kerria lacca is a species of insect in the family kerriidae , the lac insects .

these are in the superfamily coccoidea , the scale insects .

this species is perhaps the most commercially important lac insect , being a main source of lac , a resin which can be refined into shellac and other products .

this insect is native to asia .

kerria lacca

kerria lacca <EOT> general remarks : takahashi ( 1949 ) regarded this species as a form or subspecies of kerria lacca . varshney ( 1976 ) gave a table of taxonomic characters to distinguish between kerria ( kerria ) lacca lacca , kerria ( kerria ) lacca ambigua and kerria ( kerria ) lacca mysorensis .

kerria ( kerria ) lacca ambigua ( misra ) ; varshney 1984b : 368 . change of combination

kerria lacca ambigua ( misra ) ; varshney 1977 : 43 . change of combination

raising kerria lacca keer entail heavy production costs and is not as difficult as farm work . locals just have to rezone forest land to raise kerria lacca keer and harvest shellac .

people in huoi leng commune tend palm trees to raise kerria lacca keer ( photo : baodienbienphu . com . vn )

studies on the biology of lac insect , laccifer lacca ( kerr ) targ .

huoi leng’s soil and weather are favorable for raising kerria lacca keer , a kind of insect that lives on palm trees and produces a shellac used in fine arts and medicine .

" studies on the biology of lac insect , laccifer lacca ( kerr ) targ . "

krishan sharma k , ramani r ( 2001 ) parasites effected reduction in fecundity and resin yield of two strains of indian lac insect , kerria lacca . indian j ent 63 : 456–459 .

studies on the biology of lac insect , laccifer lacca ( kerr ) targ . [ 1984 ]

since they began raising kerria lacca keer , h’mong people no longer burn the forests to create terraced fields . bare hills have been recovered with palm trees . kerria lacca keer raising areas have expanded to 300 hectares . traders come to huoi leng to buy shellac at high prices , sometimes as high as 150 usd per kg . hang say dua , chairman of the huoi leng people’s committee , says : “ about 200 h’mong households have become better - off from raising kerria lacca keer . h’mong people now have access to education and mass media and their knowledge has improved . their lives have improved remarkably . ”

genetic diversity in lac resin - secreting insects belonging to kerria spp . , as revealed through issr markers

genetic diversity in lac resin - secreting insects belonging to kerria spp . , as revealed through issr markers - pubag

lac is a natural resin secreted by a tiny insect – kerria lacca ( kerr ) for its own protection . this was an important resin because it was commercially used in various industries such as food , pharmaceuticals , cosmetics , varnishes , sealing wax , lubricants and insulating materials .

ho thi dinh says her family’s average annual income is 2 , 500 usd and their lives are now much better . “ we sell shellac and have enough money to afford to send my children to school and buy a motorbike . last season , i had enough money to buy 3 horses and 5 buffaloes . growing rice earns less money than raising kerria lacca keer . ” dinh said .

the purpose of this study is to clarify the taxonomic status of two species of kerria in china . fresh insects were collected from their host in the locations according the first record in publication . the two species were compared morphologically at the cellular level by studying their karyotypes , rapd reactions were performed , they were sequenced with ef1α genes and hybridization to establish their identifications , and their relationship with other species in genus kerria was analyzed .

citation : chen y , lu z , li q , hoffmann bd , zhang w ( 2014 ) multiple ant species tending lac insect kerria yunnanensis ( hemiptera : kerriidae ) provide asymmetric protection against parasitoids . plos one 9 ( 6 ) : e98975 . urltoken

the technique of random amplified polymorphic dna ( rapd ) was used to study the relationships of 12 populations from 7 species of kerria . the genetic distance and identity among species were generated by popgene32 ( yeh and boyle 1997 ) . the molecular dendrogram was constructed based on nei ' s genetic distance by meg a3 using the upgma method ( kumar et al . 2004 ) .

morphology , cytology , and molecular biology evidence consistently indicated k . yunnanensis and k . ruralis , the two chinese endemic species , had significant differences with the other five species examined in this study . the relationships of the seven species were basically consistent , with a few phylogenetic positions being incomplete . however , with no matter which methods , k . lacca and k . sindica , and k . pusana and k . nepalensis , always clustered together and formed two sister groups indicating a close genetic relationship between them . with the exception of rapd , k . nepalensis and k . pusana always clustered together , indicating a close genetic relationship . k . chinensis was rather special and always stood alone in a separate branch .

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copyright : © 2014 chen et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .

funding : this research was partly supported from grant 201204602 provided by special fund for forestry research in the public interest and national natural science foundation ( nsf ) grant 31270561 . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .

lac cultivation is unique among most agricultural practices in that it is obliged to be organic , because chemicals that can be used to kill predators and parasitoids of lac insects would also kill the lac insects . many ant species tend k . yunnanensis for honeydew [ 21 ] , and the presence of at least one species in china , crematogaster macaoensis , was recently found to improve key features of fitness of k . yunnanensis , including survival rate , number of females and number of offspring [ 22 ] , presumably by providing protection from predators and parasitoids . therefore ants have a clear role in the management of lac cultivation .

despite the economic importance of this agricultural system , and a clear reliance on ants for lac production , very little is known about lac insect - ant - parasitoid relationships . all other work conducted to date has been limited to the identification and basic biology of parasitoids [ 23 ] , [ 24 ] , [ 25 ] , [ 26 ] , [ 27 ] , and demonstrating the impacts of parasitoids on lac insects [ 22 ] , [ 28 ] , [ 29 ] . here , for the first time , we investigate the role of ants in protecting lac insects from parasitoids within the typical conditions of a lac farming system . specifically we address two hypotheses : 1 ) that different ant species with different abundance levels provide different levels of protection to k . yunnanensis ; and 2 ) that these relationships differ with the different life stages of k . yunnanensis .

the study was carried out on private land ; we confirmed that the owner of the land gave permission to conduct the study on this site .

at experimental commencement in october 2009 , one third of the trees throughout the plantation were inoculated with k . yunnanensis , typical of normal lac farming practices . inoculation involved placing brood lac , containing k . yunnanensis larvae , on branches . the larvae move from the brood lac onto the branches and aggregate .

we selected 174 d . obtusifolia that were eight years old , 2 . 5 m to 2 . 8 m high , with a trunk diameter of 5 cm to 7 cm , and spaced at least 20 m apart . for the ant exclusion treatment , prior to k . yunnanensis inoculation , all ants visiting or living on 60 trees were removed , and a ring barrier of insect glue was applied to the main branch 0 . 5 m above the ground to prevent ant access . all other vegetation touching the tree were also cleared . every second week the insect glue was replaced and the surrounding vegetation was cleared to maintain ant exclusion .

if our two treatments merely varied the abundance of a single ant species we would anticipate having a single relationship between parasitoids and the ants of the two ant attendance treatments . instead , because there are different ant species within the two ant attendance treatments , we would anticipate multiple relationships . this more complicated design reflects the on - ground reality of the farming system and therefore has greater practical application .

except when stated otherwise , analyses were conducted using statistica 11 . not all k . yunnanensis aggregations were parasitized and there was no pattern of lack of parasitism with treatment ( e . g . all non - parasitized aggregations being in the high ant attendance treatment , or increasing lack of parasitism with decreasing ant attendance ) , so we excluded such trees from statistical analyses , leaving 22 , 20 and 21 samples ( february ) and 28 , 29 and 22 samples ( april ) in the exclusion to high ant attendance treatments respectively .

mean ( ±se ) lac crust area sampled in the three treatments and two sample times .

to compensate for the slight non - homogeneity of sample size , we initially standardized the ant and parasitoid data per crust area , however , we found no relationship between ant abundance or parasitoid abundance with crust area . instead it appears that ants merely respond to the presence / absence of crust , and the effects on parasitoids are dependent on the type and number of ants present , irrespective of the size of the crust . additionally , the patterns of parasitoid abundance per crust and their statistical separation were identical when using non - standardized and standardized data . accordingly we used unadjusted abundance data for both ants and parasitoids in all analyses , and acknowledge that sample surface area of crusts between sample times are not fully homogeneous .

non - metric multidimensional scaling was used to compare homogeneity of ant community structure of the low ant attendance treatment between the two sample times , and parasitoid community structure among the three treatments in the two sample times . the association matrices were based on a bray - curtis association of species - level abundance data per crust of ants and parasitoids respectively . differences among categories were tested using analysis of similarity ( anosim ) for the ant data , and permanova for the parasitoid data . all multivariate analyses were conducted using primer 6 .

because parasitoid abundance and species varied so greatly between the two sample times , different statistical tests were used for different levels of analysis . total parasitoid abundance data were compared among treatments and between sample times using 2 - way anova , and tukey ' s hsd test for the post - hoc comparison of means . the abundance data was log ( x + 1 ) transformed so that residuals met parametric test assumptions , with normality and homogeneity of variance being assessed using graphical observations and levene ' s test respectively .

abundance data of individual species could only be assessed for the three most common species , but not always for both sample times . additionally these data could not satisfy assumptions for parametric tests . for consistency of tests , where there were enough data to perform a test , we analysed sample times separately using non - parametric kruskal - wallis anova .

parasitoid species richness per crust varied little and was heavily skewed , so we compared parasitoid species richness among treatments and between sample times using a poisson - log generalized linear model .

within the low ant attendance treatment we found 11 species tending crusts , six in february , and eight in april ( table s1 ) . the two most abundant species were crematogaster ferrari and c . macaoensis , contributing 50 . 8 and 30 . 5 % of individuals respectively . ordination of the species - level ant abundance data showed that the species and their abundances differed significantly between the two sample times ( figure 2 ; anosim global r = 0 . 133 , p = 0 . 005 ) . this is largely due to the february sample having approximately half ( 5 ) the number of ants per crust compared to the april sample ( 10 ) , and the greater presence of the two most common ants , c . ferrari and c . macaoensis in april compared to february ( present on 86 % of crusts vs 65 % respectively ) .

data are for low attendance treatment only , sampled in february ( closed symbols ) and april ( open symbols ) . 2d stress = 0 . 1

a total of 2574 individuals of parasitoids belonging to five species were collected ( table 1 ) . the two most abundant species were tetrastichus purpureus and tachardiaephagus tachardiae , contributing 82 . 7 % and 13 . 2 % of individuals respectively . total parasitoid abundance varied greatly with treatment ( two - way anova ; f = 4 . 4 , p = 0 . 014 ) and sample time ( f = 52 , p < 0 . 0001 ) , with the two factors having a strong interaction effect ( f = 33 , p < 0 . 0001 ) . total parasitoid abundance was lowest in the february sample when k . yunnanensis was in its younger life stage , and interestingly was significantly lower in the ant exclusion treatment ( figure 3 ) . in april , all three treatments had significantly different parasitoid abundances ( figure 3 ) , with abundance being highest in the ant exclusion treatment and the lowest in the high ant attendance treatment .

mean ( ±se ) parasitoid abundance in the three treatments and two sample times .

mean ( ±se ) parasitoid species abundance data within the three ant attendance treatments from the two sample times .

when ants were present , there were strong negative relationships between total parasitoid abundance and ant abundance , with the relationships being dependent upon the ant species composition and abundance ( figure 4 ) . for the single species c . macaoensis , its relationship with parasitoid abundance was consistent between the two sample times . however , the ant assemblages of the low ant attendance treatment that differed between the two sample times ( figure 2 ) displayed distinctly different relationships with parasitoid abundance ( figure 4 ) . the patterns of total parasitoid abundance were clearly driven by the two most abundant parasitoid species ( figure 5a , b ) . no relationship was evident for marietta javensis , the only other species with enough data to analyse ( figure 5c ) .

treatments and sample times are low ( triangles ) and high ( circles ) ant attendance treatments sampled in february ( closed symbols ) and april ( open symbols ) . relationship metrics are : low ant attendance february sample : y = 22 . 627e −0 . 459x , r 2 = 0 . 9257 ; low ant attendance april sample : y = 831 . 1e −0 . 439x , r 2 = 0 . 914 ; high ant attendance : y = 39371x −2 . 837 , r 2 = 0 . 8571 .

treatments and sample times are low ( triangles ) and high ( circles ) ant attendance treatments sampled in february ( closed symbols ) and april ( open symbols ) . relationship metrics are : graph a ) low ant attendance february sample : y = 70277e −0 . 301x , r 2 = 0 . 464 ; low ant attendance april sample : y = 839 . 3e −0 . 454x , r 2 = 0 . 827 ; high ant attendance : y = 2930 . 6x −2 . 079 , r 2 = 0 . 753 ; graph b ) low ant attendance february sample : y = 10 . 316x −1 . 128 , r 2 = 0 . 496 ; high ant attendance : y = 523271x −3 . 87 , r 2 = 0 . 638 .

treatments and sample times are low ( triangles ) and high ( circles ) ant attendance , and ant exclusion ( squares ) , sampled in february ( closed symbols ) and april ( open symbols ) . 2d stress = 0 . 1 .

our results clearly showed strong negative relationships between the abundance of tending ants and parasitoids , with the relationships being dependent upon the ant species present , ant abundance , and the k . yunnanensis developmental stage . greatest parasitism rates occurred at the oldest developmental stage measured , with the rate being least where crematogaster macoensis were present in high abundance .

asymmetric protection from enemies provided to symbionts by different ant species is well documented globally [ 7 ] , [ 10 ] , [ 33 ] , [ 34 ] with greater protection being provided by ants with greater abundance and greater aggression . here , c . macaoensis was the most abundant , and the most aggressive species , and it provided the greatest protection from parasitoids possibly because they build structures over the lac crusts that provide additional protection against parasitoids . so from the perspective of both k . yunnanensis , and the farmer , c . macaoensis is best to protect lac insects within this agricultural system .

more broadly for theoretical ecology , several hypotheses have been offered to explain mutually beneficial interactions between ants and honeydew - producing insects . our results supported the predictable rewards hypothesis [ 39 ] , [ 40 ] . for ants , the honeydew secreted by k . yunnanensis was predictable in space and time , which elicited repeated visits by ant foragers , and incidentally increased the likelihood of encounters with parasitoids without requiring an increase in ant activity or aggressiveness .

parasitoid trap , consisting of a 25 cm long×10 cm diameter polyester mesh ( 1 mm 2 ) , was placed on the lac crust to collect parasitoids .

parasitoid species and abundance captured from certain area of lac crust within the three ant attendance treatments from the two sample times , which were used in the analyses presented in the paper .

we thank the property owner of the lac - producing farm in yunnan province , china for access to the land , and dr . zhu chaodong for specimen identification .

conceived and designed the experiments : yc ql . performed the experiments : zl wz . analyzed the data : yc zl bh . contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools : yc zl . wrote the paper : yc bh .

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( vovworld ) – huoi leng is a disadvantaged mountain commune in muong cha district , dien bien province . in recent years , the commune has strived to fulfill its socio - economic targets and 10 % of its 200 poor households have escaped poverty . the improvement is due to changes in people’s production habits and views .

huoi leng covers an area of 10 , 000 hectares and has a population of 2 , 500 people , mainly of the h’mong ethnic group . they grow rice and corn on hillsides and their productivity is not very high .

local authorities have encouraged people to change animal raising on mountains to centralized husbandry , which ensures better animal health and higher profits . giang chu nu is a villager . “ previously , we farmed on terraced fields and grazed cattle on mountains but we didn’t have techniques and the yield was not high . now we are trained in modern production methods and production has improved . we earn higher incomes and our lives have changed positively . ”

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laccifer ambigua misra 1930 : 163 . type data : india : uttar pradesh , guna , jhansi , on " jheolia " [ a botanical or vernacular name of unknown plant ( kapur , 1958 ) ] . . syntypes , female and first instar , accepted valid name notes : varshney ( 1976 : 30 ) reported that no type material of the species described by misra , was found at banaras hindu university , varanasi , where dr . a . b . misra has been working . illustr .

biology : misra ( 1930 ) reported this species from " jheolia " , a vernacular name that was not verified by kapur ( 1958 ) and by varshney ( 1976 ) .

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wang , y . d . ( chinese academy of forest sciences , beijing ( china ) . inst . of lac research )

the following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . no available public dna sequences . download fasta file

wouters , jan , and verhecken , andré ( 1989 ) . " the coccid insect dyes : hplc and computerized diode - array analysis of dyed yarns " . studies in conservation 34 ( 4 ) : 189–200 . doi : 10 . 1179 / sic . 1989 . 34 . 4 . 189 .

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was identified by wang ziqing . both of them were collected in yunnan , china .

were collected in burma . the three species were identified by authors after a discussion with dr . xie yinping , who is an expert of scale insect in shanxi university , china .

microphotographs of chromosomes in different species were taken with a nikon e800 optical system using the air - dried method ( chen et al . 2007 ) and karyotypic parameters were measured by im50 software ( leica ltd . 1992 ) . karyotype analysis was performed according to the standard method ( leven 1964 ; stebbins 1971 ; guo 1972 ) . phylogenetic relationship of lac insects were studied to built the dendrogram clustered using upgma by applying karyotype resemblance - near coefficients ( λ ) and the evolution distance with specific software ( li et al . 2005 ) .

total genomic dna was isolated from whole insect body using a standard proteinase k , phenol / chloroform extraction technique ( marchant 1988 ; tian 1999 ) . ef1α genes were amplified by polymerase chain reaction ( pcr ) using primer pair forward ( 5′ - atgtgagcagtgtggcaatccaa - 3≈ ) and reverse ( 5′ - gaacgtgaacgtggtatcac - 3′ ) ( palumbi 1996 ) .

dna amplifications were carried out in the bio - rad mycycler thermal cycler . amplification cycles were as follows : 95° c for 4 min as initial denaturation step ; 35 cycles of 64° c denaturation for 1 min , 72° c annealing for 2 min , 72° c extension for 7 min , and ended by cooling at 4° c . the resulting sequences were assembled using bioedit version 7 . 0 . 5 . 3 (

all male insects were manually removed from twigs harboring second instar larvae and the remaining females were covered by a synthetic net sleeve ( 80 mesh ) , which protected the insects from attack from parasitoids and predators . when the females in the sleeves developed into adults , they were copulated with males chosen from other species . the female insects not copulating were treated as controls .

adult female : 1 . 04–1 . 9 mm long , 0 . 69–1 . 38 mm wide , globe - like body , dark reddish brown . anal tubercle heavily sclerotized with 0 . 08–0 . 38 mm long and 0 . 06–0 . 36 mm wide , nearly quadrate , apparently two - segmented and harboring 6–13 anal ring setae about 0 . 18–0 . 27 mm long . branchial tube less than 0 . 09 mm high , brachial plate with crater about 0 . 10–0 . 15 mm long , 0 . 08–0 . 14 mm wide , and 0 . 03–0 . 05 mm 2 in the center . dimples in crater are formed by the brachial pores , numbers vary from 8 to 15 . anterior spiracles are situated 0 . 02–0 . 11 mm to brachial plates with 0 . 18–0 . 3 lmm in length and 0 . 10–0 . 15mm in width , inside the keratinization trail is inconspicuous and less than 0 . 22 mm . dorsal spines are found between the brachia and anal tubercle , and have two parts : a stout pedicel about 0 . 01–0 . 11 mm long and 0 . 04–0 . 05 mm wide and a conspicuous scletotized spine averaged 0 . 10–0 . 23 mm in length . perivulvar pore clusters originate circularly near the anal tubercle . mouthparts have a labium about 0 . 31–1 . 40 mm long , 0 . 11–0 . 21 mm wide with inconspicuous segmentation and a pair of post oral lobes 0 . 03–0 . 12 mm wide just behind the mouth .

holotype : ♀ , paratypes , 8 ♀♀ , 4 may 1987 , yunnan , p . r . china ( ou and hong 1990 ) .

biological characteristics : bi - voltine , summer ( may–october ) and winter crops ( october - the next may ) . life history of females and males are list in

distribution : subtropical areas of pu ' er and lincang of yunnan province , p . r . china .

adult female : length on slide 1 . 02–2 . 3 mm and 0 . 58–1 . 27 mm wide , globe - like body , two body color types , i . e . dark reddish brown or yellow . anal tubercle heavily sclerotized , 0 . 06–0 . 36 mm long and 0 . 21–0 . 37mm wide , apparently two - segmented and consist 1–13 anal ring setae about 0 . 17–0 . 31 mm long . brachial tube less than 0 . 09 mm long , brachial plate with a crater about 0 . 08–0 . 13 mm long , 0 . 06–0 . 11 mm wide and 0 . 03–0 . 04 mm 2 in the center . numbers of pores in crater vary from 4 to 11 . anterior spiracles are situated 0 . 02–0 . 11 mm to brachia 0 . 18–0 . 26 mm long and 0 . 10–0 . 15 mm wide , inside the inconspicuous keratinization trail is less than 0 . 12 mm . dorsal spine heavily sclerotized 0 . 10–0 . 23 mm long ; pedicel of dorsal spine 0 . 02–0 . 16 mm long , 0 . 04–0 . 13 mm wide . perivulvar pore clusters circular , present near anal tubercle . mouthparts with a labium about 0 . 21–0 . 82 mm long , 0 . 12–0 . 19 mm wide , with inconspicuous segmentation and a pair of post oral lobes , each 0 . 06–0 . 14 mm wide , behind the mouthparts .

holotype : ♀ , paratypes , 7 ♀♀ , 10 june 1969 , yunnan , p . r . china ( wang et al . 1982 )

biological characteristics : bi - voltine , summer ( march–july ) and winter crops ( august - the next march ) . life history of female and male were list in

, respectively . two body color types , i . e . red and yellow . the ratio of red : yellow is about 12 : 1 .

distribution : tropical and subtropical areas of pu ' er and xishuangbanna of yunnan province , china .

shows the results . these specimens and permanent slides were deposited in research institute of resource insect of china .

phylogenetic hypotheses among seven species of lac insects based on the morphological characters by the mp method ( the numbers above branches are bootstrap values , chen et al . , 2008 ) . the aphid stomaphis japonica ( hemiptera : aphididae ) is the outgroup . high quality figures are available online .

are made of six metacentric ( or sub - metacentric ) and ten telocentric chromosomes . and

were formed with eight metacentric and ten telocentric chromosomes . both differ from other species and have a certain degree of uniqueness . differences of interspecific relationship were reflected in the centromere position of chromosomes . the cluster analysis method of karyotype resemblance - near coefficient indicated

had the highest identity in karyotype ( 0 . 9688 ) and nearest distance in evolution ( 0 . 0317 ) , which showed they were the latest species of the seven grouped in the dendrogram (

dendrogram of seven species of lac insect based on the karyotype resemblance - near coefficients and evolutionary distance . rnc = resemblance - near coefficients . ed = evolutionary distance . high quality figures are available online .

the results of rapd analysis showed the genetic distance inter - species were 0 . 1854–0 . 7917 , in which the average genetic distance among species was 0 . 4430 (

were 0 . 6297 and 0 . 5789 , respectively ; obviously for different categories . the results of upgma showed that the seven species could be divided into two natural groups (

was the earliest diverging member of this group and is placed as the base branch in the group .

dendrogram of lac insect among seven species based on genetic distances using the method of upgma . high quality figures are available online .

( 57 % ) , in which mp tree length = 377 , ci = 0 . 976 , ri = 0 . 813 , and rc = 0 . 793 using the maximum likelihood ( ml ) to build the phylogenetic tree , the gtr + g model was selected as the best model for phylogenetic analysis in accordance with the hlrt test ( - inl = 2913 . 3172 ) . the support value of all branches was in excess of 70 % . bayesian analysis results were consistent with the systematic relationships of mp and ml trees . except the branch of

, which was 92 % , other branches all received high posterior probability ( pp > 95 % ) .

majority - rule consensus tree resulting from bayesian analysis of ef1α gene ( model = gtr + g ) from seven species of lac insects and the aphid stomaphis japonica ( hemiptera : aphididae ) as outgroup . branches represented are based on the maximum likelihood topology . numbers above internodes indicate bayesian posterior probabilities ; numbers below internodes indicate nonparametric bootstrap proportions for the parsimony analysis ( left ) and likelihood analysis ( right ) . thickened branches indicate bayesian posterior probabilities ≥95 % . high quality figures are available online .

( bayes , 99 % ; mp , 100 % ; ml , 100 % ) and the other containing the remain five species ( bayes , 92 % ; mp , 92 % ; ml , 71 % ) . in group 1 ,

formed a sister branch , showing a close relationship , and indicated that they were the most recently evolved species of the seven .

was the earliest diverging member of group 2 , and has a distant relationship with the others .

were the most recently evolved species of the taxon , forming a close sister group with high support value ( bayes , 100 % ; mp , 83 % ; ml , 78 % ) .

produced first filial generation , indicating the close genetic relationship of the two species . however , crossbreeding between

) , which indicated that three populations belong to separate species with the existence of reproductive isolation among them .

should belong to different categories , with obvious differences from other five species on the morphological characters . the results were in accord with the study of morphological characteristics by using scanning electron microscopy , which confirmed lac commercial species in china was a new species with clear differences from

) , both higher than the average value of inter - species , which proved the three individuals should be classified into different species . this was in contrast to the idea that lac production species in china were the same as

the phylogenetic analysis also found that species distributed in similar ecological environments usually clustered indicating a near relationship .

was originally found ( india , pakistan , nepal , bangladesh , and sri lanka ) .

had the closest relationship and were sister taxa with high support values ( bayes , 99 % ; mp , 100 % ; ml , 92 % ) , in the most basal branch of seven species .

were the most recent of the genus , forming a close sister group with high support values ( bayes , 100 % ; mp , 83 % ; ml , 78 % ) . these four more advanced species were mainly distributed in edge of south subtropical and the north tropical regions .

was found in semi - arid and semi - humid area of southern subtropical zone , with 600–1500 m elevation and 18–20° c average annual temperature .

occured in xishuangbanna , yunnan province in the type humid subtropical climate , close to tropical north border , where the average annual temperature was 19–21° c and the annual precipitation was 1200–1700 mm .

distributed in 800–1400 m altitude area of taunggyi , lashio , meimiao , which belonged to subtropical climate with average annual temperature of 19–20° c and 1200–1500 mm average annual rainfall . while

was located at low elevations in south mandalay , about 200 m above sea level , in a tropical monsoon climate with annual average temperature of 23–29° c and an average of 800–1000 mm annual precipitation .

the authors thank dr . lei shi , youqing chen and engineer shoude ye for their kind help in collecting some lac insect specimens . this research work was supported by the national natural sciences foundation of china ( no . 30800105 ) and the national key technology support program ( 2006bad06b07 ) . the authors also offer special thanks to the anonymous reviewers .

paper copies of this article will be deposited in the following libraries . universitaetsbibliothek johann christian senckenberg , frankfurt germany ; national museum of natural history , paris , france ; field museum of natural history , chicago , illinois usa ; university of wisconsin , madison , usa ; university of arizona , tucson , arizona usa ; smithsonian institution libraries , washington d . c . usa ; the linnean society , london , england . the date of publication is given in ‘about the journal’ on the jis website .

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chen h , chen xm , feng y . cladistic analysis of phylogenetic relationships among 7 species of lac insects ( homoptera : tachardiidae ) .

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hall ta . bioedit : a user - friendly biological sequence alignment editor and analysis program for windows 95 / 98 / nt .

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palumbi sr . nucleic acids ii : the polymerase chain reaction . in : hillis dm , moritz cbk , editors .

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thompson jd , gibson tj , plewniak f , jeanmougin f , higgins dg . the clustalx windows interface : flexible strategies for multiple sequence alignment aided by quality analysis tools .

tamura k , dudley j , nei m , kumar s . mega4 : molecular evolutionary genetics analysis ( mega ) software version 4 . 0 .

tian yf , huang g , zheng zm . a simple method for isolation of genomic dna on insect .

varshney rk . taxonomic studies on lac insects of india ( homopetra : tachardiidae ) .

varahney rk . a review of family tachardiidae ( kerridae ) in the orient ( homoptera : coccoidea ) .

wang zq , yao df , cui sy , liang cj . a new species of laccifer , with preliminary studies on the biological characteristics ( homoptera : coccoidea : lacciferidae ) .

yeh fc , boyle tj . population genetic analysis of co - dominant and dominant markers and quatntitative traits .

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lakra , r . k . ( haryana agricultural univ . , hisar ( india ) . dept . of entomology )

studies on extraction , isolation , purification and antioxidation activity of flavonoids from the fruits of avicennia marina , s793 . 9

study on application of non - phosphate additive in frozen penaeus vannamei and mechanism of water - holding , ts254 . 4

modification for pva - based composite packaging material with nano - sio 2 and its influence on fresh preservation effect of salted duck eggs , ts253 . 46

optimization of extraction of gastrodin from rhizoma gastrodia by response surface methodology , r284 . 1

study on the synthesis of tmpde and the measurement of vapor - liquid equilibrium of the mixture , tq225 . 2

based on the response surface method injection molding process optimization and quality prediction , tq320 . 662

study on gannan prairie rat damage regionalization and control technique and prevention and control strategic for main harmful rodents , s812 . 6

determination of 1 - deoxynojirimycin in silkworm and mulberry and optimization of extraction process , s881 . 24

scientists from icar - iinrg – vaibhav d . lohot and a . mohanasundaram discovered lac insects in the peripheral areas of jawadhu hills , gandhi nagar , cmc and vellore fort on rain tree and pipal tree during a survey . — photo : v . m . maninathan

two scientists from the indian council of agricultural research ( icar ) - indian institute of natural resins and gums ( iinrg ) , ranchi , have discovered lac insect on rain tree and pipal tree in the peripheral areas of jawadhu hills , gandhi nagar in katpadi and vellore fort .

in fact , the resin was a major source of livelihood for tribals in jharkhand , chhattisgarh , odisha and west bengal as it was traditionally used in making jewellery , according to the scientists .

the scientists from icar - iinrg – vaibhav d . lohot ( plant physiology ) and a . mohanasundaram ( entomology ) - came across the lac insect and their host plants during a survey across various parts of vellore district including yelagiri hill , alangayam , tirupattur , vaniyambadi and gudiyatham , and kancheepuram and tiruvannamalai districts , from october 28 to 31 .

“we have conducted surveys across tamil nadu . we had carried out surveys in madurai and theni in 2011 and in salem in 2014 and found the insect on rain tree , known as ‘thoongu moonchi maram’ in tamil , ” mr . mohanasundaram said .

now , the two scientists , said , for the first time , they have found the lac insect and their host plants in the peripheral areas of jawadhu hills that is venkatesapuram , gandhi nagar in katpadi and vellore fort . it was found on rain tree and pipal tree ( ‘arasa maram’ ) , he added . the insect’s host plants were also observed during the survey .

he said the resin had medicinal value and was used in creams for treating cracked heels , tablet coating and also in ayurveda .

lac insect was reported in the state from the 1930s . however , over the years , lac insect cultivation has lost importance in the state , and people were not aware of it now , leading to disappearance of the insect from southern parts of india , the scientists said .

it is here that icar - iinrg has been playing a pivotal role . with india being a leading producer and exporter of lac resin in the world , icar - iinrg that was established in 1924 is exclusively dedicated to lac insect cultivation . the institute has been taking up exploration , collection and conservation of lac insect and host plants throughout the country on a regular basis .

“this exploration activity was mainly taken up to conserve lac insect , its host plant biodiversity from extinction , ” he said .

with this discovery , the scientists will be taking samples of the insect for morphology and molecular study . “the insect is usually found in areas where the temperature is between 36 and 37 degree celsius . we will also study how it exists in a place like vellore where temperature levels are high , ” he added .

this discovery , they say , has brightened the scope of lac cultivation in the state and will provide income source to many people .


apolygus lucorum is a species of true bug in the miridae family .

it can be found everywhere in europe except for albania , bulgaria , iceland , malta , and portugal .

apolygus lucorum

apolygus lucorum <EOT> early season host plants of apolygus lucorum ( heteroptera : miridae ) in northern china .

apolygus lucorum ( meyer - dur 1843 ) - - det . m . d . schwartz

seasonal migration of apolygus lucorum ( hemiptera : miridae ) over the bohai sea in northern china .

early season host plants of apolygus lucorum ( heteroptera : miridae ) in northern china . - pubmed - ncbi

seasonal migration of apolygus lucorum ( hemiptera : miridae ) over the bohai sea in northern china . - pubmed - ncbi

citation : pan h , lu y , wyckhuys kag , wu k ( 2013 ) preference of a polyphagous mirid bug , apolygus lucorum ( meyer - dür ) for flowering host plants . plos one 8 ( 7 ) : e68980 . urltoken

acute toxicity of the essential oil of a . tuberosum leaves and its major constituents against ap . lucorum adults

pan , hongsheng ; liu , bing ; lu , yanhui ; wyckhuys , kris a . g . . 2015 . seasonal alterations in host range and fidelity in the polyphagous mirid bug , apolygus lucorum ( heteroptera : miridae ) . plos one 10 ( 2 ) : e0117153 .

in this study , we related a . lucorum adult abundance of on a given plant species with plant phenology data . our objectives were ( 1 ) to assess temporal differences in the extent of flower preference by a . lucorum adults , and ( 2 ) to assess the role of flower preference as the driver of a . lucorum host plant switching .

insect information : apolygus lucorum feed on leaves by leaving small brown holes in the foliage . the species can damage fruits as well , by leaving bumps on them . when they drink the sap , they inject their poisonous salivary juices , which can cause buds , leaves and fruit distortions .

detail : this pheromone lure is for apolygus lucorum . manufactured with high quality sex pheromone and constant release vial carriers , our pheromone lures are species specific , residue free and effective for attracting targeted adult male damaging insects for more than 45 days in the fields , perfect for monitoring or mass trapping .

pherobio technology has been committed to developing , manufacturing and marketing high quality apolygus lucorum for years , which is well - known as one of the largest professional manufacturers and suppliers . our insect pheromone product comes in low price , easy operation and excellent performance . now , take action to check the pricelist with us and try our customized service .

the selective response of alucor46 to plant volatiles and its female - biased expression suggest that this receptor could be involved by a . lucorum in locating host plant for feeding and oviposition [ 21 , 22 , 23 ] .

tissue expression patterns of alucor46 in adults of a . lucorum . a : antenna ; h : heads without antenna ; t : thoraxes ; ab : abdomens ; l : legs . asterisk indicates significant difference between female and male .

the red line indicates the flowering period . data of population dynamics of a . lucorum on cotton ( gossypium hirsutum l . ) and mungbean ( vigna radiata ( l . ) wilczek ) in 2007 were cited from [ 26 ] .

at a given time , a . lucorum showed a clear preference for a limited number of plants species . as not all plant species are present in all agricultural landscapes of northern china , a . lucorum abundance is deemed highly dependent upon location and composition of local agricultural landscapes [ 36 ] . in china , there are different cropping patterns , including mixed plantations of food crops and cotton , fruit trees and cotton , pastures and cotton , and so forth [ 37 ] . in each cropping pattern , the dominant overwintering location and seasonal host plant range of a . lucorum vary considerably [ 24 ] , which would lead to different patterns of host plant use ( inc . seasonal dynamics , between - plant transfer ) .

the essential oil of a . tuberosum exhibited acute toxicity against ap . lucorum with an ld 50 value of 20 . 03 μg per adult ( table 2 ) . the constituent , diallyl trisulfide possessed acute toxicity against ap . lucorum with an ld 50 value of 10 . 13 μg per adult , while allyl methyl trisulfide , diallyl disulfide , and dimethyl trisulfide had ld 50 values of 21 . 10 μg per adult , 28 . 10 μg per adult , and 21 . 65 μg per adult , respectively ( table 2 ) .

relative electroantennogram ( eag ) responses of female and male a . lucorum to six plant volatiles . ns indicates that there are no significant differences . asterisks indicate significant differences in eag response between female and male antennae , p < 0 . 05 . error bars indicate sem ( n = 6 ) .

in earlier work , seasonal host switching of certain polyphagous mirid bugs ( e . g . l . lineolaris , pseudatomoscelis seriatus [ reuter ] ) has been related to their preference for flowering host plants [ 19 ] , [ 29 ] , [ 30 ] . in our study , a . lucorum equally exhibited a clear preference for flowering plants and switched food plants according to the succession of different flowering plant species in the local agro - ecosystem [ 22 ] , [ 25 ] . it provided important information for further understanding the interaction between a . lucorum and host plants , and exploring the patterns of population dynamics of this mirid bug in different host plants .

over the course of the experiment , the proportion of flowering plants with the presence of a . lucorum adults was significantly higher than that of non - flowering plants in each of the different periods ( inc . early july , late july , early august , late august , and early september ) ( p < 0 . 05 ) ( table 2 ) . more specifically , the proportions of flowering and non - flowering plants exploited by a . lucorum adults were 50 . 0–100 . 0 % and 11 . 3–31 . 8 % in early july , 48 . 7–95 . 8 % and 10 . 1–58 . 3 % in late july , 63 . 6–98 . 4 % and 4 . 8–51 . 7 % in early august , 71 . 0–96 . 4 % and 10 . 9–45 . 0 % in late august , and 73 . 9–96 . 3 % and 18 . 2–63 . 2 % in early september , respectively ( table 2 ) .

a chi - square test was performed to compare the extent to which a . lucorum adults visited flowering vs . non - flowering plants during a given specific 2 - wk sampling window per year . each sampling period comprised three or four field surveys . if flowers were found at one or more surveys , the plant species was regarded as “flowering” for the corresponding period . on the other hand , if no flowers were found during any of the surveys , the respective plant species was treated as “non - flowering” .

the a . lucorum ( meyer - dür ) used in all experiments were obtained from a laboratory colony established and maintained at the institute of plant protection , chinese academy of agricultural sciences , beijing , china . insects were reared with fresh corns and green beans and maintained at 28 ± 1 °c , with 60 % ± 5 % relative humidity and a 14 h : 10 h light : dark photoperiod . antennae , heads ( without antennae ) , thoraxes , abdomens and legs were collected from male and female adults on the third day after eclosion , immediately frozen in liquid nitrogen and stored at −70 °c .

our work showed year - by - year fluctuations in general a . lucorum abundance ( figure 2 – 7 ) , which affected its population levels on a given host plant at any specific time . yearly differences in climatic conditions and associated plant germination and growth are thought to be the prime determinants of those seasonal patterns [ 32 ] , [ 38 ] , [ 39 ] . computer models maybe help to simulate its population dynamics in the agro - ecosystem and then analyze the effects of various biotic factors ( e . g . , host plant selection , phenological relative survival ) and abiotic factors ( e . g . temperature , rainfall ) on its seasonal occurrence [ 40 ] .

for a given plant species with high adult abundance , standard attraction during flowering periods was significantly higher than during non - flowering periods ( p < 0 . 05 ) ( figure 1 , table 3 ) . the average standard attraction of all selected flowering plants at flowering stage was 9 . 3 , 7 . 7 , 19 . 5 , 15 . 5 , 12 . 9 , and 12 . 3 times higher than that during non - flowering periods from 2007 until 2012 , respectively . seasonal fluctuations in a . lucorum adult abundance on each plant species and the relative standard attraction for a given plant species showed similar trends . the mean population level of the above plant species at flowering stage was 10 . 3 , 17 . 8 , 28 . 9 , 18 . 6 , 13 . 9 , and 18 . 2 times higher than that during non - flowering periods from 2007 to 2012 , respectively ( figure 2 – 7 ) .

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museum für naturkunde leibniz - institut für evolutions - und biodiversitätsforschung invalidenstr . 43 10115 berlin germany e - mail : fauna - eu ( at ) mfn - berlin . de website : urltoken

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species are green and rather broadly oval in shape . the black tibial spines do not arise from black spots and the 2nd antennal segment is usually shorter than the width of the pronotum at the base .

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in some areas ( esp . asia ) seriously damages crops incl . cotton , grape , etc .

schuh , r . t . 2002 - 2013 . on - line systematic catalog of plant bugs ( insecta : heteroptera : miridae ) .

review of lygocoris species found in canada and alaska ( heteroptera : miridae ) l . a . kelton . 1971 . d . p . pielou .

heteroptera of economic importance schaefer c . w . , panizzi a . r . ( eds ) . 2000 . crc press , boca raton , fl , 828 pp .

alien true bugs ( hemiptera : heteroptera ) in canada : composition and adaptations scudder g . g . e . , foottit r . g . 2006 . the canadian entomologist 138 : 24 - 51 .

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state key laboratory for biology of plant diseases and insect pests , institute of plant protection , chinese academy of agricultural sciences , beijing 100193 , china .

1 school of life science , shanxi normal university , linfen 041000 , china ; moc . 621 @ 4141213gnahz

2 state key laboratory for biology of plant diseases and insect pests , institute of plant protection , chinese academy of agricultural sciences , beijing 100193 , china ; moc . 361 @ 0220 _ wsy ( s . y . ) ; nc . saacppi @ gnawrg ( g . w . )

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) , with an open reading frame ( orf ) of 1185 bp , encoding a protein of 394 amino acids . alucor46 is predicted to present 7 tmds with an intracellular n - terminus and an extracellular c - terminus . its identity with other ors of the same species is very poor , 12 . 7 % with alucorco and between 10 % and 16 % with other individual ors (

alignment of amino acid sequences of alucor46 , alucor12 , alucor18 , alucor30 , alucor28 and alucorco . the seven transmembrane domains ( tm1–tm7 ) are marked by solid lines . the conserved amino acid sites among the 6 ors are marked with black shading . amino acid similarities are very poor between these members . in particular , alucor46 is 12 . 7 % identical to alucorco and shares 15 . 7 % , 13 . 7 % , 14 . 2 % and 10 . 4 % amino acids with alucor12 , alucor18 , alucor28 and alucor30 , respectively .

was monitored by quantitative real - time pcr ( qrt - pcr ) . the results show that

oocytes and responses to odorants were recorded using two - electrode voltage clamp . we used 65 compounds including terpenoids , alcohols , aldehydes and benzoates . only six compounds : (

functional characterization of alucor46 / orco in xenopus oocytes . ( a ) inward current responses of alucor46 / orco xenopus oocytes to 10 −4 m solution of ( s ) - ( − ) - limonene , ( r ) - ( + ) - limonene , ( e ) - 2 - hexenal , ( e ) - 3 - hexenol , 1 - heptanol and ( 1r ) - ( − ) - myrtenol ; ( b ) response profile of alucor46 / orco xenopus oocytes . error bars indicate standard error of the mean ( sem ) ( n = 6 ) ; ( c ) tuning curve of alucor46 . tuning curve for the alucor46 to an odor panel comprising 65 odorants arranged along the x - axis . the odors which elicited the strongest responses are in the middle of the distribution , the weakest near the edges .

dose - response of alucor46 / orco expressed in xenopus . ( a ) alucor46 / orco xenopus oocytes were stimulated with a concentrations range of ( e ) - 2 - hexenal , ( e ) - 3 - hexenol , 1 - heptanol and ( 1r ) - ( − ) - myrtenol ; ( b ) dose - response curves of alucor46 / orco xenopus oocytes to ( e ) - 2 - hexenal , ( e ) - 3 - hexenol , 1 - heptanol and ( 1r ) - ( − ) - myrtenol . responses are normalized by defining the maximal response as 100 in each group . the error bar indicates sem ( n = 6 ) .

the structure of six active compounds and the half maximal effective concentration ( ec 50 ) . values of four compounds .

assay . the mean eag response value to the blank stimulus ( 10 μl hexane ) was 84 . 44 ± 3 . 74 ( mean ± sem ) μv for

females and 80 . 28 ± 4 . 84 μv for males . the mean response values to the reference stimulus ( 10 μl of 0 . 1 m 1 - hexanol ) , was 219 . 14 ± 14 . 46 μv for females and 222 . 22 ± 15 . 86 μv for males , which were significantly higher than to the blank stimulus ( both

) - 3 - hexenol proved to be the strongest stimuli , followed by 1 - heptanol . the other three stimuli produced much weaker signals . responses were generally similar between sexes , in some cases significantly higher in female antennae (

) . different chemicals with similar structures could activate the same or , a fact proven by many in vitro experiments . for example , in

] . however , although the four chemicals could stimulate similar responses in heterologous expression , the eag responses to them in both female and male showed significant differences . this may be caused by the fact that olfactory selectivity does not only depend on ors but also on other olfactory genes such as obps , sensory neuron membrane proteins ( snmps ) and odorant - degrading enzymes ( odes ) , as well as from the expression level of these genes [

] . there is also a possibility that other ors tuned to the same compounds may exist in the olfactory system of this species .

in conclusion , alucor46 is a receptor tuned to host plant volatiles and could represent an attractive target to control this important agricultural pest .

the 65 odorants tested in this study are listed in table s1 . all the chemicals were purchased from sigma - aldrich ( saint louis , mo , usa ) . in two - electrode voltage - clamp electrophysiological recordings , odorants were dissolved in dimethyl sulphoxide ( dmso ) as 1 m stock solutions . before experiments , these were diluted to the appropriate concentrations in 1× ringer’s buffer ( 96 mm nacl , 2 mm kcl , 5 mm mgcl 2 , 0 . 8 mm cacl 2 , and 5 mm hepes , ph 7 . 6 ) . in eag experiments , the six selected compounds , ( s ) - ( − ) - limonene , ( r ) - ( + ) - limonene , ( e ) - 2 - hexenal , ( e ) - 3 - hexenol , 1 - heptanol and ( 1r ) - ( − ) - myrtenol , were dissolved in hexane at the concentration of 0 . 1 m .

total rna was isolated using trizol reagent ( invitrogen , carlsbad , ca , usa ) , quantified on a nanodrop - 2000 spectrophotometer ( nanodrop technologies , inc . , wilmington , de , usa ) and digested with dnasei ( fermentas , glen burnie , md , usa ) to remove trace amounts of genomic dna , before synthesis of single - strand cdna using revert aid first strand cdna synthesis kit ( fermentas ) . the cdna of antennae was used as the template for gene cloning and , together with cdnas from heads ( without antennae ) , thoraxes , abdomens and legs as templates for qrt - pcr .

to clone the full - length orf of alucor46 specific primers were designed using primer premier 5 . 0 software ( premier biosoft international , palo alto , ca , usa ) ; their sequences are reported in table s2 . pcr reaction mixtures of 25 μl contained 1 μl cdna , 0 . 25 μl primestar hs dna polymerase , 5 μl 5× primerstar buffer , 2 μl dntp mixture ( 2 . 5 mm each ) and 0 . 5 μl of each primer ( 10 μm ) . pcr conditions were : initial denaturation at 95 °c for 3 min ; 35 cycles of 95 °c for 30 s , 55 °c for 30 s , and 72 °c for 2 min ; final extension at 72 °c for 10 min . the amplification product was purified from 1 . 0 % agarose gels and ligated into the peasy - t3 vector ( transgenbiotech , beijing , china ) following the manufacturer’s instructions . plasmids were extracted and sequenced at bgi ( beijing , china ) .

, qrt - pcr was performed using cdna from antennae ( a ) , heads without antennae ( h ) , thoraxes ( t ) , abdomens ( ab ) and legs ( l ) on the abi prism 7500 fast detection system ( applied biosystems , carlsbad , ca , usa ) . to correct for samples variation and normalize

) was used as a reference . primers were designed using the beacon designer 7 . 90 software ( premier biosoft international ) (

) . qrt - pcr reactions were conducted in 20 μl reaction mixtures containing 0 . 5 μl of each primer ( 10 μm ) , 1 μl of sample cdna , 8 μl of sterilized h

o and 10 μl 2× go taq qpcr master mix ( promega , madison , wi , usa ) . the qrt - pcr cycling program was : 95 °c for 2 min , 40 cycles of 95 °c for 30 s , 60 °c for 1 min . relative quantification was performed by using the comparative 2

maximum ) . each experiment was repeated three times using three independently isolated rna samples .

the full orf of alucor46 was amplified by primers with restriction enzyme sites ( apa i and not i ) ( table s2 ) and cloned into pt7ts vector . the vector was linearized by the restriction enzyme sma i and complimentary ribonucleic acid ( crna ) was synthesized from the linearized plasmid using mmessage mmachine t7 kit ( ambion , austin , tx , usa ) .

relative eag responses for each compound were calculated by the formula : relative eag response = ( eag response to the test compound − mean eag response to the blank stimulus ) / ( mean eag response to the reference stimulus − mean eag response to the blank stimulus ) [ 39 ] . the differences of mean relative eag response between female and male to the same test compound were compared using student’s t - tests . statistical analyses of the above data were processed in spss 23 . 0 .

we thank paolo pelosi for comments and editorial assistance on the manuscript . this work was supported by national natural science foundation of china ( 31471833 and 31321004 ) and the national transgenic crop initiative ( 2012zx08009001 ) .

zhixiang zhang , meiping zhang , guirong wang and yang liu conceived and designed the experiments ; zhixiang zhang , meiping zhang , shuwei yan and yang liu performed the experiments ; zhixiang zhang and yang liu analyzed the data ; zhixiang zhang contributed reagents / materials / analysis tools ; zhixiang zhang , meiping zhang and yang liu wrote the paper .

the authors declare no conflict of interest . the founding sponsors had no role in the design of the study ; in the collection , analyses , or interpretation of data ; in the writing of the manuscript , and in the decision to publish the results .

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copyright : © 2013 pan et al . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .

funding : this research was supported by the national basic research program of china ( no . 2012cb114104 ) , and the special fund for agro - scientific research in the public interest ( 201103012 ) , the national natural science funds ( no . 31222046 ) . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .

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or28 is sensitively tuned to ( z ) - 3 - hexenyl acetate and few structurally similar compounds .

or28 responds to three attractive flowering compounds butyl acrylate , butyl propionate and butyl butyrate .

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lygocoris pabulinus ? similar to my image submitted here but it seems too yellow and too squat for that species .

this does look better in some ways but the images and description at britishbugs . org . uk , here , seem a little different . i added another image which shows the tibial spines , not visible in my first image , as well as detail of the cuneus . i wasn ' t sure if there were any other details that might be useful so i uploaded the entire image at high resolution as well . you may have to download it to see it at full res . i appreciate dr . schwartz ' s determination and i do not doubt it it . i only add the images in case the determination was based on assumed detail not visible in the original image . i certainly mean no disrespect .

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department of entomology , china agricultural university , 2 yuanmingyuan west rd . , haidian district , beijing 100193 , people’s republic of china

the yield of essential oil of a . tuberosum was 0 . 005 % ( v / w based on fresh weight ) , while its density was determined to be 1 . 018 g / ml . a total of 20 components ( 19 of them were sulfur - containing compounds ) from the essential oil of a . tuberosum were identified , accounting for 97 . 95 % of the total oil . the principal constituents of a . tuberosum essential oil were allyl methyl trisulfide ( 36 . 24 % ) , diallyl disulfide ( 27 . 26 % ) , diallyl trisulfide ( 18 . 68 % ) , and dimethyl trisulfide ( 9 . 23 % ) ( table 1 ) .

ri , retention index , as determined on an hp - 5ms column using the homologous series of n - hydrocarbons .

the essential oil of a . tuberosum leaves showed less acute toxicity against the adults of ap . lurocum than the garlic essential oil ( ld 50 = 13 . 36 μg per adult , table 2 ) . garlic essential oil was chosen as a positive control because of its strong insecticidal activity , for example , fumigant activity against the japanese termite , reticulitermes speratus ( park and shin 2005 ) , larvicidal activity to ae . albopictus ( tedeschi et al . 2011 ) , contact toxicity against pear psyllid , cacopsylla chinensis ( zhao et al . 2013 ) . in fact , the essential oil and other extracts from a . sativum had been developed into a series of pest control insecticides for use against several pests , e . g . , garlic barrier ag ( garlic barrier ag , glendale , ca ) and envir epel ( cal crop usa , greeley , co ) .

this work was supported by special fund for agro - scientific research in the public interest ( 201103012 - 3 ) . we thank dr . liu qr from college of life sciences , beijing normal university , beijing 100875 , for the identification of the experimental plant material .

biological activity of volatile di - n - propyl disulfide from seeds of neem , azadirachta indica ( meliaceae ) , to two species of stored grain pests , sitophilus oryzae ( l . ) and tribolium castaneum ( herbst )

sulfur constituents of the essential oil of nira ( allium tuberosum rottl . ) cultivated in brazil

sulfur volatiles from allium spp . affect asian citrus psyllid , diaphorina citri kuwayama ( hemiptera : psyllidae ) , response to citrus volatiles

volatile constituents of chinese chive ( allium tuberosum rottl . ex sprengel ) and rakkyo ( allium chinense g . don ) .

j . environ . sci . health b pestic . food contam . agric . wastes

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effect of dietary protein and carbohydrates on survival and growth in larvae of the henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata ( f . ) ( coleoptera : coccinellidae )

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