the froghoppers , or the superfamily cercopoidea , are a group of hemipteran insects , in the suborder auchenorrhyncha .

adults are capable of jumping many times their height and length , giving the group their common name , but they are best known for their plant-sucking nymphs which encase themselves in froth in springtime .

froghopper

froghopper <EOT> froghopper is miniature bug that can reach around 0 . 25 inches in length .

) . morphology and action of the hind leg joints controlling jumping in froghopper insects .

mouth apparatus of froghopper is designed for stabbing and extraction of the sap from the plant tissue .

froghopper is herbivore ( plant - eater ) . it eats sap of various species of plants .

watch the steady stream of honeydew droplets excreted by this beautiful froghopper as it sucks plant sap .

name " froghopper " refers to the frog - shaped head of this insect and its ability to jump .

driggers bf ; pepper bb , 1935 . the spittle insect or froghopper . new jersey agricultural experiment station bulletin 593 .

an adult froghopper ( aphrophora alni ) reaches a body length of under a half inch and can jump to heights of 28 inches .

embed this arkive thumbnail link ( " portlet " ) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href = " urltoken " title = " arkive species - common froghopper ( philaenus spumarius ) " > < img src = " urltoken " alt = " arkive species - common froghopper ( philaenus spumarius ) " title = " arkive species - common froghopper ( philaenus spumarius ) " border = " 0 " / > < / a >

froghopper can jump 27 inches into the air . even though it is heavier than flea , it can jump higher thanks to strong , well - developed muscles of the hind legs .

second , does a froghopper have to anticipate the possible need to jump and thus hold its hind legs in readiness ? this would explain the cocked position adopted by the hind legs during walking .

froghopper is an insect that belongs to the group of true bugs . froghopper can be found around the world . it inhabits densely vegetated areas such as meadows , parks and gardens . froghoppers are numerous and widespread in the wild . several species of froghoppers are classified as agricultural pest due to ability to decrease the yield of commercially important species of plants ( such as sugar cane ) .

hind legs of froghopper generate g - force of 400 gravities , when it prepares to jump . this force is 80 times greater than g - force generated during the launching of the rockets into the space .

burrows , whose primary research interest is in how animals use the individual cells in their brains to generate movement , stumbled upon the froghopper ' s leaping agility while looking for an insect model to clear the next hurdle in his work .

philaenus spumarius , commonly known as a froghopper or spittle bug , is a mere 0 . 2 inches ( 6 millimeters ) long , but employs a novel catapult mechanism to launch itself upwards of 28 inches ( 70 centimeters ) into the air .

life cycle of froghopper consists of three developmental stages : egg , nymph and adult insect . nymph is often green colored and it looks like miniature , wingless version of adult . it molts several times until it reaches the size of an adult insect .

froghopper has two pairs of wings and three pairs of legs . first pair of wings covers the body like a tent . wings of some froghoppers form false head at the end of the body . " two headed - body " is designed to confuse the predators .

when disturbed , the adults can jump as high as 70 cm with enormous force using their powerful back legs . recent research has shown that within a millisecond they can accelerate to over 14 km / h ! very few potential predators could catch the common froghopper once it has jumped .

the adult common froghopper is not often seen by the casual observer . although it is 6 mm long , it can move so quickly when disturbed that it seems just to ‘disappear . ’ it is also not distinctively coloured : indeed , its pattern of coloration is very variable , often being various shades of mottled pale and dark brown , but also ranging from pure sandy brown to dull black . however , the nymph of the common froghopper is well - known for the distinctive white frothy ‘cuckoo - spit’ it produces – and hides within – on the stems of its food plants .

a sallow bush at the edge of the wood is home to a great many variegated willow froghoppers ( aphrophora pectoralis ) . like their more familiar smaller relative , the common froghopper ( philaenus spumariu s ) , their soft young live in “cuckoo - spit” , though these feed only on willows .

the common froghopper is found in a variety of habitats , but it is perhaps most abundant on waste ground and road - side verges where its weedy herbaceous food plants , such as thistles and mugwort , are often plentiful . within the ‘cuckoo - spit’ , the nymph of this species feeds by sucking sap from the food plant .

which of the five species of froghoppers examined is the best jumper ? the answer lies in which aspects of jumping performance are considered and how they are related to body mass and volume . the five species of froghopper analysed have a tenfold range of body masses ( 3 . 2 mg in neophilaenus to 32 . 9 mg in cercopis ) , and vary in length from 4 . 0 mm in neophilaenus to 9 . 8 mm in aphrophora .

a brief report on the kinematics of the jumping movements of a froghopper , philaenus spumarius ( burrows , 2003 ) , has demonstrated its jumping prowess , and a mechanism for jumping has been proposed for cercopis vulnerata ( gorb , 2004 ) . this paper analyses the detailed jumping performance of froghoppers and shows that in a jump they are airborne in less than 1 ms from the first propulsive movement of the hind legs . the enormous acceleration needed to achieve take - off velocities of over 4 . 7 m s - 1 in this short time is equivalent to 550 g .

spittlebugs are first noticed in late spring within white frothy masses of bubbles on grasses , herbaceous plants , shrubs and conifers . small nymphs of the spittlebug are mostly greenish with conspicuous red eyes ; different species may have different coloration . in most landscape gardens , there may be some wrinkling of the leaf or stem where the young spittlebugs are feeding . froghopper adults are found later in spring and summer . they look like leafhopper adults , but froghoppers are shorter and wider . one diagnostic feature is that the hind legs of froghoppers lack spines . damage from adults is slight .

spittlebugs are first noticed in late spring within white frothy masses of bubbles on grasses , herbaceous plants , shrubs and conifers . small nymphs of the spittlebug are mostly greenish with conspicuous red eyes ; different species may have different coloration . in most landscape gardens , there may be some wrinkling of the leaf or stem where the young spittlebugs are feeding , but generally their damage to plants is insignificant . froghopper adults are found later in spring and summer . they look similar to leafhopper adults , but froghoppers are shorter and wider . one diagnostic feature is that the hind legs of froghoppers lack spines . damage from adults is slight .

first , at what distance and with what sense does a froghopper detect an approaching predator ? a vibratory sense could give advanced warning of an approaching danger by detecting footfalls or movements of the plant on which it is feeding . this would allow the necessary time for developing the forces needed to jump ( burrows , 2007 ) . related families of auchenorrhyncha use this sense to communicate with each other on the same plant ( claridge , 1985 ; cocroft et al . , 2000 ; cokl and virant - doberlet , 2003 ) and cercopis appears to signal by vibrating its wings while remaining stationary on a plant ( kehlmaier , 2000 ) .

these are the bugs that in the summer you see as a nymph on bushes surrounded by what looks like spit ( hence the name ) . this is the adult , quite boring looking and uninspiring at first glance , but this teeny insect has one of the fastest movements in the terrestrial animal kingdom . considering its small size a froghopper can move at 4 metres per second , and can jump 70 times there own length ! i tried to film the jump on my sony avchd camcorder , but even after slowing the footage down to a fraction of its speed the jump is invisible . it looks like the insect just vanishes into thin air ! i would need a camera capable of shooting 1000 frames per second to show this behaviour in full slow mo .

from the start of the first visible movements of the hind legs to a froghopper becoming airborne takes no more than 0 . 875 ms in philaenus and a maximum of 1 . 5 ms in the heavier cercopis or aphrophora . in this short time , the body is accelerated to a take - off velocity of 4 . 7 m s - 1 in the best jumps by philaenus . in the best jumps by the different species , the applied acceleration ranged from 2267 - 5400 m s - 2 . philaenus experiences the equivalent of 550 g at take - off and the others from 231 - 428 g . the best jumps by philaenus require an energy output of 136 μj , a power output of 155 mw and exert a force of 66 mn . these forces and accelerations generated in jumping could not be produced by direct contractions of the muscles and indicate that muscular force must be generated in advance of the movement , energy stored and then released rapidly .

the head of froghoppers is flattened dorso - ventrally and has short antennae . its dorsal cuticle , and that of the prothorax , has many small indentations and its ventral cuticle is ribbed . the mouthparts point backwards and in aphrophora extend to the coxae of the hind legs . the folded fore wings cover the body , extend beyond the abdomen posteriorly and cover most of the hind legs when viewed from the side . the five species of froghopper analysed have a tenfold range of body mass , from 3 . 2±0 . 08 mg ( n = 7 ) in neophilaenus to 32 . 9±1 . 0 mg ( n = 16 ) in cercopis ( table 1 ) . their body lengths have a 2 . 5 fold range from 4 . 0±0 . 03 mm ( n = 7 ) in neophilaenus to 9 . 8±0 . 24 mm ( n = 23 ) in aphrophora . philaenus is toward the middle of this range with a body mass of 12 . 3±0 . 41 mg ( n = 34 ) and a body length of 6 . 1±0 . 08 mm .

graphs of leg and body movements during a jump by philaenus captured at 8000 s - 1 . ( a ) five points on the body ( see cartoon inset ) are plotted against time . take - off is indicated by the right arrow and vertical yellow bar . the first movement of a hind leg occurred 0 . 875 ms before take - off ( left arrow and yellow bar ) . the tarsi of the front and middle legs left the ground 0 . 5 ms before take - off ( middle arrow and yellow bar ) . velocity , measured as the movement of the centre of an ellipse representing the overall shape of the body , is plotted as a two - point average of successive frames ( blue line ) . ( b ) sequential movements of the five points on the body as the insect moved through the field of view of the stationary camera , superimposed on an image of the froghopper in its starting position . the black arrowheads and the linking black lines show the position of these five points at take - off . the corresponding positions of these points at different times during the jump can be read frame - by - frame from these positions at take - off .

have you noticed spit on your plants ? did you immediately think it was one of your kids or your spouse who did that ? before you go blaming your kids or partner , check your plants for spittlebugs first .

spittlebug drinks about 300 times its body weight in plant fluids in one hour ' s time . as a result of all the drinking , they produce a lot of waste , and that’s what causes all the spit on your plants .

because of all the spit on your plants , you probably want to get rid of these spittlebugs , but spit aside , spittlebugs can also harm your precious plants ! they not only will feed on your plants , but your plants may undergo stunted development and can also lose some of its vitality .

but don ' t panic just yet ! after some thorough research and several readings , we’ve chosen 7 efficient ways to help you get rid of these nasty bugs .

look around your garden and keep your eyes peeled for spittlebug patches . when you find them , use your hand to physically remove them off of your plant . if you don ' t want to touch them , you can knock them off by spraying water directly on the spittlebug patch . this is one of the easiest methods of how to get rid of spittlebugs ; however , i would only recommend doing this for light and easily accessible infestations only .

another option that is becoming popular nowadays is using a bug zapper . a bug zapper is an insect control system , also called an electrocutor trap device , which kills bugs , mosquitoes , and other flying insects through electrical discharge . although using a bug zapper offers an easy way of controlling pests in your garden , including spittlebugs , this method is only suitable to mild insect infestation . for severe infestations , you already need the help of insect - killer chemicals .

spittlebug eggs will form in and around garden debris and other similar areas . you need to clean up your garden now and then to get rid of old plant matter . cleaning up your garden is another method of how to get rid of spittlebugs .

with religious cleaning , you’ll get rid of the eggs and will , thereby limit , the number of spittlebugs that will hatch .

row covers are made of lightweight fabric or plastic and can be used to protect your crops from spittlebugs and other pests . they are an effective and cheap method to get rid of spittlebugs .

unlike plastic row covers , fabric row covers have tiny holes in them which allow the rain to come in and heat to go out . i would definitely recommend the fabric variety over the plastic ones .

although there are a lot of commercial pesticide sprays available on the market , these are very harmful to you and your plants .

pesticide , when ingested or inhaled , is toxic and very hazardous to your health . similarly , putting these chemicals on your plants would get rid of the pests but will change your plants and taint the flowers and fruits .

i would recommend making a homemade pesticide spray as the way to go on how to get rid of spittlebugs .

i would suggest using garlic or something spicy as your base for your organic homemade pesticide . you can even mix garlic and peppers with water to make it twice as effective .

the spittlebug is usually a bright yellow color and tends to blend in with your leaves . [ via : flickr . com ]

cover your nose and mouth with the face mask to protect your airways from the strong - smelling fumes of the pepper and garlic .

pour 1 cup of water in the blender along with the garlic cloves and the peppers . add the cayenne pepper and blend this mixture on high until the mixture is pureed .

using the cheesecloth or coffee filter , strain the mixture into the large jar .

add the dish detergent or the castile soap little by little . gradually stir it completely in using the wooden spoon .

place the lid on the jar , then let it sit in a cool , dark place for 24 to 48 hours .

first , you ' ll want to wipe all the spit off of your plants then spray away . be sure to test your pesticide on a small portion of your plant to make sure that you don ' t do any serious harm to it .

also , only do this on gloomy and rainy days because your spicy pesticide could burn your plant and kill it .

praying mantises tend to prey on most insects and pests . you could try ordering a few and releasing them onto your pest - laden plants and monitor the results after a week .

this method is a more drastic means regarding how to get rid of spittlebugs and only try this when the others have failed .

plant - based essential oils are a great way to deter spittlebug feeding patterns and can help disrupt their normal activities . i would recommend trying neem oil or any citrus - based oil such as lemon or orange oil to control and prevent spittlebug infestation .

there are a lot of organic insecticidal soaps available in the market . these insecticidal soaps help control and rid your plants of pests like spittlebugs .

they contain potassium salts of fatty acids which can break down the pests ' outer shells and cause them to become dehydrated and lose body fluids .

spittlebugs are really a nuisance in any garden . not only do they spit on your plants , they will harm your plants too . don’t let spittlebugs ruin your plants ! plan accordingly and follow the 7 tips and tricks above detailing how to get rid of spittlebugs .

please let me know if you have any other comments or suggestions or your own tips and tricks for getting rid of spittlebugs . i’d love to hear your thoughts !

hi there ! i’m lucy , and i’m a self - confessed garden fanatic . gardening has always been a passion of mine and will always be my favorite pastime . now that i am married and have one adorable son , i have the time to write and share my personal experiences with other garden enthusiasts like me .

save my name , email , and website in this browser for the next time i comment .

hi everyone ! i’m glad you found your way to my gardening blog . i’m lucy m . clark . i started gardening sometime in the early 2006 . back then , i was a total gardening neophyte . i was living in florida , i had my own little yard , and i knew that i wanted to have a lush and beautiful garden .

sadly , i had no idea what i was doing . with no green thumb and no experience with gardening at all , i really struggled . my yard was in poor shape and a lot of my plants didn’t make it . however , i didn’t give up . i knew that i wanted to have my own garden and with enough patience and dedication , i could develop my own green thumb and have my dream garden !

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in the best jumps by philaenus , take - off occurs within 0 . 875 ms of the start of movements of the hind legs at a peak velocity of 4 . 7 m s - 1 and involves an acceleration of 5400 m s - 2 , equivalent to 550 times gravity . this jumping performance requires an energy output of 136 μj , a power output of 155 mw and exerts a force of 66 mn .

insects have evolved many different mechanisms for jumping so that they may increase the speed of their locomotion , launch themselves into flight , or escape rapidly from a potential predator . the repeatable nature of these movements has enabled detailed analyses of the underlying neuronal mechanisms ( burrows , 1996 ) and determination of the mechanical and muscular solutions to these extreme locomotory demands . click beetles ( elateridae ) jack - knife a joint in their thorax ( evans , 1972 ; evans , 1973 ) , bristletails ( archaeognatha ) ( evans , 1975 ) , springtails ( collembola ) ( brackenbury and hunt , 1993 ) and the larvae of some flies ( maitland , 1992 ) use movements of their abdomens . particular ants ( baroni et al . , 1994 ; tautz et al . , 1994 ) and the stick insect sipyloidea sp . ( burrows and morris , 2002 ) combine forward movements of their abdomens with movements of their legs .

five species of froghoppers were analysed : aphrophora alni ( fallén 1805 ) , cercopis vulnerata ( rossi 1807 ) , lepyronia coleoptrata ( linnaeus 1758 ) , philaenus spumarius ( linnaeus 1758 ) , and neophilaenus exclamationis ( thunberg 1784 ) . neophilaenus were collected near wells - next - the - sea in norfolk , uk and lepyronia from the nanus region of slovenia and near ljubljana . the other species were collected near wells - next - the - sea and around cambridge , uk . observations on live insects were made on the same day of collection , or after they had been in the laboratory for no more than a few days feeding on live chrysanthemum plants .

sequential images of jumps were captured at rates of 1000 or 2000 s - 1 with a high speed camera ( redlake imaging , san diego , ca , usa ) and associated computer , or at 4000 - 8000 s - 1 with a photron fastcam 512 or 1024pci camera [ photron ( europe ) ltd , marlow , bucks . , uk ] and with exposure times of 0 . 05 - 0 . 25 ms . spontaneous jumps , or jumps encouraged by delicate mechanical stimulation with a fine paintbrush or a 100 μm silver wire , were performed in a chamber of optical quality glass 80 mm wide , 80 mm tall and 25 mm deep with a floor of high density foam . selected image files were analysed with motionscope camera software ( redlake imaging ) or with canvas ( acd systems of america ) . jumps were aligned by designating the point of take - off as time t = 0 ms .

drawing of the anterior part of philaenus , viewed from the side , to show the orientation of the proximal parts of its three pairs of legs . each leg is shown in its most anterior position ( black ) and in its most posterior position ( grey ) . the pivots of the coxae with the thorax are indicated by black dots and vertical arrows . the plane of movement is not orthogonal to the plane of the drawing .

higher temporal resolution of the movements of a hind leg of a restrained aphrophora was obtained by gluing a 0 . 2 mm disc of reflective tape to a hind femur close to the femoro - tibial joint . a modified single lens reflex camera with a concentric light around the lens was focussed on the disc and the light it reflected was captured by a photocell in the film plane of the camera ( hedwig , 2000 ) . this method recorded the movement of the femur and was combined with sequential images of the hind legs captured by a high speed camera .

seventy nine jumps by 19 aphrophora , 92 jumps by 19 philaenus , 47 jumps by 13 cercopis , 8 jumps by 5 neophilaenus and 16 jumps by 4 lepyronia were captured and analysed . data are given as means ± standard error of the mean ( s . e . m . ) . temperatures ranged from 24 - 30°c .

sequential images of a jump by philaenus captured at 7500 s - 1 and with an exposure time for each of 0 . 05 ms . the images are arranged vertically in two columns and are timed from the image at take - off ( 0 ms ) . the first movements of the right hind leg ( white arrow ) occurred 1 . 04 ms before take - off .

the hind legs are only just over half the length of the body , ranging from 52 . 3±1 . 24 % ( n = 23 ) of body length in aphrophora to 66 % in philaenus and neophilaenus ( table 1 ) . in all species the front and middle legs are of similar length , but the hind legs are about one and half times longer so that the ratio of leg lengths ranges from 1 ( front ) : 1 ( middle ) : 1 . 4 - 1 . 6 ( hind legs ) in the different species . the increased length of a hind leg is due to its longer tibia . by contrast , the femur of a hind leg is the same length and shape as those of the other legs . the mass of the two hind legs of aphrophora , including the trochanter and all the more distal segments , represents only 2 . 0±0 . 11 % ( n = 7 ) of the total body mass .

the coxae of the three pairs of legs articulate with the thorax at different angles ( fig . 1 ) . in its most forward position the coxa of a hind leg subtends an angle of 155° to the longitudinal axis of the body and rotates , as determined by imposed movements , backwards and upwards in one plane about its paired pivots by only a further 20 - 25° . movements of segments distal to the coxa are in this plane . by contrast , in their most forward positions the coxae of the front and middle legs subtend angles of 80 - 90° and can rotate backwards through an angle of about 40° , or almost twice the range of a hind leg .

the same rapid movements of the hind legs propelled jumping by all species but the following analysis focuses on philaenus , with information from other species illustrating particular features .

in preparation for a jump from a horizontal surface , the front of the body was raised or lowered by movements of the front and middle legs to give a mean attitude of the body relative to the ground at take - off of 28±1 . 9° ( n = 20 ) . after adjustment of the body attitude was complete , the hind legs then remained still for 1 - 2 s with only the distal tips of their tarsi in contact with the ground . a rapid and simultaneous depression of both hind legs then powered an explosive take - off . no differences could be detected in the timing of the movements of the two hind legs and both left the ground at the same time .

the first movement of a hind leg in a jump was a downward and backward thrust of the trochanter and femur ( their individual movements cannot be distinguished in these images viewed from the side ) which , as transmitted through the tibia , forced the whole ventral surface of the tarsus to the ground ( fig . 2 , fig . 3a ) . images captured at 8000 s - 1 showed that this first movement of a hind leg occurred only 0 . 875 ms ( 7 frames ) before the insect became airborne . the force from the continuing backwards movement of the hind legs began to lift the body because their tarsi were now directly applied to the ground ( fig . 2 , fig . 3a , b ) . the body continued to be raised as the hind femora were further depressed and the hind tibiae were extended so that the tarsi of the front and middle legs were raised from the ground before take - off . the velocity of the insect followed these movements of the legs . the first surge in velocity corresponded to the initial movement of the femur ( fig . 3a ) and after a short pause of 0 . 25 ms was followed by a rapid acceleration to a peak velocity of 4 . 7 m s - 1 at take - off .

jump by aphrophora viewed ventrally and captured at 5000 s - 1 with an exposure time of 0 . 05 ms . ( a ) sequence of four images from the jump . ( b ) drawings to show the joint positions of the hind legs before ( - 0 . 4 ms , fully levated ) and after ( 0 ms , fully depressed ) their rapid movements .

the same sequence of movements of the joints of a hind leg were also seen in philaenus jumping from a horizontal position toward the camera and therefore moving out of its focal plane . ( fig . 5a - c ) . the first movement of a hind leg was a downward movement of the femur resulting from a depression of the trochanter about the coxa , accompanied by an extension of the tibia . with the tarsus pushed fully to the ground , further depression of the femur and extension of the tibia resulted in an upward movement of the body . at take - off the coxo - trochanteral joint had been depressed through its full range at angular velocities of 75 500 deg . s - 1 and the femoro - tibial joint extended at an angular velocity of 105 000 deg . s - 1 .

( a ) sequential images captured at 5000 s - 1 and with an exposure of 0 . 05 ms of philaenus jumping toward and to the right of the camera to show the leg movements . movements of the right hind femur are indicated by the arrows . ( b ) graphs of changes in the angle between the femur and the longitudinal axis of the body and of the femoro - tibial joint ( see inset drawings ) in a jump by another philaenus captured at 4000 s - 1 . ( c ) movements of four points on the body ( see cartoon ) and of the angular changes of the femur and tibia ( coloured lines ) . the changes in the femoro - tibial angle at the times indicated ( ms ) are shown in detail on the right .

hind leg movements of a restrained aphrophora recorded simultaneously by a camera capturing images at 1000 s - 1 and with an exposure of 0 . 25 ms and by a photoelectric device ( see materials and methods ) . ( a ) two sequential images , the first showing the hind legs fully levated before the attempted jump and the second after the rapid movement . the inset drawings show the position of the hind legs in these two frames . note the small piece of reflective tape on the hind femur . the outputs of the photoelectric device during six jumps were captured at a sampling rate of 45 khz and low - pass filtered at 2 khz . one trace in blue shows the unfiltered recording . the leg movements were complete in 0 . 3 ms . ( b ) seven attempted jumps by a second aphrophora show that the movement was again complete in 0 . 3 ms .

further detail of the joint movements was obtained by fixing aphrophora ventral surface uppermost in plasticene™ with the hind legs free to move ( fig . 6 ) . rapid and simultaneous movements of both hind legs occasionally occurred spontaneously or could be evoked by gently tickling hairs on the abdomen with a fine paintbrush . no differences in the form of these attempted jump movements could be discerned compared with those in free jumping . they were , however , much faster and were completed in 0 . 3 ms because they did not lift the mass of the body . the key movement was again a simultaneous depression of both trochantera about the coxae which occurred at 267 000 deg . s - 1 , almost three times faster than in a real jump . the speed of these movements was consistent in 6 attempted jumps by one aphrophora and in 7 by a second ( fig . 6a , b ) .

in the smallest of the froghoppers , neophilaenus , take - off was also achieved within 1 ms of the first movements of the hind legs ( fig . 7a , b ) . the first and key movements of the hind legs were again a rapid depression of the trochanter , with an accompanying extension of the tibia . before take - off in some jumps , the tarsi of the front and middle legs had already lost contact with the ground ( fig . 7b ) .

in the heaviest of the froghoppers , cercopis , the body was accelerated for a longer period to achieve take - off , with the movements of the hind legs beginning 1 . 5 ms before take - off ( fig . 8a , b ) . the whole jumping sequence began with the front and middle legs adjusting the attitude of the body , which , in this example was only 16° . both front and middle pairs of legs were again off the ground before take - off ( fig . 8b , c ) . movements of the hind legs led to the head being raised while the posterior of the body was lowered , giving a take - off angle of 45° despite the initial shallow body attitude .

in some jumps when lepyronia took off almost vertically the middle legs were already off the ground and the front legs were fully depressed and extended even before the first movements of the hind legs began ( fig . 9 ) . at 1 ms before take - off , the front and middle legs were clear of the ground but the take - off velocity of 4 . 0 m s - 1 was , nevertheless , as great as that achieved at take - off angles closer to the mean of 45° when the front and middle legs remained in contact with the ground for a longer period .

images from two jumps by neophilaenus captured at 2000 s - 1 with an exposure of 0 . 25 s . ( a ) a jump in which the take - off occurred within 1 ms of the first movements of the hind legs : body angle , 36° ; take - off angle , 55° ; take - off velocity , 4 . 2m s - 1 . ( b ) a jump toward and to the right of the camera in which the body was raised by the front and middle legs to assume a higher take - off angle : body angle , 50° ; take - off angle , 72° ; take - off velocity , 4 . 0 m s - 1 ; body mass , 3 . 2 mg .

philaenus had a mean take - off angle of 46 . 8±2 . 0° ( range 18° to 90° , n = 50 ) and a mode of 45° ( fig . 10a ) . in the first few milliseconds after take - off the insect typically maintained a stable orientation , and in many jumps this continued until a landing feet - first on a vertical or horizontal surface . in other jumps , however , the body rotated about its long or transverse axes and occasionally about both axes ( fig . 10b ) . in the example shown , philaenus spun through four complete cycles during the first 50 ms after take - off . in a second jump , the abdomen started to rotate forward about the transverse axis 10 ms after take - off so that it rather than the head pointed forwards . in a third jump , the body began to rotate about its long axis after 10 ms and after 19 ms had rotated by 180° so that the legs were pointed upwards . the rotation was completed 28 ms after take - off and then the next cycle of rotation began . in a fourth jump , the body first started to rotate about its long axis and then some 5 ms later also began to rotate about its transverse axis .

in all species the wings remained folded during take - off , so that the movement was a pure jump powered by the hind legs and not assisted by active wing movements . occasionally , however , the wings were opened after take - off , and flapping flight was assumed though this did not always lead to sustained flight or even to maintaining the height attained by the initial jump ( fig . 11 ) .

jump by cercopis . ( a ) sequential frames from the jump viewed from the side and captured at 2000 s - 1 with an exposure of 0 . 25 ms . ( b ) graph of the movements of six points on the body ( see cartoon inset ) during this jump . ( c ) sequential movements of the same six points superimposed on an image of cercopis in its starting position to show their vertical and horizontal displacement . the yellow arrows show the direction of the initial movements of the femoro - tibial joint . body angle at take - off , 16° ; take - off angle , 45° ; take - off velocity , 3 . 8m s - 1 ; body mass , 41 . 9 mg .

the energy required to achieve this performance depends on body mass . in the heavier species such as cercopis the best jumps required 238μ j but in the much lighter neophilaenus this fell to 28 μj ; philaenus required 136 μj . the power output in a jump depends on the time during which the energy is expended . in the 0 . 875 ms that philaenus took to accelerate its body the power output was thus 155 mw . the force exerted during the best jumps by philaenus was 66 mn . for the heavier cercopis the force was highest at 83 mn and for the lighter neophilaenus was lowest at 13 mn .

jump by lepyronia . ( a ) two columns of sequential images from a jump captured at 4000 s - 1 and with an exposure of 0 . 25 ms . at the start , the body was raised at an angle of 61° to the ground so that only the tips of the tarsi of the front and middle legs were in contact with the ground . ( b ) movements of five points on the body ( see image in c ) against time . ( c ) movements of the same body points to show their vertical and horizontal displacement . the black curved arrows show the direction of the initial movements of the femoro - tibial joint . body angle at take - off , 61° ; take - off angle , 90° ; take - off velocity , 4 . 0 m s - 1 ; body mass , 17 mg ; temperature , 36°c .

in a laboratory chamber at a temperature of 25°c and in still air , the average height jumped by philaenus was 428±26 mm ( n = 17 insects ) with the highest jumps reaching 700 mm , or 115 times its body length . none of the other species bettered these performances ; for example , in the same conditions aphrophora reached an average height of 263±20 mm ( n = 13 ) . in a particular individual , jumping performance declined with increasing attempts to encourage jumping with the consequence that averaged values are likely to have underestimated the true jumping performance of these insects . the best indication of ability came by taking the maximal performance of particular individuals , which under laboratory conditions and temperatures may still be an underestimate .

the orientation of the hind legs , and their key role in powering jumping , raised the question of whether this compromised their ability to contribute to walking . the striking feature of horizontal walking was that the hind legs did not show rhythmic movements in the walking pattern and were not sequentially placed on the ground and then lifted ( fig . 12a ) . instead they were held in the cocked position with the trochantera fully levated about the coxae so that the tarsi did not contact the ground . the hind legs were , however , used when climbing on a vertical surface on which there was limited traction ( fig . 12b ) . they moved rhythmically and were placed on the ground in time with the walking pattern so that they might therefore be expected to contribute thrust to the movement .

( a ) trajectories of five jumps by the same philaenus . take - off angles are the average over the first 10 ms after take - off . ( b ) rotation of the body during a single jump by philaenus . a fixed point on the head in the vertical or in the horizontal plane was plotted against time . the body spins about its longitudinal ( y axis ) and transverse ( x ) axis undergoing five cycles of rotation in the first 70 ms that it is airborne . images were captured at 1000 s - 1 ; body mass , 12 mg .

a jump in which aphrophora flapped its wings after take - off . the selected images captured at 1000 s - 1 and with an exposure of 0 . 25 ms are arranged in two columns . at take - off ( time 0 ms ) the wings were not opened . 5 ms later it started to lose height and 8 ms after take - off opened its hind wings and flapped them .

the main thrust for jumping is provided by the hind legs . any contribution from the front and middle legs is limited as they are often lifted from the ground before movements of the hind legs begin . their primary responsibilities are therefore to provide a stable platform and to set the angle of the body and the take - off trajectory , by raising or lowering the anterior part of the body . the critical movement of the hind legs in generating the thrust for a jump is the depression of the trochantera about the coxae . before take - off , the hind legs are levated forwards at the coxo - trochanteral joints so that that the femora are tucked between the thorax and the middle legs and are apposed to the lateral and ventral surfaces of the coxae . the tibiae are also flexed about the femora . by contrast , the front and middle tibiae are held in their most forward positions at angles of 80 - 90° to the longitudinal axis of the body . these critical actions of the hind legs in jumping are at the expense of their ability to contribute to the propulsion of the body in horizontal walking .

in terms of the height jumped then philaenus comes out on top . its average height jumped was 428 mm with the best jumps attaining heights of 700 mm , or 115 times its body length . by contrast , in the same conditions aphrophora reached an average height of only 263 mm , or 27 times its body length . distance and height achieved will be determined by take - off velocity , take - off angle and by the drag . all the froghoppers achieve high take - off velocities ranging from 3 . 4 to 4 . 7 m s - 1 and average take - off angles are close to 45° . drag will , however , be different because of the different body sizes and masses ( bennet - clark and alder , 1979 ) . the distance lost due to drag by philaenus is estimated to be about 25 % ( vogel , 2005 ) based on my data . the smaller neophilaenus would be expected to experience greater drag while the larger froghoppers should experience less .

in terms of velocity , acceleration and force relative to body mass generated at take - off , then philaenus again comes out on top . it accelerates its body in less than 1 ms to achieve an average velocity over the first 3 ms of the jump of 4 . 7 m s - 1 . both neophilaenus and lepyronia approach but never better these velocities at take - off , but the heavier aphrophora and cercopis both take longer ( 1 . 5 ms ) to accelerate their bodies and achieve lower velocities .

contribution of the hind legs of philaenus in walking . images were captured at 1000 s - 1 with an exposure of 0 . 5 ms . selected images , viewed ventrally , are shown at the times indicated . ( a ) horizontal walking . the middle and front legs were lifted in a sequence to perform a swing phase of similar duration ( thick black bars ) and contact the ground during a stance phase of variable duration ( thin blue bars ) . the hind legs did not move . ( b ) vertical walking in which the hind legs did contribute .

fleas have been considered the best jumpers amongst the insects , accelerating their body within 1 ms to a take - off velocity of 1 m s - 1 ( bennet - clark and lucey , 1967 ; rothschild et al . , 1975 ; rothschild et al . , 1972 ) . froghoppers produce a substantially better jumping performance . philaenus accelerates its body to a take - off velocity that is more than 4 . 7 times faster than a flea despite having a body mass that is 27 times greater and a body that is four times longer . once airborne , however , the flea is likely to have its jumping distance reduced by 80 % due to drag compared to the 25 % reduction experienced by philaenus ( vogel , 2005 ) . heavier orthopteran insects such as locusts ( schistocerca gregaria ) with a mass of 1 - 2 g take 20 - 30 ms to extend their hind legs and accelerate their body ( brown , 1967 ) to a take - off velocity of 3 m s - 1 ( bennet - clark , 1975 ) while prosarthria teretrirostris with a mass of 280 mg takes 30 ms of acceleration to achieve a take - off velocity of 2 . 5 m s - 1 ( burrows and wolf , 2002 ) . the jumping distance of these larger insects is likely to be curtailed by only some 6 % due to drag ( vogel , 2005 ) . if jumping performance is expressed as the force exerted relative to body mass , then froghoppers again outperform other insects and other jumping animals . the force that froghoppers exert at take - off is more than 400 times their body weight and is , therefore , much higher than in other jumpers such as the flea ( ∼135 times ) ( bennet - clark and lucey , 1967 ) , locust ( ∼8 ) ( bennet - clark , 1975 ) and humans ( ∼2 - 3 ) ( dowling and vamos , 1993 ) .

potential predators of froghoppers are many and include birds , solitary wasps that provision their nests with froghoppers , and predatory social wasps or flies . parasitoids such as pipunculidae attack the pre - adult stages which are unable to jump . a further major danger may be unwitting predation by grazing mammals . they share this danger with all the other insects that live or feed on vegetation , but a rapid and long jump out of harm ' s way becomes advantageous . it may be that froghoppers are vulnerable while airborne and thus need to minimise exposure time in the air by jumping rapidly . this assessment of the value of jumping , however , poses further questions .

the structural specialisations of the joints and the sequence of muscle actions that enable this remarkable jumping performance is analysed in two subsequent papers ( burrows , 2006 ; burrows , 2007 ) and further papers will explore the evolution of the particular jumping mechanisms in other families of these plant sucking bugs .

i thank my cambridge colleagues for their help in collecting these bugs , for their constructive suggestions during the course of this work , and for their comments on the manuscript . this work was initiated at the wells field study centre , wells - next - the - sea , norfolk , england during an undergraduate field course , and i am most grateful to the warden christine marshall for the use of these facilities . some experiments were also carried out at the department of entomology , national institute of biology , ljubljana , slovenia and i am most grateful to dr meta virant and her colleagues for their support .


cladiscites is an extinct genus of cephalopods in the ammonoid order ceratitida .

these nektonic carnivores lived during the triassic , from carnian to rhaetian age .

cladiscites

cladiscites <EOT> model of the cephalopod , cladiscites tornatus . image : jon augier source : museum victoria

fossil of the cephalopod , cladiscites tornatus . image : jon augier source : museum victoria

name : cladiscites tornatus ( v . hauer ) age : trias , norian location : noe bihati , timor , indonesia size is 7 . 5 cm . both sides are prepped .

after the devastation of the extinction event at the end of the permian only a few species of cephalopods survived – a pattern this group encountered in several other mass extinctions . cladiscites was an ammonoid cephalopod . although the fossil has a series of ornate squiggle patterns , these were internal structures called sutures that were not on the shell’s outer surface . other fossils of cladiscites show that the shell’s surface was finely ridged .

age : triassic age sub category : common name : ceratite genus : cladiscites species : externecavatus catalogue letters : arc catalogue number : 1 . 0 country of origin : east indies description : a fine , wholly septate specimen with most of its test , showing the typical strigate ornamentation . the complex ammonitic suture shows well in relief on both sides . size : 50 dia price : £ 7 . 00

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average measurements ( in mm ) : shell width 18 . 6 , shell diameter 32 . 4

average measurements ( in mm ) : shell width 38 . 0 , shell diameter 77 . 0

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cephalopods first appeared in the silurian and survive to this day . see how this group has changed over time .

hi caitlin have you tried viewing the video in another browser such as chrome or firefox ? the video is working so you should be able to view it in an up - to - dat . . .

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arcestes is a genus of extinct ceratitid ammonites found in triassic - aged marine strata .

their shells were broad and rounded , giving them an almost spherical appearance . unlike many other ammonites , the shells of arcestes lack keels that would otherwise stabilize them while swimming . because of this , some paleontologists have suggested that they were bottom - dwelling crawlers .

the shell of arcestes is globular or subglobular with periodic narrow transverse constrictions in internal molds due to periodic internal transverse ridges ( variaces ) in the shell . the suture is ammonitic with complexly subdivided elements . the ventral lobe is subdivided by a low median saddle . lateral lobes and saddles have generally triangular outlines but are deeply embayed by strong projections forming tree - like patterns . they form a series diminishing in size and complexity in a rather straight line going from the venter to the umbilicus in the middle of the shell .

fossils of arcestes are found in mid to upper triassic marine strata throughout the world , including california ( a . pacificus ) , nevada ( a ( anisarcestes ) mrazici ) and austria ( a . intuslabiatus and a . binacostomus ) .

reference : an189 genus - specie : fagesia sp . ( pervinquiére , 1907 ) description : ammonite fossil cephalopod period : cretaceous epoch - stage - strata : upper cretaceous era : mesozoic age : turonian ( 89 - 93 million years ) common name : ammonite fossil cephalopod comments : original , full , natural , clean matrix , not refurbished , not repaired , good conservation , dimensions : 70 x 72 x 65 mm , weight : 355 grams , original , high quality location : asfla region ( morocco ) price : 29 e

reference : an139 genus - specie : acrioceras sp . ( hyatt , 1900 ) description : fossil ammonites , unwinding , heteromorfo period : cretaceous epoch - stage - strata : cretaceous era : mesozoic age : lower barremian common name : fossil ammonites , unwinding , heteromorfo comments : full , matrix , large size , ammonites measures 100 x 22 mm , matrix measures 103 x 57 x 51 mm , weight : 430 grams , ammonites heteromorfo , weird , unusual , high quality location : asfla ( morocco ) price : 130 e

reference : an99 genus - specie : phylloceras sp . description : fossil ammonites period : cretaceous epoch - stage - strata : cretaceous era : mesozoic age : albian common name : fossil ammonites comments : cut and polished location : madagascar price : 12 e

reference : an83 genus - specie : tiltoniceras sp . ( buckman , 1913 ) description : ammonite fossil period : jurassic epoch - stage - strata : era : mesozoic age : toarcian common name : ammonite fossil comments : location : alpe turati , italy price : 15 e

reference : an59 genus - specie : liparoceras sp . ( hyatt , 1867 ) description : ammonite fossil period : jurassic epoch - stage - strata : jurassic era : mesozoic age : lower lias common name : ammonite fossil comments : comprehensive , high quality and excellent preservation , retains the outer mold , original shell , natural , refreshing , nice color , dimensions : 75 x 56 x 46 mm location : ashton keynes gloucestershire , england price : 66 e

5 . 5cm . from the triassic norian stage of the hallstatt limestone formation in austria .

figuring out how old fossils are remains one of the most important aspects of paleontological research , and one of the simplest ways of doing so is by comparing a fossil against other fossils found within the same sediment layer for which the ages are roughly known . these time - calibrated fossils , also known as index fossils , often comprise of commonly found fossils such as trilobites and ammonites .

this volume accompanies an emu school intended to bring contemporary research on mineral reaction kinetics to the attention of young researchers and to put it into the context of recent developments in related disciplines . a selection of topics , methods and concepts , which the contributors deem currently most relevant and instructive , is presented .

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a . s . dagys and a . g . konstantinov , “revision of the nathorstitidae ( ammonoidea ) from northeastern asia , ” paleontol . zh . , no . 5 , 41–49 ( 1997 ) [ paleontol . j .

a . yu . egorov , “stages in formation of triassic deposits in the north middle siberia , ” izv . vyssh . uchebn . zaved . , geol . razved . , no . 10 , pp . 25–31 ( 1983 ) .

a . yu . egorov , g . v . ivanenko , yu . m . baranov , and a . g . konstantinov , “ladinian stage of the lena - olenek area , ” in

r . enay , “paléobiogéographic et ammonites jurassiques : “rythmes fauniques” et variations du niveau marin ; voies d’echanges , migrations et domains biogéographiques , mem . soc . geol . france , no . 10 , 261–281 ( 1980 ) .

( ammonoidea , ceratitida ) , paleontol . zh . , no . 3 , 38–40 ( 2001 ) [ paleontol . j .

a . m . kazakov , a . g . konstantinov , n . i . kurushin , et al . ,

( nauka , moscow , 1987 ) , pp . 70–81 [ in russian ] .

( nauka , novosibirsk , 1990 ) , pp . 67–73 [ in russian ] .

, a new genus of ammonoidea from carnian deposits of northeastern asia , ” paleontol . zh . , no . 3 , 18–25 ( 1995 ) .

a . g . konstantinov , a new ammonoid genus from the carnian of the northern okhotsk region , paleontol . zh . , no . 2 , 11–14 ( 1999 ) [ paleontol . j .

proceedings of regional conference of geologists from siberia , far east and northeast of russia . 2 . 2 . paleontology , stratigraphy and paleobiogeography . mesozoic

( gala press , tomsk , 2000 ) , pp . 327–328 [ in russian ] .

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a . g . konstantinov , “debatable questions in stratigraphy of boreal triassic : boundary between middle and upper series , ” geol . geofiz .

a . g . konstantinov and e . s . sobolev , “biostratigraphic scheme of the carnian and lower norian of northeastern russia . publication 1 . description of sections and stratigraphic distribution of cephalopods , ” pacific geology

a . g . konstantinov and sobolev , e . s . , “biostratigraphic scale of the carnian and lower norian of northeast russia . publication 2 . new zonal scales and correlation , ” pacific geology

a . g . konstantinov , e . s . sobolev , and t . v . klets , “new data on fauna and biostratigraphy of norian deposits in the kotel’nyi island ( new siberian islands ) , ” stratigr . geol . korrelyatsiya , no . 3 , 27–39 ( 2003 ) [ stratigr . geol . correlation

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cerithiopsis virginica is a species of sea snail , a gastropod in the family cerithiopsidae , which is known from the northwestern atlantic ocean .

it was described by henderson and bartsch , in 1914 .

cerithiopsis virginica

cerithiopsis virginica <EOT> the following term was not found in nucleotide : cerithiopsis virginica [ orgn ] .

rosenberg , g . 2004 . malacolog version 3 . 3 . 2 : western atlantic gastropod database . the academy of natural sciences , philadelphia , pa . , available online at urltoken [ details ]

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turgeon , d . d . , j . f . quinn , jr . , a . e . bogan , e . v . coan , f . g . hochberg , w . g . lyons , et al .

common and scientific names of aquatic invertebrates from the united states and canada : mollusks , 2nd ed .

disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .

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references : henderson & bartsch ( 1914 ) nsewm ; abbott ( 1974 ) s ? ( of ^ c . greenii ^ )

littoral marine mollusks of chincoteague island , virginia proceedings of the united states national museum 47 ( 2055 ) 411 - 421 , pls . 13 - 14 . [ stated date : 29 oct 1914 . ]

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format summary genbank genbank ( full ) fasta asn . 1 xml insdseq xml tinyseq xml feature table accession list gi list gff3

confused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .

to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .

disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .

this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .


cylindrifrons is a genus of moths of the crambidae family .

it contains only one species , cylindrifrons succandidalis , which is found in north america , where it has been recorded from alberta , arizona , california , nevada , new mexico and utah .

cylindrifrons

cylindrifrons <EOT> photographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .

powell , j . a . & p . a . opler , moths of western north america , pl . 22 . 15f ; p . 173 . book review and ordering

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hodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .

due to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to

distribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .

use the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .

zoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .

poole , r . w . , and p . gentili ( eds . ) . 1996 . nomina insecta nearctica : a checklist of the insects of north america . volume 3 ( diptera , lepidoptera , siphonaptera ) . entomological information services , rockville , md .

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natureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :

ridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .

" data provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace . "

patterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .

" data provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace . "

iucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .

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