a723039fb49233ac15e439cc99e6f8be027d1670997fe35fc806399aa399adf7

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+An equinox is when the sun passes directly over the equator. There are two equinoxes each year.  Equinox can also mean either of the two days when this happens. On these days, the nights are equal in length at latitudes L° North and L° South. The word equinox comes from two Latin words meaning "equal" and "night".
+
+Around the day of the equinox, the length of the day is a little over twelve hours and the length of the night is a little under twelve hours. They are not exactly equal because the sun is not a point in the sky and because the sunlight bends as it comes to earth. The exact day and time when this happens depend on how far away from the equator it is being measured. They occur on or around March 21 and September 21. Solstices fall around June 21st and December 21st at odd intervals.
+
+The equinoxes are the beginning of spring, and autumn (or fall in the US).
+
+The time of daylight is quite easy to measure. This was done in many cultures where festivals were celebrated at the equinoxes.

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+An equinox is when the sun passes directly over the equator. There are two equinoxes each year.  Equinox can also mean either of the two days when this happens. On these days, the nights are equal in length at latitudes L° North and L° South. The word equinox comes from two Latin words meaning "equal" and "night".
+
+Around the day of the equinox, the length of the day is a little over twelve hours and the length of the night is a little under twelve hours. They are not exactly equal because the sun is not a point in the sky and because the sunlight bends as it comes to earth. The exact day and time when this happens depend on how far away from the equator it is being measured. They occur on or around March 21 and September 21. Solstices fall around June 21st and December 21st at odd intervals.
+
+The equinoxes are the beginning of spring, and autumn (or fall in the US).
+
+The time of daylight is quite easy to measure. This was done in many cultures where festivals were celebrated at the equinoxes.

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+The Germany national football team is the national football team in Germany. The team has won the 1954 FIFA World Cup, 1974 FIFA World Cup, 1990 FIFA World Cup and 2014 FIFA World Cup. The team came as second in the 1966 FIFA World Cup, 1982 FIFA World Cup, 1986 FIFA World Cup and in 2002 FIFA World Cup. In the 1934 FIFA World Cup, 1970 FIFA World Cup, 2006 FIFA World Cup and 2010 FIFA World Cup, the team got third place. The teams current coach is Joachim Löw, who took over from Jürgen Klinsmann.
+
+From 1950 to 1990, the team was mainly West Germany. Other teams were around that are now part of Germany. These include the East German team (1952-1990) and the Saarland team (1950-1956).
+
+Germany has always been one of the best teams in the world. Germany is the only team to have won men's and women's world cup titles. Also, Germany's main rivals are England, the Netherlands and Argentina.
+
+The teams recent performance in a tournament was a victory over Argentina to win the 2014 FIFA World Cup. In the semi-final against Brazil, Germany thrashed them with a 7–1 win, making it the largest win in FIFA World Cup semi-final history. Miroslav Klose, one of the greatest German players of all time, also scored a record breaking goal that made him the top scorer in FIFA World Cup history.
+
+After another World Cup exit in 1998, Germany's status as one of the best teams in the world was beginning to go away. In the UEFA Euro 2000, Germany failed to advance to the next round, after losing two matches and one draw in the group stage. The manager at the time then resigned and was replaced by Rudi Völler.
+
+Going into the 2002 FIFA World Cup, the expectations for Germany was low because of the mediocre performance in the qualifiers. However, they performed very well in the World Cup, eventually making it to the finals but losing to Brazil 0–2. Miroslav Klose of Germany won the Silver Boot and Oliver Kahn won the Golden Ball.
+
+Germany again failed to advance to the next round in the UEFA Euro 2004 after they tied two matches and lost one. The manager Rudi Völler resigned shortly afterwards. Jürgen Klinsmann then replaced him, although having no experience. Joachim Löw was also assigned to assist him. Klinsmann made Michael Ballack captain after the Euro 2004. Klinsmann main goal was to help Germany perform well in the next world cup.
+
+Before the tournament, not many people expected Germany to do well because of their performance in the last tournaments. However, Germany won the first match of the tournament against Costa Rica. They continued to build confidence, and they eventually advanced to next stage with three wins in the group stage. Germany then beat Sweden 2–0 in the Round of 16.
+
+Germany then faced favourites Argentina in the quarter-finals. Argentina took the lead first in the match with a goal by Roberto Ayala in the 49th minute. Miroslav Klose then equalized with a goal at the 80th minute. The game later went to a penalty shootout, with Germany winning 4–2 and their goalkeeper Jens Lehmann making two saves.
+
+Although many then expected Germany to reach the final, they lost in the Semi-finals to Italy after Italy scored two goals in extra time. However, the German team went on to thrash Portugal 3–1 in the third place match. After the World Cup, Miroslav Klose won the Golden Boot and Lukas Podolski won the Best Young Player award.Also, four of Germany's players were put in the All-Star squad. When the German team arrived back in Berlin, they were greeted by 500,000 fans who were all honoring the German team.
+
+Klinsmann left the German team after the World Cup, with Joachim Löw taking the throne. Löw was known for often putting young players in the team. The German team then easily qualified for the UEFA Euro 2008. In the final tournament, Germany advanced to the next round after they finished the group stage with two wins and one loss to Croatia. Germany then played Portugal in the quarter-finals and beat them 3–2 with goals from Bastian Schweinsteiger, Miroslav Klose and Michael Ballack. They then went to the Semi-finals against Turkey and barely defeated them 3–2 after Philipp Lahm scored on the 90th minute. In the final of the Euro 2008, Spain were the favourites but Germany was believed to have a chance. Spain took control of the game and with Fernando Torres's goal, Spain won the tournament.
+
+Germany easily qualified in their qualifying group against Azerbaijan, Finland, Liechtenstein, Russia and Wales. In the tournament, Germany advanced through the group stage after winning two games and loosing one against Serbia. Germany then went on to dominate the Round of 16 and Quarter-finals after defeating England 4–1 and thrashing Argentina 4–0. In the semi-finals, Germany lost to Spain 1–0. Germany then beat Uruguay 3–2 to become the third place medal winners. Thomas Müller won the Golden Boot and the Best Young Player award. Germany also scored the most than any other team in the tournament, with 16 goals.
+
+Germany won all ten of their qualifying matches for the UEFA Euro 2012. They later were placed in Group B along with Portugal, the Netherlands and Denmark. The team went on to win all their matches in the group stage and broke a record of 15 consecutive wins in all matches. They then beat Greece 4–2 in the quarter-finals with goals from Philipp Lahm, Sami Khedira, Miroslav Klose and Marco Reus. However, they lost to Italy 1–2 in the semi-finals.
+
+Germany almost had ten straight wins in the qualifying round for the 2014 FIFA World Cup. However, in a game against Sweden, the team conceded 4 goals when they were up 4–0 up. The team performed well in the international friendlies before the World Cup with an unbeaten streak. Their most notable win was against Armenia, where they won 6–1. Germany was put in Group G with Portugal, Ghana and the United States.
+
+The first match against Portugal ended with Germany defeating them 4–0; with the help of Thomas Müller's hat-trick. Their second game against Ghana ended with a 2–2 draw after Miroslav Klose equalized the score. Their final game ended with a win against the United States after Thomas Müller scored at the 55th minute. In the quarter-finals, Mats Hummels scored the winning goal at the 13th minute,[10] meaning that Germany advanced to their fourth consecutive semi-final in the FIFA World Cup. In the semi-final against Brazil, Germany thrashed them with a 7–1 win, making it the largest win in FIFA World Cup semi-final history. Miroslav Klose also scored a record breaking goal that made him the top scorer in FIFA World Cup history. The win began to be known as the Miracle of Belo Horizonte.[11] Germany then went on to their 8th World Cup final in history. In the final, Mario Götze scored at the 113th minute to help Germany defeat Argentina 1–0.
+
+Germany was put in a qualifying group with Poland, Republic of Ireland, Scotland, Georgia and Gibraltar. They qualified at the top of their group after 7 wins, 1 draw and 2 losses. They are currently placed with Ukraine, Poland and Northern Ireland in the group stage.
+
+The squad for the UEFA Euro 2016:[12]
+
+The squad for the 2014 FIFA World Cup:[13]
+
+The squad for the UEFA Euro 2012:
+
+The squad for the 2010 FIFA World Cup:
+
+[14]
+
+Players still play with Germany
+
+Players still play with Germany
+
+Germany doesn't have an official stadium, so they use many stadiums. The city of Berlin has been the host of the most German games (44 times). The Olympiastadion Berlin is the most commonly used stadium in Berlin, and it holds 74,500 seats. Other common cities to host games have been Hamburg (33 matches), Stuttgart (31), Hanover (26) and Dortmund. Another popular location is Munich, which hosted the 1974 FIFA World Cup Final, where Germany defeated the Netherlands.
+
+Notes

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+Argentina national football team is the national football team of Argentina. They are nicknamed La Albiceleste (the blue and whites).
+

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+Fashion is the form of clothing, accessories, and furniture. It can be used by everyone. It is related to culture, For example, we have warm clothes in the Swedish fashion and we have thin clothes in the African fashion.
+
+Fashion is a source of looking better/attractive.

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+Aluminium (in American and Canadian English also: aluminum) is a chemical element. The symbol for aluminium is Al, and its atomic number is 13. Aluminium is the most abundant metal.
+
+Aluminium is a very good conductor of electricity and heat. It is light and strong. It can be hammered into sheets (malleable) or pulled out into wires (ductile). It is a highly reactive metal, although it is corrosion resistant.
+
+Aluminium prevents corrosion by forming a small, thin layer of aluminium oxide on its surface. This layer protects the metal by preventing oxygen from reaching it. Corrosion can not occur without oxygen. Because of this thin layer, the reactivity of aluminium is not seen. As a powder it burns hot. Uses include fireworks displays and rocket fuel.
+
+Pure aluminium is made from bauxite, a kind of rock that has aluminium oxide and many impurities. The bauxite is crushed and reacted with sodium hydroxide. The aluminium oxide dissolves. Then the aluminium oxide is dissolved in liquid cryolite, a rare mineral. Cryolite is normally produced artificially though. The aluminium oxide is electrolyzed to make aluminium and oxygen.
+
+Aluminium was once considered a precious metal that was even more valuable than gold. This is no longer true because, as technology improved, it became cheaper and easier to make pure metal.
+
+Aluminium forms chemical compounds in the +3 oxidation state. They are generally unreactive. Aluminium chloride and aluminium oxide examples. Very rarely are compounds in the +1 or +2 oxidation state.
+
+Many things are made of aluminium. Much of it is used in overhead power lines. It is also widely used in window frames and aircraft bodies. It is found at home as kitchenware, soft drink cans, and cooking foil. Aluminium is also used to coat car headlamps and compact discs.
+
+Pure aluminium is very soft, so a harder metal is almost always added. The harder metal is usually copper. Copper/aluminium alloys are to make ships, because the aluminium prevents corrosion, and the copper prevents barnacles.
+
+Aluminium compounds are used in deodorants, water processing plants, food additives, and antacids.
+
+Since aluminium needs to be made by electrolysis, it requires a very large amount of electrical power. Recycling aluminium would be much cheaper. That's why recycling plants were opened. The cost of recycling aluminium is much less than the cost of making it from bauxite.
+
+Aluminium is not used in the human body, although it is very common. People debate whether its use in deodorants and water treatment is healthy. Aluminium ions slow down plant growth in acidic soils. Aluminium may be a factor in Alzheimer's disease (a disease when the brain stops working and the patient is confused).[7][8] But the Alzheimer's Society says overwhelming medical and scientific opinion is that studies have not convincingly demonstrated a causal relationship between aluminium and Alzheimer's disease.[9]

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+Italy national football team is the national football team of Italy. They won the FIFA World Cup 4 times (1934, 1938, 1982, 2006), and the UEFA European Football Championship once (1968).

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+Erasmus, full name Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus,[1] (27 October, probably 1466 in Rotterdam – 12 July 1536 in Basel) was a Dutch humanist, theologian and philosopher.
+
+Erasmus was a classical scholar who wrote in a "pure" Latin style. Although he was a Catholic, he was critical of the Roman Catholic Church and wrote satires of them. He stood at the beginning of the reformation.
+
+The following information from * to * is sourced from 'Oxford AQA History A LEVEL, The Tudors: England 1485-1603:
+
+*He visited England four times, his most important visit being from 1509 to 1514 when he was appointed to a professorship at Cambridge University. During this visit, he also became a well known figure around the court of King Henry VIII.
+
+In 1516, he published a Greek New Testament complete with a new Latin translation.
+
+Some of his works include Julius Excluded from Heaven, On Civility in Children, The Praise of Folly, Discourse on Free Will, Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style and a Handbook of a Christian Knight.
+
+Although he was an important humanist figure who inspired who had some influence on the younger generations of English Humanists, the scope of Erasmian humanism is quite limited and much of the change that took place in England at this time stemmed from the influence of new religious thinking rather than simply scholarly Renaissance humanism.
+
+The term Erasmianism is defined as the body of ideas that is associated with Erasmus and his followers. *
+
+Wikisource has the original Latin text of Praise of Folly.
+

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+Erasmus, full name Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus,[1] (27 October, probably 1466 in Rotterdam – 12 July 1536 in Basel) was a Dutch humanist, theologian and philosopher.
+
+Erasmus was a classical scholar who wrote in a "pure" Latin style. Although he was a Catholic, he was critical of the Roman Catholic Church and wrote satires of them. He stood at the beginning of the reformation.
+
+The following information from * to * is sourced from 'Oxford AQA History A LEVEL, The Tudors: England 1485-1603:
+
+*He visited England four times, his most important visit being from 1509 to 1514 when he was appointed to a professorship at Cambridge University. During this visit, he also became a well known figure around the court of King Henry VIII.
+
+In 1516, he published a Greek New Testament complete with a new Latin translation.
+
+Some of his works include Julius Excluded from Heaven, On Civility in Children, The Praise of Folly, Discourse on Free Will, Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style and a Handbook of a Christian Knight.
+
+Although he was an important humanist figure who inspired who had some influence on the younger generations of English Humanists, the scope of Erasmian humanism is quite limited and much of the change that took place in England at this time stemmed from the influence of new religious thinking rather than simply scholarly Renaissance humanism.
+
+The term Erasmianism is defined as the body of ideas that is associated with Erasmus and his followers. *
+
+Wikisource has the original Latin text of Praise of Folly.
+

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+A desert is an arid (very dry) biome. They get less than 25 cm (9.8 inches) of rainfall a year. Another source defines it as "any region that can have a moisture deficit over the course of a year. In other words, they can have less rainfall in a year than they give up through evaporation".[5]
+
+These kinds of areas can cover about 33% of the land on Earth.[6] That includes much of Antarctica, where large areas get no snow at all. The largest hot desert is the Sahara desert, in northern Africa, covering 9 million square kilometers.
+
+Deserts land surfaces are various – examples are stones, sand dunes and snow. They have a wide variety of animals and plants. Deserts sometimes expand (desertification), and sometimes contract.
+
+Deserts are mostly found in the western part of the Americas, Western Asia, Central Australia, and South and North Africa. Many, such as the Sahara (the largest), are very hot during the day and have cold nights,[7] but there are also cold deserts such as the Atacama in South America which remain frozen day and night. [8]
+
+There are hot deserts and cold deserts. Cold deserts may be covered with snow or ice but some are so dry that the ice sublimates away. Some cold deserts have a short season of above-freezing temperatures. These deserts are called tundra. An ice cap can be a cold desert that remains below freezing all year-round.
+
+Cold deserts can be found close to the poles. That is why they are also called polar deserts. Other regions of the world have cold deserts too, for instance high altitude areas like the Himalayas. These are called montane deserts. Antarctica is the world's largest cold desert.
+
+Hot deserts are mostly in the subtropics. They can be covered by sand, rock, salt lakes, stony hills and even mountains. Most non-polar deserts are hot in the day and chilly at night. The temperature in the daytime can reach 50 °C (122 °F) or higher in the summer, and dip to 0 °C (32 °F) or lower at night time in the winter.
+
+The largest hot desert in the world is the Sahara in North Africa. It is almost as large as Europe or the United States. The Sahara desert is also the hottest desert in the world.
+
+The driest  desert in the world is the Atacama Desert in South America. The Atacama Desert had no rain for 401 years, between 1570 and 1971. This desert is caused by a cold ocean current.
+
+It does rain in the desert, but not often.  One place in the Atacama Desert had no rain for 401 years.  In other deserts it may rain every year or once every few years.  Rains in a desert may bring a great amount of water to the ground in a short time.  Some rain passes straight into the dry soil, but the rest may form a temporary river.  Wadis, stream channels that are normally dry, can quickly fill after heavy rain, causing a flash flood.
+
+People sometimes bring water from wet places to hot deserts so plants can grow. This is called irrigation.
+
+A sandstorm or dust storm arises when wind blows loose sand and dust from a dry surface. Clouds of sand or dust are often so dense that they obscure the sun. A sandstorm can move whole sand dunes. Sandstorms are common in large, dusty deserts.
+
+There are not many animals in the desert, but some animals are able to survive. They have different ways to survive the intense conditions of the desert. Examples of animals that live in hot deserts are lizards, small rodents, snakes, and camels. Plants and animals in hot deserts must live with very little water.
+
+Xerophytic plants which live in the desert have special adaptations. They may survive by growing roots that are very near the surface to absorb the rain that may fall before it evaporates. Plants such as the cactus have thick, fleshy stems that help them store water.
+
+Small animals such as lizards and small rodents often escape the hot rays by digging underground burrows where they live.[7] They only come out at night to search for food. Like the plants, desert animals must live on as little water as possible. Most of the water used by these animals comes from seeds and stems that absorb and hold water. Camels survive in hot deserts by storing water in body fat in their humps. Like other desert animals, the camel loses little water in its wastes (urine and feces).[7]

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+The Mesozoic was the geological era in which dinosaurs lived, as well as the first birds and mammals. It lasted about 186 million years, starting 252.2 mya (million years ago) with the P/Tr extinction and ending 66 mya with the K/T extinction (the one that killed dinosaurs).[1]
+
+Dinosaurs appeared around 231 mya (21 million years after the beginning of the Mesozoic). They evolved from early reptiles called the archosaurs (a group of which modern birds and crocodiles are still part).
+
+The Mesozoic is the middle of the three eras that make up the Phanerozoic eon.  Before the Mesozoic was the Palaeozoic era. The K/T extinction in 66 mya also marks the beginning of the Cenozoic era, the one we live in.
+
+The three Mesozoic periods were:

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+Yerevan (Armenian: Երեւան or Երևան) is the capital and largest city of Armenia. In 2004 about 1,088,300 people lived in Yerevan. Some people write Yerevan as Erevan. In past, Yerevan was called Erebuni or Erivan.
+
+It is on the Hrazdan River, and is the administrative, cultural, and industrial center of the country.
+
+The history of Yerevan dates back to the 8th century BC, with the founding of the Urartian fortress of Erebuni in 782 BC.[1] Eventually, the letter "b" in the name Erebuni changed in the 5th or 4th century BC, becoming "v".[2]
+
+The climate of Yerevan is relatively continental, with dry, hot summers and cold, snowy and short winters. The temperature in August can reach 40°C (104°F), while January may be as cold as -15 °C (5 °F). The amount of precipitation is small, amounting annually to about 350 mm (14 in).
+
+As a centre of Armenian culture, Yerevan is the site of Yerevan State University (1919), the Armenian Academy of Sciences, a historical museum, an opera house, a music conservatory and several technical institutes. The Matenadaran archives hold a rich collection of valuable ancient Armenian, Greek, Assyrian, Hebrew, Roman and Persian manuscripts. Yerevan has several large public libraries, a number of museums and theaters, botanical gardens and zoos. It is also at the heart of an extensive rail network and is a major trading centre for agricultural products. In addition, industries in the city produce metals, machine tools, electrical equipment, chemicals, textiles and food products.
+
+Two major tourist attractions are the Opera House, the ruins of an Urartu fortress and a Roman fortress. The Armenia Marriott Hotel is in the heart of the city at Republic Square (also known as Hraparak).
+
+The Yerevan Metro is a rapid transit system that serves the capital city.
+Its interior resembles that of western former Soviet nations with chandeliers hanging 
+from the corridors. The metro stations had most of their names changed after the collapse of the Soviet Union and the Independence of the Republic of Armenia.
+
+Yerevan is Armenia's industrial, transportation, and cultural center. Manufactures include chemicals, primary metals, machinery, rubber products, plastics, textiles, and processed food.  Not only is Yerevan the headquarters of major Armenian companies, but of international ones as well, as it's seen as an attractive outsourcing location for Western European, Russian and American multinationals.
+
+Recently, Yerevan has been undergoing an ambitious redevelopment process in which old Soviet-style apartments and buildings are being demolished and replaced with modern buildings. However, this urban renewal plan has been met with opposition and ([1]) criticism from some residents.

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+Eris (Greek: Ἒρις, "Strife") is the goddess of strife and discord in Greek mythology. She is the daughter of Nyx, but has no father. She is the opposite of Harmonia, who is the goddess of harmony.
+
+The Romans called her Discordia. In Roman statues of Discordia, and in other Roman art of her, she looks scary and ugly, and she is holding a knife. There are a few myths about this goddess, such as the one involving the golden apple.
+
+Nowadays, there are some people who call themselves Discordians. This idea comes from a book called Principia Discordia, which was written by Greg Hill and Kerry Thornley in San Francisco in the year 1958 or 1959. The book says that Eris might not have been scary and ugly after all, but that she was just misunderstood.
+
+The Principia Discordia describes the Discordian Society and its Goddess Eris, as well as the basics of Discordianism.
+

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+Eris is a dwarf planet and a trans-Neptunian object (TNO).[1] It is the second-largest known dwarf planet in the Solar System. Eris is slightly smaller than Pluto, but it is more massive  (has more mass) than Pluto. It is a "scattered disc object" in the Kuiper belt, further out than Pluto. It is also called a plutoid because the IAU decided to rename all trans-Neptunian dwarf planets as plutoids.[2] Eris orbits the sun once every 557 Earth years.[3] It has an elliptical orbit, inclined at an angle of 44° between the plane of the orbit of the planet and the ecliptic, the plane containing Earth's orbital path.[4]
+
+Eris has one moon, called Dysnomia.
+
+Eris was discovered by Michael E. Brown, Chad Trujillo and David Rabinowitz[5] on January 5, 2005, when they were having a close look at some images of the outer Solar System taken in 2003.
+
+Eris was originally called Xena, after the main character of the television series Xena: Warrior Princess.[3] However, there is a rule stating that all objects orbiting outside Neptune’s orbit have to be named after a creation of mythology. Therefore, it was officially named Eris on September 13, 2006.[6] Eris is named after the goddess of strife, discord,[7][3] contention and rivalry in Greek mythology.[8]
+
+Eris has one moon called Dysnomia.[9] It was discovered on September 10, 2005.[7] Dysnomia was originally nicknamed Gabrielle, after a character from the television series Xena: Warrior Princess, like Eris. However, like Eris, it could not be called this. Dysnomia was named after the daughter of Eris, in Greek mythology. Dysnomia is the goddess (or spirit) of lawlessness[7][3] and poor civil constitution.[10]
+
+Media reports have argued that Eris is the tenth planet, along with astronomers and NASA scientists.[11][12]  However, the definition of a planet was changed in August 2006.[13] Under the new specifications, Eris, along with Pluto, was lowered in status to a dwarf planet.
+
+Scientists are continuing to find out more about Eris and its moon, and to look for any more moons and possible rings. Because Eris is so far away, it would take 24.5 years to visit Eris with a space probe.[14]

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+Ernesto "Che" Guevara, commonly known as el Che or Che  (June 14, 1928 - October 9, 1967)[1] was an Argentine Marxist, revolutionary, physician, author, guerrilla, diplomat, and military theorist. He was a communist. He is popular with socialists. In addition to that he was a writer and some of his articles and speeches were even published.
+
+Time magazine said he was one of the most influential people of the 20th century.[2] Guerrillero Heroico, a picture of him, is called "the most famous photograph in the world."[3]
+
+Che Guevara was born in Rosario, Argentina in 1928.[1] He studied at the University of Buenos Aires. He wanted to be a doctor. During his holidays, he traveled. He saw how poor some people were. He thought that revolution could fix it.
+
+After college, he went to Mexico. He met Fidel Castro there in 1954. Castro was planning a communist rebellion in Cuba. Guevara joined Castro. He fought with Castro in Cuba. In 1959, Fidel won and became president of Cuba. Guevara was made head of Cuba's bank. He later became Minister of Industry.[1] In 1965, Guevara helped to start other revolutions. They were in Congo-Kinshasa and Bolivia. In 1967, he was captured and executed by Bolivian soldiers. His body was not found until 1997. His nickname among friends was "Chegi Vara".
+
+People have different opinions on Che Guevara. Some see him as a good leader. In addition to that he was an excellent writer and some of his articles and speeches were even published.[4] Others see him as a bad man who wanted to hurt people.[1] A black and white image of Guevara's face is one of the most merchandized images.[5] It can be found on many items. They include t-shirts, hats, posters, and other items.[6] The image was based on a photograph by Alberto Korda Díaz. Díaz was a Cuban photographer. It was taken in 1960.[6]
+
+Guevara is still an important person.[7] He is seen as an example of youthful rebellion.[8]
+
+A movie, ''The Motorcycle Diaries'', is about Che. It describes a trip that he took through South America. The trip took place in the 1950s. The movie was directed by Walter Salles. It was produced by Robert Redford.[9]

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+A glacier is a large body of ice and snow. It forms because the snow in an area does not all melt in summer. Each winter, more snow is added. The weight of all the snow creates pressure. This pressure turns the lower parts of the snow into ice. After this happens for many years, the glacier will start growing large. It becomes so heavy that gravity causes the ice to move. It flows downwards like water but very slowly. A glacier only moves about 50 metres (160 ft) per year. New snowfalls replace the parts that flow away.[1][2]
+
+Glaciers are the largest sources fresh water on Earth. The largest bodies of salt water are the Oceans
+
+Glaciers will only form in places that are cold enough and get enough snow over time. This can take a long time. It often takes tens or hundreds of years for a glacier to form. There are two kinds of glaciers: continental glaciers and alpine glaciers. Alpine glaciers are also called mountain glaciers.
+
+Glaciers are very important. They have a large effect on the environment. They do this because they are very large and heavy. When they move, they erode mountains and land. Also, since they froze long ago, snow crystals and air bubbles inside are kept in good condition. These can provide a large amount of information for scientists. Recently glaciers have been melting more than they did in the past. Many scientists think this is happening because global warming is changing the climate[source?].[3]
+
+Glaciers are blue in color. This is because water is very good at absorbing light. Only the strongest light, with the most energy, is able to escape. Blue is the color of light that has the most energy. Because of this, blue is the only color of light that can escape without being absorbed. The thicker the glacier is, the more blue it appears.

ensimple/181.html.txt

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+Alzheimer's Disease (AD)  is a brain disease that slowly destroys brain cells. As of now, there is no cure for Alzheimer's disease. With time, the different symptoms of  the disease become more marked. Many people die because of Alzheimer's disease. The disease affects different parts of the brain but has its worst effects on the areas of the brain that control memory, language, and thinking skills. Alzheimer's Disease is the most common form of senile dementia accounting for up to 70% of cases.
+
+The clinical symptoms of AD usually occurs after age 65, but changes in the brain which do not cause symptoms and are caused by Alzheimer's, may begin years or in some cases decades before. Although the symptoms of AD begin in older people it is not a normal part of aging.
+
+At this time there is no cure for Alzheimer's, but there are treatments that can help some patients with the signs and symptoms so they do not affect them as badly. There are also treatments which slow down the disease so the damage to the brain does not happen as quickly. There are also certain personal habits that people can learn which may help to delay the onset of the disease.
+
+While it is not yet known exactly what causes Alzheimer's disease, there are a number of risk factors which may make a person more likely to get it. Some of these risk factors are genetic; changes to four different genes have been found which increase the risk.
+
+The current lifetime risk for a 65-year-old person to get Alzheimer's disease is estimated to be at 10.5%. It is the sixth leading cause of death in the United States causing about 83,500 deaths a year. In 2007, there were more than 26.6 million people throughout the world who were affected by AD.[1]
+
+Alzheimer's disease was named after Alois Alzheimer, a German psychiatrist and neuropathologist who first described the disease after studying the case of a middle-aged woman, Auguste Deter, who was a patient at a hospital in Frankfurt, Germany in 1906.[2] The disease was named Alzheimer's disease in 1910 by Dr. Emil Kraepilin a co-worker of Alzheimer.
+
+Two of the main features found in the brains of people with of Alzheimer's disease, are neurobrillary tangles ('tangles' for short), which are made up of a protein called tau, and senile plaques (which are made mostly from another protein called beta-amyloid, they are also sometimes called beta-amyloid bundles or 'bundles' for short). The tau proteins that form the tangles previously held together a structure inside the neurons called a microtubule which is an important part of the neuron; it forms part of the cytoskeleton (cell skeleton) which is what maintains a cell's shape, and microtubules plays a part in cell communication.[3]
+
+Both tangles and plaques may be caused by other diseases, such as Herpes simplex virus Type 1 which is being investigated as a possible cause or contributor in developing Alzheimer's. It is not known for sure if tangles and plaques are part of what causes Alzheimer's, or if they are the results.
+
+Microtubules
+
+Microtubules are made of a protein called tubulin. The tubulin is polymerized, which is when molecules form the same shapes over and over again that are linked together in groups, and these groups are linked together. They can form long chains or other shapes; in this case the polymerized tubulin forms microtubules. The microtubules are rigid tubes like microscopic straws which are hollow inside. Microtubules help keep the shape of the neuron, and are inolved in passing signals through the neuron.[4]
+
+Tau
+
+Tau is a protein that is found mostly in the neurons of the central nervous system. They help hold together the microtubules within the neurons.  and when changes happen in the way the tau proteins are supposed to work the microtubules break apart. The tau proteins which are no longer holding the microtubules together form strands called fibrils, which then clump together inside the neuron to make what are called neurofibrillary tangles . These clumps, also known as 'tau tangles', are all that remain after a neuron has died.[5]
+
+Beta-amyloid
+
+Beta-amyloid(Aβ) (also called 'amyloid beta') plaques start with a protein called amyloid precursor protein (APP). APP is one of the proteins that make up a cell's membrane or outer covering, that protects the cell. In this case a neuron.. As it is made inside the cell, APP sticks out through the membrane of the cell.
+
+In different parts of the of cell including the outermost part of the cell membrane, chemicals called enzymes snip the APP into small pieces.  These enzymes that do the snipping are alpha-secretase, beta-secretase, and gamma-secretase.  Depending on which enzyme is doing the snipping and what parts of the APP are snipped, two different things can happen. One that is helpful and one that causes the formation of beta-amyloid plaques.
+
+The plaques are formed when beta-secretase snips the APP molecule at one end of the beta-amyloid peptide, releasing sAPPβ from the cell. Gamma-secretase then cuts the pieces of APP that is left and, still sticking out of the neuron’s membrane, at the other end of the beta-amyloid peptide. After this snipping the beta-amyloid peptide is released into the space outside the neuron and begins to stick to other beta-amyloid peptides. These pieces stick together to form oligomers. Different oligomers of various sizes are now floating around in the spaces between the neurons, which may be responsible for reacting with receptors on neighboring cells and synapses, affecting their ability to function.
+
+Some of these oligomers are cleared from the brain. Those that are not cleared out clump together with more pieces of beta-amyloid. As more pieces clump togther the oligomers get bigger larger, and the next size up are called protofibrils and the next size after that are called fibrils. After a while, these fibrils clump together with other protein molecules, neurons and non-nerve cells floating around in the space between the cells and form what are called plaques.
+
+Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA)
+
+Deposits of beta-amyloid also form in the walls (in the tunica media, the middle layer, and  tunica adventitia or tunica externa, the outer layer) of small and mid-sized arteries (and sometimes veins) in the cerebral cortex and the leptomeninges (the leptomeninges are the two inner layers - pia mater and arachnoid - of the meninges, a protective 3-layer membrane covering the brain.)
+
+CAA is found in 30% of people over the age of 60 years who do not have any dementia but is found in 90%-96% of people with Alzheimer disease and is severe in one third to two thirds of these cases.[7]
+
+The first area of the brain to be affected by Alzheimer's is the "transentorhinal region"[8] which is part of the medial temporal lobe located deep within the brain.  Neurons start dying in this area first. It then spreads into the adjacent entorhinal cortex (EC) which acts as a central hub, for a widespread network that handles signals for memory and movement[9](like a main train station with train tracks going to different areas).
+
+The EC is the main area for communication between the hippocampus, and the neocortex - which is the outer portion of the brain responsible for higher functioning such as how the brain perceives information from the five senses; (smell, sight, taste, touch and hearing; Ex. seeing a person's face and recognizing them,) generating motor commands (Ex, moving and arm or leg, walking, running) spatial reasoning, conscious thought and language.
+
+The disease then spreads into the hippocampus which is part of the limbic system. The hippocampus is the part of the brain that is involved in forming new memories, organizing them, and storing them for later recall. It is also where emotions and senses, such as smell and sound are attached to specific memories. Example 1.: A memory might make you happy or sad. Example 2.: A smell might bring up a certain memory.
+
+The hippocampus then sends memories to the different parts of the cerebral hemisphere where they are placed in long-term storage and it helps retrieve them when necessary. Example: An adult trying to remember the name of a classmate from kindergarten.
+
+In addition to handling memory the hippocampus is also involved in emotional responses, navigation (getting around) and spatial orientation (knowing your sense of place as you move around Example: Knowing your way around your bedroom even with the lights off).
+
+There are actually two parts of the hippocampus which is shaped like a horseshoe with one in the left part of the brain and the other in the right part of the brain.
+
+Preclinical
+
+Red Blue Green Purple Orange Purple Orange Green Blue Red
+
+Blue Orange Purple Green Red Purple Green Red Blue Orange
+
+This is a short example of the test. The test is used to measure different cognitive functions such as selective attention.
+
+Naming the colors of the first set of words is easier and quicker than the second, because in the first set, the colors match the words, in the second set they do not. So a person has to pay more attention.
+
+With current research using advances in neuroimaging such as FDG-PET and PIB-PET scans, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) assays, it is now possible to detect the beginning processes of Alzheimer's disease that occur before symptoms begin. The research suggests that clinically normal older people (no symptoms at all) have biomarker evidence of amyloid beta (Aβ) build-up in the brain. This amyloid beta (Aβ) is linked to changes in the structure of the brain and how it works that is the similar to what is seen in people with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) - which may lead to Alzheimer's - and people with Alzheimer's.
+
+These small preclinical changes (no symptoms) in the brain may occur many years, to even a few decades before a person is diagnosed with Alzheimer's. With a stage where there is some memory loss, or mild cognitive impairment. These changes put a person at risk of developing the clinical symptoms of full-blown  Alzheimer's but not everyone who has these changes will get the disease. Even though there is no cure for Alzheimer's, there are new treatments which are being developed which would work better in the very first stages of the disease.[12]
+
+At this time exactly what makes up the preclinical phase of Alzheimer's is still being researched, such as why some people with go on to develop Alzheimer's and others do not. So the term preclinical phase is being used for research only. There is a worldwide effort in various countries doing research in this area known as the World Wide Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative (WW-ADNI) which is the umbrella organization for neuroimaging studies being carried out through the North American ADNI, European ADNI (E-ADNI), Japan ADNI, Australian ADNI (AIBL), Taiwan ADNI, Korea ADNI, China ADNI and Argentina ADNI.[13]
+
+Beginning stages
+
+"Misdiagnosis in very early stages of Alzheimer's is a significant problem, as there are more than 100 conditions that can mimic the disease. In people with mild memory complaints, our accuracy is barely better than chance," according to study researcher P. Murali Doraiswamy, MBBS, professor of psychiatry and medicine at Duke Medicine, "Given that the definitive gold standard for diagnosing Alzheimer's is autopsy, we need a better way to look into the brain."
+
+In 1901, a 51-year-old woman named Auguste Deter, was committed to the City Asylum for the Insane and Epileptic, (Städtischen Anstalt für Irre und Epileptische) in Frankfurt am Main, Germany which had the nickname  "Irrenschloss" (Castle of the Insane). She was married and had a normal life until eight months prior to her commitment, when she started having psychological and neurological problems, such as problems with memory and language, paranoia, becoming disorientated and having hallucinations.
+
+She was studied by a doctor on staff named Alois Alzheimer (1864–1915).  Alzheimer became interested in her case because of her age; while the effects of senile dementia were known at the time, they usually did not start until a person was in their early to mid-sixties. Her case was also notable because of the rapid onset of dementia, only eight months, from the first reported symptoms, until she was committed.
+
+While conducting one of his examinations of Ms. Deter, he asked her to perform a series of simple writing tasks. Unable to do what was asked such as write her name, she said "I have lost myself, so to speak" ("Ich habe mich sozusagen selbst verloren").
+
+Alzheimer left the hospital in Franfkurt in 1902 to begin working with Emil Kraepelin at the Psychiatric University Hospital in Heidelberg-Bergheim, and in 1903 both he and Kraepelin began working at Ludwig Maximilian University in Munich.
+
+When Ms. Deter died of septicemia on 8 April 1906, Alzheimer was informed and her brain was sent to Munich for him to study. Studying samples of her brain under a microscope he noticed neurofibriallry tangles and bundles made up of beta-amyloid plaque, which are two of the main features of the disease.  On 3 November 1906, Alzheimer presented the results of his findings in Auguste's case at the Conference of South-West German Psychiatrists in Tübingen, and he published his findings in the case in 1907.
+
+In 1910, Emil Kraepelin named the disease 'Alzheimer's disease'. Alzheimer's disease usually beigins affecting people between ages 60–65, in Ms. Deter's case - who was 55-years-old when she died - she had a form of what is now known as Early-onset Alzhiemer's disease.[14]
+
+Anyone can get Alzheimer's disease, rich people or poor famous people and unfamous people. Some of the famous people who have gotten Alzheimer's disease are former United States President Ronald Reagan and Irish writer Iris Murdoch, both of whom were the subjects of scientific articles examining how their cognitive capacities got worse with the disease.[15][16][17]
+
+Other cases include the retired footballer Ferenc Puskás,[18] the former Prime Ministers Harold Wilson (United Kingdom) and Adolfo Suárez (Spain),[19][20] the actress Rita Hayworth,[21] the Nobel Prize-winner Raymond Davis, Jr.,[22] the actors Charlton Heston and Gene Wilder,[23][24] the novelist Terry Pratchett, politician and activist Sargent Shriver,[25][26] the Blues musician B.B. King,[27] director Jacques Rivette,[28] Indian politician George Fernandes,[29]
+and the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physics recipient Charles K. Kao.[30] In 2012, Nobel Prize writer Gabriel García Márquez was diagnosed with the disease.[31] Former Finnish President Mauno Koivisto died of the disease in May 2017.[32] Country singer Glen Campbell died of the disease in August 2017.[33]

ensimple/1810.html.txt

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+Erosion is a process where natural forces like water, wind, ice, and gravity transport rocks and soil. It is a geological process, and part of the rock cycle. Erosion occurs at the Earth's surface, and has no effect on the Earth's mantle and core.
+
+Most of the energy that makes erosion happen is provided by the Sun. The Sun's energy causes the movement of water and ice in the water cycle and the movement of air to create wind.
+
+Erosion can cause problems that affect humans. Soil erosion, for example, can create problems for farmers. Soil erosion can remove soil, leaving a thin layer or rocky soil behind. Erosion can also cause problems for humans by removing rocks or soil that support buildings.
+
+Erosion can be caused by natural elements such as wind and ice.
+
+Temperature changes cause pieces of rock to flake away from the surface. Also, the acid in rainwater dissolves rocks containing calcium carbonate. These processes are called weathering.
+
+Water erosion happens when water moves the pieces of rock or soil downhill. Waves also carry away small pieces of material. A wave can wash up onto the surface of rock or soil and then carry away pieces of material as it flows back into the ocean or lake.
+
+The size of earth materials that can be moved by water depends on how fast the water is moving. A fast-flowing stream can carry large rocks while a slow-moving stream might only be able to carry very small things like clay. Canyons are among the most obvious features made by erosion. Where a river meets the sea, it drops the solids, sometimes making a river delta.
+
+Large tropical rivers like the Paraná, Indus, Brahmaputra, Ganges, Zambezi, Mississippi and the Amazon carry huge amounts of sediment down to the sea. The Nile, perhaps the world's longest river, carries much less sediment than the others because, part of the way, it runs through less fertile regions than the other great rivers.
+
+The Amazon has by far the largest waterflow, with an average discharge greater than the next seven largest rivers combined. It has the largest drainage basin in the world, about 7,050,000 square kilometres (2,720,000 sq mi). The Amazon accounts for about one-fifth of the world's total river flow.[1][2]
+
+The sediment discharged by the gigantic mouth of the Amazon stains the sea brown for hundreds of miles out to sea.
+
+When a glacier moves downhill,it pushes & pulls rocks with it. There is also another way. Cold weather causes water inside tiny cracks in rocks to freeze. When it freezes, the ice gets larger,& pushes hard against the rock to break it.
+
+Wind erosion occurs when wind moves pieces of earth materials. Wind erosion is one of the weakest kinds of erosion. Small pieces of earth material can be rolled along the ground surface by wind. Very small pieces can be picked up and carried by the wind. Sometimes, wind can carry small pieces of earth materials over large distances. Some sediment from the Sahara Desert is carried across the Atlantic Ocean by wind.
+
+One of the most famous examples of wind erosion occurred in the Dust Bowl, when wind erosion severely damaged farming communities.
+
+Gravity erosion is the simplest kind of erosion. Gravity simply pulls loose earth materials downhill. Landslides are dramatic examples of gravity erosion.
+
+Tectonic effects on erosion has long been recognized. For example, rivers form as a result of tectonic uplift (as Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau).[3] All of the Earth's mountain ranges were created by the upward movement of the land by changes beneath the Earth's surface. When the ground rises the whole weather system can also be changed including local sea levels, wind strength and direction, rainfall and more.
+
+The Earth's landscape is a product of two factors. Tectonics builds up height by surface and rock uplift, and climate controls the erosion. Erosion wears away upland areas over time.[4] The interaction of these processes can form, modify, or destroy features of the Earth’s surface.

ensimple/1811.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,31 @@
+Erosion is a process where natural forces like water, wind, ice, and gravity transport rocks and soil. It is a geological process, and part of the rock cycle. Erosion occurs at the Earth's surface, and has no effect on the Earth's mantle and core.
+
+Most of the energy that makes erosion happen is provided by the Sun. The Sun's energy causes the movement of water and ice in the water cycle and the movement of air to create wind.
+
+Erosion can cause problems that affect humans. Soil erosion, for example, can create problems for farmers. Soil erosion can remove soil, leaving a thin layer or rocky soil behind. Erosion can also cause problems for humans by removing rocks or soil that support buildings.
+
+Erosion can be caused by natural elements such as wind and ice.
+
+Temperature changes cause pieces of rock to flake away from the surface. Also, the acid in rainwater dissolves rocks containing calcium carbonate. These processes are called weathering.
+
+Water erosion happens when water moves the pieces of rock or soil downhill. Waves also carry away small pieces of material. A wave can wash up onto the surface of rock or soil and then carry away pieces of material as it flows back into the ocean or lake.
+
+The size of earth materials that can be moved by water depends on how fast the water is moving. A fast-flowing stream can carry large rocks while a slow-moving stream might only be able to carry very small things like clay. Canyons are among the most obvious features made by erosion. Where a river meets the sea, it drops the solids, sometimes making a river delta.
+
+Large tropical rivers like the Paraná, Indus, Brahmaputra, Ganges, Zambezi, Mississippi and the Amazon carry huge amounts of sediment down to the sea. The Nile, perhaps the world's longest river, carries much less sediment than the others because, part of the way, it runs through less fertile regions than the other great rivers.
+
+The Amazon has by far the largest waterflow, with an average discharge greater than the next seven largest rivers combined. It has the largest drainage basin in the world, about 7,050,000 square kilometres (2,720,000 sq mi). The Amazon accounts for about one-fifth of the world's total river flow.[1][2]
+
+The sediment discharged by the gigantic mouth of the Amazon stains the sea brown for hundreds of miles out to sea.
+
+When a glacier moves downhill,it pushes & pulls rocks with it. There is also another way. Cold weather causes water inside tiny cracks in rocks to freeze. When it freezes, the ice gets larger,& pushes hard against the rock to break it.
+
+Wind erosion occurs when wind moves pieces of earth materials. Wind erosion is one of the weakest kinds of erosion. Small pieces of earth material can be rolled along the ground surface by wind. Very small pieces can be picked up and carried by the wind. Sometimes, wind can carry small pieces of earth materials over large distances. Some sediment from the Sahara Desert is carried across the Atlantic Ocean by wind.
+
+One of the most famous examples of wind erosion occurred in the Dust Bowl, when wind erosion severely damaged farming communities.
+
+Gravity erosion is the simplest kind of erosion. Gravity simply pulls loose earth materials downhill. Landslides are dramatic examples of gravity erosion.
+
+Tectonic effects on erosion has long been recognized. For example, rivers form as a result of tectonic uplift (as Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau).[3] All of the Earth's mountain ranges were created by the upward movement of the land by changes beneath the Earth's surface. When the ground rises the whole weather system can also be changed including local sea levels, wind strength and direction, rainfall and more.
+
+The Earth's landscape is a product of two factors. Tectonics builds up height by surface and rock uplift, and climate controls the erosion. Erosion wears away upland areas over time.[4] The interaction of these processes can form, modify, or destroy features of the Earth’s surface.

ensimple/1812.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+Eroticism is the quality of sexual excitement. In other words, if something is sexually exciting, then it is said to be erotic. Eroticism is an erotic feeling. It is named after Eros, the Ancient Greek god of love.
+
+Many types of things can be part of eroticism. Things that make a person feel erotic (sexually aroused or excited) include the sight, touch, smell, and sound of another person. A person may feel erotic when they see or touch or smell, or hear someone that they love in a sexual way. They may also have erotic feelings about a person that they do not love, but who is sexually attractive to them.
+
+Sometimes eroticism has nothing to do with another person. A person might feel erotic from watching a movie, looking at pictures in a magazine, listening to a piece of music, reading a story or article, or just thinking their own thoughts, or being aware of their own body.
+
+Some things are designed and made especially to make people feel erotic. Things that are designed to make people feel erotic are called "erotica". This word is most often used for art, books and magazines.
+
+Most people believe there is a difference between erotica and pornography, but some people have argued that all erotica is "pornographic". (In other words, some people believe that all pictures, movies or writing which are sexually exciting are rude and wrong, and should not be made.)
+
+People who have studied this subject say that erotica is not harmful to anyone, and may be helpful with people's loving relationships. The same writers say that pornography, which generally shows a person being treated without respect or love, is not helpful with people's loving relationships.[1][2]

ensimple/1813.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+Eroticism is the quality of sexual excitement. In other words, if something is sexually exciting, then it is said to be erotic. Eroticism is an erotic feeling. It is named after Eros, the Ancient Greek god of love.
+
+Many types of things can be part of eroticism. Things that make a person feel erotic (sexually aroused or excited) include the sight, touch, smell, and sound of another person. A person may feel erotic when they see or touch or smell, or hear someone that they love in a sexual way. They may also have erotic feelings about a person that they do not love, but who is sexually attractive to them.
+
+Sometimes eroticism has nothing to do with another person. A person might feel erotic from watching a movie, looking at pictures in a magazine, listening to a piece of music, reading a story or article, or just thinking their own thoughts, or being aware of their own body.
+
+Some things are designed and made especially to make people feel erotic. Things that are designed to make people feel erotic are called "erotica". This word is most often used for art, books and magazines.
+
+Most people believe there is a difference between erotica and pornography, but some people have argued that all erotica is "pornographic". (In other words, some people believe that all pictures, movies or writing which are sexually exciting are rude and wrong, and should not be made.)
+
+People who have studied this subject say that erotica is not harmful to anyone, and may be helpful with people's loving relationships. The same writers say that pornography, which generally shows a person being treated without respect or love, is not helpful with people's loving relationships.[1][2]

ensimple/1814.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+Eritrea is a country on the eastern coast of Africa. Its official name is The State of Eritrea.
+
+Eritrea is located on the coast on the Red Sea. It is north of the Bab-el-Mandeb and the Horn of Africa. Eritrea has borders with the countries of Sudan, Ethiopia, and Djibouti. The land area of Eritrea is 101,000 km², and it is one of the smallest countries in Africa.[6]
+
+Eritrea became an independent country on 24 May 1993.[6] It is one of the newest countries in the world.
+
+Many different countries have ruled the land that is now called Eritrea. Between 1885 and 1941 it was a colony of Italy. Between 1941 and 1952, the United Nations put it under the protection of United Kingdom. After 1952, Eritrea became a part of Ethiopia.[6] This was the reason for a long civil war between the Eritreans and the government of Ethiopia.
+
+Eventually, in 1993, Eritrea became an independent country after a vote by its people.[6]
+
+Eritrea is known for being the most oppressive country in Africa, sometimes considered to be the "North Korea of Africa".[7] The nation has been accused of many human rights violations, severely limited freedoms, and many arbitrary (made-up) arrests.
+
+Eritrea is divided into six administrative regions. These areas are then divided into 58 districts.
+
+The population of Eritrea is about 5.6 million.[6] About 0.5 million people live in Asmara. People from Eritrea are called Eritreans. Most of them speak Tigrinya or Tigre as their first language. The people usually use Tigrinya or Arabic for official business.
+
+Eritrea has nine ethnic groups. These are the Afar people, the Bilen people, the Hedareb people, the Kunama, the Nara, the Rashaida, the Saho, the Tigre, and Tigray-Tigrinya.
+
+The currency of Eritrea is called the Nakfa. Eritrea is a very poor country. Almost half of Eritrea's economy comes from Eritreans who live abroad. They send money home to their families. Most of the rest comes from farming.
+
+Football and cycling are the most popular sports in Eritrea. In recent years, Eritrean athletes have also seen increasing success in the international arena.

ensimple/1815.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+Eritrea is a country on the eastern coast of Africa. Its official name is The State of Eritrea.
+
+Eritrea is located on the coast on the Red Sea. It is north of the Bab-el-Mandeb and the Horn of Africa. Eritrea has borders with the countries of Sudan, Ethiopia, and Djibouti. The land area of Eritrea is 101,000 km², and it is one of the smallest countries in Africa.[6]
+
+Eritrea became an independent country on 24 May 1993.[6] It is one of the newest countries in the world.
+
+Many different countries have ruled the land that is now called Eritrea. Between 1885 and 1941 it was a colony of Italy. Between 1941 and 1952, the United Nations put it under the protection of United Kingdom. After 1952, Eritrea became a part of Ethiopia.[6] This was the reason for a long civil war between the Eritreans and the government of Ethiopia.
+
+Eventually, in 1993, Eritrea became an independent country after a vote by its people.[6]
+
+Eritrea is known for being the most oppressive country in Africa, sometimes considered to be the "North Korea of Africa".[7] The nation has been accused of many human rights violations, severely limited freedoms, and many arbitrary (made-up) arrests.
+
+Eritrea is divided into six administrative regions. These areas are then divided into 58 districts.
+
+The population of Eritrea is about 5.6 million.[6] About 0.5 million people live in Asmara. People from Eritrea are called Eritreans. Most of them speak Tigrinya or Tigre as their first language. The people usually use Tigrinya or Arabic for official business.
+
+Eritrea has nine ethnic groups. These are the Afar people, the Bilen people, the Hedareb people, the Kunama, the Nara, the Rashaida, the Saho, the Tigre, and Tigray-Tigrinya.
+
+The currency of Eritrea is called the Nakfa. Eritrea is a very poor country. Almost half of Eritrea's economy comes from Eritreans who live abroad. They send money home to their families. Most of the rest comes from farming.
+
+Football and cycling are the most popular sports in Eritrea. In recent years, Eritrean athletes have also seen increasing success in the international arena.

ensimple/1816.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+Stairs, staircase, stairway, stairwell, and flight of stairs are all names for a construction designed to bridge a large vertical distance by dividing it into smaller vertical distances, called steps. Stairways may be straight, round, or may consist of two or more straight pieces connected at angles.
+
+Special stairways include escalators and ladders. Alternatives to stairways are elevators and inclined moving sidewalks.
+
+The step is composed of the tread and riser.
+
+The balustrade is the complete system of railings and pickets that prevents people from falling over the edge.
+
+Handrails may be continuous (sometimes called over-the-post) or post-to-post (or more accurately ""newel-to-newel""). For continuous handrails on long balconies, there may be multiple newels and tandem caps to cover the newels. At corners, there are quarter-turn caps. For post-to-post systems, the newels project above the handrails.
+
+Another, more classical, form of handrailing which is still in use is the Tangent method. A variant of the Cylindric method of layout, it allows for continuous climbing and twisting rails and easings. It was originally defined from principles set down by architect Peter Nicholson in the 18th century.
+
+Stair measurements:

ensimple/1817.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+
+
+A snail is a common name for a kind of mollusc. The term is used for a gastropod with a coiled shell. Their fossil records extends back into the Carboniferous period.[1]
+
+Land snails and slugs breathe with a kind of lung. They used to be put together in a group, the Pulmonata. This was a well-known order in traditional taxonomy. However, the Pulmonata is polyphyletic.[2] This means the same life-style evolved in a number of different lines. This is called convergent evolution. Therefore, the Pulmonata is no longer an official term in biological classification.
+
+The term "snail" is also sometimes used for aquatic snail-like gastropods, which usually have gills. Actually, most snail species are marine snails. There are more species of them, and they are far greater in numbers. Many kinds of snails can also be found in fresh water habitats.
+
+Most land snails and slugs are herbivorous. Aquatic snails and slugs are usually omnivores or predatory carnivores.
+
+In many countries around the world, people eat snails as a delicacy. In France, snails are called escargots, which is also the name of the dish. In French cuisine, the snails are cooked in salt water and then served with a garlic sauce.[3]
+
+The biggest snail is the giant African snail. Their foot is up to 35 cm long.
+The fastest snail is the Helix aspersa. It can reach speeds up to 0.047 kmh.
+There are known more than 43000 species of snails all over the world.[4]
+
+Snails are invertebrates, which are animals with no backbones. The shell on the snail helps protect it, and also reduces the loss of water by evaporation. Shells have many different shapes, sizes, and colors. Snails do not breathe through their mouths, instead they have a breathing hole under their shells.
+
+A snails "foot" is a muscle which allows it to move slowly across the ground. The foot puts out ('exudes') slime, which eases the snail's movement, leaving a trail. Snails can absorb mineral nutrients through their foot by simply sitting on a rock.
+
+The head is attached to the foot. On the head there are 15 mm stalks. At the end of the stalks are snail’s eyes.
+
+Snails are found all over the world. Generally speaking, land snails live in  damp habitats. They live in caves and dark places. Snails can be found in dark places such as in a garden under plant's foliage leaves. Some species live in cold places like the Arctic and a few are found in warm places like beaches and deserts.
+
+Land snails eat vegetables and fruits, such as lettuce, carrots, cucumber and apples. Aquatic snails are often carnivorous. Snails use their radula to cut food. The radula is a hard, rough plate in the mouth. Radula teeth are like little pieces of sandpaper. They are good for cutting up plants and if the snail eats meat they are good for tearing the meat apart.
+
+Many animals eat snails. Fireflies, snakes, beetles, fish, insects, turtles and people eat snails too. To defend themselves, snails pull back into their shells.

ensimple/1818.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+
+
+A snail is a common name for a kind of mollusc. The term is used for a gastropod with a coiled shell. Their fossil records extends back into the Carboniferous period.[1]
+
+Land snails and slugs breathe with a kind of lung. They used to be put together in a group, the Pulmonata. This was a well-known order in traditional taxonomy. However, the Pulmonata is polyphyletic.[2] This means the same life-style evolved in a number of different lines. This is called convergent evolution. Therefore, the Pulmonata is no longer an official term in biological classification.
+
+The term "snail" is also sometimes used for aquatic snail-like gastropods, which usually have gills. Actually, most snail species are marine snails. There are more species of them, and they are far greater in numbers. Many kinds of snails can also be found in fresh water habitats.
+
+Most land snails and slugs are herbivorous. Aquatic snails and slugs are usually omnivores or predatory carnivores.
+
+In many countries around the world, people eat snails as a delicacy. In France, snails are called escargots, which is also the name of the dish. In French cuisine, the snails are cooked in salt water and then served with a garlic sauce.[3]
+
+The biggest snail is the giant African snail. Their foot is up to 35 cm long.
+The fastest snail is the Helix aspersa. It can reach speeds up to 0.047 kmh.
+There are known more than 43000 species of snails all over the world.[4]
+
+Snails are invertebrates, which are animals with no backbones. The shell on the snail helps protect it, and also reduces the loss of water by evaporation. Shells have many different shapes, sizes, and colors. Snails do not breathe through their mouths, instead they have a breathing hole under their shells.
+
+A snails "foot" is a muscle which allows it to move slowly across the ground. The foot puts out ('exudes') slime, which eases the snail's movement, leaving a trail. Snails can absorb mineral nutrients through their foot by simply sitting on a rock.
+
+The head is attached to the foot. On the head there are 15 mm stalks. At the end of the stalks are snail’s eyes.
+
+Snails are found all over the world. Generally speaking, land snails live in  damp habitats. They live in caves and dark places. Snails can be found in dark places such as in a garden under plant's foliage leaves. Some species live in cold places like the Arctic and a few are found in warm places like beaches and deserts.
+
+Land snails eat vegetables and fruits, such as lettuce, carrots, cucumber and apples. Aquatic snails are often carnivorous. Snails use their radula to cut food. The radula is a hard, rough plate in the mouth. Radula teeth are like little pieces of sandpaper. They are good for cutting up plants and if the snail eats meat they are good for tearing the meat apart.
+
+Many animals eat snails. Fireflies, snakes, beetles, fish, insects, turtles and people eat snails too. To defend themselves, snails pull back into their shells.

ensimple/1819.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+Slavery is when a person is treated as the property of another person. This person is usually called a slave, with the owner being called a slavemaster. It often means that slaves are forced to work, or else they will be punished by the law (if slavery is legal in that place) or by their master.
+
+There is evidence that even before there was writing, there was slavery.[1] There have been different types of slavery, and they have been in almost all cultures and continents.[2] Some societies had laws about slavery, or they had an economy that was built on it. Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome had many slaves.
+
+During the 20th century almost all countries made laws forbidding slavery. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights says that slavery is wrong. Slavery is now banned by international law.[3] Nevertheless, there are still different forms of slavery in some countries.[4]
+
+The English word "slave" comes from the medieval word for the Slavic peoples of Central Europe and Eastern Europe, because these were the last ethnic group to be captured and enslaved in Central Europe.[5][6]  According to Adam Smith and Auguste Comte, a slave was mainly defined as a captive or prisoner of war.  Slave-holders used to buy slaves at slave auctions. In many cases slaves are not allowed rights.
+
+Slavery has existed for a long time.[7] Early hunter-gatherers had no use for slaves.[8] They did everything for themselves. Having another pair of hands to help them meant another mouth to feed. Slavery or owning another person made no sense to these people.[8] Once men gathered in cities and towns and there was more than enough food, having a cheap supply of labor made sense.[8] This is when the earliest forms of slavery appeared. Slavery can be traced back to the earliest records, such as the Code of Hammurabi (c. 1760 BC). This refers to it as an established institution.[9]
+
+In the Ancient Near East, captives obtained through warfare often became slaves. This was seen by the laws in the Bible book of  Deuteronomy as a legal form of slavery. But the Israelites were not allowed to enslave other Israelites. The Deuteronomic Code calls for the death penalty for the crime of kidnapping Israelites to enslave them.
+
+In Ancient Egypt, slaves were mainly prisoners of war. Other ways people could become slaves was by inheriting the status from their parents who were slaves. Someone could become a slave if he could not pay his debts. People also sold themselves into slavery because they were poor peasants and needed food and shelter. The lives of slaves were normally better than that of peasants.[10] Young slaves could not be put to hard work, and had to be brought up by the mistress of the household. Not all slaves went to houses. Some also sold themselves to temples, or were assigned to temples by the king. Slave trading was not very popular until later in Ancient Egypt. Afterwards, slave trades sprang up all over Egypt.
+
+In many places, citizens were partly or fully protected from being enslaved, so most slaves were foreigners.
+
+Roman slaves played an important role in society and the economy. Besides manual labor, slaves performed many domestic services. They could work at highly skilled jobs and professions. Teachers, accountants, and physicians were often slaves. Greek slaves were often highly educated. Unskilled slaves, or those sentenced to slavery as punishment, worked on farms, in mines, and at mills. Their living conditions were brutal, and their lives short.
+
+Slaves were considered property under Roman law and had no legal personhood. Unlike Roman citizens, they could be subjected to corporal punishment, sexual exploitation (prostitutes were often slaves), torture, and summary execution. The testimony of a slave could not be accepted in a court of law unless the slave was tortured—a practice based on the belief that slaves in a position to be privy to their masters' affairs would be too virtuously loyal to reveal damaging evidence unless coerced. Over time, however, slaves gained increased legal protection, including the right to file complaints against their masters. Attitudes changed in part because of the influence among the educated elite of the Stoics, whose egalitarian views of humanity extended to slaves.
+
+Roman slaves could hold property which, even though it belonged to their masters, they were allowed to use as if it were their own. Skilled or educated slaves were allowed to earn their own money. With enough money they could buy their freedom.[11]
+
+After the Roman Empire broke up, slavery gradually changed into serfdom.
+
+Historians estimate that between 650 AD and the 1960s, 10 to 18 million people were enslaved by Arab slave traders. They were taken from Europe, Asia and Africa across the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara desert. Male slaves were often employed as servants, soldiers, or workers by their owners. Many male slaves were castrated.[12] It is estimated that as many as 6 out of every 10 boys bled to death during the process.[12] But the high price of Eunuchs made it worthwhile. According to Ronald Segal, author of Islam’s Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora (2002), "The calipha in Baghdad at the beginning of the 10th Century had 7,000 black eunuchs and 4,000 white eunuchs in his palace”.[12] Women and children taken as slaves were mainly used as servants and concubines. While the later Atlantic slave trade concentrated on men for labor, the Arab slave trade started with men and boys, but shifted over time to concentrate more on woman and young girls for sexual purposes. By the 1900s, Arab slave traders had taken between 10 and 20 million slaves out of Africa.[12]
+
+For four centuries, beginning in the late 15th century, millions of Africans were taken as slaves by Europeans.[13] Europeans began exporting Africans to the New World as a source of cheap labor on colonial plantations.[13]
+
+Between 1452 and 1455, Pope Nicolas V issued a series of papal bulls authorizing the Portuguese to take African slaves.[14] At first slave traders raided coastal areas and carried black people off. But the mines and fields of the colonies needed more and more slaves. In the early 16th century Spain began to issue licenses and contracts to supply slaves. By the 1750s large slaving companies were established. Most of Europe at the time was involved in the slave trade.[14]
+
+Many Europeans who arrived in North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came under contract as indentured servants.[15] The change from indentured servitude to slavery was a gradual process in Virginia. The earliest legal documentation of such a shift was in 1640. This is where an African, John Punch, was sentenced to lifetime slavery for attempting to run away. This case also marked the disparate treatment of Africans as held by the Virginia County Court, where two white runaways received far lesser sentences.[16] After 1640, planters started to ignore the expiration of indentured contracts. They kept their servants as slaves for life. This was demonstrated by the case Johnson v. Parker. The court ruled that John Casor, an indentured servant, be returned to Johnson who claimed that Casor belonged to him for his life.[17][18] According to the 1860 U. S. census, 393,975 individuals, representing 8% of all US families, owned 3,950,528 slaves.[19] One-third of Southern families owned slaves.[20] Slavery in United States was legally abolished by Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1865.[21][unreliable source?]
+
+Millions of people are still slaves in some parts of the world, mostly in South Asia and Africa. It is less common in the developed world because of better law enforcement, but it still happens there as well.[4] The ways in which it is done have changed. Today, slaves may work because of things like a high debt (for example, slaves have to work to pay off a debt). Many victims are told that their families will be harmed if they report the slave owners. Many slaves are forced to be domestic servants. In some cases, their families sell them to the slave owners. Some slaves have been trafficked from one part of the world to another. These people are illegally in their host country, and therefore do not report the abuse. Forced prostitution is a type of slavery. Another form of slavery still happening today is forced child labor. Some children have to work in mines or in plantations, or they have to fight wars as child soldiers, for no pay.
+
+One study says that there are 27 million people (but others say there could be as many as 200 million) in slavery today.[22]
+
+Other terms that describe the recruitement of laborers, and that may have similarities to slavery are Blackbirding, Impressment and Shanghaiing.
+
+Some of the countries where there is still slavery are in Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia.[23]  In summer 2007, 570 people were found to be slaves for brick makers in China.[24] They included 69 children.[25] The Chinese government made a force of 35,000 police check northern Chinese brick kilns for slaves, and sent lots of kiln supervisors and officials to prison and sentenced one kiln foreman to death for killing a worker who was a slave.[24]
+
+In Mauritania, it is thought that up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20% of the population, are slaves, and that many of them are used as bonded labour.[26][27] Slavery in Mauritania was made illegal in August 2007.[28] In Niger, there is also much slavery. A Nigerian study has found that more than 800,000 people are slaves, almost 8% of the population.[29][30][31] Child slavery has commonly been used when making cash crops and mining.  According to the United States Department of State, more than 109,000 children were working on cocoa farms alone in Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) in 'the worst forms of child labour' in 2002.[32]
+
+In November 2006, the International Labour Organization said that it would prosecute members of the junta that rules Myanmar (also called Burma) at the International Court of Justice for "Crimes against Humanity". This is because the military makes some citizens do forced labour.[33][34] The International Labour Organisation says that it thinks that about 800,000 people are forced to work this way.[35][36]
+
+Scholars of Islamic law have condemned the revival of the slave trade of non-Muslim women by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant.
+
+An agitation called Abolitionism against slavery began in Christian countries in the 18th century. First they abolished the slave trade so more people wouldn't become slaves. In 1833, the British Empire stopped slavery. Several other countries followed. In the United States, disagreement over slavery led to the American Civil War and the Emancipation Proclamation. In 1865, when the North won, all slaves were made free. Still more countries abolished slavery afterwards. Pedro II of Brazil abolished it in 1888. Forced labor however continued, either against the law or by debt peonage or other methods which the laws of the various countries did not count as slavery.

ensimple/182.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,23 @@
+The Amazon River (also named Rio Amazonas in Portuguese and Spanish[1]) is the largest river in the world by the amount or volume of water it carries.  It flows through the tropical forests of South America, mainly in Brazil.  Its headwaters are in the Andes Mountains in Peru, on the western edge of South America and flows eastward into the Atlantic Ocean near the equator.
+
+The Amazon River moves more water than the next eight largest rivers of the world combined and has the largest drainage basin in the world.  It accounts for about one fifth of the world's total river flow.  During the wet season, parts of the Amazon exceed 120 miles (190 km) in width.  Because of its size, it is sometimes called The  Sea, but it is not the world's longest river system.  The world's longest river is the Nile River, with the Amazon being second-longest.
+
+It is one of the longest rivers in the world. There have been different studies that have tried to measure its exact length. As the studies have come up with different numbers, it is therefore difficult to give an exact number.  The length also changes in the rainy season. Several studies from Brazil, Spain and Chile say it is the longest river in the world, longer than the Nile. The Nile has a length of 6,571 kilometres (4,083 mi). The Amazon may have a length of 6,937 km (4,310 mi).[2][3][4] The Spanish daily newspaper El País gives its length at 6,850 km (4,260 mi).[5]   In 2007, scientists from Peru and Brazil calculated a length of 6,800 km (4,200 mi).[6]
+
+A study done in 1969 says that the Amazon has a length of 6,448 km (4,007 mi). This was measured from a part of the River Apurimac. Until the 1970s, it was thought that the Marañón River was the source of the Amazon. In 2001, an expedition found that Nevado Mismi was in fact the source of the Amazon.[7] Another document of the Geographic society of Lima gives the length of the Amazon at over 7,000 km (4,300 mi).[8]
+
+The source of the Amazon is in the Andes Mountains of western South America. It flows east from there to the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the huge river and its many tributaries are in the country of Brazil. There are many places on the Amazon where a person on one side of the river cannot see the other side. The Brazilians call the Amazon the "River Sea." The Amazon is navigable from the ocean to Peru. Ocean ships can travel on the Amazon all the way across Brazil, and most of South America, to the city of Iquitos in Peru.
+
+One characteristic of the Amazon river is the Brazo Casiquiare, a water connection to the Orinoco river into Venezuela, that connects the two basins.
+
+The estuary of the Amazon is about 330 km (205 mi) wide. The width of the mouth of the river is usually measured from Cabo do Norte to Punto Patijoca. Generally, the outlet of the Para River is included. It is 60 km (37 mi) wide, and forms the estuary of the  Tocantins. The estuary also includes  the island of Marajó, which lies in the mouth of the Amazon. This means that the Amazon is wider at its mouth than the entire length of the Thames river in England.
+
+Along the coastline, near Cabo do Norte,  there are many islands partially covered with water. There are also sandbanks. The tides of the Atlantic generate a wave that reaches into the Amazon river. This wave goes along the coast for about 420 kilometres (261 miles). The phenomenon of this wave generated by the tides is called a tidal bore. Locally it is known as pororoca. The pororoca occurs where the water is less than 7 m (23 ft) deep. It starts with a loud noise, and advances at a speed of  15–25 km/h (9–16 mph). The bore is the reason the Amazon does not have a delta. The ocean rapidly carries away the large amount  of silt brought by the Amazon. This makes it impossible for a delta to grow past the shoreline. It also has a very large tide, that can reach  6 metres (20 feet). The place has become popular for river surfing.[9]
+
+The Amazon River has many
+
+There are no bridges across the entire width of the river.[10] This is not because the river would be too wide to bridge; for most of its length, engineers could build a bridge across the river easily. For most of its course, the river flows through the Amazon Rainforest, where there are very few roads and cities. Most of the time, the crossing can be done by a ferry, so there is no need to build a bridge. The Manaus Iranduba Bridge linking the cities of Manaus and Iranduba spans the Rio Negro (a tributary of the Amazon).
+
+The river is the main route of traffic in the region. Most cities are on the banks of the river. The biggest city on the river is Manaus, which is also the capital of the Brazilian State of Amazonas. Many native people live in the Amazon, such as the Urarina[11] who live in Peru.
+
+Big ocean boats can get up the river until Manaus, which is almost 1500 kilometers (900 miles) from its mouth. Smaller ocean ships of 3,000 tons [12] and 7.9 m (26 ft) draft[13] can reach as far as Iquitos in Peru, 3,700 km (2,300 miles) from the sea. Smaller riverboats can reach 780 km (486 mi) higher as far as Actual Point. Beyond that, small boats frequently go up to the Pogo Ode Escherichia's, just above Actual Point.

ensimple/1820.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+Slavery is when a person is treated as the property of another person. This person is usually called a slave, with the owner being called a slavemaster. It often means that slaves are forced to work, or else they will be punished by the law (if slavery is legal in that place) or by their master.
+
+There is evidence that even before there was writing, there was slavery.[1] There have been different types of slavery, and they have been in almost all cultures and continents.[2] Some societies had laws about slavery, or they had an economy that was built on it. Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome had many slaves.
+
+During the 20th century almost all countries made laws forbidding slavery. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights says that slavery is wrong. Slavery is now banned by international law.[3] Nevertheless, there are still different forms of slavery in some countries.[4]
+
+The English word "slave" comes from the medieval word for the Slavic peoples of Central Europe and Eastern Europe, because these were the last ethnic group to be captured and enslaved in Central Europe.[5][6]  According to Adam Smith and Auguste Comte, a slave was mainly defined as a captive or prisoner of war.  Slave-holders used to buy slaves at slave auctions. In many cases slaves are not allowed rights.
+
+Slavery has existed for a long time.[7] Early hunter-gatherers had no use for slaves.[8] They did everything for themselves. Having another pair of hands to help them meant another mouth to feed. Slavery or owning another person made no sense to these people.[8] Once men gathered in cities and towns and there was more than enough food, having a cheap supply of labor made sense.[8] This is when the earliest forms of slavery appeared. Slavery can be traced back to the earliest records, such as the Code of Hammurabi (c. 1760 BC). This refers to it as an established institution.[9]
+
+In the Ancient Near East, captives obtained through warfare often became slaves. This was seen by the laws in the Bible book of  Deuteronomy as a legal form of slavery. But the Israelites were not allowed to enslave other Israelites. The Deuteronomic Code calls for the death penalty for the crime of kidnapping Israelites to enslave them.
+
+In Ancient Egypt, slaves were mainly prisoners of war. Other ways people could become slaves was by inheriting the status from their parents who were slaves. Someone could become a slave if he could not pay his debts. People also sold themselves into slavery because they were poor peasants and needed food and shelter. The lives of slaves were normally better than that of peasants.[10] Young slaves could not be put to hard work, and had to be brought up by the mistress of the household. Not all slaves went to houses. Some also sold themselves to temples, or were assigned to temples by the king. Slave trading was not very popular until later in Ancient Egypt. Afterwards, slave trades sprang up all over Egypt.
+
+In many places, citizens were partly or fully protected from being enslaved, so most slaves were foreigners.
+
+Roman slaves played an important role in society and the economy. Besides manual labor, slaves performed many domestic services. They could work at highly skilled jobs and professions. Teachers, accountants, and physicians were often slaves. Greek slaves were often highly educated. Unskilled slaves, or those sentenced to slavery as punishment, worked on farms, in mines, and at mills. Their living conditions were brutal, and their lives short.
+
+Slaves were considered property under Roman law and had no legal personhood. Unlike Roman citizens, they could be subjected to corporal punishment, sexual exploitation (prostitutes were often slaves), torture, and summary execution. The testimony of a slave could not be accepted in a court of law unless the slave was tortured—a practice based on the belief that slaves in a position to be privy to their masters' affairs would be too virtuously loyal to reveal damaging evidence unless coerced. Over time, however, slaves gained increased legal protection, including the right to file complaints against their masters. Attitudes changed in part because of the influence among the educated elite of the Stoics, whose egalitarian views of humanity extended to slaves.
+
+Roman slaves could hold property which, even though it belonged to their masters, they were allowed to use as if it were their own. Skilled or educated slaves were allowed to earn their own money. With enough money they could buy their freedom.[11]
+
+After the Roman Empire broke up, slavery gradually changed into serfdom.
+
+Historians estimate that between 650 AD and the 1960s, 10 to 18 million people were enslaved by Arab slave traders. They were taken from Europe, Asia and Africa across the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara desert. Male slaves were often employed as servants, soldiers, or workers by their owners. Many male slaves were castrated.[12] It is estimated that as many as 6 out of every 10 boys bled to death during the process.[12] But the high price of Eunuchs made it worthwhile. According to Ronald Segal, author of Islam’s Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora (2002), "The calipha in Baghdad at the beginning of the 10th Century had 7,000 black eunuchs and 4,000 white eunuchs in his palace”.[12] Women and children taken as slaves were mainly used as servants and concubines. While the later Atlantic slave trade concentrated on men for labor, the Arab slave trade started with men and boys, but shifted over time to concentrate more on woman and young girls for sexual purposes. By the 1900s, Arab slave traders had taken between 10 and 20 million slaves out of Africa.[12]
+
+For four centuries, beginning in the late 15th century, millions of Africans were taken as slaves by Europeans.[13] Europeans began exporting Africans to the New World as a source of cheap labor on colonial plantations.[13]
+
+Between 1452 and 1455, Pope Nicolas V issued a series of papal bulls authorizing the Portuguese to take African slaves.[14] At first slave traders raided coastal areas and carried black people off. But the mines and fields of the colonies needed more and more slaves. In the early 16th century Spain began to issue licenses and contracts to supply slaves. By the 1750s large slaving companies were established. Most of Europe at the time was involved in the slave trade.[14]
+
+Many Europeans who arrived in North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came under contract as indentured servants.[15] The change from indentured servitude to slavery was a gradual process in Virginia. The earliest legal documentation of such a shift was in 1640. This is where an African, John Punch, was sentenced to lifetime slavery for attempting to run away. This case also marked the disparate treatment of Africans as held by the Virginia County Court, where two white runaways received far lesser sentences.[16] After 1640, planters started to ignore the expiration of indentured contracts. They kept their servants as slaves for life. This was demonstrated by the case Johnson v. Parker. The court ruled that John Casor, an indentured servant, be returned to Johnson who claimed that Casor belonged to him for his life.[17][18] According to the 1860 U. S. census, 393,975 individuals, representing 8% of all US families, owned 3,950,528 slaves.[19] One-third of Southern families owned slaves.[20] Slavery in United States was legally abolished by Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1865.[21][unreliable source?]
+
+Millions of people are still slaves in some parts of the world, mostly in South Asia and Africa. It is less common in the developed world because of better law enforcement, but it still happens there as well.[4] The ways in which it is done have changed. Today, slaves may work because of things like a high debt (for example, slaves have to work to pay off a debt). Many victims are told that their families will be harmed if they report the slave owners. Many slaves are forced to be domestic servants. In some cases, their families sell them to the slave owners. Some slaves have been trafficked from one part of the world to another. These people are illegally in their host country, and therefore do not report the abuse. Forced prostitution is a type of slavery. Another form of slavery still happening today is forced child labor. Some children have to work in mines or in plantations, or they have to fight wars as child soldiers, for no pay.
+
+One study says that there are 27 million people (but others say there could be as many as 200 million) in slavery today.[22]
+
+Other terms that describe the recruitement of laborers, and that may have similarities to slavery are Blackbirding, Impressment and Shanghaiing.
+
+Some of the countries where there is still slavery are in Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia.[23]  In summer 2007, 570 people were found to be slaves for brick makers in China.[24] They included 69 children.[25] The Chinese government made a force of 35,000 police check northern Chinese brick kilns for slaves, and sent lots of kiln supervisors and officials to prison and sentenced one kiln foreman to death for killing a worker who was a slave.[24]
+
+In Mauritania, it is thought that up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20% of the population, are slaves, and that many of them are used as bonded labour.[26][27] Slavery in Mauritania was made illegal in August 2007.[28] In Niger, there is also much slavery. A Nigerian study has found that more than 800,000 people are slaves, almost 8% of the population.[29][30][31] Child slavery has commonly been used when making cash crops and mining.  According to the United States Department of State, more than 109,000 children were working on cocoa farms alone in Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) in 'the worst forms of child labour' in 2002.[32]
+
+In November 2006, the International Labour Organization said that it would prosecute members of the junta that rules Myanmar (also called Burma) at the International Court of Justice for "Crimes against Humanity". This is because the military makes some citizens do forced labour.[33][34] The International Labour Organisation says that it thinks that about 800,000 people are forced to work this way.[35][36]
+
+Scholars of Islamic law have condemned the revival of the slave trade of non-Muslim women by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant.
+
+An agitation called Abolitionism against slavery began in Christian countries in the 18th century. First they abolished the slave trade so more people wouldn't become slaves. In 1833, the British Empire stopped slavery. Several other countries followed. In the United States, disagreement over slavery led to the American Civil War and the Emancipation Proclamation. In 1865, when the North won, all slaves were made free. Still more countries abolished slavery afterwards. Pedro II of Brazil abolished it in 1888. Forced labor however continued, either against the law or by debt peonage or other methods which the laws of the various countries did not count as slavery.

ensimple/1821.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+Slavery is when a person is treated as the property of another person. This person is usually called a slave, with the owner being called a slavemaster. It often means that slaves are forced to work, or else they will be punished by the law (if slavery is legal in that place) or by their master.
+
+There is evidence that even before there was writing, there was slavery.[1] There have been different types of slavery, and they have been in almost all cultures and continents.[2] Some societies had laws about slavery, or they had an economy that was built on it. Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome had many slaves.
+
+During the 20th century almost all countries made laws forbidding slavery. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights says that slavery is wrong. Slavery is now banned by international law.[3] Nevertheless, there are still different forms of slavery in some countries.[4]
+
+The English word "slave" comes from the medieval word for the Slavic peoples of Central Europe and Eastern Europe, because these were the last ethnic group to be captured and enslaved in Central Europe.[5][6]  According to Adam Smith and Auguste Comte, a slave was mainly defined as a captive or prisoner of war.  Slave-holders used to buy slaves at slave auctions. In many cases slaves are not allowed rights.
+
+Slavery has existed for a long time.[7] Early hunter-gatherers had no use for slaves.[8] They did everything for themselves. Having another pair of hands to help them meant another mouth to feed. Slavery or owning another person made no sense to these people.[8] Once men gathered in cities and towns and there was more than enough food, having a cheap supply of labor made sense.[8] This is when the earliest forms of slavery appeared. Slavery can be traced back to the earliest records, such as the Code of Hammurabi (c. 1760 BC). This refers to it as an established institution.[9]
+
+In the Ancient Near East, captives obtained through warfare often became slaves. This was seen by the laws in the Bible book of  Deuteronomy as a legal form of slavery. But the Israelites were not allowed to enslave other Israelites. The Deuteronomic Code calls for the death penalty for the crime of kidnapping Israelites to enslave them.
+
+In Ancient Egypt, slaves were mainly prisoners of war. Other ways people could become slaves was by inheriting the status from their parents who were slaves. Someone could become a slave if he could not pay his debts. People also sold themselves into slavery because they were poor peasants and needed food and shelter. The lives of slaves were normally better than that of peasants.[10] Young slaves could not be put to hard work, and had to be brought up by the mistress of the household. Not all slaves went to houses. Some also sold themselves to temples, or were assigned to temples by the king. Slave trading was not very popular until later in Ancient Egypt. Afterwards, slave trades sprang up all over Egypt.
+
+In many places, citizens were partly or fully protected from being enslaved, so most slaves were foreigners.
+
+Roman slaves played an important role in society and the economy. Besides manual labor, slaves performed many domestic services. They could work at highly skilled jobs and professions. Teachers, accountants, and physicians were often slaves. Greek slaves were often highly educated. Unskilled slaves, or those sentenced to slavery as punishment, worked on farms, in mines, and at mills. Their living conditions were brutal, and their lives short.
+
+Slaves were considered property under Roman law and had no legal personhood. Unlike Roman citizens, they could be subjected to corporal punishment, sexual exploitation (prostitutes were often slaves), torture, and summary execution. The testimony of a slave could not be accepted in a court of law unless the slave was tortured—a practice based on the belief that slaves in a position to be privy to their masters' affairs would be too virtuously loyal to reveal damaging evidence unless coerced. Over time, however, slaves gained increased legal protection, including the right to file complaints against their masters. Attitudes changed in part because of the influence among the educated elite of the Stoics, whose egalitarian views of humanity extended to slaves.
+
+Roman slaves could hold property which, even though it belonged to their masters, they were allowed to use as if it were their own. Skilled or educated slaves were allowed to earn their own money. With enough money they could buy their freedom.[11]
+
+After the Roman Empire broke up, slavery gradually changed into serfdom.
+
+Historians estimate that between 650 AD and the 1960s, 10 to 18 million people were enslaved by Arab slave traders. They were taken from Europe, Asia and Africa across the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara desert. Male slaves were often employed as servants, soldiers, or workers by their owners. Many male slaves were castrated.[12] It is estimated that as many as 6 out of every 10 boys bled to death during the process.[12] But the high price of Eunuchs made it worthwhile. According to Ronald Segal, author of Islam’s Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora (2002), "The calipha in Baghdad at the beginning of the 10th Century had 7,000 black eunuchs and 4,000 white eunuchs in his palace”.[12] Women and children taken as slaves were mainly used as servants and concubines. While the later Atlantic slave trade concentrated on men for labor, the Arab slave trade started with men and boys, but shifted over time to concentrate more on woman and young girls for sexual purposes. By the 1900s, Arab slave traders had taken between 10 and 20 million slaves out of Africa.[12]
+
+For four centuries, beginning in the late 15th century, millions of Africans were taken as slaves by Europeans.[13] Europeans began exporting Africans to the New World as a source of cheap labor on colonial plantations.[13]
+
+Between 1452 and 1455, Pope Nicolas V issued a series of papal bulls authorizing the Portuguese to take African slaves.[14] At first slave traders raided coastal areas and carried black people off. But the mines and fields of the colonies needed more and more slaves. In the early 16th century Spain began to issue licenses and contracts to supply slaves. By the 1750s large slaving companies were established. Most of Europe at the time was involved in the slave trade.[14]
+
+Many Europeans who arrived in North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came under contract as indentured servants.[15] The change from indentured servitude to slavery was a gradual process in Virginia. The earliest legal documentation of such a shift was in 1640. This is where an African, John Punch, was sentenced to lifetime slavery for attempting to run away. This case also marked the disparate treatment of Africans as held by the Virginia County Court, where two white runaways received far lesser sentences.[16] After 1640, planters started to ignore the expiration of indentured contracts. They kept their servants as slaves for life. This was demonstrated by the case Johnson v. Parker. The court ruled that John Casor, an indentured servant, be returned to Johnson who claimed that Casor belonged to him for his life.[17][18] According to the 1860 U. S. census, 393,975 individuals, representing 8% of all US families, owned 3,950,528 slaves.[19] One-third of Southern families owned slaves.[20] Slavery in United States was legally abolished by Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1865.[21][unreliable source?]
+
+Millions of people are still slaves in some parts of the world, mostly in South Asia and Africa. It is less common in the developed world because of better law enforcement, but it still happens there as well.[4] The ways in which it is done have changed. Today, slaves may work because of things like a high debt (for example, slaves have to work to pay off a debt). Many victims are told that their families will be harmed if they report the slave owners. Many slaves are forced to be domestic servants. In some cases, their families sell them to the slave owners. Some slaves have been trafficked from one part of the world to another. These people are illegally in their host country, and therefore do not report the abuse. Forced prostitution is a type of slavery. Another form of slavery still happening today is forced child labor. Some children have to work in mines or in plantations, or they have to fight wars as child soldiers, for no pay.
+
+One study says that there are 27 million people (but others say there could be as many as 200 million) in slavery today.[22]
+
+Other terms that describe the recruitement of laborers, and that may have similarities to slavery are Blackbirding, Impressment and Shanghaiing.
+
+Some of the countries where there is still slavery are in Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia.[23]  In summer 2007, 570 people were found to be slaves for brick makers in China.[24] They included 69 children.[25] The Chinese government made a force of 35,000 police check northern Chinese brick kilns for slaves, and sent lots of kiln supervisors and officials to prison and sentenced one kiln foreman to death for killing a worker who was a slave.[24]
+
+In Mauritania, it is thought that up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20% of the population, are slaves, and that many of them are used as bonded labour.[26][27] Slavery in Mauritania was made illegal in August 2007.[28] In Niger, there is also much slavery. A Nigerian study has found that more than 800,000 people are slaves, almost 8% of the population.[29][30][31] Child slavery has commonly been used when making cash crops and mining.  According to the United States Department of State, more than 109,000 children were working on cocoa farms alone in Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) in 'the worst forms of child labour' in 2002.[32]
+
+In November 2006, the International Labour Organization said that it would prosecute members of the junta that rules Myanmar (also called Burma) at the International Court of Justice for "Crimes against Humanity". This is because the military makes some citizens do forced labour.[33][34] The International Labour Organisation says that it thinks that about 800,000 people are forced to work this way.[35][36]
+
+Scholars of Islamic law have condemned the revival of the slave trade of non-Muslim women by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant.
+
+An agitation called Abolitionism against slavery began in Christian countries in the 18th century. First they abolished the slave trade so more people wouldn't become slaves. In 1833, the British Empire stopped slavery. Several other countries followed. In the United States, disagreement over slavery led to the American Civil War and the Emancipation Proclamation. In 1865, when the North won, all slaves were made free. Still more countries abolished slavery afterwards. Pedro II of Brazil abolished it in 1888. Forced labor however continued, either against the law or by debt peonage or other methods which the laws of the various countries did not count as slavery.

ensimple/1822.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,47 @@
+Slavery is when a person is treated as the property of another person. This person is usually called a slave, with the owner being called a slavemaster. It often means that slaves are forced to work, or else they will be punished by the law (if slavery is legal in that place) or by their master.
+
+There is evidence that even before there was writing, there was slavery.[1] There have been different types of slavery, and they have been in almost all cultures and continents.[2] Some societies had laws about slavery, or they had an economy that was built on it. Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome had many slaves.
+
+During the 20th century almost all countries made laws forbidding slavery. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights says that slavery is wrong. Slavery is now banned by international law.[3] Nevertheless, there are still different forms of slavery in some countries.[4]
+
+The English word "slave" comes from the medieval word for the Slavic peoples of Central Europe and Eastern Europe, because these were the last ethnic group to be captured and enslaved in Central Europe.[5][6]  According to Adam Smith and Auguste Comte, a slave was mainly defined as a captive or prisoner of war.  Slave-holders used to buy slaves at slave auctions. In many cases slaves are not allowed rights.
+
+Slavery has existed for a long time.[7] Early hunter-gatherers had no use for slaves.[8] They did everything for themselves. Having another pair of hands to help them meant another mouth to feed. Slavery or owning another person made no sense to these people.[8] Once men gathered in cities and towns and there was more than enough food, having a cheap supply of labor made sense.[8] This is when the earliest forms of slavery appeared. Slavery can be traced back to the earliest records, such as the Code of Hammurabi (c. 1760 BC). This refers to it as an established institution.[9]
+
+In the Ancient Near East, captives obtained through warfare often became slaves. This was seen by the laws in the Bible book of  Deuteronomy as a legal form of slavery. But the Israelites were not allowed to enslave other Israelites. The Deuteronomic Code calls for the death penalty for the crime of kidnapping Israelites to enslave them.
+
+In Ancient Egypt, slaves were mainly prisoners of war. Other ways people could become slaves was by inheriting the status from their parents who were slaves. Someone could become a slave if he could not pay his debts. People also sold themselves into slavery because they were poor peasants and needed food and shelter. The lives of slaves were normally better than that of peasants.[10] Young slaves could not be put to hard work, and had to be brought up by the mistress of the household. Not all slaves went to houses. Some also sold themselves to temples, or were assigned to temples by the king. Slave trading was not very popular until later in Ancient Egypt. Afterwards, slave trades sprang up all over Egypt.
+
+In many places, citizens were partly or fully protected from being enslaved, so most slaves were foreigners.
+
+Roman slaves played an important role in society and the economy. Besides manual labor, slaves performed many domestic services. They could work at highly skilled jobs and professions. Teachers, accountants, and physicians were often slaves. Greek slaves were often highly educated. Unskilled slaves, or those sentenced to slavery as punishment, worked on farms, in mines, and at mills. Their living conditions were brutal, and their lives short.
+
+Slaves were considered property under Roman law and had no legal personhood. Unlike Roman citizens, they could be subjected to corporal punishment, sexual exploitation (prostitutes were often slaves), torture, and summary execution. The testimony of a slave could not be accepted in a court of law unless the slave was tortured—a practice based on the belief that slaves in a position to be privy to their masters' affairs would be too virtuously loyal to reveal damaging evidence unless coerced. Over time, however, slaves gained increased legal protection, including the right to file complaints against their masters. Attitudes changed in part because of the influence among the educated elite of the Stoics, whose egalitarian views of humanity extended to slaves.
+
+Roman slaves could hold property which, even though it belonged to their masters, they were allowed to use as if it were their own. Skilled or educated slaves were allowed to earn their own money. With enough money they could buy their freedom.[11]
+
+After the Roman Empire broke up, slavery gradually changed into serfdom.
+
+Historians estimate that between 650 AD and the 1960s, 10 to 18 million people were enslaved by Arab slave traders. They were taken from Europe, Asia and Africa across the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Sahara desert. Male slaves were often employed as servants, soldiers, or workers by their owners. Many male slaves were castrated.[12] It is estimated that as many as 6 out of every 10 boys bled to death during the process.[12] But the high price of Eunuchs made it worthwhile. According to Ronald Segal, author of Islam’s Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora (2002), "The calipha in Baghdad at the beginning of the 10th Century had 7,000 black eunuchs and 4,000 white eunuchs in his palace”.[12] Women and children taken as slaves were mainly used as servants and concubines. While the later Atlantic slave trade concentrated on men for labor, the Arab slave trade started with men and boys, but shifted over time to concentrate more on woman and young girls for sexual purposes. By the 1900s, Arab slave traders had taken between 10 and 20 million slaves out of Africa.[12]
+
+For four centuries, beginning in the late 15th century, millions of Africans were taken as slaves by Europeans.[13] Europeans began exporting Africans to the New World as a source of cheap labor on colonial plantations.[13]
+
+Between 1452 and 1455, Pope Nicolas V issued a series of papal bulls authorizing the Portuguese to take African slaves.[14] At first slave traders raided coastal areas and carried black people off. But the mines and fields of the colonies needed more and more slaves. In the early 16th century Spain began to issue licenses and contracts to supply slaves. By the 1750s large slaving companies were established. Most of Europe at the time was involved in the slave trade.[14]
+
+Many Europeans who arrived in North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came under contract as indentured servants.[15] The change from indentured servitude to slavery was a gradual process in Virginia. The earliest legal documentation of such a shift was in 1640. This is where an African, John Punch, was sentenced to lifetime slavery for attempting to run away. This case also marked the disparate treatment of Africans as held by the Virginia County Court, where two white runaways received far lesser sentences.[16] After 1640, planters started to ignore the expiration of indentured contracts. They kept their servants as slaves for life. This was demonstrated by the case Johnson v. Parker. The court ruled that John Casor, an indentured servant, be returned to Johnson who claimed that Casor belonged to him for his life.[17][18] According to the 1860 U. S. census, 393,975 individuals, representing 8% of all US families, owned 3,950,528 slaves.[19] One-third of Southern families owned slaves.[20] Slavery in United States was legally abolished by Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution in 1865.[21][unreliable source?]
+
+Millions of people are still slaves in some parts of the world, mostly in South Asia and Africa. It is less common in the developed world because of better law enforcement, but it still happens there as well.[4] The ways in which it is done have changed. Today, slaves may work because of things like a high debt (for example, slaves have to work to pay off a debt). Many victims are told that their families will be harmed if they report the slave owners. Many slaves are forced to be domestic servants. In some cases, their families sell them to the slave owners. Some slaves have been trafficked from one part of the world to another. These people are illegally in their host country, and therefore do not report the abuse. Forced prostitution is a type of slavery. Another form of slavery still happening today is forced child labor. Some children have to work in mines or in plantations, or they have to fight wars as child soldiers, for no pay.
+
+One study says that there are 27 million people (but others say there could be as many as 200 million) in slavery today.[22]
+
+Other terms that describe the recruitement of laborers, and that may have similarities to slavery are Blackbirding, Impressment and Shanghaiing.
+
+Some of the countries where there is still slavery are in Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia.[23]  In summer 2007, 570 people were found to be slaves for brick makers in China.[24] They included 69 children.[25] The Chinese government made a force of 35,000 police check northern Chinese brick kilns for slaves, and sent lots of kiln supervisors and officials to prison and sentenced one kiln foreman to death for killing a worker who was a slave.[24]
+
+In Mauritania, it is thought that up to 600,000 men, women and children, or 20% of the population, are slaves, and that many of them are used as bonded labour.[26][27] Slavery in Mauritania was made illegal in August 2007.[28] In Niger, there is also much slavery. A Nigerian study has found that more than 800,000 people are slaves, almost 8% of the population.[29][30][31] Child slavery has commonly been used when making cash crops and mining.  According to the United States Department of State, more than 109,000 children were working on cocoa farms alone in Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) in 'the worst forms of child labour' in 2002.[32]
+
+In November 2006, the International Labour Organization said that it would prosecute members of the junta that rules Myanmar (also called Burma) at the International Court of Justice for "Crimes against Humanity". This is because the military makes some citizens do forced labour.[33][34] The International Labour Organisation says that it thinks that about 800,000 people are forced to work this way.[35][36]
+
+Scholars of Islamic law have condemned the revival of the slave trade of non-Muslim women by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant.
+
+An agitation called Abolitionism against slavery began in Christian countries in the 18th century. First they abolished the slave trade so more people wouldn't become slaves. In 1833, the British Empire stopped slavery. Several other countries followed. In the United States, disagreement over slavery led to the American Civil War and the Emancipation Proclamation. In 1865, when the North won, all slaves were made free. Still more countries abolished slavery afterwards. Pedro II of Brazil abolished it in 1888. Forced labor however continued, either against the law or by debt peonage or other methods which the laws of the various countries did not count as slavery.

ensimple/1823.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+Football (soccer)
+Basketball
+Rugby
+Gymnastics
+Baseball
+American football
+Cycling·Auto racing
+Cricket·Golf
+Field hockey·Handball
+Archery·Shooting
+Fencing·Weightlifting
+Pentathlon·Triathlon
+Horseback riding
+
+Swimming· Diving
+Water polo·Sailing
+Canoeing·Rowing
+
+Boxing·Wrestling
+Karate·Taekwondo
+
+Tennis· Volleyball
+Table tennis· Badminton
+
+Winter sports
+
+Skiing·Curling
+Bobsled·Luge
+Snowboarding·Biathlon
+Ice sledge hockey
+
+This is about the sport. You may be wanting to read about a fence.
+
+Fencing is a sport that includes two people with swords. The aim is to score hits. There is also a referee.
+In the olden times when two people argued they fenced the first one to draw blood was wrong and the person would be dead, so the person that won would claim the dead person's house and belongings.
+
+The foil is a light and easy to bend weapon, first made in mid 17th century as a weapon for practice. 'Hits' can only be scored by hitting the target area with the point of the sword. The target area is the torso.
+
+The épée is the heaviest of the three weapons. To score a hit, the push-button on the end of the weapon must remain fully down for 2-10 milliseconds, and must arrive (hit) with a force of at least 7.35 newtons. The target area for Épée is the entire body. This includes the feet and the head.
+
+The sabre is the "cutting" weapon, with a curved guard (to protect the hand) and a triangular blade. However, in modern electric scoring, a touch with any part of the sabre, (point, flat or edge, as long as it is on target) will count as a hit. The target area in sabre is everything from the waist up, except for the hands.
+
+Fencers wear a uniform to avoid injury. They wear a mask of black mesh with a bib. Also, a jacket, short pants and a sort of half-a-shirt (called an underarm protector or plastron), all of white fabric. They must also wear socks that cover their legs. Women must wear a chest protector. These are collectively called "whites."

ensimple/1824.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+Aesop, or Æsop (from the Greek Αἴσωπος Aisopos), known only for his fables, was by tradition a slave of African descent who lived from about 620 to 560 BC in Ancient Greece.  Aesop's Fables are still taught as moral lessons and used as subjects for various entertainments, especially children's plays and cartoons. Aesop wrote thousands of fables, his most famous fable is the lion and the mouse.
+
+Nothing was known about Aesop from credible records. The tradition was that he was at one point freed from slavery and that he eventually died at the hands of Delphians. In fact, the obscurity shrouding his life has led some scholars to deny his existence altogether.
+
+His most famous fable in America is a parable of the tortoise and the hare. In this story, a rabbit challenges a tortoise to a race. The rabbit is sure of its victory and as a result, depending on the version of the story, in some way completes the race slower than the turtle. Often, the hare takes a nap or takes too many breaks. The persistent tortoise, despite being slower, wins because it persevered.
+
+Aesop's Fables or Aesopica refers to a collection of fables credited to Aesop. Aesop's Fables has also become a blanket term for collections of brief fables, usually involving personified animals.
+
+The fables remain a popular choice for moral education of children today. Many stories included in Aesop's Fables, such as The Fox and the Grapes (from which the idiom "sour grapes" was derived), The Tortoise and the Hare and The Shepherd Boy and the Wolf (also known as The Boy Who Cried Wolf), are well-known throughout the world.

ensimple/1825.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+Aesop, or Æsop (from the Greek Αἴσωπος Aisopos), known only for his fables, was by tradition a slave of African descent who lived from about 620 to 560 BC in Ancient Greece.  Aesop's Fables are still taught as moral lessons and used as subjects for various entertainments, especially children's plays and cartoons. Aesop wrote thousands of fables, his most famous fable is the lion and the mouse.
+
+Nothing was known about Aesop from credible records. The tradition was that he was at one point freed from slavery and that he eventually died at the hands of Delphians. In fact, the obscurity shrouding his life has led some scholars to deny his existence altogether.
+
+His most famous fable in America is a parable of the tortoise and the hare. In this story, a rabbit challenges a tortoise to a race. The rabbit is sure of its victory and as a result, depending on the version of the story, in some way completes the race slower than the turtle. Often, the hare takes a nap or takes too many breaks. The persistent tortoise, despite being slower, wins because it persevered.
+
+Aesop's Fables or Aesopica refers to a collection of fables credited to Aesop. Aesop's Fables has also become a blanket term for collections of brief fables, usually involving personified animals.
+
+The fables remain a popular choice for moral education of children today. Many stories included in Aesop's Fables, such as The Fox and the Grapes (from which the idiom "sour grapes" was derived), The Tortoise and the Hare and The Shepherd Boy and the Wolf (also known as The Boy Who Cried Wolf), are well-known throughout the world.

ensimple/1826.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+– on the European continent  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)
+
+Spain is  a country in Southern Europe. It is in the Iberian Peninsula. Spain has borders with France, Portugal, Andorra and Morocco. In Spain's northeast side are the Pyrenees mountains.
+
+The people of Spain are called Spaniards. They speak Castilian or Spanish (in Spanish, "Castellano", from Castilla, or "Español" [espa'ɲol].  They speak other languages in some parts of the country.  They are Catalan, Basque, and Galician, Leonese, Aragonese, Aranese Occitan  and even Portuguese. The religion of about 56% of the population in Spain is Roman Catholic.
+
+Since 1975, Spain has had a constitutional monarchy. The King of Spain is Felipe VI; he only does what the constitution allows him to.  The parliament is called "Las Cortes Generales," and has two bodies: "El Congreso" (The Congress) and "El Senado" (The Senate) and it is chosen by the Spanish people by voting.  The Prime minister is Pedro Sánchez.  The government and the king's palace are in Madrid, the capital of Spain.
+
+Spain has more than five hundred thousand square kilometres of land.  It is smaller than France, but it is bigger than Germany. Almost fifty million people live in Spain. Spain is divided into 17 autonomous communities (this means that they can decide upon some affairs themselves). Each community has its own government.
+
+People have lived in Spain since the Stone Age.  Later, the Roman Empire controlled Spain for about five hundred years; then as the Roman Empire broke up, groups of Germanic people including Visigoths moved in and took control.
+
+In 711, the Umayyads took over, and later groups from North Africa, called the Moors. At first the Moors ruled most of Spain but the reconquista slowly forced them out over seven centuries. They called the land Al-Andalus. They were Muslims, and Muslim Spain was the farthest western point of Islamic civilization. The Caliphate of Córdoba fell apart in the early 11th century and Muslim rulers sometimes fought each other when they weren't fighting the Christians. Muslim Spain was focused on learning. The greatest library system outside Baghdad was also there.
+
+The Kingdom of León, the most important in the early Spanish Middle Ages, was started in 910. This Kingdom developed the first democratic parliament (Cortes de Llión) in Europe in 1188. After 1301, León had the same King as the Kingdom of Castile in personal union.  The various kingdoms remained independent territories until 1833, when Spain was divided into regions and provinces.
+
+In 1492, the Christians took the last part of Spain that still belonged to the Moors, Granada.  Boabdil, the last Moorish King of Granada, surrendered to King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile on 2 January 1492.  Ferdinand and Isabella then ruled all of Spain.
+
+Before this, there were a number of Christian countries in what is now called Spain. Two of these countries, Castile and Aragon, came together when Ferdinand II of Aragon married the queen Isabella of Castile.  The King ruled as much as the Queen.
+
+In the same year, 1492, they sent Christopher Columbus to sail across the Atlantic Ocean.  Columbus found the islands of the Caribbean Sea.
+
+When other Europeans explored, like Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro, they found out that there were two continents there - North America and South America.  Spanish conquistadores took over very large parts of those two continents. This empire did not make Spain a rich country, for most of the money had to be spent in wars in Italy and elsewhere.  Some of these wars were fought against other European countries who were trying to take over parts of the Americas.
+
+Meanwhile, at home, the Muslim manuscripts had been either burnt or taken to other countries.  Jews had also been expelled from Spain.  Some Jews remained but they had to become Christians.  Among the few old things kept and respected in Spain were in music:  harmony and stringed instruments. The buildings that had been built by the Moors were kept, and many Muslim religious buildings (mosques) were turned into churches. Some Jewish religious buildings were also turned into churches. Many Arab words became part of the Spanish Language.
+
+The grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella was Charles.  When his grandfather died he inherited Castille and Aragon.  He also inherited many territories at the death of his other grandfather, Maximilian I of Austria.  Charles received from Maximilian the Austria state and the territories of Burgundy.  He was named Charles I in Spain, but he was elected as the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and was called Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor.  This made the empire bigger than ever.  However, it was not a single country, but a personal union of  many independent countries with a single King.  At first many Spaniards did not want Charles as their king, so they fought against him. However, he won.
+
+Charles did not like the Protestant Reformation, and fought against it.
+
+In the 18th century some of the parts of that large empire became their own countries, or were taken over by new countries, such as the United States of America.
+
+Spain (and other European countries) was invaded by Napoleon of France. Britain sent troops to defend the peninsula, since it was so weak. Most of the Spanish Empire became independent in the following decades.
+
+There was not much peace in Spain during the first part of the 20th century. Some Spaniards tried to set up a government chosen by the people (a democracy), and they made Alfonso XIII leave the country. However, in 1936, two different groups of Spaniards went to war over whether the government should be a democracy, in the Spanish Civil War (although those on the side of the Republic were largely socialist or anarchist), or take orders from one person. In 1939, those who wanted democracy were defeated, and a nationalist dictator named Francisco Franco took over the government.
+
+Francisco Franco died on 20 November 1975. He had decided that Spain should have a monarchy again, and he chose Juan Carlos, the grandson of Juan of Bourbon who had been forced to leave the country, to be king and Adolfo Suárez to become its first Prime Minister. But the king and Suárez did not rule as a dictator; instead, they chose to set up a democracy.
+
+On 23 February 1981 a group of people who had supported the now dead General Franco tried to take control of the democratic Spanish Parliament by force, they entered the building and fired guns in the air. It was seen live on Spanish television and there was widespread fear that this might be the start of another civil war. However, Juan Carlos I, quickly appeared on television and broadcast to the nation that they should remain calm. The persons responsible for the attempt to take over the country were arrested.
+
+Now Spain is a modern democratic country, and does business with many countries around the world. It is the eighth largest economy in the world and is an important part of the European Union.
+
+On 2 June 2014, Juan Carlos I announced that he would abdicate in favour of his son, Felipe VI.[11] The date of abdication and handover to Felipe occurred on 19 June 2014. He and his wife kept their titles.[12]
+
+Ancient religions in Spain were mostly pagan. Today, however, at least 68 percent of Spain is Roman Catholic.[13] Spanish mystic Teresa of Ávila is an important figure within Catholicism. 27 percent of Spaniards are irreligious. 2 percent are from other religions, this include Baha'i Buddhists, Jain, Muslim,Unitarian Universalism and Zoroastrianism.
+
+The middle of Spain is a high, dry, flat land called La Meseta. In La Meseta it can be very hot in the summer and cold or very cold in the winter. Spain also has many mountain ranges. The Mount Teide (Tenerife, Canary Islands), the highest mountain of Spain and the islands of the Atlantic (it is the third largest volcano in the world from its base). In the north there is a range of mountains called Los Picos de Europa (The European Peaks). Here it is very cold in winter with a lot of snow but with gentle warm summers.
+
+In the south-east of the country is a range of mountains called La Sierra Nevada (The Snowy Mountains). This range of mountains contains the highest mountain in mainland Spain, Mulacen, at 2952 metres. La Sierra Nevada is very popular in winter for winter sports, especially skiing. Snow remains on its peaks throughout the year.  The south coast, has a warm and temperate climate, not very hot or very cold.  Since Spain is in the south of Europe, it is very sunny.  Many people from Northern Europe take their vacations in Spain, enjoying its beaches and cities.
+
+Spain has a border with Portugal in the west and borders with France and Andorra in the North. In the south, it borders Gibraltar, a British territory. The Spanish territories of Ceuta and Melilla are in North Africa and border onto Morocco.
+
+Spain is divided into Autonomous Communities, which means that they have their own regional governments. They are Andalucía (capital city Seville), Aragon (capital city Zaragoza), Asturias (capital city Oviedo), Balearic Islands (capital city Palma de Mallorca), Basque Country (capital city Vitoria), Canary Islands (capital cities Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas), Cantabria (capital city Santander), Castilla-La Mancha (capital city Toledo), Castile and Leon (capital city Valladolid), Catalonia (capital city Barcelona), Extremadura (capital city Merida), Galicia (capital city Santiago de Compostela), La Rioja (capital city Logrono), Madrid Community (capital city Madrid), Murcia Community (capital city Murcia), Navarra (capital city Pamplona) and the Valencia Community (capital city Valencia).
+
+Palo Santo Cafe, Aranda de Duero, Spain, Jamón serrano
+
+Jamón serrano served at Palo Santo Cafe, Aranda de Duero
+
+Anchovies in Spanish Olive OIl
+
+(Spanish Tortilla)
+
+In Spain, many people live in cities or close to cities. The ten biggest city areas are:
+
+While Spanish is the most spoken language in the country, other languages like Catalan, Basque or Galician are also spoken in a few territories.

ensimple/1827.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+– on the European continent  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)
+
+Spain is  a country in Southern Europe. It is in the Iberian Peninsula. Spain has borders with France, Portugal, Andorra and Morocco. In Spain's northeast side are the Pyrenees mountains.
+
+The people of Spain are called Spaniards. They speak Castilian or Spanish (in Spanish, "Castellano", from Castilla, or "Español" [espa'ɲol].  They speak other languages in some parts of the country.  They are Catalan, Basque, and Galician, Leonese, Aragonese, Aranese Occitan  and even Portuguese. The religion of about 56% of the population in Spain is Roman Catholic.
+
+Since 1975, Spain has had a constitutional monarchy. The King of Spain is Felipe VI; he only does what the constitution allows him to.  The parliament is called "Las Cortes Generales," and has two bodies: "El Congreso" (The Congress) and "El Senado" (The Senate) and it is chosen by the Spanish people by voting.  The Prime minister is Pedro Sánchez.  The government and the king's palace are in Madrid, the capital of Spain.
+
+Spain has more than five hundred thousand square kilometres of land.  It is smaller than France, but it is bigger than Germany. Almost fifty million people live in Spain. Spain is divided into 17 autonomous communities (this means that they can decide upon some affairs themselves). Each community has its own government.
+
+People have lived in Spain since the Stone Age.  Later, the Roman Empire controlled Spain for about five hundred years; then as the Roman Empire broke up, groups of Germanic people including Visigoths moved in and took control.
+
+In 711, the Umayyads took over, and later groups from North Africa, called the Moors. At first the Moors ruled most of Spain but the reconquista slowly forced them out over seven centuries. They called the land Al-Andalus. They were Muslims, and Muslim Spain was the farthest western point of Islamic civilization. The Caliphate of Córdoba fell apart in the early 11th century and Muslim rulers sometimes fought each other when they weren't fighting the Christians. Muslim Spain was focused on learning. The greatest library system outside Baghdad was also there.
+
+The Kingdom of León, the most important in the early Spanish Middle Ages, was started in 910. This Kingdom developed the first democratic parliament (Cortes de Llión) in Europe in 1188. After 1301, León had the same King as the Kingdom of Castile in personal union.  The various kingdoms remained independent territories until 1833, when Spain was divided into regions and provinces.
+
+In 1492, the Christians took the last part of Spain that still belonged to the Moors, Granada.  Boabdil, the last Moorish King of Granada, surrendered to King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile on 2 January 1492.  Ferdinand and Isabella then ruled all of Spain.
+
+Before this, there were a number of Christian countries in what is now called Spain. Two of these countries, Castile and Aragon, came together when Ferdinand II of Aragon married the queen Isabella of Castile.  The King ruled as much as the Queen.
+
+In the same year, 1492, they sent Christopher Columbus to sail across the Atlantic Ocean.  Columbus found the islands of the Caribbean Sea.
+
+When other Europeans explored, like Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro, they found out that there were two continents there - North America and South America.  Spanish conquistadores took over very large parts of those two continents. This empire did not make Spain a rich country, for most of the money had to be spent in wars in Italy and elsewhere.  Some of these wars were fought against other European countries who were trying to take over parts of the Americas.
+
+Meanwhile, at home, the Muslim manuscripts had been either burnt or taken to other countries.  Jews had also been expelled from Spain.  Some Jews remained but they had to become Christians.  Among the few old things kept and respected in Spain were in music:  harmony and stringed instruments. The buildings that had been built by the Moors were kept, and many Muslim religious buildings (mosques) were turned into churches. Some Jewish religious buildings were also turned into churches. Many Arab words became part of the Spanish Language.
+
+The grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella was Charles.  When his grandfather died he inherited Castille and Aragon.  He also inherited many territories at the death of his other grandfather, Maximilian I of Austria.  Charles received from Maximilian the Austria state and the territories of Burgundy.  He was named Charles I in Spain, but he was elected as the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and was called Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor.  This made the empire bigger than ever.  However, it was not a single country, but a personal union of  many independent countries with a single King.  At first many Spaniards did not want Charles as their king, so they fought against him. However, he won.
+
+Charles did not like the Protestant Reformation, and fought against it.
+
+In the 18th century some of the parts of that large empire became their own countries, or were taken over by new countries, such as the United States of America.
+
+Spain (and other European countries) was invaded by Napoleon of France. Britain sent troops to defend the peninsula, since it was so weak. Most of the Spanish Empire became independent in the following decades.
+
+There was not much peace in Spain during the first part of the 20th century. Some Spaniards tried to set up a government chosen by the people (a democracy), and they made Alfonso XIII leave the country. However, in 1936, two different groups of Spaniards went to war over whether the government should be a democracy, in the Spanish Civil War (although those on the side of the Republic were largely socialist or anarchist), or take orders from one person. In 1939, those who wanted democracy were defeated, and a nationalist dictator named Francisco Franco took over the government.
+
+Francisco Franco died on 20 November 1975. He had decided that Spain should have a monarchy again, and he chose Juan Carlos, the grandson of Juan of Bourbon who had been forced to leave the country, to be king and Adolfo Suárez to become its first Prime Minister. But the king and Suárez did not rule as a dictator; instead, they chose to set up a democracy.
+
+On 23 February 1981 a group of people who had supported the now dead General Franco tried to take control of the democratic Spanish Parliament by force, they entered the building and fired guns in the air. It was seen live on Spanish television and there was widespread fear that this might be the start of another civil war. However, Juan Carlos I, quickly appeared on television and broadcast to the nation that they should remain calm. The persons responsible for the attempt to take over the country were arrested.
+
+Now Spain is a modern democratic country, and does business with many countries around the world. It is the eighth largest economy in the world and is an important part of the European Union.
+
+On 2 June 2014, Juan Carlos I announced that he would abdicate in favour of his son, Felipe VI.[11] The date of abdication and handover to Felipe occurred on 19 June 2014. He and his wife kept their titles.[12]
+
+Ancient religions in Spain were mostly pagan. Today, however, at least 68 percent of Spain is Roman Catholic.[13] Spanish mystic Teresa of Ávila is an important figure within Catholicism. 27 percent of Spaniards are irreligious. 2 percent are from other religions, this include Baha'i Buddhists, Jain, Muslim,Unitarian Universalism and Zoroastrianism.
+
+The middle of Spain is a high, dry, flat land called La Meseta. In La Meseta it can be very hot in the summer and cold or very cold in the winter. Spain also has many mountain ranges. The Mount Teide (Tenerife, Canary Islands), the highest mountain of Spain and the islands of the Atlantic (it is the third largest volcano in the world from its base). In the north there is a range of mountains called Los Picos de Europa (The European Peaks). Here it is very cold in winter with a lot of snow but with gentle warm summers.
+
+In the south-east of the country is a range of mountains called La Sierra Nevada (The Snowy Mountains). This range of mountains contains the highest mountain in mainland Spain, Mulacen, at 2952 metres. La Sierra Nevada is very popular in winter for winter sports, especially skiing. Snow remains on its peaks throughout the year.  The south coast, has a warm and temperate climate, not very hot or very cold.  Since Spain is in the south of Europe, it is very sunny.  Many people from Northern Europe take their vacations in Spain, enjoying its beaches and cities.
+
+Spain has a border with Portugal in the west and borders with France and Andorra in the North. In the south, it borders Gibraltar, a British territory. The Spanish territories of Ceuta and Melilla are in North Africa and border onto Morocco.
+
+Spain is divided into Autonomous Communities, which means that they have their own regional governments. They are Andalucía (capital city Seville), Aragon (capital city Zaragoza), Asturias (capital city Oviedo), Balearic Islands (capital city Palma de Mallorca), Basque Country (capital city Vitoria), Canary Islands (capital cities Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas), Cantabria (capital city Santander), Castilla-La Mancha (capital city Toledo), Castile and Leon (capital city Valladolid), Catalonia (capital city Barcelona), Extremadura (capital city Merida), Galicia (capital city Santiago de Compostela), La Rioja (capital city Logrono), Madrid Community (capital city Madrid), Murcia Community (capital city Murcia), Navarra (capital city Pamplona) and the Valencia Community (capital city Valencia).
+
+Palo Santo Cafe, Aranda de Duero, Spain, Jamón serrano
+
+Jamón serrano served at Palo Santo Cafe, Aranda de Duero
+
+Anchovies in Spanish Olive OIl
+
+(Spanish Tortilla)
+
+In Spain, many people live in cities or close to cities. The ten biggest city areas are:
+
+While Spanish is the most spoken language in the country, other languages like Catalan, Basque or Galician are also spoken in a few territories.

ensimple/1828.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,77 @@
+Countries and U.S. states where Spanish has no official status but is spoken by 25% or more of the population.
+     Countries and U.S. states where Spanish has no official status but is spoken by 10–20% of the population.
+
+Spanish (Spanish: español, pronounced "Eh-span-yole", IPA: /espaɲol/), also called Castilian, is a Romance language. It is the most spoken Romance language in the world. As of November 2015, over 360 million people in the world spoke Spanish as their first language.[3]
+
+Spanish is used by many people in the world today, partly because Spain traveled and colonized many different parts of the world and created many new countries and new governments. The countries with Spanish as an official language are called the Hispanic countries. Most of them are in the Americas, which make up Latin America. They include the following:
+
+In North America, Central America, and the Caribbean Islands:
+
+In the United States[4] and Belize,[5] most people use English, but Spanish is the second-most common language.
+
+In South America:
+
+Many Brazilians learn Spanish as a second language even though Brazil's official language is Portuguese.[6]
+
+In other parts of the world:
+
+The Spanish language was originally the language of Castile.[9] When the Western Roman Empire collapsed, Latin changed in different ways in different provinces.[10] The Latin spoken in the Iberian Peninsula developed into the Ibero-Romance language in the 6th century.[11] Castilian and Portuguese became separate languages around the 12th century.[11]
+
+In Spain, there are other languages that also came from Latin that are connected to Spanish, like Catalan, and Galician.[12] Basque, also called Euskera or Euskara, is spoken in the Basque region of northern Spain and the southern region of France. Very different from Spanish[13], Basque is a language isolate since it is not known to have descended from any language family.
+
+Catalan is not a dialect of Spanish and is actually more closely related to French.[9]
+
+Spanish is sometimes called Castilian because Castile is the region in Spain that is the origin of the language.[10] Castile is the region that is considered to speak the most proper form of Spanish.[10]
+
+The Spanish word for Spanish is "español", and the Spanish word for Castilian is "castellano".[9] In the other Romance languages spoken on the Iberian Peninsula, such as Galician, Catalan, Asturian, and others, Spanish is usually called "Castellán" or "Castellà" instead of "Spanish".[14] In Spain, the name of the subject in schools is "lengua castellana" (Castilian language). However, in the regions of Spain in which people speak only Spanish, people call their language Spanish.[14]
+
+In Portuguese, the word "castelhano" is common to mention Spanish,[15] however, in informal language, the most preferred name for the language is "espanhol". Portuguese, which is spoken in Portugal and Brazil, has many similarities to Spanish.[16]
+
+In 2009, for the first time in history, Spanish was the most common "mother tongue" language of the western world, more than English. It was also the second most common language on Earth, after Chinese. As of 2016, the three most common languages in the world are:[1]
+
+Aragonese  ·
+Aromanian  ·
+Arpitan  ·
+Asturian or Bable  ·
+Burgundian  ·
+Catalan (Valencian, Balear)  ·
+Champenois  ·
+Corsican (Gallurese, Sassarese)  ·
+Dalmatian  ·
+Dgèrnésiais  ·
+Emiliano-Romagnolo  ·
+Fala  ·
+Franc-Comtois  ·
+French (with Cajun French, Quebec French) 
+ · Friulian  ·
+Galician  ·
+Gallo  ·
+Genoese  ·
+Istriot  ·
+Istro-Romanian  ·
+Italian (Judeo-Italian)  ·
+Jèrriais  ·
+Ladin  ·
+Ladino  ·
+Leonese  ·
+Ligurian (Monégasque)  ·
+Lombard  ·
+Lorrain  ·
+Megleno-Romanian  ·
+Mirandese  ·
+Mozarabic  ·
+Neapolitan  ·
+Norman  ·
+Occitan  ·
+Picard  ·
+Piedmontese  ·
+Poitevin-Saintongeais  ·
+Portuguese (with Brazilian Portuguese)  ·
+Romanian (Moldovan, Vlach)  ·
+Romansh  ·
+Sardinian  ·
+Sicilian  ·
+Spanish (with Rioplatense Spanish)  ·
+Shuadit  ·
+Venetian  ·
+Walloon  ·

ensimple/1829.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,77 @@
+Countries and U.S. states where Spanish has no official status but is spoken by 25% or more of the population.
+     Countries and U.S. states where Spanish has no official status but is spoken by 10–20% of the population.
+
+Spanish (Spanish: español, pronounced "Eh-span-yole", IPA: /espaɲol/), also called Castilian, is a Romance language. It is the most spoken Romance language in the world. As of November 2015, over 360 million people in the world spoke Spanish as their first language.[3]
+
+Spanish is used by many people in the world today, partly because Spain traveled and colonized many different parts of the world and created many new countries and new governments. The countries with Spanish as an official language are called the Hispanic countries. Most of them are in the Americas, which make up Latin America. They include the following:
+
+In North America, Central America, and the Caribbean Islands:
+
+In the United States[4] and Belize,[5] most people use English, but Spanish is the second-most common language.
+
+In South America:
+
+Many Brazilians learn Spanish as a second language even though Brazil's official language is Portuguese.[6]
+
+In other parts of the world:
+
+The Spanish language was originally the language of Castile.[9] When the Western Roman Empire collapsed, Latin changed in different ways in different provinces.[10] The Latin spoken in the Iberian Peninsula developed into the Ibero-Romance language in the 6th century.[11] Castilian and Portuguese became separate languages around the 12th century.[11]
+
+In Spain, there are other languages that also came from Latin that are connected to Spanish, like Catalan, and Galician.[12] Basque, also called Euskera or Euskara, is spoken in the Basque region of northern Spain and the southern region of France. Very different from Spanish[13], Basque is a language isolate since it is not known to have descended from any language family.
+
+Catalan is not a dialect of Spanish and is actually more closely related to French.[9]
+
+Spanish is sometimes called Castilian because Castile is the region in Spain that is the origin of the language.[10] Castile is the region that is considered to speak the most proper form of Spanish.[10]
+
+The Spanish word for Spanish is "español", and the Spanish word for Castilian is "castellano".[9] In the other Romance languages spoken on the Iberian Peninsula, such as Galician, Catalan, Asturian, and others, Spanish is usually called "Castellán" or "Castellà" instead of "Spanish".[14] In Spain, the name of the subject in schools is "lengua castellana" (Castilian language). However, in the regions of Spain in which people speak only Spanish, people call their language Spanish.[14]
+
+In Portuguese, the word "castelhano" is common to mention Spanish,[15] however, in informal language, the most preferred name for the language is "espanhol". Portuguese, which is spoken in Portugal and Brazil, has many similarities to Spanish.[16]
+
+In 2009, for the first time in history, Spanish was the most common "mother tongue" language of the western world, more than English. It was also the second most common language on Earth, after Chinese. As of 2016, the three most common languages in the world are:[1]
+
+Aragonese  ·
+Aromanian  ·
+Arpitan  ·
+Asturian or Bable  ·
+Burgundian  ·
+Catalan (Valencian, Balear)  ·
+Champenois  ·
+Corsican (Gallurese, Sassarese)  ·
+Dalmatian  ·
+Dgèrnésiais  ·
+Emiliano-Romagnolo  ·
+Fala  ·
+Franc-Comtois  ·
+French (with Cajun French, Quebec French) 
+ · Friulian  ·
+Galician  ·
+Gallo  ·
+Genoese  ·
+Istriot  ·
+Istro-Romanian  ·
+Italian (Judeo-Italian)  ·
+Jèrriais  ·
+Ladin  ·
+Ladino  ·
+Leonese  ·
+Ligurian (Monégasque)  ·
+Lombard  ·
+Lorrain  ·
+Megleno-Romanian  ·
+Mirandese  ·
+Mozarabic  ·
+Neapolitan  ·
+Norman  ·
+Occitan  ·
+Picard  ·
+Piedmontese  ·
+Poitevin-Saintongeais  ·
+Portuguese (with Brazilian Portuguese)  ·
+Romanian (Moldovan, Vlach)  ·
+Romansh  ·
+Sardinian  ·
+Sicilian  ·
+Spanish (with Rioplatense Spanish)  ·
+Shuadit  ·
+Venetian  ·
+Walloon  ·

ensimple/183.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+Amazon can be:

ensimple/1830.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+– on the European continent  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)
+
+Spain is  a country in Southern Europe. It is in the Iberian Peninsula. Spain has borders with France, Portugal, Andorra and Morocco. In Spain's northeast side are the Pyrenees mountains.
+
+The people of Spain are called Spaniards. They speak Castilian or Spanish (in Spanish, "Castellano", from Castilla, or "Español" [espa'ɲol].  They speak other languages in some parts of the country.  They are Catalan, Basque, and Galician, Leonese, Aragonese, Aranese Occitan  and even Portuguese. The religion of about 56% of the population in Spain is Roman Catholic.
+
+Since 1975, Spain has had a constitutional monarchy. The King of Spain is Felipe VI; he only does what the constitution allows him to.  The parliament is called "Las Cortes Generales," and has two bodies: "El Congreso" (The Congress) and "El Senado" (The Senate) and it is chosen by the Spanish people by voting.  The Prime minister is Pedro Sánchez.  The government and the king's palace are in Madrid, the capital of Spain.
+
+Spain has more than five hundred thousand square kilometres of land.  It is smaller than France, but it is bigger than Germany. Almost fifty million people live in Spain. Spain is divided into 17 autonomous communities (this means that they can decide upon some affairs themselves). Each community has its own government.
+
+People have lived in Spain since the Stone Age.  Later, the Roman Empire controlled Spain for about five hundred years; then as the Roman Empire broke up, groups of Germanic people including Visigoths moved in and took control.
+
+In 711, the Umayyads took over, and later groups from North Africa, called the Moors. At first the Moors ruled most of Spain but the reconquista slowly forced them out over seven centuries. They called the land Al-Andalus. They were Muslims, and Muslim Spain was the farthest western point of Islamic civilization. The Caliphate of Córdoba fell apart in the early 11th century and Muslim rulers sometimes fought each other when they weren't fighting the Christians. Muslim Spain was focused on learning. The greatest library system outside Baghdad was also there.
+
+The Kingdom of León, the most important in the early Spanish Middle Ages, was started in 910. This Kingdom developed the first democratic parliament (Cortes de Llión) in Europe in 1188. After 1301, León had the same King as the Kingdom of Castile in personal union.  The various kingdoms remained independent territories until 1833, when Spain was divided into regions and provinces.
+
+In 1492, the Christians took the last part of Spain that still belonged to the Moors, Granada.  Boabdil, the last Moorish King of Granada, surrendered to King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile on 2 January 1492.  Ferdinand and Isabella then ruled all of Spain.
+
+Before this, there were a number of Christian countries in what is now called Spain. Two of these countries, Castile and Aragon, came together when Ferdinand II of Aragon married the queen Isabella of Castile.  The King ruled as much as the Queen.
+
+In the same year, 1492, they sent Christopher Columbus to sail across the Atlantic Ocean.  Columbus found the islands of the Caribbean Sea.
+
+When other Europeans explored, like Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro, they found out that there were two continents there - North America and South America.  Spanish conquistadores took over very large parts of those two continents. This empire did not make Spain a rich country, for most of the money had to be spent in wars in Italy and elsewhere.  Some of these wars were fought against other European countries who were trying to take over parts of the Americas.
+
+Meanwhile, at home, the Muslim manuscripts had been either burnt or taken to other countries.  Jews had also been expelled from Spain.  Some Jews remained but they had to become Christians.  Among the few old things kept and respected in Spain were in music:  harmony and stringed instruments. The buildings that had been built by the Moors were kept, and many Muslim religious buildings (mosques) were turned into churches. Some Jewish religious buildings were also turned into churches. Many Arab words became part of the Spanish Language.
+
+The grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella was Charles.  When his grandfather died he inherited Castille and Aragon.  He also inherited many territories at the death of his other grandfather, Maximilian I of Austria.  Charles received from Maximilian the Austria state and the territories of Burgundy.  He was named Charles I in Spain, but he was elected as the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and was called Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor.  This made the empire bigger than ever.  However, it was not a single country, but a personal union of  many independent countries with a single King.  At first many Spaniards did not want Charles as their king, so they fought against him. However, he won.
+
+Charles did not like the Protestant Reformation, and fought against it.
+
+In the 18th century some of the parts of that large empire became their own countries, or were taken over by new countries, such as the United States of America.
+
+Spain (and other European countries) was invaded by Napoleon of France. Britain sent troops to defend the peninsula, since it was so weak. Most of the Spanish Empire became independent in the following decades.
+
+There was not much peace in Spain during the first part of the 20th century. Some Spaniards tried to set up a government chosen by the people (a democracy), and they made Alfonso XIII leave the country. However, in 1936, two different groups of Spaniards went to war over whether the government should be a democracy, in the Spanish Civil War (although those on the side of the Republic were largely socialist or anarchist), or take orders from one person. In 1939, those who wanted democracy were defeated, and a nationalist dictator named Francisco Franco took over the government.
+
+Francisco Franco died on 20 November 1975. He had decided that Spain should have a monarchy again, and he chose Juan Carlos, the grandson of Juan of Bourbon who had been forced to leave the country, to be king and Adolfo Suárez to become its first Prime Minister. But the king and Suárez did not rule as a dictator; instead, they chose to set up a democracy.
+
+On 23 February 1981 a group of people who had supported the now dead General Franco tried to take control of the democratic Spanish Parliament by force, they entered the building and fired guns in the air. It was seen live on Spanish television and there was widespread fear that this might be the start of another civil war. However, Juan Carlos I, quickly appeared on television and broadcast to the nation that they should remain calm. The persons responsible for the attempt to take over the country were arrested.
+
+Now Spain is a modern democratic country, and does business with many countries around the world. It is the eighth largest economy in the world and is an important part of the European Union.
+
+On 2 June 2014, Juan Carlos I announced that he would abdicate in favour of his son, Felipe VI.[11] The date of abdication and handover to Felipe occurred on 19 June 2014. He and his wife kept their titles.[12]
+
+Ancient religions in Spain were mostly pagan. Today, however, at least 68 percent of Spain is Roman Catholic.[13] Spanish mystic Teresa of Ávila is an important figure within Catholicism. 27 percent of Spaniards are irreligious. 2 percent are from other religions, this include Baha'i Buddhists, Jain, Muslim,Unitarian Universalism and Zoroastrianism.
+
+The middle of Spain is a high, dry, flat land called La Meseta. In La Meseta it can be very hot in the summer and cold or very cold in the winter. Spain also has many mountain ranges. The Mount Teide (Tenerife, Canary Islands), the highest mountain of Spain and the islands of the Atlantic (it is the third largest volcano in the world from its base). In the north there is a range of mountains called Los Picos de Europa (The European Peaks). Here it is very cold in winter with a lot of snow but with gentle warm summers.
+
+In the south-east of the country is a range of mountains called La Sierra Nevada (The Snowy Mountains). This range of mountains contains the highest mountain in mainland Spain, Mulacen, at 2952 metres. La Sierra Nevada is very popular in winter for winter sports, especially skiing. Snow remains on its peaks throughout the year.  The south coast, has a warm and temperate climate, not very hot or very cold.  Since Spain is in the south of Europe, it is very sunny.  Many people from Northern Europe take their vacations in Spain, enjoying its beaches and cities.
+
+Spain has a border with Portugal in the west and borders with France and Andorra in the North. In the south, it borders Gibraltar, a British territory. The Spanish territories of Ceuta and Melilla are in North Africa and border onto Morocco.
+
+Spain is divided into Autonomous Communities, which means that they have their own regional governments. They are Andalucía (capital city Seville), Aragon (capital city Zaragoza), Asturias (capital city Oviedo), Balearic Islands (capital city Palma de Mallorca), Basque Country (capital city Vitoria), Canary Islands (capital cities Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas), Cantabria (capital city Santander), Castilla-La Mancha (capital city Toledo), Castile and Leon (capital city Valladolid), Catalonia (capital city Barcelona), Extremadura (capital city Merida), Galicia (capital city Santiago de Compostela), La Rioja (capital city Logrono), Madrid Community (capital city Madrid), Murcia Community (capital city Murcia), Navarra (capital city Pamplona) and the Valencia Community (capital city Valencia).
+
+Palo Santo Cafe, Aranda de Duero, Spain, Jamón serrano
+
+Jamón serrano served at Palo Santo Cafe, Aranda de Duero
+
+Anchovies in Spanish Olive OIl
+
+(Spanish Tortilla)
+
+In Spain, many people live in cities or close to cities. The ten biggest city areas are:
+
+While Spanish is the most spoken language in the country, other languages like Catalan, Basque or Galician are also spoken in a few territories.

ensimple/1831.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,65 @@
+– on the European continent  (green & dark grey)– in the European Union  (green)
+
+Spain is  a country in Southern Europe. It is in the Iberian Peninsula. Spain has borders with France, Portugal, Andorra and Morocco. In Spain's northeast side are the Pyrenees mountains.
+
+The people of Spain are called Spaniards. They speak Castilian or Spanish (in Spanish, "Castellano", from Castilla, or "Español" [espa'ɲol].  They speak other languages in some parts of the country.  They are Catalan, Basque, and Galician, Leonese, Aragonese, Aranese Occitan  and even Portuguese. The religion of about 56% of the population in Spain is Roman Catholic.
+
+Since 1975, Spain has had a constitutional monarchy. The King of Spain is Felipe VI; he only does what the constitution allows him to.  The parliament is called "Las Cortes Generales," and has two bodies: "El Congreso" (The Congress) and "El Senado" (The Senate) and it is chosen by the Spanish people by voting.  The Prime minister is Pedro Sánchez.  The government and the king's palace are in Madrid, the capital of Spain.
+
+Spain has more than five hundred thousand square kilometres of land.  It is smaller than France, but it is bigger than Germany. Almost fifty million people live in Spain. Spain is divided into 17 autonomous communities (this means that they can decide upon some affairs themselves). Each community has its own government.
+
+People have lived in Spain since the Stone Age.  Later, the Roman Empire controlled Spain for about five hundred years; then as the Roman Empire broke up, groups of Germanic people including Visigoths moved in and took control.
+
+In 711, the Umayyads took over, and later groups from North Africa, called the Moors. At first the Moors ruled most of Spain but the reconquista slowly forced them out over seven centuries. They called the land Al-Andalus. They were Muslims, and Muslim Spain was the farthest western point of Islamic civilization. The Caliphate of Córdoba fell apart in the early 11th century and Muslim rulers sometimes fought each other when they weren't fighting the Christians. Muslim Spain was focused on learning. The greatest library system outside Baghdad was also there.
+
+The Kingdom of León, the most important in the early Spanish Middle Ages, was started in 910. This Kingdom developed the first democratic parliament (Cortes de Llión) in Europe in 1188. After 1301, León had the same King as the Kingdom of Castile in personal union.  The various kingdoms remained independent territories until 1833, when Spain was divided into regions and provinces.
+
+In 1492, the Christians took the last part of Spain that still belonged to the Moors, Granada.  Boabdil, the last Moorish King of Granada, surrendered to King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile on 2 January 1492.  Ferdinand and Isabella then ruled all of Spain.
+
+Before this, there were a number of Christian countries in what is now called Spain. Two of these countries, Castile and Aragon, came together when Ferdinand II of Aragon married the queen Isabella of Castile.  The King ruled as much as the Queen.
+
+In the same year, 1492, they sent Christopher Columbus to sail across the Atlantic Ocean.  Columbus found the islands of the Caribbean Sea.
+
+When other Europeans explored, like Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro, they found out that there were two continents there - North America and South America.  Spanish conquistadores took over very large parts of those two continents. This empire did not make Spain a rich country, for most of the money had to be spent in wars in Italy and elsewhere.  Some of these wars were fought against other European countries who were trying to take over parts of the Americas.
+
+Meanwhile, at home, the Muslim manuscripts had been either burnt or taken to other countries.  Jews had also been expelled from Spain.  Some Jews remained but they had to become Christians.  Among the few old things kept and respected in Spain were in music:  harmony and stringed instruments. The buildings that had been built by the Moors were kept, and many Muslim religious buildings (mosques) were turned into churches. Some Jewish religious buildings were also turned into churches. Many Arab words became part of the Spanish Language.
+
+The grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella was Charles.  When his grandfather died he inherited Castille and Aragon.  He also inherited many territories at the death of his other grandfather, Maximilian I of Austria.  Charles received from Maximilian the Austria state and the territories of Burgundy.  He was named Charles I in Spain, but he was elected as the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and was called Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor.  This made the empire bigger than ever.  However, it was not a single country, but a personal union of  many independent countries with a single King.  At first many Spaniards did not want Charles as their king, so they fought against him. However, he won.
+
+Charles did not like the Protestant Reformation, and fought against it.
+
+In the 18th century some of the parts of that large empire became their own countries, or were taken over by new countries, such as the United States of America.
+
+Spain (and other European countries) was invaded by Napoleon of France. Britain sent troops to defend the peninsula, since it was so weak. Most of the Spanish Empire became independent in the following decades.
+
+There was not much peace in Spain during the first part of the 20th century. Some Spaniards tried to set up a government chosen by the people (a democracy), and they made Alfonso XIII leave the country. However, in 1936, two different groups of Spaniards went to war over whether the government should be a democracy, in the Spanish Civil War (although those on the side of the Republic were largely socialist or anarchist), or take orders from one person. In 1939, those who wanted democracy were defeated, and a nationalist dictator named Francisco Franco took over the government.
+
+Francisco Franco died on 20 November 1975. He had decided that Spain should have a monarchy again, and he chose Juan Carlos, the grandson of Juan of Bourbon who had been forced to leave the country, to be king and Adolfo Suárez to become its first Prime Minister. But the king and Suárez did not rule as a dictator; instead, they chose to set up a democracy.
+
+On 23 February 1981 a group of people who had supported the now dead General Franco tried to take control of the democratic Spanish Parliament by force, they entered the building and fired guns in the air. It was seen live on Spanish television and there was widespread fear that this might be the start of another civil war. However, Juan Carlos I, quickly appeared on television and broadcast to the nation that they should remain calm. The persons responsible for the attempt to take over the country were arrested.
+
+Now Spain is a modern democratic country, and does business with many countries around the world. It is the eighth largest economy in the world and is an important part of the European Union.
+
+On 2 June 2014, Juan Carlos I announced that he would abdicate in favour of his son, Felipe VI.[11] The date of abdication and handover to Felipe occurred on 19 June 2014. He and his wife kept their titles.[12]
+
+Ancient religions in Spain were mostly pagan. Today, however, at least 68 percent of Spain is Roman Catholic.[13] Spanish mystic Teresa of Ávila is an important figure within Catholicism. 27 percent of Spaniards are irreligious. 2 percent are from other religions, this include Baha'i Buddhists, Jain, Muslim,Unitarian Universalism and Zoroastrianism.
+
+The middle of Spain is a high, dry, flat land called La Meseta. In La Meseta it can be very hot in the summer and cold or very cold in the winter. Spain also has many mountain ranges. The Mount Teide (Tenerife, Canary Islands), the highest mountain of Spain and the islands of the Atlantic (it is the third largest volcano in the world from its base). In the north there is a range of mountains called Los Picos de Europa (The European Peaks). Here it is very cold in winter with a lot of snow but with gentle warm summers.
+
+In the south-east of the country is a range of mountains called La Sierra Nevada (The Snowy Mountains). This range of mountains contains the highest mountain in mainland Spain, Mulacen, at 2952 metres. La Sierra Nevada is very popular in winter for winter sports, especially skiing. Snow remains on its peaks throughout the year.  The south coast, has a warm and temperate climate, not very hot or very cold.  Since Spain is in the south of Europe, it is very sunny.  Many people from Northern Europe take their vacations in Spain, enjoying its beaches and cities.
+
+Spain has a border with Portugal in the west and borders with France and Andorra in the North. In the south, it borders Gibraltar, a British territory. The Spanish territories of Ceuta and Melilla are in North Africa and border onto Morocco.
+
+Spain is divided into Autonomous Communities, which means that they have their own regional governments. They are Andalucía (capital city Seville), Aragon (capital city Zaragoza), Asturias (capital city Oviedo), Balearic Islands (capital city Palma de Mallorca), Basque Country (capital city Vitoria), Canary Islands (capital cities Santa Cruz de Tenerife and Las Palmas), Cantabria (capital city Santander), Castilla-La Mancha (capital city Toledo), Castile and Leon (capital city Valladolid), Catalonia (capital city Barcelona), Extremadura (capital city Merida), Galicia (capital city Santiago de Compostela), La Rioja (capital city Logrono), Madrid Community (capital city Madrid), Murcia Community (capital city Murcia), Navarra (capital city Pamplona) and the Valencia Community (capital city Valencia).
+
+Palo Santo Cafe, Aranda de Duero, Spain, Jamón serrano
+
+Jamón serrano served at Palo Santo Cafe, Aranda de Duero
+
+Anchovies in Spanish Olive OIl
+
+(Spanish Tortilla)
+
+In Spain, many people live in cities or close to cities. The ten biggest city areas are:
+
+While Spanish is the most spoken language in the country, other languages like Catalan, Basque or Galician are also spoken in a few territories.

ensimple/1832.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+A species is a kind of organism. It is a basic unit of biological classification, and a formal rank in taxonomy. Originally, the word was used informally in a rather vague way, but now there are at least 26 different ways it is used.[1]
+
+All animals or plants that are the same kind belong to the same species. Wolves (Canis lupus) are one species. Humans (Homo sapiens) are another species. Broadly, the idea is that, for example, cats breed with cats and produce more cats. This is the basis for deciding to have a species called Felis catus. However, to give a simple definition of 'species' is difficult, and many people have tried.[2]
+
+Species is a word for a particular kind of living thing, for example, a jackdaw. Jackdaws and ravens are similar, so they are together in a larger group (taxon) called a genus, in this case Corvus. Then there is a family (such as the crow family, which includes crows and ravens as well as jays and magpies). Families are put together into orders such as the songbirds, which includes many families of birds. The next group is the class; all birds are in the same class. After that is the phylum, such as vertebrates, which is all animals with backbones. Last of all is the kingdom, like the animal kingdom. These are ways to classify living things.
+
+There is a mnemonic to help people remember the order of the divisions which are listed again below: "King Phillip Came Over For Great Spaghetti".
+
+Take as an example the bird called a Common Loon or Great Northern Diver:
+
+There is a long history of disagreement over whether species are objective things, or whether they are man-made labels. Those who think species are objectively different point to things which 'good' species do. They look similar, and they breed true, that is, mate with their own kind, and have offspring which are obviously in the same species.
+
+Against this are the many exceptions. There are species which shade gradually into other species, and which interbreed in overlapping populations (see ring species). On the other hand, there are species which look absolutely identical, but which do not breed together (sibling species).[3]
+
+It is quite clear that 'species' as used by palaeontologists and 'species' as used by other biologists cannot be the same. A palaeontologist can only use visible features of a fossil, which are only a small part of the traits of a living species. Not only that, but many species which are virtually identical can only be distinguished by their DNA. This relatively recent discovery of sibling species is very important, and their numbers are growing rapidly. We underestimated the effect of convergent evolution.
+
+The greatest change in the species concept was made by Charles Darwin, for evolution meant that hard-and-fast lines could not be drawn between species. Another shift came when Ernst Mayr proposed the biological species concept, which emphasized the interbreeding population as the heart of the species concept. This meant that, in his view, species were objective, that is not just the subjective opinion of a taxonomist. His explanation of the process of speciation was geographical isolation between populations which had once been interbreeding. Today, emphasis has moved back closer to Darwin's ideas.[4][5]
+
+According to the most recent estimate,[6] there are about 8.7 million species on Earth. This counts only eukaryote organisms. It leaves out bacteria, archaea and viruses.
+
+Fewer than a quarter of the species have not been identified, named and catalogued. At the present rate, it might take over 1000 years to complete this job. Some will become extinct before this count is complete.

ensimple/1833.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+A species is a kind of organism. It is a basic unit of biological classification, and a formal rank in taxonomy. Originally, the word was used informally in a rather vague way, but now there are at least 26 different ways it is used.[1]
+
+All animals or plants that are the same kind belong to the same species. Wolves (Canis lupus) are one species. Humans (Homo sapiens) are another species. Broadly, the idea is that, for example, cats breed with cats and produce more cats. This is the basis for deciding to have a species called Felis catus. However, to give a simple definition of 'species' is difficult, and many people have tried.[2]
+
+Species is a word for a particular kind of living thing, for example, a jackdaw. Jackdaws and ravens are similar, so they are together in a larger group (taxon) called a genus, in this case Corvus. Then there is a family (such as the crow family, which includes crows and ravens as well as jays and magpies). Families are put together into orders such as the songbirds, which includes many families of birds. The next group is the class; all birds are in the same class. After that is the phylum, such as vertebrates, which is all animals with backbones. Last of all is the kingdom, like the animal kingdom. These are ways to classify living things.
+
+There is a mnemonic to help people remember the order of the divisions which are listed again below: "King Phillip Came Over For Great Spaghetti".
+
+Take as an example the bird called a Common Loon or Great Northern Diver:
+
+There is a long history of disagreement over whether species are objective things, or whether they are man-made labels. Those who think species are objectively different point to things which 'good' species do. They look similar, and they breed true, that is, mate with their own kind, and have offspring which are obviously in the same species.
+
+Against this are the many exceptions. There are species which shade gradually into other species, and which interbreed in overlapping populations (see ring species). On the other hand, there are species which look absolutely identical, but which do not breed together (sibling species).[3]
+
+It is quite clear that 'species' as used by palaeontologists and 'species' as used by other biologists cannot be the same. A palaeontologist can only use visible features of a fossil, which are only a small part of the traits of a living species. Not only that, but many species which are virtually identical can only be distinguished by their DNA. This relatively recent discovery of sibling species is very important, and their numbers are growing rapidly. We underestimated the effect of convergent evolution.
+
+The greatest change in the species concept was made by Charles Darwin, for evolution meant that hard-and-fast lines could not be drawn between species. Another shift came when Ernst Mayr proposed the biological species concept, which emphasized the interbreeding population as the heart of the species concept. This meant that, in his view, species were objective, that is not just the subjective opinion of a taxonomist. His explanation of the process of speciation was geographical isolation between populations which had once been interbreeding. Today, emphasis has moved back closer to Darwin's ideas.[4][5]
+
+According to the most recent estimate,[6] there are about 8.7 million species on Earth. This counts only eukaryote organisms. It leaves out bacteria, archaea and viruses.
+
+Fewer than a quarter of the species have not been identified, named and catalogued. At the present rate, it might take over 1000 years to complete this job. Some will become extinct before this count is complete.

ensimple/1834.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+A species is a kind of organism. It is a basic unit of biological classification, and a formal rank in taxonomy. Originally, the word was used informally in a rather vague way, but now there are at least 26 different ways it is used.[1]
+
+All animals or plants that are the same kind belong to the same species. Wolves (Canis lupus) are one species. Humans (Homo sapiens) are another species. Broadly, the idea is that, for example, cats breed with cats and produce more cats. This is the basis for deciding to have a species called Felis catus. However, to give a simple definition of 'species' is difficult, and many people have tried.[2]
+
+Species is a word for a particular kind of living thing, for example, a jackdaw. Jackdaws and ravens are similar, so they are together in a larger group (taxon) called a genus, in this case Corvus. Then there is a family (such as the crow family, which includes crows and ravens as well as jays and magpies). Families are put together into orders such as the songbirds, which includes many families of birds. The next group is the class; all birds are in the same class. After that is the phylum, such as vertebrates, which is all animals with backbones. Last of all is the kingdom, like the animal kingdom. These are ways to classify living things.
+
+There is a mnemonic to help people remember the order of the divisions which are listed again below: "King Phillip Came Over For Great Spaghetti".
+
+Take as an example the bird called a Common Loon or Great Northern Diver:
+
+There is a long history of disagreement over whether species are objective things, or whether they are man-made labels. Those who think species are objectively different point to things which 'good' species do. They look similar, and they breed true, that is, mate with their own kind, and have offspring which are obviously in the same species.
+
+Against this are the many exceptions. There are species which shade gradually into other species, and which interbreed in overlapping populations (see ring species). On the other hand, there are species which look absolutely identical, but which do not breed together (sibling species).[3]
+
+It is quite clear that 'species' as used by palaeontologists and 'species' as used by other biologists cannot be the same. A palaeontologist can only use visible features of a fossil, which are only a small part of the traits of a living species. Not only that, but many species which are virtually identical can only be distinguished by their DNA. This relatively recent discovery of sibling species is very important, and their numbers are growing rapidly. We underestimated the effect of convergent evolution.
+
+The greatest change in the species concept was made by Charles Darwin, for evolution meant that hard-and-fast lines could not be drawn between species. Another shift came when Ernst Mayr proposed the biological species concept, which emphasized the interbreeding population as the heart of the species concept. This meant that, in his view, species were objective, that is not just the subjective opinion of a taxonomist. His explanation of the process of speciation was geographical isolation between populations which had once been interbreeding. Today, emphasis has moved back closer to Darwin's ideas.[4][5]
+
+According to the most recent estimate,[6] there are about 8.7 million species on Earth. This counts only eukaryote organisms. It leaves out bacteria, archaea and viruses.
+
+Fewer than a quarter of the species have not been identified, named and catalogued. At the present rate, it might take over 1000 years to complete this job. Some will become extinct before this count is complete.

ensimple/1835.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+A species is a kind of organism. It is a basic unit of biological classification, and a formal rank in taxonomy. Originally, the word was used informally in a rather vague way, but now there are at least 26 different ways it is used.[1]
+
+All animals or plants that are the same kind belong to the same species. Wolves (Canis lupus) are one species. Humans (Homo sapiens) are another species. Broadly, the idea is that, for example, cats breed with cats and produce more cats. This is the basis for deciding to have a species called Felis catus. However, to give a simple definition of 'species' is difficult, and many people have tried.[2]
+
+Species is a word for a particular kind of living thing, for example, a jackdaw. Jackdaws and ravens are similar, so they are together in a larger group (taxon) called a genus, in this case Corvus. Then there is a family (such as the crow family, which includes crows and ravens as well as jays and magpies). Families are put together into orders such as the songbirds, which includes many families of birds. The next group is the class; all birds are in the same class. After that is the phylum, such as vertebrates, which is all animals with backbones. Last of all is the kingdom, like the animal kingdom. These are ways to classify living things.
+
+There is a mnemonic to help people remember the order of the divisions which are listed again below: "King Phillip Came Over For Great Spaghetti".
+
+Take as an example the bird called a Common Loon or Great Northern Diver:
+
+There is a long history of disagreement over whether species are objective things, or whether they are man-made labels. Those who think species are objectively different point to things which 'good' species do. They look similar, and they breed true, that is, mate with their own kind, and have offspring which are obviously in the same species.
+
+Against this are the many exceptions. There are species which shade gradually into other species, and which interbreed in overlapping populations (see ring species). On the other hand, there are species which look absolutely identical, but which do not breed together (sibling species).[3]
+
+It is quite clear that 'species' as used by palaeontologists and 'species' as used by other biologists cannot be the same. A palaeontologist can only use visible features of a fossil, which are only a small part of the traits of a living species. Not only that, but many species which are virtually identical can only be distinguished by their DNA. This relatively recent discovery of sibling species is very important, and their numbers are growing rapidly. We underestimated the effect of convergent evolution.
+
+The greatest change in the species concept was made by Charles Darwin, for evolution meant that hard-and-fast lines could not be drawn between species. Another shift came when Ernst Mayr proposed the biological species concept, which emphasized the interbreeding population as the heart of the species concept. This meant that, in his view, species were objective, that is not just the subjective opinion of a taxonomist. His explanation of the process of speciation was geographical isolation between populations which had once been interbreeding. Today, emphasis has moved back closer to Darwin's ideas.[4][5]
+
+According to the most recent estimate,[6] there are about 8.7 million species on Earth. This counts only eukaryote organisms. It leaves out bacteria, archaea and viruses.
+
+Fewer than a quarter of the species have not been identified, named and catalogued. At the present rate, it might take over 1000 years to complete this job. Some will become extinct before this count is complete.

ensimple/1836.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+A species is a kind of organism. It is a basic unit of biological classification, and a formal rank in taxonomy. Originally, the word was used informally in a rather vague way, but now there are at least 26 different ways it is used.[1]
+
+All animals or plants that are the same kind belong to the same species. Wolves (Canis lupus) are one species. Humans (Homo sapiens) are another species. Broadly, the idea is that, for example, cats breed with cats and produce more cats. This is the basis for deciding to have a species called Felis catus. However, to give a simple definition of 'species' is difficult, and many people have tried.[2]
+
+Species is a word for a particular kind of living thing, for example, a jackdaw. Jackdaws and ravens are similar, so they are together in a larger group (taxon) called a genus, in this case Corvus. Then there is a family (such as the crow family, which includes crows and ravens as well as jays and magpies). Families are put together into orders such as the songbirds, which includes many families of birds. The next group is the class; all birds are in the same class. After that is the phylum, such as vertebrates, which is all animals with backbones. Last of all is the kingdom, like the animal kingdom. These are ways to classify living things.
+
+There is a mnemonic to help people remember the order of the divisions which are listed again below: "King Phillip Came Over For Great Spaghetti".
+
+Take as an example the bird called a Common Loon or Great Northern Diver:
+
+There is a long history of disagreement over whether species are objective things, or whether they are man-made labels. Those who think species are objectively different point to things which 'good' species do. They look similar, and they breed true, that is, mate with their own kind, and have offspring which are obviously in the same species.
+
+Against this are the many exceptions. There are species which shade gradually into other species, and which interbreed in overlapping populations (see ring species). On the other hand, there are species which look absolutely identical, but which do not breed together (sibling species).[3]
+
+It is quite clear that 'species' as used by palaeontologists and 'species' as used by other biologists cannot be the same. A palaeontologist can only use visible features of a fossil, which are only a small part of the traits of a living species. Not only that, but many species which are virtually identical can only be distinguished by their DNA. This relatively recent discovery of sibling species is very important, and their numbers are growing rapidly. We underestimated the effect of convergent evolution.
+
+The greatest change in the species concept was made by Charles Darwin, for evolution meant that hard-and-fast lines could not be drawn between species. Another shift came when Ernst Mayr proposed the biological species concept, which emphasized the interbreeding population as the heart of the species concept. This meant that, in his view, species were objective, that is not just the subjective opinion of a taxonomist. His explanation of the process of speciation was geographical isolation between populations which had once been interbreeding. Today, emphasis has moved back closer to Darwin's ideas.[4][5]
+
+According to the most recent estimate,[6] there are about 8.7 million species on Earth. This counts only eukaryote organisms. It leaves out bacteria, archaea and viruses.
+
+Fewer than a quarter of the species have not been identified, named and catalogued. At the present rate, it might take over 1000 years to complete this job. Some will become extinct before this count is complete.

ensimple/1837.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,143 @@
+Esperanto is a constructed auxiliary language. Its creator was L. L. Zamenhof, a Polish eye doctor. He created the language to make international communication easier. His goal was to design Esperanto in such a way that people can learn it much more easily than any other national language.
+
+At first, Zamenhof called the language La Internacia Lingvo, which means "The International Language" in Esperanto. Soon, people began calling it by the simpler name Esperanto, which means "one who hopes". That name comes from Doktoro Esperanto ("Doctor who hopes"), which is what Zamenhof called himself in his first book about Esperanto.
+
+There are people who speak Esperanto in many countries and in all the major continents. No one knows exactly how many people now speak Esperanto in the world. Most sources say that there are between several hundred thousand and two million Esperanto speakers.[6]  A few people grew up speaking Esperanto as their first language.  There may perhaps be around 2,000 of these people.[7] Therefore, Esperanto is the most-used constructed language in the world.
+
+A person who speaks or supports Esperanto is often called an "Esperantist".
+
+L. L. Zamenhof created Esperanto. He grew up in Białystok, a town that was in the Russian Empire,  but is now in Poland. People in Białystok spoke many languages. Zamenhof saw conflicts between individual ethnic groups living there (Russians, Poles, Germans and Jews).[8] He thought that lack of a common language caused these conflicts, so he began creating a language people could share and use internationally.[9] He thought this language should be different from national languages. He wanted it to be culturally neutral and easy-to-learn. He thought people should learn it along with national languages and use Esperanto for communication between people with different native languages.
+
+First, Zamenhof thought about bringing Latin back into use. Although he learned it in school, he realized it was too difficult for normal use. He also studied English and understood that languages did not need to conjugate verbs by person or number. Once he saw two Russian words: швейцарская (reception, derived from швейцар - receptionist) and кондитерская (confectionery, derived from кондитер - confectioner). These words with the same ending gave him an idea. He decided that regular prefixes and suffixes could decrease the number of word roots, which one would need for a communication. Zamenhof wanted the root words to be neutral, so he decided to use word roots from Romance and Germanic languages. Those languages were taught in many schools in many places around the world at that time.
+
+Zamenhof did his first project Lingwe uniwersala (Universal Language) in 1878. But his father, a language teacher, regarded his son's work as unrealistic. So, he destroyed the original work. Between 1879 and 1885 Zamenhof studied medicine in Moscow and Warsaw. In these days he again worked on an international language. In 1887 he published his first textbook Международный языкъ ("The International Language"). According to Zamenhof's pen-name Doktoro Esperanto ("Doctor who hopes"), many people started calling the language as Esperanto.[10]
+
+Zamenhof received a lot of enthusiastic letters. In the letters, people wrote their suggestions for changes to the language. He noted all of the suggestions. He published them in the magazine La Esperantisto. In this magazine, Esperanto speakers could vote about the changes. They did not accept them. The magazine had many subscribers in Russia. It was eventually banned (stopped) there because of an article about Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy. Publishing of the magazine ended after that. The new magazine Lingvo Internacia replaced it.[11][12]
+
+In the first years of Esperanto's life, people used it only in written form, but in 1905 they organized the first (1st) World Congress of Esperanto in Boulogne-sur-Mer, France. This was the first notable use of Esperanto in international communication. Because of the success of the congress, it is organized each year (except years of the World Wars) to this day.
+
+In 1912 Zamenhof resigned his leading position in the movement during the eighth (8th) World Congress of Esperanto in Kraków, Poland. The tenth (10th) World Congress of Esperanto in Paris, France, did not take place because of the start of World War I. Nearly 4000 people signed up for this congress.[13]
+
+During World War I the World Esperanto Association had its main office in Switzerland, which was neutral in the war. Hector Hodler's group of volunteers with support of Romain Rolland helped send letters between the enemy countries through Switzerland. In total, they helped with 200,000 cases.[13]
+
+After World War I there was new hope for Esperanto because of the desire of people to live in peace. Esperanto and its community grew in those days. The first World Congress after the war took place in Hague, Netherlands, in 1920. An Esperanto Museum was opened in Vienna, Austria, in 1929. Today it is part of the Austrian National Library.
+
+World War II stopped this growing of the language. Many Esperantists were sent into the battle. Nazis broke up Esperanto groups because they saw the language as a part of a worldwide Jewish conspiracy. Many Esperanto speakers died in concentration camps. The Soviet Union also treated Esperantists badly when Stalin was their leader.[14][15]
+
+After World War II many people supported Esperanto. 80 million people signed a petition supporting Esperanto for use in the United Nations.[16]
+
+Every year they organize big Esperanto meetings such as the World Congress of Esperanto, International Youth Congress of Esperanto and SAT-Congress (meeting of Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda - World Non-national Association).
+
+In 1990, the Holy See published the document Norme per la celebrazione della Messa in esperanto, allowing the use of Esperanto in Masses without special permission.[17][18][19] Esperanto is the only constructed language which received a permission like this one from the Roman Catholic Church.
+
+Esperanto has many web pages, blogs, podcasts, and videos. People also use Esperanto in social media and online discussions and in their private communication through e-mail and instant messaging. Several (especially open source and free software) programmes have their own language version in Esperanto. Internet radio station Muzaiko has been broadcasting 24 hours a day in Esperanto since 2011.[20]
+
+Zamenhof wanted to make an easy language to increase international understanding. He wanted Esperanto to be a universal second language. In other words, although he did not want Esperanto to replace national languages, he wanted a majority of people around the world to speak Esperanto. Many Esperantists initially shared this goal. General Assembly of UNESCO recognized Esperanto in 1954.[21] Since then World Esperanto Association has got official relations with UNESCO.[22] However, Esperanto was never chosen by the United Nations or other international organizations and it has not become a widely accepted second language.
+
+Some Esperanto speakers like Esperanto for reasons other than its use as a universal second language. They like the Esperanto community and culture. Developing the Esperanto culture is a goal for that people.
+
+People who care more about Esperanto's current value than about its potential for universal use are sometimes called raŭmistoj in Esperanto. The ideas of these people can together be called raŭmismo, or "Raumism" in English. The names come from the name of the town of Rauma, in Finland. The International Youth Congress of Esperanto met there in 1980 and made a big statement. They said that making Esperanto a universal second language was not their main goal.
+
+People who have goals for Esperanto that are more similar to Zamenhof's are sometimes called finvenkistoj in Esperanto. The name comes from fina venko, an Esperanto phrase which means "final victory". It refers to a theoretical future in which nearly everyone on Earth speaks Esperanto as a second language.
+
+The Prague Manifesto (1996) states the ideas of the ordinary people of the Esperanto movement and of its main organization, the World Esperanto Association (UEA).
+
+German town Herzberg am Harz uses nickname die Esperanto-Stadt/la Esperanto-urbo ("the Esperanto town") since 12 July 2006. They also teach the language in elementary schools and do some other cultural and educational events using the Esperanto language together with the Polish twin town Góra.[23]
+
+Esperanto is the only constructed language that the Roman Catholic Church recognises as a liturgical language. They allow Masses in the language and Vatican Radio broadcasts in Esperanto every week.[17][18][24]
+
+Many people use Esperanto to communicate by mail, email, blogs or chat rooms with Esperantists in other countries. Some travel to other countries to meet and talk in Esperanto with other Esperantists.
+
+There are annual meetings of Esperantists. The largest is the Universala Kongreso de Esperanto ("World Congress of Esperanto"), which is held in a different country each year. In recent years around 2,000 people have attended it, from 60 or more countries. For young people there is Internacia Junulara Kongreso ("International Youth Congress of Esperanto").
+
+A lot of different cultural activities take place during Esperanto meetings: concerts of Esperanto musicians, dramas, discos, presentations of the culture of the host country and culture of the countries of the participants, lectures, language-courses, and so on. At the location of Esperanto meetings there is also a pub, a tearoom, a bookstore, etc. with Esperanto-speaking workers. The number of activities and possibilities depends on the size or on the theme of the meeting.
+
+There are books and magazines written in Esperanto. Much literature has been translated into Esperanto from other languages, including famous works, like the Bible (first time in 1926) and plays by Shakespeare. Works that are less famous have also been translated into Esperanto, and some of these do not have English translations.
+
+Important Esperanto writers are for example: Trevor Steele (Australia), István Nemere (Hungary) and Mao Zifu (China). William Auld was a British writer of poetry in Esperanto and honorary president of the Esperanto PEN Centre (Esperanto part of International PEN). Some people recommended him for the Nobel Prize in Literature.[25]
+
+There is music of different genres in Esperanto, including folk songs, rock music, cabaret, songs for solo singers, choirs and opera. Among active Esperanto musicians is for example Swedish socio-critical music group La Perdita Generacio, Occitan singer JoMo, the Finnish group Dolchamar, Brazilian group Supernova, Frisian group Kajto or Polish singer-songwriter Georgo Handzlik. Also some popular music writers and artists, including Elvis Costello and American singer Michael Jackson recorded songs in Esperanto, composed songs inspired by the language or used it in their promotional materials. Some songs from the album Esperanto from Warner Bros., which released - all in Esperanto - in Spain, in November 1996, reached a high position in the Spanish record charts; similarly, in 1999, in Germany, hip-hop music group Freundeskreis became famous with their single Esperanto. Classical works for orchestra and choir with texts in Esperanto are La Koro Sutro by Lou Harrison and The First Symphony by David Gaines. In Toulouse, France, there is Vinilkosmo, which produces Esperanto music. The main internet Esperanto songbook KantarViki has got 3,000 songs in May 2013, both original and translated.[26]
+
+They play dramas from different writers such as Carlo Goldoni, Eugène Ionesco and William Shakespeare also in Esperanto. Filmmakers sometimes use Esperanto in the background of films, for example in The Great Dictator by Charlie Chaplin, in the action film Blade: Trinity or in comedy sci-fi television series Red Dwarf. Feature films in Esperanto are not very common, but there are about 15 feature films, which have Esperanto themes.
+
+The 1966 film Incubus is notable because its dialogues are in Esperanto only. Today some people translate subtitles of different films to Esperanto. The website Verda Filmejo collects these subtitles.[27]
+
+Radio stations in Brazil, China, Cuba[28] and Vatican[24] broadcast regular programmes in Esperanto. Some other radio programmes and podcasts are available on the Internet. Internet radio station Muzaiko broadcasts Esperanto programmes on the Internet 24 hours a day since July 2011.[20] Between 2005 and 2006 there was also a project of international television "Internacia Televido" in Esperanto. Esperanto TV broadcasts on the Internet from Sydney, Australia, since 5 April 2014.[29]
+
+On the Internet there are many online discussions in Esperanto about different topics. There are many websites, blogs, podcasts, videos, television, and radio stations in Esperanto (see above). Google Translate supports translations from and into Esperanto since 22 February 2012 as its 64th language.[30]
+
+Apart from websites and blogs of esperantists and Esperanto organizations, there is also an Esperanto Wikipedia (Vikipedio) and other projects of Wikimedia Foundation which has also got their Esperanto language version or they use Esperanto (Wikibooks, Wikisource, Wikinews, Wikimedia Commons and Wikidata). People can also use an Esperanto version of social networks, for example Facebook, Diaspora and other websites.
+
+Several computer programmes also have an Esperanto version, such as web browser Firefox[31] and office suite (set of programmes for use in an office) LibreOffice.[32]
+
+Esperanto uses grammar and words from many natural languages, such as Latin, Russian, and French. Morphemes in Esperanto (the smallest parts of a word that can have a meaning) cannot be changed and people can combine them into many different words. The language has got common attributes with isolating languages (they use word order to change the meaning of a sentence) such as Chinese, while the inner structure of Esperanto words has got common attributes with agglutinative languages (they use affixes to change the meaning of a word), such as Turkish, Swahili and Japanese.
+
+The Esperanto alphabet is based on the Latin script. It has six letters with diacritics: ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ (with circumflex), and ŭ (with breve). The alphabet does not have the letters q, w, x, or y.
+
+The 28-letter alphabet is:
+
+Even the world uses the Unicode, the letters with diacritics (found in the "Latin-Extended A" section of the Unicode Standard) can cause problems with printing and computing, because they are not found on the keyboards we use.
+
+There are two remedies of this problem, both of which uses digraphs for the letters with diacritics. Zamenhof, the inventor of Esperanto, devised an "h-system", which replaces ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, and ŭ with ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, and u, respectively. A more recent "x-system" has also been used, which replaces ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, and ŭ with cx, gx, hx, jx, sx, and ux, respectively.
+
+There are computer keyboards that support the Esperanto alphabet, for example, Amiketo for Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux, Esperanta Klavaro for Windows Phone,[33] and Gboard & AnySoftKeyboard for Android.
+
+Esperanto's grammar (rules of language) is meant to be simple. The rules in Esperanto never change and can always be applied in the same way.
+
+Esperanto has only definite article la (the same thing as "the" in English) and no indefinite article (the same thing as "a" or "an" in English). They use definite article when they talk about things, about which they have already told something.
+
+Nouns end with -o. For example, patro means father. To make a noun plural add -j. For example: patroj means fathers.
+
+Adjectives end with -a, adverbs end with -e, for example granda means big, bona means good, bone means well.
+
+The -n ending is the mark of the direct object (the Accusative case) in nouns and adjectives. For example:
+
+In adjectives and adverbs is comparison made by words pli (more) and plej (most). For example:
+
+So, to say how old somebody is in Esperanto, just say:
+
+Verbs end with -as when they are in present tense. English uses I am, you are, he is. But in Esperanto, there is just one word for am, are, is - estas. Similarly, kuras can mean run or runs. Infinitives end with -i. For example, esti means to be, povi means to can. It is easy to make past tense - always add -is ending. To make future tense, add -os. For example:
+
+Many words can be made opposite by adding mal at the beginning.
+
+Examples of sentences which show the rules:
+
+To make a yes-or-no question, add Ĉu at the beginning. For example:
+
+Unlike in English, they can answer to a yes/no question only jes (yes) or ne (no).
+
+The numbers are:
+
+Numbers like twenty-one (21) are made by their compounding by order of magnitude. For example: dek tri means thirteen (13), dudek tri means twenty-three (23), sescent okdek tri means six hundred eighty-three (683), mil naŭcent okdek tri means (one) thousand nine hundred and eighty-three (1983).
+
+Esperanto has over 20 special words which can change the meaning of another word. People put them before or after the root of a word.
+
+These words combined can make very long words, such as malmultekosta (cheap), vendredviandmanĝmalpermeso (prohibition of eating a meat on Friday).
+
+Prefixes are added before the root of the word.
+
+Suffixes are added after the root of the word, but before the ending.
+
+Some of the criticism of Esperanto is common for any project of constructed international language: a new language has little chance to replace today's international languages like English, French and others.
+
+The criticism, which is specific for Esperanto, targets various parts of the language itself (the special Esperanto letters, the -n ending, sound of the language, and so on).[61]
+
+Some people[who?]say that use of the diacritics (the letters ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, ŭ) make the language less neutral than it would be using only the basic letters of Latin alphabet.[62] No other language uses the letters ĉ, ĥ and ĵ. The letter ĥ is the least used letter in Esperanto and ĵ is not used frequently either, leading people to question how necessary they are.
+
+Critics of Esperanto[weasel word]also say that the same ending of an adjective and a noun (such as "bona lingvo", "bonaj lingvoj", "bonajn lingvojn") is unnecessary.[63] English, for example, does not have the requirement that an adjective and noun must agree in tense, and has no indicator for accusative cases.
+
+They also criticize the fact that most of the words in Esperanto come from Indo-European languages, which makes the language less neutral.
+
+One of the common criticisms from both non-Esperanto-speakers and those who speak Esperanto, is that there is language sexism in Esperanto. Some words by default refer to males, and the feminine counterparts have to be constructed by adding the -in- suffix to the masculine root.[64][65] Such a words are words like patro (father) and patrino (mother), filo (son) and filino (daughter), onklo (uncle) and onklino (aunt), and so on. The majority of all Esperanto words have no specific meaning on the basis of sex.[66] Some people proposed the suffix -iĉ- with male meaning in order to make the meaning of the basic word neutral.[65] However this proposal is not widely accepted by Esperanto speakers.
+
+Criticism of some parts of Esperanto motivated the creation of various new constructed languages like Ido, Novial, Interlingua and Lojban. However, none of these constructed languages have as many speakers as Esperanto does.
+
+Normal sample: Ĉiuj homoj estas denaske liberaj kaj egalaj laŭ digno kaj rajtoj. Ili posedas racion kaj konsciencon, kaj devus konduti unu la alian en spirito de frateco.
+
+Version in h-system: Chiuj homoj estas denaske liberaj kaj egalaj lau digno kaj rajtoj. Ili posedas racion kaj konsciencon, kaj devus konduti unu la alian en spirito de frateco.
+
+Version in x-system: Cxiuj homoj estas denaske liberaj kaj egalaj laux digno kaj rajtoj. Ili posedas racion kaj konsciencon, kaj devus konduti unu la alian en spirito de frateco.
+
+Simple English translation: All people are free and equal in dignity and rights. They are reasonable and moral, and should act kindly to each other.
+
+People sometimes use the word "Esperanto" in a metaphoric way (not in its literal sense). They use it to say that something aims to be international or neutral, or it uses a wide mixture of ideas. They say the programming language Java is "independent of specific computer systems [e.g. Windows, Android] like Esperanto is independent of ... nations".[67] Similarly, they call the font Noto "the Esperanto of fonts" because it tries to work well for every culture's writing.[68]

ensimple/1838.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,143 @@
+Esperanto is a constructed auxiliary language. Its creator was L. L. Zamenhof, a Polish eye doctor. He created the language to make international communication easier. His goal was to design Esperanto in such a way that people can learn it much more easily than any other national language.
+
+At first, Zamenhof called the language La Internacia Lingvo, which means "The International Language" in Esperanto. Soon, people began calling it by the simpler name Esperanto, which means "one who hopes". That name comes from Doktoro Esperanto ("Doctor who hopes"), which is what Zamenhof called himself in his first book about Esperanto.
+
+There are people who speak Esperanto in many countries and in all the major continents. No one knows exactly how many people now speak Esperanto in the world. Most sources say that there are between several hundred thousand and two million Esperanto speakers.[6]  A few people grew up speaking Esperanto as their first language.  There may perhaps be around 2,000 of these people.[7] Therefore, Esperanto is the most-used constructed language in the world.
+
+A person who speaks or supports Esperanto is often called an "Esperantist".
+
+L. L. Zamenhof created Esperanto. He grew up in Białystok, a town that was in the Russian Empire,  but is now in Poland. People in Białystok spoke many languages. Zamenhof saw conflicts between individual ethnic groups living there (Russians, Poles, Germans and Jews).[8] He thought that lack of a common language caused these conflicts, so he began creating a language people could share and use internationally.[9] He thought this language should be different from national languages. He wanted it to be culturally neutral and easy-to-learn. He thought people should learn it along with national languages and use Esperanto for communication between people with different native languages.
+
+First, Zamenhof thought about bringing Latin back into use. Although he learned it in school, he realized it was too difficult for normal use. He also studied English and understood that languages did not need to conjugate verbs by person or number. Once he saw two Russian words: швейцарская (reception, derived from швейцар - receptionist) and кондитерская (confectionery, derived from кондитер - confectioner). These words with the same ending gave him an idea. He decided that regular prefixes and suffixes could decrease the number of word roots, which one would need for a communication. Zamenhof wanted the root words to be neutral, so he decided to use word roots from Romance and Germanic languages. Those languages were taught in many schools in many places around the world at that time.
+
+Zamenhof did his first project Lingwe uniwersala (Universal Language) in 1878. But his father, a language teacher, regarded his son's work as unrealistic. So, he destroyed the original work. Between 1879 and 1885 Zamenhof studied medicine in Moscow and Warsaw. In these days he again worked on an international language. In 1887 he published his first textbook Международный языкъ ("The International Language"). According to Zamenhof's pen-name Doktoro Esperanto ("Doctor who hopes"), many people started calling the language as Esperanto.[10]
+
+Zamenhof received a lot of enthusiastic letters. In the letters, people wrote their suggestions for changes to the language. He noted all of the suggestions. He published them in the magazine La Esperantisto. In this magazine, Esperanto speakers could vote about the changes. They did not accept them. The magazine had many subscribers in Russia. It was eventually banned (stopped) there because of an article about Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy. Publishing of the magazine ended after that. The new magazine Lingvo Internacia replaced it.[11][12]
+
+In the first years of Esperanto's life, people used it only in written form, but in 1905 they organized the first (1st) World Congress of Esperanto in Boulogne-sur-Mer, France. This was the first notable use of Esperanto in international communication. Because of the success of the congress, it is organized each year (except years of the World Wars) to this day.
+
+In 1912 Zamenhof resigned his leading position in the movement during the eighth (8th) World Congress of Esperanto in Kraków, Poland. The tenth (10th) World Congress of Esperanto in Paris, France, did not take place because of the start of World War I. Nearly 4000 people signed up for this congress.[13]
+
+During World War I the World Esperanto Association had its main office in Switzerland, which was neutral in the war. Hector Hodler's group of volunteers with support of Romain Rolland helped send letters between the enemy countries through Switzerland. In total, they helped with 200,000 cases.[13]
+
+After World War I there was new hope for Esperanto because of the desire of people to live in peace. Esperanto and its community grew in those days. The first World Congress after the war took place in Hague, Netherlands, in 1920. An Esperanto Museum was opened in Vienna, Austria, in 1929. Today it is part of the Austrian National Library.
+
+World War II stopped this growing of the language. Many Esperantists were sent into the battle. Nazis broke up Esperanto groups because they saw the language as a part of a worldwide Jewish conspiracy. Many Esperanto speakers died in concentration camps. The Soviet Union also treated Esperantists badly when Stalin was their leader.[14][15]
+
+After World War II many people supported Esperanto. 80 million people signed a petition supporting Esperanto for use in the United Nations.[16]
+
+Every year they organize big Esperanto meetings such as the World Congress of Esperanto, International Youth Congress of Esperanto and SAT-Congress (meeting of Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda - World Non-national Association).
+
+In 1990, the Holy See published the document Norme per la celebrazione della Messa in esperanto, allowing the use of Esperanto in Masses without special permission.[17][18][19] Esperanto is the only constructed language which received a permission like this one from the Roman Catholic Church.
+
+Esperanto has many web pages, blogs, podcasts, and videos. People also use Esperanto in social media and online discussions and in their private communication through e-mail and instant messaging. Several (especially open source and free software) programmes have their own language version in Esperanto. Internet radio station Muzaiko has been broadcasting 24 hours a day in Esperanto since 2011.[20]
+
+Zamenhof wanted to make an easy language to increase international understanding. He wanted Esperanto to be a universal second language. In other words, although he did not want Esperanto to replace national languages, he wanted a majority of people around the world to speak Esperanto. Many Esperantists initially shared this goal. General Assembly of UNESCO recognized Esperanto in 1954.[21] Since then World Esperanto Association has got official relations with UNESCO.[22] However, Esperanto was never chosen by the United Nations or other international organizations and it has not become a widely accepted second language.
+
+Some Esperanto speakers like Esperanto for reasons other than its use as a universal second language. They like the Esperanto community and culture. Developing the Esperanto culture is a goal for that people.
+
+People who care more about Esperanto's current value than about its potential for universal use are sometimes called raŭmistoj in Esperanto. The ideas of these people can together be called raŭmismo, or "Raumism" in English. The names come from the name of the town of Rauma, in Finland. The International Youth Congress of Esperanto met there in 1980 and made a big statement. They said that making Esperanto a universal second language was not their main goal.
+
+People who have goals for Esperanto that are more similar to Zamenhof's are sometimes called finvenkistoj in Esperanto. The name comes from fina venko, an Esperanto phrase which means "final victory". It refers to a theoretical future in which nearly everyone on Earth speaks Esperanto as a second language.
+
+The Prague Manifesto (1996) states the ideas of the ordinary people of the Esperanto movement and of its main organization, the World Esperanto Association (UEA).
+
+German town Herzberg am Harz uses nickname die Esperanto-Stadt/la Esperanto-urbo ("the Esperanto town") since 12 July 2006. They also teach the language in elementary schools and do some other cultural and educational events using the Esperanto language together with the Polish twin town Góra.[23]
+
+Esperanto is the only constructed language that the Roman Catholic Church recognises as a liturgical language. They allow Masses in the language and Vatican Radio broadcasts in Esperanto every week.[17][18][24]
+
+Many people use Esperanto to communicate by mail, email, blogs or chat rooms with Esperantists in other countries. Some travel to other countries to meet and talk in Esperanto with other Esperantists.
+
+There are annual meetings of Esperantists. The largest is the Universala Kongreso de Esperanto ("World Congress of Esperanto"), which is held in a different country each year. In recent years around 2,000 people have attended it, from 60 or more countries. For young people there is Internacia Junulara Kongreso ("International Youth Congress of Esperanto").
+
+A lot of different cultural activities take place during Esperanto meetings: concerts of Esperanto musicians, dramas, discos, presentations of the culture of the host country and culture of the countries of the participants, lectures, language-courses, and so on. At the location of Esperanto meetings there is also a pub, a tearoom, a bookstore, etc. with Esperanto-speaking workers. The number of activities and possibilities depends on the size or on the theme of the meeting.
+
+There are books and magazines written in Esperanto. Much literature has been translated into Esperanto from other languages, including famous works, like the Bible (first time in 1926) and plays by Shakespeare. Works that are less famous have also been translated into Esperanto, and some of these do not have English translations.
+
+Important Esperanto writers are for example: Trevor Steele (Australia), István Nemere (Hungary) and Mao Zifu (China). William Auld was a British writer of poetry in Esperanto and honorary president of the Esperanto PEN Centre (Esperanto part of International PEN). Some people recommended him for the Nobel Prize in Literature.[25]
+
+There is music of different genres in Esperanto, including folk songs, rock music, cabaret, songs for solo singers, choirs and opera. Among active Esperanto musicians is for example Swedish socio-critical music group La Perdita Generacio, Occitan singer JoMo, the Finnish group Dolchamar, Brazilian group Supernova, Frisian group Kajto or Polish singer-songwriter Georgo Handzlik. Also some popular music writers and artists, including Elvis Costello and American singer Michael Jackson recorded songs in Esperanto, composed songs inspired by the language or used it in their promotional materials. Some songs from the album Esperanto from Warner Bros., which released - all in Esperanto - in Spain, in November 1996, reached a high position in the Spanish record charts; similarly, in 1999, in Germany, hip-hop music group Freundeskreis became famous with their single Esperanto. Classical works for orchestra and choir with texts in Esperanto are La Koro Sutro by Lou Harrison and The First Symphony by David Gaines. In Toulouse, France, there is Vinilkosmo, which produces Esperanto music. The main internet Esperanto songbook KantarViki has got 3,000 songs in May 2013, both original and translated.[26]
+
+They play dramas from different writers such as Carlo Goldoni, Eugène Ionesco and William Shakespeare also in Esperanto. Filmmakers sometimes use Esperanto in the background of films, for example in The Great Dictator by Charlie Chaplin, in the action film Blade: Trinity or in comedy sci-fi television series Red Dwarf. Feature films in Esperanto are not very common, but there are about 15 feature films, which have Esperanto themes.
+
+The 1966 film Incubus is notable because its dialogues are in Esperanto only. Today some people translate subtitles of different films to Esperanto. The website Verda Filmejo collects these subtitles.[27]
+
+Radio stations in Brazil, China, Cuba[28] and Vatican[24] broadcast regular programmes in Esperanto. Some other radio programmes and podcasts are available on the Internet. Internet radio station Muzaiko broadcasts Esperanto programmes on the Internet 24 hours a day since July 2011.[20] Between 2005 and 2006 there was also a project of international television "Internacia Televido" in Esperanto. Esperanto TV broadcasts on the Internet from Sydney, Australia, since 5 April 2014.[29]
+
+On the Internet there are many online discussions in Esperanto about different topics. There are many websites, blogs, podcasts, videos, television, and radio stations in Esperanto (see above). Google Translate supports translations from and into Esperanto since 22 February 2012 as its 64th language.[30]
+
+Apart from websites and blogs of esperantists and Esperanto organizations, there is also an Esperanto Wikipedia (Vikipedio) and other projects of Wikimedia Foundation which has also got their Esperanto language version or they use Esperanto (Wikibooks, Wikisource, Wikinews, Wikimedia Commons and Wikidata). People can also use an Esperanto version of social networks, for example Facebook, Diaspora and other websites.
+
+Several computer programmes also have an Esperanto version, such as web browser Firefox[31] and office suite (set of programmes for use in an office) LibreOffice.[32]
+
+Esperanto uses grammar and words from many natural languages, such as Latin, Russian, and French. Morphemes in Esperanto (the smallest parts of a word that can have a meaning) cannot be changed and people can combine them into many different words. The language has got common attributes with isolating languages (they use word order to change the meaning of a sentence) such as Chinese, while the inner structure of Esperanto words has got common attributes with agglutinative languages (they use affixes to change the meaning of a word), such as Turkish, Swahili and Japanese.
+
+The Esperanto alphabet is based on the Latin script. It has six letters with diacritics: ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ (with circumflex), and ŭ (with breve). The alphabet does not have the letters q, w, x, or y.
+
+The 28-letter alphabet is:
+
+Even the world uses the Unicode, the letters with diacritics (found in the "Latin-Extended A" section of the Unicode Standard) can cause problems with printing and computing, because they are not found on the keyboards we use.
+
+There are two remedies of this problem, both of which uses digraphs for the letters with diacritics. Zamenhof, the inventor of Esperanto, devised an "h-system", which replaces ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, and ŭ with ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, and u, respectively. A more recent "x-system" has also been used, which replaces ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, and ŭ with cx, gx, hx, jx, sx, and ux, respectively.
+
+There are computer keyboards that support the Esperanto alphabet, for example, Amiketo for Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux, Esperanta Klavaro for Windows Phone,[33] and Gboard & AnySoftKeyboard for Android.
+
+Esperanto's grammar (rules of language) is meant to be simple. The rules in Esperanto never change and can always be applied in the same way.
+
+Esperanto has only definite article la (the same thing as "the" in English) and no indefinite article (the same thing as "a" or "an" in English). They use definite article when they talk about things, about which they have already told something.
+
+Nouns end with -o. For example, patro means father. To make a noun plural add -j. For example: patroj means fathers.
+
+Adjectives end with -a, adverbs end with -e, for example granda means big, bona means good, bone means well.
+
+The -n ending is the mark of the direct object (the Accusative case) in nouns and adjectives. For example:
+
+In adjectives and adverbs is comparison made by words pli (more) and plej (most). For example:
+
+So, to say how old somebody is in Esperanto, just say:
+
+Verbs end with -as when they are in present tense. English uses I am, you are, he is. But in Esperanto, there is just one word for am, are, is - estas. Similarly, kuras can mean run or runs. Infinitives end with -i. For example, esti means to be, povi means to can. It is easy to make past tense - always add -is ending. To make future tense, add -os. For example:
+
+Many words can be made opposite by adding mal at the beginning.
+
+Examples of sentences which show the rules:
+
+To make a yes-or-no question, add Ĉu at the beginning. For example:
+
+Unlike in English, they can answer to a yes/no question only jes (yes) or ne (no).
+
+The numbers are:
+
+Numbers like twenty-one (21) are made by their compounding by order of magnitude. For example: dek tri means thirteen (13), dudek tri means twenty-three (23), sescent okdek tri means six hundred eighty-three (683), mil naŭcent okdek tri means (one) thousand nine hundred and eighty-three (1983).
+
+Esperanto has over 20 special words which can change the meaning of another word. People put them before or after the root of a word.
+
+These words combined can make very long words, such as malmultekosta (cheap), vendredviandmanĝmalpermeso (prohibition of eating a meat on Friday).
+
+Prefixes are added before the root of the word.
+
+Suffixes are added after the root of the word, but before the ending.
+
+Some of the criticism of Esperanto is common for any project of constructed international language: a new language has little chance to replace today's international languages like English, French and others.
+
+The criticism, which is specific for Esperanto, targets various parts of the language itself (the special Esperanto letters, the -n ending, sound of the language, and so on).[61]
+
+Some people[who?]say that use of the diacritics (the letters ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ, ŭ) make the language less neutral than it would be using only the basic letters of Latin alphabet.[62] No other language uses the letters ĉ, ĥ and ĵ. The letter ĥ is the least used letter in Esperanto and ĵ is not used frequently either, leading people to question how necessary they are.
+
+Critics of Esperanto[weasel word]also say that the same ending of an adjective and a noun (such as "bona lingvo", "bonaj lingvoj", "bonajn lingvojn") is unnecessary.[63] English, for example, does not have the requirement that an adjective and noun must agree in tense, and has no indicator for accusative cases.
+
+They also criticize the fact that most of the words in Esperanto come from Indo-European languages, which makes the language less neutral.
+
+One of the common criticisms from both non-Esperanto-speakers and those who speak Esperanto, is that there is language sexism in Esperanto. Some words by default refer to males, and the feminine counterparts have to be constructed by adding the -in- suffix to the masculine root.[64][65] Such a words are words like patro (father) and patrino (mother), filo (son) and filino (daughter), onklo (uncle) and onklino (aunt), and so on. The majority of all Esperanto words have no specific meaning on the basis of sex.[66] Some people proposed the suffix -iĉ- with male meaning in order to make the meaning of the basic word neutral.[65] However this proposal is not widely accepted by Esperanto speakers.
+
+Criticism of some parts of Esperanto motivated the creation of various new constructed languages like Ido, Novial, Interlingua and Lojban. However, none of these constructed languages have as many speakers as Esperanto does.
+
+Normal sample: Ĉiuj homoj estas denaske liberaj kaj egalaj laŭ digno kaj rajtoj. Ili posedas racion kaj konsciencon, kaj devus konduti unu la alian en spirito de frateco.
+
+Version in h-system: Chiuj homoj estas denaske liberaj kaj egalaj lau digno kaj rajtoj. Ili posedas racion kaj konsciencon, kaj devus konduti unu la alian en spirito de frateco.
+
+Version in x-system: Cxiuj homoj estas denaske liberaj kaj egalaj laux digno kaj rajtoj. Ili posedas racion kaj konsciencon, kaj devus konduti unu la alian en spirito de frateco.
+
+Simple English translation: All people are free and equal in dignity and rights. They are reasonable and moral, and should act kindly to each other.
+
+People sometimes use the word "Esperanto" in a metaphoric way (not in its literal sense). They use it to say that something aims to be international or neutral, or it uses a wide mixture of ideas. They say the programming language Java is "independent of specific computer systems [e.g. Windows, Android] like Esperanto is independent of ... nations".[67] Similarly, they call the font Noto "the Esperanto of fonts" because it tries to work well for every culture's writing.[68]

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+Engraving is putting a design onto a hard, flat surface, by carving into it. The result may be a decorative piece in itself, as when silver, gold or steel are engraved, or may provide a printing plate of copper or another metal, for printing images on paper which are also called engravings. Engraving was an important method in history of making images on paper, both in artistic ways, such as making a decorative print, and also for printing books and magazines. It has long been replaced by photography in its commercial uses and, is nowadays much less common in printmaking, where it has been almost completely replaced by etching and other techniques.
+
+Engravers use a steel tool called a burin to cut the picture or pattern into the surface, mostly a copper plate.[1] Gravers come in a variety of shapes and sizes that give different line types when used. The burin gives us a line that is unique because of its steady appearance and smooth edges. The angle tint tool has a slightly curved tip that is commonly used in printmaking. Florentine liners are flat-bottomed tools with multiple lines on them, used to do work on larger areas. Flat gravers are used for doing work on letters, as well as most musical instrument engraving work. Round gravers are commonly used on silver as well as other hard-to-cut metals such as nickel and steel.
+
+In ancient history, the only engraving that could be made were the shallow grooves found in some jewellery after 1000 B.C.
+
+In the European Middle Ages goldsmiths used engraving to decorate metal. It is thought that they began to print impressions of their designs to record them. From this grew the engraving of copper printing plates to make artistic images on paper in Germany in the 1430s. The first and greatest period of engraving was from about 1470 to 1530, with such masters as Martin Schongauer, Albrecht Dürer, and Lucas van Leiden.
+
+Thereafter engraving tended to lose popularity to etching, which was a much easier technique for an artist to learn. By the nineteenth century, most engraving was for commercial picture-making.
+
+Before the invention of photography, engraving was used to reproduce other forms of art, for example paintings. Engravings continued to be common in newspapers and many books into the early 20th century, because they were cheap to use in printing.
+
+When two sets of parallel line hatchings crossed each other for higher density, the pattern was known as cross-hatching. Claude Mellan is well known for his technique of using lines of different thicknesses. One example is his Sudarium of Saint Veronica, an engraving of the face of Jesus from a single spiralling line that starts at the tip Jesus's nose (pictured).
+
+Because of the high level of detail that can be done by a master engraver, faking engraved designs is almost impossible, and modern banknotes are almost always engraved, as are plates for printing money, checks, bonds and other papers that should not be faked. Engraving is so fine that a normal printer can not make the detail of hand engraved images properly. In the U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing, more than one engraver will work on the same printing plate, making it nearly impossible for any person to duplicate all the engraving on almost any banknote or document.
+
+Many classic postage stamps were engraved, although the practice is now mostly confined to particular countries, or used when a more "elegant" design is desired and a limited amount of different colours is acceptable.
+
+Engraving machines such as the K500 or K6 by Hell Gravure Systems use a diamond "pen" to cut cells. Each cell creates one printing dot later in the process. A K6 can have up to 18 engraving heads each cutting 8,000 cells per second to an accuracy of 0.1 µm and below. They are of course fully computer controlled and the whole process of cylinder making is fully automatic.
+
+The engraving process with diamonds is state of the art since the 1960s.
+
+Now, laser engraving machines are being made and even today the mechanical cutting has proven its strength in economical terms and quality. More than 4,000 engravers make about 8 million printing cylinders worldwide per year.
+
+The earliest allusion to engraving in the Bible may be the reference to Judah’s seal ring. (Genesis 38:18), followed by (Exodus 39.30). Engraving was commonly done with pointed tools of iron or even with diamond points. (Jeremiah 17:1).
+
+Each of the two onyx stones on the shoulder pieces of the high priest’s ephod was engraved with the names of six different tribes of Israel, and each of the 12 precious stones that adorned his breastpiece was engraved with the name of one of the tribes. The holy sign of dedication, the shining gold plate on the high priest’s turban, was engraved with the words: “Holiness belongs to Jehovah.” Bezalel, along with Oholiab, was qualified to do this specialized engraving work as well as to train others.—Ex 35:30-35; 28:9-12; 39:6-14, 30.

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+Amazon can be: