the aesculapian snake / ˌɛskjəˈleɪpiən / ( now zamenis longissimus , previously elaphe longissima ) , is a species of nonvenomous snake native to europe , a member of the colubrinae subfamily of the family colubridae .

growing up to 2 metres ( 6.6 ft ) in total length ( including tail ) , it counts among the largest european snakes , though not as massive as the four-lined snake ( elaphe quatuorlineata ) or the montpellier snake ( malpolon monspessulanus ) .

the aesculapian snake has been of cultural and historical significance for its role in ancient greek and roman mythology and derived symbolism .

aesculapian snake

aesculapian snake <EOT> the aesculapian snake ( elaphe longissima ) is a nonvenomous snake native to europe .

the italian aesculapian snake ( zamenis lineatus ) is a species of snake in the colubridae family .

1 . adder - vipera berus . 2 . grass snake - natrix natrix . 3 . smooth snake - coronella austriaca . 4 . aesculapian snake - zamenis longissimus . 5 . barred grass snake - natrix helvetica .

in the third chapter of our series introducing hungary - native snake species , we are discussing the aesculapian snake ( zamenis longissimus ) . . .

' photograph , aesculapian snake ( coluber longissimus ) ' . copyright owner of work : herbert . . .

habitat use of the aesculapian snake , zamenis longissimus , at the northern extreme of its range in northwest bohemia .

aesculapian snake ( zamenis longissimus ) from bulgaria displaying defensive behaviour . rattling its tail to draw attention from the head .

jason steel photographing a wild aesculapian snake along regents canal in london , uk . photo taken by australian photographer diane paine .

zoological director nick jackson said : " the aesculapian snake is a harmless , non - venomous species which feeds mainly on rodents .

' photograph , aesculapian snake ( coluber longissimus ) ' . copyright owner of work : herbert . . . | the national archives

both albino and melanistic specimens of aesculapian snakes have been found in the wild in austria , slovenia and italy but these are incredibly rare . in greece grey morphs of the aesculapian snake can be found .

this close - up shot shows the smooth un - keeled scales of adult female aesculapian snake number 15 , of the london population .

ebscohost | 117833477 | habitat use of the aesculapian snake , zamenis longissimus , at the northern extreme of its range in northwest bohemia .

in the uk we have three native snake species and one non - native snake that has established healthy breeding colonies at two different sites . the four snake species found are :

the aesculapian rat snake arrived in conwy during the mid - sixties when the founder of the welsh mountain zoo , robert jackson , imported reptiles from italy .

the aesculapian snake is one of four species of rat snake found in europe and its range once reached far further north than it does now when the earth ' s climate was warmer . this vast range may have been partly due to escaped specimens when the romans kept aesculapian snakes in their temples during the roman occupation of europe .

although considered non - native . the aesculapian snake has been protected by uk law since 1992 , against being harmed or killed under the 1981 wildlife & countryside act .

at some point , the aesculapian snakes must have escaped into the zoo grounds and started breeding .

the aesculapian snake is associated with greek mythology , from which it takes its name : aesculapius , the god of healing , held a staff with a snake coiled around it . there are similar stories of healing snakes in the old testament .

so although now considered a non - indigenous species the aesculapian snake may have once been native to the uk . this topic is covered in great detail in the 1998 book "

you may be aware that there are a couple of wild populations of non - venomous aesculapian snakes .

the aesculapian snake has a uniformly brown back with a streak of darker colour behind the eyes . it has a yellowish belly with ridged scales which are specially adapted for climbing trees .

reports by the british media about the aesculapian snake colonies found in the uk . these scaremongering stories were full of false information and inaccurate reports with ridiculous claims and headlines including : "

in the uk we have three native snake species and one non - native snake that has established healthy breeding colonies at two different sites . these are :

the fourth snake found only in two specific parts of the uk is the non - native aesculapian snake . although considered non - native to the uk there are two well established breeding colonies of aesculapian snakes in great britain that have been in existence now for over 25 years . one is in central london , england and the other is in colwyn bay , wales .

the snake mentioned in the symbol is an aesculapian snake which belongs to the family colubridae . its zoological name elaphe longissima . smooth , glossy , and slender , the snake has a uniformly brown back with a streak of darker color behind the eyes . the snake ' s belly is yellowish or whitish and has ridged scales that catch easily on rough surfaces [ 8 ] ( like that of a pole or staff ) .

slithering along the branches of this tree , the aesculapian snake is a very competent climber . they use their strong prehensile tail to grasp a firm grip when climbing or when being handled .

update 1st june , 2018 : we just set up snake _ id , a cool new page that simplifies snake identification . be sure to check it out !

no , not at all . the aesculapian snake is non - venomous and not an aggressive species . unless you ' re a rodent or a small bird , then you ' re quite safe .

aesculapian snakes get their name from the greek god aesculapius , the greek god of medicine , who was the son of apollo . aesculapius was reputed to have mystical healing powers and the ability to transform himself into the harmless aesculapian snake . aesculapian snakes were used in ancient temple ceremonies for healing and sexual virility rituals performed by both the greeks and the romans . the greek god aesculapius is often depicted holding a snake - entwined staff . this staff became a symbol for healing which is still used in modern medicine today .

• anyone wanting to report sightings of aesculapian snakes around the canal can contact will atkins at lehartrust @ hotmail . com

smooth , glossy , and slender , the snake has a uniformly brown back with a streak of darker color behind the eyes . the snake ' s belly is yellowish or whitish and has ridged scales that catch easily on rough surfaces , making it especially adapted for climbing trees . scientific classification : the aesculapian snake belongs to the family colubridae . it is classified as elaphe longissima .

the simple answer to this question is no . following extensive studies of both the aesculapian snake populations in the uk by leading herpetologists including wolfgang wuster in bangor , wales , & will atkins in london it has

this corn snake was found in a suburban garden in kent . corn snakes originally come from

corsetti , luigi ; antonio romano 2008 . on the occurrence of the italian aesculapian snake , zamenis lineatus ( camerano , 1891 ) , in latium ( central italy ) . acta herpetologica 3 ( 2 ) : 179 - 183

& i ; the aesculapian snake - distribution and ecology in central europe & o ; . provides new facts on ecology , distribution and history of the largest and least known snake in central europe . some parts of the book are based on a study conducted in one of germany ' s isolated populations of the snake , the neckar - odenwald region . sympatric reptile species were also studied and conservation methods are discussed .

this snake was found on the canal ' s edge , mosaic - basking amidst grass and twigs on the ground . only a few inches of the scales on the middle of the snake ' s body were visible , as the rest of the snake was buried beneath the protection of the surrounding foliage . when i carefully picked up the snake , to my complete surprise , an angry , wide - mouthed head quickly spun round and latched onto my wrist . having never experienced any signs of aggression from aesculapian snakes during previous encounters , i was very surprised by how intent this snake was in defending itself from what it

was originally thought to be a subspecies of the grass snake is in fact a distinct separate species .

this female grass snake has a noticeably swollen stomach having just eaten an adult toad which weighed a third of the snake ' s total body weight ! digesting a meal of this size takes a huge amount of energy and this snake will need to lay dormant for 24hrs or more . basking in the sun will speed up this process but during this period the grass snake is highly vulnerable to predators herself .

wilcox ra , whitham em . the symbol of modern medicine : why one snake is more than two .

this shot shows the grass snake in ideal habitat . this south - facing slope has plenty of good vegetation along the river ' s edge as well as good clear spots that are exposed to plenty of sunlight where the snake can bask . there are also plenty of mammal burrows which the snake can use as hibernacular during the winter .

this adult grass snake was one of three seen swimming around the edges of a country park pond in kent .

unlike all the other snake species found in britain , it is the male aesculapian snake that is usually larger than the female . the female has considerable girth but the male tends to be much longer . the female pictured above had a total body - length of just 3 . 5ft . a male specimen with equivalent girth would probably have been 5 - 6ft + in length .

when talking about snakes , many herpetologists quote snake lengths as " stv " length . this means " snout to vent " . measurements are usually taken from the tip of a snake ' s nose to the opening of its anal glands at the base of the tail . this is a more accurate way of regularly monitoring a snake ' s length as snake ' s tails are often damaged or broken over the years especially after encounters with a predator .

feeding mainly on mice , voles , young rats and other small rodents these non - venomous constrictor snakes will also eat lizards , small birds and eggs if available . like most snakes the aesculapian snake sheds its skin periodically in one complete slough . apart from a noticeable dulling in colour and pattern , one obvious indication that a snake is due to slough is the clouding over and bluing of the scale covering the eyes of the snake as pictured above . this eye - scale will shed first and then the rest of the snake ' s skin will usually shed a few days later as a complete slough .

this beautiful non - native snake has been introduced from mainland europe to a couple of sites in the uk . unlike our native snake species , they can be found in trees or bushes as they are very good at climbing .

* this species of snake is associated with the greek healing god asclepius / aesculapius ( more about it here ) .

the aesculapian snake is not as timid as our native grass snake and can often be approached for photographs without disturbing it or causing it to flee . they rely heavily on their excellent camouflage and will often remain completely motionless until they are sure that you have seen them . if handled aesculapian snakes may initially bite but usually calm down , and once they no longer perceive you as a threat they can be very relaxed in your hands . being constrictors , these snakes have a very strong grip . when startled it ' s surprising how firmly they can squeeze your hand .

the aesculapian snake ( e . longissima ) , plain and dark coloured , is native to southeastern europe and asia minor . in ancient times it was sacred to aesclepius , god of medicine ; the present isolated populations in germany and switzerland are descended from specimens conveyed to health resorts there by…

hierophis genus : the green whip snake or western whip snake ( hierophis viridiflavus ) is a brightly - coloured snake with a pattern of black , yellow and green spots over its body . even though they can grow up to 170 cm of length they are not venomous . it can be usually found from temperate forests to crop fields , and even in abandoned buildings .

an imported snake species believed to be breeding in the wild in north wales has been caught on film for the first time .

some specimens may be very defensive when handled . the bite marks shown above were inflicted by a very defensive adult female aesculapian snake . i must stress that there is no chance of being bitten by one of these snakes unless you try and pick one up ! they will always flee rather than confront a human .

the italian aesculapian snake is a medium to large snake that reaches a maximum total length ( including tail ) of 2 m ( 6½ feet ) . dorsally , it is yellowish brown and may have four dark brown stripes . if present , the stripes are of equal width and equidistant . the dorsal scales are smooth . the iris of the eye is red , giving it the common name in italian of saettone occhirossi ( red - eyed racer ) .

altough , several subspecies had been described over the years , most of these were elevated to separate species rank , therefore recent taxonomy suggests aesculapian snake to be a monotype species with no further subspecies . these days , they are protected in most european countries , including hungary . the populations in germany mentioned earlier are critically endangered .

huffington post uk spoke to dr wolfgang wuster , a snake venom expert and senior lecturer of the school of biological science in bangor university .

the number of snake species with populations in great britain is now 5 . - non - fishing chat - fishing forums from anglers ' net

there have been some interesting headlines over the weekend regarding aesculapian snakes in london , such as the daily mirror’s ‘colony of killer snakes ‘capable of crushing small children to death’ on loose in london’ .

these elegant snakes range in colour from light golden - brown to dark brown with white flecks and a creamy yellow underside . aesculapian snakes have unkeeled scales that are very smooth to the touch and this snake can have a very shiny appearance with an iridescent sheen in bright sunlight . their appearance has been compared to that of a twix wrapper .

although grass snakes are termed non - venomous they do possess duvernoy glands ( like rear - fanged venomous snakes ) in their upper jaws that produce a very mild venom . the grass snake does not possess any fangs to deliver the venom to its victim though . although this venom is very mild and is only found in small quantities in the grass snake ' s saliva it is not purposeless . the main diet of the grass snake is amphibians which when caught in the mouth of the snake will absorb this venom through their skin . this would help to subdue a struggling frog or toad .

the fourth snake found in specific parts of the uk is the aesculapian snake . although considered non - native to the uk there are two healthy well established breeding colonies of aesculapian snakes in great britain that have been in existence for at least 25 years . one is in central london , england and the other is in colwyn bay , wales . these long slender rat - snakes are one of europe ' s longest and regularly grow to a length of 140 - 160cm in warmer parts of europe they may even reach 225cm . these snakes are usually found across southern europe and use the same method of incubating their eggs as grass snakes using warm damp moist areas of vegetation such as hay piles and compost heaps to provide the necessary heat . aesculapian snakes are semi - arboreal meaning that they are excellent climbers and are equally at home high up in trees and bushes as they are on the ground .

" we were lucky enough to have two experts on hand - bbc wales snake expert rhys jones and peter litherland , a keeper at the zoo .

colubrid with round pupil ( ringed snake , natrix natrix ) and viperid with elliptic pupil ( snub - nosed viper , vipera latastei ) . photos by

in 2015 chosen hatching places were monitored by data loggers in order to find out temperature and humidity conditions in the hatching place . in the autumn after the hatching of eggs , egg - laying sites were checked and remaining eggs counted . we were able to found about 160 remnants of egg shells so the successful reproduction of the aesculapian snake is proved there .

professor wolfgang wüster , who has studied the only other colony of aesculapian snakes in britain – located close to the welsh mountain zoo in colwyn bay , north wales – says they do no harm to the ecosystem .

the london population of aesculapian snakes can be found along the length of regent ' s canal as it runs past regent ' s park , living on the banks that run parallel to both sides of the canal .

juvenile aesculapians sometimes display a yellow collar making them easy to confuse with juvenile grass snakes . aesculapian snakes are egg - laying snakes and usually produce clutches of 5 - 20 eggs with 5 - 15 being common .

we can confirm a colony of non - venomous aesculapian snakes does live in the camden lock area of north london , but contrary to media reports they are not capable of crushing small children or murdering your pets .

aesculapian snakes are among the largest snakes in europe and juveniles can easily be confused with grass snakes . a colony of the snakes has lived peacefully in north wales for decades after escaping from the welsh mountain zoo .

zamenis genus : the aesculapian snake ( zamenis longissimus ) is a slim , long and harmless colubrid with a characteristically narrow and elongated skull . it is normally found on forested areas , with different microclimatic variations to aid it on its thermoregulation . this species is the one represented coiled around the rod of aesculapius and the bowl of hygieia , symbols of medicine and pharmacy respectively .

salvi , daniele ; daniela lucente , joana mendes , cristiano liuzzi , d . james harris and marco a . bologna 2017 . diversity and distribution of the italian aesculapian snake zamenis lineatus : a phylogeographic assessment with implications for conservation . journal of zoological systematics and evolutionary research 55 ( 3 ) : 222–237 ; doi : 10 . 1111 / jzs . 12167 - get paper here

snake ( elaphe longissima ) , a species native to the former yugoslavia , and it is believed there are a few dozen such animals living by the canal .

the adder or viper is more common in cornwall , other snakes of the uk sloworm and grass snake can be found in any area . i have never seen a snake in the wild in the uk yet and lived very rural for many years . interesting topic alan , thank you ! : xxgrinning - - 00xx3 :

this 20 inch sub - adult female grass snake is gathering all the information she can about her surroundings by constant flickering of her tongue which she fully extends .

as for the concern about people’s safety , when left alone aesculapian snakes are a docile and non - venomous species . please rest assured that your children will not risk being crushed by snakes whilst wandering through central london .

" this list does indeed include the aesculapian snakes that are being referred to , although no action that i am aware of has been taken to remove this population , nor does lisi have any plans to do so at present .

adults are up to 200 cm ( 225 cm ) , usually arround 140 cm , males longer than females ( and have a longer tail ) . a very slender snake with a narrow head , eyes have round pupils . adults can be brownish , greyish - greenish , even black ( melanism ) ( first 20 - 40 cm can be a lighter colour ) with white dots on the scale edges , especially on mid - body . belly is yellow or whiteish , belly scales are keeled . brownish coloured ones usually have yellow dots behind the head , so they can resemble a grass snake . very similar to the italian aesculapian snake ( zamenis lineatus ( formerly elaphe lineata ) - s italy ) . albinism ( completely white / yellowish white ) also noticed .

rhinechis genus : the ladder snake ( rhinechis scalaris ) receives its common name due to the stripes that juvenile specimens present on their back , similar to a ladder , even though adult individuals may present only longitudinal stripes on their body without any transversal marks connecting them . despite being an apparently aggressive snake , it rarely bites and is harmless to human beings .

aesculapian snake ( zamenis longissimus , formely known as elaphe longissima ) first appeared in greek - roman mythology on rod of god aesculapius . ever since , this species has become the symbol of healing and health . aesculapian snake ( zamenis longissimus ) is native to most european countries with mediterreanean and continental climates , including french , spain , italy , switzerland , germany , austria , czech republic , hungary , romania , poland , croatia , serbia , bulgaria . they also occur in region of black sea . several insular populations have been confirmed , as well . they were also introduced to few places they had not been native before ; one of them is germany where they were introduced most likely due to the mythological significance associated with the species . two populations has also estabished themselves in great britain ; specimens had escaped from zoos ultimately found new home near london and west wales suburbans .

the smooth snake is britain ' s rarest native reptile and is fully protected by law from being killed , harmed , or even disturbed . this makes it an offence to look for them unless you hold a licence to do so or you are in the company of a licence - holder who is authorised to do so . once common across the southern half of britain they are now only found on heathland sites in dorset and hampshire , and a couple of sites in surrey and west sussex . their total numbers are now estimated to be in the low thousands across the uk . this is due mainly to habitat loss as the smooth snake lives on heathland sites which have disappeared across the uk . many of these sites are particularly vulnerable to fires . on some of these sites where the smooth snake is still found it is the most commonly encountered snake . the smooth snake is at the tip of its range in england as the average summer in britain is only just long enough for the female to gestate her young . unlike grass snakes the smooth snake is reported to be very reluctant to transverse unsuitable habitat to cross from one site to another .

coronella genus : known as smooth snakes . in the iberian peninsula we can find the northern smooth snake ( coronella austriaca ) which presents a dark mask - like spot covering from the nasal openings up to the neck and dark irregular markings on its back , and the southern smooth snake ( coronella girondica ) which presents a pair of parietal marks and dark transversal spots on its back .

urltoken is a great on - line app that allows you to work out the total length of a snake from a photo , as long as you can accurately measure anything else in that photo .

“if your child is the size of a small rat they could constitute a danger , but if that’s the case i’d suggest it being constricted by a snake would be the least of your worries . ”

natrix genus : commonly known as water snakes due to their affinity for aquatic habitats . in the iberian peninsula we can find two species , the viperine water snake ( natrix maura ) named after its zigzag marking and its keeled scales similar to a viper , and the grass or iberian ringed snake ( natrix astreptophora ) which presents reddish pupils , an extremely variable coloration and a black “ring” in juvenile individuals .

the common adder , britain ' s only venomous snake , is seen here coiled in its defensive stance and ready to strike . for more photos and information on adders please visit the adder pages on this website :

shortly before sloughing ( shedding the old skin ) snakes often spend more time basking to help with the process . this male grass snake clearly shows the typical blue - eyed tell tale sign of an imminent slough .

the aesculapian snake ( zamenis longissimus ) is a widespread colubrid species , being present in much of central and southern europe , with isolated populations occuring as far east as iran . in romania , the species is known from most of the country’s regions , although it has been reported from very few areas from the moldova region ( eastern and north–eastern romania ) . here we present three new records for z . longissimus in romanian moldova , including the first record for the species in botoșani county , the north–easternmost region of romania .

numbers 21 : 8 . the etching " the brazen serpent " ( to the right ) by schnorr von carolsfeld shows this as only one snake , suggesting he interpreted this as a medical rather than mystical or magical symbol .

smooth snakes are slender in build and are also the smallest of the british snakes usually growing to an average length of 45 - 60cm , occasionally they reach 70cm with 80cm being the largest found . true to its name the smooth snake is the only native snake in the uk to have unkeeled scales giving it a very smooth feel when handled . both the adder and grass snake have a ridge or " keel " running down the middle of each scale . smooth snakes are brown - grey in colour and usually have a dark heart - shaped pattern on the back of the head . they also usually have a dark stripe that runs across the side of the head through the eye .

to identify a snake as a colubrid or a viper there are some anatomical characteristics which tell them apart . these characteristics are usually only applicable to iberian ophidians ; species from outside the iberian peninsula may present different combinations of characters .

cooperation with hunting society was established in order to hunt allochthonnous predators including american mink ( mustela vison ) , racoon dog ( nyctereutes procyonoides ) and racoon ( procyon lotor ) . these animals represent high level of risk for the aesculapin snake

] one is the caduceus , and the other is the rod of asclepius . caduceus is a symbol with a short staff entwined by two serpents , sometimes surmounted by wings while the rod of asclepius is the one with a single snake . [

juvenile aesculapian snakes prey small lizards , amphibians , mice , while the main food source are mostly rodents for adults . they will not refuse birds , either . they usually suffocate the prey by using constriction , although when there is no resistance they may start swallow the prey alive without constriction applied . when they encounter humans , they will quickly try to escape . however , when cornered they can attack willingly and very aggressively . they spend wintertime inactive in underground caverns , where several specimens may assemble . interestingly , this is one of the few snake species where males are longer than females .

these eggs hatch after 6 - 10 weeks depending on the weather and incubation temperatures . if they can avoid predation these snakes can generally live for around 25 years and they reach sexual maturity after approximately 4 - 6 years . male aesculapian snakes reach sexual maturity when they reach around 100cm in length , and females at just 85cm in length .

grass snakes are completely harmless to humans and feed mainly on amphibians and small fish when they can catch them . they will also prey on small mammals , young birds and even lizards occasionally . the grass snake is britain ' s longest native reptile and can occasionally reach sizes of up to 5ft in the uk and very occasionally stories of even 6ft specimens are heard but it is unlikely that any specimen of that size exists in the uk any longer . these larger grass snakes are more commonly found in warmer parts of europe though . in the uk 2 - 3ft in length is the most commonly recorded length of adult specimens found . any grass snake with a total length of 80 + cm is usually female , and any grass snake with a total length of 110cm or more is always a female .

despite these snakes posing little if any threat to our native wildlife ( excluding rats ) in 2013 the government agency ' lisi ' ( london invasive species initiative ) decided that these aesculapian snakes were a species of concern and called for the snakes to be eradicated in the uk quoting them as a " species of high impact or concern " . download the list of "

it took me a while to realise that this snake , although drawing blood with every bite , was incapable of inflicting any real pain on me . it had extremely sharp little teeth but lacked the sufficient clamping power in its jaws to do me any real harm . after a few minutes , the snake also came to the same conclusion , and once it also realised that i wasn ' t actually a threat or causing it any harm it began to calm down . after a while it became quite docile and was content to slither around or just relax in

there is an interesting piece written on pages 181 - 182 , in the book " wild animals in captivity " by the late a . d . bartlett , the superintendent of regents park zoo during the late 1800 ' s . he tells of his experiences where wild - caught brown mice were introduced to snake enclosures as a source of live food . if the mice weren ' t caught and eaten by the snakes fairly quickly , then the mice would gnaw their way out of the enclosures , leaving a rodent - sized hole for the snake to also escape from . the practice of feeding these wild - caught live brown mice was stopped once the mistake was recognised , but not before a highly venomous cobra had escaped . luckily this cobra was eaten by another snake in the adjoining enclosure . but a . d . bartlett also recalls :

the population of the aesculapian snake in the eger river valley is extraordinarily threatened and very vulnerable . rapid decline in abundance has been documented since the 1980s . biotope loss by changed management and landscape use methods , lack of suitable reproducing places , road traffic and alien predators are among the main causes of threatening . this project includes several measures essential for surviving and stabilization of the unique isolated population , such as managment of existing egg - laying sites , restoration of old one egg - laying sites , cleaning and restoration of old and shady dry - stone walls , reproduction research , estimating number of population , biotope monitoring , support to hunting alien predators and restoration of small water bodies .

lastly , i would like to make an appeal to anyone considering catching and keeping a wild aesculapian snake as a pet . please don ' t ! it is an absolute joy being able to find , photograph and watch these beautiful reptiles living wild and free in the uk . they have found a niche in our ecosystem that has allowed them to flourish without upsetting the delicate balance of our environment . there are suspected to be a maximum of 20 breeding pairs in the london population . just removing one snake could have serious consequences for the future of this species in the uk . many of these snakes have already been caught , and with the increasing number of rodent traps being used in the area , these are also likely to have a negative impact on number of these snakes . please just be grateful if you are lucky enough to see one , let it live in peace in the wild , and let other people also experience the joy of seeing them living wild in the uk .

ahh , the australian tiger snake . . . fishing one day along the beardy waters , near glen innes in the new england region of nsw , came across 11 of them in about 2 miles . stood fishing and one came out of the water , and slithered around my boot . . .

sahlean , t . c . , i . gherghel , m . papeș , a . strugariu , ș . r . zamfirescu ( 2014 ) refining climate change projections for organisms with low dispersal abilities : a case study of the caspian whip snake . plos one , 9 ( 3 ) : e91994 .

have you ever wondered why is a snake , which is a symbol of destruction [ 4 ] used ironically as a symbol of healing ? well , the answer lies deep sown in history when moses , around 1400 bc , used the bronze serpent erected on the pole to cure the people who were bitten by snakes . [ 5 ] the other reasons why serpent has been used is the shedding of the skin that indicated longevity and immortality . the snake ' s ability to change from a lethargic stage to one of rapid activity symbolized the power to convalesce from an illness . [ 2 ] charas and martyn ( 1673 ) subjected the viper [ 6 ] to innumerable experimental investigations and concluded they were valuable remedies for itch , erysipelas , measles , smallpox , leprosy and were a valuable adjunct to the production of a beautiful skin . [ 6 ] hence , the snake has been a powerful symbol of healing itself . [ 7 ]

we studied a population of aesculapian snakes ( zamenis longissimus ) living close to a 1 , 000 - m stretch of busy road located in northwestern bohemia . we monitored the extent of road mortality and related behavioral characteristics . a large number of snakes regularly inhabited the road ' s embankment during monitoring in june and september . some individuals were observed to stay in exactly the same spot continuously for several days . snakes were active starting between 0800 and 0900 h in the morning and ending by 1900 h in june and 1800 h in september . activity was greatest during the morning . the most frequent type of observed behavior was related to thermoregulation . the snakes did not react visibly to passing traffic . the aesculapian snakes ' activity was higher , and started at lower temperatures , in june than in september . the mean body temperature of the aesculapian snakes was 24 . 3â°c . on average , it was higher than the ambient air temperature until the ambient air temperature exceeded 27 . 8â°c . we detected very little road mortality of adult snakes . even though they used the road embankments and adjacent stone abutment walls frequently , they virtually never ventured onto the surface of the road . to cross the road they generally used the culverts under it . juvenile snakes ventured onto the road frequently and their road mortality was high .

when we find a snake in the wild it’s important to know if that animal is a colubrid or a viper . bites from iberian colubrids are mostly harmless because they have either an unspecialized non - venomous dentition ( aglyphous ) or posterior venomous fangs ( opisthoglyphous ) which usually doesn’t inject venom and even if they do , normally they don’t inject enough venom for it to be dangerous . on the other hand , as iberian vipers are solenoglyphous , they inject large quantities of venom , being vipers responsible for most of the snake bite accidents in spain . yet , bites are extremely rare , and most happen after a too prolonged manipulation of the animal .

the welsh population of aesculapian snakes is estimated at 50 + specimens and came about during the 1960 ' s after a gravid female snake escaped from the welsh mountain zoo at colwyn bay and laid her eggs within the grounds of the zoo . the offspring then successfully bred and the population has thrived ever since in and around the zoo grounds . these were first reported by the press during the early ' 70 ' s . the london population of aesculapians had 30 different adult specimens recorded by 2011 and this population was estimated at around 30 - 40 specimens . however numbers seem to have fallen significantly in london over recent years . it is believed that this population came about after eight snakes were deliberately released in the 1980 ' s from a building close to london zoo rented by ilea (

grass snakes are britain ' s only native egg - laying snake . the eggs need plenty of heat to hatch successfully so the female lays them in damp rotting vegetation . because of this grass snakes are regularly found on allotments or in gardens with compost heaps as these provide an ideal spot for the grass snake to lay their eggs due to the heat generated by the rotting vegetation . the number of eggs laid usually varies from 10 - 40 depending on the size of the adult female . when clutches of eggs are first laid at the ovipositicula ( egg - laying site ) these eggs are soft and sticky and can often be found stuck together in one large mass .

in 2015 the bbc ' s " one show " asked me to feature on the program as part of a story they were going to run on the aesculapian snakes in london . in the end they chose to feature will atkins ( following my recommendation ) and i was replaced with the greek historian , simon chaplin . the finished piece was both interesting and informative and portrayed the snakes in a positive light . watch the video here : watch bbc one show

during mating season males can go up to 2 km in search of females . females lay 2 - 18 ( often 5 - 11 ) elongated , pear - shaped eggs ( 35 - 60 mm x 17 - 25 mm ) under ground , into holes in trees , compost heaps . . . ( sometimes communally with the grass snake ) .

the asclepiadae were a large order of priest physicians who controlled the sacred secrets of healing , which were passed from father to son . harmless aesculapian snakes were kept in the combination hospital - temples built by the ancient greeks and , later , by the romans in honor of the god . the snakes are found not only in their original range of southern europe , but also in the various places in germany and austria where roman temples had been established . escaped snakes survived and flourished .

these long slender snakes are one of europe ' s longest and regularly grow to a length of 140 - 160cm in warmer parts of europe they may even reach 225cm . this makes them the longest snake found in the uk . these snakes are usually found across southern , central and eastern europe and use the same method of incubating their eggs as our native grass snakes , using warm damp moist areas of vegetation such as hay piles and compost heaps to provide the necessary heat . clutch size is usually 5 - 11 eggs and these may take 6 - 10 weeks to hatch depending on the weather conditions . aesculapian snakes are semi - arboreal meaning that they are excellent climbers and are equally at home high up in trees and bushes as they are on the ground . they can on occasion be found basking on the canopies of trees and tall bushes .

earlier this month , local papers in east london reported that a potentially venomous snake was on the loose , then the broadsheets snapped up the story of an alligator found on the streets of new york . the next day , the new journal carried an article about a man who had been rushed to the royal free hospital after being bitten by a tropical spider .

although very shy and easily scared off grass snakes are the most common snake in the uk to be found wandering into urban gardens . grass snakes are found across england and wales and are found in small numbers in the very south of scotland just over the border . ( a fact that has only very recently been confirmed so not what you will read elsewhere ! ) .

" a second feral population has been extant since the mid 1980s along a canal embankment habitat in camden , north london . this was first reported to tesl in 1998 by ester wenman , then head keeper of reptiles at london zoo . aesculapian snakes had apparently colonized the area during an experiment reported by the british herpetological society legal officer , peter curry , who was working there and keeping this species at the inner london education authority centre for life studies at the time that it was closed down around 1986 . one account was that eight snakes had been released ‘on the quiet’ around the time of closure to try to form a population , several of which were recaptured , but some remained at large . those caught initially were being euthanased but the view was then taken to leave the others ‘to take their chances’ where they were . ten years later , in an aviary close to the embankment , fragments of juvenile aesculapian snakes were found in a laughing thrush garrulax sp . aviary , suggesting that the snakes had bred . "

macroprotodon genus : this is one of the few venomous species in the peninsula . the western false smooth snake ( macroprotodon brevis ) is an animal common on many different mediterranean habitats . even if it’s venomous , its small opisthogyphous mouth and its calm behavior make it totally harmless . it is characterised by a dark mark on the back of its head , and its short and flattened skull .

if handled grass snakes may ' musk ' the supposed predator . they do this by secreting a foul - smelling liquid from their anal glands . if this does not deter the potential attacker then the grass snake ' s next line of defence is often to feign death . they literally lay on their back with their mouth open and their tongue hanging out and pretend to be dead in a very theatrical manor . obviously this will only deter predators that refuse to eat carrion and is not a very effective form of defence . the practice of feigning death is more common amongst larger grass snakes and the time that this display takes can vary from a few seconds to 30 minutes . during this display the grass snake will continue to keep an eye on you and if it catches you watching it closely it will take longer to recover .

hemorrhois genus : the horseshoe whip snake ( hemorrhois hippocrepis ) is an aglyphous colubrid that , even if it may bite if touched or grabbed , it’s not considered a venomous species . it presents a transversal mark on its head from one eye to the other , and another mark in the shape of a horseshoe on its neck , which gives this species its common name . it’s a species typical of rocky habitats .

abstract : habitat use of the aesculapian snake ( zamenis longissimus ) at the northern extreme of its range in northwest bohemia was studied in two areas with different proportions of man - made structures and urban features . six snakes were equipped with internal transmitters ( giving 171 radio locations in total ) . compositional analysis at the homerange scale and location - scale revealed that the snakes used habitats and ecotones non - randomly . man - made structures were preferred significantly over all other habitat types in both study areas with buildings and their surroundings , stone walls and compost heaps preferred microhabitats in both areas . these sites were used mainly as sheltering places or for thermoregulatory activities . in both areas snakes showed a preference for ecotones , transitional areas between biomes . urban structures were favoured for nesting and overwintering sites . the prevalence of snakes in man - made edge habitats suggests that in climatically challenging conditions , these otherwise heat seeking snakes prefer different habitats than in more southernly areas of this species ' range .

in the iberian peninsula we can find 13 different species of snakes , with representatives of three of the four types of dentition i talked about in my last post . there aren’t any proteroglyphous snake because the members of the elapidae family are restricted to tropical and subtropical habitats . most of the iberian species are snakes of the colubridae family ( aglyphous or opisthoglyphous ) or vipers and adders of the viperidae family ( solenoglyphous ) .

: smile : thank you for this interesting and informative write ~ up , alan . : xxgrinning - - 00xx3 : like michael , i cannot be certain i ' ve ever encountered a live snake in the wild . . . and , to be honest . . . : anerikke : . . . i ' m not sure i ' d even want to , as the mere thought of these reptiles gives me the heebie jeebes !

capula , massimo ; luiselli , luca ; valenti , < br / > sophia ; ceccarelli , arianna ; rugiero , lorenzo ; aloise , gaetano 2006 . are endemic snakes with a narrow distribution more specialist than their wide - ranging counterparts ? evidence from the prey composition and morphometric correlates of the diet in zamenis lineatus , a rat snake endemic to southern italy . amphibia - reptilia 27 ( 4 ) : 531 - 537 - get paper here

grass snakes are excellent swimmers and are just as ' at home ' in the water as on land . if threatened the grass snake can disappear under water holding its breath for up to an hour to evade a predator . they will also actively hunt newts , frogs , toads and small fish in water . they are such competent swimmers that they have even been recorded crossing the sea from mainland britain to small islands off the west coast on calm days .

smooth snakes are viviparous giving birth to live young ( usually 4 - 15 ) which are born in august or september . melanistic ( black ) smooth snakes are incredibly rare in the uk with only two reports of sightings ever being recorded . the first record of a melanistic smooth snake in the uk dates from back in 1994 on a site in south - west surrey . the last recorded sighting was of 2 - 3 specimens found on a site in dorset in 2008 .

in my first blog entry i talked about the different kinds of snake that exist based on their dentition . in this entry , i’ll explain what species of ophidian we can find in the iberian peninsula , which species are venomous and which aren’t , and how we can identify the different species we can find when we are on the field . as we will see in this entry , snakes have been unfairly demonized , as the species in the iberian peninsula pose no threat to us .

' the species of concern list for the greater london area has been compiled by a range of industry professionals and land managers within london and is reviewed and updated quarterly . this list does indeed include the aesculapian snakes that are being referred to , although no action that i am aware of has been taken to remove this population , nor does lisi have any plans to do so at present . this species is listed in the wildlife and countryside act 1981 meaning it is illegal to allow the species to spread or escape into the wild . at present there is limited information on what effects the species may have on our local ecosystems and further information would be hugely valuable in developing appropriate management plans for this population’ .


pirania is a genus of sponge known from the middle cambrian burgess shale and the ordovician fezouata formation .

198 specimens of pirania are known from the greater phyllopod bed , where they comprise 0.38 % of the community .

pirania

pirania <EOT> other deposits : pirania auraeum botting , 2007 from the lower ordovician of morocco ( botting , 2007 ) ; pirania llanfawrensis botting , 2004 from the upper ordovician of england ( botting , 2004 ) .

pirania is common in most burgess shale sites but comprises only 0 . 38 % of the walcott quarry community ( caron and jackson , 2008 ) .

pirania is considered a primitive demosponge ( rigby , 1986 ) . demosponges , the same group that are harvested as bath sponges , represent the largest class of sponges today .

pirania – from mount saint piran ( 2 , 649 m ) , situated in the bow river valley in banff national park , alberta . samuel allen named mount st . piran after the patron saint of cornwall in 1894 .

3d animation of pirania muricata and other sponges ( choia ridleyi , diagoniella cyathiformis , eiffelia globosa , hazelia conferta , vauxia bellula , and wapkia elongata ) and chancelloria eros a sponge - like form covered of star - shaped spines .

pirania was first described by walcott ( 1920 ) . rigby ( 1986 ) redescribed this sponge and concluded that the skeleton is composed of hexagonally arranged canals , large pointed spicules and tufts of small spicules . this sponge was also reviewed by rigby and collins based on new material collected by the royal ontario museum ( 2004 ) .

pirania would have lived attached to the sea floor . particles of organic matter were extracted from the water as they passed through canals in the sponge’s wall . the brachiopods nisusia and micromitra a range of other sponges and even juvenile chancelloriids are often found attached to the long spicules of this sponge , possibly to avoid higher turbidity levels near the seafloor .

pirania is a thick - walled cylindrical sponge that can have up to four branches . the skeleton of the sponge is composed of tufts of small spicules and has very distinctive long pointed spicules that emerge from the external wall . long canals perforate the wall of the sponge to allow water flow through it . branching occurs close to the base of the sponge .

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van roy , peter ; orr , patrick j . ; botting , joseph p . ; muir , lucy a . ; vinther , jakob ; lefebvre , bertrand ; hariri , khadija el ; briggs , derek e . g .

aa ( department of geology and geophysics , yale university , po box 208109 , new haven , connecticut 06520 , usa ) , ab ( ucd school of geological sciences , university college dublin , belfield , dublin 4 , ireland ) , ac ( leeds museum discovery centre , carlisle road , leeds ls10 1lb , uk ) , ad ( 42 birkhouse lane , moldgreen , huddersfield hd5 8be , uk ) , ae ( department of geology and geophysics , yale university , po box 208109 , new haven , connecticut 06520 , usa ) , af ( umr cnrs 5125 peps , bât . géode , université lyon 1 , campus de la doua , 2 rue dubois , f - 69622 villeurbanne cedex , france ) , ag ( département sciences de la terre , faculté des sciences et techniques - guéliz , université cadi ayyad , avenue abdelkrim el khattabi bp 549 , 40000 marrakech , morocco ) , ah ( department of geology and geophysics , yale university , po box 208109 , new haven , connecticut 06520 , usa )

nature , volume 465 , issue 7295 , pp . 215 - 218 ( 2010 ) . ( nature homepage )

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muricata – from the latin muricatus , “pointed , or full of sharp points . ” the name refers to the large pointed spicules extending out from the wall of the sponge .

lectotype – usnm 66495 ( erroneously referred as 66496 in rigby , 1986 ) , in the national museum of natural history , smithsonian institution , washington , dc , usa .

middle cambrian , bathyuriscus - elrathina zone ( approximately 505 million years ago ) .

the walcott quarry on fossil ridge . the trilobite beds and tulip beds ( s7 ) on mount stephen and several smaller sites on mount field , mount stephen and mount odaray .

botting , j . p . 2004 . an exceptional caradoc sponge fauna from the llanfawr quarries , central wales and phylogenetic implications . journal of systematic paleontology , 2 : 31 - 63 .

botting , j . p . 2007 . ' cambrian ' demosponges in the ordovician of morocco : insights into the early evolutionary history of sponges . geobios , 40 : 737 - 748 .

caron , j . - b . and d . a . jackson . 2008 . paleoecology of the greater phyllopod bed community , burgess shale . palaeogeography , palaeoclimatology , palaeoecology , 258 : 222 - 256 .

rigby , j . k . 1986 . sponges of the burgess shale ( middle cambrian ) , british columbia . palaeontographica canadiana , 2 : 105 p .

rigby , j . k . and d . collins . 2004 . sponges of the middle cambrian burgess shale and stephen formations , british columbia . royal ontario museum contributions in science ( 1 ) : 155 p .

walcott , c . d . 1920 . middle cambrian spongiae . cambrian geology and paleontology iv . smithsonian miscellaneous collections , 67 ( 6 ) : 261 - 365 .

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ptychites is an extinct genus of cephalopods belonging to the family ptychitidae .

these nektonic carnivores lived during the triassic period , from anisian to ladinian age .

ptychites

ptychites <EOT> there are no comments for prosobranchia ptychites opulentus vintage nature illustration 1904 . click here to post the first comment .

antique illustration not created by me . a beautifully illustrated fossilized prosobranchia ptychites opulentus , which was a large taxonomic subclass of sea snails , land snails and freshwater snails . this taxon of gastropods dates back to the 1920s . it has however been proven to be polyphyletic . - - wikipedia

the middle triassic occurs chiefly in nevada and southeastern california . in the inyo range , southeastern california , about 200 feet of shaly limestones contain the following genera characteristic of the lower horizon of the middle triassic : arochordiceras , xenodiscus , hungarites , ptychites , tirolites , ceratites , and parapopanoceras .

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' s large relational database assembled by hundreds of paleontologists from around the world . the two websites and their predecessors have been used by professional researchers , students , and the public since 1998 . the fossilworks copy is refreshed daily . the data are owned by the contributors and the website and software were created by

the paleodb maintains a list of official publications . researchers ask to add entries to the list when they have used the site to download data or conduct analyses . large projects that involve documenting the taxonomic classification of an entire group are called online systematics archives .

average measurements ( in mm ) : shell width 60 . 9 , shell diameter 132 . 5

full reference : e . t . tozer . 1994 . canadian triassic ammonoid faunas . geological survey of canada bulletin 467 : 1 - 663

type specimen : gsc 28401 . its type locality is gsc 83875 , northwest of hook lake , which is in an illyrian marine horizon in the sulphur mountain formation of canada .

average measurements ( in mm ) : shell width 20 . 0 , shell diameter 28 . 9

haeckel _ ammonitida . jpg : creator : ernst haeckel . derivative work : kevmin §

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nomenclator zoologicus . a list of the names of genera and subgenera in zoology from the tenth edition of linnaeus , 1758 to the end of 2004 . digitised by ubio from vols . 1 - 9 of neave ( ed . ) , 1939 - 1996 plus supplementary digital - only volume . urltoken ( as at 2006 ) .

sn2000 : brands , s . j . ( compiler ) 1989 - 2005 . systema naturae 2000 . amsterdam , the netherlands ( 2006 version ) . available online at urltoken

sepkoski , j . j . , jr . ( 2002 ) . a compendium of fossil marine animal genera . < em > bulletins of american paleontology . < / em > 363 , 1 - 560 .

the marine triassic section of . america is unusually complete , and its thickness compares favorably with that of any other region . all three subdivisions - lower , middle , and upper triassic - - are represented by calcareous deposits , aggregating approximately 4 , 000 feet in thickness . of this amount , about 800 feet belong to the lower triassic , about 1 , 000 feet to the middle triassic , and about 2 , 000 feet to the upper triassic .

the entire section is not represented at any one locality , nor is the thickness of each division constant . furthermore , the marine triassic is not everywhere developed as a calcareous formation . in the united states the triassic system is represented by marine deposits only in the western states , in idaho , nevada , oregon , and california .

above the hosselkus limestone lie the pseudomonotis slates , of unknown thickness , characterized by halorites , rhabdoceras , arcestes , and pseudomonotis .

in the west humboldt range in nevada the star peak limestone , about 1 , 200 feet thick , appears to represent the hosselkus limestone , although very few fossils have ever been found in it . above the limestones lie the pseudomonotis beds , about 800 feet of shales and shaly limestones , in which are found pseudomonotis subcircularis , rhabdoceras , halorites , placites , and arcestes , an association characteristic of the noric horizon .

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original russian text © yu . d . zakharov , m . s . arkhangelsky , n . g . zverkov , i . v . borisov , a . m . popov , 2015 , published in tikhookeanskaya geologiya , 2015 , vol . 34 , no . 5 , pp . 73–80 .

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by kenneth de baets 1 , rené hoffmann 2 , jocelyn a . sessa 3 and christian klug 4 .

other parts of the digestive tract have been found , including the oesophagus , which is sometimes preserved because it was covered by a thin layer of chitin . further examples of fossilized soft tissue are the gills , cartilage of the head ( possibly with eye capsules ) , attachment scars from the retractor muscle system responsible for pulling the head into the conch , and two questionable cases of arm relics .

figure 1 — morphology and terminology of the ammonoid conch ( modified after arkell 1957 ; korn and klug 2002 ) . far left showing section across midline .

figure 2 — internal morphology of the ammonoid conch and specimens showing rare or unusual preservations . a ) juvenile morphology of

sp . including the initial chamber and the rest of the embryonic shell , reconstructed by robert lemanis . b ) jurassic

sp . with aptychus at the bottom ( blue arrow ) , parts of the siphuncle ( red arrow ) preserved and within the body chamber , stomach contents consisting mainly of crinoid remains ( black arrow ; modified from keupp 2000 ) . c ) ct scan of the carboniferous ammonoid

with injuries attributed to stomatopod crustaceans ( red arrows ; modified after keupp 2012 ) . e ) early cretaceous specimen of the heteromorph ammonoid

in the 1970s , shell and septal strength were used to calculate how deep in the water column ammonoids could have descended to without imploding from the pressure of the water around them – at great depth , the surrounding water is much more dense than the gas inside the chambers of the phragmocone ( analogous to air inside a submarine ) . however , these implosion - depth values provide only the depth where implosion would occur ; they do not reveal the depths at which ammonites preferentially lived . the deepest record of a living nautilus comes from more than 700 metres depth , yet a nautilus implosion depth of about 800 metres is inferred from mathematical models . similar mathematical models for ammonoids mostly suggest much shallower implosion depths .

1 ) often , ammonoid species have a great variability in conch shape . these different conch shapes , however , are not necessarily linked to a distinct type of environment , based on the rock types in which they are found , and a large range of shapes can occur within a single species found in the same place . nevertheless , rare studies in which variation has been examined across different environments within the same species indicate that there could be some link ; the most frequently occurring variants change with distance from the coast , and with wave agitation . one has to be very careful not to oversimplify things by assuming anything about palaeoenvironment from conch shape alone . there might be a link , but this link needs to be determined from independent evidence .

figure 3 — evolution of coiled ammonoid shells from straight shells and the consequences for body - chamber length , aperture orientation , thrust angle of the jet they use to move , hydrodynamic stability and interpretations for swimming capabilities throughout evolution ; rightmost column shows the evolution of aperture orientation . ( modified after klug and korn 2004 ) . bcl , body chamber length ; oa , orientation of the aperture ; dcl , decoupled chamber liquid .

furthermore , other types of bite traces on different taxa were probably caused by cephalopods , fish and marine reptiles living between the bottom and the upper part of the water column . this corroborates the hypothesis that different ammonoids lived in different environments , and indicates that although shell geometry sets limits to ammonoid swimming capabilities , it does not necessarily correlate closely with mode of life or habitat .

figure 4 — habitats and sea water temperature estimated from oxygen isotope data in extant cephalopods ( left ) and ammonoids ( right ; modified from ritterbush et al . 2014 and lukeneder et al . 2010 ) .

figure 5 — ammonoid morphospace after tendler et al . ( 2015 ) using the raupian parameters w , s and d ( raup 1966 ) . w , rate of size increase of the generating curve per whorl ; d , distance between the generating curve and the coiling axis ; s , shape of the generating curve , equivalent to the cross - sectional shape of the tube ( modified after klug et al . 2016 ) .

the ammonite shell grows by continually adding layers of calcium carbonate to the leading edge or aperture of the conch , so that their entire life history is recorded in their shells , from embryo to adult ( fig . 6 ) .

figure 6 — life cycle of an ammonoid , exemplified with the late devonian genus manticoceras . modified after korn and klug ( 2007 ) .

figure 7 — origin and diversity of ammonoids and the effects of mass extinctions ( modified after ernst and klug 2011 ) .

figure 8 — sutures and septa of some ammonoids ( modified after klug & hoffmann 2015 : fig . 3 . 1 ) . a ,

( hall , 1879 ) , latest eifelian , jebel amessoui , tafilalt , morocco ; institut für geowissenschaften ( tübingen , germany ) ; diameter 15 centimetres . b ,

gordon , 1862 , middle mississippian , jackfork creek , s of ada , oklahoma ( usa ) ; pimuz 31257 ( paläontologisches institut und museum , universität zürich , switzerland ) ; diameter 43 millimetres . c ,

( mclearn 1948 ) , sgpimh no . 3181 ( universität hamburg , germany ) , triassic , spitsbergen , norway ; diameter 25 millimetres ; acid - prepared specimen with phosphatized septa and siphuncle ; from weitschat ( 1986 ) . d ,

sp . , aalenian ( jurassic ) , heiningen near göppingen , germany , whorl height 84 millimetres , staatliches museum für naturkunde stuttgart , germany , smns 23156 ( after ernst and klug 2011 ) .

despite being one of the most - studied fossil groups , the evolutionary relationships ( phylogeny ) of ammonoids are still not fully resolved ( so actually , fig . 7 should contain many question marks ) . this is largely because their phylogeny is based on their conchs , which have a limited amount of strongly varying characters ( conch morphology , septa , ornamentation ) .

nevertheless , a better understanding of conch - shape changes through ontogeny might aid in resolving the group’s phylogeny , and at least help to distinguish between superficially similar adult forms . studying variation within species by using many ammonoid conchs will contribute to understanding the value of characters in assessing evolutionary relationships .

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klug , c . , de baets , k . & korn , d . exploring the limits of morphospace : ontogeny and ecology of late viséan ammonoids from the tafilalt ( morocco ) . acta palaeontologica polonica in the press ( 2016 ) . doi : 10 . 4202 / app . 00220 . 2015

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lemanis , r . , zachow , s . , fusseis , f . & hoffmann , r . a new approach using high - resolution computed tomography to test the buoyant properties of chambered cephalopod shells . paleobiology 41 , 313–329 ( 2015 ) . doi : 10 . 1017 / pab . 2014 . 17

lukeneder , a . , harzhauser , m . , müllegger , s . & piller , w . e . ontogeny and habitat change in mesozoic cephalopods revealed by stable isotopes ( δ18o , δ13c ) . earth and planetary science letters 296 , 103–114 ( 2010 ) . doi : 10 . 1016 / j . epsl . 2010 . 04 . 053

ritterbush , k . a . , hoffmann , r . , lukeneder , a . & de baets , k . pelagic palaeoecology : the importance of recent constraints on ammonoid palaeobiology and life history . journal of zoology 292 , 229–241 ( 2014 ) . doi : 10 . 1111 / jzo . 12118

sessa , j . a . , larina , e . , knoll , k . , garb , m . , cochran , j . k . , huber , b . t . , macleod , k . g . & landman , n . h . ammonite habitat revealed via isotopic composition and comparisons with co - occurring benthic and planktonic organisms . proceedings of the national academy of sciences usa 112 , 15562–15567 ( 2015 ) . doi : 10 . 1073 / pnas . 1507554112

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1 geozentrum nordbayern , friedrich - alexander universität erlangen - nürnberg , germany . 2 ruhr - universität bochum , institut für geologie , mineralogie und geophysik , germany . 3 american museum of natural history , new york , usa . 4 paläontologisches institut und museum , zürich , switzerland .

tagged christian klug , jocelyn a . sessa , kenneth de baets , rené hoffmann

de baets , k . , hoffmann , r . , sessa , j . a . and klug , c . 2016 . fossil focus : ammonoids . palaeontology online , volume 6 , article 2 . 1 - 15 .

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