision. In this zone the eyes are flattened and the facets  are larger. The flattening allows more ommatidia to receive light from a spot. This gives a higher resolution.
+
+The body of Ophiocoma wendtii, a type of brittle star, is covered with ommatidia, turning its whole skin into a compound eye. The same is true of many chitons.

ensimple/4241.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+The oesophagus (or esophagus) is also called the gullet. It is the part of the gastrointestinal system between the mouth and the stomach. It connects the pharynx and the stomach. It is about 25 centimetres (9.8 in) long. it passes through the thoracic cavity, pierces the diaphragm and leads to the stomach.
+
+The oesophagus is lined with muscle. This muscle pushes food down into the stomach. The oesophagus can contract or expand to allow for the passage of food. The muscular movement that pushes the food down the oesophagus is called peristalsis. mucous secreted by the epithelial cells in the inner lining helps in the smooth passage of food. At the entrance to the stomach there is a ring of muscle called a sphincter. This is usually closed, but relaxes as food approaches, allowing it to enter the stomach. In the stomach, the food is churned until it turns into a soupy mixture called chyme.
+
+
+

ensimple/4242.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+The oesophagus (or esophagus) is also called the gullet. It is the part of the gastrointestinal system between the mouth and the stomach. It connects the pharynx and the stomach. It is about 25 centimetres (9.8 in) long. it passes through the thoracic cavity, pierces the diaphragm and leads to the stomach.
+
+The oesophagus is lined with muscle. This muscle pushes food down into the stomach. The oesophagus can contract or expand to allow for the passage of food. The muscular movement that pushes the food down the oesophagus is called peristalsis. mucous secreted by the epithelial cells in the inner lining helps in the smooth passage of food. At the entrance to the stomach there is a ring of muscle called a sphincter. This is usually closed, but relaxes as food approaches, allowing it to enter the stomach. In the stomach, the food is churned until it turns into a soupy mixture called chyme.
+
+
+

ensimple/4243.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+Egg can mean different things:

ensimple/4244.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+An egg results from fertilization of an ovum. The egg is a container for the zygote. It protects the zygote, and feeds the embryo.
+
+The animal embryo develops until it can survive on its own, at which point the egg hatches. Most vertebrates, arthropods and molluscs lay eggs outside the mother's body. They are always in some kind of container, a shell or covering.
+
+Reptiles, birds and monotremes lay cleidoic eggs:  bird eggs are an example. These are a special kind of egg with a good supply of food and water. They have an outside covering which lets through gases so that carbon dioxide can get out, and oxygen can get in it.
+
+Fish, amphibia, insects and arachnids lay simpler eggs in greater numbers, but with much less protection and nourishment.
+
+Some animals, mostly mammals, keep the zygote inside their body where the embryo grows until it is ready to be born. These are also cleidoic eggs, but all the development is done inside the mother's body, as with humans.
+
+Most mammals, and a number of marine reptiles, give live birth. Also, there are some invertebrates, such as scorpions, where the eggs develops inside the mother. They also give birth to live young.
+
+The ostrich has the largest eggs of all living animals. Eggs, mostly bird eggs, are often eaten as food. The shell of an egg is a hard calcareous (CaCO3) material. The shell of an ostrich egg can support the weight of a fully grown human.
+
+A baby tortoise hatches from a reptile egg.
+
+Bird eggs with hatched chick.
+
+A frog with frog eggs.
+
+An ostrich egg.
+
+Eggs in a carton.
+
+Butterfly eggs on a stalk.
+
+Map butterfly (Araschnia levana) laying strings of eggs.

ensimple/4245.html.txt

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+Egg can mean different things:

ensimple/4246.html.txt

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+An Easter egg is an egg, eaten and used for decoration during the Easter holidays. The egg was a symbol of the earth to celebrate spring.[1] It was used by early Christians as a sign of the resurrection (rising from the dead) of Jesus.[1]
+
+The use of painted and decorated Easter eggs was first recorded in the 13th century. The church did not let people eat eggs during Holy Week, but chickens still laid eggs during that week. Because there was nothing else to do with the eggs, they were used for Easter decoration.[2]
+
+In modern times, chocolate eggs with a colorful wrapping are given to children to be eaten. In the United Kingdom, children receive on average 8.8 chocolate Easter eggs every year.[3] It is unclear where this tradition comes from. Most likely, it comes from a pagan fertility ritual during spring. Sometimes on Easter, children go on egg hunts to look for Easter eggs. They can look for them indoors or outdoors.[1][4]
+
+An easter egg is also the name of something secret added in computer programs, such as a joke, a picture, or a message that can be uncovered.
+
+Although there have been claims that Easter eggs came from the pagan symbols, there is no solid evidence for this.[5] At the Passover, a hard-boiled egg dipped in salt water is a symbol of both new life and the Passover sacrifice offered at the Temple in Jerusalem. In Christian times, the egg was a symbol of new life just as a chick might hatch from the egg. The Easter egg tradition may have celebrated the end of the privations of Lent.[5] In the Medieval Europe, people were not allowed to eat eggs on fast days. It was traditional to use up all of the eggs that they had before Lent began, and this also made the tradition of Pancake Day. Eggs were viewed as symbols of new life and fertility through the ages. It is believed that for this reason many ancient cultures, including the Ancient Egyptians, Persians, and Romans, used eggs during their spring festivals. In Eastern Christianity, both meat and dairy are still not allowed to be eaten during the fast, and eggs are seen as "dairy" too.[5]
+
+It was during Easter that everybody was trying to get rid of the eggs before the fast. Eggs were given as gifts for children and servants, and used for decoration. And this is probably the reason why eggs came to be associated with Easter.[5]
+
+Easter eggs for sale in Vienna.
+
+Chocolate Easter egg
+
+Easter egg decoration
+
+Easter egg decoration

ensimple/4247.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+Egg can mean different things:

ensimple/4248.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+Egg can mean different things:

ensimple/4249.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,19 @@
+An Easter egg is an egg, eaten and used for decoration during the Easter holidays. The egg was a symbol of the earth to celebrate spring.[1] It was used by early Christians as a sign of the resurrection (rising from the dead) of Jesus.[1]
+
+The use of painted and decorated Easter eggs was first recorded in the 13th century. The church did not let people eat eggs during Holy Week, but chickens still laid eggs during that week. Because there was nothing else to do with the eggs, they were used for Easter decoration.[2]
+
+In modern times, chocolate eggs with a colorful wrapping are given to children to be eaten. In the United Kingdom, children receive on average 8.8 chocolate Easter eggs every year.[3] It is unclear where this tradition comes from. Most likely, it comes from a pagan fertility ritual during spring. Sometimes on Easter, children go on egg hunts to look for Easter eggs. They can look for them indoors or outdoors.[1][4]
+
+An easter egg is also the name of something secret added in computer programs, such as a joke, a picture, or a message that can be uncovered.
+
+Although there have been claims that Easter eggs came from the pagan symbols, there is no solid evidence for this.[5] At the Passover, a hard-boiled egg dipped in salt water is a symbol of both new life and the Passover sacrifice offered at the Temple in Jerusalem. In Christian times, the egg was a symbol of new life just as a chick might hatch from the egg. The Easter egg tradition may have celebrated the end of the privations of Lent.[5] In the Medieval Europe, people were not allowed to eat eggs on fast days. It was traditional to use up all of the eggs that they had before Lent began, and this also made the tradition of Pancake Day. Eggs were viewed as symbols of new life and fertility through the ages. It is believed that for this reason many ancient cultures, including the Ancient Egyptians, Persians, and Romans, used eggs during their spring festivals. In Eastern Christianity, both meat and dairy are still not allowed to be eaten during the fast, and eggs are seen as "dairy" too.[5]
+
+It was during Easter that everybody was trying to get rid of the eggs before the fast. Eggs were given as gifts for children and servants, and used for decoration. And this is probably the reason why eggs came to be associated with Easter.[5]
+
+Easter eggs for sale in Vienna.
+
+Chocolate Easter egg
+
+Easter egg decoration
+
+Easter egg decoration

ensimple/425.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,79 @@
+Atheism is rejecting the belief in a god or gods.[1][2]
+It is the opposite of theism, which is the belief that at least one god exists. A person who rejects belief in gods is called an atheist. Theism is the belief in one or more gods. Adding an a, meaning "without", before the word theism results in atheism, or literally, "without theism".
+
+Atheism is not the same as agnosticism: agnostics say that there is no way to know whether gods exist or not.[3] Being an agnostic does not have to mean a person rejects or believes in god. Some agnostics are theists, believing in god. The theologian Kierkegaard is an example. Other agnostics are atheists. Gnosticism refers to a claim of knowledge. A gnostic has sufficient knowledge to make a claim. Adding an a, meaning "without", before the word gnostic results in agnostic, or literally, "without knowledge".
+
+While theism refers to belief in one or more gods, gnosticism refers to knowledge. In practice, most people simply identify as a theist, atheist, or agnostic.
+
+Anaxagoras was the first known atheist.[4] He was an Ionian Greek, born in Clazomenae in what is now Asia Minor. He travelled to other Greek cities, and his ideas were well known in Athens. Socrates mentioned that his works could be bought in Athens for a drachma.[4] Eventually he was prosecuted and condemned for impiety, and banished from Athens.
+
+Anaxagoras' beliefs were interesting. He thought the Sun was not a god, and was not animated (alive). The Sun was "a red-hot mass many times larger than the Peloponnese". The Moon was a solid body with geographical features, and made of the same substance as the Earth. The world was a globe (spherical).[5][6][7]
+
+Atheists often give reasons why they do not believe in a god or gods. Three of the reasons that they often give are the problem of evil, the argument from inconsistent revelations, and the argument from nonbelief. Not all atheists think these reasons provide complete proof that gods cannot exist, but these are the reasons given to support rejecting belief that gods exist.
+
+Some atheists do not believe in any god because they feel that there is no evidence for any god nor gods and goddesses, so believing any type of theism means believing unproved assumptions. These atheists think a simpler explanation for everything is methodological naturalism which means that only natural things exist. Occam's razor shows simple explanations without many unproved guesses are more likely to be true.[8]
+
+The word "atheism" comes from the Greek language. It can be divided into a- (ἄ), a Greek prefix meaning "without", and theos (θεός), meaning "god", and recombined to form "without gods"[10] or "godless". In Ancient Greece it also meant "impious".
+
+Starting in about the 5th century BC, the word came to describe people who were "severing relations with the gods" or "denying the gods". Before then, the meaning had been closer to "impious". There is also the abstract noun, ἀθεότης (atheotēs), "atheism".
+
+Cicero transliterated the Greek word into the Latin atheos. This word was often used in the debate between early Christians and Hellenists. Each side used it to label the other, in a bad way.[11]
+
+Karen Armstrong writes that "During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the word 'atheist' was still reserved exclusively for polemic ... The term 'atheist' was an insult. Nobody would have dreamed of calling himself an atheist."[12]
+Atheism was first used to describe an openly positive belief in late 18th-century Europe, meaning disbelief in the monotheistic Abrahamic god.[13]
+The 20th century saw the term expand to refer to disbelief in all deities. However, it is still common in Western society to describe atheism as simply "disbelief in God".[14]
+
+In many places, it is (or was) a crime to make public the idea of atheism. Examples would be to claim the Bible or Qur'an could not be true, or to speak or write that there is no god.[15]
+
+Muslim apostasy, that is becoming an atheist or believing in a god other than Allah, may be a dangerous act in places with many conservative Muslim people. Many religious courts have punished and some still punish this act with the death penalty. Many countries still have laws against atheism.[16][17][18] Although it is considered by most Muslim scholars to be a sin, not all agree, that is should be punishable. For example, "Surat Al Kafirun" in Qur'an is clearly stating everyone's freedom to choose his religion and beliefs. The laws against Athiesm in the Muslim World is not universal, and is based on each society's interpretation of the Holy Book.
+
+Atheism is becoming more common,[19] mainly in South America, North America, Oceania and Europe (by percentage of people that had a religion before and started to be atheist).
+
+In many countries, mainly in the Western world, there are laws that protect atheists' right to express their atheistic belief (freedom of speech). This means that atheists have the same rights under the law as everyone else. Freedom of religion in international law and treaties includes the freedom to not have a religion.
+
+Today, about 2.3% of the world's population describes itself as atheist. About 11.9% is described as nontheist.[20]
+Between 64% and 65% of Japanese describe themselves as atheists, agnostics, or non-believers,[21][22]
+and up to 48% in Russia.[21] The percentage of such people in European Union member states ranges between 6% (Italy) and 85% (Sweden).[21] In the United States, according to Pew and Gallup—two of the most reputable polling firms in America—both conclude that about 10% of Americans say they do not believe in God, and this figure has been slowly creeping up over the decades. The real number is likely higher than this, due to the stigma around atheism.[23]
+
+People disagree about what atheism means. They disagree on when to call certain people atheists or not.
+
+Atheism is generally described as not believing in God.
+
+George H. Smith created the expressions "implicit atheism" and "explicit atheism" to describe the difference between different types of Atheism. Implicit atheism is when you do not believe in God because you do not know about the concept of God. Explicit atheism is when you do not believe in God after learning about the idea.
+
+In 1772, Baron d'Holbach said that "All children are born atheists; they have no idea of God".[24]
+
+In 1979 George H. Smith said that: "The man who is unacquainted with theism is an atheist because he does not believe in a god. This category would also include the child [who is able to] grasp the issues involved, but who is still unaware of those issues. The fact that this child does not believe in god qualifies him as an atheist".[25]
+
+Those two quotes describe implicit atheism.
+
+Ernest Nagel disagrees with Smith's definition of atheism as an "absence of theism", saying only explicit atheism is true atheism.[26] This means that Nagel believes that to be an atheist, a person needs to know about God and then reject the idea of God.
+
+Philosophers like Antony Flew,[27][28]
+have looked at strong (sometimes called positive) atheism against weak (sometimes called negative) atheism. According to this idea, anyone who does not believe in a god or gods is either a weak or a strong atheist.[29]
+
+Strong atheism is the certain belief that no god exists. An older way of saying strong atheism is to say "positive atheism". Weak atheism is all other forms of not believing in a god or gods. An older way of saying weak atheism is to say "negative atheism" These terms have been used more in philosophical writing[27] and in Catholic beliefs.[30]
+since at least 1813.[31][32]
+Under this definition of atheism, most agnostics are weak atheists.
+
+Michael Martin says that agnosticism includes weak atheism.[28] Some agnostics, including Anthony Kenny, disagree. They think being an agnostic is different from being an atheist. They think atheism is no different from believing in a god, because both require belief. This overlooks the reality that agnostics also have their own belief or "claim to knowledge" [33]
+
+Agnostics say that it cannot be known if a god or gods exist. In their view, strong atheism requires a leap of faith.
+
+Atheists usually respond by saying that there is no difference between an idea about religion with no proof, and an idea about other things[34]
+The lack of proof that god does not exist does not mean that there is no god, but it also does not mean that there is a god.[35]
+Scottish philosopher J.J.C. Smart says that "sometimes a person who is really an atheist may describe herself, even passionately, as an agnostic because of unreasonable generalised philosophical skepticism which would preclude us from saying that we know anything whatever, except perhaps the truths of mathematics and formal logic".[36]
+So, some popular atheist authors such as Richard Dawkins like to show the difference between theist, agnostic and atheist positions by the probability assigned to the statement "God exists".[37]
+
+In everyday life, many people define natural phenomena without the need of a god or gods. They do not deny the existence of one or more gods, they simply say that this existence is not necessary. Gods do not provide a purpose to life, nor influence it, according to this view.[38]
+Many scientists practice what they call methodological naturalism. They silently adopt philosophical naturalism and use the scientific method. Their belief in a god does not affect their results.[39]
+
+Practical atheism can take different forms:
+
+Theoretic atheism tries to find arguments against the existence of god, and to disprove the arguments of theism, such as the argument from design or Pascal's Wager. These theoretical reasons have many forms, most of them are ontological or epistemological. Some rely on psychology or sociology.
+
+According to Immanuel Kant, there can be no proof of a supreme being that is made using reason. In his work, "Critique of pure reason", he tries to show that all attempts of either proving the existence of God, or disproving it, end in logical contradictions. Kant says that it is impossible to know whether there are any higher beings. This makes him an agnostic.
+
+Ludwig Feuerbach published The Essence of Christianity in 1841.[41] In his work he postulates the following:
+
+The following phrases sum up Feuerbach's writing:

ensimple/4250.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+
+
+A snail is a common name for a kind of mollusc. The term is used for a gastropod with a coiled shell. Their fossil records extends back into the Carboniferous period.[1]
+
+Land snails and slugs breathe with a kind of lung. They used to be put together in a group, the Pulmonata. This was a well-known order in traditional taxonomy. However, the Pulmonata is polyphyletic.[2] This means the same life-style evolved in a number of different lines. This is called convergent evolution. Therefore, the Pulmonata is no longer an official term in biological classification.
+
+The term "snail" is also sometimes used for aquatic snail-like gastropods, which usually have gills. Actually, most snail species are marine snails. There are more species of them, and they are far greater in numbers. Many kinds of snails can also be found in fresh water habitats.
+
+Most land snails and slugs are herbivorous. Aquatic snails and slugs are usually omnivores or predatory carnivores.
+
+In many countries around the world, people eat snails as a delicacy. In France, snails are called escargots, which is also the name of the dish. In French cuisine, the snails are cooked in salt water and then served with a garlic sauce.[3]
+
+The biggest snail is the giant African snail. Their foot is up to 35 cm long.
+The fastest snail is the Helix aspersa. It can reach speeds up to 0.047 kmh.
+There are known more than 43000 species of snails all over the world.[4]
+
+Snails are invertebrates, which are animals with no backbones. The shell on the snail helps protect it, and also reduces the loss of water by evaporation. Shells have many different shapes, sizes, and colors. Snails do not breathe through their mouths, instead they have a breathing hole under their shells.
+
+A snails "foot" is a muscle which allows it to move slowly across the ground. The foot puts out ('exudes') slime, which eases the snail's movement, leaving a trail. Snails can absorb mineral nutrients through their foot by simply sitting on a rock.
+
+The head is attached to the foot. On the head there are 15 mm stalks. At the end of the stalks are snail’s eyes.
+
+Snails are found all over the world. Generally speaking, land snails live in  damp habitats. They live in caves and dark places. Snails can be found in dark places such as in a garden under plant's foliage leaves. Some species live in cold places like the Arctic and a few are found in warm places like beaches and deserts.
+
+Land snails eat vegetables and fruits, such as lettuce, carrots, cucumber and apples. Aquatic snails are often carnivorous. Snails use their radula to cut food. The radula is a hard, rough plate in the mouth. Radula teeth are like little pieces of sandpaper. They are good for cutting up plants and if the snail eats meat they are good for tearing the meat apart.
+
+Many animals eat snails. Fireflies, snakes, beetles, fish, insects, turtles and people eat snails too. To defend themselves, snails pull back into their shells.

ensimple/4251.html.txt

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+Egg can mean different things:

ensimple/4252.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+
+
+Onions are vegetables. They are plants in the genus Allium. When people talk about onions, they usually mean garden onions. Most species of onions have bulbs that people can eat. They have a strong flavour and a very distinctive smell.
+
+Onions have been grown for a very long time. They were probably first grown in Ancient Egypt, together with leek and garlic, but maybe earlier. Now, most of the world's cultures eat onions.
+
+Farmers and gardeners can grow onions from seeds or from bulbs. If they plant seeds, they must later pull out most of the young plants so the rest can grow better. This is called 'thinning.' A different way to plant onions is to plant young bulbs. This is faster, but the onions that grow this way are weaker than the onions that started as seeds.
+
+Onions can be eaten in different ways:
+
+When you cut an onion, you open some cells of the onion. Then, some chemicals react. When one chemical floats through the air and reaches your eyes, they sting.
+There are ways to keep the chemical away. You can:
+
+Two colours of onion
+
+Yellow Onions
+
+Flower head of a yellow onion

ensimple/4253.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,14 @@
+Ohio is one of the 50 states in the United States. Its capital is Columbus. Columbus also is the largest city in Ohio.
+
+Other large cities in Ohio are Cleveland, Cincinnati, Dayton, Akron, Toledo, and Youngstown.
+
+Some famous people from Ohio include golfer Jack Nicklaus, Wilbur and Orville Wright, author Sherwood Anderson, and actors Clark Gable and Katie Holmes. There have also been seven American presidents from Ohio: Ulysses S. Grant, Rutherford Hayes, James Garfield, Benjamin Harrison, William McKinley, William Howard Taft, Warren G. Harding. Famous astronauts John Glenn, Neil Armstrong and inventor of the airplane the Wright Brothers were born in Ohio.
+
+Ohio is important in elections because it is a swing state and candidates often campaign a lot there. Ohio has both farmland and cities. It is a part of the Midwest. Ohio is the 7th most populated state in the United States of America (capital Washington D.C.)
+
+Ohio borders Pennsylvania, Michigan, Indiana, Kentucky, and West Virginia, and it shares a water border with Ontario, Canada. Western Ohio is mostly flat farmland, with some hills. Southern and Southeastern Ohio is near the Appalachian Mountains, and is the most mountainous part of the state. Most of this area is covered by forests. This part of Ohio is home to the Ohio River, the Wayne National Forest, and the Hocking Hills, which has waterfalls and canyons.
+
+Central Ohio is mostly rolling hills, and is home to Columbus. Northeast Ohio is dominated by the Lake Erie coast and has a mix of cities and countryside.
+
+For many years, industry and manufacturing was the biggest part of Ohio's economy. Youngstown was a big steel producer, as was Cleveland. Other manufacturing - including the car industry - was a major factor across the state. Since the 1970s, industry has shrank in Ohio, but it is still a big part of the local economy. Today, other businesses are more prominent. Cleveland is one of the biggest hubs for Healthcare, and its main hospital, the famous Cleveland Clinic, is the largest employer in the region. Banking is also a major business, and foods and retail are too. Cincinnati plays host to the headquarters of Fifth Third Bank, Cintas, Kroger, Luxottica, Procter & Gamble and Macy's, whereas, Columbus hosts the headquarters of LBrands, JPMorgan Chase, Huntington Bank, Rogue Fitness, Wendy's, Big Lots, Cardinal Health and Nationwide Insurance. In addition The J.M. Smucker Company and Key Bank are also based in Ohio.
+

ensimple/4254.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,18 @@
+
+
+Onions are vegetables. They are plants in the genus Allium. When people talk about onions, they usually mean garden onions. Most species of onions have bulbs that people can eat. They have a strong flavour and a very distinctive smell.
+
+Onions have been grown for a very long time. They were probably first grown in Ancient Egypt, together with leek and garlic, but maybe earlier. Now, most of the world's cultures eat onions.
+
+Farmers and gardeners can grow onions from seeds or from bulbs. If they plant seeds, they must later pull out most of the young plants so the rest can grow better. This is called 'thinning.' A different way to plant onions is to plant young bulbs. This is faster, but the onions that grow this way are weaker than the onions that started as seeds.
+
+Onions can be eaten in different ways:
+
+When you cut an onion, you open some cells of the onion. Then, some chemicals react. When one chemical floats through the air and reaches your eyes, they sting.
+There are ways to keep the chemical away. You can:
+
+Two colours of onion
+
+Yellow Onions
+
+Flower head of a yellow onion

ensimple/4255.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,231 @@
+
+
+Birds (Aves) are a group of vertebrates which evolved from dinosaurs. They are endothermic, with feathers.
+
+Modern birds are toothless: they have beaked jaws. They lay hard-shelled eggs. They have a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart and a strong yet lightweight skeleton.
+
+Birds live all over the world. They range in size from the 5 cm (2 in) bee hummingbird to the 2.70 m (9 ft) ostrich. They are the class of tetrapods with the most living species: about ten thousand. More than half of these are passerines, sometimes known as perching birds.
+
+Birds are the closest living relatives of the Crocodilia. The fossil record shows that birds evolved from feathered theropod dinosaurs.
+
+Modern birds are not descended from Archaeopteryx. According to DNA evidence, modern birds (Neornithes) evolved in the Middle to Upper Cretaceous.[2] More recent estimates, using a new way of calibrating molecular clocks, showed that  modern birds originated early in the Upper Cretaceous. However, diversification occurred around the Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event.[3]
+
+The Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event 66 million years ago killed off all the non-avian dinosaur lines. Birds, especially those in the southern continents, survived this event and then migrated to other parts of the world.[4]
+
+Primitive bird-like dinosaurs are in the broader group Avialae.[5] They have been found back to the mid-Jurassic period, around 170 million years ago.[1] Many of these early "stem-birds", such as Anchiornis, were not yet capable of fully powered flight. Many had primitive characteristics like teeth in their jaws and long bony tails.[2]
+
+Birds have wings which are more or less developed depending on the species. The only known groups without wings are the extinct moa and elephant birds. Wings, which evolved from forelimbs, gave birds the ability to fly. Later many groups evolved with reduced wings, such as ratites, penguins and many island species of birds. The digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also adapted for flight. Some bird species in aquatic environments, particularly seabirds and some waterbirds, have evolved as good swimmers.
+
+Some birds, especially crows and parrots, are among the most intelligent animals. Several bird species make and use tools. Many social species pass on knowledge across generations, a form of culture. Many species annually migrate great distances. Birds are social. They communicate with visual signals, calls and bird songs. They have social behaviours such as cooperative breeding and hunting, flocking and mobbing of predators.
+
+Most bird species are socially monogamous, usually for one breeding season at a time, sometimes for years, but rarely for life. Other species are polygynous (one male with many females) or, rarely, polyandrous (one female with many males). Birds produce offspring by laying eggs which are fertilised by sexual reproduction. They are often laid in a nest and incubated by the parents. Most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching. Some birds, such as hens, lay eggs even when not fertilised, though unfertilised eggs do not produce offspring.
+
+Many species of birds are eaten by humans. Domesticated and undomesticated birds (poultry and game) are sources of eggs, meat, and feathers. Songbirds, parrots and other species are popular as pets. Guano is harvested for use as a fertiliser. Birds figure throughout human culture. About 120–130 species have become extinct due to human activity since the 17th century and hundreds more before then. Human activity threatens about 1,200 bird species with extinction, though efforts are underway to protect them. Recreational bird-watching is an important part of the ecotourism industry.
+
+Birds come in a huge range of colours. These colours can be useful to a bird in two ways. Camouflage colours help to hide the bird, and bright colours identify the bird to others of the same species. Often the male is brightly coloured while the female is camouflaged.
+
+Many birds are brown, green or grey. These colours make a bird harder to see; they camouflage the bird.[6] Brown is the most common colour. Brown birds include: sparrows, emus, thrushes, larks, eagles and falcons and the female birds of many species such as: wrens, ducks, blackbirds and peafowls. When a brown bird is in long grass or among tree trunks or rocks, it is camouflaged.[7] Birds that live in long grass often have brown feathers streaked with black which looks like shadows. A bittern is almost invisible in long reeds. Other birds, including starlings and minahs, are quite dark in colour, but are flecked with little spots that look like raindrops on leaves. Bird may also camouflage their nests.
+
+Many birds from hot countries are green or have some green feathers, particularly parrots. Birds that live in green trees often have green backs, even if they have bright-coloured breasts. From the back, the birds are camouflaged. This is very useful when sitting on a nest.[8] The bird's bright-coloured breast is hidden. Budgerigars are bred in different colours such as blue, white and mauve, but in the wild, they are nearly all green and yellow. Even though they fly very well, they normally spend a lot of time on the ground, eating grass seeds. Their yellow and black striped back helps to hide them in the shadows made by long dry grass, while their green breasts are a similar colour to the leaves of gum trees.
+
+Grey birds include most pigeons and doves, cranes, storks and herons. Grey birds are often rock-living birds like pigeons or birds that sit on dead tree trunks looking like a broken branch. Water birds like herons often have a pale grey colour which makes it harder for a fish to notice that the bird is standing, looking down for something to catch. Water birds, no matter what colour they are on top, are often white underneath, so that when a fish looks up, the bird looks like part of the sky.
+
+Black birds include crows, ravens and male blackbirds. Some birds that are dark colours spend quite a lot of time on the ground, hopping around in the shadows under bushes. Among these birds are the male blackbird and the Satin Bowerbird which is not black but very dark blue. Crows and ravens often perch high on bare trees in the winter, where their black shape against the sky looks like the dark bare branches.
+
+Many birds are not camouflaged, but stand out with vivid colours. They are usually male birds whose females are dull and camouflaged. The function of the colours is two-fold.[6] First, the colours help them get mates, and second, the colours identify them to other males of the same species. Many birds are territorial, especially in the nesting season. They give out territory sounds and are easily seen. This lets other males know they will defend their territory. It sends out a "look elsewhere" signal to their competitors.
+
+Some birds are famous for their colour and are named for it, such as the bluebird, the azure kingfisher, the golden pheasant, the scarlet macaw, the violet wren and the robin.
+
+Many other birds are very brightly coloured, in countless combinations. Some of the most colourful birds are quite common, like pheasants, peacocks, domestic fowl and parrots. Colourful small birds include blue tits, the gold finches, humming birds, fairy wrens and bee eaters (which are also called rainbow birds). Some birds, like those of the bird of paradise in Papua New Guinea have such beautiful feathers that they have been hunted for them.
+
+The peafowl is the best example of a display of colour to attract a mate. Also the male domestic fowl and junglefowl have long shiny feathers above his tail and also long neck feathers that may be a different colour to his wings and body. There are only a very few types of birds (like the eclectus parrot) where the female is more colourful than the male.
+
+''Pied birds'' are black and white. Black and white birds include magpies, pied geese, pelicans and Australian magpies (which are not really magpies at all). Pied birds often have brightly coloured beaks and legs of yellow or red. The silver pheasant, with its long white tail striped with fine bars of black, has a brightly coloured face.
+
+King parrot, Australia
+
+Common shelduck
+
+Kingfisher
+
+Flamingo
+
+Golden oriole.
+
+Himalayan bluetail
+
+Malayan banded pitta
+
+Most birds can fly. They do this by pushing through the air with their wings. The curved surfaces of the wings cause air currents (wind) which lift the bird. Flapping keeps the air current moving to create lift and also moves the bird forward.
+
+Some birds can glide on air currents without flapping. Many birds use this method when they are about to land. Some birds can also hover and remain in one place. This method is used by birds of prey such as falcons that are looking for something to eat. Seagulls are also good at hovering, particularly if there is a strong breeze. The most expert hovering birds are tiny hummingbirds which can beat their wings both backwards and forwards and can stay quite still in the air while they dip their long beaks into flowers to feed on the sweet nectar.
+
+A flock of tundra swans fly in V-formation.
+
+This osprey at Kennedy Space Centre is hovering.
+
+A wandering albatross can sleep while flying.
+
+The large broad wings of a vulture allow it to soar without flapping.
+
+The soft feathers of an owl allow it to fly quietly.
+
+Some birds, such as the quail, live mainly on the ground.
+
+A cassowary cannot fly but can defend itself.
+
+Penguin's flippers are good for swimming.
+
+Different types of birds have different needs. Their wings are adapted to suit the way they fly.
+
+Large birds of prey, such as eagles, that spend a lot of time soaring on the wind have wings that are large and broad. The main flight feathers are long and wide. They help the eagle to stay on rising air currents without using much energy, while the eagle looks at the ground below, to find the next meal. When the eagle sees some small creature move, it can close its wings and fall from the sky like a missile, opening its great wings again to slow down as it comes to land. The world's largest eagle, the Philippine eagle has a wingspan of about 2 m (6.7 ft) wide.
+
+Birds that live in grassland areas or open forests and feed on fruit, insects and reptiles often spend a lot of time flying short journeys looking for food and water. They have wings that are shaped in a similar way to eagles, but rounder and not as good for soaring. These include many Australian birds like cockatoos.
+
+Birds such as geese that migrate from one country to another fly very long distances. Their wings are big and strong, because the birds are large and they stock up on food for the long flight. Migrating water birds usually form family groups of 12-30 birds. They fly very high, making use of long streams of air that blow from north to south in different seasons. They are very well organised, often flying in a V pattern. The geese at the back do not have to flap so hard; they are pulled on by the wind of the ones at the front. Every so often, they change the leader so that the front bird, who does most work and sets the pace, can have a rest. Geese and swans are the highest-flying birds, reaching 8,000 metres or more when on migration. Geese often honk loudly while they are flying. It is thought that they do this to support the leader and help the young ones.
+
+Birds that fly very quickly, such as swifts and swallows, have long narrow pointed wings. These birds need great speed because they eat insects, catching most of them while they are flying. These birds also migrate. They often collect in huge flocks of thousands of birds that move together like a whirling cloud.
+
+Birds that live in bushes and branches have triangular wings that help the bird change direction. Many forest birds are expert at getting up speed by flapping and then gliding steadily among the trees, tilting to avoid things as they go. Members of the kingfisher family are expert at this type of flying.
+
+Birds such as owls that hunt at night have wings with soft rounded feathers so that they do not flap loudly. Birds that are awake at night are called nocturnal birds. Birds that are awake during the day are diurnal.
+
+A wandering albatross and Arctic tern might spend several years without coming to land. They can sleep while gliding and have wings which, when they are stretched right out, look like the wings of a jet plane.
+
+Bird like chickens that feed mainly on the ground and only use their wings to fly to safety have small wings.
+
+Flocks of birds can be very highly organised in a way that takes care of all the flock members. Studies of small flocking birds like tree sparrows show that they clearly communicate with each other, as sometimes thousands of birds may fly in close formation and spiral patterns without colliding (or flying into each other).
+
+Two common behaviours in flocking birds are guarding and reconnaissance. When a flock of birds is feeding it is common for one bird to perch on a high place to keep guard over the flock. In the same way, when a flock is asleep, often, one bird will remain awake. It is also common for large flocks to send one or two birds ahead of them when they are flying to a new area. The look-out birds can spy the lie of the land to find food, water and good places to perch.[9]
+
+Some birds do not fly. These include running birds like ostriches and emus and ocean-living birds, the large penguin family.
+
+Ostriches and emus do not need to fly because although they feed and nest on the ground, their great size and their speed is their protection. Some other ground-feeding birds have not been so lucky. Some birds such as the dodo and the kiwi were ground-feeding birds that lived in safety on islands where there was nothing dangerous to eat them. They lost the power of flight. Kiwis are endangered because European settlement to New Zealand brought animals like cats, dogs and rats which kill kiwis and eat their eggs. However, kiwis and also the rare New Zealand ground parrot have survived. In the case of dodos, they were fat and delicious. They were killed and eaten by sailors until there was none left. Other flightless birds which have disappeared are the great auk and the moa.
+
+Penguins spend a great deal of time at sea, where they are in danger from seals. On land, they usually live in areas where there were few dangers, until the arrival of European settlers with dogs and cats. Their wings have adapted to life in the sea and have become flippers which help them in swimming very fast.
+
+Modern birds do not have teeth, and many swallow their prey whole. Nevertheless, they must break up food before it is digested. First of all, along their throat (oesophagus) they have a crop. This stores food items before digestion. That way a bird can eat several items, and then fly off to a quiet spot to digest them.
+
+Their stomach comes next, with two very different parts. One part is like a straight hollow rod which secretes mild hydrochloric acid and an enzyme to break down protein. The other part of the stomach is the gizzard. This is muscular, and grinds up the contents. In herbivorous birds the gizzard contains some gastroliths (small stones or pieces of grit). Bones of fish will mostly be dissolved by the stomach acid. The partly digested and ground-up food now goes to the intestine, where digestion is completed, and most contents are absorbed. Anything indigestible, for example remains of feathers, is regurgitated via the mouth, not the cloaca.
+
+The system is effective, and carnivorous birds can swallow quite large prey. A blue heron can swallow a fish as large as a carp successfully.[10] Raptors eat by holding the prey down with a foot, and tearing it apart with their beak.
+
+Although birds are warm-blooded creatures like mammals, they do not give birth to live young. They lay eggs as reptiles do, but the shell of a bird's egg is hard. The baby bird grows inside the egg, and after a few weeks hatches (breaks out of the egg).
+
+Birds in cold climates usually have a breeding season once a year in the spring. Migratory birds can have two springs and two mating seasons in a year.
+
+When the breeding season arrives, the birds choose partners. Some birds are mated for life, like married couples. These birds include pigeons, geese, and cranes. Other birds look for new partners each year and sometimes a male bird or cock will have several wives.
+
+For birds that choose new mates, part of the breeding season is display. The male bird will do all sorts of things to attract females. These include singing, dancing, showing off the feathers and building a beautiful nest. Some male birds have splendid feathers for attracting females. The most famous is the peacock who can spread the feathers above his tail into a huge fan.
+
+A peacock display
+
+The sarus crane, like most cranes, mates for life and pairs dance together.
+
+Emu nest.
+
+A nest of house sparrows.
+
+Once the birds have found partners, they find a suitable place to lay eggs. The idea of what is a suitable place differs between species, but most build bird nests. Robins will make a beautiful little round nest of woven grass and carefully line it with feathers, bits of fluff and other soft things. Swallows like to nest near other swallows. They make nests from little blobs of clay, often on a beam near the roof of a building where it is well sheltered. Many birds like a hollow tree to nest in. Eagle's nests are often just piles of dead wood on the top of the tallest tree or mountain. Scrub turkeys scratch together a huge pile of leaves that may be 10 metres across. Guillemots lay their eggs on rock shelves with no nest at all. Their eggs are shaped so that they roll around in circles and do not fall off cliffs. A cuckoo does not make its own nest. It lays its egg in the nest of another bird and leaves it for them to care for. The cuckoo eggs are camouflaged to look like the host's eggs.
+
+When the nest has been prepared, the birds mate so that the eggs are fertilised and the chicks will start growing. Unlike mammals, birds only have one opening as the exit hole for body fluids, and for reproduction. The opening is called the cloaca. A female bird, called a hen, has two ovaries, of which the left one usually produces eggs.
+
+Most male birds have no sex organs that can be seen. But inside the male are two testes which produce sperm which is stored in the cloaca. Birds mate by rubbing their cloacas together, although with some birds, particularly large water birds, the male has a sort of a penis inside the cloaca.
+
+Once the hen has mated, she produces fertile eggs which have chicks growing inside them. She lays the eggs in the nest. There might be just one egg or a number of them, called a clutch. Emus might lay as many as fifteen huge dark green eggs in a clutch. After the eggs are laid, they are incubated, or kept warm so the chicks form inside. Most birds stay together for the whole nesting season, and one advantage is that the work is shared. Many birds take turns sitting on the eggs, so that each adult can feed.
+
+This is not always the case. With emus, the male does all the sitting and all the baby-minding. With emperor penguins it is also the male that cares for the egg. There is only one egg, which he keeps on his feet and under his feathers, standing in a big group of males without feeding until the chick is hatched. While the eggs are hatching, the females are at sea, feeding, so that they can care for the chicks when they return.
+
+Some birds put the eggs inside or on top of the mound of leaves and twigs. The mound acts like a compost heap. The decomposition of the rotting leaves causes the temperature to rise. This is heat released by the chemical action of bacterial and fungal respiration. It is the same reaction as that which keeps mammals and birds at a high temperature. The parents leave the mound. When the chicks hatch, they are able to feed themselves.
+
+Many small birds take 2–4 weeks to hatch eggs. Albatrosses take 80 days. During this time the female loses a lot of her body weight.
+
+The quickest hatching time is for the cuckoo. Some types of cuckoos take only 10 days. This means that when they hatch in the nest of their ''foster parents'', the eggs that the parents have laid are not yet ready. Newborn cuckoos are naked, blind and ugly, but they are strong. They get under any eggs that are in the nest and throw them out before they hatch. That means that the cuckoo has the whole care of both parents. Baby cuckoos grow fast and often get bigger than the parents who feed them.
+
+When baby birds hatch, in most types of birds, they are fed by both parents, and sometimes by older aunties as well. Their mouths are open all the time and are often very brightly coloured, which acts as a ''releaser'', a trigger which stimulates the parent to feed them. For birds that eat grain and fruit, the parents eat and partly digest the food for the babies. It is then vomited carefully into the baby's mouth.
+
+A black redstart feeding chicks
+
+Black swan and cygnets
+
+A reed warbler feeding a baby cuckoo
+
+Two sulphur crested cockatoos from a big flock are on the lookout
+
+Many birds, particularly those that mate for life, are very sociable and keep together in a family group which might be anything from 4 or 6 adult birds and their young to a very large flock.
+
+As chicks grow they change the fluffy down that covers them as babies for real feathers. At this stage they are called fledglings. Other family members may help care for fledgling chicks, feeding them and protecting them from attack while parents are feeding. When the fledglings have their new feathers, they come out of the nest to learn to fly. In some types of birds, like pigeons, the parents watch over this and as the young ones get stronger, will give them flying lessons, teaching them how to glide, how to fly in spirals and how to land like an expert.
+
+Most birds are social animals, at least part of the time. They communicate to each other using sounds and displays.
+
+Almost all birds make sounds to communicate. The types of noises that vary greatly. Some birds can sing, and  they are called songbirds or passerines. Examples are robins, larks, canaries, thrushes, nightingales. Corvids are passerines, but they do not sing. Birds that are not songbirds include: pigeons, seagulls, eagles, owls and ducks. Parrots are not songbirds, even though they can be taught to sing human songs.
+
+A favourite songbird, the European robin.
+
+The crow of the rooster is a familiar bird call.
+
+The pied currawong, an outstanding singer.
+
+The jackdaws helped Lorenz to understand bird communication.
+
+All birds make noises (''bird vocalisation''), but not all sing. Songbirds are passerines, many of which have beautiful melodic songs. Songs have different functions. Danger cries are different from territorial songs and mating calls are a third type. Fledgling may also have different calls from adults. Recognition calls for partners are quite common.
+
+As to where the song comes from, there are three kinds of species:
+
+Most singing birds that are kept as pets, like canaries, have several tunes and some variations.
+
+The same species of bird will sing different songs in different regions. A good example of this is the currawong. This is an Australia bird which is like a black and white crow. In the autumn, families get together in large flocks and do a lot of singing. Currawongs from some areas sing much more complex songs than others. Generally, currawongs from the Blue Mountains are the finest singers. The song of the currawong can be sung as a solo, but is often performed as a choir. One bird will take the lead and sing "Warble-warble-warble-warble!" All the other birds will join in and sing "Wooooooo!". When all the birds know the song, the choir will sing the "Warble" part and the soloist will sing the "Woo!". The song changes from year to year and from place to place.
+
+The Austrian naturalist Konrad Lorenz studied the way in which birds communicate, or talk to each other. He found that each type of bird had a number of sounds which they made automatically, when ever they felt a certain way. Every sound had an action that went with it. So, if the bird was frightened, it acted frightened and made a frightened sound. This told the other birds around it that something frightening was happening.
+
+If a flock of birds were flying over a field, they would be calling "Fly! Fly!" But a hungry bird, seeing something good to eat down below might start calling "Food! Food!" If other birds were also hungry, they would make the same call until more birds were calling "Food! Food!" than "Fly! Fly!". At this point, the mind of the flock would be changed. Some of the birds would start to yell "Fly downwards! Fly downwards!" as they sank from the sky, until the whole flock was all noisily calling the same thing.
+
+These communication sounds are often short hard sounds like: chirps, squeaks, squawks and twitters. Sometimes the calls are longer and more musical. They include the "Rookety-coo" sound of a pigeon and the "Cockadoodledoo!" of a rooster. The bird cannot change these sounds. They always make them in the same way. The bird is locked into making each sound every time a particular idea comes into its head. The connection between how they feel and how they call is innate: they are born with it. Some calls in some species are learnt. Then, it is the tendency to learn which is inherited.
+
+Konrad Lorenz noticed that when birds sing, they often use a lot of their regular calls as part of the song. Lorenz had a flock of jackdaws which were scattered during World War II. One day, an old bird returned. For many months she sat on the chimney singing her song, but in the song she kept making the call which Lorenz knew meant "Come home! Come home!" One day, to the great surprise of Lorenz, a male bird flew from a passing flock and joined her on the chimney. Lorenz was sure that it was her long-lost "husband" who had found his way home at last.[11]
+
+Palaeontologists have found some exceptional places (lagerstätten) where fossils of early birds are found. The preservation is so good that on the best examples impressions of their feathers can be seen, and sometimes even the remains of meals they have eaten. From these remains we know that birds evolved from small carnivorous dinosaurs (theropods) in the Jurassic period.[12] They radiated into a huge variety in the Lower Cretaceous. At the same time, their direct competitors, the pterosaurs, dwindled in numbers and variety, and became extinct at the end of the Mesozoic.
+
+Birds are classified by taxonomists as 'Aves' (Avialae). Birds are the only living descendants of dinosaurs (strictly speaking, they are dinosaurs). Birds and Crocodilia are the only living members of the once-dominant Archosaur reptiles.
+
+The class Aves is now defined as all the descendants of the most recent common ancestor of modern birds and Archaeopteryx lithographica.[13]
+
+Archaeopteryx, from the Upper Jurassic (some 150–145 million years ago), is the earliest bird which could fly. It is famous, because it was one of the first important fossils found after Charles Darwin published his ideas about evolution in the 19th century. By modern standards, Archaeopteryx could not fly very well.[14] Other early fossil birds are, for example, Confuciusornis, Anchiornis huxlei and other Paraves.
+
+Many fossils of early birds and small dinosaurs have been discovered in the Liaoning Province of Northeast China. The fossils show that most small theropod dinosaurs had feathers. These deposits have preserved them so well that the impressions of their feathers can be clearly seen. This leads us to think that feathers evolved first as heat insulation and only later for flight. The origin of birds lies in these small feathered dinosaurs.
+
+Palaeontologists now agree that birds evolved from Maniraptora group of dinosaurs. This explains why one might say birds are living dinosaurs.
+
+Canaries are often kept as pets for their beautiful songs.
+
+The African grey parrot is a renowned talker.
+
+Blue-winged teal Ducks used to be shot for sport.
+
+In many countries storks are thought to bring good luck.
+
+Some birds are eaten as food. Most usually it is the chicken and its eggs, but people often also eat geese, pheasants, turkeys and ducks. Other birds are sometimes eaten are: emus, ostriches, pigeons, grouse, quails, doves, woodcocks and even songbirds. Some species have died out because they have been hunted for food, for example the dodo and the passenger pigeon.
+
+Many species have learned how to get food from people. The number of birds of these species has grown because of it. Seagulls and crows find food from garbage dumps. The feral pigeon (Columba livia), sparrows (Passer domesticus and starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) live in large numbers in towns and cities all over the world.
+
+Sometimes people also use working birds. For example, homing pigeons carry messages. Nowadays people sometimes race them for sport. People also use falcons for hunting, and cormorants for fishing. In the past, people in mines often used a canary to see if there were bad gas methane in the air.
+
+People often have colorful birds such as parrots and mynahs as pets. These intelligent birds are popular because they can copy human talking. Because of this, some people trap birds and take them to other countries to sell. This is not usually allowed these days. Most pet birds are specially bred and are sold in pet shops.
+
+People can catch some bird diseases, for example: psittacosis, salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis, Newcastle's disease, mycobacteriosis, influenza, giardiasis and cryptosporiadiosis. In 2005, there was an epidemic of bird influenza spreading through some parts of the world, often called avian flu.
+
+Some people have birdboxes in their gardens to give birds a place to nest and bird tables where birds can get food and water in very cold or very dry weather. This lets people see some small birds close up which are normally hidden away in bushes and trees.
+
+
+
+Blue tit
+
+Male house sparrow
+
+Male chaffinch
+
+White-breasted nuthatch
+
+A report produced by BirdLife International every five years measures the population of birds worldwide. In 2018 the number of bird species has decreased by 40%.One in every eight types of birds is now almost extinct.
+
+The report highlighted the reduction of the number of Snowy Owls, Atlantic Puffin, European Turtle-Dove andseveral species of vultures.[15]

ensimple/4256.html.txt

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+
+
+Birds (Aves) are a group of vertebrates which evolved from dinosaurs. They are endothermic, with feathers.
+
+Modern birds are toothless: they have beaked jaws. They lay hard-shelled eggs. They have a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart and a strong yet lightweight skeleton.
+
+Birds live all over the world. They range in size from the 5 cm (2 in) bee hummingbird to the 2.70 m (9 ft) ostrich. They are the class of tetrapods with the most living species: about ten thousand. More than half of these are passerines, sometimes known as perching birds.
+
+Birds are the closest living relatives of the Crocodilia. The fossil record shows that birds evolved from feathered theropod dinosaurs.
+
+Modern birds are not descended from Archaeopteryx. According to DNA evidence, modern birds (Neornithes) evolved in the Middle to Upper Cretaceous.[2] More recent estimates, using a new way of calibrating molecular clocks, showed that  modern birds originated early in the Upper Cretaceous. However, diversification occurred around the Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event.[3]
+
+The Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event 66 million years ago killed off all the non-avian dinosaur lines. Birds, especially those in the southern continents, survived this event and then migrated to other parts of the world.[4]
+
+Primitive bird-like dinosaurs are in the broader group Avialae.[5] They have been found back to the mid-Jurassic period, around 170 million years ago.[1] Many of these early "stem-birds", such as Anchiornis, were not yet capable of fully powered flight. Many had primitive characteristics like teeth in their jaws and long bony tails.[2]
+
+Birds have wings which are more or less developed depending on the species. The only known groups without wings are the extinct moa and elephant birds. Wings, which evolved from forelimbs, gave birds the ability to fly. Later many groups evolved with reduced wings, such as ratites, penguins and many island species of birds. The digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also adapted for flight. Some bird species in aquatic environments, particularly seabirds and some waterbirds, have evolved as good swimmers.
+
+Some birds, especially crows and parrots, are among the most intelligent animals. Several bird species make and use tools. Many social species pass on knowledge across generations, a form of culture. Many species annually migrate great distances. Birds are social. They communicate with visual signals, calls and bird songs. They have social behaviours such as cooperative breeding and hunting, flocking and mobbing of predators.
+
+Most bird species are socially monogamous, usually for one breeding season at a time, sometimes for years, but rarely for life. Other species are polygynous (one male with many females) or, rarely, polyandrous (one female with many males). Birds produce offspring by laying eggs which are fertilised by sexual reproduction. They are often laid in a nest and incubated by the parents. Most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching. Some birds, such as hens, lay eggs even when not fertilised, though unfertilised eggs do not produce offspring.
+
+Many species of birds are eaten by humans. Domesticated and undomesticated birds (poultry and game) are sources of eggs, meat, and feathers. Songbirds, parrots and other species are popular as pets. Guano is harvested for use as a fertiliser. Birds figure throughout human culture. About 120–130 species have become extinct due to human activity since the 17th century and hundreds more before then. Human activity threatens about 1,200 bird species with extinction, though efforts are underway to protect them. Recreational bird-watching is an important part of the ecotourism industry.
+
+Birds come in a huge range of colours. These colours can be useful to a bird in two ways. Camouflage colours help to hide the bird, and bright colours identify the bird to others of the same species. Often the male is brightly coloured while the female is camouflaged.
+
+Many birds are brown, green or grey. These colours make a bird harder to see; they camouflage the bird.[6] Brown is the most common colour. Brown birds include: sparrows, emus, thrushes, larks, eagles and falcons and the female birds of many species such as: wrens, ducks, blackbirds and peafowls. When a brown bird is in long grass or among tree trunks or rocks, it is camouflaged.[7] Birds that live in long grass often have brown feathers streaked with black which looks like shadows. A bittern is almost invisible in long reeds. Other birds, including starlings and minahs, are quite dark in colour, but are flecked with little spots that look like raindrops on leaves. Bird may also camouflage their nests.
+
+Many birds from hot countries are green or have some green feathers, particularly parrots. Birds that live in green trees often have green backs, even if they have bright-coloured breasts. From the back, the birds are camouflaged. This is very useful when sitting on a nest.[8] The bird's bright-coloured breast is hidden. Budgerigars are bred in different colours such as blue, white and mauve, but in the wild, they are nearly all green and yellow. Even though they fly very well, they normally spend a lot of time on the ground, eating grass seeds. Their yellow and black striped back helps to hide them in the shadows made by long dry grass, while their green breasts are a similar colour to the leaves of gum trees.
+
+Grey birds include most pigeons and doves, cranes, storks and herons. Grey birds are often rock-living birds like pigeons or birds that sit on dead tree trunks looking like a broken branch. Water birds like herons often have a pale grey colour which makes it harder for a fish to notice that the bird is standing, looking down for something to catch. Water birds, no matter what colour they are on top, are often white underneath, so that when a fish looks up, the bird looks like part of the sky.
+
+Black birds include crows, ravens and male blackbirds. Some birds that are dark colours spend quite a lot of time on the ground, hopping around in the shadows under bushes. Among these birds are the male blackbird and the Satin Bowerbird which is not black but very dark blue. Crows and ravens often perch high on bare trees in the winter, where their black shape against the sky looks like the dark bare branches.
+
+Many birds are not camouflaged, but stand out with vivid colours. They are usually male birds whose females are dull and camouflaged. The function of the colours is two-fold.[6] First, the colours help them get mates, and second, the colours identify them to other males of the same species. Many birds are territorial, especially in the nesting season. They give out territory sounds and are easily seen. This lets other males know they will defend their territory. It sends out a "look elsewhere" signal to their competitors.
+
+Some birds are famous for their colour and are named for it, such as the bluebird, the azure kingfisher, the golden pheasant, the scarlet macaw, the violet wren and the robin.
+
+Many other birds are very brightly coloured, in countless combinations. Some of the most colourful birds are quite common, like pheasants, peacocks, domestic fowl and parrots. Colourful small birds include blue tits, the gold finches, humming birds, fairy wrens and bee eaters (which are also called rainbow birds). Some birds, like those of the bird of paradise in Papua New Guinea have such beautiful feathers that they have been hunted for them.
+
+The peafowl is the best example of a display of colour to attract a mate. Also the male domestic fowl and junglefowl have long shiny feathers above his tail and also long neck feathers that may be a different colour to his wings and body. There are only a very few types of birds (like the eclectus parrot) where the female is more colourful than the male.
+
+''Pied birds'' are black and white. Black and white birds include magpies, pied geese, pelicans and Australian magpies (which are not really magpies at all). Pied birds often have brightly coloured beaks and legs of yellow or red. The silver pheasant, with its long white tail striped with fine bars of black, has a brightly coloured face.
+
+King parrot, Australia
+
+Common shelduck
+
+Kingfisher
+
+Flamingo
+
+Golden oriole.
+
+Himalayan bluetail
+
+Malayan banded pitta
+
+Most birds can fly. They do this by pushing through the air with their wings. The curved surfaces of the wings cause air currents (wind) which lift the bird. Flapping keeps the air current moving to create lift and also moves the bird forward.
+
+Some birds can glide on air currents without flapping. Many birds use this method when they are about to land. Some birds can also hover and remain in one place. This method is used by birds of prey such as falcons that are looking for something to eat. Seagulls are also good at hovering, particularly if there is a strong breeze. The most expert hovering birds are tiny hummingbirds which can beat their wings both backwards and forwards and can stay quite still in the air while they dip their long beaks into flowers to feed on the sweet nectar.
+
+A flock of tundra swans fly in V-formation.
+
+This osprey at Kennedy Space Centre is hovering.
+
+A wandering albatross can sleep while flying.
+
+The large broad wings of a vulture allow it to soar without flapping.
+
+The soft feathers of an owl allow it to fly quietly.
+
+Some birds, such as the quail, live mainly on the ground.
+
+A cassowary cannot fly but can defend itself.
+
+Penguin's flippers are good for swimming.
+
+Different types of birds have different needs. Their wings are adapted to suit the way they fly.
+
+Large birds of prey, such as eagles, that spend a lot of time soaring on the wind have wings that are large and broad. The main flight feathers are long and wide. They help the eagle to stay on rising air currents without using much energy, while the eagle looks at the ground below, to find the next meal. When the eagle sees some small creature move, it can close its wings and fall from the sky like a missile, opening its great wings again to slow down as it comes to land. The world's largest eagle, the Philippine eagle has a wingspan of about 2 m (6.7 ft) wide.
+
+Birds that live in grassland areas or open forests and feed on fruit, insects and reptiles often spend a lot of time flying short journeys looking for food and water. They have wings that are shaped in a similar way to eagles, but rounder and not as good for soaring. These include many Australian birds like cockatoos.
+
+Birds such as geese that migrate from one country to another fly very long distances. Their wings are big and strong, because the birds are large and they stock up on food for the long flight. Migrating water birds usually form family groups of 12-30 birds. They fly very high, making use of long streams of air that blow from north to south in different seasons. They are very well organised, often flying in a V pattern. The geese at the back do not have to flap so hard; they are pulled on by the wind of the ones at the front. Every so often, they change the leader so that the front bird, who does most work and sets the pace, can have a rest. Geese and swans are the highest-flying birds, reaching 8,000 metres or more when on migration. Geese often honk loudly while they are flying. It is thought that they do this to support the leader and help the young ones.
+
+Birds that fly very quickly, such as swifts and swallows, have long narrow pointed wings. These birds need great speed because they eat insects, catching most of them while they are flying. These birds also migrate. They often collect in huge flocks of thousands of birds that move together like a whirling cloud.
+
+Birds that live in bushes and branches have triangular wings that help the bird change direction. Many forest birds are expert at getting up speed by flapping and then gliding steadily among the trees, tilting to avoid things as they go. Members of the kingfisher family are expert at this type of flying.
+
+Birds such as owls that hunt at night have wings with soft rounded feathers so that they do not flap loudly. Birds that are awake at night are called nocturnal birds. Birds that are awake during the day are diurnal.
+
+A wandering albatross and Arctic tern might spend several years without coming to land. They can sleep while gliding and have wings which, when they are stretched right out, look like the wings of a jet plane.
+
+Bird like chickens that feed mainly on the ground and only use their wings to fly to safety have small wings.
+
+Flocks of birds can be very highly organised in a way that takes care of all the flock members. Studies of small flocking birds like tree sparrows show that they clearly communicate with each other, as sometimes thousands of birds may fly in close formation and spiral patterns without colliding (or flying into each other).
+
+Two common behaviours in flocking birds are guarding and reconnaissance. When a flock of birds is feeding it is common for one bird to perch on a high place to keep guard over the flock. In the same way, when a flock is asleep, often, one bird will remain awake. It is also common for large flocks to send one or two birds ahead of them when they are flying to a new area. The look-out birds can spy the lie of the land to find food, water and good places to perch.[9]
+
+Some birds do not fly. These include running birds like ostriches and emus and ocean-living birds, the large penguin family.
+
+Ostriches and emus do not need to fly because although they feed and nest on the ground, their great size and their speed is their protection. Some other ground-feeding birds have not been so lucky. Some birds such as the dodo and the kiwi were ground-feeding birds that lived in safety on islands where there was nothing dangerous to eat them. They lost the power of flight. Kiwis are endangered because European settlement to New Zealand brought animals like cats, dogs and rats which kill kiwis and eat their eggs. However, kiwis and also the rare New Zealand ground parrot have survived. In the case of dodos, they were fat and delicious. They were killed and eaten by sailors until there was none left. Other flightless birds which have disappeared are the great auk and the moa.
+
+Penguins spend a great deal of time at sea, where they are in danger from seals. On land, they usually live in areas where there were few dangers, until the arrival of European settlers with dogs and cats. Their wings have adapted to life in the sea and have become flippers which help them in swimming very fast.
+
+Modern birds do not have teeth, and many swallow their prey whole. Nevertheless, they must break up food before it is digested. First of all, along their throat (oesophagus) they have a crop. This stores food items before digestion. That way a bird can eat several items, and then fly off to a quiet spot to digest them.
+
+Their stomach comes next, with two very different parts. One part is like a straight hollow rod which secretes mild hydrochloric acid and an enzyme to break down protein. The other part of the stomach is the gizzard. This is muscular, and grinds up the contents. In herbivorous birds the gizzard contains some gastroliths (small stones or pieces of grit). Bones of fish will mostly be dissolved by the stomach acid. The partly digested and ground-up food now goes to the intestine, where digestion is completed, and most contents are absorbed. Anything indigestible, for example remains of feathers, is regurgitated via the mouth, not the cloaca.
+
+The system is effective, and carnivorous birds can swallow quite large prey. A blue heron can swallow a fish as large as a carp successfully.[10] Raptors eat by holding the prey down with a foot, and tearing it apart with their beak.
+
+Although birds are warm-blooded creatures like mammals, they do not give birth to live young. They lay eggs as reptiles do, but the shell of a bird's egg is hard. The baby bird grows inside the egg, and after a few weeks hatches (breaks out of the egg).
+
+Birds in cold climates usually have a breeding season once a year in the spring. Migratory birds can have two springs and two mating seasons in a year.
+
+When the breeding season arrives, the birds choose partners. Some birds are mated for life, like married couples. These birds include pigeons, geese, and cranes. Other birds look for new partners each year and sometimes a male bird or cock will have several wives.
+
+For birds that choose new mates, part of the breeding season is display. The male bird will do all sorts of things to attract females. These include singing, dancing, showing off the feathers and building a beautiful nest. Some male birds have splendid feathers for attracting females. The most famous is the peacock who can spread the feathers above his tail into a huge fan.
+
+A peacock display
+
+The sarus crane, like most cranes, mates for life and pairs dance together.
+
+Emu nest.
+
+A nest of house sparrows.
+
+Once the birds have found partners, they find a suitable place to lay eggs. The idea of what is a suitable place differs between species, but most build bird nests. Robins will make a beautiful little round nest of woven grass and carefully line it with feathers, bits of fluff and other soft things. Swallows like to nest near other swallows. They make nests from little blobs of clay, often on a beam near the roof of a building where it is well sheltered. Many birds like a hollow tree to nest in. Eagle's nests are often just piles of dead wood on the top of the tallest tree or mountain. Scrub turkeys scratch together a huge pile of leaves that may be 10 metres across. Guillemots lay their eggs on rock shelves with no nest at all. Their eggs are shaped so that they roll around in circles and do not fall off cliffs. A cuckoo does not make its own nest. It lays its egg in the nest of another bird and leaves it for them to care for. The cuckoo eggs are camouflaged to look like the host's eggs.
+
+When the nest has been prepared, the birds mate so that the eggs are fertilised and the chicks will start growing. Unlike mammals, birds only have one opening as the exit hole for body fluids, and for reproduction. The opening is called the cloaca. A female bird, called a hen, has two ovaries, of which the left one usually produces eggs.
+
+Most male birds have no sex organs that can be seen. But inside the male are two testes which produce sperm which is stored in the cloaca. Birds mate by rubbing their cloacas together, although with some birds, particularly large water birds, the male has a sort of a penis inside the cloaca.
+
+Once the hen has mated, she produces fertile eggs which have chicks growing inside them. She lays the eggs in the nest. There might be just one egg or a number of them, called a clutch. Emus might lay as many as fifteen huge dark green eggs in a clutch. After the eggs are laid, they are incubated, or kept warm so the chicks form inside. Most birds stay together for the whole nesting season, and one advantage is that the work is shared. Many birds take turns sitting on the eggs, so that each adult can feed.
+
+This is not always the case. With emus, the male does all the sitting and all the baby-minding. With emperor penguins it is also the male that cares for the egg. There is only one egg, which he keeps on his feet and under his feathers, standing in a big group of males without feeding until the chick is hatched. While the eggs are hatching, the females are at sea, feeding, so that they can care for the chicks when they return.
+
+Some birds put the eggs inside or on top of the mound of leaves and twigs. The mound acts like a compost heap. The decomposition of the rotting leaves causes the temperature to rise. This is heat released by the chemical action of bacterial and fungal respiration. It is the same reaction as that which keeps mammals and birds at a high temperature. The parents leave the mound. When the chicks hatch, they are able to feed themselves.
+
+Many small birds take 2–4 weeks to hatch eggs. Albatrosses take 80 days. During this time the female loses a lot of her body weight.
+
+The quickest hatching time is for the cuckoo. Some types of cuckoos take only 10 days. This means that when they hatch in the nest of their ''foster parents'', the eggs that the parents have laid are not yet ready. Newborn cuckoos are naked, blind and ugly, but they are strong. They get under any eggs that are in the nest and throw them out before they hatch. That means that the cuckoo has the whole care of both parents. Baby cuckoos grow fast and often get bigger than the parents who feed them.
+
+When baby birds hatch, in most types of birds, they are fed by both parents, and sometimes by older aunties as well. Their mouths are open all the time and are often very brightly coloured, which acts as a ''releaser'', a trigger which stimulates the parent to feed them. For birds that eat grain and fruit, the parents eat and partly digest the food for the babies. It is then vomited carefully into the baby's mouth.
+
+A black redstart feeding chicks
+
+Black swan and cygnets
+
+A reed warbler feeding a baby cuckoo
+
+Two sulphur crested cockatoos from a big flock are on the lookout
+
+Many birds, particularly those that mate for life, are very sociable and keep together in a family group which might be anything from 4 or 6 adult birds and their young to a very large flock.
+
+As chicks grow they change the fluffy down that covers them as babies for real feathers. At this stage they are called fledglings. Other family members may help care for fledgling chicks, feeding them and protecting them from attack while parents are feeding. When the fledglings have their new feathers, they come out of the nest to learn to fly. In some types of birds, like pigeons, the parents watch over this and as the young ones get stronger, will give them flying lessons, teaching them how to glide, how to fly in spirals and how to land like an expert.
+
+Most birds are social animals, at least part of the time. They communicate to each other using sounds and displays.
+
+Almost all birds make sounds to communicate. The types of noises that vary greatly. Some birds can sing, and  they are called songbirds or passerines. Examples are robins, larks, canaries, thrushes, nightingales. Corvids are passerines, but they do not sing. Birds that are not songbirds include: pigeons, seagulls, eagles, owls and ducks. Parrots are not songbirds, even though they can be taught to sing human songs.
+
+A favourite songbird, the European robin.
+
+The crow of the rooster is a familiar bird call.
+
+The pied currawong, an outstanding singer.
+
+The jackdaws helped Lorenz to understand bird communication.
+
+All birds make noises (''bird vocalisation''), but not all sing. Songbirds are passerines, many of which have beautiful melodic songs. Songs have different functions. Danger cries are different from territorial songs and mating calls are a third type. Fledgling may also have different calls from adults. Recognition calls for partners are quite common.
+
+As to where the song comes from, there are three kinds of species:
+
+Most singing birds that are kept as pets, like canaries, have several tunes and some variations.
+
+The same species of bird will sing different songs in different regions. A good example of this is the currawong. This is an Australia bird which is like a black and white crow. In the autumn, families get together in large flocks and do a lot of singing. Currawongs from some areas sing much more complex songs than others. Generally, currawongs from the Blue Mountains are the finest singers. The song of the currawong can be sung as a solo, but is often performed as a choir. One bird will take the lead and sing "Warble-warble-warble-warble!" All the other birds will join in and sing "Wooooooo!". When all the birds know the song, the choir will sing the "Warble" part and the soloist will sing the "Woo!". The song changes from year to year and from place to place.
+
+The Austrian naturalist Konrad Lorenz studied the way in which birds communicate, or talk to each other. He found that each type of bird had a number of sounds which they made automatically, when ever they felt a certain way. Every sound had an action that went with it. So, if the bird was frightened, it acted frightened and made a frightened sound. This told the other birds around it that something frightening was happening.
+
+If a flock of birds were flying over a field, they would be calling "Fly! Fly!" But a hungry bird, seeing something good to eat down below might start calling "Food! Food!" If other birds were also hungry, they would make the same call until more birds were calling "Food! Food!" than "Fly! Fly!". At this point, the mind of the flock would be changed. Some of the birds would start to yell "Fly downwards! Fly downwards!" as they sank from the sky, until the whole flock was all noisily calling the same thing.
+
+These communication sounds are often short hard sounds like: chirps, squeaks, squawks and twitters. Sometimes the calls are longer and more musical. They include the "Rookety-coo" sound of a pigeon and the "Cockadoodledoo!" of a rooster. The bird cannot change these sounds. They always make them in the same way. The bird is locked into making each sound every time a particular idea comes into its head. The connection between how they feel and how they call is innate: they are born with it. Some calls in some species are learnt. Then, it is the tendency to learn which is inherited.
+
+Konrad Lorenz noticed that when birds sing, they often use a lot of their regular calls as part of the song. Lorenz had a flock of jackdaws which were scattered during World War II. One day, an old bird returned. For many months she sat on the chimney singing her song, but in the song she kept making the call which Lorenz knew meant "Come home! Come home!" One day, to the great surprise of Lorenz, a male bird flew from a passing flock and joined her on the chimney. Lorenz was sure that it was her long-lost "husband" who had found his way home at last.[11]
+
+Palaeontologists have found some exceptional places (lagerstätten) where fossils of early birds are found. The preservation is so good that on the best examples impressions of their feathers can be seen, and sometimes even the remains of meals they have eaten. From these remains we know that birds evolved from small carnivorous dinosaurs (theropods) in the Jurassic period.[12] They radiated into a huge variety in the Lower Cretaceous. At the same time, their direct competitors, the pterosaurs, dwindled in numbers and variety, and became extinct at the end of the Mesozoic.
+
+Birds are classified by taxonomists as 'Aves' (Avialae). Birds are the only living descendants of dinosaurs (strictly speaking, they are dinosaurs). Birds and Crocodilia are the only living members of the once-dominant Archosaur reptiles.
+
+The class Aves is now defined as all the descendants of the most recent common ancestor of modern birds and Archaeopteryx lithographica.[13]
+
+Archaeopteryx, from the Upper Jurassic (some 150–145 million years ago), is the earliest bird which could fly. It is famous, because it was one of the first important fossils found after Charles Darwin published his ideas about evolution in the 19th century. By modern standards, Archaeopteryx could not fly very well.[14] Other early fossil birds are, for example, Confuciusornis, Anchiornis huxlei and other Paraves.
+
+Many fossils of early birds and small dinosaurs have been discovered in the Liaoning Province of Northeast China. The fossils show that most small theropod dinosaurs had feathers. These deposits have preserved them so well that the impressions of their feathers can be clearly seen. This leads us to think that feathers evolved first as heat insulation and only later for flight. The origin of birds lies in these small feathered dinosaurs.
+
+Palaeontologists now agree that birds evolved from Maniraptora group of dinosaurs. This explains why one might say birds are living dinosaurs.
+
+Canaries are often kept as pets for their beautiful songs.
+
+The African grey parrot is a renowned talker.
+
+Blue-winged teal Ducks used to be shot for sport.
+
+In many countries storks are thought to bring good luck.
+
+Some birds are eaten as food. Most usually it is the chicken and its eggs, but people often also eat geese, pheasants, turkeys and ducks. Other birds are sometimes eaten are: emus, ostriches, pigeons, grouse, quails, doves, woodcocks and even songbirds. Some species have died out because they have been hunted for food, for example the dodo and the passenger pigeon.
+
+Many species have learned how to get food from people. The number of birds of these species has grown because of it. Seagulls and crows find food from garbage dumps. The feral pigeon (Columba livia), sparrows (Passer domesticus and starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) live in large numbers in towns and cities all over the world.
+
+Sometimes people also use working birds. For example, homing pigeons carry messages. Nowadays people sometimes race them for sport. People also use falcons for hunting, and cormorants for fishing. In the past, people in mines often used a canary to see if there were bad gas methane in the air.
+
+People often have colorful birds such as parrots and mynahs as pets. These intelligent birds are popular because they can copy human talking. Because of this, some people trap birds and take them to other countries to sell. This is not usually allowed these days. Most pet birds are specially bred and are sold in pet shops.
+
+People can catch some bird diseases, for example: psittacosis, salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis, Newcastle's disease, mycobacteriosis, influenza, giardiasis and cryptosporiadiosis. In 2005, there was an epidemic of bird influenza spreading through some parts of the world, often called avian flu.
+
+Some people have birdboxes in their gardens to give birds a place to nest and bird tables where birds can get food and water in very cold or very dry weather. This lets people see some small birds close up which are normally hidden away in bushes and trees.
+
+
+
+Blue tit
+
+Male house sparrow
+
+Male chaffinch
+
+White-breasted nuthatch
+
+A report produced by BirdLife International every five years measures the population of birds worldwide. In 2018 the number of bird species has decreased by 40%.One in every eight types of birds is now almost extinct.
+
+The report highlighted the reduction of the number of Snowy Owls, Atlantic Puffin, European Turtle-Dove andseveral species of vultures.[15]

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+
+
+Birds (Aves) are a group of vertebrates which evolved from dinosaurs. They are endothermic, with feathers.
+
+Modern birds are toothless: they have beaked jaws. They lay hard-shelled eggs. They have a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart and a strong yet lightweight skeleton.
+
+Birds live all over the world. They range in size from the 5 cm (2 in) bee hummingbird to the 2.70 m (9 ft) ostrich. They are the class of tetrapods with the most living species: about ten thousand. More than half of these are passerines, sometimes known as perching birds.
+
+Birds are the closest living relatives of the Crocodilia. The fossil record shows that birds evolved from feathered theropod dinosaurs.
+
+Modern birds are not descended from Archaeopteryx. According to DNA evidence, modern birds (Neornithes) evolved in the Middle to Upper Cretaceous.[2] More recent estimates, using a new way of calibrating molecular clocks, showed that  modern birds originated early in the Upper Cretaceous. However, diversification occurred around the Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event.[3]
+
+The Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event 66 million years ago killed off all the non-avian dinosaur lines. Birds, especially those in the southern continents, survived this event and then migrated to other parts of the world.[4]
+
+Primitive bird-like dinosaurs are in the broader group Avialae.[5] They have been found back to the mid-Jurassic period, around 170 million years ago.[1] Many of these early "stem-birds", such as Anchiornis, were not yet capable of fully powered flight. Many had primitive characteristics like teeth in their jaws and long bony tails.[2]
+
+Birds have wings which are more or less developed depending on the species. The only known groups without wings are the extinct moa and elephant birds. Wings, which evolved from forelimbs, gave birds the ability to fly. Later many groups evolved with reduced wings, such as ratites, penguins and many island species of birds. The digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also adapted for flight. Some bird species in aquatic environments, particularly seabirds and some waterbirds, have evolved as good swimmers.
+
+Some birds, especially crows and parrots, are among the most intelligent animals. Several bird species make and use tools. Many social species pass on knowledge across generations, a form of culture. Many species annually migrate great distances. Birds are social. They communicate with visual signals, calls and bird songs. They have social behaviours such as cooperative breeding and hunting, flocking and mobbing of predators.
+
+Most bird species are socially monogamous, usually for one breeding season at a time, sometimes for years, but rarely for life. Other species are polygynous (one male with many females) or, rarely, polyandrous (one female with many males). Birds produce offspring by laying eggs which are fertilised by sexual reproduction. They are often laid in a nest and incubated by the parents. Most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching. Some birds, such as hens, lay eggs even when not fertilised, though unfertilised eggs do not produce offspring.
+
+Many species of birds are eaten by humans. Domesticated and undomesticated birds (poultry and game) are sources of eggs, meat, and feathers. Songbirds, parrots and other species are popular as pets. Guano is harvested for use as a fertiliser. Birds figure throughout human culture. About 120–130 species have become extinct due to human activity since the 17th century and hundreds more before then. Human activity threatens about 1,200 bird species with extinction, though efforts are underway to protect them. Recreational bird-watching is an important part of the ecotourism industry.
+
+Birds come in a huge range of colours. These colours can be useful to a bird in two ways. Camouflage colours help to hide the bird, and bright colours identify the bird to others of the same species. Often the male is brightly coloured while the female is camouflaged.
+
+Many birds are brown, green or grey. These colours make a bird harder to see; they camouflage the bird.[6] Brown is the most common colour. Brown birds include: sparrows, emus, thrushes, larks, eagles and falcons and the female birds of many species such as: wrens, ducks, blackbirds and peafowls. When a brown bird is in long grass or among tree trunks or rocks, it is camouflaged.[7] Birds that live in long grass often have brown feathers streaked with black which looks like shadows. A bittern is almost invisible in long reeds. Other birds, including starlings and minahs, are quite dark in colour, but are flecked with little spots that look like raindrops on leaves. Bird may also camouflage their nests.
+
+Many birds from hot countries are green or have some green feathers, particularly parrots. Birds that live in green trees often have green backs, even if they have bright-coloured breasts. From the back, the birds are camouflaged. This is very useful when sitting on a nest.[8] The bird's bright-coloured breast is hidden. Budgerigars are bred in different colours such as blue, white and mauve, but in the wild, they are nearly all green and yellow. Even though they fly very well, they normally spend a lot of time on the ground, eating grass seeds. Their yellow and black striped back helps to hide them in the shadows made by long dry grass, while their green breasts are a similar colour to the leaves of gum trees.
+
+Grey birds include most pigeons and doves, cranes, storks and herons. Grey birds are often rock-living birds like pigeons or birds that sit on dead tree trunks looking like a broken branch. Water birds like herons often have a pale grey colour which makes it harder for a fish to notice that the bird is standing, looking down for something to catch. Water birds, no matter what colour they are on top, are often white underneath, so that when a fish looks up, the bird looks like part of the sky.
+
+Black birds include crows, ravens and male blackbirds. Some birds that are dark colours spend quite a lot of time on the ground, hopping around in the shadows under bushes. Among these birds are the male blackbird and the Satin Bowerbird which is not black but very dark blue. Crows and ravens often perch high on bare trees in the winter, where their black shape against the sky looks like the dark bare branches.
+
+Many birds are not camouflaged, but stand out with vivid colours. They are usually male birds whose females are dull and camouflaged. The function of the colours is two-fold.[6] First, the colours help them get mates, and second, the colours identify them to other males of the same species. Many birds are territorial, especially in the nesting season. They give out territory sounds and are easily seen. This lets other males know they will defend their territory. It sends out a "look elsewhere" signal to their competitors.
+
+Some birds are famous for their colour and are named for it, such as the bluebird, the azure kingfisher, the golden pheasant, the scarlet macaw, the violet wren and the robin.
+
+Many other birds are very brightly coloured, in countless combinations. Some of the most colourful birds are quite common, like pheasants, peacocks, domestic fowl and parrots. Colourful small birds include blue tits, the gold finches, humming birds, fairy wrens and bee eaters (which are also called rainbow birds). Some birds, like those of the bird of paradise in Papua New Guinea have such beautiful feathers that they have been hunted for them.
+
+The peafowl is the best example of a display of colour to attract a mate. Also the male domestic fowl and junglefowl have long shiny feathers above his tail and also long neck feathers that may be a different colour to his wings and body. There are only a very few types of birds (like the eclectus parrot) where the female is more colourful than the male.
+
+''Pied birds'' are black and white. Black and white birds include magpies, pied geese, pelicans and Australian magpies (which are not really magpies at all). Pied birds often have brightly coloured beaks and legs of yellow or red. The silver pheasant, with its long white tail striped with fine bars of black, has a brightly coloured face.
+
+King parrot, Australia
+
+Common shelduck
+
+Kingfisher
+
+Flamingo
+
+Golden oriole.
+
+Himalayan bluetail
+
+Malayan banded pitta
+
+Most birds can fly. They do this by pushing through the air with their wings. The curved surfaces of the wings cause air currents (wind) which lift the bird. Flapping keeps the air current moving to create lift and also moves the bird forward.
+
+Some birds can glide on air currents without flapping. Many birds use this method when they are about to land. Some birds can also hover and remain in one place. This method is used by birds of prey such as falcons that are looking for something to eat. Seagulls are also good at hovering, particularly if there is a strong breeze. The most expert hovering birds are tiny hummingbirds which can beat their wings both backwards and forwards and can stay quite still in the air while they dip their long beaks into flowers to feed on the sweet nectar.
+
+A flock of tundra swans fly in V-formation.
+
+This osprey at Kennedy Space Centre is hovering.
+
+A wandering albatross can sleep while flying.
+
+The large broad wings of a vulture allow it to soar without flapping.
+
+The soft feathers of an owl allow it to fly quietly.
+
+Some birds, such as the quail, live mainly on the ground.
+
+A cassowary cannot fly but can defend itself.
+
+Penguin's flippers are good for swimming.
+
+Different types of birds have different needs. Their wings are adapted to suit the way they fly.
+
+Large birds of prey, such as eagles, that spend a lot of time soaring on the wind have wings that are large and broad. The main flight feathers are long and wide. They help the eagle to stay on rising air currents without using much energy, while the eagle looks at the ground below, to find the next meal. When the eagle sees some small creature move, it can close its wings and fall from the sky like a missile, opening its great wings again to slow down as it comes to land. The world's largest eagle, the Philippine eagle has a wingspan of about 2 m (6.7 ft) wide.
+
+Birds that live in grassland areas or open forests and feed on fruit, insects and reptiles often spend a lot of time flying short journeys looking for food and water. They have wings that are shaped in a similar way to eagles, but rounder and not as good for soaring. These include many Australian birds like cockatoos.
+
+Birds such as geese that migrate from one country to another fly very long distances. Their wings are big and strong, because the birds are large and they stock up on food for the long flight. Migrating water birds usually form family groups of 12-30 birds. They fly very high, making use of long streams of air that blow from north to south in different seasons. They are very well organised, often flying in a V pattern. The geese at the back do not have to flap so hard; they are pulled on by the wind of the ones at the front. Every so often, they change the leader so that the front bird, who does most work and sets the pace, can have a rest. Geese and swans are the highest-flying birds, reaching 8,000 metres or more when on migration. Geese often honk loudly while they are flying. It is thought that they do this to support the leader and help the young ones.
+
+Birds that fly very quickly, such as swifts and swallows, have long narrow pointed wings. These birds need great speed because they eat insects, catching most of them while they are flying. These birds also migrate. They often collect in huge flocks of thousands of birds that move together like a whirling cloud.
+
+Birds that live in bushes and branches have triangular wings that help the bird change direction. Many forest birds are expert at getting up speed by flapping and then gliding steadily among the trees, tilting to avoid things as they go. Members of the kingfisher family are expert at this type of flying.
+
+Birds such as owls that hunt at night have wings with soft rounded feathers so that they do not flap loudly. Birds that are awake at night are called nocturnal birds. Birds that are awake during the day are diurnal.
+
+A wandering albatross and Arctic tern might spend several years without coming to land. They can sleep while gliding and have wings which, when they are stretched right out, look like the wings of a jet plane.
+
+Bird like chickens that feed mainly on the ground and only use their wings to fly to safety have small wings.
+
+Flocks of birds can be very highly organised in a way that takes care of all the flock members. Studies of small flocking birds like tree sparrows show that they clearly communicate with each other, as sometimes thousands of birds may fly in close formation and spiral patterns without colliding (or flying into each other).
+
+Two common behaviours in flocking birds are guarding and reconnaissance. When a flock of birds is feeding it is common for one bird to perch on a high place to keep guard over the flock. In the same way, when a flock is asleep, often, one bird will remain awake. It is also common for large flocks to send one or two birds ahead of them when they are flying to a new area. The look-out birds can spy the lie of the land to find food, water and good places to perch.[9]
+
+Some birds do not fly. These include running birds like ostriches and emus and ocean-living birds, the large penguin family.
+
+Ostriches and emus do not need to fly because although they feed and nest on the ground, their great size and their speed is their protection. Some other ground-feeding birds have not been so lucky. Some birds such as the dodo and the kiwi were ground-feeding birds that lived in safety on islands where there was nothing dangerous to eat them. They lost the power of flight. Kiwis are endangered because European settlement to New Zealand brought animals like cats, dogs and rats which kill kiwis and eat their eggs. However, kiwis and also the rare New Zealand ground parrot have survived. In the case of dodos, they were fat and delicious. They were killed and eaten by sailors until there was none left. Other flightless birds which have disappeared are the great auk and the moa.
+
+Penguins spend a great deal of time at sea, where they are in danger from seals. On land, they usually live in areas where there were few dangers, until the arrival of European settlers with dogs and cats. Their wings have adapted to life in the sea and have become flippers which help them in swimming very fast.
+
+Modern birds do not have teeth, and many swallow their prey whole. Nevertheless, they must break up food before it is digested. First of all, along their throat (oesophagus) they have a crop. This stores food items before digestion. That way a bird can eat several items, and then fly off to a quiet spot to digest them.
+
+Their stomach comes next, with two very different parts. One part is like a straight hollow rod which secretes mild hydrochloric acid and an enzyme to break down protein. The other part of the stomach is the gizzard. This is muscular, and grinds up the contents. In herbivorous birds the gizzard contains some gastroliths (small stones or pieces of grit). Bones of fish will mostly be dissolved by the stomach acid. The partly digested and ground-up food now goes to the intestine, where digestion is completed, and most contents are absorbed. Anything indigestible, for example remains of feathers, is regurgitated via the mouth, not the cloaca.
+
+The system is effective, and carnivorous birds can swallow quite large prey. A blue heron can swallow a fish as large as a carp successfully.[10] Raptors eat by holding the prey down with a foot, and tearing it apart with their beak.
+
+Although birds are warm-blooded creatures like mammals, they do not give birth to live young. They lay eggs as reptiles do, but the shell of a bird's egg is hard. The baby bird grows inside the egg, and after a few weeks hatches (breaks out of the egg).
+
+Birds in cold climates usually have a breeding season once a year in the spring. Migratory birds can have two springs and two mating seasons in a year.
+
+When the breeding season arrives, the birds choose partners. Some birds are mated for life, like married couples. These birds include pigeons, geese, and cranes. Other birds look for new partners each year and sometimes a male bird or cock will have several wives.
+
+For birds that choose new mates, part of the breeding season is display. The male bird will do all sorts of things to attract females. These include singing, dancing, showing off the feathers and building a beautiful nest. Some male birds have splendid feathers for attracting females. The most famous is the peacock who can spread the feathers above his tail into a huge fan.
+
+A peacock display
+
+The sarus crane, like most cranes, mates for life and pairs dance together.
+
+Emu nest.
+
+A nest of house sparrows.
+
+Once the birds have found partners, they find a suitable place to lay eggs. The idea of what is a suitable place differs between species, but most build bird nests. Robins will make a beautiful little round nest of woven grass and carefully line it with feathers, bits of fluff and other soft things. Swallows like to nest near other swallows. They make nests from little blobs of clay, often on a beam near the roof of a building where it is well sheltered. Many birds like a hollow tree to nest in. Eagle's nests are often just piles of dead wood on the top of the tallest tree or mountain. Scrub turkeys scratch together a huge pile of leaves that may be 10 metres across. Guillemots lay their eggs on rock shelves with no nest at all. Their eggs are shaped so that they roll around in circles and do not fall off cliffs. A cuckoo does not make its own nest. It lays its egg in the nest of another bird and leaves it for them to care for. The cuckoo eggs are camouflaged to look like the host's eggs.
+
+When the nest has been prepared, the birds mate so that the eggs are fertilised and the chicks will start growing. Unlike mammals, birds only have one opening as the exit hole for body fluids, and for reproduction. The opening is called the cloaca. A female bird, called a hen, has two ovaries, of which the left one usually produces eggs.
+
+Most male birds have no sex organs that can be seen. But inside the male are two testes which produce sperm which is stored in the cloaca. Birds mate by rubbing their cloacas together, although with some birds, particularly large water birds, the male has a sort of a penis inside the cloaca.
+
+Once the hen has mated, she produces fertile eggs which have chicks growing inside them. She lays the eggs in the nest. There might be just one egg or a number of them, called a clutch. Emus might lay as many as fifteen huge dark green eggs in a clutch. After the eggs are laid, they are incubated, or kept warm so the chicks form inside. Most birds stay together for the whole nesting season, and one advantage is that the work is shared. Many birds take turns sitting on the eggs, so that each adult can feed.
+
+This is not always the case. With emus, the male does all the sitting and all the baby-minding. With emperor penguins it is also the male that cares for the egg. There is only one egg, which he keeps on his feet and under his feathers, standing in a big group of males without feeding until the chick is hatched. While the eggs are hatching, the females are at sea, feeding, so that they can care for the chicks when they return.
+
+Some birds put the eggs inside or on top of the mound of leaves and twigs. The mound acts like a compost heap. The decomposition of the rotting leaves causes the temperature to rise. This is heat released by the chemical action of bacterial and fungal respiration. It is the same reaction as that which keeps mammals and birds at a high temperature. The parents leave the mound. When the chicks hatch, they are able to feed themselves.
+
+Many small birds take 2–4 weeks to hatch eggs. Albatrosses take 80 days. During this time the female loses a lot of her body weight.
+
+The quickest hatching time is for the cuckoo. Some types of cuckoos take only 10 days. This means that when they hatch in the nest of their ''foster parents'', the eggs that the parents have laid are not yet ready. Newborn cuckoos are naked, blind and ugly, but they are strong. They get under any eggs that are in the nest and throw them out before they hatch. That means that the cuckoo has the whole care of both parents. Baby cuckoos grow fast and often get bigger than the parents who feed them.
+
+When baby birds hatch, in most types of birds, they are fed by both parents, and sometimes by older aunties as well. Their mouths are open all the time and are often very brightly coloured, which acts as a ''releaser'', a trigger which stimulates the parent to feed them. For birds that eat grain and fruit, the parents eat and partly digest the food for the babies. It is then vomited carefully into the baby's mouth.
+
+A black redstart feeding chicks
+
+Black swan and cygnets
+
+A reed warbler feeding a baby cuckoo
+
+Two sulphur crested cockatoos from a big flock are on the lookout
+
+Many birds, particularly those that mate for life, are very sociable and keep together in a family group which might be anything from 4 or 6 adult birds and their young to a very large flock.
+
+As chicks grow they change the fluffy down that covers them as babies for real feathers. At this stage they are called fledglings. Other family members may help care for fledgling chicks, feeding them and protecting them from attack while parents are feeding. When the fledglings have their new feathers, they come out of the nest to learn to fly. In some types of birds, like pigeons, the parents watch over this and as the young ones get stronger, will give them flying lessons, teaching them how to glide, how to fly in spirals and how to land like an expert.
+
+Most birds are social animals, at least part of the time. They communicate to each other using sounds and displays.
+
+Almost all birds make sounds to communicate. The types of noises that vary greatly. Some birds can sing, and  they are called songbirds or passerines. Examples are robins, larks, canaries, thrushes, nightingales. Corvids are passerines, but they do not sing. Birds that are not songbirds include: pigeons, seagulls, eagles, owls and ducks. Parrots are not songbirds, even though they can be taught to sing human songs.
+
+A favourite songbird, the European robin.
+
+The crow of the rooster is a familiar bird call.
+
+The pied currawong, an outstanding singer.
+
+The jackdaws helped Lorenz to understand bird communication.
+
+All birds make noises (''bird vocalisation''), but not all sing. Songbirds are passerines, many of which have beautiful melodic songs. Songs have different functions. Danger cries are different from territorial songs and mating calls are a third type. Fledgling may also have different calls from adults. Recognition calls for partners are quite common.
+
+As to where the song comes from, there are three kinds of species:
+
+Most singing birds that are kept as pets, like canaries, have several tunes and some variations.
+
+The same species of bird will sing different songs in different regions. A good example of this is the currawong. This is an Australia bird which is like a black and white crow. In the autumn, families get together in large flocks and do a lot of singing. Currawongs from some areas sing much more complex songs than others. Generally, currawongs from the Blue Mountains are the finest singers. The song of the currawong can be sung as a solo, but is often performed as a choir. One bird will take the lead and sing "Warble-warble-warble-warble!" All the other birds will join in and sing "Wooooooo!". When all the birds know the song, the choir will sing the "Warble" part and the soloist will sing the "Woo!". The song changes from year to year and from place to place.
+
+The Austrian naturalist Konrad Lorenz studied the way in which birds communicate, or talk to each other. He found that each type of bird had a number of sounds which they made automatically, when ever they felt a certain way. Every sound had an action that went with it. So, if the bird was frightened, it acted frightened and made a frightened sound. This told the other birds around it that something frightening was happening.
+
+If a flock of birds were flying over a field, they would be calling "Fly! Fly!" But a hungry bird, seeing something good to eat down below might start calling "Food! Food!" If other birds were also hungry, they would make the same call until more birds were calling "Food! Food!" than "Fly! Fly!". At this point, the mind of the flock would be changed. Some of the birds would start to yell "Fly downwards! Fly downwards!" as they sank from the sky, until the whole flock was all noisily calling the same thing.
+
+These communication sounds are often short hard sounds like: chirps, squeaks, squawks and twitters. Sometimes the calls are longer and more musical. They include the "Rookety-coo" sound of a pigeon and the "Cockadoodledoo!" of a rooster. The bird cannot change these sounds. They always make them in the same way. The bird is locked into making each sound every time a particular idea comes into its head. The connection between how they feel and how they call is innate: they are born with it. Some calls in some species are learnt. Then, it is the tendency to learn which is inherited.
+
+Konrad Lorenz noticed that when birds sing, they often use a lot of their regular calls as part of the song. Lorenz had a flock of jackdaws which were scattered during World War II. One day, an old bird returned. For many months she sat on the chimney singing her song, but in the song she kept making the call which Lorenz knew meant "Come home! Come home!" One day, to the great surprise of Lorenz, a male bird flew from a passing flock and joined her on the chimney. Lorenz was sure that it was her long-lost "husband" who had found his way home at last.[11]
+
+Palaeontologists have found some exceptional places (lagerstätten) where fossils of early birds are found. The preservation is so good that on the best examples impressions of their feathers can be seen, and sometimes even the remains of meals they have eaten. From these remains we know that birds evolved from small carnivorous dinosaurs (theropods) in the Jurassic period.[12] They radiated into a huge variety in the Lower Cretaceous. At the same time, their direct competitors, the pterosaurs, dwindled in numbers and variety, and became extinct at the end of the Mesozoic.
+
+Birds are classified by taxonomists as 'Aves' (Avialae). Birds are the only living descendants of dinosaurs (strictly speaking, they are dinosaurs). Birds and Crocodilia are the only living members of the once-dominant Archosaur reptiles.
+
+The class Aves is now defined as all the descendants of the most recent common ancestor of modern birds and Archaeopteryx lithographica.[13]
+
+Archaeopteryx, from the Upper Jurassic (some 150–145 million years ago), is the earliest bird which could fly. It is famous, because it was one of the first important fossils found after Charles Darwin published his ideas about evolution in the 19th century. By modern standards, Archaeopteryx could not fly very well.[14] Other early fossil birds are, for example, Confuciusornis, Anchiornis huxlei and other Paraves.
+
+Many fossils of early birds and small dinosaurs have been discovered in the Liaoning Province of Northeast China. The fossils show that most small theropod dinosaurs had feathers. These deposits have preserved them so well that the impressions of their feathers can be clearly seen. This leads us to think that feathers evolved first as heat insulation and only later for flight. The origin of birds lies in these small feathered dinosaurs.
+
+Palaeontologists now agree that birds evolved from Maniraptora group of dinosaurs. This explains why one might say birds are living dinosaurs.
+
+Canaries are often kept as pets for their beautiful songs.
+
+The African grey parrot is a renowned talker.
+
+Blue-winged teal Ducks used to be shot for sport.
+
+In many countries storks are thought to bring good luck.
+
+Some birds are eaten as food. Most usually it is the chicken and its eggs, but people often also eat geese, pheasants, turkeys and ducks. Other birds are sometimes eaten are: emus, ostriches, pigeons, grouse, quails, doves, woodcocks and even songbirds. Some species have died out because they have been hunted for food, for example the dodo and the passenger pigeon.
+
+Many species have learned how to get food from people. The number of birds of these species has grown because of it. Seagulls and crows find food from garbage dumps. The feral pigeon (Columba livia), sparrows (Passer domesticus and starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) live in large numbers in towns and cities all over the world.
+
+Sometimes people also use working birds. For example, homing pigeons carry messages. Nowadays people sometimes race them for sport. People also use falcons for hunting, and cormorants for fishing. In the past, people in mines often used a canary to see if there were bad gas methane in the air.
+
+People often have colorful birds such as parrots and mynahs as pets. These intelligent birds are popular because they can copy human talking. Because of this, some people trap birds and take them to other countries to sell. This is not usually allowed these days. Most pet birds are specially bred and are sold in pet shops.
+
+People can catch some bird diseases, for example: psittacosis, salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis, Newcastle's disease, mycobacteriosis, influenza, giardiasis and cryptosporiadiosis. In 2005, there was an epidemic of bird influenza spreading through some parts of the world, often called avian flu.
+
+Some people have birdboxes in their gardens to give birds a place to nest and bird tables where birds can get food and water in very cold or very dry weather. This lets people see some small birds close up which are normally hidden away in bushes and trees.
+
+
+
+Blue tit
+
+Male house sparrow
+
+Male chaffinch
+
+White-breasted nuthatch
+
+A report produced by BirdLife International every five years measures the population of birds worldwide. In 2018 the number of bird species has decreased by 40%.One in every eight types of birds is now almost extinct.
+
+The report highlighted the reduction of the number of Snowy Owls, Atlantic Puffin, European Turtle-Dove andseveral species of vultures.[15]

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+
+
+The okapi (Okapia johnstoni) is an even-toed ungulate mammal from central Africa. With the giraffe they form the family Giraffidae.
+
+The okapi has a reddish brown body, a whitish gray face, and white and black stripes on its legs. The okapi has a few features that show its link to giraffes.Its height is not as large as giraffes
+
+Okapis live in the rainforests of central Africa, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
+
+They are mostly active during the day. Okapis eat mostly leaves and buds from trees, but also grass, ferns, fruit, and fungi.
+
+Okapis usually live alone. After 420 to 450 days of pregnancy the mother gives birth to one baby okapi, which drinks milk for up to 6 months. Okapis become mature when they are 4-5 years old. In captivity, okapis can live for 30 years or so.
+
+The okapi was unknown and a mystery to western researchers for a long time. In the past, scientists thought that the okapi was a mix between the giraffe and the zebra.
+
+The International Society for Cryptozoology uses the okapi as its symbol, because the okapi was unknown for a long time.

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+Coordinates: 35.5° N 98° W
+
+Oklahoma (pronounced /ˌoʊkləˈhoʊmə/)[24] is a state that is in the southern part of the Central United States. It had a population of about 3,751,351 people in 2010. The state has a land area of about 68,667 sq mi (177,847 km2).[25] Oklahoma is the 28th largest state by population and the 20th largest state by area. The name of the state comes from the Choctaw words okla and humma. It means "Red People".[26] It is also known by its nickname, The Sooner State. The state was formed from Indian Territory on November 16, 1907. It was the 46th state to become part of the United States. The people who live in the state are known as Oklahomans or Okies. The state's capital and largest city is Oklahoma City.
+
+In the past, Oklahoma was used as a path for cattle drives, a place for southern settlers, and a government-made territory for Native Americans.
+The state is a large producer of natural gas, oil and food. It has large industries in aviation, energy, telecommunications, and biotechnology.[27] The state has one of the fastest growing economies in the nation. Between 2005 and 2006, it had the third highest percentage of income growth and the highest percentage in gross domestic product growth.[28][29] Oklahoma City and Tulsa are the main economic areas of Oklahoma. Almost 60 percent of Oklahomans live in these two metropolitan statistical areas.[30]
+
+Oklahoma has small mountain ranges, prairies, and eastern forests. Most of Oklahoma is in the Great Plains. It is regularly hit by severe weather.[31]
+
+The cultural heritage of Oklahoma is made from by a population descending from many cultures. These include German, Irish, British and Native American people. There are more than 25 Native American languages are spoken in Oklahoma, more than in any other state.[32] Many people in Oklahoma believe in evangelical Christianity.[33] The state is part of the Bible Belt. Oklahoma is one of the most politically conservative states, but voter registration is largest for the Democratic Party.[34]
+
+Oklahoma has only been a state for a little over a century, but its history is much longer. Arrow heads from the Clovis culture, Native Americans who traveled through Oklahoma have been found near the city Anadarko. These arrow heads are about 11,000 years old. The Spiro Mound Building Indians were the state's first permanent settlers.[35] In 1541 the Spanish explorer Coranado traveled through Oklahoma while in search of the Lost City of Gold.[36] During the 1830s, the Five Civilized Tribes were forced to move from the southeastern United States to Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) on the Trail of Tears.[37]
+
+During the American Civil War (1861–1865), several Indian tribes sided with the Confederacy.  The tribes owned slaves. They agreed with the ideas of the states that seceded from the United States.  Also, the tribes were not happy that the federal government did not do what it told them it would do. Not all the tribes sided with the Confederacy. Some tribes had taken control of several forts. This caused much of the Indian Territory to be under Confederate control, but Oklahoma did not become a Confederate state. The Battle of Honey Springs near Fort Gibson on July 17, 1863 was won by the Union forces. This ended the Confederate control of Indian Territory.[38]
+
+On April 22, 1890, the western part of the state was opened to almost 50,000 settlers for the Oklahoma Land Run. During this land run Oklahoma got its nickname, "The Sooner State". The nickname came from the settlers who crossed the territory's borders before the land was opened by the government.  A year later, the western part of the territory was turned into Oklahoma territory. The northeastern part, which was home to the Five Civilized Tribes, stayed under the control of the tribes.[39][40] On November 16, 1907, the western and eastern territories joined together. They became the 46th state of the United States.[39]
+
+The newly formed state became an important place for the oil industry. The oil pools in the area caused the population of towns to grow very quickly. Tulsa became known as the "Oil Capital of the World" for most of the 20th century. The oil was a large part of the state's early economy.[41]
+
+In 1927, Tulsa businessman Cyrus Avery, known as the "Father of Route 66", began a movement to make U.S. Route 66. Avery used section of highway that was already built between Tulsa and Amarillo, Texas to make the original portion of Highway 66. He was the main person responsible for making the U.S. Highway 66 Association to watch over the building of Route 66.[42]
+
+During the 1930s, northwestern Oklahoma went through a period of time called the Dust Bowl. The area had little rainfall and high temperatures. This caused thousands of farmers to go into poverty and forced them to move to other parts of the United States.[43] From 1930 to 1950, the state saw its only loss in population. It lost 6.9 percent of the people who lived there. Because of the Dust Bowl, the state made hundreds of reservoirs and man-made lakes. By the 1960s, more than 200 man-made lakes had been made. This is the most in the United States.[31][44]
+
+The song Oklahoma! was made the official song of the state in 1953.[45] The song comes from the 1943 Broadway musical play Oklahoma!. The story is set in Oklahoma Territory in 1906 just before Oklahoma became a state.
+
+On April 19, 1995, the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City was bombed by Timothy McVeigh. 168 people were killed in the bombing. This was the worst terrorism attack in the United States before the World Trade Center attacks on September 11, 2001.[46] McVeigh and his partner, Terry Nichols, were both convicted of the bombing. Some people think other people were involved.[47][48] McVeigh was later sentenced to death and executed by lethal injection on June 11, 2001.[49] His partner, Nichols, was convicted of 161 counts of first degree murder. Nichols is spending the rest of his life in prison without the chance of being released.[50]
+
+The name Oklahoma comes from the Choctaw phrase okla humma. This means red (humma) people (okla).[26] Choctaw Chief Allen Wright gave it that name in 1866 during treaty talks with the federal government about the use of Indian Territory. He dreamed of an all-Indian state with power held by the United States Superintendent of Indian Affairs. Okla humma was a phrase in the Choctaw language that meant the same as the English word Indian. It was used to describe the Native American people all together. Oklahoma later became the de facto name for Oklahoma Territory. It was officially accepted in 1890, two years after the area was opened to white settlers.[51][52][53]
+
+Oklahoma is the 20th-largest state in the United States. It covers an area of 69,899 sq mi (181,038 km2) (68,603 sq mi (177,681 km2) are land and 1,296 sq mi (3,357 km2) are water).[54] The state is shaped like a pan with a long, thin section on the west side. This section, known as the Panhandle, is 165 miles (266 km) from west to east, and 34 miles (55 km) from north to south.[55]
+
+It is one of six states on the Frontier Strip. The state is partly in the Great Plains near the center of the 48 continental states. It shares borders with Arkansas, Missouri, Kansas, Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas.
+
+The highest point in the state is the Black Mesa, in the Panhandle at 4,973 ft (1,516 m). The lowest point is Little River east of Idabel in the southeast part of the state at 289 ft (88 m) above sea level.[56] There are four mountain ranges in Oklahoma. They are the Ouachita, Arbuckle, Wichita and Kiamichi ranges. All of the ranges are in the southern part of the state. Forests make up about 24 percent of the state.[57] The state is also known for having more man-made lakes than any other state in the country. These lakes cover more than 1,000,000 acres (404,686 ha) with water.[57]
+
+By the start of the 21st century, conservative Republicans are the growing force in Oklahoma, but Democrats are still a major factor in statewide politics. In 2006, the incumbent Democrat governor won re-election by 66% over a former Republican Congressman.  Despite the landslide victory for the Democrats, the Republicans gained two seats in the State Senate, making a 24 Democrat, 24 Republican tie in the senate, and increased their lead in the house of 57-44.
+
+Oklahoma is in a temperate area of the country. The state sometimes sees extreme temperatures and rain that is commonly found in a continental climate.[58] All of the state frequently has temperatures above 100 °F (38 °C) or below 0 °F (−18 °C).[58]
+
+It snows in Oklahoma. In the northwest near the Colorado border, the area can get nearly 30 in (76 cm) in snowfall during the winter. The southeastern part of the state usually gets less than 2 in (5 cm) in snowfall.[59]
+
+Most of the state is in an area known as Tornado Alley. This is because there is a lot of contact between cold and warm air masses which makes severe weather.[59] Oklahoma has an average of 54 tornadoes each year. This is one of the highest rates in the world.[60] The state is home to the National Storm Prediction Center of the National Weather Service, in Norman.[61]
+
+Oklahoma had 549 populated places in 2006. It had three cities over 100,000 in population and 40 over 10,000. Two of the fifty largest cities in the United States are in Oklahoma. They are Oklahoma City and Tulsa. More than half of Oklahomans (58%) live in the two cities.[30][64]
+
+Oklahoma City is the state's capital and largest city. It had 1,269,907 people living inside its metropolitan area in 2008. Tulsa, the second largest city, had a metropolitan area population of 905,755.[65]
+
+Between 2005 and 2006, the Tulsa suburbs of Jenks, Bixby, and Owasso had the biggest population growth in the state. The population of Jenks grew by 47.9%, Bixby grew by 44.56%, and Owasso grew by 34.31%.[66]
+
+Oklahoma's largest cities in 2007 were: Oklahoma City (547,274), Tulsa (384,037), Norman (106,707), Lawton (91,568), Broken Arrow (90,714), Edmond (78,226), Midwest City (55,935), and Moore (51,106). Seven of the state's ten largest cities are in the metropolitan areas of Oklahoma City and Tulsa.  Only Lawton has a metropolitan area of its own.[66]
+
+Oklahoma law says that populated areas are divided into two groups. Cities are areas with more than 1,000 people. Towns have fewer than 1,000 people. Both have legislative, judicial, and public power inside their populated areas. Cities can choose between a mayor-council, council-manager, or strong mayor form of government. Towns are run through an elected officer system.[67]
+
+Oklahoma has minor league sports teams in basketball, football, arena football, baseball, soccer, and ice hockey. These teams are in Oklahoma City, Tulsa, Enid and Lawton. Tulsa is home to the Tulsa 66ers. They are part the NBA Development League. The Tulsa Revolution, playing in the American Indoor Soccer League, is also in Tulsa.[68] The NBA's New Orleans Hornets became the first major league sports team to play in Oklahoma. This happened after the team was forced to move to the Ford Center in Oklahoma City for two seasons after Hurricane Katrina in 2005.[69] In July 2008, the Seattle SuperSonics moved to Oklahoma City. They play their home games at the Ford Center under the new team name, Oklahoma City Thunder. They are the state's first permanent major league team.[70]
+
+Oklahoma's state symbols are recognized by state law.[71] The Oklahoma Senate or House of Representatives may add others for special events and to help organizations.
+
+State symbols:[72]

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+Atheism is rejecting the belief in a god or gods.[1][2]
+It is the opposite of theism, which is the belief that at least one god exists. A person who rejects belief in gods is called an atheist. Theism is the belief in one or more gods. Adding an a, meaning "without", before the word theism results in atheism, or literally, "without theism".
+
+Atheism is not the same as agnosticism: agnostics say that there is no way to know whether gods exist or not.[3] Being an agnostic does not have to mean a person rejects or believes in god. Some agnostics are theists, believing in god. The theologian Kierkegaard is an example. Other agnostics are atheists. Gnosticism refers to a claim of knowledge. A gnostic has sufficient knowledge to make a claim. Adding an a, meaning "without", before the word gnostic results in agnostic, or literally, "without knowledge".
+
+While theism refers to belief in one or more gods, gnosticism refers to knowledge. In practice, most people simply identify as a theist, atheist, or agnostic.
+
+Anaxagoras was the first known atheist.[4] He was an Ionian Greek, born in Clazomenae in what is now Asia Minor. He travelled to other Greek cities, and his ideas were well known in Athens. Socrates mentioned that his works could be bought in Athens for a drachma.[4] Eventually he was prosecuted and condemned for impiety, and banished from Athens.
+
+Anaxagoras' beliefs were interesting. He thought the Sun was not a god, and was not animated (alive). The Sun was "a red-hot mass many times larger than the Peloponnese". The Moon was a solid body with geographical features, and made of the same substance as the Earth. The world was a globe (spherical).[5][6][7]
+
+Atheists often give reasons why they do not believe in a god or gods. Three of the reasons that they often give are the problem of evil, the argument from inconsistent revelations, and the argument from nonbelief. Not all atheists think these reasons provide complete proof that gods cannot exist, but these are the reasons given to support rejecting belief that gods exist.
+
+Some atheists do not believe in any god because they feel that there is no evidence for any god nor gods and goddesses, so believing any type of theism means believing unproved assumptions. These atheists think a simpler explanation for everything is methodological naturalism which means that only natural things exist. Occam's razor shows simple explanations without many unproved guesses are more likely to be true.[8]
+
+The word "atheism" comes from the Greek language. It can be divided into a- (ἄ), a Greek prefix meaning "without", and theos (θεός), meaning "god", and recombined to form "without gods"[10] or "godless". In Ancient Greece it also meant "impious".
+
+Starting in about the 5th century BC, the word came to describe people who were "severing relations with the gods" or "denying the gods". Before then, the meaning had been closer to "impious". There is also the abstract noun, ἀθεότης (atheotēs), "atheism".
+
+Cicero transliterated the Greek word into the Latin atheos. This word was often used in the debate between early Christians and Hellenists. Each side used it to label the other, in a bad way.[11]
+
+Karen Armstrong writes that "During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the word 'atheist' was still reserved exclusively for polemic ... The term 'atheist' was an insult. Nobody would have dreamed of calling himself an atheist."[12]
+Atheism was first used to describe an openly positive belief in late 18th-century Europe, meaning disbelief in the monotheistic Abrahamic god.[13]
+The 20th century saw the term expand to refer to disbelief in all deities. However, it is still common in Western society to describe atheism as simply "disbelief in God".[14]
+
+In many places, it is (or was) a crime to make public the idea of atheism. Examples would be to claim the Bible or Qur'an could not be true, or to speak or write that there is no god.[15]
+
+Muslim apostasy, that is becoming an atheist or believing in a god other than Allah, may be a dangerous act in places with many conservative Muslim people. Many religious courts have punished and some still punish this act with the death penalty. Many countries still have laws against atheism.[16][17][18] Although it is considered by most Muslim scholars to be a sin, not all agree, that is should be punishable. For example, "Surat Al Kafirun" in Qur'an is clearly stating everyone's freedom to choose his religion and beliefs. The laws against Athiesm in the Muslim World is not universal, and is based on each society's interpretation of the Holy Book.
+
+Atheism is becoming more common,[19] mainly in South America, North America, Oceania and Europe (by percentage of people that had a religion before and started to be atheist).
+
+In many countries, mainly in the Western world, there are laws that protect atheists' right to express their atheistic belief (freedom of speech). This means that atheists have the same rights under the law as everyone else. Freedom of religion in international law and treaties includes the freedom to not have a religion.
+
+Today, about 2.3% of the world's population describes itself as atheist. About 11.9% is described as nontheist.[20]
+Between 64% and 65% of Japanese describe themselves as atheists, agnostics, or non-believers,[21][22]
+and up to 48% in Russia.[21] The percentage of such people in European Union member states ranges between 6% (Italy) and 85% (Sweden).[21] In the United States, according to Pew and Gallup—two of the most reputable polling firms in America—both conclude that about 10% of Americans say they do not believe in God, and this figure has been slowly creeping up over the decades. The real number is likely higher than this, due to the stigma around atheism.[23]
+
+People disagree about what atheism means. They disagree on when to call certain people atheists or not.
+
+Atheism is generally described as not believing in God.
+
+George H. Smith created the expressions "implicit atheism" and "explicit atheism" to describe the difference between different types of Atheism. Implicit atheism is when you do not believe in God because you do not know about the concept of God. Explicit atheism is when you do not believe in God after learning about the idea.
+
+In 1772, Baron d'Holbach said that "All children are born atheists; they have no idea of God".[24]
+
+In 1979 George H. Smith said that: "The man who is unacquainted with theism is an atheist because he does not believe in a god. This category would also include the child [who is able to] grasp the issues involved, but who is still unaware of those issues. The fact that this child does not believe in god qualifies him as an atheist".[25]
+
+Those two quotes describe implicit atheism.
+
+Ernest Nagel disagrees with Smith's definition of atheism as an "absence of theism", saying only explicit atheism is true atheism.[26] This means that Nagel believes that to be an atheist, a person needs to know about God and then reject the idea of God.
+
+Philosophers like Antony Flew,[27][28]
+have looked at strong (sometimes called positive) atheism against weak (sometimes called negative) atheism. According to this idea, anyone who does not believe in a god or gods is either a weak or a strong atheist.[29]
+
+Strong atheism is the certain belief that no god exists. An older way of saying strong atheism is to say "positive atheism". Weak atheism is all other forms of not believing in a god or gods. An older way of saying weak atheism is to say "negative atheism" These terms have been used more in philosophical writing[27] and in Catholic beliefs.[30]
+since at least 1813.[31][32]
+Under this definition of atheism, most agnostics are weak atheists.
+
+Michael Martin says that agnosticism includes weak atheism.[28] Some agnostics, including Anthony Kenny, disagree. They think being an agnostic is different from being an atheist. They think atheism is no different from believing in a god, because both require belief. This overlooks the reality that agnostics also have their own belief or "claim to knowledge" [33]
+
+Agnostics say that it cannot be known if a god or gods exist. In their view, strong atheism requires a leap of faith.
+
+Atheists usually respond by saying that there is no difference between an idea about religion with no proof, and an idea about other things[34]
+The lack of proof that god does not exist does not mean that there is no god, but it also does not mean that there is a god.[35]
+Scottish philosopher J.J.C. Smart says that "sometimes a person who is really an atheist may describe herself, even passionately, as an agnostic because of unreasonable generalised philosophical skepticism which would preclude us from saying that we know anything whatever, except perhaps the truths of mathematics and formal logic".[36]
+So, some popular atheist authors such as Richard Dawkins like to show the difference between theist, agnostic and atheist positions by the probability assigned to the statement "God exists".[37]
+
+In everyday life, many people define natural phenomena without the need of a god or gods. They do not deny the existence of one or more gods, they simply say that this existence is not necessary. Gods do not provide a purpose to life, nor influence it, according to this view.[38]
+Many scientists practice what they call methodological naturalism. They silently adopt philosophical naturalism and use the scientific method. Their belief in a god does not affect their results.[39]
+
+Practical atheism can take different forms:
+
+Theoretic atheism tries to find arguments against the existence of god, and to disprove the arguments of theism, such as the argument from design or Pascal's Wager. These theoretical reasons have many forms, most of them are ontological or epistemological. Some rely on psychology or sociology.
+
+According to Immanuel Kant, there can be no proof of a supreme being that is made using reason. In his work, "Critique of pure reason", he tries to show that all attempts of either proving the existence of God, or disproving it, end in logical contradictions. Kant says that it is impossible to know whether there are any higher beings. This makes him an agnostic.
+
+Ludwig Feuerbach published The Essence of Christianity in 1841.[41] In his work he postulates the following:
+
+The following phrases sum up Feuerbach's writing:

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+Olfaction is the sense of smell. The sense of smell is how a human or animal notices a smell (or odour or odor) by using the nose. Many animals have better noses than people. Some animals can detect small particles in the air or sometimes water that people cannot.
+
+People have special cells in the nose that can detect some chemicals. These are special nerve cells attached to the olfactory epithelium. All vertebrates have these cells. The smell is first processed by the olfactory system. The information is given to the olfactory bulb in the front of the forebrain.
+
+In insects, smells are sensed by sensilia on the antennae and first processed by the antennal lobe.
+
+The olfactory reception (OR) cells are neurons (nerve cells). Many tiny hair-like cilia stick out of these cells into the mucus covering the surface of the epithelium.[1] The surface of these cilia is covered with olfactory receptors, a kind of protein.[2]
+
+There are about 1000 different genes which code for the ORs, though only about a third are functional.[3] The rest are pseudogenes. The OR genes are the largest gene family. An odor molecule dissolves into the mucus of the olfactory epithelium and then binds to an OR. Various odor molecules bind to various ORs. The basis of the sense of smell is that different groups of scent molecules bind to different receptor cells and so fire different groups of neurons.[4] Inside the olfactory region of the brain, the firing of neurons produces the perceived smell.
+
+When the OR is activated, changes start in the cells. Positive ions come in and  negative ions go out of the cells. This causes the neuron to fire an impulse (generate an action potential).[5][6]

ensimple/4261.html.txt

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+Olive can mean the things below:

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+The Olympic Games (French: Jeux olympiques[1]) is an important international event featuring summer and winter sports. Summer Olympic Games and Winter Olympic Games are held every four years. Originally, the ancient Olympic Games were held in Ancient Greece at Olympia. The first games were in 776 BC. They were held every four years until the 6th century AD. The first "modern" Olympics happened in 1896 in Athens, Greece. Athletes participate in the Olympics Games to represent their country.
+
+Over time the Olympics have become bigger. In old times, women were not allowed, but now there are women's events. The Winter Games were created for ice and snow sports. The Paralympic Games were created for athletes with physical disabilities. As well, the Olympics became bigger with the addition of the Youth Olympic Games for teenage athletes. World War I and World War II led to the cancellation of the 1916, 1940, and 1944 Games. As the decision-making body, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) is responsible for choosing the host city for each Olympic Games. The IOC is also responsible for choosing what sports are in the games.The creator of modern Olympics is Baron Pierre Coubertin. The Frenchman is the father of modern Olympics.
+
+The celebration of the Games includes many rituals and symbols, such as Olympic flag and torch, as well as the opening and closing ceremonies. The first, second, and third-place finishers in each event receive, respectively, gold, silver, and bronze medals.
+
+The Olympics of Ancient Greece featured mainly athletic but also combat and chariot racing events. During the Olympic Games all struggles among the participating city-states were postponed until the games were finished.[2] The origin of these Olympics is shrouded in mystery and legend[3] According to legend, it was Heracles who first called the Games "Olympic" and established the custom of holding them every four years.[4] The most widely accepted date for the beginning of the Ancient Olympics is 776BC; based on inscriptions of the winners of a footrace held every four years starting then.[5] The Ancient Games featured running events, a pentathlon (consisting of a jumping event, discus and javelin throws, a foot race and wrestling), boxing, wrestling, and equestrian events.[6][7]
+
+There is no agreement on when the Games officially ended, but many historians think it is 393AD, when the emperor Theodosius I declared that all Pagan religious practices should end.[8] Another date might be 426AD, when the next emperor Theodosius II ordered the destruction of all Greek temples.[9] After the Olympics stopped, they were not held again until the late 19th century.
+
+An attempt to copy the ancient Olympic Games was the L'Olympiade de la République, a national Olympic festival held annually from 1796 to 1798 in Revolutionary France.[10] The competition had several sports from the ancient Greek Olympics.[10]
+
+Greek interest in bringing back the Olympic Games began with the Greek War of Independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1821. It was first proposed by poet and newspaper editor Panagiotis Soutsos in his poem "Dialogue of the Dead", published in 1833.[11] Evangelis Zappas, a wealthy Greek-Romanian philanthropist, first wrote to King Otto of Greece, in 1856, offering to fund a permanent revival of the Olympic Games.[12] Zappas sponsored the first Olympic Games in 1859, which was held in Athens. Athletes from Greece and the Ottoman Empire participated. Zappas funded the restoration of the ancient Panathenaic stadium so that it could host all future Olympic Games.[12]
+
+Between 1862 and 1867, Liverpool held an annual Grand Olympic Festival. It was created by John Hulley and Charles Melly, with support from Dr. Brookes. These games were unfair in nature since only Men could compete.[13][14][15] In 1865 Hulley, Dr. Brookes and E.G. Ravenstein founded the National Olympian Association in Liverpool, a forerunner of the British Olympic Association. Its articles of foundation provided the framework for the International Olympic Charter.[16]
+
+Dr. Brookes copied the sports which were in the Olympics held in Athens in 1859 in future Wenlock Olympian Games (Brookes created this first as a class in 1850 and then as an event in 1856.). In 1866, a national Olympic Games in Great Britain was organized by Dr. Brookes at London's Crystal Palace.[17]
+
+The Panathinaiko Stadium hosted Olympics in 1870 and 1875.[18] Thirty thousand spectators attended that Games in 1870, although no official attendance records are available for the 1875 Games.[19] In 1890, after attending the Olympian Games of the Wenlock Olympian Society, Baron Pierre de Coubertin created the International Olympic Committee.[20] Coubertin built on the ideas and work of Brookes and Zappas with the aim of creating an Olympic Games that would occur every four years in a different country.[20] He presented these ideas during the first meeting of the newly created International Olympic Committee (IOC). This meeting was held from June 16 to June 23, 1894, at the Sorbonne University in Paris. On the last day of the meeting, it was decided that the first Olympic Games, to be controlled by the IOC, would take place two years later in Athens.[21] The IOC elected the Greek writer Demetrius Vikelas as its first president.[22]
+
+The first Games held under the IOC was hosted in the Panathenaic stadium in Athens in 1896. These Games brought 14 nations and 241 athletes who competed in 43 events.[23] Zappas and his cousin Konstantinos Zappas had left the Greek government money to fund future Olympic Games. This money was used to pay for the 1896 Games.[24][25] George Averoff paid for the refurbishment of the stadium in preparation for the Games.[26] The Greek government also provided money, which was paid back through the sale of tickets. Money was also paid back through the sale of the first Olympic commemorative stamp set.[26]
+
+The Greek officials and public were excited about hosting these Games. This feeling was shared by many of the athletes, who even demanded that Athens be the host of the Olympic Games on a permanent basis. The IOC did not approve this request. The IOC stated that each games would be held in a different country.[27]
+
+Following the success of the 1896 Games, the Olympics entered a period of stagnation that threatened their survival. The Olympic Games held at the Paris Exposition in 1900 and the World's Fair at St. Louis in 1904 were side-shows. The Games at Paris did not have a stadium, however this was the first time women took part in the games. The St. Louis Games hosted 650 athletes, but 580 were from the United States. The homogeneous nature of these celebrations was a low point for the Olympic Movement.[28] The Games rebounded when the Intercalated Games (so-called because they were the second Games held within an Olympiad, a period of time lasting four years) were held in Athens. These Games are not officially recognized by the IOC and no Intercalated Games have been held since. These Games were hosted at the Panathenaic stadium in Athens. The games attracted an international field of participants, and generated great public interest.[29]
+
+The Winter Olympics were created for snow and ice sports that were not part of the Summer Games. Figure skating (in 1908 and 1920) and ice hockey (in 1920) were Olympic events at the Summer Olympics. At the 1921 Olympic Congress, in Lausanne, it was decided to hold a winter version of the Olympic Games. A winter sports week (actually 11 days) was held in 1924 in Chamonix, France.[30] The IOC ruled that the Winter Olympic Games be celebrated every four years on the same year as the summer games.[31] This pattern continued until the 1992 Games in Albertville, France. After this, beginning with the 1994 Games, the Winter Olympics were held on the third year of each Olympiad.
+
+Starting in 2010, Youth Games help to develop young athletes for the Olympic Games. Athletes between the ages of 14 and 18 compete. The Youth Olympic Games were created by IOC president Jacques Rogge in 2001 and approved during the 119th meeting of the IOC.[32][33] The first Summer Youth Games were held in Singapore from 14–26 August 2010. The first Winter Games was hosted in Innsbruck, Austria, in 2012.[34] These Games are shorter than the Olympic Games. The summer version will last twelve days and the winter version will last nine days.[35] The IOC will allow 3,500 athletes and 875 officials to take part at the Summer Youth Games. 970 athletes and 580 officials will take part at the Winter Youth Games.[36][37] The sports to be played will be the same as at the Olympic Games.[38]
+
+The Olympic Movement includes a large number of national and international sporting organizations and federations.[39] As the group in charge of the Olympic Movement, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) is responsible for selecting the host city. Overseeing the planning of the Olympic Games. Changing the sports involved. Agreeing sponsorship and broadcasting rights.[40]
+
+The Olympic Movement is made of three major elements:
+
+French and English are the official languages of the Olympic Movement. The other language used at each Olympic Games is the language of the host country.[43]
+
+In 1998, it was uncovered that several IOC members had taken bribes from members of the Salt Lake City bid committee for the hosting of the 2002 Winter Olympics. This was done to make sure that Salt Lake City won. The IOC investigated and four members resigned and six people were sacked.[44]
+
+A BBC documentary entitled Panorama: Buying the Games, aired in August 2004, investigated the taking of bribes in the bidding process for the 2012 Summer Olympics.[45] The documentary claimed it was possible to bribe IOC members into voting for a particular candidate city. After being narrowly defeated in their bid for the 2012 Summer Games,[46] Parisian Mayor Bertrand Delanoë accused the British Prime Minister Tony Blair and the London Bid Committee of breaking the bid rules.[47]
+
+The Turin bid for the 2006 Winter Olympics was also shrouded in controversy. A prominent IOC member, Marc Hodler, strongly connected with the rival bid of Sion, Switzerland, alleged bribery of IOC officials by members of the Turin Organizing Committee. These accusations led to a wide-ranging investigation. The allegations also served to sour many IOC members against Sion's bid and potentially helped Turin to capture the host city nomination.[48]
+
+The Olympic logo also known as the Olympic rings, consists of five intertwined rings and represents the unity of the five inhabited continents (America, Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe). The colored version of the rings—blue, yellow, black, green, and red—over a white field forms the Olympic flag. The flag was adopted in 1914 but flown for the first time at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium. The flag has since been flown during every Games.[49] The Olympic motto is Citius, Altius, Fortius, a Latin expression meaning "Faster, Higher, Stronger".
+
+Before each Games, the Olympic flame is lit in Olympia in a ceremony that reflects ancient Greek rituals. A female performer, acting as a priestess, lights a torch with the use of the sun. The woman then lights the torch of the first relay bearer. Starting the Olympic torch relay that will carry the flame to the host city's Olympic stadium.[50] The flame has been an Olympic symbol since 1928 and the torch relay was introduced at the 1936 Summer Games.[49]
+
+The Olympic mascot was introduced in 1968. The mascot is either an animal or human figure representing the cultural heritage of the host country.[51]
+
+As mandated by the Olympic Charter, various elements frame the opening ceremony of the Olympic Games.[52][53] Most of these rituals were established at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp.[54] The ceremony typically starts with the hoisting of the host country's flag and a performance of its national anthem.[52][53] The host nation then presents artistic displays of music, singing, dance, and theater representative of its culture.[54]
+
+After the artistic portion of the ceremony, the athletes parade into the stadium grouped by nation. Greece is traditionally the first nation to enter in order to honor the origins of the Olympics. Nations then enter the stadium alphabetically according to the host country's chosen language. The host country's athletes are always the last to enter. During the 2004 Summer Olympics, which was hosted in Athens, Greece. The Greek flag entered the stadium first and last. When it came in to the stadium for the second time it was followed by the athletes. Speeches are then given formally opening the Games. Finally the athletes oath said. Following this the Olympic torch is brought into the stadium and passed on until it reaches the final torch carrier who lights the cauldron.[52][53]
+
+The closing ceremony of the Olympic Games takes place after all sporting events have concluded. Flag-bearers from each participating country enter the stadium. They are followed by the athletes who enter together without any national distinction.
+Three national flags are hoisted while the corresponding national anthems are played. The flag of Greece to honor the birthplace of the Olympic Games. The flag of the current host country. The flag of the country hosting the next Summer or Winter Olympic Games is also flown.[55] 
+The president of the organizing committee and the IOC president make their closing speeches. The Games are officially closed and the Olympic flame is put out.[56] 
+In what is known as the Antwerp Ceremony (as this tradition was started in Antwerp), the mayor of the city that organized the Games transfers a special Olympic flag to the president of the IOC. The president then passes it on to the mayor of the city hosting the next Olympic Games.[57] 
+After these compulsory elements, the next host nation briefly introduces itself with artistic displays of dance and theater representative of its culture.
+
+A medal ceremony is held after each Olympic event is concluded. The winner, second and third-place competitors or teams stand on top of a three-tiered rostrum to be awarded their respective medals.[58] After the medals are given out by an IOC member, the national flags of the three medalists are raised while the national anthem of the gold medalist's country plays.[59]
+
+The Olympic Games program consists of 26 sports, 30 disciplines and nearly 300 events. For example, wrestling is a Summer Olympic sport, comprising two disciplines: Greco-Roman and Freestyle. It is broken down into fourteen events for men and four events for women. Each event represents a different weight class.[60] The Summer Olympics program includes 26 sports, while the Winter Olympics program features 15 sports.[61]
+
+Olympic sports are governed by international sports federations (IFs) recognized by the IOC as the global supervisors of those sports. There are 35 federations represented at the IOC.[62] Changes can happen to the list of sports in the Olympics. Sports can be added or removed from the list on the basis of a two-thirds majority vote of the members of the IOC.[63]
+
+The 114th IOC meeting, in 2002, limited the Summer Games program to a maximum of 28 sports, 301 events, and 10,500 athletes.[64] Three years later, at the 117th IOC Session, the first major change to the list was performed. This resulted in the removal of baseball and softball from the list of sports for the 2012 London Games. Since there was no agreement in the promotion of two other sports, the 2012 program will feature just 26 sports.[64] The 2016 and 2020 Games will return to the maximum of 28 sports given the addition of rugby and golf.[65]
+
+The exclusion of professionals caused several controversies throughout the history of the modern Olympics. The 1912 Olympic pentathlon and decathlon champion Jim Thorpe was stripped of his medals when it was discovered that he had played semi-professional baseball before the Olympics. His medals were restored by the IOC in 1983 on compassionate grounds.[66] As class structure evolved through the 20th century, the definition of the amateur athlete as an aristocratic gentleman became outdated.[67] The advent of the state-sponsored "full-time amateur athlete" of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self-financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. Nevertheless, the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism.[68]
+
+Beginning in the 1970s, amateurism requirements were gradually phased out of the Olympic Charter. After the 1988 Games, the IOC decided to make all professional athletes eligible for the Olympics, subject to the approval of the IFs.[69]
+As of 2004, the only sport in which no professionals compete is boxing, although even this requires a definition of amateurism based on fight rules rather than on payment, as some boxers receive cash prizes from their National Olympic Committees. In men's football (soccer), only three professional players over the age of 23 are eligible to participate per team in the Olympic tournament.[69]
+
+There have been many countries deliberately missing the Olympics in order to make political statements. The most famous examples of countries missing the Olympics happened in 1980 and 1984. The Cold War opponents missed each other's Games. 65 nations refused to compete at the Moscow Olympics in 1980 because of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. The Soviet Union and 14 of its Eastern Bloc partners (except Romania) countered by missing the Los Angeles Olympics of 1984. The countries stated that they could not guarantee the safety of their athletes. Soviet officials defended their decision to withdraw from the Games by saying that "chauvinistic sentiments and an anti-Soviet hysteria are being whipped up in the United States".[70]
+
+The Olympic Games have been used as a platform to promote political ideologies almost from its inception. Nazi Germany wished to portray the Nationalist Socialist Party as benevolent and peace-loving when they hosted the 1936 Games.[71] The Games were also intended to show the superiority of the Aryan (white) race. This goal was not met due in part to the achievements of athletes such as Jesse Owens, who won four gold medals at this Olympics.[72]
+
+Individual athletes have also used the Olympic stage to promote their own political agenda. At the 1968 Summer Olympics, in Mexico City, two American track and field athletes, Tommie Smith and John Carlos, who finished first and third in the 200meter sprint race, performed the Black Power salute on the podium. The runner up Peter Norman wore an Olympic Project for Human Rights badge in support of Smith and Carlos. IOC President Avery Brundage then told the United States, to either send the two athletes home or withdraw the track and field team. The United States chose to send the pair home.[73]
+
+In the early 20th century, many Olympic athletes began using drugs to improve their athletic abilities. For example, the winner of the marathon at the 1904 Games, Thomas J. Hicks, was given strychnine and brandy by his coach.[74] The only Olympic death linked to doping happened at the Rome Games of 1960. During the cycling road race, Danish cyclist Knud Enemark Jensen fell from his bicycle and later died. A coroner's inquiry found that he was under the influence of amphetamines.[75] By the mid-1960s, sports federations were starting to ban the use of performance-enhancing drugs. The IOC did likewise in 1967.[76] The IOC created the World Anti-Doping Agency in 1999. The IOC-established drug testing regimen (now known as the Olympic Standard) has set the worldwide benchmark that other sporting federations around the world attempt to emulate.[77] The first Olympic athlete to test positive for the use of performance-enhancing drugs was Hans-Gunnar Liljenwall, a Swedish pentathlete at the 1968 Summer Olympics, who lost his bronze medal for alcohol use.[78]
+
+The Olympics have not brought lasting peace to the world, even during the Games. Three Olympic Games were not held due to war. The 1916 Games were cancelled because of World War I, and the summer and winter games of 1940 and 1944 were cancelled because of World War II. Terrorism has also threatened the Olympic Games. In 1972, when the Summer Games were held in Munich, West Germany, eleven members of the Israeli Olympic team were taken hostage by the terrorist group Black September. This event is now known as the Munich massacre. The terrorists killed two of the athletes soon after they had taken them hostage and killed the other nine during a failed rescue attempt. A German police officer and 5 terrorists also died.[79] During the Summer Olympics in 1996 in Atlanta, a bomb was detonated at the Centennial Olympic Park, which killed 2 and injured 111 others. Eric Robert Rudolph is currently serving a life sentence for the bombing.[80]
+
+The host city for an Olympic Games is chosen seven years ahead of the event.[81] The process of selection is carried out in two phases that span a two-year period. The process starts when a city wanting to host the games applies to its country's Olympic group. If more than one city from the same country gives a proposal to its NOC, the national group chooses which city will run for host. The first step once the deadline passes (To tell the IOC that you want to hold the Games), is to ask the cities to complete a questionnaire which covers many key points in the organization of the Olympic Games.[82] The evaluation of the filled questionnaires by a group provides the IOC with an idea of each cities project and their potential to host the Games. On the basis of this evaluation, the IOC chooses the applicants that will proceed to the candidature stage.[82]
+
+Once the candidate cities are chosen, they must give to the IOC a bigger presentation of their project as part of a candidature file. Each city is analyzed by an evaluation group. This group will also visit the cities. The group give a report on its findings one month prior to the IOC's final decision. During the interview process the candidate city must also guarantee that it can fund the Games.[81] The IOC members gathered in the meeting have the final vote on the host city.
+
+By 2016, the Olympic Games will have been hosted by 44 cities in 23 countries. The United States has hosted four Summer and four Winter Olympics, more than any other nation. Among Summer Olympics host nations, the United Kingdom has been the host of three Games, and hosted its third Olympics in 2012 in London. Germany, Australia, France, and Greece are the other nations to have hosted the Summer Olympics twice. Among host cities, only Los Angeles, Paris, Athens and London have played host to the Olympic Games more than once, with each holding that honor twice. With the 2012 Games that took place in London, the British capital holds the distinction of hosting the modern Olympics Games three times, more than any other city. Paris will be the second city to host the modern Olympics Games three times in 2024, while Los Angeles will be the third city in 2028.
+
+In the Winter Olympics, France has hosted three Games, while Switzerland, Austria, Norway, Japan, and Italy have hosted twice. The most recent Games were held in Pyeongchang, South Korea's first Winter Olympics and second overall. The next Winter Games will be in Beijing, China in 2022, which will be the first time this nation has hosted.
+
+And Youth Olympic Games in a separate list.
+
+
+
+Games in italics will be held in the future, and those in (brackets) were cancelled because of war. See also: Ancient Olympic Games
+

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+This is a list of gods, goddesses, people and other figures from Greek mythology. They are sorted into sections below. The immortals include gods (deities), spirits and giants. Being immortal means that they live forever. The mortals include heroes, kings, Amazons and other people. The list does not include creatures.
+
+These figures are described by ancient writers, the oldest of which are Homer and Hesiod.[1][2] The Greeks created images of their deities for many reasons. A temple would house the statue of a god or goddess, or several deities. The statue might be decorated with relief scenes depicting myths. These were also often painted on pottery and minted on coins.
+
+Roman mythology includes many of the same figures, but uses different names: calling Zeus by the name of Jupiter and Aphrodite by the name of Venus, for example. This is called the Venetian creole language. It is called Venetian band.
+
+The main and most important gods were the Twelve Olympians. The home of these gods is at the top of Mount Olympus. There was some variation as to which deities were included in the Twelve.[3] As such, the list below numbers fourteen. It includes all those who are commonly named as one of the Twelve in art and poetry. Dionysus was a later addition; in some descriptions, he replaced Hestia. Hades is not usually included among the Olympians, because his home was the underworld. Some writers, however, such as Plato, named him as one of the Twelve.[4][5]
+
+Goddess of love, beauty and desire. She was married to Hephaestus, but she had many lovers, including Ares, Adonis and Anchises. She was depicted as a beautiful woman and often naked. Her symbols include roses and other flowers, the scallop shell, and myrtle wreath. Her sacred animals are doves and sparrows. The Roman version of Aphrodite was Venus.
+
+Image: Cnidian Aphrodite, a Roman work based on an original by Praxiteles
+
+God of light,  healing, music, poetry, plague, prophecy, and more. He is the son of Zeus and Leto, and the twin brother of Artemis. Apollo was associated with the Sun; while Artemis was the Moon. Both use a bow and arrow. In the earliest myths, Apollo fights with his half-brother Hermes. In sculpture, Apollo was depicted as a handsome young man with long hair and a perfect physique. His attributes include the laurel wreath and lyre. He often appears in the company of the Muses. Animals sacred to Apollo include roe deer, swans, cicadas, hawks, ravens, crows, foxes, mice and snakes.
+
+Image: Apollo holding a lyre and pouring a libation, on a drinking cup from a tomb at Delphi
+
+God of war and bloodshed. He was the son of Zeus and Hera. He was depicted as a young man, either naked with a helmet and spear or sword, or as an armed warrior. Ares generally represents the chaos of war in contrast to Athena, who represented strategy and skill. Ares' sacred animals are the vulture, venomous snakes, dogs and boars. The Roman version of Ares is Mars.
+
+Image: Roman marble head of the war god, modelled after a Greek bronze original
+
+Goddess of hunting, wilderness, animals and childbirth. In later times she became associated with the Moon. She is the daughter of Zeus and Leto, and the twin sister of Apollo. She is depicted as a young virgin woman. In art she is often shown holding a hunting bow and arrows. Her attributes include hunting spears, animal furs, deer and other wild animals. Her sacred animals are deer, bears and wild boars. The Roman version of Artemis is Diana.
+
+Image: Artemis reaching for arrow (missing) from her quiver, with a hunting dog
+
+Goddess of wisdom and skill, warfare and tactics. According to most traditions, she was born from Zeus's head fully formed and wearing armour. She was depicted with a helmet, holding a shield and a spear, and wearing the Aegis over a long dress. Poets describe her as having very bright, keen eyes. She was a special patron of heroes such as Odysseus. She was also the patron of the city Athens (which is named after her). Born from the head of Zeus (her father) and her mother is Metis, the first wife of Zeus. Her symbol is the olive tree. She is often shown beside her sacred animal, the owl. The Roman version of Athena is Minerva.
+
+Image: Athena on a red-figure cup, dating from 500–490 BCE
+
+Goddess of farming, the harvest and fertility. Demeter is a daughter of Cronus and Rhea. Her brother is Zeus, with whom she had Persephone. She was one of the main deities of the Eleusinian Mysteries. She was depicted as an older woman, often wearing a crown and holding bunches of wheat. Her symbols are the cornucopia, wheat-ears, the winged snake, and the lotus staff. Her sacred animals are pigs and snakes. The Roman version of Demeter is Ceres.
+
+Image: Demeter, sitting down, on a relief from Turkey
+
+God of wine, parties and festivals, madness and ecstasy. He was depicted in art as either an older man with a beard or a pretty young man with long hair. His attributes include the thyrsus (a pinecone-tipped staff), drinking cup, grape vine, and a crown of ivy. He is often shown with his thiasos, a group of followers that includes satyrs, maenads, and his teacher Silenus. The consort of Dionysus was Ariadne. Animals sacred to him include dolphins, snakes and donkeys. Dionysus was a later addition to the Olympians; in some descriptions, he replaced Hestia. "Bacchus" was another name for him in Greek, and this was used by the Romans for their version of the god.
+
+Image: Dionysus sitting on a leopard
+
+King of the underworld and god of the dead. His consort is Persephone. His attributes are the cornucopia, key, sceptre, and the three-headed dog Cerberus. The owl was sacred to him. He was one of three sons of Cronus and Rhea, and therefore was ruler of one of the three realms of the universe, the underworld. He is not very often included as one of the Olympians, however. In Athenian literature, "Ploutōn" (Πλούτων) was his preferred name, while "Hades" was more common as a name for the underworld. The Romans translated "Ploutōn" as Pluto, the name for their version of Hades.
+
+Image: Hades lying down, holding a giant drinking horn and offering a bowl to Persephone
+
+God of fire, metalworking and crafts. He was the son of Hera by parthenogenesis. He is the smith of the gods and the husband of Aphrodite. He was usually depicted as a bearded man with hammer, tongs and anvil—the tools of a smith—and sometimes riding a donkey. His sacred animals are the donkey, the guard dog and the crane. One of his many creations was the armour of Achilles. Hephaestus used fire to create things. The Roman version, however, Vulcan, was feared for his destructive power; he was associated with volcanoes.
+
+Image: Thetis receives the armour made for her son Achilles by Hephaestus
+
+Queen of the heavens and goddess of marriage, women and birth. She is the wife of Zeus and daughter of Cronus and Rhea. She was usually depicted as a regal woman, wearing a crown and veil and holding a lotus-tipped staff. Although she was the goddess of marriage, Zeus's many affairs drive her to jealousy and anger. Her sacred animals are the heifer, the peacock and the cuckoo. The Roman version of Hera is Juno.
+
+Image: Bust of Hera wearing a crown
+
+God of travel, animal husbandry, writing, trade, and more. He is the son of Zeus and Maia, Hermes is the messenger of the gods. He also leads the souls of the dead into the afterlife. He was depicted either as a handsome and fit young man, or as an older bearded man. He was often shown wearing sandals with small wings on them. His sacred animals are the tortoise, the ram and the hawk. The Roman version of Hermes was Mercury.
+
+Image: Hermes holding his caduceus and wearing a cloak and hat for travel
+
+Goddess of the hearth, home and chastity. She was described as a virgin. She is a daughter of Rhea and Cronus, and sister of Zeus. She could not often be identified in Greek art. She appeared as a veiled woman. Her symbols are the hearth and kettle. In some descriptions, she gave up her seat as one of the Twelve Olympians to Dionysus, and she plays a minor role in Greek myths. The Roman version of Hestia, however, Vesta, was a major goddess in Roman culture.
+
+Image: Hestia from a relief depicting all twelve Olympians in procession
+
+God of the sea, rivers, floods, droughts, earthquakes, and the creator of horses. He is a son of Cronus and Rhea, and brother to Zeus and Hades. He rules one of the three realms of the universe as king of the sea and the waters. In classical artwork, he was depicted as an older man with a very large beard, and holding a trident. The horse and the dolphin are sacred to him. His wife is Amphitrite. The Roman version of Poseidon was Neptune.
+
+Image: Sculpture of Poseidon, from the National Archaeological Museum of Athens
+
+King of the gods, and ruler of Mount Olympus. He is the god of the sky, thunder and lightning, law and order, and fate. He is the youngest son of Cronus and Rhea. He overthrew his father and took the throne of heaven for himself. In artwork, he was depicted as a regal, older man with a dark beard. His usual attributes are the royal sceptre and the lightning bolt. His sacred animals are the eagle and the bull. The Roman version of Zeus, Jupiter, was also the main god of the Romans.
+
+Image: Coin made under Alexander the Great showing Zeus on his throne holding a sceptre and eagle.
+
+The primordial deities are the first beings that existed. They are what makes up the universe. All other gods descend from them. The first among them is usually said to be Chaos. Chaos is the nothingness from which all of the others were made. These gods are usually depicted as a place or a realm. Tartarus, for example, is depicted as the deepest pit in the underworld. His brother Erebus is also depicted as a place of darkness, or the emptiness of space. Gaia is depicted as nature or the Earth. Pontus is depicted as the oceans, lakes, and rivers. Chronos is depicted as time.
+
+The Titans are the older kind of gods in Greek mythology. The original Twelve Titans were children of Gaia (Mother Earth) and Uranus (Father Sky).[7] Their leader was Cronus, who overthrew his father Uranus and became ruler of the gods. Cronus' consort was his sister Rhea. Their children were Zeus, Hades, Poseidon, Hera, Demeter and Hestia. Cronus and the Titans were overthrown by Zeus, his youngest son. They fought a war called the Titanomachy. The Titans are depicted in Greek art less often than the Olympians.
+
+The Giants (Γίγαντες, Gigantes) were the children of Gaia. She was fertilised by the blood of Uranus, after Uranus was castrated by his son Cronus. After the Titans' lost their war against the Olympians, Gaia made the Giants rise up against the Olympians to restore the Titans' rule. The Olympians got help from the hero Heracles to stop the Giants. This war was the Gigantomachy.[9]
+
+These deities lived in the underworld. The ruler of the underworld was Hades, who is listed further above under "Olympians".
+
+Seers were prophets, people who were said to be able to see the future or predict events before they happened.

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+Oman, officially the Sultanate of Oman, is a country in the southwestern part of Asia, on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula. It borders the United Arab Emirates to the northwest, Saudi Arabia to the west, and Yemen to the southwest. The coast is formed by the Arabian Sea to the south and east, and the Gulf of Oman to the northeast.
+
+The country is a monarchy, ruled by a Sultan. Right now, the sultan is Haitham bin Tariq Al Said. The capital is Muscat.
+
+Since 28 October 2011, Oman is divided into eleven governorates (muhafazah):[6][7][8]
+
+Below the governorates, Oman is divided into provinces.
+
+Oman has a hot climate and very little rainfall. Annual rainfall in Muscat averages 100 mm (3.9 in), falling mostly in January. Dhofar is subject to the southwest monsoon, and rainfall up to 640 mm (25.2 in) has been recorded in the rainy season from late June to October. While the mountain areas receive more rainfall, some parts of the coast, particularly near the island of Masirah, sometimes receive no rain at all within the course of a year. The climate generally is very hot, with temperatures reaching around 50 °C (122.0 °F) (peak) in the hot season, from May to September.
+
+
+

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+A shadow is a dark area on a bright surface. It is caused by something blocking a source of light. A shadow's outline, called a silhouette, will have the same shape as the object blocking the light.
+
+Depending on the light source, or sources, a wide range of effects can be produced. A point source of light casts only a simple shadow, called an "umbra". A "penumbra" is the region in which only a portion of the light source may be blocked. If there is more than one light source, there will be several shadows, with the overlapping parts darker, and various combinations of brightness or even colors. The more diffuse the lighting is, the softer and more indistinct the shadow outlines become, until they disappear. The lighting of an overcast sky produces few visible shadows,
+
+Astronomical shadows are usually sharp.  This is because in space the light usually does not go through an atmosphere.

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+A shadow is a dark area on a bright surface. It is caused by something blocking a source of light. A shadow's outline, called a silhouette, will have the same shape as the object blocking the light.
+
+Depending on the light source, or sources, a wide range of effects can be produced. A point source of light casts only a simple shadow, called an "umbra". A "penumbra" is the region in which only a portion of the light source may be blocked. If there is more than one light source, there will be several shadows, with the overlapping parts darker, and various combinations of brightness or even colors. The more diffuse the lighting is, the softer and more indistinct the shadow outlines become, until they disappear. The lighting of an overcast sky produces few visible shadows,
+
+Astronomical shadows are usually sharp.  This is because in space the light usually does not go through an atmosphere.

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+An omnivore is an animal whose species gets its energy and nutrients from a diet made up foods that include plants, animals, algae, fungi and bacteria.[2]
+
+Many omnivores change their eating habits during their life cycle.[3] They are sometimes called "life-history omnivores", because they are only omnivores if their whole life is considered.
+
+Some species, such as grazing waterfowl like geese, are known to eat mainly animals at one stage of their lives, but plants at another.[4] Also, many insects, such as the beatle family Meloidae,[5] eat animal tissue when they are larvae, but eat plant matter after they mature.
+
+All of these animals are omnivores, but have different feeding behaviors and favorite foods. Being omnivores gives these animals more food security in stressful times. It also makes it easier for them to live in less consistent environments; (those that change along with the season, for example).[6]
+
+The hominidae, including humans, chimpanzees, and orangutans, are typically omnivores.

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+A wave is a disturbance in the medium which causes the particles of the medium to undergo vibratory motion about their mean position. The motion repeats in equal intervals of time and can be described by a periodic function.
+
+Waves play an important role in our daily life.  This is because waves are a carrier of energy and information over large distances. Waves require some oscillating or vibrating source. Ocean surface waves were the first known waves. Later, other kinds were discovered.
+
+There are two categories of waves.
+
+Waves which require any medium for their propagation are called mechanical waves.
+
+For example:
+
+Water waves, sound waves, and waves produced on the string and spring.
+
+Waves which do not require any medium for their propagation are called electromagnetic waves.
+
+For example:
+

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+
+
+One Direction (1D) are a boy band from England and Ireland. It began with Niall Horan, Zayn Malik, Liam Payne, Harry Styles and Louis Tomlinson. They finished third on the seventh series of The X Factor. They each auditioned for The X Factor separately. Simon Cowell, their mentor, put them together in 2010 because he thought they were too good to lose.
+
+"What Makes You Beautiful" was One Direction's first single. After being signed to Syco Music, the group recorded their first album Up All Night. Hits on the album include "One Thing" and "Gotta Be You." It was third in the charts. They have been very successful since. They tour to places around the world such as Europe, Australia, Asia, and the Americas.
+
+The group released a second album in November 2012, called Take Me Home. It includes the singles "Little Things", "Live While We're Young" and "Kiss You". The group released their third album, Midnight Memories, in late November 2013. It includes the singles "Story of My Life", "Best Song Ever", "Midnight Memories", and "You & I" Their fourth album, Four, was released in November 2014. This album includes the singles "Steal My Girl" and "Night Changes". Their fifth album, Made in the A.M., was released in November 2015. It includes the singles "Drag Me Down", "Perfect" and "History".
+
+On 29 August 2013, their movie This Is Us was released.
+
+In April 2014, One Direction started their stadium world tour titled "Where We Are." 5 Seconds of Summer opened for them during the tour.[1]
+
+On 25 March 2015, Zayn Malik left the band.
+
+In January 2016, the band said they would be taking a temporary break. It was expected to last around 18 months, but due to the members pursuing solo careers, they will be reuniting later than promised. [2][3]
+
+One Direction have won two BRIT Awards and four MTV Video Music Awards.
+
+Zayn Malik left the band on 25 March 2015. The group decided not to replace him, but continue as a four piece band.[4]

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+Athena is the Greek goddess of wisdom and war strategy. She is one of the Twelve Olympians. Athena's symbol is the owl, the wisest of the birds. She also had a shield called Aegis, which was a present given to her by Zeus. She is often shown with her helmet on and with her shield, the shield later had Medusa's head on it, after Peresus slayed the her, he gave the head of Medusa to Athena for safekeeping who put the head on her shield.
+
+Athena is the protector of Athens, Greece, a city named after her. The Parthenon, which is on the Acropolis in Athens, is her most famous temple. She also helped many heroes, including Heracles, Jason, and Odysseus, and is always seen with Nike, the goddess of victory.
+
+There are many stories about Athena's birth. In Hesiod's Theogony, Zeus married Metis, but soon after, Zeus was scared of her giving birth to a child because the Oracle of Delphi had said that she will give birth to Athena, and a son that would overthrow Zeus, just like Zeus overthrew Kronos, who overthrew his father Uranus.
+
+To stop Metis giving birth to her son, Zeus came up with a plan, he played a game with Metis, they shape shifted into different animals, Metis turned turned into a fly, Zeus saw his chance and he swallowed her whole. Zeus was too late, as Metis was already pregnant.
+
+While she was inside Zeus's head, Metis made a helmet, armor, and a robe for Athena. The hammering noise caused Zeus to have a severe headache.  The headache became worse then Hephaestus split his head open and Athena came out full grown and with armor on.
+
+Athena is the goddess of knowledge, purity, arts, crafts, learning, justice and wisdom.  She also plays a tough, clever and independent role. Athenians thought she helped them win the Trojan war. Athena often helped heroes, especially ones who were not just brave but clever, like Jason and Perseus. People joined her cult, hoping she would give them victory. She was also an the creator of the olive tree and flute.
+
+Athena was given many other titles. She has the epithet Ergane as the patron of craftsmen and artisans. With the epithet Parthenos she was especially worshipped in the festivals of the Panathenaea and Pamboeotia where both militaristic and athletic displays took place. With the epithet Promachos she led in battle. With the epithet Polias, Athena was the protector of not only Athens but also of many other cities, including Argos, Sparta, Gortyn, Lindos, and Larisa.