{"id": 23, "summary": [{"text": "plectrohyla celata , also known as the oaxaca treefrog , is a species of frog in the family hylidae .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is endemic to mexico and only known from the northern slope of cerro pel\u00f3n , in sierra de ju\u00e1rez in northern oaxaca .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "after having not been seen after 1984 , it was feared that the species might be extinct .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "however , the species was rediscovered in field surveys in 2011 \u2013 2014 . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "plectrohyla celata", "paragraphs": ["chapters : plectrohyla guatemalensis , plectrohyla tecunumani , plectrohyla teuchestes , plectrohyla chrysopleura , plectrohyla quecchi , plectrohyla glandulosa , plectrohyla pokomchi , plectrohyla ameibothalame , plectrohyla acanthodes , plectrohyla arborescandens , plectrohyla cyanomma , plectrohyla robertsorum , plectrohyla celata , plectrohyla crassa , plectrohyla matudai , plectrohyla pachyderma , plectrohyla sabrina , rana - de arbol moteada , plectrohyla psiloderma , plectrohyla cyclada , plectrohyla charadricola , plectrohyla exquisita , plectrohyla calthula , plectrohyla calvicollina , plectrohyla pentheter , plectrohyla labedactyla , plectrohyla sagorum , plectrohyla hazelae , plectrohyla avia , plectrohyla ixil , plectrohyla lacertosa , plectrohyla bistincta , plectrohyla hartwegi , plectrohyla pycnochila , plectrohyla cembra , plectrohyla chryses , plectrohyla ephemera , plectrohyla siopela , plectrohyla dasypus , plectrohyla psarosema , plectrohyla mykter . source : wikipedia . pages : 92 . not illustrated . free updates online . purchase includes a free trial membership in the publisher ' s book club where you can select from more than a million books without charge . excerpt : plectrohyla guatemalensis is a species of frog in the hylidae family . it is found in el salvador , guatemala , honduras , and mexico . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montanes and rivers . it is threatened by habitat loss . ] . . . more : http : / / urltoken\ngeorgina santos - barrera , luis canseco - m\u00e1rquez 2004 . plectrohyla celata . the iucn red list of threatened species 2004 : e . t55438a11311593 . urltoken\nplectrohyla celata \u2014 faivovich , haddad , garcia , frost , campbell , and wheeler , 2005 , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 294 : 105 .\nsarcohyla celata \u2014 duellman , marion , and hedges , 2016 , zootaxa , 4104 : 18 . provisional placement .\nthis species was previously included in the genus hyla but has recently been moved to the genus plectrohyla ( faivovich et al . 2005 ) .\nwill find all uses of\n. . . hyla\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hyla , hylidae , plectrohyla , ptychadena hylaea , adenomera hylaedactyla\na revision of the family hylidae from 2016 places this species in the genus sarcohyla , but this classification is not yet widely adopted and as of late 2016 , the amphibian species of the world labels it as\nprovisional\n. it belongs to the\nplectrohyla bistincta group\nwith the genus plectrohyla , all of them moved to sarcohyla in the 2016 revision .\nthe natural habitats of this species are pristine cloud forest with low or moderate streams , its probably breeding habitat . it is known from elevations between 2 , 640 and 2 , 670 m ( 8 , 660 and 8 , 760 ft ) above sea level . at night , these frogs were found submerged on the bottom of large pools or at the edges of pools , with only their heads above water , and escaping to deeper water if disturbed . by day , they occurred near the same pools but mostly sitting on rocks several centimeters above the water . the only other anuran in the habitat was what at the time was identified as plectrohyla siopela , but later described as a new species , plectrohyla celata .\nhyla celata toal and mendelson , 1995 , occas . pap . mus . nat . hist . univ . kansas , 174 : 3 . holotype : ku 137103 , by original designation . type locality :\n0 . 9 km n cerro pel\u00f3n , sierra de ju\u00e1rez , oaxaca , mexico , 2670 m ( 17\u00b0 30\u2032 n , 96\u00b0 30\u2032 w )\n.\nplectrohyla cyanomma , also known as the blue - eyed aquatic treefrog , is a species of frog in the family hylidae . it is endemic to mexico and only known from the northern slope of cerro pel\u00f3n , in sierra de ju\u00e1rez in northern oaxaca . it is feared that the species might be extinct .\nplectrohyla cyanomma was once relatively common and conspicuous in its habitat . however , it was last collected in 1980 , and is possibly now extinct . the stream at the type locality is still in good condition , so the decline might be caused by chytridiomycosis . habitat loss is occurring elsewhere in the area and could have contributed to the overall decline of this species .\nin the hyla bistincta group according to the original publication . in the plectrohyla bistincta group of faivovich , haddad , garcia , frost , campbell , and wheeler , 2005 , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 294 : 105 . see account by duellman , 2001 , hylid frogs middle am . , ed . 2 : 977 - 979 . see illustration , map , description of geographic range and habitat , and conservation status in stuart , hoffmann , chanson , cox , berridge , ramani , and young , 2008 , threatened amph . world : 268 , who noted that the species may be extinct .\nfor review of genus and phylogenetics see duellman and campbell , 1992 , misc . publ . mus . zool . univ . michigan , 181 : 1 - 31 . wilson , mccranie , and cruz - d\u00edaz , 1994 , proc . biol . soc . washington , 107 : 67 - 78 , discussed the phylogeny of the genus as did duellman , 2001 , hylid frogs middle am . , ed . 2 : 1045 - 1048 . keys to , accounts of , and discussions of phylogenetics of the species in honduras provided by mccranie and wilson , 2002 , amph . honduras : 285 - 311 . caldwell , 1974 , occas . pap . mus . nat . hist . univ . kansas , 28 : 1 - 37 , defined and discussed the hyla bistincta group ( now part of plectrohyla ) . toal and mendelson , 1995 , occas . pap . mus . nat . hist . univ . kansas , 174 : 1 - 20 , provided a key to the hyla bistincta group . in the hylini of faivovich , haddad , garcia , frost , campbell , and wheeler , 2005 , bull . am . mus . nat . hist . , 294 : 89 . wiens , fetzner , parkinson , and reeder , 2005 , syst . biol . , 54 : 25 , considered plectrohyla to be part of their enlarged hyla .\nplectrohyla cyanomma is a large , robust frog . adult males measure 52\u201356 mm ( 2 . 0\u20132 . 2 in ) and females 52\u201365 mm ( 2 . 0\u20132 . 6 in ) in snout\u2013vent length . the tympanum is partly or completely concealed . the fingers have vestigial webbing whereas the toes are moderately webbed . the dorsum is uniform olive - green with few tiny , bright yellow spots ; the olive - green fades to pale blue around vent and along outer edge of forearm and tarsus . the venter and chin are greenish - yellow , as are the outer toes and fingers . the ventral surfaces of limbs to the inner toes and fingers bright are yellow - orange . the iris is pale bluish - gray . males have enlarged non - projecting prepollex ( the\nspikethumb\n) but not nuptial excrescences .\noccasional papers of the natural history museum , the university of kansas , lawrence , kansas .\nin copyright . digitized with the permission of the university of kansas natural history museum .\n< mods xmlns : xlink =\nurltoken\nversion =\n3 . 0\nxmlns : xsi =\nurltoken\nxmlns =\nurltoken\nxsi : schemalocation =\nurltoken urltoken\n> < titleinfo > < title > a new species of hyla ( anura : hylidae ) from cloud forest in oaxaca , mexico , with comments on the status of the hyla bistincta group < / title > < / titleinfo > < name > < namepart > toal , kevin r < / namepart > < / name > < name > < namepart > mendelson , joseph r . < / namepart > < / name > < typeofresource > text < / typeofresource > < genre authority =\nmarcgt\n> < / genre > < note type =\ncontent\n> 174 < / note > < relateditem type =\nhost\n> < titleinfo > < title > occasional papers of the natural history museum , the university of kansas , lawrence , kansas . < / title > < / titleinfo > < origininfo > < place > < placeterm type =\ntext\n> lawrence , kan . : < / placeterm > < / place > < publisher > the university , < / publisher > < / origininfo > < part > < detail type =\nvolume\n> < number > 174 < / number > < / detail > < extent unit =\npages\n> < start > 1 < / start > < end > 20 < / end > < / extent > < date > 1995 - 09 - 20 < / date > < / part > < / relateditem > < identifier type =\nuri\n> urltoken < / identifier > < accesscondition type =\nuseandreproduction\n> in copyright . digitized with the permission of the university of kansas natural history museum . < / accesscondition > < / mods >\n@ article { bhlpart13092 , title = { a new species of hyla ( anura : hylidae ) from cloud forest in oaxaca , mexico , with comments on the status of the hyla bistincta group } , journal = { occasional papers of the natural history museum , the university of kansas , lawrence , kansas . } , volume = { 174 } , copyright = { in copyright . digitized with the permission of the university of kansas natural history museum . } , url = urltoken publisher = { lawrence , kan . : the university , 1994 - 1996 . } , author = { toal , kevin r and mendelson , joseph r . } , year = { 1995 - 09 - 20 } , pages = { 1 - - 20 } , }\nty - jour ti - a new species of hyla ( anura : hylidae ) from cloud forest in oaxaca , mexico , with comments on the status of the hyla bistincta group t2 - occasional papers of the natural history museum , the university of kansas , lawrence , kansas . vl - 174 ur - urltoken pb - the university , cy - lawrence , kan . : py - 1995 - 09 - 20 sp - 1 ep - 20 sn - 0091 - 7958 au - toal , kevin r au - mendelson , joseph r . er -\nbiodivlibrary @ jzed _ trees @ kew _ laa awesome ! we ' re so honored to have this treasure in # bhlib . thanks @ kew _ laa ! now we can enjoy p\u2026 urltoken\nthis species is known from the sierra de ju\u00e1rez , east of oaxaca city , in south - eastern mexico , at 2 , 640 - 2 , 890m asl .\nthis has always been a rare species , but it appears to have gone into serious decline , and has not been recorded since 1984 . recent surveys to locate it have been unsuccessful , and it might now be extinct .\nthis species has disappeared in suitable habitat , probably due to chytridiomycosis . the fragmentation and disturbance of the forest due to logging and other human activities , and the continuing desiccation of streams , has probably also contributed to the disappearance of this species .\nthe range of this species is not within any protected area . urgent restoration and protection of the remnants of cloud forest in the sierra de ju\u00e1rez is required . a field study is necessary to evaluate the population status of this species , and whether or not it still survives in the wild . in view of the threat of chytridiomycosis , surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an\nlisted as critically endangered because its area of occupancy is less than 10km2 , its distribution is severely fragmented , and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat , and in the number of mature individuals , in oaxaca , mexico .\n* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .\nwill find all uses of\nhyl . . .\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hylarana , hyla , hylidae , hylinae , hylaedactyla .\nwill find all records that contain stand - alone uses of hyla : e . g . , hyla , hyla arenicolor\ninterprets this as\nlithobates or pipiens\nso will find the union of all records that contain either\nlithobates\nor\npipiens\n: e . g . , lithobates omiltemanus , hylorana pipiens\ninterprets this as\nlithobates and pipiens\nso will return all records that have the character string\nlithobates pipiens\nanywhere within a record : e . g . , all members of the lithobates pipiens complex .\noaxaca treefrog ( liner and casas - andreu , 2008 , herpetol . circ . , 38 : 19 ) .\nplease note : these links will take you to external websites not affiliated with the american museum of natural history . we are not responsible for their content .\nfor access to available specimen data for this species , from over 350 scientific collections , go to vertnet .\ncopyright \u00a9 1998 - 2018 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nfrost , d . r . 2015 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 ( 14 january 2016 ) . new york , usa . available at : urltoken .\ncritically endangered ( possibly extinct ) b2ab ( iii , v ) ver 3 . 1\njustification : listed as critically endangered because its area of occupancy is less than 10km2 , its distribution is severely fragmented , and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat , and in the number of mature individuals , in oaxaca , mexico .\nthe range of this species is not within any protected area . urgent restoration and protection of the remnants of cloud forest in the sierra de ju\u00e1rez is required . a field study is necessary to evaluate the population status of this species , and whether or not it still survives in the wild . in view of the threat of chytridiomycosis , surviving individuals might need to form the basis for the establishment of an ex - situ population .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n1 . forest - > 1 . 6 . forest - subtropical / tropical moist lowland suitability : suitable 1 . forest - > 1 . 9 . forest - subtropical / tropical moist montane suitability : suitable 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 1 . wetlands ( inland ) - permanent rivers / streams / creeks ( includes waterfalls ) suitability : suitable\n1 . land / water protection - > 1 . 1 . site / area protection 1 . land / water protection - > 1 . 2 . resource & habitat protection 2 . land / water management - > 2 . 3 . habitat & natural process restoration 3 . species management - > 3 . 4 . ex - situ conservation - > 3 . 4 . 1 . captive breeding / artificial propagation\n1 . residential & commercial development - > 1 . 1 . housing & urban areas\n2 . agriculture & aquaculture - > 2 . 1 . annual & perennial non - timber crops - > 2 . 1 . 2 . small - holder farming\n5 . biological resource use - > 5 . 3 . logging & wood harvesting - > 5 . 3 . 5 . motivation unknown / unrecorded\n8 . invasive and other problematic species , genes & diseases - > 8 . 1 . invasive non - native / alien species / diseases - > 8 . 1 . 2 . named species\n1 . research - > 1 . 2 . population size , distribution & trends 1 . research - > 1 . 5 . threats\nduellman , w . e . 2001 . the hylid frogs of middle america . society for the study of amphibians and reptiles , ithaca , new york , usa .\nfaivovich , j . , haddad , c . f . b . , garcia , p . c . o . , frost , d . r . , campbell , j . a . and wheeler , w . c . 2005 . systematic review of the frog family hylidae , with special reference to hylinae : phylogenetic analysis and taxonomic revision . bulletin of the american museum of natural history 294 : 1 - 240 .\niucn . 2004 . 2004 iucn red list of threatened species . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 23 november 2004 ) .\nlips , k . r . , mendelson iii , j . r . , munoz - alonso , a . , canseco - marquez , l . and mulcahy , d . g . 2004 . amphibian population declines in montane southern mexico : resurveys of historical localities . biological conservation 119 : 555 - 564 .\ntoal , k . r . and mendelson iii , j . r . 1995 . a new species of hyla ( anura : hylidae ) from cloud forest in oaxaca , mexico , with comments on the status of the hyla bistincta group . occasional papers natural history museum university of kansas : 1 - 20 .\nthis species is known from the sierra de jurez , east of oaxaca city , in south - eastern mexico , at 2 , 640 - 2 , 890m asl .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nevi , an amazon company , was founded in 2005 under the name true knowledge . the team started out with a mission to make it possible to access the world ' s knowledge simply by asking for information using natural language .\nwe\u2019re part of the amazon alexa team based in amazon ' s innovative cambridge development centre , alongside other amazon teams including prime air , core machine learning , amazon devices and amazon web services .\nthey are called spikethumb because of the spike on their thumbs , which is called a prepollex . the genus name comes from the\n, 2005 : systematic review of the frog family hylidae , with special reference to hylinae : phylogenetic analysis and taxonomic revision .\nborror , donald j . ( 1988 ) . dictionary of word roots and combining forms : compiled from the greek , latin , and other languages , with special reference to biological terms and scientific names ( 11 . print . ed . ) . mountain view , calif . : mayfield pub . co . isbn 0874840538 .\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nspikethumb frogs ( liner , 1994 , herpetol . circ . , 23 : 25 ; frank and ramus , 1995 , compl . guide scient . common names amph . rept . world : 62 ; liner and casas - andreu , 2008 , herpetol . circ . , 38 : 19 ) .\nhighlands of nuclear central america , from southern mexico through the highlands of guatemala and northern el salvador to central and northern honduras ; undetermined larvae and subadult from cerro saslaya , nicaragua .\ncopyright \u00a9 1998 - 2013 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .\nspecies description : campbell , j . a . and duellman , w . e . 2000 . new species of stream - breeding hylid frogs from the northern versant of the highlands of oaxaca , mexico . scientific papers of the natural history museum of the university of kansas : 1 - 28 .\ngroup according to duellman ( 1970 ) . some specimens had previously been assigned to hyla arborescandens ( duellman 1970 ; caldwell 1974 ; toal 1994 ; toal and mendelson 1995 ; mendelson and toal 1996 ) and\n( toal and mendelson 1995 ) . at night , the dorsum becomes pale tan , venter creamy white , and anterior and posterior surfaces dull yellowish tan . by day , dorsum tan with dark green reticulations and greenish wash posteriorly on body . iris dark copper color . fingers are webbed basally and the toes are about two thirds webbed . a distinct tympanum is present . head as wide as body but slightly wider than long . head width is 33 . 0 % svl , head length is 32 . 5 % svl . snouth moderately short and rounded in dorsal view , bluntly rounded in lateral view . loreal region slightly concave . lips moderately thin but not flared . nostrils slightly protuberant , internarial region is slightly depressed . tympanum oval , slightly higher than long ; annulus is distinct and separated from eye by about 150 % legnth of tympanum . diameter of tympanum is 42 . 1 % diameter of eye . short ulnar tubercles form a row along the ventrolateral edge of the forearm , almost forming a low fold . width of disc on third finger is greater than diameter of tympanum . cloacal opening is directed posteroventrally at upper level of thighs . vocal sac is single , median , subgular . externally very similar to\n. only tadpoles at gosner ( 1960 ) stage 25 are known . similar to\nin the presence of two rows of small marginal papillae , absence of submarginal papillae , presence of fine serrations on the beaks , and a denticle formula of 2 / 4 .\nmost specimens are from cloud forests at elevations between 1600 and 2180 m on the northern versant of the sierra juarez . at night , both sexes were found on low vegetation or boulders adjacent to small streams , but one male was found in a spray zone .\nsexual dimorphism is present in that males are significantly smaller than females , two males from higher elevations ( cerro machin , 2370 m , and cerro san felipe , 2670 m ) have svls of 37 . 5 and 38 . 0 mm while two females from the same areas have svls of 48 . 8 and 49 . 1 mm . seems to be active year round .\nspecies group , with descriptions of three new species ( anura : hylidae ) . ' '\ncampbell , j . a . , and duellman , w . e . ( 2000 ) . ' ' new species of stream - breeding hylid frogs from the northern versant of the highlands of oaxaca , mexico . ' '\ngosner , k . l . ( 1960 ) . ' ' a simplified table for staging anuran embryos and larvae with notes on identification . ' '\nmendelson , j . r . , iii , and toal , iii , k . r . ( 1996 ) . ' ' a new species of\ntoal , k . r . , iii , and mendelson , j . r . , iii ( 1995 ) . ' ' a new species of\n( anura : hylidae ) from the sierra de juarez , oaxaca , mexico . ' '\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .\nthis species is known from cerro san felipe , northern oaxaca and so la de vega and la cofradia , central oaxaca , mexico . it occurs at elevations from 1 , 540 - 2 , 650m asl and is currently known from only five localities . it might occur a little more widely .\nthis species occurs in cerro peln and cerro humo chico in the sierra de jurez , north - eastern oaxaca , mexico . it is currently known from only three localities . it is found from 2 , 640 - 2 , 670 m asl .\nthis species is found in sierra de jurez , north - central oaxaca city , and cerro san felipe and cerro machin , oaxaca , mexico . it is also recorded from the sierra madre del sur ( puerto del gallo ) in south - western guerrero and oaxaca . it is known from elevations of 2 , 200 - 2 , 865m asl . with increased survey work , it is quite likely to be found elsewhere , especially in intervening areas between known sites .\nthe specific name cyanomma is derived from the greek words kyanos (\nblue\n) and omma (\neye\n) and refers to the blue eyes of this species .\nkeep an open eye in panama and you might just see a panamanian golden frog . local legend used to promise luck to anyone who spotted the frog in the wild and that when the frog died , it would turn into a gold talisman , known as a huaca . nowadays , you\u2019ll see the frogs on decorative cloth molas made by the kuna indians , on t - shirts , as inlaid design on a new overpass in panama city and even on lottery tickets . in the market at el valle de ant\u00f2n , you will see them by the thousands either as enamel - painted terracotta or on hand - carved tagua nuts . the one place you probably won\u2019t see a panamanian golden frog , however , is in their native home\u2014the crystal clear streams of the ancient volcanic crater of el valle de ant\u00f2n . in the mountain forests you may spot other similar - looking extant species such as atelopus varius , but the only local and true panamanian golden frogs atelopus zeteki are those breeding in captivity at the el valle amphibian conservation center ( evacc ) at the el nispero zoo .\nin the early 2000\u2019s conservationists warned that this day - glo yellow emblem of panama was in grave danger of extinction . in emergency response , project golden frog was established to create captive assurance colonies of this species , just in case the scientists\u2019 worst fears came to pass and the species went extinct in the wild . in 2006 , just as the scientists had predicted , the chytridiomycosis disease hit el valle . the panamanian golden frog\u2014whose populations were already under pressure due to collectors and habitat loss\u2014was decimated . suddenly , panama\u2019s unique harelquin frog species joined the ranks of at least 30 other harlequin frogs that are most likely extinct in the wild . luckily , panama\u2019s charismatic namesake was part of an aza species survival plan . today , the captive population is being carefully managed and bred for long - term survival by a number of zoos and aquaria in the united states and panama . the animals in these assurance colonies have served their intended purpose and provide an insurance policy for the species , guaranteeing that this important panamanian cultural symbol will never be lost all together .\na tragedy has thus been averted . instead of a dire warning of the future fate of the planet , panamanian golden frogs are now a symbol of hope . exiled frogs are playing the role of a flagship species , bringing the story of global amphibian declines to world wide audiences in zoos and aquaria , magazines and films . as the logo of the panama amphibian rescue and conservation project , the panamanian golden frog is a powerful symbol uniting 8 key institutions . together , we have embarked on this ambitious national program to build capacity at the summit municipal park in panama and to create assurance colonies of other amphibian species from eastern panama before it is too late . we are also actively working with some of the world\u2019s leading researchers like reid harris and louise rollins - smith to develop a cure that will allow us to control the further spread of chytridiomycosis . our great hope is that one day we may re - establish wild populations of panamanian golden frogs back into their rightful home in the streams of el valle . until then , we embrace panama\u2019s living gold as a symbol of hope and achievement in showing us how we can preserve panama\u2019s amphibian biodiversity .\nit\u2019s difficult to communicate the extent of the amphibian crisis using only numbers . the 2008 global amphibian assessment lists 120 potentially extinct species and 39 extinct amphibian species . of these , 94 had chytridiomycosis listed as a likely threat associated with their disappearance . most of the missing species are from central and south america , but we are also losing species from north america , the caribbean , australia , the middle east , asia and australia .\nnow let\u2019s try and put those numbers into the context of our mammal - centric world . think of a whole bunch of endangered mammals from around the world : a jaguar , panthera onca , a baird\u2019s tapir , tapirus bairdii , the golden lion tamarin , leontopithecus rosalia , a mountain pygmy possum , burramys parvus , dama gazelle , nanger dama , and the new guinea big - eared bat , pharotis imogene . repeat that exercise 25 times , and you\u2019ll have some idea of what we have probably already lost in the amphibian world .\nhere is a roll - call of missing amphibians . those marked with an ( ex ) are classified by the iucn as extinct . those with an asterisk * next to them have had chytridiomycosis suggested as one of the threats associated with their disappearance .\nhave you seen any of these missing amphibians ? do you think that other species should be added ? use the comments field below to tell us your thoughts . for another list of possibly extinct species , grouped by countries , see amphibia web .\non june 18 , africam safari launched in m\u00e9xico the panama amphibian rescue and conservation project to rescue endangered amphibians in eastern panama threatened by a lethal fungus which is wiping out these incredible creatures . the project also aims to develop a cure for this disease in the wild . africam is partnering with 8 other institutions in the us and panama to save these threatened neotropical frogs .\nthe mexican launch was attended by panama\u2019s ambassador in m\u00e9xico , mr . ricardo alem\u00e1n alfaro and the honorary consul in puebla mr . mario riestra venegas .\nmrs . amy camacho , africam safari general director , explained the current extinction crisis to the audience and press representatives . she outlined the scope of the project and africam\u2019s involvement .\nhis excellency mr . alem\u00e1n alfaro offered his support for this project , pledging to help in every way possible , especially in developing proper links with other panamanian institutions involved in the conservation of local wildlife .\nen junio 18 del 2009 , africam safari hizo el lanzamiento en m\u00e9xico de un ambicioso proyecto llamado proyecto de investigaci\u00f3n y conservaci\u00f3n de anfibios para rescatar un gran n\u00famero de especies de anfibios que habitan en el este de panam\u00e1 . para el lanzamiento fueron invitados especialmente el embajador de panam\u00e1 en m\u00e9xico su excelencia miguel alem\u00e1n alfaro y el c\u00f3nsul honorario de panam\u00e1 en puebla el lic . mario riestra venegas .\neste proyecto lo llevar\u00e1 a cabo un consorcio de 8 instituciones entre ellas africam safari , el instituto smithsonian , la universidad de vanderbilt y el zool\u00f3gico del summit . el proyecto tiene como objetivos el trabajo cooperativo interinstitucional para prevenir la extinci\u00f3n de docenas de especies de anfibios y desarrollar estrategias y t\u00e9cnicas contra la amenaza de una enfermedad letal para los anfibios causada por un hongo y que es llamada \u201cquitridiomicosis\u201d .\namy camacho , la directora de africam safari inform\u00f3 a los presentes y a los representantes de la prensa acerca de la crisis de extinci\u00f3n por la que est\u00e1n pasando los anfibios actualmente , acerca de los objetivos y alcances del proyecto y c\u00f3mo africam se involucrar\u00e1 en el proyecto .\nsu excelencia el embajador alem\u00e1n alfaro coment\u00f3 que la embajada ayudar\u00e1 en todo lo que le sea posible para el buen desarrollo de este proyecto , especialmente en el \u00e1rea del desarrollo de contactos con las instituciones gubernamentales y no gubernamentales que se dedican a la protecci\u00f3n de la flora y fauna en panam\u00e1 .\njune 18th , 2009 : the rumor has been confirmed and in fact a giant panamanian golden frog has taken up residence on the chase bank building located on the corner of pikes peak and tejon \u2013 check it out ! the frog will be up for three months .\nwe had a great media event earlier today , so watch for us on the news and in the paper . the event included the unveiling of the new josh & john\u2019s ice cream flavor , panamanian golden fudge . they will rotate the flavor on their menu and 50 % of the proceeds of this ice cream will be donated to the cheyenne mountain zoo !\nin 2004 , the panamanian golden frog was garnering attention as a group of zoos , universities and researcher known as project golden frog were responding to the ongoing decline and disappearance of this species in the wild while developing populations of captive golden frogs as a safeguard against extinction . one of their goals at the time was \u201cour expectation that this species holds the potential to rally public support for amphibian conservation throughout the neotropics\u201d . at the same time , the chytrid fungus was winding its way through western panama heading directly for the only known habitat of the panamanian golden frog .\nit seemed like a simple idea at the time . houston zoo staff thought it was would be in the best interest of this species to build a small facility where we could house this species in its range country until we had a better idea of when amphibians in the region could safely be released back into the wild , safe from the chytrid fungus which has now moved through western panama and is heading for the eastern side of the panama canal .\nbut what about all the other amphibians in the region , surely they are in need of protection as well ? from this one species , it was decided that a larger focus , based on the 15 - 20 species potentially threatened with extinction due to the chytrid fungus , should be protected within what was soon to become the el valle amphibian conservation center .\nevacc center $ 250 , 000 , 50 plus partners , 17 species and 600 individuals later \u2013 el valle amphibian conservation center in el valle de anton , panama opened its doors to the public in may of 2009 and has been the focus of media attention , animal planet specials , and news articles over the past 2 years . it even has its own 15 minute documentary called leap of faith and spanish version un salto de fe . so now we wait for a cure and manage the individuals we have collected with support from the zoos , schools , corporations and private individuals .\nactually , we cannot wait . the fungus is jumping the canal zone and heading into the largest contiguous tract of rainforest not currently affected by the fungus \u2013 called the darien gap . we do not know how many species exist within the darien gap , undiscovered species that could disappear before we ever knew they had existed .\nin 2008 , the houston zoo and zoo new england partnered on the design and development of an amphibian pod which is now housed at the summit municipal parque . this pod is actually a shipping container based on models developed by groups in australia and england and modified to maintain amphibians where each pod can safely house 1 - 2 species of individual amphibians ; managing and reproducing them through their life history stages . this was simply the first phase of what you will see here on these pages in months to come . the panama amphibian rescue and conservation program has brought together partners for eastern panama while the el valle amphibian conservation center continues to focus on western panama . and hopefully together , these partners can hold the line against what seemed to be the imminent extinction of dozens of amphibians within panama\u2019s borders .\nthat\u2019s the name of cheyenne mountain zoo\u2019s new frog rescue exhibit , now open in the zoo\u2019s aquatics building . the exhibit highlights our role in combatting global amphibian declines including the zoo\u2019s partnership in the panama amphibian rescue and conservation project . exhibit highlights include african clawed frogs , leopard frogs and giant african bullfrogs and also features the zoo\u2019s other amphibian conservation efforts including :\nthe wyoming toad project \u2013 wyoming toads are the only north american amphibians listed as extinct in the wild . found only in the 50 sq . mi . area of the laramie basin in wyoming , these toads began a rapid decline in the 1970\u2019s due to pollution , pesticide runoff , habitat destruction and fungal disease . in 1988 , a few toads were caught and a captive breeding program started to protect against extinction . cheyenne mountain zoo cares for a collection of these critically endangered toads in our off - exhibit amphibian conservation center . in 2008 our toads produced over 3 , 000 tadpoles ! 2 , 500 of those were released back into the wild . we are currently releasing tadpoles into the laramie basin and participating in survey studies to determine their population in the wild .\nthe boreal toad project \u2013 boreal toads are colorado\u2019s only alpine toad and live above 8 , 000 feet . the populations located in the southern rocky mountains have experienced dramatic population declines over the past two decades from infection by the chytrid fungus , batrachochytrium dendrobatidis . cheyenne mountain zoo holds a captive population of boreal toads in our amphibian conservation center for scientific research . we have participated in a throat pattern identification study and are planning to conduct a health evaluation regarding diet and water quality , and the effect it has on spinal related deformities . both of these studies help field biologists with boreal toads in the wild .\nconserving mantella frogs \u2013 there are five critically endangered mantella frogs , native only to madagascar , that are being over - collected for the pet trade . habitat loss and disease also threaten the survival of those still in the wild . cheyenne mountain zoo has obtained a collection of mantella frogs from a trusted captive breeding source and is now captive breeding mantilla frogs to support other aza institutions and help avoid the collection of wild mantilla frogs in the future . in 2008 - 2009 , the zoo\u2019s quarter\u2019s for conservation program also supported madagasikara voakajy , a conservation and research program in madagascar , which aims to protect mantella frogs and their habitat through local community education . cheyenne mountain zoo staff also developed a flash card game to help schools in madagascar teach about their local frogs and the challenges they face in the wild . through our support they will further their efforts in field research and community education .\nover the last year i have spent countless hours talking to people , explaining why i\u2019m an amphibian conservationist battling to save some of the 2000 - odd species of amphibians that are facing extinction . i\u2019ll bet that the bird conservationists saving warblers don\u2019t get that question as often as i do , because birds clearly do matter . birds are a very accessible form of wildlife , you can see them in your back yards , and they are the sound of nature . just a few adrenalin - filled moments spent watching a woodpecker and a cardinal having a fight at a bird feeder is enough escapism to lift the burdens of a hard day in the office . yet frogs do matter for all these reasons and more . the main difference between frogs and birds is that the bird folks are organized and the amphibian conservationists are only just starting to get their act together . birdlife international has 4000 full - time employees , rspb has 1 , 300 staff , the audubon society has 600 employees . even ducks unlimited has 500 employees \u2013 all working full time applying their skills to bird conservation ! yet in the whole amphibian world there are only a handful of people are working full - time to mitigate the threats facing amphibians . faced with this dearth of capacity it is no wonder that just 12 % of birds are in danger of extinction compared to 32 % of amphibians . since 1980 we have lost just 5 species of birds but over 120 species of amphibians !\nthat still doesn\u2019t answer the question why does it matter if they go extinct ? humans have many different kinds of value systems . the most obvious one is goods and services that can be exchanged for cash . the best example of the direct value of amphibians is frog legs . these are a culinary curiosity and have obvious direct value that can easily be quantified in dollars . most people would be surprised to hear that between 1996 and 2006 , over 100 , 000 tons of frogs legs were imported and had a value approaching half a billion dollars ! every year 100 million to 400 million wild - caught animals are imported and exported to nearly every country in the world .\nthis public service announcement from the vancouver aquarium elegantly captures how important amphibians are to controlling pests . however , it is difficult to figure out how much these ecosystem services are worth if people aren\u2019t paying for them , they are indirect values . the trouble is it\u2019s tough to know how much something is really worth unless someone is willing to pay for it . one example that gives us a clue about what people may be willing to sacrifice for these indirect services is from india . in 1981 the indian the frog leg trade peaked , when more than 4 , 000 tons were exported , mainly to europe earning revenues of $ 9 . 3 million . in 1987 , however , india banned frog legs exports , arguing that the cost of importing more pesticides to combat pests in rice paddies devoid of amphibians was outstripping revenues earned from frog leg exports . this contention also contributed to the listing of two species that were targeted specifically for food on appendix ii in cites .\nmany people will justify saving the rain forest , because we don\u2019t know what aids cure might be out there , and we don\u2019t want it to go extinct before we find out where to get it , something that we\u2019ll call option values . well , one of my collaborators , an incredible lady by the name of louise rollins - smith recently discovered that the white\u2019s tree frog from australia produces a kind of chemical called a caerin ( pronounced see - rin ) that can block hiv transmission to t - cells ! in fact , frog - skins are a real pharmacopeia something i\u2019ve tried to communicate in this illustration below .\nthe gastric brooding frog from australia may have held a cure for peptic ulcers , a condition that affects millions of people around the world each year . unfortunately though , its potential benefits went extinct along with both species in its genus in the 1980\u2019s . looking at this diagram makes one realize that some values are difficult to prescribe in dollar terms . it makes you think about what we are loosing when you hear stories like one from my colleagues in panama who recently discovered 10 new species in panama - after they had already gone extinct !\namenity values are difficult to quantify in dollar terms , yet frogs are one of the most commonly used animals in classroom education in western countries . 44 - 64 % of all colleges and secondary schools surveyed in georgia , usa used amphibians for educational purposes . and how many of us had our first real wildlife experiences catching frogs and kissing them to see if they turned into a prince ? or chasing a bullfrog across the garden lawn in a frog - jumping competition with your friends ?\nethical values are , in my mind , the real justification for saving a species . many people will spend countless millions on a work of art , a unique object of beauty and fascination that enriches our lives simply because it exists . i feel the same way about a species , when we lose it , it can never be replaced . like many people before me i find frogs fascinating creatures . in africa , the ancient egyptian goddess of fertility , hequet , was often depicted as a frog . in asia chan chu , the three - legged money frog is a popular chinese symbol for prosperity and it is said to bring wealth into your life . in the america\u2019s pre - columbian indigenous people crafted frogs in gold and clay talismans called huacas . today , golden frogs are considered lucky , and adorn panamanian lottery tickets and crowd tables in tourist markets . in more contemporary settings , one has to wonder what the value is of modern cultural icons such as kermit or the budweiser trio of frogs named bud , wei and ser ?\nso you may be saying right now \u2013 i\u2019m not convinced , frogs creep me out . that\u2019s ok , but i would beg to differ with you because i know that frogs do matter . i just want to keep them around so that your children and their children can form their own opinions . not just by looking at catalogues of extinct species in a library somewhere , but by exploring a stream with their friends and discovering these incredible creatures for themselves .\nit\u2019s official . the deadly amphibian chytrid fungus batrachochytrium dendrobatidis ( bd ) has now spread across the panama canal into eastern panama according to a study recently published in ecohealth . elsewhere in central and south america , this disease has spread through mountainous regions . according to karen lips , a conservation biologist who has studied the problem for years , when bd arrives at a site , about half of the species vanish and the remaining species experience massive die - offs .\nconservationists have been fretting for years about what might happen to eastern panama\u2019s 120 - odd amphibian species when bd hits . bd is a disease that cannot tolerate extremely hot temperatures , so it tends to be most devastating in cooler mountainous regions of the tropics that remain cool and moist year - round . the mountainous regions of eastern panama are one of the last remaining strongholds of na\u00efve amphibian populations in the new world , and species that tend to have a highland distribution and small ranges are the most vulnerable to extinction .\nto add another layer of complexity to this problem , there are many species new to science that we could lose before they are even discovered . according to dr . andrew crawford who studies amphibian genetics , \u201ceastern panama has been relatively poorly explored by herpetologists and it is likely that there are several species new to science that live only in this region . what is particularly worrying is that we are facing a huge biodiversity threat , but we don\u2019t have a good idea of just how many species are at stake\u201d ."]}
{"id": 61, "summary": [{"text": "tomares romanovi , or romanoff 's hairstreak , is a butterfly of the family lycaenidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in armenia , azerbaijan , georgia , eastern turkey , northern iran , and kopet dagh mountains .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 28 \u2013 30 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the species inhabits calcareous grasslands and arid mountain steppes , usually dominated by tragacanth locoweeds .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it occupies elevation range from 1200 to 1600 m above sea level .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the butterfly flies from late april to mid-june depending on latitude and elevation .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the larvae feed on the astragalus species a. scharuhdensis and a. finitimus . ", "topic": 29}], "title": "tomares romanovi", "paragraphs": ["tomares romanovi - is a species with . . . - karen aghababyan | facebook\ntomares romanovi , or romanoff ' s hairstreak , is a butterfly of the family lycaenidae . it is found in armenia , azerbaijan , georgia , eastern turkey , northern iran , and kopet dagh mountains .\nsimilar species are : provence hairstreak or cardenillo , tomares ballus ( fabricius , 1787 ) it is found in the iberian peninsula , northern africa and along the mediterranean coast of provence , france .\nthe species is distributed in armenian highland , georgia , kopet - dagh . armenia is inhabited by nominate subspecies .\nthe species inhabits calcareous grasslands and arid mountain steppes , usually dominated by tragacanth locoweeds . host plant is astragalus finitimus , although for kopet dagh the astragalus schahrudensis is known . the species is specialized to feed on flowers of the host plant , and the female lays down the eggs on the flower buds .\nflight period lasts from mid april to mid june , depending on elevation , in single generation .\n. in the studied period it shows moderate decline ( p < 0 . 05 ) . the host plant probably suffers from overgrazing in two ways : directly and due to total degradation of habitat and erosion .\nit was evaluated for the red book of animals of armenia and was considered as vulnerable . at current some portions of the populations of the species are protected in khosrov forest state reserve , and gnishik community protected area . two populations of the species which have not been covered by arevik national park are included now in\npbas , also the significant portion of its population is included in gnishik pba . in their turn the mentioned pbas are in the process of being included in the network of emerald sites . continuation of the monitoring of the species is a necessary measure to track further dynamics of its populations . further grow of pba network and development of butterfly - watching with strong support of community service is another important conservation tool that can decrease the load on the grassland ecosystems and support in stabilization of population trend .\nstatus . a rare species . according to iucn criteria categorized as vulnerable vu b1ab ( iii ) + b2ab ( iii ) .\nbrief description . a small\u2013sized butterfly , the length of the forewing is 15 - 19 mm . the fround color of the wings is black with bright red spot on the discal part of forewings and on the anal part of hind wings . the underside of the hind wings is light green with metallic iridescence .\ndistribution in armenia . central and south armenia . recorded in the kotayk ( garni and geghadir villages , jrvezh settlement , mt . hatis ) , vayots dzor ( artavan village ) , ararat ( urtsalanj village ) , syunik ( surroundings of the shvanidzor village ) provinces and in khosrov forest reserve .\nhabitats . semi\u2013deserts , dry meadows , steppes , grasslands near the timberline at the altitudes of 1300\u20132200 m above sea level .\nbiological traits . flies in a single generation from mid - may to the end of july . pupae winter . the larvae develop in the flower buds of astragalus finitimus ( fabaceae ) .\npopulation size and its trends . abundance is rather great in places without human facilities , depends on the densities of the fodder plant .\nsuggested conservation measures . incorporation of species habitats to the reserve zone of arevik national park . application of selective effect insecticides in aircraft treatments against leaf - eating forest pests .\n( fabricius , 1787 ) it is found in the iberian peninsula , northern africa and along the mediterranean coast of provence , france .\nhabitat : dry rocky slopes with sparse vegetation , debris , beams , ravines .\nbehavior : usually sits on the soil or small stones , sometimes feeds on flowers , on favorit in spain are platycapnos spicata . males are territory - assertive , that is , they either fly up and chase anyone who dares to enter the territory , or they fly into the whirling\ndance - flight\naround each other high into the air in a sort of territory battle . females are less flying around , often seen on the flowers of nectary , or lay eggs on foodplants .\nflight season : depending on the height above sea level , the season is from the end of january until early may .\nfoodplants : caterpillars which feed on hairy canary clover , dorycnium hirsutum and different medicago species .\ndistribution : iberian peninsula , northern africa and along the mediterranean coast of provence , france .\nauthor & photographer : martin bjerg & arne lykke viborg . editor : lars andersen .\nanother name : caucasian spring copper . name in name in turkish : kafkasya gelincigi .\nbehavior : usually sits on the soil or small stones , sometimes feeds on flowers . males are territory - assertive , that is , they either fly up and chase anyone who dares to enter the territory , or they fly into the whirling\ndance - flight\naround each other high into the air in a sort of territory battle . females are less flying around , often seen on the flowers of nectary , or lay eggs on foodplants .\nflight season : depending on the height above sea level , the season is from the end of march until early june . caterpillars which feed on different astragalus species emerge one - two weeks earlier than those which feed on kopeechnik .\nfoodplants : astragal sverhuvolosisty , astragalus suprapilosus , astragal puzyristy , astragalus utriger , and sweetvetch / kopeechnik vetch , hedysarum candidum .\ndistribution : recorded in a few localities on coast mountains in south - eastern crimea , ukraine ( karadag nature reserve ) . georgia . grusia . khanlar . azerbaijan . turkey . syria . iraq and iran .\nauthor & photographer : morten s . m\u00f8lgaard & tom nygaard kristensen . editor : lars andersen .\nanother name : nogel ' s spring copper . name in turkish : anadolu gelincigi .\nbehavior : it is not very shy , flying low over the vegetation , sometimes taking off in high flight through the bushes or trees . sits mainly on foodplants and other herbaceous plants . males are territory - assertive , females are less flying around , often seen on the flowers to nectary . normally it does not fly very far away from habitats , but can be seen individually in a distance up to several kilometers away from the locality !\nflight season : flight season begins in the second week of may and until mid june .\ndistribution : dobrogea , romania\u0086 . recorded in a few localities on coastmountains in south - eastern crimea , ukraine . syria . lebanon . israel . turkey . georgia . armenia . kurdistan . iraq and iran .\nauthor & photographer : tom nygaard kristensen & morten s . m\u00f8lgaard . editor : lars andersen .\ncollins butterfly guide : the most complete field guide to the butterflies of britain and europe by tom tolman and richard lewington 2008 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncopyright \u00a9 andre gorodinski . the insects from the palaearctic region . web design by mrs . l . gorodinski .\nby creating an account , i agree to shutterstock ' s website terms , privacy policy , and licensing terms .\n\u00a9 2003 - 2018 shutterstock , inc . all rights reserved . made in nyc .\nsmall ( s ) has the shortest download time and is suitable for digital use .\nlarge ( l ) is suitable for large prints as well as digital use . it is the original image provided by the contributor .\nyou can redownload your image for free at any time , in any size .\neditorial content , such as news and celebrity images , are not cleared for commercial use . learn more on our support center .\nsign up to browse over million images , video clips , and music tracks . plus , get free weekly content and more .\n( we only support jpg and png images under 5mb and no larger than 4000px on either side at this time . )\narmenia , vayots dzor province , areni village , noravank gorge , 24 . v . 2010\nthe source code for the wiki 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the mozilla foundation , google , and apple . you could also do it yourself at any point in time .\nwould you like wikipedia to always look as professional and up - to - date ? we have created a browser extension .\nit will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .\ni use wiki 2 every day and almost forgot how the original wikipedia looks like .\nof perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .\nthe wingspan is 28\u201330 mm . the species inhabits calcareous grasslands and arid mountain steppes , usually dominated by tragacanth locoweeds . it occupies elevation range from 1200 to 1600 m above sea level . [ 1 ] the butterfly flies from late april to mid - june depending on latitude and elevation .\nthe larvae feed on the astragalus species a . scharuhdensis and a . finitimus .\nthis page was last edited on 21 march 2018 , at 16 : 30 .\nbasis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more"]}
{"id": 67, "summary": [{"text": "prolibytherium ( \" before libya 's beast \" ) is an extinct artiodactyl ungulate native to early miocene north africa and pakistan , from around 16.9 to 15.97 million years ago .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the 1.80 metres ( 5 ft 11 in ) long creature would have superficially resembled an okapi or a deer .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "unlike these , however , prolibytherium displayed dramatic sexual dimorphism , in that the male had a set of large , leaf-shaped ossicones with a width of 35 centimetres ( 14 in ) , while the female had a set of slender , horn-like ossicones .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the taxonomic status of prolibytherium remains in flux .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "at one time , it was described as a relative of sivatherium ( as a precursor to \" libytherium maurusium \" ( s. maurusium ) ) .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "later , it would be regarded as a palaeomerycid , or either as a climacoceratid , or as a basal member of giraffoidea .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "with the discovery and study of a female skull in 2010 , prolibytherium is tentatively regarded as a climacoceratid . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "prolibytherium", "paragraphs": ["the back of the prolibytherium fusus skill . 4 marks the fused occipital condyles . from danowitz et al . , 2015 .\nmale ( a ) and female ( b ) forms of prolibytherium magnieri . p . fusus would have had similar ornaments . art by i . s\u00e1nchez .\nmeaning : prolibytherium means \u201cbefore libya\u2019s beast\u201d , coined by camille arambourg in 1969 for a different species , while fusus refers to the fused occipital condyles at the back of the skull .\ndanowitz , m . , domalski , r . , solounias , n . 2015 . a new species of prolibytherium ( ruminantia , mammalia ) from pakistan , and the functional implications of an atypical atlanto - occipital morphology a new species of prolibytherium ( ruminantia , mammalia ) from pakistan , and the functional implications of an atypical atlanto - occipital morphology a new species of prolibytherium ( ruminantia , mammalia ) from pakistan , and the functional implications of an atypical atlanto - occipital morphology . journal of mammalian evolution . doi : 10 . 1007 / s10914 - 015 - 9307 - 8\nthe taxonomic status of prolibytherium remains in flux . at one time , it was described as a relative of sivatherium ( as a precursor to\nlibytherium maurusium\n( sivatherium maurusium ) ) . later , it would be regarded as a palaeomerycid , or either as a climacoceratid , or as a basal member of giraffoidea . with the discovery and study of a female skull in 2010 , prolibytherium is tentatively regarded as a climacoceratid .\nin any list of weird fossil mammals , the regular set of ancient beasts are trotted out . there\u2019s always a brontothere . uintatherium often shows up . deinotherium isn\u2019t a surprise , either . and while these long lost mammals are indeed wonderful , there are plenty of critters that are just as strange . one of my favorites is prolibytherium .\ns\u00e1nchez , i . , quiralte , v . , morales , j . , azanza , b . , pickford , m . 2010 . sexual dimorphism of the frontal appendages of the early miocene pecoran prolibytherium arambourh , 1961 ( mammalia , ruminantia ) . journal of vertebrate paleontology . doi : 10 . 1080 / 02724634 . 2010 . 483555\nexactly what sort of beast prolibytherium was , no one knows for sure . the herbivore has been punted around the hoofed mammal tree a bit , and , for the moment , it seems closest to a group of extinct , deer - like mammals called climacoceratids . but one thing is for sure \u2013 this mammal wore some very bizarre headgear .\nthe 1 . 80 metres ( 5 ft 11 in ) long creature would have superficially resembled an okapi or a deer . unlike these , however , prolibytherium displayed dramatic sexual dimorphism , in that the male had a set of large , leaf - shaped ossicones with a width of 35 centimetres ( 14 in ) , while the female had a set of slender , horn - like ossicones .\nthe first species , named by camille arambourg from the 16 million year old rock of libya , had a massive , splayed appendage growing from between its eyes and over the back of the head . and as israel s\u00e1nchez and colleagues argued in 2010 , these ornaments differed between the sexes , with probable females having minimalist spikes that more or less present the framework on which the broader male palms are supported . and now melinda danowitz , rebecceca domalski , and nikos solounias have named a new species of this unusual mammal , extending the range of prolibytherium into asia and its span back three million years .\nthe new species , prolibytherium fusus , is only known from a 19 million year old braincase with the broad ornaments broken off . yet , aside from the fractured attachments for the appendages , the back of the skull shows that this species must have had heavy appendages like its geologically younger relative . the occipital condyles \u2013 the attachment sites between the back of the skull and the front of the neck \u2013 are fused and thickened , providing greater support along the midline for carrying all that extra bone around . and , danowitz and colleagues note , the reinforcement at the back of the skull might have had provided greater reinforcement for combat , too , although how these butterfly - faced mammals fought is so far left to our cenozoic imagination .\nthis article needs expanding . you can help improve this article by adding additional content .\nprolybitherium ( meaning\nbefore libya ' s beast\n) is a genus of artiodactyl ungulates native to early miocene north africa and pakistan , from around 16 . 9 to 15 . 97 million years ago .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nhow much of the creature\u2019s body is known ? : a braincase with the cranial appendages broken off .\nhhw _ ` cel ` j ^ { \u0096\u008b } h [ zz\u008e\u0089nn\u0084\u0454 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\u0433\u0099u\u0091\u045a\u045a\u0084zuv\u0092\u008e\u045c\u0434\u0436\u043a\u0434\u0454\u0454\u0095\u0459\u0433\u0434\u0095kvm\u045c\u044f\u0453\u00a7\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045f\u045a\u0430\u009esb .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nparent taxon : palaeomerycidae according to d . r . prothero and m . r . liter 2007\nsee also carroll 1988 , mitchell and skinner 2003 and pickford et al . 2001\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages ."]}
{"id": 126, "summary": [{"text": "barbour 's map turtle ( graptemys barbouri ) is a species of turtle in the family emydidae .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "the species is endemic to the southeastern united states . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "barbour ' s map turtle", "paragraphs": ["the barbour\u2019s map turtle is protected as a state threatened by florida\u2019s endangered and threatened species rule .\nfalse map turtle - g . pseudogeographica - mississippi map turtle - g . p kohnii - false map turtle - g . s p pseudogeographica\nthere are no known adverse effects of barbour ' s map turtles on humans .\nbarbour ' s map turtle is a great turtle for a community habitat with mud turtles , musk turtles , sliders , cooters , other map turtles and painted turtles .\nbarbour ' s map turtle is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nbarbour ' s map turtles aren ' t known to have any negative impacts on humans .\nall barbour ' s map turtles are carnivorous . females eat only mollusks as adults , primarily\nbarbour ' s map turtle nests are subject to predation by snakes and terrestrial mammals , such as raccoons . humans sometimes consume barbour ' s map turtles as food . barbour ' s map turtles are capable of withdrawing into their shells as well as trying to bite if they are unable to escape danger .\ninformation on barbour ' s map turtle ( graptemys barbouri ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nbarbour ' s map turtles are carnivores , so they only eat other animals . females eat mostly\nthe most popular ones were the sabine map turtle ( graptemys ouachitensis ) and the false map turtle ( graptemys pseudogeographica ) \u2013 including the subspecies mississippi map turtle ( graptemys pseudogeographica kohni ) .\nbarbour ' s map turtles are important predators of mollusks and they and their eggs get eaten by other predators .\nbarbour\u2019s map turtle is largely limited to clear , limestone - bottomed streams that contain numerous fallen branches and trees . highly aquatic , it spends much time basking on logs , plunging into the water when disturbed . the barbour\u2019s map turtle feeds only in water , and , except when nesting , rarely travels far from shore .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - barbour ' s map turtle ( graptemys barbouri )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - barbour ' s map turtle ( graptemys barbouri )\ntitle =\narkive species - barbour ' s map turtle ( graptemys barbouri )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nplastron on adult northern map turtle . picture by d . gordon e . robertson\n. females usually live in deeper water than males . young barbour ' s map turtles stay closer to the riverbank than adults .\nbreeding interval barbour ' s map turtles breed annually , and females are capable of producing multiple clutches in a single mating season .\nuncommon : rio grande cooters , barbour\u2019s map , pacific pond , western chicken turtle , loggerhead musk , stripe - neck musk , yellow mud ( hatchling ) , florida mud .\n240 gallon aquarium \u2013 larger female cooters ( particularly river cooters ) , female barbour\u2019s map , larger female spiny softshells , common snappers .\nthere has been some concern in recent years about map turtles in the wild , and the loss of suitable map turtle habitats .\nkrysko , k . , k . enge , and p . moler . 2011 . graptemys barbouri carr and marchand 1942 barbour\u2019s map turtle . atlas of amphibians and reptiles in florida .\nhill , e . pierson and jonathan d . mays . 2016 . geographic distribution : graptemys barbouri ( barbour ' s map turtle ) . herpetological review 47 ( 1 ) : 79\nmays , jonathan d . and e . pierson hill . 2016 . geographic distribution : graptemys barbouri ( barbour ' s map turtle ) . herpetological review 47 ( 1 ) : 79\nthe area where barbour ' s map turtles generally live and travel is 365 meters along the river for males and 273 meters for females .\nsanderson r a ; lovich j e 1988 . graptemys barbouri carr and marchand barbour ' s map turtle . catalogue of american amphibians and reptiles ( 421 : 1 - 2 - get paper here\nthe barbour\u2019s map turtle lives in clear flowing rivers found in florida , georgia and alabama . often spotted basking in the sun on top of rocks and snags , the turtle will dive into the water when threatened . in this turtle species , females grow to more than double the size of males .\nhow often does reproduction occur ? barbour ' s map turtles breed annually , and females are capable of producing multiple clutches in a single mating season .\nsanderson , r . a . 1974 . sexual dimorphism in the barbour\u2019s map turtle , malaclemys barbouri ( carr and marchand ) . master of arts thesis , university of south florida , tampa . 94pp .\nsterrett , sean c . , john b . jensen and brian folt . 2014 . graptemys barbouri ( barbour ' s map turtle ) basking height . herpetological review 45 ( 2 ) : 314 - 315\nin the wild , female barbour\u2019s map turtles feed almost entirely upon fresh water mussels , snails and crayfish . males take smaller snails , insects , crayfish , and fish .\nbarbour\u2019s map turtles live in the southeastern united states . they live in alabama , georgia , and the florida panhandle , in and around the apalachicola and the chipola rivers .\nbarbour ' s map turtles are important predators of mollusks in the areas the inhabit and are preyed on by other predators as eggs , young , and sometimes as adults .\nthe florida fish and wildlife commission is accepting comment , and holding webinars regarding proposed guidelines for managing the crayfish , pine snake , barbour\u2019s map turtle , blackmouth shiner , saltmarsh topminnow , big cypress fox squirrel and florida burrowing owl .\nit is found in the pascagoula river in the united states . it formerly included a population in the pearl river , but in 2010 , that population was described as a separate species , the pearl river map turtle , graptemys pearlensis . the pascagoula map turtle shares its range with the yellow - blotched map turtle , g . flavimaculata .\nscientists don ' t know much about how barbour ' s map turtles communicate or sense their environment . in courtship , males touch the faces of females with their front legs .\nmales engage in a courtship routine in which they touch the face of females with their legs , but communication and perception are otherwise largely unknown for barbour ' s map turtles .\nbarbour ' s map turtles are considered\nvulnerable\nby the iucn and are on appendix iii of cites . they are given a global rank of\ng2 ,\nindicating that the species is imperiled . barbour ' s map turtles have a relatively restricted range and are subject to threats to their freshwater ecosystems , including dredging , water impoundment , and pollution .\nconnor , p . 1993 . cagles map turtle . tortuga gazette , ( 29 ) 10 : 1 - 4 .\nfairly easy to acquire : ybs , peninsula cooter , texas map , ouchita map , false map , diamondback terrapin ( as a group ; specific subspecies may be harder to track down ) , razorback musk , mississippi mud , spotted turtle , north american wood turtle , common snapper , alligator snapper .\nif you keep your map turtle outside , a heat lamp map can still be used and may even be necessary depending on where you live . if you live in an area where it gets too cold at certain points of the year , an outdoor pond may not be the best choice for your map turtle .\ncagle ' s map turtle ( graptemys caglei ) from the guadalupe and san antonio rivers in south central texas , is an ornately patterned species that reproduces well in captivity . as with many map turtle species , there is extreme sexual dimorphism in cagle ' s map turtles . adult females typically reach 10 - 12 inches as adults and males mature at 4 inches and rarely reach more than 5 inches .\nmales of some map turtle species do not exceed four inches in length even in adulthood limiting their availability in the pet trade .\nscientists don ' t know much about how long barbour ' s map turtles live in the wild . the record for the longest lifespan in captivity was 31 years , 8 months , and 9 days . this turtle lived at the national zoo in washington , dc .\nhaving too little exposure to direct sunlight can negatively impact your map turtle\u2019s health . sunlight deprivation can cause problems with their shell and even fungal infections . if your map turtle is in an outdoor pond , make sure some of its basking areas have access to direct sunlight at any point during the day . if you keep your map turtle in an indoor tank , make sure you have a high quality lamp that simulates the sun\u2019s rays . you may have to take your turtle outside occasionally if the lamp doesn\u2019t seem to be doing enough .\n5 common map turtles , or northern map turtles as they are more correctly called . picture by d . gordon e . robertson\nthe false map turtle ( graptemys pseudogeographica ) is found from southern minnesota , wisconsin , and southeast to louisiana and texas . they do not have the broad , muscular heads seen in many map turtle species due to their diet which consists almost entirely of insects and insect larvae instead of crustaceans and mollusks seen in other map turtles . female false map turtles reach 9 inches and males reach 5 inches .\nit might be illegal to take a map turtle from the wild in your area . make sure to research what the regulations are in your area before considering catching a wild turtle to keep as a pet .\nthere is no information about the lifespan of barbour ' s map turtles in the wild . the longest observed lifespan in captivity was 31 years 8 months and 9 days at the national zoo in washington , dc .\n2 . ) pacific pond turtle - actinemys marmorata ( 2 subspecies ) ( note : formerly clemmys marmorata , ' western ' pond turtle ) .\newert , m . a . , p . c . h . pritchard , and g . e . wallace . 2006 . graptemys barbouri \u2013 barbour\u2019s map turtle . pages 260\u2013272 in p . a . meylan , editor . biology and conservation of florida turtles . chelonian research monographs no . 3 .\nbarbour ' s map turtles are considered\nvulnerable\nby the iucn red list and are listed on on appendix iii of cites . their global rank is\ng2 ,\nwhich means that they are at risk . barbour ' s map turtles live in a fairly small area . they are threatened by damage to their habitat , which can come from from machines moving sand from the bottom of the river , interfering with the flow of water , or pollution .\nlike many reptiles , barbour ' s map turtles do not put much time or effort into caring for the young . females dig a nest and cover the eggs with dirt . besides that , neither parents contribute to the survival of their young .\nbarbour ' s map turtles spend most of their lives in the water , so they are good swimmers . males spend more time in calmer water , probably because they are smaller . barbour ' s map turtles spend a lot of time warming themselves in the sun , especially on limestone rocks , vines , or trees in or near the water . if there is a flood in the stream and river where they live , they move to the spot in the river with the weakest current .\ntry to maintain a high concentration of oxygen in your map turtle enclosure . you can add lots of extra aquatic plants and use a larger - than - expected filtration unit . by keeping oxygen levels high and ph levels appropriate for the species , you will prevent many of the problems normally encountered by map turtle keepers .\nsome of the species ( such as the barbour\u2019s map turtle ) have a few juts coming out of the top of their shell , resembling a line of dorsal fins . some also have spike - like juts coming out around the base of their carapace . this helps add to their interesting appearance that makes them desirable to some potential pet owners .\nother map turtles , while smaller , exhibit a wide array of carapace \u201cdecorations\u201d , colors and habits . you can read more about some of these in the articles linked below . pictured here is the spectacular ringed map turtle ( g . oculifera ) .\nbecause barbour ' s map turtles spend most of their lives in the water , they are good swimmers . females tend to spend more time in turbulent water than males , which may be due to the large difference in size between the sexes . they spend a large amount of their time basking in full sun on limestone edges , vines , and trees in or near the water . when the streams and rivers in which they live flood , barbour ' s map turtles move to where the current is weakest in the river .\nfield studies indicate that females take 20 or more years to reach breeding age . this fact , along with their small natural range and past over - collection for the pet trade , threatens the future of the barbour\u2019s map turtle . reproduction has not been well - studied in the wild , but pets have produced 6 - 9 eggs in june and july .\npro . s : small adult size ( males only ; females similar in size to male res ! ) , omnivorous ( but more carnivorous than painteds ) , prominent black - tipped knobs provide a strong \u2018classic\u2019 map turtle appearance .\nall of these bright colors and unique designs make map turtles fairly exotic looking despite the relative ease in acquiring one as a pet . while not often regarded as the most ideal pet turtle , they are certainly one of the more handsome looking genera of pet turtle .\nbarbour\u2019s map turtles live almost all of their lives in large freshwater systems with limestone bottoms . they leave the water only to lay eggs and bask in the sun on large fallen branches and other accessible areas . they prefer deeper and faster flowing waters than other turtles in the family\nlevel i . ) the best starter turtles : male texas map , male common map , southern painted , midland painted ( mainly males ) , stinkpot , razorback musk .\nalthough highly aquatic , all map turtles need a dry surface on which to bask . commercial turtle docks will suffice for small specimens . cork bark , wedged or affixed via silicone to the aquarium\u2019s sides , is a good option for adults .\nhard to acquire : bog turtle . alabama red - belly ( endangered & illegal ! ) .\nfor outdoor enclosures , we suggest that you do not crowd your map turtles . the addition of lots of aquatic plants , especially floating varieties ( water lettuce , water hyacinth , and duckweed ) helps keep the outdoor map turtle pond healthy and keeps the oxygen level high .\nan errata assessment is required to generate a revised pdf without the range map which had been included in error ; no range map was available when this assessment was originally published .\nbarbour\u2019s map turtles spend nearly all of their lives in large freshwater rivers that have limestone rock on the bottom . they only come out of the water to lay eggs or bask in the sun on big fallen branches . they prefer deeper water that flows faster compared to other turtles in their\nfemale barbour\u2019s map turtles are very impressive , with noticeably - broad heads and shells that may approach 12 inches in length . the narrow - headed males are so much smaller \u2013 a mere 3 . 2 to 5 . 2 inches long \u2013 as to appear to be of a different species .\n29 gallon aquarium \u2013 male southern painted , male texas map , male cagles map , male black - knobbed map , musk ( stinkpot , razorback , loggerhead , stripe - neck ) , larger mud turtles ( individuals , not so much species ) or pairs of muds .\nin addition to the logs or rocks on the water\u2019s surface that they can climb on , the map turtles will also want some accessories to go below the water\u2019s surface . when map turtles go underwater , they sometimes like to seek out things like logs , thick plants , and mud to hide in . you should have lots of cozy little hiding places that your map turtle can use . make sure that they can no get stuck in the hiding places . if they get stuck they might drown .\nloveridge , arthur 1946 . thomas barbour , herpetologist : 1884 - 1946 . herpetologica 3 ( 2 ) : 33 - 39 - get paper here\naffordable ( ~ $ 20 - $ 50 ) : rio grande sliders ( a . k . a . \u2018ornate res\u2019 ) , common map , texas map , black - knobbed map , loggerhead musk , alligator snapper , 3 - toed box , eastern box , ornate box .\nfairly uncommon in the trade : cumberland slider , river cooter , cagles map , common map ( ironic but true ) , blandings , florida chicken turtles , eastern mud , 3 - striped mud , yellow mud ( adult ) , smooth softshells , chinese softshells , eastern box turtle hatchlings .\nturtle ( source , age category , species , sex if known ) must be retained by person receiving . georgia does not regulate non - native species . 4 . the following list of species native to georgia may not be held as a pet regardless of its origin or morphology : bog turtle , box turtle\nmale and female barbour ' s map turtles reproduce sexually , but the specific mating system is not known . males attract females by approaching them with their neck extended in an attempt to be face - to - face . the male then undertakes a courtship routine in which he touches the sides of the female\u2019s head with the inner surfaces of his front legs for a few seconds .\npro . s : small adult size , mainly carnivorous , common , inexpensive , hibernation - capable in the southern u . s .\nkirkpatrick , d . t . 1993 . an overview of the map turtles of the united states . retrieved 14 june , 2011 , from dr . david t . kirkpatrick molecular geneticist and turtle - fancier\nfish can be hard for them to catch , but they will sometime eat pieces off of dead fish . at pet stores , you can usually find items like frozen shrimp or meal worms , which can be thawed and then given to your map turtle . do not feed your map turtles live meal worms . live meal worms rich in nutrients but there is a small risk that the worms might harm your turtle .\nexpensive ( ~ $ 75 - $ 150 ) : albino & pastel res , rio grande cooters , barbour\u2019s maps , cagles maps , chicken turtles , stripe - neck musk , spotteds , blandings , north american wood turtles .\nfor plant matter , they enjoy dark leafy greens . place the greens on their basking areas above the water , as well as have them floating in the water itself . if you have an outdoor enclosure , you can plant some aquatic plants and let them grow naturally . research what kind of aquatic plants grow around the native area of your specific species of map turtle . there are other benefits to having aquatic plants in your map turtle\u2019s outdoor enclosure , which will be covered later .\nthey are not as skittish as other species of map turtles , but some individuals can be . map turtles in general are sensitive to water quality , so close attention to their water quality is needed .\n125 gallon aquarium \u2013 female sliders , male cooters , most female maps ( common , mississippi , ouachita ) , male barbour\u2019s maps , blandings , north american wood , male florida softshell , female smooth & smaller female spiny softshells .\nlike many genera of turtle , graptemys are omnivorous . this term means they eat both plant and animal matter .\nmap turtles have had a devoted following in the turtle hobby for several years . these north american turtles are secretive and many species are rare in their natural habitats . they are alert baskers and active swimmers . most species are beautiful with intricate patterns . sexual dimorphism is extreme in map turtles with females reaching much larger adult sizes than males . map turtles were recently proposed for cites protection . this proposal did not proceed , but map turtles or\nsawbacks\nare a good species to consider for a special breeding program .\ncon . s : hatchlings of small species tend to be delicate . larger than a texas map . lacks the texas map\u2019s rep . for nonchalant personality . much more expensive . carapace prone to algal overgrowth . have a rep . for being prone to health problems with sub - optimal water quality . texas native not a good candidate for hibernation .\nhello & welcome to our concise guide to browsing u . s . turtles ! we cover the bulk of u . s . species by level of overall difficulty to help you pick a pet & prepare for it . this is a browsing article , not a care sheet or in - depth analysis ( for in - depth help choosing a good \u2018starter\u2019 turtle , read our article on choosing your first turtle ( we also have choosing your first land - based turtle ) ) .\nshealy , r . m . 1976 . the natural history of the alabama map turtle , graptemys pulchra baur , in alabama . bull . florida st . mus . biol . sci . 21 : 47 - 111 .\nernst , c . h . and barbour , r . w . 1989 . turtles of the world . smithsonian institution press , washington d . c . - london\nthere are eleven species of map turtles spread throughout the united states , mostly in the southeastern river systems .\nyou will need to have a large aquarium tank or a large outdoor pond if you want to keep a map turtle as a pet . they need lots or room to swim around with plenty of places to hide underwater .\nfemale barbour ' s map turtles are much larger than males . the back shell of females is 15 to 33 cm long , and the back shell of males is 9 to 14 cm long . this means that females can be 3 times bigger than males . their heads are wider too , and their lower jaw sticks out farther than their upper jaw .\nlarge : female sliders , female western & larger eastern painted , female barbour\u2019s maps , all cooters ( females moreso than males ) , female chicken turtles , female chinese & smooth softshells , larger male & small female spiny softshells , male florida softshells .\nseveral species of map turtle used to be very popular in the pet trade and bred in captivity in the usa , but their popularity decreased after the enactment of the four - inch regulation in 1975 . prior to the new regulation , thousands of map turtles were bred and hatched out in captivity for the u . s pet trade . you can read more about the four - inch regulation further down of the page .\nmap turtles are overall not hospitable to being put into a strange environment . they are one of the harder turtle genera to care for as pets , and may not be a good choice for first time turtle owners . the difficulty in caring for them has kept them from being overly popular in the pet trade , despite their unique and beautiful shell designs .\nernst , c . h . , j . e . lovich , and r . w . barbour . 1994 . turtles of the united states and canada , smithsonian institution press .\npro . s : small adult size , mainly carnivorous , distinctive - looking .\npro . s : small adult size , mainly carnivorous , common & inexpensive .\ncon . s : larger than sliders ; adults deserve 125 + gallon tanks .\navailability & cost : uncommon at online vendors & expo . s . ~ $\npro . s : predominantly carnivorous , attractive coloration , cold - tolerant & hibernation capable ( hail from northern u . s . around the great lakes ) .\nlevel ii . ) second choice starter turtles : male cagles map , male chicken , male black - knobbed map , loggerhead musk , stripe - neck musk , eastern mud , mississippi mud , yellow mud , 3 - striped mud .\npro . s : small adult size ( males only ; females similar in size to male res ! ) , omnivorous ( but more carnivorous than painteds ) , more ornate coloration than a texas map .\ncon . s : alabama & mississippi native not a good candidate for hibernation further north ( so only in very southern u . s . ) . somewhat expensive .\ntortoise and freshwater turtle specialist group 1996 . graptemys gibbonsi . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 29 july 2007 .\ncarr and marchand 1942 . a new turtle from the chipola river , florida . proc . new england zool . club 20 : 98\nthe rare ringed map turtle ( g . oculifera ) is found in the pearl river in mississippi and louisiana . adult females reach 8 inches and males become sexually active at 4 inches . they feed on a variety of insects and insect larvae and the shy hatchlings enjoy daily feedings of mosquito larvae and live blackworms . female ringed map turtles lay only 3 - 4 eggs per clutch .\nin addition to the lines on their shell , map turtles also have thicker lines on their face and limbs . the lines are often a bright yellow , and for many specimens ; they are even more noticeable than the \u201cmap lines\u201d on their shell .\nnamed after thomas barbour ( 1884 - 1946 ) , associate curator of reptiles and amphibians ( 1923 ) , and , later , director ( 1927 ) of the museum of comparative zoology at harvard .\n1 . it is unlawful for any person to possess more than ten ( 10 ) native fresh - water turtles without a valid commercial turtle permit 2 . any person holding a valid commercial turtle permit may acquire live native fresh - water turtles from any source or direct trapping ,\nterms & conditions | contact | privacy policy \u00a92007 the turtle source , inc . all rights reserved . | a deep sky studio websit e\nthere are several species of map turtles that are endagered and these species are in some areas illegal to keep without special permits . since some map turtles are so small , the four - inch law can make it harder to find a good pet specimen .\nsexual dimorphism is present in barbour ' s map turtles . females are much larger than males . females have a carapace that is 15 to 33 cm long at sexual maturity , whereas mature males have a 9 to 14 cm carapace . therefore , females can be up to three times the size of males . females also have much wider heads than males , along with a lower jaw that extends past the upper jaw .\ncon . s : large females deserve 125 + gallon tanks . rep . for skittishness .\nkirkpatrick , david 1993 . map turtles of the united states . reptile & amphibian magazine ( november / december ) : 7 - 17\nblack - knobbed map turtles ( g . nigrinoda ) are found in the tombigbee and black warrior river systems in alabama and misssissippi .\nmap turtles are omnivores . in captivity , the majority of their captive diet consists of floating aquatic turtle food and a variety of aquatic plants . typically , hatchlings and young map turtles feed on more plant matter than adults . physically , adults develop large , muscular jaws in response to a natural diet of hard - shelled snails and crayfish . they also eat a wide variety of insects . freeze - dried shrimp and krill are a great treat for map turtles . these can be bought in most pet stores that offer tropical fish food and supplies .\ndistribution and habitat : barbour ' s map turtles can be found in the gulf coastal plain in the apalachicola and choctawhatchee river systems . this limited range includes parts of southeast alabama , southwest georgia , and the florida panhandle . the chattahoochee , flint , and chipola rivers in which these turtles reside are clear flowing with limestone rock and cobble bottoms . they are also rich in mollusks and contain many fallen trees and exposed rocks for basking .\nbarbour ' s map turtles are like many reptiles in that there is little parental investment . the male courts the female to mate with her . once his sperm is deposited he no longer invests time or energy in the young . the female digs a nest in which to deposit eggs and covers it with dirt . once the nesting is complete , the female leaves the eggs and does not invest further time or energy in the offspring .\nknow that aquatic turtles do not like to be held or cuddled . reptiles in general are not affectionate animals , but it is best that you do not pick up your map turtle at all unless you have to . if you do handle your map turtle , wash your hands thoroughly afterward . aquatic turtles can sometimes spread things like salmonella . this is not too big of a danger so long as you use basic care techniques ( such as washing your hands after handling ) and a little common sense . nut it is still a risk you should be aware of .\navailability & cost : uncommon in the pet trade but often common in the live turtle food industry ( which you fund with your purchase ! ) .\ndescription : very small mildly domed black turtle with large orange or yellow patches behind the eyes . size : 3 - 4 . 5\nscl .\na good rule of thumb to determine if an outdoor pond is an option is to research the species of map turtle you own , and see if any live in the wild in your area . if they do live in the wild in your area , then an outdoor pond may have temperatures that are naturally hospitable to them . it is however important to remember that a small pond will get colder in the winter and hotter in the summer than a larger body of water so your pond is not necessarily a good map turtle habitat even if they live in your area .\navailability & cost : uncommon at online vendors & expo . s . ~ $ for hatchlings .\nchoose the plan that ' s right for you . digital access or digital and print delivery .\nthe lifespan of map turtles is not very long compared to other turtles . many turtle species can live over a hundred years . american box turtles will as an example live 75 years or more . map turtles tend to only live up to twenty - five years in the wild , and their life expectancy in captivity is lower . so while they make beautiful pets , they do not live long by the standards of a reptile .\nmany species of turtle and tortoise are endangered in the wild . always check the rules regarding keeping turtles and tortoises as pets that apply to your area .\nthe cuatro ci\u00e9negas slider ( trachemys taylori ) [ 2 ] [ 3 ] is a species of turtle belonging to the genus trachemys of the family emydidae .\nbarbour ' s map turtle eggs have a shell that holds the developing turtle and a yolk sac . the baby turtles take 58 days to come out of the eggs . they look just like miniature adults when they ' re born , except that their colors aren ' t as bright . their back shell is 37 mm long on average and weighs around 10 . 7 g . whether the turtle is male or female depends on how warm the eggs are before they hatch . if the eggs are less than 25 degrees celsius , only males are born . if the eggs are warmer than 30 degrees celsius , only females are born . males are able to have their own young when they are 2 to 4 years old , but females can ' t until they are 15 to 20 years old . this explains why females are bigger than males . females also have bigger spaces in their shells that allow them to get bigger .\n55 gallon aquarium \u2013 female southern painted , male midland painted , male common , mississippi or ouachita map , spotted turtles , pacific pond turtles .\nalabama map turtles ( g . pulchra ) are found from the yellow river in alabama and florida to the pearl river in mississippi and louisiana .\n1 . it is unlawful for any person to possess more than ten ( 10 ) native fresh - water turtles without a valid commercial turtle permit . nothing in\nmap turtles are freshwater turtles belonging to the genus graptemys in the family emydidae . they are native to north america , where they are found throughout the eastern half of the usa and northward into southern canada . in addition to being called map turtles , they are also known as sawback turtles .\navailability & cost : uncommon at online vendors & expo . s . ~ $ 30 for hatchlings . tom c . knows them to be widely abundant in texas , yet hardly anyone shows interest in breeding them ! i ' ve seen turtle pimp offer these .\npro . s : small adult size ( males < females ) , omnivorous , usually peaceful , common & inexpensive , can hibernate in the southern u . s . fairly personable / interactive with humans .\navailability & cost : uncommon at online vendors & expo . s . ~ $ 20 for hatchlings .\npro . s : small adult size , mainly carnivorous , ornate & distinctive - looking , inexpensive .\navailability & cost : uncommon at online vendors & expo . s . ~ $ 10 for hatchlings .\navailability & cost : uncommon at online vendors & expo . s . ~ $ 65 for hatchlings .\ncon . s : larger than southern or midland painteds . large females deserve 125 + gallon tanks .\navailability & cost : uncommon at online vendors & expo . s . ~ $ 15 for hatchlings .\navailability & cost : common at online vendors & expo . s . ~ $ 15 for hatchlings .\navailability & cost : uncommon at online vendors & expo . s . ~ $ 75 for hatchlings .\npro . s : omnivorous . distinctive & unusual . adult size : up to 8\nscl .\nyou will also need areas on top of their body of water that they can climb onto , such as logs or mounds made of rock or dirt . map turtles like to come out of the water sometimes and bask in the sun . reptiles cannot regulate their own body heat so access to an external heat source is crucial . if your map turtle is being kept in a tank , you can have a heat lamp set up above their basking areas .\ngoldfish should be used sparingly , if at all , as a steady goldfish diet has been linked to kidney and liver disorders in other turtle species . a high quality commercial turtle chow can comprise up to 30 % of the diet . a cuttlebone should be available to supplement the calcium provided by whole fishes and similar foods .\nadult females of most species of map turtles can reach 7 inches and adult males are considerably smaller , with most only reaching 5 - 6 inches .\ndampier , l . 1998 . map turtles : an american specialty . reptile hobbyist , vol . 4 , no . 3 , 36 - 44 .\ndescription : small basking turtle , quite ornate coloration , care like sliders . sizes : males 2 . 75 \u2013 5\u201d , females 4\u201d to 7 15 / 16\u201d .\navailability & cost : very common at online vendors & expo . s . ~ $ 15 for hatchlings .\navailability & cost : fairly common at online vendors & expo . s . ~ $ 15 for hatchlings .\npro . s : small adult size , mainly carnivorous , most ornate of the u . s . mud / musk , inexpensive . reputedly have \u2018stinkpot - like\u2019 personalities ( less shy than young mississippi muds ) .\navailability & cost : at online vendors & expo . s . ~ $ 10 - 15 for hatchlings .\nseidel , michael e . & carl h . ernst 2017 . a systematic review of the turtle family emydidae vertebrate zoology 67 ( 1 ) : 1\u2013122 - get paper here\nyou have opened an old version of the turtle urltoken website . to place an order , or to see our available turtles and tortoises please click here - thank you .\nmap turtles get their name from their appearance . their carapace ( the top / dome portion of their shell ) has designs on it that resembles those seen on some maps . specifically , it has been noted that the lines on their shells look like waterways on a map . these lines are often a yellow or orange color , with darker colors in between them such as greens and browns . the lines on the map turtles shell can fade some as they age .\nbarbour ' s map turtles have dark brown or black skin with light yellow or green markings . they have broad heads with special patterns in yellow on the top of their head and behind their eyes . a light - colored bar on their chin goes around the curve of their jaw . the top of their neck , back legs , and tail have stripes . the shell on top of their back is like a big olive green dome with dark spines . the second and third spine are the biggest , but they wear down as the turtle gets older . the part of the shell that covers their belly is yellow and there is a black border at the edge of each section .\ncon . s : a little larger than s . painted . less ornate plastron than western painted . carapace color varies \u2013 green to black ( so your hatchling may not look like the one in a photo ) .\ncon . s : hatchling musk somewhat delicate . huge heads aren\u2019t to everyone\u2019s taste . musk turtles generally are regarded as prone to aggression toward their own kind & \u2018look - a - likes . \u2019 less likely to be personable than sliders . southeastern u . s . native shouldn\u2019t be hibernated outside its native range or similar conditions .\nthey are aquatic turtles , and while they can spend time on land ; most of their time is spent in the water . map turtles do not live in salt water ; they only live in freshwater environment such as ponds and rivers . they tend to prefer river systems with flowing water . ideal map turtle environments contain lots of underwater plant matter that they can eat , as well as rocks and logs that they can rest on when heating themselves in the sunlight . commonly referred to as basking .\nreproduction in which eggs are released by the female ; development of offspring occurs outside the mother ' s body .\navailability & cost : uncommon at online vendors & expo . s . ~ $ 20 - 25 for hatchlings .\navailability & cost : common at online vendors & expo . s . ~ $ 10 - 15 for hatchlings .\ninternet have made buying map turtles directly from private breeders a lot easier and it is today often possible to find small turtles without ever having to leave your home .\navailability & cost : fairly common at online vendors & expo . s . ~ $ 5 - 10 for hatchlings .\navailability & cost : very common at online vendors & expo . s . ~ $ 10 - 15 for hatchlings .\ncon . s : larger than sliders ; adults deserve 125 + gallon tanks . florida native so hibernation not advised .\npro . s : predominantly carnivorous , males smaller than sliders , usually peaceful , fairly inexpensive , hibernation - capable .\navailability & cost : fairly common at online vendors & expo . s . ~ $ 125 - 130 for hatchlings .\nthere are several drawbacks to map turtles as pets , such as being a challenge to care for in captivity when compared to some other turtles such as red eared sliders .\nthe type of food you give them will vary depending on which gender of map turtle you have . this is because the females are much larger than the males , and so their superior jaws can consume larger prey . the females can consume prey as large as clams and snails , whereas males have to be fed things like tiny crustaceans and aquatic insects .\navailability & cost : one of only 2 non - marine federally endangered turtle species in the united states . the upshot is , can only be had wild - caught & then illegally .\nennen , joshua r . ; jeffrey e . lovich , brian r . kreiser , w . selman , carl p . qualls 2010 . genetic and morphological variation between populations of the pascagoula map turtle ( graptemys gibbonsi ) in the pearl and pascagoula rivers with description of a new species . chelonian conservation and biology . 9 ( 1 ) : 98\u2013113 - get paper here\nhow large your tank or pond should be depends on how many map turtles you want to keep and what species of map turtles you want to keep . they are not particularly aggressive animals and are social enough that you can keep them together . however , there can be exceptions to this if there is not enough space and food to go around .\npro . s : omnivorous ( but more carnivorous than eastern box ) . smallest north american box turtle . older juveniles & adults fairly affable / interactive with humans & shell provides good protection . eager feeders . can be low - maintenance in year - round outdoor enclosures in compatible climates . fairly easy to find .\nlevel iii . ) medium - level turtles : sliders ( north american ) , cooters ( all ) , eastern & western painted , most maps ( including mississippi , ouachita , false , female common , barbour\u2019s , female texas & cagles , etc\u2026 ) , female chicken turtles , chinese softshells , male spiny & smooth softshells , spotted turtles , florida mud , eastern & 3 - toed box turtles .\npro . s : small adult size , mainly carnivorous , look like they\u2019re smiling . hibernate in parts of their range .\npro . s : predominantly carnivorous , males smaller than sliders , usually peaceful , common & inexpensive , hibernation - capable .\nthese large , active turtles require spacious homes . while a 55 gallon aquarium might suit a small male , females need tanks of 125 \u2013 200 gallon capacity , or commercial turtle tubs and ponds .\nthe sale , holding for sale , and distribution of live turtles and viable turtle eggs not in connection with a business . \u201c , sec . 1240 . 62 ( d ) ( 2 ) .\nremoving your turtles to an easily - cleaned container for feeding will lessen the filter\u2019s workload and help to keep the water clean .\ncon . s : hatchlings reputedly delicate . plastron plain compared to western & midland painteds . not appropriate for northern winter hibernation .\ncon . s : larger than sliders ; adults deserve 125 + gallon tanks . small southern alabama range so hibernation not recommended .\npro . s : predominantly carnivorous , males smaller than sliders , usually peaceful , fairly common & inexpensive , hibernation - capable .\nbartlett , r . d . 1998 . notes from the field : notes on ringed and other map turtles . reptiles , vol . 6 , no . 5 , 76 - 81 .\navailability & cost : uncommon at online vendors & expo . s but can be found . ~ $ 50 - 75 for hatchlings .\ndescription : medium basking turtle , reticulated carapace , more pointed face than sliders , long - neck , have \u2018strike & suck\u2019 maneuver to catch prey . size : males 4 \u2013 7\u201d , females up to 10\u201d .\navailability & cost : somewhat uncommon at online vendors ; may appear at larger expo . s . ~ $ 25 - 40 for hatchlings .\navailability & cost : fairly common to uncommon at online vendors ; may appear at larger expo . s . ~ $ 130 for hatchlings .\navailability & cost : fairly common to uncommon at online vendors ; may appear at larger expo . s . ~ $ 40 for hatchlings .\navailability & cost : fairly easy to find online & at expo . s but expensive . cost ~ $ 60 - 125 for hatchlings .\n6 . ) most map turtles , including females . map turtles has a group have a reputation for being unusually sensitive to poor water quality ( cagles & black - knobbed have specifically been mentioned ; tom c . thinks common maps may be more resistant ) & skittishness ( mississippi maps have specifically been mentioned ; texas maps may be an exception ) . in all maps the female is drastically larger than the male .\ncon . s : larger than southern or midland painteds ; bland plastron unlike midland & western painteds ; large females deserve 75 + gallon tanks .\npro . s : omnivorous & can feed on land or in water . very small & quite attractive . northeastern native so hibernation - capable .\nwading pools are often easier to manage than aquariums . koi ponds sometimes contain shelves meant to hold plants ; these work well as turtle basking areas . outdoor housing is ideal , assuming that raccoons and other predators can be excluded .\ndescription : small basking turtle , prominent black - tipped dorsal carapace spine knobs , care like sliders . there are 2 subspecies but native range very small . sizes : males 3 \u2013 4\u201d , females 6 \u2013 8 . 5\u201d .\ntypically , hatchling & young map turtles that are still growing will have a more carnivorous diet than their adult counterparts . this is because young turtles are still growing , and need the extra protein in their diet .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\ncon . s : larger than sliders ; adults deserve 125 + gallon tanks . uncommon & expensive . largely a texas native so hibernation not advised .\nexcept as otherwise provided in this section , viable turtle eggs and live turtles with a carapace length of less than 4 inches shall not be sold , held for sale , or offered for any other type of commercial or public distribution . \u201d\ndescription : medium - sized terrestrial turtle which likes to soak . steeply domed carapace , single - hinged plastron , can close the shell tightly , males & females have different coloration / patterning . size : 4 . 5 \u2013 5 . \u201d\ndescription : medium - sized terrestrial turtle which likes to soak . steeply domed carapace , single - hinged plastron , can close the shell tightly , fairly colorful carapace & head . size : ornate 4 \u2013 5\u201d ( up to 6 ) .\ndescription : small basking turtle , fairly hardy adults , care like sliders . olive brown carapace with intricate designs ( or algae covered ! ) . sizes : males 2 . 75 \u2013 4 . 5\u201d , females 4 \u2013 8 3 / 8\u201d .\navailability & cost : very common at online vendors & expo . s . ~ $ 5 - 10 for hatchlings ( color morphs much more expensive ) .\ncon . s : less prominent keeling along dorsal spine than many maps . carapace prone to algal overgrowth . somewhat hard to find in the pet trade .\nthe guidelines are part of the state\u2019s imperiled species management plan , which was passed in november 2016 and involved status changes that went into effect in february .\npro . s : small adult size , mainly carnivorous , reduced plastron suggests better adapted to a more aquatic existence ( peterson\u2019s field guide to repiles & amphibians of eastern / central north america page 155 states they\u2019re more aquatic than eastern muds ) . males have larger heads that may rival male loggerhead musk in size .\ndescription : small basking turtle , fairly hardy adults , care like sliders . black carapace , scutes have some light trip , red dorsal red stripe , plain plastron . size : males 3 . 5 \u2013 5\u201d ; females 5 . 5 \u2013 7\u201d .\ndescription : large basking turtle , reticulated carapace , more pointed face than sliders , long - neck , have \u2018strike & suck\u2019 maneuver to catch prey . female florida subspecies can be quite thick . size : males 4 - 7\u201d females up to 10\u201d .\ndescription : small bottom - walker , fairly hardy adults , olive brown coloration , most reduced plastron of any u . s . mud turtle , care not well - known but at least some shallow water areas & at least a small land area recommended . they\u2019re a subspecies of the eastern mud , which spends a lot of land , making this turtles\u2019 needs hard to call . size : 4 \u2013 5\u201d .\nflorida fish and wildlife conservation commission \u2022 farris bryant building 620 s . meridian st . \u2022 tallahassee , fl 32399 - 1600 \u2022 ( 850 ) 488 - 4676\navailability & cost : uncommon at online vendors & expo . s . protected in florida , where many online vendors are located . ~ $ 40 for hatchlings .\ncon . s : hatchlings somewhat delicate . expensive & hard to find . musk turtles generally are regarded as prone to aggression toward their own kind & \u2018look - a - likes . \u2019 less likely to be personable than sliders . southeastern u . s . native shouldn\u2019t be hibernated outside its native range or similar conditions ."]}
{"id": 160, "summary": [{"text": "caradrina selini is a moth of the noctuidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by boisduval in 1840 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in most of europe , north africa and the near east .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 25 \u2013 29 mm for males and 25 \u2013 30 mm for females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults have been recorded on wing from may to august .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on various low-growing plants , including plantago , rumex and taraxacum species . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "caradrina selini", "paragraphs": ["caradrina ( paradrina ) selini ( boisduval , 1840 ) = paradrina selini boisduval , 1840 = caradrina ( paradrina ) selini .\ncaradrina selini is a moth of the noctuidae family . it was described by boisduval in 1840 . it is found in most of europe , north africa and the near east .\nbl\u00e5 punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och \u00f6vriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan inneh\u00e5lla observationer som inte \u00e4r validerade . kartan uppdateras var fj\u00e4rde vecka .\ni det avancerade verktyget kan man s\u00f6ka ut och f\u00e5 fram artlistor , t ex arter i ett visst l\u00e4n , i en viss biotop , substrat , som p\u00e5verkas av en hotfaktor , eller som \u00e4r knutna till en sk v\u00e4rdart , t ex tr\u00e4det alm . dessa kan \u00e4ven kombineras .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , knutna till alm , \u00e4r beroende av d\u00f6d ved och som finns i kronobergs l\u00e4n .\ns\u00f6ka fram arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade , lever i sm\u00e5vatten och som p\u00e5verkas negativt av igenv\u00e4xning .\ndefaultl\u00e4get i verktyget \u00e4r arter som \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade 2015 och dessa \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga s\u00f6kfaktorer . under fliken r\u00f6dlistekategori kan man dock v\u00e4lja att \u00e4ven inkludera arter som inte \u00e4r r\u00f6dlistade . om man v\u00e4ljer att inkludera icke r\u00f6dlistade arter beh\u00f6ver man vara medveten om att samtliga arter inte \u00e4r klassade p\u00e5 samtliga faktorer . nedan en sammanst\u00e4llning av vad som \u00e4r komplett .\ndenna funktion anv\u00e4nds n\u00e4r du vill skapa din egen lista av arter att hantera . du kan t . ex . navigera mellan arterna i listan genom att klicka p\u00e5 deras namn . du kan ocks\u00e5 v\u00e4lja att anv\u00e4nda knappen \u201dj\u00e4mf\u00f6r arter\u201d f\u00f6r att se bilder , kartor och k\u00e4nnetecken i en j\u00e4mf\u00f6relsevy .\ndu kan komponera ditt eget urval av arter genom att klicka dig fram via sl\u00e4kttr\u00e4det och d\u00e4r v\u00e4lja arter eller artgrupper till din lista . ett annat s\u00e4tt att g\u00f6ra ditt urval \u00e4r att anv\u00e4nda fliken \u201dfiltrera\u201d , d\u00e4r du kan s\u00f6ka p\u00e5 olika egenskaper . ovanf\u00f6r listan med s\u00f6kresultatet finns en knapp \u201dl\u00e4gg i mitt urval\u201d .\nthe mit license copyright ( c ) 2014 - 2016 google , inc . urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\nthe mit license ( mit ) copyright ( c ) 2011 - 2015 twitter , inc permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright ( c ) 2008 - 2013 sprymedia limited urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright 2008 - 2015 martin wendt , urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright jquery foundation and other contributors , urltoken this software consists of voluntary contributions made by many individuals . for exact contribution history , see the revision history available at urltoken the following license applies to all parts of this software except as documented below : = = = = permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software . = = = = all files located in the node _ modules and external directories are externally maintained libraries used by this software which have their own licenses ; we recommend you read them , as their terms may differ from the terms above .\nthe mit license ( mit ) - urltoken copyright ( c ) steven sanderson , the knockout . js team , and other contributors urltoken permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright ( c ) 2009\u20132015 permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the\nsoftware\n) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided\nas is\n, without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .\ncopyright 2005 - 2014 openlayers contributors . all rights reserved . redistribution and use in source and binary forms , with or without modification , are permitted provided that the following conditions are met : 1 . redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice , this list of conditions and the following disclaimer . 2 . redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice , this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and / or other materials provided with the distribution . this software is provided by openlayers contributors ` ` as is ' ' and any express or implied warranties , including , but not limited to , the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose are disclaimed . in no event shall copyright holder or contributors be liable for any direct , indirect , incidental , special , exemplary , or consequential damages ( including , but not limited to , procurement of substitute goods or services ; loss of use , data , or profits ; or business interruption ) however caused and on any theory of liability , whether in contract , strict liability , or tort ( including negligence or otherwise ) arising in any way out of the use of this software , even if advised of the possibility of such damage . the views and conclusions contained in the software and documentation are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as representing official policies , either expressed or implied , of openlayers contributors .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nalbania , austria , belgium , bulgaria , hungary , germany , denmark , greece , spain , italy , corsica , latvia , lithuania , the netherlands , norway , poland , portugal , romania , sardinia , sicily , slovakia , the soviet union - the european part , finland , france , czech republic , switzerland , sweden , estonia , yugoslavia .\nregions of the russian federation : the volga - don , east caucasus , the european north - west , central european , western caucasus , kaliningrad , mid - volzhsky .\nalbania , andorra , the balearic islands , belarus , belgium , bulgaria , bosnia and herzegovina , germany , greece ( mainland ) , denmark ( mainland ) , dodecanese islands , spain ( mainland ) , italy ( mainland ) , corsica , crete , latvia , lithuania , macedonia , malta , netherlands , norway ( mainland ) , poland , portugal ( mainland ) , romania , russia , sardinia , sicily , slovakia , slovenia , ukraine , finland , france ( mainland ) , croatia , czech republic , switzerland , sweden , estonia , yugoslavia .\n[ 10 ] de jong , y . s . d . m . ( ed . ) ( 2011 ) fauna europaea version 2 . 4 ( faunaeur . org )\n[ 85 ] urltoken ( insecta . pro previous version / c\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0430\u044f \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u044f insecta . pro )\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\nthere are no photos of this species on the website yet . you can offer your photo by logging into your account\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nthe wingspan is 25\u201329 mm for males and 25\u201330 mm for females . adults have been recorded on wing from may to august .\nthe larvae feed on various low - growing plants , including plantago , rumex and taraxacum species .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthis work is licensed under the creative commons attribution license ( cc by 4 . 0 )\nnew records of diplomys labilis ( bangs , 1901 ) ( mammalia , rodentia , . . .\nfirst record of boana maculateralis ( caminer & ron , 2014 ) . . .\nfirst record of the bignose unicornfish , naso vlamingii ( perciformes , . . .\nambidexter symmetricus manning & chace , 1971 ( decapoda , processidae ) : . . .\ncheck list is a peer - reviewed , open access , on - line journal devoted to publishing annotated list of species , notes on geographic distribution of one or a few species , and distribution summary of a taxonomic group . these data are essential for studies on biogeography and provide a baseline for the conservation of biodiversity as a whole . the first step to undertaking effective conservation action is to understand species\u2019 geographic distribution . check list was established to cater to this need by publishing papers on the geographic distribution of species and higher taxonomic groups .\ndoaj , scopus , zoological abstracts , ebsco host , and index copernicus . member journal of the brazilian association of science editors ( abec ) and of the committee on publication ethics ( cope ) ."]}
{"id": 211, "summary": [{"text": "oenobotys vinotinctalis , the wine-tinted oenobotys moth , is a moth in the crambidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it was described by hampson in 1895 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "it is found in the united states , where it has been recorded from north carolina to florida , west to texas .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is also found in the west indies and from mexico to central america .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is about 14 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewing colour varies from brownish-red to yellowish-red or pinkish-red with black antemedial and postmedial lines and two black discal spots .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are brownish-grey . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "oenobotys vinotinctalis", "paragraphs": ["species oenobotys vinotinctalis - wine - tinted oenobotys - hodges # 4940 - bugguide . net\noenobotys vinotinctalis , the wine - tinted oenobotys moth , is a moth in the crambidae family . it was described by hampson in 1895 . it is found in the united states , where it has been recorded from north carolina to florida , west to texas . it is also found in the west indies and from mexico to central america .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\nadult : forewing color varies from brownish - red to yellowish - red to pinkish - red with black am and pm lines and two black discal spots , the inner one smaller and fainter than the outer one ; median area may or may not be slightly darker or of a different shade than remainder of wing ; slightly darker shading may be present in terminal area ; fringe scales either slightly paler or same as ground color ; hindwing brownish - gray .\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\nwe do not yet have descriptive information on this species . please try the buttons above to search for information from other sources .\n. you can download select species by searching or when you ' re on a taxa page like class , order , and family .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhodges , r . w . et al . , eds . 1983 . check list of the lepidoptera of america north of mexico . e . w . classey limited and the wedge entomological research foundation , london . 284 pp .\ndue to latency between updates made in state , provincial or other natureserve network databases and when they appear on natureserve explorer , for state or provincial information you may wish to contact the data steward in your jurisdiction to obtain the most current data . please refer to\ndistribution data for u . s . states and canadian provinces is known to be incomplete or has not been reviewed for this taxon .\nuse the generic guidelines for the application of occurrence ranks ( 2008 ) . the key for ranking species occurrences using the generic approach provides a step - wise process for implementing this method .\nzoological data developed by natureserve and its network of natural heritage programs ( see local programs ) and other contributors and cooperators ( see sources ) .\nthe small print : trademark , copyright , citation guidelines , restrictions on use , and information disclaimer .\nnote : all species and ecological community data presented in natureserve explorer at urltoken were updated to be current with natureserve ' s central databases as of november 2016 . note : this report was printed on\ntrademark notice :\nnatureserve\n, natureserve explorer , the natureserve logo , and all other names of natureserve programs referenced herein are trademarks of natureserve . any other product or company names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners .\ncopyright notice : copyright \u00a9 2017 natureserve , 4600 n . fairfax dr . , 7th floor , arlington virginia 22203 , u . s . a . all rights reserved . each document delivered from this server or web site may contain other proprietary notices and copyright information relating to that document . the following citation should be used in any published materials which reference the web site .\nnatureserve . 2017 . natureserve explorer : an online encyclopedia of life [ web application ] . version 7 . 1 . natureserve , arlington , virginia . available http : / / explorer . natureserve . org . ( accessed :\nridgely , r . s . , t . f . allnutt , t . brooks , d . k . mcnicol , d . w . mehlman , b . e . young , and j . r . zook . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the birds of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with robert ridgely , james zook , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\npatterson , b . d . , g . ceballos , w . sechrest , m . f . tognelli , t . brooks , l . luna , p . ortega , i . salazar , and b . e . young . 2003 . digital distribution maps of the mammals of the western hemisphere , version 1 . 0 . natureserve , arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata provided by natureserve in collaboration with bruce patterson , wes sechrest , marcelo tognelli , gerardo ceballos , the nature conservancy - migratory bird program , conservation international - cabs , world wildlife fund - us , and environment canada - wildspace .\niucn , conservation international , and natureserve . 2004 . global amphibian assessment . iucn , conservation international , and natureserve , washington , dc and arlington , virginia , usa .\ndata developed as part of the global amphibian assessment and provided by iucn - world conservation union , conservation international and natureserve .\nno graphics available from this server can be used , copied or distributed separate from the accompanying text . any rights not expressly granted herein are reserved by natureserve . nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring by implication , estoppel , or otherwise any license or right under any trademark of natureserve . no trademark owned by natureserve may be used in advertising or promotion pertaining to the distribution of documents delivered from this server without specific advance permission from natureserve . except as expressly provided above , nothing contained herein shall be construed as conferring any license or right under any natureserve copyright .\n) . your comments will be very valuable in improving the overall quality of our databases for the benefit of all users .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\nillustrated ( poorly ) in black and white by kimball ( 1965 ) pl . 25 , fig . 27 ( as '\n' ) on pl . 100 , fig . 2 ( adult ) and pl . 53 , fig . 1 ( genitalia ) .\nthe wingspan is about 14 mm . the forewing colour varies from brownish - red to yellowish - red or pinkish - red with black antemedial and postmedial lines and two black discal spots . the hindwings are brownish - grey .\nthe species name refers to the colour of the forewings and is derived from latin vinum ( meaning wine ) and tinctus ( meaning a dye ) .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more"]}
{"id": 225, "summary": [{"text": "gymnogyps amplus is an extinct species of large new world vultures in the family cathartidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the species was first described by l. h. miller in 1911 from a broken tarsometatarsus .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the species is the only condor species found in the la brea tar pits ' pit 10 , which fossils date to \" a holocene radiocarbon age of 9,000 years . \"", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the smaller , modern california condor may have evolved from g. amplus . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "gymnogyps amplus", "paragraphs": ["gymnogyps amplus is an extinct species of large new world vultures in the cathartidae family . the species was first described by l . h . miller in 1911 from a broken tarsometatarsus .\nthe ancient birds at first seemed to match a species first described in 1911 , gymnogyps amplus , but the bone that identified that species was much larger than either the modern condors ( gymnogyps californianus ) or the pleistocene birds , suggesting that there could have , at one time , been three different condor species .\nfig . 1 . gymnogyps californianus . photograph by noel synder , courtesy of the us fish & wildlife service .\nthe species is the only condor species found in the la brea tar pits ' pit 10 , which fossils date to\na holocene radiocarbon age of 9 , 000 years .\nthe smaller , modern california condor may have evolved from gymnogyps amplus .\nrecommended citation : global raptor information network . 2018 . species account : california condor gymnogyps californianus . downloaded from urltoken on 9 jul . 2018\nsubspecies : monotypic , although late pleistocene populations are regarded as a\ntemporal subspecies ,\ng . californianus amplus , a form slightly larger in size than the present birds .\nsyverson hopes to use radiocarbon dating to determine the age of the oregon specimen . she ' d also like to apply the technique to date the g . amplus type specimen , to see if its age does indeed distinguish a third condor species .\nwhen syverson plotted her measurements of modern and pleistocene condor bones , she found there was a definite size distinction between the two .\nthe ancients are decidedly bigger ,\nshe says , and the difference is especially notable in the femur , or thigh bone . these birds were heavier , with a longer , narrower skull and beak than the modern california condor . at first blush , they seem to belong to the species gymnogyps amplus , first described in 1911 based on a broken tarsometatarsus , a bone found in the lower leg of birds .\nsyverson began her study by examining bones from condor skeletons housed at the los angeles museum of natural history , the museum of vertebrate zoology at uc berkeley , and the santa barbara museum of natural history . one interesting finding was that among these modern birds , gymnogyps californianus , there was no distinction in bone size between males and females .\nin the original account here , g . amplus was considered a synonym of g . californianus , though it was noted that in a 2007 presentation , syverson and prothero presented results of an extensive comparison of the rancho la brea and modern condor specimens and concluded that they represent separate species . they since ( 2010 ) have published their evidence . their conclusion is accepted here , but the specific status of most specimens in the interior of north america is now unclear . part of the problem is that syverson and prothero ( 2010 ) give only means and variances and for only a few elements ( skull , humerus , and femur ) ; equally important , most published records for the southwest do not include measurements . with largely fragmentary material , few elements available from the new mexico / trans - pecos region provide measurements comparable to those of syverson and prothero . the few available ( dark canyon cave ) are generally relatively large , suggesting that g . amplus is the species represented in that cave .\nthe living california condor and the pleistocene condors , especially the condor represented in the rancho la brea deposits , have either been considered as separate species ( g . californianus and g . amplus ) or the pleistocene form has been considered a temporal subspecies of g . californianus . the primary difference used to separate the two taxa was size , the pleistocene form being larger . howard ( 1962 : 241 ) did note\nthe presence of a pair of markedly swelled ridges , one on either side and extending along the median line of the ventral surface of the nasal process of the premaxilla\nin one specimen from howell ' s ridge cave and the probable occurrence on a second specimen . this was in contrast to specimens from rancho la brea and rocky arroyo cave ( = burnet cave ) .\npasadena , calif . - - at the end of the pleistocene epoch some 10 , 000 years ago , two species of condors in california competed for resources amidst the retreating ice of earth ' s last major glacial age . the modern california condor triumphed , while its kin expired .\nin the past century , paleontologists have been unsure whether the modern california condor is different enough from a larger , extinct condor that lived during pleistocene time to classify the two as distinct species . now , after the most extensive study of condor fossils and skeletal remains to date , caltech senior undergraduate valerie syverson has documented evidence that confirms the two are different enough for the distinction .\nher findings will be presented on october 28 at the annual meeting of the geological society of america in denver .\nto solve the puzzle , syverson teamed up with donald prothero , a paleontologist at occidental college and a guest lecturer in geobiology at caltech . they studied bones from recently dead condors and compared them with those found in the extensive bone pile of los angeles ' s pleistocene - aged la brea tar pits . what they found , syverson says , is that\nthere ' s definitely one species distinction , and possibly two .\nafter looking at modern condors , syverson turned to la brea . she examined pleistocene specimens from various tar pits , the oldest 35 , 000 and the youngest 9 , 000 years old . the record thus provides a glimpse into a long time variation within a species restricted to one location . over the entire 26 , 000 - year record , syverson found no change in condor morphology . although this had been previously discovered in a similar study of golden eagles from la brea , syverson says it ' s remarkable to see that the drastic climate change accompanying the end of the last ice age had no impact on the size of the species that lived through it .\nin fact , that type specimen suggests that the pleistocene condors at la brea may be a third distinct condor species . the broken tarsometatarsus - - housed in the berkeley collection - - is larger than any other condor bone syverson studied .\nit would ' ve been an outlier from either species ,\nshe says .\nbased on the fact that the type specimen is outside the range for both of the groups , i wonder if we need to define a third species for the extinct la brea condor .\nthis study also documents evidence that ancient and modern condors coexisted for some time , and that the pleistocene species may have lived at the same time as humans in western north america . several tarsometatarsi of the older , bigger species were found in the youngest pit at la brea . this pit also contains the remains of the la brea woman , the only prehistoric human discovered in the tar pits . another piece of evidence pointing to the same conclusion comes from the berkeley museum collection . it is a bone from a native american midden - - a garbage heap - - in oregon , and it falls into the size range of the ancient group . although its age is unknown , it must have lived at the same time as the people who disposed of it .\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\ndistribution : nearctic . historically ( 1800 ) , from canada ( extreme southwestern british columbia ) south in the united states along the pacific coast west of the sierra nevada to mexico ( sierra san pedro martir , baja california norte ) ; historical reports for localities east of the sierra nevada ( idaho , nevada , utah , arizona ) are equivocal , and most or all are doubtful . the last free - flying bird was taken into captivity in april 1987 . reintroduced populations are now in central coastal california ( big sur ) , san benito county , california ( pinnacles ) , southern central california ( santa barbara county , ventura county ) , southern utah / northern arizona , and northern baja california , mexico ( sierra san pedro martir ) . the subpopulations in california intermix to some extent , and the birds in baja california norte will probably soon move regularly into southern california ( san diego county ) . new releases are planned for a site in san luis obispo county , california . more . . . .\ntaxonomy : amadon ( 1977 ) suggested merging this genus with vultur , but later abandoned this position ( amadon and bull 1988 ) . based on nucleotide sequences of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene , wink ( 1995 ) found that the california condor may be more closely related to the black vulture ( coragyps atratus\nmovements : irruptive or local migrant ( bildstein 2006 ) . somewhat nomadic within an enormous home range .\nhabitat and habits : occurs primarily in foothills and mountains at low and medium elevations , particularly in areas with canyons and other rocky areas with suitable cliffs for nesting and roosting . forages mostly in grasslands , oak savannas , and other open areas , occasionally in chaparral clearings (\npotreros\n) . it formerly foraged in the littoral zone of the pacific coast , and some of the released individuals are now reoccupying this habitat along the central coast of california .\nfood and feeding behavior : feeds strictly carrion , ranging in size from ground squirrels to large ungulates , primarily deer , elk , pronghorn antelopes , and beached marine mammals before the advent of european man , and mostly cattle and sheep after the establishment of large rances in its range . condors tend to feed mostly on muscle and viscera at larger carcasses .\nbreeding : nests in natural caves and other openings in cliffs , under large rocks , and occasionally in cavities in redwood trees ( burnett et al 2013 ) . egg laying in the wild occurs as early as late january and replacement eggs are laid until late april , with most eggs laid in february - march . clutch size consists of a single unmarked pale greenish - white egg , and a replacement clutch is laid if the first egg is lost . more . . . .\nconservation : the california condor has been one of the most highly endangered bird species in the world throughout its modern history . as the result of an aggressive management program , including capture of the last six individuals remaining in the wild in 1986 - 87 , captive breeding , and reintroduction of captive progeny , the total population continues to increase from the low point in 1982 - 82 , when only 21 - 22 individuals were thought to survive , to 336 individuals by the end of june 2008 . the california condor is still classified globally as critically endangered by birdlife international ( 2007 ) , because the free - flying population in the wild does not yet contain more than 50 actively breeding individuals and is not yet self - sustainable . an unacceptably high number of birds are still being lost to poisoning from lead ingested from carcasses , and this factor may preclude rapid recovery of the species in some areas . more . . . .\npopulation estimates : the 30 september 2012 california condor status report by the u . s . fish and wildlife service showed a total population of 410 individuals , including 180 in captivity and 230 in the wild . the captive birds are at the los angeles zoo ( 21 ) , san diego zoo safari park ( 28 ) , san diego zoo ( 3 ) , world center for birds of prey ( 59 ) , oregon zoo ( 41 ) , santa barbara zoo ( 3 ) , chapultepec zoo ( mexico city ) ( 2 ) , and in holding pens in the field or temporarily in captivity ( 22 ) . the wild birds are in central and southern california ( 125 ) , baja california ( 28 ) , and arizona ( 77 ) . forty - seven eggs were laid in captive breeding facilities in 2012 , and 20 eggs were laid in wild nests in california ( 14 ) , baja california ( 2 ) , and arizona ( 4 ) . including the 2012 breeding season , there have been 127 nesting attempts in the wild since 2001 , and there are presently 29 wild - fledged birds in california , 2 in baja california , and 14 in arizona .\ncalifornia condor recovery plan the most recent revision of the recovery plan . ventana wilderness society maintains two release sites for condors in central california . the peregrine fund maintains a condor breeding program at the world center for birds of prey , boise , idaho , and administers the condor reintroduction program in northern arizona ( see\nnotes from the field\noregon zoo captive breeding progam . san diego wild animal park one of the most important captive breeding programs . conservation and research for endangered species california condor reintroduction project in northern baja california conducted by cres ( san diego zoo ) in cooperation with mexican partners . u . s . fish and wildlife service information on the federal condor recovery program . pinnacles national monument details on the condor release program at pinnacles national monument , california . hopper mountain national wildlife refuge primary responsibility for restoring the california condor in its former range . hi mountain lookout a condor observation point located in the santa lucia mountains , san luis obispo county , california . los angeles zoo houses one of largest captive breeding flocks of condors . project gutpile a site promoting the use of non - lead ammunition with notes on condors . instituto nacional de ecolog\u00eda details on the condor recovery project in baja california , mexico . arizona game and fish department condor management in arizona , including an innovative lead bullet replacement program . baja california condor reintroduction project details of the san diego zoo ' s reintroduction project in the sierra san pedro martir . vireo california condor photos . california lead ban details on recent lead legislation in california , posted by the california department of fish and game california condor conservation a new site sponsored by the san diego zoo and other condor cooperators .\nresearchers : bloom , peter cade , tom j . collins , paul fry , michael grantham , jesse hamber , janet heinrich , william r . linthicum , janet parish , chris n . risebrough , robert w . sandfort , cal schmitt , n . john wallace , michael p . wiley , james\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nat the end of the pleistocene epoch about 10 , 000 years ago , when earth was thawing out from the ice age , two types of condors competed over resources in what is now california . the california condor seen in the skies today ultimately triumphed , although the birds are endangered .\nnew comparisons of modern california condor bones to those found in los angeles\u2019 la brea tar pits show that two distinct species of these large vultures roamed the skies before the end of the last ice age , providing a compelling answer to a long - standing question .\nat the end of the pleistocene epoch about 10 , 000 years ago , when earth was thawing out from the ice age , two types of condors competed over resources in what is now california , but it has been unclear if they were distinct species . the california condor seen in the skies today ultimately triumphed ( though it is currently listed as critically endangered ) , while the others perished .\npaleontologists from caltech studied the bones of deceased modern condors and the fossils of early condors preserved in the pleistocene - era la brea tar pits in los angeles , and found a definite size difference between the modern and pleistocene bones .\nthe ancients are decidedly bigger ,\nsaid study leader valerie syverson , an undergraduate student at caltech , noting particular differences in the femur , or thigh , bones .\nthe pleistocene birds were heavier , with a longer , narrower skull and beak than the modern birds .\nbased on the fact that the type specimen is outside the range for both of the groups , i wonder if we need to define a third species for the extinct la brea condor ,\nsyverson said .\nthe results of the study , presented oct . 28 at the annual meeting of the geological society of america , also show that the ancient and modern condor species co - existed for some time and that the pleistocene species may have lived at the same time as humans , because of the la brea woman , the only prehistoric human found in the pits .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nalthough the distribution of modern condors is limited to california and introductions into arizona and nevada , past distribution of condors apparently was far greater , with the birds withstanding pleistocene climatic conditions as far east and north as the state of new york ( steadman and miller 1987 ) .\nfig . 2 . left to right : left coracoid , proximal left tarsometatarsus , distal right ulna of condors from howell ' s ridge cave . utep specimens . scale in mm .\nemslie ( 1987 ) recorded dates for a number of fossil condors from caves in arizona , new mexico , and texas . dates ranged from 22 , 180 \u00b1 400 to 9580 \u00b1 160 bp . mead et al . ( 2003 ) indicated that condors inhabited the grand canyon from at least 42 ka ( apparently based on dating of a condor feather from site cc : 5 : 2 ) to about 10 ka . material from the new mexico / texas region included dates from howell ' s ridge cave ( 13 , 460 \u00b1 220 ) , u - bar cave ( 13 , 030 \u00b1 180 ) , dark canyon cave ( 9585 \u00b1 310 ) , rocky arroyo cave ( 12 , 180 \u00b1 130 ) , mules ear peak cave ( 12 , 580 \u00b1 135 ) , and maravillas canyon ( 10 , 215 \u00b1 320 ) . thus , as emslie hypothesized , inland populations apparently were gone by around 10 , 000 radiocarbon years bp .\nhoward and miller ( 1933 ) recorded california condor from shelter cave . however , howard ( 1971 ) later compared the elements with those of breagyps clarki and assigned the shelter cave material to that species .\nlate rancholabrean : luka cave ( desaussure 1956 ) ; tooth cave ( desaussure 1956 ) .\nmid wisconsin . cc : 5 : 2 ( mead et al . 2003 ) .\nmid / late wisconsin : dark canyon cave ( howard 1971 ) ; rampart cave ( wilson 1942 ) ; rancho la brea ( stock and harris 1992 ) ; sandblast cave ( emslie 1988 ) ; san miguel island ( guthrie 1998 ) .\nmid / late wisconsin / holocene : jimenez cave ( messing 1986 ) ; sierra diablo cave ( utep ) .\nlate wisconsin : antelope cave ( reynolds , reynolds , bell , and pitzer 1991 : cf . ) ; bridge cave ( emslie 1987 ) ; ceremonial cave ( cosgrove 1947 ) ; gypsum cave ( jefferson et al . 2015 ) ; howell ' s ridge cave ( howard 1962 ) ; maravillas canyon ( emslie 1987 ) ; maricopa ( jefferson 1991a ) ; marmot cave ( brasso and emslie 2006 ) ; midden cave ( mead et al . 2005 ) ; mule ears peak ( wetmore 1933 ) ; sandia cave ( brasso and emslie 2006 ) ; skull cave ( emslie 1988 ) ; skylight cave ( emslie 1988 ) ; stanton ' s cave ( rea and hargrave ( 1984 ) ; stevens cave ( emslie 1988 ) ; u - bar cave 13 - 14 ka ; vulture cave ( mead and phillips 1981 ) .\nlate wisconsin / holocene : burnet cave ( wetmore 1931 ; emslie 1987 ) ; conkling cavern ( howard and miller 1933 ) ; kokoweef cave ( reynolds , reynolds , et al . 1991 ) ; newberry cave ( jefferson 1991a ) ; schuiling cave ( jefferson 1991a ) .\nliterature . brasso and emslie 2006 ; cosgrove 1947 ; croxen et al . 2007 ; desaussure 1956 ; emslie 1987 , 1988 ; guthrie 1998 , 2009 ; howard 1962 , 1971 ; howard and miller 1933 ; jefferson 1991a ; jefferson et al . 2015 ; mead and phillips 1981 ; mead et al . 2003 ; mead et al . 2005 ; messing 1986 ; rea and hargrave 1984 ; reynolds , reynolds , et al . 1991 ; reynolds , reynolds , bell , and pitzer 1991 ; steadman and miller 1987 ; stock and harris 1992 ; syverson and prothero 2010 ; wetmore 1931 , 1933 ; wilson 1942 .\nusing this photo this image has a creative commons attribution 3 . 0 ( cc by 3 . 0 ) license . if you have questions , contact ucmp ucmpwebmaster [ at ] berkeley . edu .\n0000 0000 0807 1645 copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 uc regents . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is turned off in your web browser . please turn it on to take full advantage of arctos , or try our html specimensearch option .\ntaxon name is the\nnamestring\nor\nscientific name ,\nthe\ndata\nthat is used to form identifications and the core of every taxonomy record .\ntaxon term is the data value of either a classification term (\nanimalia\n) or classification metadata ( such as name authors ) .\nterm type is the rank (\nkingdom\n) for classification terms , in which role it may be null , and the label for classification metadata (\nauthor text\n) .\nsource indicates the source of a classification ( not a taxon name ) . some classifications are local ; most come from globalnames .\ncommon names are vernacular term associated with taxon names , and are not necessarily english , correct , or common ."]}
{"id": 270, "summary": [{"text": "the mud sunfish ( acantharchus pomotis ) is a sunfish ( family centrarchidae ) widely distributed in the fresh waters along the atlantic coast of north america , ranging from new york to florida .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the mud sunfish prefers sluggish , weedy waters of 10 \u2013 22 \u00b0c ( 50 \u2013 72 \u00b0f ) , over muddy , detritus-strewn bottoms , and occurs in small lakes as well as riverine backwaters .", "topic": 18}, {"text": "the maximum recorded size of this species is 21 cm ( 8.3 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "a. pomotis is currently the only species of genus acantharchus but baird had originally assigned it to centrarchus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the generic name , acantharchus , derives from the greek \u03ac\u03ba\u03b1\u03bd\u03b8\u03b1 ( thorn ) and \u03ac\u03c1\u03c7\u03bf\u03c2 ( ruler ) .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "a. pomotis is sometimes also known as the mud bass . ", "topic": 29}], "title": "mud sunfish", "paragraphs": ["mud sunfish acantharchus pomotis longear sunfish longear sunfish lepomis megalotis\nendangered\nicon - click for more information general identification : many species of the sunfish family are beautifully colored and patterned . more\nno studies have been reported . mud sunfish do not appear to be common anywhere .\nlittle biological information is available for the mud sunfish . it is known that populations are spatially separated and of low density . mud sunfish spawn in the spring and males prepare nests .\nmud sunfish acantharchus pomotis this nocturnal , secretive sunfish of sluggish blackwater streams is uncommon along the u . s . atlantic and eastern gulf coastal plains . more\nmud sunfish in an aquarium ( south carolina , circa . 1976 ) the mud sunfish ( acantharchus pomotis ) is a sunfish ( family centrarchidae ) widely distributed in the fresh waters along the atlantic coast of north america , ranging from new york to florida . more\nthe mud sunfish ( acantharchus pomotis ) is a sunfish ( family centrarchidae ) widely distributed in the fresh waters along the atlantic coast of north america , ranging from new york to florida .\nmud sunfish occupy areas in sloughs , lakes , pools and backwaters of streams where the water is acid and vegetation , mud and detritus occur . it is extremely rare in new york state - found only in the hackensack river . more\nthe mud sunfish prefers sluggish , weedy waters of 10\u201322 \u00b0c , over muddy , detritus - strewn bottoms , and occurs in small lakes as well as riverine backwaters .\nfeeding worms to my sunfish . ( lepomis spp . ) 7 / 19 / 15\nthe new york state department of environmental conservation ( dec ) will conduct studies to determine the distribution of the mud sunfish in the hackensack river . dec will examine management options for securing existing populations .\nsimilar in appearance to the rock bass , the mud sunfish can easily be distinguished by its round , not forked , tail and its brown , not red , eyes . there are five distinct lines located along the sides of this relatively small ( approximately five to six inches long ) sunfish . more\nthe mud sunfish is a small fish that rarely exceeds 6 . 5 inches in length . it has smooth scales , a round caudal ( tail ) fin and brown eyes . the body color is reddish brown on top and pale brown on the belly . more\nusually occurs over mud and detritus in vegetated sloughs , lakes , and pools and backwaters of creeks and small to medium rivers .\nthe mud sunfish prefers sluggish , weedy waters of 10\u201322 \u00b0c ( 50\u201372 \u00b0f ) , over muddy , detritus - strewn bottoms , and occurs in small lakes as well as riverine backwaters . the maximum recorded size of this species is 21 cm ( 8 in ) .\n1 / 2 - inch mud sunfish eat a 1 1 / 2 - inch darter whole , and a four - inch specimen devoured a 1 1 / 2 - inch fish and a 2 1 / 2 - inch salamander within 20 minutes of each other . more\noverview : the mud sunfish ( acantharchus pomotis ) has a deep , strongly compressed body with a maximum length of around 21 cm . it has two broadly connected dorsal fins , the anterior fin having 10 - 12 spines and the posterior fin having 9 - 13 soft rays . more\nthe mud sunfish is a small fish that rarely exceeds 6 . 5 inches in length . it has smooth scales , a round caudal ( tail ) fin and brown eyes . the body color is reddish brown on top and pale brown on the belly . there are five distinct lines located along the fish ' s sides .\nthe mud sunfish occurs in lowland streams and bogs from southern new york to northern florida . it favors acid waters associated with cedar swamps and pine barrens areas , and it is also found in standing water with a heavy growth of aquatic plants . these waters have silty or muddy bottoms . in new york , it has only been found in the hackensack river , and not collected since 1935 .\nfood studies show that the sunfish feeds primarily on insects and crusteaceans . a small population found in a maryland pond was aged to evaluate life expectancy ; the fish ranged from two to eight years old .\ndiffers from all other sunfishes in having cycloid scales rather than ctenoid scales ( the latter have a toothed rear edge ) ; only the green sunfish has 23 or more scales around the caudal peduncle ( page and burr 1991 ) .\nhabitat is primarily darkly stained , sluggish , weedy lowland creeks , small to medium rivers ( including backwaters ) , ponds , lakes , and swamps , usually with mud , silt , or detritus substrates ( page and burr 2011 ) .\ncomments : habitat is primarily darkly stained , sluggish , weedy lowland creeks , small to medium rivers ( including backwaters ) , ponds , lakes , and swamps , usually with mud , silt , or detritus substrates ( page and burr 2011 ) .\na . pomotis is currently the only species of genus acantharchus but baird had originally assigned it to centrarchus . the generic name , acantharchus , derives from the greek \u03ac\u03ba\u03b1\u03bd\u03b8\u03b1 ( thorn ) and \u03ac\u03c1\u03c7\u03bf\u03c2 ( ruler ) . a . pomotis is sometimes also known as the mud bass .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthis is a monotypic genus . analysis of variation in meristic and morphometric characters does not support recognition of subspecies in this species ( cashner et al . 1989 ) .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern in view of the large range extent , presumed large population size , and lack of evidence of a substantial decline .\nthis species is widely distributed but uncommon throughout the atlantic coastal plain and lower piedmont from the hudson river drainage ( new york ; at least formerly ) to the st . johns river in northern florida ; it also occurs in gulf coastal plain in northern florida and southern georgia from the suwannee river to st . marks river , and ( disjunctly ) in the lower tombigbee river drainage in alabama , where it is apparently native ( page and burr 2011 ) . a hiatus in the range occurs in western chesapeake bay tributaries from the susquehanna to potomac rivers in maryland and virginia ( records from the potomac are erroneous ) ( cashner et al . 1989 ) . see cashner et al . ( 1989 ) for further information on distribution and status in particular states .\nthis species is represented by a large number of occurrences . total population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10 , 000 and may exceed 100 , 000 . this species may not appear to be abundant in some areas because of a possible nocturnal activity pattern . range extent has probably not declined very much over the long term , though the species may be extirpated in new york and pennsylvania ; area of occupancy has probably declined less than 30 percent . trend over the past 10 years or three generations probably is relatively stable or slowly declining .\nno major threats exist at the present time or for the foreseeable future . pollution and habitat modification such as drainage and damming are potential , but not immediate , problems .\ncurrently , this species is of relatively low conservation concern and does not require significant additional protection or major management , monitoring , or research actions .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nfor help with pdfs on this page , please call 518 - 402 - 8924 .\nglobal range : ( 200 , 000 - 2 , 500 , 000 square km ( about 80 , 000 - 1 , 000 , 000 square miles ) ) this species is widely distributed but uncommon throughout the atlantic coastal plain and lower piedmont from the hudson river drainage ( new york ; at least formerly ) to the st . johns river in northern florida ; it also occurs in gulf coastal plain in northern florida and southern georgia from the suwannee river to st . marks river , and ( disjunctly ) in the lower tombigbee river drainage in alabama , where apparently it is native ( page and burr 2011 ) . a hiatus in the range occurs in western chesapeake bay tributaries from the susquehanna to potomac rivers in maryland and virginia ( records from the potomac are erroneous ) ( cashner et al . 1989 ) . see cashner et al . ( 1989 ) for further information on distribution and status in particular states .\nnorth america : widely distributed in atlantic coastal plain and lower piedmont drainages from hudson river in new york to st . johns river in florida , usa and in gulf coastal plain drainages of northern florida and southern georgia , usa from suwannee river to st . marks river .\n21 . 0 cm tl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5723 ) )\ntype for acantharchus pomotis catalog number : usnm 32490 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of fishes collector ( s ) : s . baird locality : beeseley ' s pt . , n . j . , new jersey , united states , north america\ndepth range based on 2 specimens in 1 taxon . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 0 . 75 - 0 . 75 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\ndemersal ; freshwater ; ph range : 6 . 8 - 7 . 8 ; dh range : 10 - 25\nnon - migrant : no . all populations of this species make significant seasonal migrations .\nlocally migrant : no . no populations of this species make local extended movements ( generally less than 200 km ) at particular times of the year ( e . g . , to breeding or wintering grounds , to hibernation sites ) .\nlocally migrant : no . no populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km .\ncomments : in north carolina , diet was dominated by invertebrates , especially amphipods , decapods , coleopterans , and odonates ; large individuals sometimes ate fishes ( pardue 1993 ) .\nnote : for many non - migratory species , occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations .\ncomments : total population size is unknown but presumably exceeds 10 , 000 and may exceed 100 , 000 . this species may not appear to be abundant in some areas because of a possible nocturnal activity pattern .\nrelatively sedentary . may exhibit high mortality when swamps shrink and / or dry up . in north carolina , average standing stock was 351 individuals / ha and 14 . 7 kg / ha ( pardue 1993 ) .\nin north carolina , spawned at temperatures as low as 6 c ; females with ripe eggs were found january - may ; both sexes reached maturity at age 1 + ; lifespan is short , 4 + years ( pardue 1993 ) .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there are 4 barcode sequences available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is a sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\nthis species is listed as least concern in view of the large range extent , presumed large population size , and lack of evidence of a substantial decline .\nreasons : widespread in atlantic states from new york to florida ; still present throughout most of the natural range ; habitat is not immediately threatened ; not used in sport or commercial fisheries .\ncomments : trend over the past 10 years or three generations probably is relatively stable or slowly declining .\ncomments : range extent probably has not declined very much over the long term , though the species may be extirpated in new york and pennsylvania ; area of occupancy probably has declined less than 30 percent .\ncomments : no major threats exist at the present time or for the forseeable future . pollution and habitat modification such as drainage and damming are potential , but not immediate , problems .\nbiological research needs : further investigations into the behavior and ecology of a . pomotis are needed .\nfroese , rainer , and daniel pauly , eds . ( 2004 ) . species of acantharchus in fishbase . october 2004 version .\nfroese , rainer and pauly , daniel , eds . ( 2004 ) .\nacantharchus pomotis\nin fishbase . october 2004 version .\ncomments : monotypic genus . analysis of variation in meristic and morphometric characters does not support recognition of subspecies in this species ( cashner et al . 1989 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\n, ph range : 6 . 8 - 7 . 8 , dh range : 10 - 25 environment ."]}
{"id": 317, "summary": [{"text": "the white-bellied green pigeon ( treron sieboldii ) is a species of bird in the family columbidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in china , japan , south korea , laos , russia , taiwan , thailand , and vietnam .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitat is temperate forests . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "white - bellied green pigeon", "paragraphs": ["select an image : 1 . white - bellied green pigeon > > adult male 2 . white - bellied green pigeon > > adult male 3 . white - bellied green pigeon > > females 4 . white - bellied green pigeon > > female 5 . white - bellied green pigeon > > female 6 . white - bellied green pigeon > > female 7 . white - bellied green pigeon > > female 8 . white - bellied green pigeon > > female 9 . white - bellied green pigeon > > female 10 . white - bellied green pigeon > > in flight from below 11 . white - bellied green pigeon > > flock in flight 12 . white - bellied green pigeon > > flock 13 . white - bellied green pigeon > > male 14 . white - bellied green pigeon > > adult female 15 . white - bellied green pigeon > > adult female 16 . white - bellied green pigeon > > male taking off 17 . white - bellied green pigeon > > adult male 18 . white - bellied green pigeon > > adult male 19 . white - bellied green pigeon > > adult male 20 . white - bellied green pigeon > > adult male 21 . white - bellied green pigeon > > adult male 22 . white - bellied green pigeon > > female 23 . white - bellied green pigeon > > female 24 . white - bellied green pigeon > > female 25 . white - bellied green pigeon > > female 26 . white - bellied green pigeon > > female 27 . white - bellied green pigeon > > female 28 . white - bellied green pigeon > > female 29 . white - bellied green pigeon > > female 30 . white - bellied green pigeon > > adult male 31 . white - bellied green pigeon > > male\nthe white - bellied green pigeon ( treron sieboldii ) is a species of bird in the columbidae family .\nbaptista , l . f . , trail , p . w . , horblit , h . m . & boesman , p . ( 2018 ) . white - bellied green - pigeon ( treron sieboldii ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\n, except golden tinge generally less pronounced on breast and almost lacking on crown and forehead ; belly paler , nearly white ; . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be uncommon to very rare ( del hoyo et al . 1997 ) , while national population estimates include : < c . 10 , 000 breeding pairs and < c . 50 individuals on migration in china ; c . 100 - 100 , 000 breeding pairs in taiwan and c . 100 - 100 , 000 breeding pairs in japan ( brazil 2009 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be in decline owing to ongoing habitat destruction .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nin the past , sometimes placed in genus sphenurus . closely allied to t . sphenurus , t . permagnus and t . formosae , and more distantly to t . oxyurus species - group . race sororius only slightly differentiated from nominate , and possibly better merged with it . little - known hainan form initially assigned to sororius , but later named oblitus owing to its smaller size ; this race , although said to be closest to sororius , was subsequently included in t . sphenurus ( e . g . in hbw ) , presumably in error ; oblitus now considered indistinguishable from murielae . described form \u201c sphenocercus sphenurus lungchowensis \u201d is likewise a synonym of murielae # r . four subspecies currently recognized .\n( temminck , 1835 ) \u2013 japan and e china ( jiangsu , fujian ) .\ncheng , tan & sun , 1973 \u2013 c china ( s shaanxi , e sichuan ) .\n( delacour , 1927 ) \u2013 sc china ( guizhou , guangxi , hainan ) s to extreme n thailand , laos and n & c vietnam ( tonkin , annam ) .\na variable phrase of long mellow pure whistles , typically modulated with sudden changes in pitch ( . . .\nforest , including dense temperate mixed woodland in japan , and second growth , from coastal regions . . .\nlittle information . nesting commences in may\u2013jun in japan , with territorial calling from mid feb . nest is a flimsy , shallow , cup - . . .\nresident in most of its range , with some local movements in response to food supply . on hokkaido , . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . previously considered near threatened . formerly common , but now uncommon in japan . apparently still common in taiwan . very rare in n . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\na slow motion view of a group of males and females flying , landing on a rock and taking off .\na number of males and females drinking from a coastal rock , amidst breaking waves .\na flock of birds flying over the sea and landing on a coastal rock to drink .\nflock of birds flying over the sea , near the coast , seen at slow motion .\na male perched atop bare tree , down - slope giving perfect eye - level views with a nice background .\nalder , lars petersson , stijn de win , josep del hoyo , phillip edwards , fran trabalon , phil gregory , petemorris , pedroyayadrums , johannes pfleiderer , ksan , joris bertrand .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : treron sieboldii . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nthere was a short cut in the initial part ( due to prerecording operation ) . slightly amplified around the frequencies .\nin low mountain in the suburb of kyoto city . some noise is present .\nin low mountain in the suburb of kyoto city . noise of a stream ( not suppressed ) .\nin low mountain in the suburb of kyoto city . slightly distant and amplified . low - pass filter has been used .\nwintering in low mountain in the suburb of kyoto city . wing beat and then flew away .\nslightly distant and with noise of a stream . in low mountain in the suburb of kyoto city .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 290 , 198 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nit is found in china , japan , south korea , laos , russia , taiwan , thailand , and vietnam .\nthis article uses material from the wikipedia released under the creative commons attribution - share - alike licence 3 . 0 . please see license details for photos in photo by - lines .\nplease note that this non - official list is not complete nor necessarily accurate . this list is a summary of checklists from other websites , blogs , publications , photo / videos published on various websites or our own findings . we appreciate your contributions with photo proof .\nimportant note ; our range maps are generated automatically based on very limited data we have about the protected sites , the data is not necessarily accurate . please help us to improve our range maps by sharing your findings / knowledge .\n\u00a9 thai national parks , 2018 | t . a . t . license : 12 / 02497 , license issued for gibbonwoot ( managing company )"]}
{"id": 372, "summary": [{"text": "the blue-fronted robin ( cinclidium frontale ) is a species of bird in the family muscicapidae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is the only species in the monotypic genus cinclidium .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is found in bhutan , china , northeast india , laos , thailand , vietnam , and possibly nepal .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitat is temperate forests . ", "topic": 24}], "title": "blue - fronted robin", "paragraphs": ["select an image : 1 . blue - fronted robin > > immature male 2 . blue - fronted robin > > male 3 . blue - fronted robin > > female 4 . blue - fronted robin > > female 5 . blue - fronted robin > > female 6 . blue - fronted robin > > female 7 . blue - fronted robin > > female 8 . blue - fronted robin > > female 9 . blue - fronted robin > > female 10 . blue - fronted robin > > female 11 . blue - fronted robin > > male 12 . blue - fronted robin > > male\nthe blue - fronted robin ( cinclidium frontale ) is a species of bird in the muscicapidae family .\ncollar , n . ( 2018 ) . blue - fronted robin ( cinclidium frontale ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nwhile leaving lava , i decided to walk down the road as the others got ready , and at the garbage dump in lava i had a fleeting glimpse of a bluish robin - like bird . as i searched for it , it flew out across the road , and only gave me a fraction of a second to click before disappearing again . here ' s the record shot . - gb\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as relatively uncommon ( del hoyo et al . 2005 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be in decline owing to ongoing habitat destruction .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nblyth , 1842 \u2013 sikkim , nw bengal , bhutan and adjacent w arunachal pradesh . records from e nepal doubtful\n( delacour & jabouille , 1930 ) \u2013 ne india ( se arunachal pradesh and possibly nagaland ) , sc china ( sw sichuan ) and n indochina .\n18\u201320 cm ; 25\u201326 g . male nominate race is blackish - indigo , with shiny bluish forehead and shoulder , long graduated tail , white patch on underwing primary coverts , . . .\nsong a series of short clear melodious phrases , \u201ctuuii - be - tue\u2026 tuu - buudy - doo\u2026\u201d . calls include harsh . . .\ndark , densely vegetated gulleys in primary montane broadleaf evergreen forest and bamboo , 1850 . . .\nno information ; keeps to low parts of vegetation , clambering among bamboo , and presumably feeds there and on ground on small insects .\n; degree to which rarity reflects elusiveness unclear , but consensus of . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : cinclidium frontale . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\ncame very close in response to playback but very hard to see . . . keeps very close to the ground or on the ground , even when singing\nin response to playback - came very close ( 2m ) , kept very close to ground or on ground . same bird as xc106778 - 79\nin response to playback - came very close ( 2m ) , kept very close to ground or on ground . same bird as xc106778\na very difficult bird to see . found this bird in the morning and tried for quite some time . eventually , after trying for another hour at the end of the day , i got one good brief view . this was also when i made the recording . to get to see it i also used some tape but it was relatively long before the recording , so it probably did not have much influence . as you can hear it was another drizzly afternoon .\nsame male as in xc324174 and xc324175 , moving around a large area of bamboo .\ncame very close in response to playback but very hard to see . . . keeps very close to the ground or on the ground , even when singing . same bird as on xc106671 - two short cuts pasted together here\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nit is found in bhutan , china , india , laos , thailand , vietnam , and possibly nepal .\nits natural habitat is temperate forests . it is the only species remaining in the genus cinclidium after others were moved to the genus myiomela .\nthis article uses material from the wikipedia released under the creative commons attribution - share - alike licence 3 . 0 . please see license details for photos in photo by - lines .\nplease note that this non - official list is not complete nor necessarily accurate . this list is a summary of checklists from other websites , blogs , publications , photo / videos published on various websites or our own findings . we appreciate your contributions with photo proof .\nimportant note ; our range maps are generated automatically based on very limited data we have about the protected sites , the data is not necessarily accurate . please help us to improve our range maps by sharing your findings / knowledge .\n\u00a9 thai national parks , 2018 | t . a . t . license : 12 / 02497 , license issued for gibbonwoot ( managing company )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 293 , 580 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\n@ kate _ bradbury @ flygirlnhm @ richardcomont keep a close eye kate . for bees , the faces of evil . 8 hours ago\nrt @ amyjanebeer : i ' m running a nature writing workshop at the delightful whisby nature park , on friday 31st august . four places left at \u00a315\u2026 2 days ago\nkate is on @ bbcradio4 now ! have a listen . @ kate _ bradbury # bumblebee urltoken 2 days ago\nrt @ jlowenwildlife : looks like hedgehogs and badgers can get along fine as neighbours , after all . @ chiffchat urltoken 4 days ago\nrt @ brightonwstones : we\u2019re thrilled to be welcoming author and broadcaster @ kate _ bradbury to @ brightonwstones this wed 4th july 7 . 30pm to t\u2026 6 days ago\nenter your email address to follow this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\ndouble - check spelling , grammar , punctuation . translators work best when there are no errors or typos .\nif words are different , search our dictionary to understand why and pick the right word .\nif phrases are different , try searching our examples to help pick the right phrase .\nwe ' ve combined the most accurate english to spanish translations , dictionary , verb conjugations , and spanish to english translators into one very powerful search box .\nspanishdict is devoted to improving our site based on user feedback and introducing new and innovative features that will continue to help people learn and love the spanish language . have a suggestion , idea , or comment ? send us your feedback ."]}
{"id": 386, "summary": [{"text": "the northern viscacha ( lagidium peruanum ) is a species of rodent in the family chinchillidae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is known from peru and chile , at elevations from 300 to 5000 m , and may also be present in bolivia . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "northern viscacha", "paragraphs": ["northern viscacha ( lagidium peruanum ) adult and young cordillera blanca massif , andes , peru .\nmountain viscacha ( lagidium viscasia ) resting in a wetland area of lauca national park in northern chile .\n) , which is also sometimes called the northern mountain viscacha , is a rodent and a member of the chinchillidae family , which also includes chinchillas . these little guys can be found in peru , northern\nthe mountain viscacha is found in the extreme southern portion of peru , western and central bolivia , northern and central chile , and in western argentina .\nperu , 15th - century inca site located 2 , 430 metres ( 7 , 970 ft ) above sea level . northern viscacha ( lagidium peruanum ) .\nthe southern viscacha has a patchy distribution comprising parts of western bolivia , northern chile , western argentina and possibly extreme southern peru ( 1 ) ( 3 ) .\nthe southern viscacha has a patchy distribution comprising parts of western bolivia , northern chile , western argentina and possibly extreme southern peru ( 1 ) ( 3 ) .\nnature picture library - northern viscacha ( lagidium peruanum ) two playing together , huascaran national park , cordillera blanca , andes , peru - cyril r . . .\nnorthern viscachas make their burrows in the crevices of the rocky habitat they prefer and live in large colonies that can include up to 80 animals . the northern viscacha is not a territorial animal , but colonies tend to be separated from one another by some distance .\nthe northern viscacha is currently listed on the iucn red list as a species of least concern . it is believed to be a widely distributed species with a healthy population .\nmountain vizcacha ( lagidium cf . peruanum ) in ecuador : first record of chinchillidae from the northern andes\nmountain vizcacha ( lagidium cf . peruanum ) in ecuador - first record of chinchillidae from the northern andes\nsouthern mountain viscacha - lagidium viscacia the southern mountain viscacha looks like a long - tailed rabbit . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nthe southern viscacha is native to the mountainous parts of western argentina , southern peru , western and central bolivia , and northern and central chile . it lives among rocks and around crags where the vegetation is sparse .\nthe rocky territory that the northern viscacha lives in has sparse vegetation , so the little herbivore feeds on the hardy grasses that can survive in this somewhat harsh environment . it also dines on lichens and mosses . northern viscachas typically feed in the evenings and early nighttime hours . their daytime hours are usually spent basking in the sun on rocks .\nthe southern viscacha is native to the mountainous parts of western argentina , southern peru , western and central bolivia and the northern and central parts of chile . it lives in and among rocks and around crags where the vegetation is sparse .\nthe northern viscacha is listed as least concern ( lr / lc ) , lowest risk . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category , on the iucn red list of threatened species\nthis species occurs in northern , central and eastern argentina , southern and western paraguay , and southeastern bolivia ( spotorno and patton 2015 ) .\nthe fur on their lower body is lighter than their upper parts and can be white , pale gray or yellow . the ends of their long tails are darker than the rest of the northern viscacha ' s body , usually rust or black in color .\nnorthern viscachas look a little like a cross between a squirrel and a rabbit . they have large ears for their bodies , soft , thick fur , and a bushy curled tail . northern viscachas that live at lower elevations are typically gray in color , while those living up higher tend to be brown .\nrowlands iw . 1974 . mountain viscacha . symposium of the zoological society of london 34 : 131 - 141 . [ links ]\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - southern viscacha ( lagidium viscacia )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - southern viscacha ( lagidium viscacia )\ntitle =\narkive species - southern viscacha ( lagidium viscacia )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\n. although they are typically found between the timber and the snow lines in the andes mountains at elevations between 3 , 000 to 5 , 000 meters - - or 10 , 000 feet to 16 , 000 feet - - they can also be found in low coastal ranges at only 300 meters - - or 980 feet . in addition , the northern viscacha is one of only 70 mammal species that live in the unique winter rainfall - valdivian forests in chile .\nalthough the southern viscacha is locally hunted for its meat and fur , it is still a very common species , and is not thought to be declining at a rate to warrant significant concern ( 1 ) .\nalthough the southern viscacha is locally hunted for its meat and fur , it is still a very common species , and is not thought to be declining at a rate to warrant significant concern ( 1 ) .\nthere are seven species in this family . they are all found in south america . they have thick , very soft fur ; large ears ; big eyes ; and bushy tails . their hind legs are longer than their front legs . they live in colonies . most species , except for the plains viscacha , live in rocky crevices or burrows in the mountains . plains viscacha live on the plains and dig burrows .\nthe southern viscacha is a common species and locally abundant but it is prone to wide swings in population due to adverse weather conditions . it is hunted for its flesh and its fur but not to such an extent as to reduce its numbers significantly . the\nthe southern viscacha has yellowish - grey upperparts , paler underparts , and a black - tipped , bushy tail . the body fur is long and soft , while that on the tail is coarse . the long , fur - covered ears have a white fringe and both the short front legs and longer hind legs have four digits on the feet . the soles of the feet have fleshy pads called\npallipes\nand they can move about with agility over rocky surfaces . the weight of an adult southern viscacha is about\nthe southern viscacha is a common species and locally abundant , but it is prone to wide swings in population due to adverse weather conditions . it is hunted for its flesh and its fur , but not to such an extent as to reduce its numbers significantly . the\nthe southern viscacha has yellowish - grey upperparts , paler underparts and a black - tipped bushy tail . the body fur is long and soft while that on the tail is coarse . the long fur - covered ears have a white fringe and both the short front legs and longer hind legs have four digits on the feet . the soles of the feet have fleshy pads called\npallipes\nand they can move about with agility over rocky surfaces . the weight of an adult southern viscacha is about 3 kilograms ( 6 . 6 lb ) .\nnorthern viscacha ( lagidium peruanum ) * family : chinchillidae , * genus : lagidium , * species : l . peruanum , * phylum : chordata , * class : mammalia , * order : rodentia , * type : mammal , * diet : omnivore , * average life span in captivity : 6 - 8 years , * size : averages 6 . 9 in ( 175 mm ) , * weight : up to 19 . 8 lb ( 9 kg ) , * * viscachas or vizcachas are rodents of two genera ( lagidium and lagostomus ) in the family chinchillidae . they are closely related to chinchillas , and look similar to rabbits . more info : urltoken or urltoken\nthis species occurs in southern peru , southern and western bolivia , northern chilie and western argentina ( woods and kilpatrick 2005 ) . it occurs between 2 , 500 m asl to 5 , 100 m asl . the distribution limit of this species in western bolivia needs to be revised . this species is not present in southern peru ( h . zeballos pers . comm . ) .\nthere are currently no known conservation measures in place for the southern viscacha , but it does occur in several protected areas . although hunting is not currently considered a major threat to this species , it needs to be monitored in case it starts to have a severe impact on the population ( 1 ) .\nthere are currently no known conservation measures in place for the southern viscacha , but it does occur in several protected areas . although hunting is not currently considered a major threat to this species , it needs to be monitored in case it starts to have a severe impact on the population ( 1 ) .\nthe southern viscacha ( lagidium viscacia ) is a species of rodent in the family chinchillidae found in argentina , bolivia , chile , and peru . it is a colonial animal living in small groups in rocky mountain areas . it has long ears and hind legs and resembles a rabbit in appearance apart from its long , bushy tail .\nthe southern viscacha ( lagidium viscacia ) is a species of rodent in the family chinchillidae and is found in argentina , bolivia , chile and peru . it is a colonial animal living in small groups in rocky mountain areas . it has long ears and hind legs and resembles a rabbit in appearance apart from its long , bushy tail .\nthis species occurs in southern peru , southern and western bolivia , northern chile and western argentina . it occurs between 700 m in the rio negro province of argentina to above 4 , 800 m in the mountains from central peru through bolivia , chile and northwestern argentina ( spotorno and patton 2015 ) . the distribution limit of this species in western bolivia needs to be revised . this species is not present in southern peru ( h . zeballos pers . comm . ) .\nduring the day , the southern viscacha emerges from the clefts and crevices it colonises , to forage for food , and bask on rocky perches in the sun ( 1 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . it runs and leaps amongst the rocks with incredible agility , and eats a wide variety of plants including grasses , mosses , and lichens ( 3 ) ( 4 ) .\nthe southern viscacha is one of three south american rodent species commonly referred to as mountain viscachas ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . in common with its two congeners , the southern viscacha looks remarkably like a long - tailed rabbit ( 3 ) . soft dense fur covers its body , from the tips of its elongate ears to the end of its long , curled tail ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . the forelimbs are relatively short , while the contrastingly long and muscular hind - limbs enable it run and jump with ease ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the colour of its fur varies seasonally and with age , but generally the upperparts are grey to brown , with tints of cream and black , while the under - parts are pale yellow or tan ( 2 ) .\nthe southern viscacha is one of three south american rodent species commonly referred to as mountain viscachas ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . in common with its two congeners , the southern viscacha looks remarkably like a long - tailed rabbit ( 3 ) . soft dense fur covers its body , from the tips of its elongate ears to the end of its long , curled tail ( 2 ) ( 3 ) . the forelimbs are relatively short , while the contrastingly long and muscular hind - limbs enable it run and jump with ease ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . the colour of its fur varies seasonally and with age , but generally the upperparts are grey to brown , with tints of cream and black , while the under - parts are pale yellow or tan ( 2 ) .\nlike all mountain viscachas , the southern viscacha is a gregarious species that forms small to very large colonies , comprising one or more family groups ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . the timing of the breeding season is not documented for this species , but the gestation period has been estimated at 120 to 140 days , with just a single young born at a time . the young is born fully haired with its eyes open , and is normally weaned after eight weeks , and reaches sexual maturity at around a year ( 3 ) .\n, one of several recognized species of\nmountain viscachas ,\nlives in the andes mountains of peru at elevations ranging from approximately 3 , 000 - 5 , 000 meters . this corresponds to the area contained between the timber and snow lines .\n, while often locally abundant , exhibits a scattered distribution across its range . it is not uncommon to have dense populations separated from other such populations by over 10 kilometers . there is seemingly little or no difference in habitat structure between occupied areas and the unoccupied areas between populations .\nlive in dry , rocky , habitats between the timber line and snow line of the andes mountains . vegetation is relatively sparse and characterized mainly by coarse grasses .\nare often found near water that offers more succulent vegetation than drier areas within their habitat . they occupy burrows among rocks and crevices .\n, excluding their bushy tails which reach lengths of about 200 - 400mm , are approximately 300 - 450mm in length . they posess dense , soft fur on their bodies and long , coarse fur on the dorsal surface of their tails . their pelage coloration varies from dark grey at low elevations to brown at higher elevations . the ventral portion of their fur is lighter , and can be white , yellowish , or light gray . the dorsally curled ends of their tails vary from rusty to black in color .\nhave long , hair - covered ears . females have only a single pair of mammae .\nindividuals reach sexual maturity after one year . the mating period ranges from october to december , in which all adult females become pregnant . gestation lasts approximately 140 days and one offspring is produced . while females may undergo a post - partum estrus , it is unlikely that a second pregnancy in a given year will result given the length of the gestation period and the timing of the mating season . the offspring are precocious , and feed on a mixture of their mother ' s milk and vegetation . while females posess two ovaries and two uterine horns , only the right ovary and uterine horn are functional . if the right ovary is surgically removed , the left then becomes functional .\nlive in large colonies of up to 80 individuals . these colonies are segregated into small family units of 2 to 5 individuals which occupy a single burrow . these animals are poor diggers , so their burrows consist of crevices among cliffs and rocks . they are not territorial and rarely aggressive . when the breeding season begins males are driven out of their family burrow by the female , at which point they disperse throughout the colony and exhibit some degree of promiscuity . much of the day is spent basking and preening on exposed rocks . feeding begins in the afternoon and lasts until after sunset , at which time individuals return to their burrows .\nare quick and agile , able to get from rock to rock with either short hops or leaps of over 2 meters , if alarmed . when alarmed they produce a high - pitched call to warn the colony of a potential threat .\neat most of the sparse vegetable material they find in their habitats . this includes tough grasses , lichens , and moss . they feed primarily from late afternoon until after the sun sets .\nare used as a source of meat and fur , however their pelts are not in particularly high demand .\n, perhaps because they are the smallest of the mountain viscachas , are not particularly sought after for their fur or as a source of meat .\nmatthew wund ( author ) , university of michigan - ann arbor , phil myers ( editor ) , museum of zoology , university of michigan - ann arbor .\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nthis terrestrial biome includes summits of high mountains , either without vegetation or covered by low , tundra - like vegetation .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nto cite this page : wund , m . 2000 .\nlagidium peruanum\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthese rodents weigh about 1 . 25 kilograms on average , or 2 . 75 pounds , and are approximately 300 to 450 millimeters in length , or about 12 to 17 inches , excluding their tails . this animal ' s long tail is usually about 200 to 400 millimeters in length , or about 8 to 16 inches .\nenglish - german online dictionary developed to help you share your knowledge with others . more information ! contains translations by tu chemnitz and mr honey ' s business dictionary ( german - english ) . thanks on that account ! links to this dictionary or to single translations are very welcome ! questions and answers\nproject noah is a tool to explore and document wildlife and a platform to harness the power of citizen scientists everywhere .\nwe ' ve sent an email to please follow the instructions to reset your password .\nenter your log in email address and we ' ll send you a link to reset your password .\nif is associated with an alamy account you ' ll receive an email with instructions on how to reset your password .\nlike all members of this family , viscachas have thick , soft pelage , except on their tails where it is coarse . they have pale yellow or grey upper parts , and a black tail tip . overall , viscachas look like rabbits . they have long , fur covered ears , edged with a fringe of white fur . all feet have four digits . the enamal of the incisors is not colored .\nspecies is a habitat generalist ( cofre and marquet 1999 ) . inhabits rocky mountain areas as well as rock outcrops in steppe habitat ( galende and trejo 2003 ) . this herbivorous species is specialized and restricted to rocky habitats where it colonizes rock crevices . available habitat is patchy ( walker et al . , 2003 ) . it occurs up to 4 , 800 m asl ( barquez et al . 2006 )\nrestricted to sparsely vegetated , rocky habitats , from 2 , 500 metres to 5 , 100 metres above sea level ( 1 ) ( 3 ) .\nmountain viscachas are reputed to eat just about any plant they encounter . their diet is principally composed of grasses , mosses and lichens .\nmating occurs from october through december . after a gestation of 120 - 140 days , a female gives birth to a single , precocious young . the young are born fully furred , with their eyes open , and are able to eat solid food on their first day of life . nursing continues for eight weeks . females are remarkable for the large number of ova they ovulate ( around 300 ) during each estrus period .\namori , g . ( small nonvolant mammal red list authority ) & schipper , j . ( global mammal assessment team )\nthis species is listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , however , restricted to rock formations . it occurs in a number of protected areas , and because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category . this species is hunted and should be periodically evaluated for impacts of this threat .\nclassified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nspecies occurs in low local abundances ( cofre and marquet 1999 ) . it is a very common species although it has a patchy distribution , populations may fluctuate in relation to extreme seasonal weather .\nit is locally hunted by people for meat and fur although , in general , this does not significantly impact populations ( barquez et al . 2006 ) . there appear to be no major threats to this species .\nits elevation range is about 2 , 500 to 5 , 100 metres ( 8 , 200 to 16 , 700 ft ) above sea level .\nand is mostly active soon after dawn and again in the evening . at these times it emerges from its underground hiding place to feed on what plant material is available which is mostly\n. part of the day is spent perched on a rock sunbathing , grooming or resting . southern viscachas are a colonial species and do not venture far from rocks so that they can plunge underground if danger threatens . they have various calls that they use to communicate with each other .\nbreeding starts in the last quarter of the year when mating takes place . the gestation period is about 130 days and a single\npup ( or sometimes two ) is born which has its eyes open and is fully clad in fur at birth . it suckles for about eight weeks but is able to supplement the milk with solid food within hours of its birth . the average lifespan is unknown but one individual survived for nineteen years in captivity .\ndunnum , j . ; vargas , j . ; bernal , n . ; zeballos , h . ; lessa , e . ; ojeda , r . ; bidau , c . ( 2008 ) . lagidium viscacia . in : iucn 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . retrieved 5 january 2009 .\nwalker , r . susan ; novaro , andr\u00e9s j . ; perovic , pablo ; palacios , rocio ; donadio , emiliano ; lucherini , mauro ; pia , m\u00f3nica ; l\u00f3pez , mar\u00eda soledad ( 2007 ) .\ndiets of three species of andean carnivores in high - altitude deserts of argentina\n. journal of mammalogy 88 ( 2 ) : 519\u2013525 . doi : 10 . 1644 / 06 - mamm - a - 172r . 1 .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nrestricted to sparsely vegetated , rocky habitats , from 2 , 500 metres to 5 , 100 metres above sea level ( 1 ) ( 3 ) .\nclassified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\ncongeners species belonging to the same genus . gestation the state of being pregnant ; the period from conception to birth .\neisenberg , j . f . ( 1989 ) mammals of the neotropics . university of chicago press , chicago .\nnowak , r . m . ( 1999 ) walker ' s mammals of the world . johns hopkins university press , baltimore , maryland .\nmacdonald , d . ( 2001 ) the new encyclopedia of mammals . oxford university press , oxford .\ntirado , c . , cort\u00e9s , a . and bozinovic , f . ( 2007 ) metabolic rate , thermoregulation and water balance in lagidium viscacia inhabiting the arid andean plateau . journal of thermal biology , 32 : 220 - 226 .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nbbc natural history unit c / o bbc motion gallery getty images 101 bayham street london nw1 0ag united kingdom tel : + 44 ( 0 ) 20 3227 2579 bbc . motiongallerysales @ urltoken urltoken\nby clicking the links above , you agree to continue to use this material in accordance with the below terms of use .\narkive videos are protected by copyright and usage is restricted . details of the copyright owners are given at the end of each video . please carefully read the following before downloading this video .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - southern viscachas\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - southern viscachas\ntitle =\narkive video - southern viscachas\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nspotorno , a . e . and patton , j . l . 2015 . superfamily chinchilloidea bennett , 1833 . in : patton , j . l . , pardinas , u . f . j . and d ' elia , g . ( eds ) , mammals of south america volume 2 : rodents , pp . 762 - 778 . university of chicago press .\nin bolivia , there are three subspecies ; further taxonomic review is needed to confirm whether these should be considered to be distinct species ( n . bernal pers . comm . ) . lagidium peruanum is now grouped with l . viscacia .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution and presumed large population although it is restricted to rock formations . it occurs in a number of protected areas , and it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category . this species is hunted and should be periodically evaluated for impacts of this threat .\nthe species occurs in low local abundances ( cofre and marquet 1999 ) . it is a very common species although it has a patchy distribution , populations may fluctuate in relation to extreme seasonal weather . osgood ( 1943b ) recognized seven subspecies that might occur in chile , while crespo ( 1963 ) recognized five subspecies in central and southern argentina , and s . anderson ( 1997 ) mapped the ranges of three subspecies in bolivia ( spotorno and patton 2015 ) .\nit inhabits rocky mountain areas as well as rock outcrops in steppe habitat ( patton et al . 2015 ) . this herbivorous species is specialized and restricted to rocky habitats where it colonizes rock crevices . available habitat is patchy ( walker et al . 2003 ) . it occurs up to 4 , 800 m asl ( barquez et al . 2006 ) . this species is highly gregarious , and live in colonies ranging in size from 4 - 75 individuals , with an overall density of 0 . 162 individuals per ha due to the clumped distribution of occupied boulder fields ( spotorno and patton 2015 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern due to its wide distribution , presumed large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category .\nthis species has been eliminated from a fair portion of its native range . however , it has expanded beyond its native range in response to anthropogenic modifications to its habitats . there remains a lack of detailed data on its distribution ( spotorno and patton 2015 ) .\nin argentina this species was classified as the source of a national plague in 1905 and was eradicated from many areas ( godoy 1963 ) . it is also hunted commercially for meat and fur ( spotorno and patton 2015 ) . it has a high niche overlap with cattle ; if more livestock are raised it is more likely to be affected compared to greater rheas ( pereira and quintana 2009 ) .\nthere are no conservation measures in place and it seems that none are needed at present .\nflorian a . werner\u00b9 , karim j . ledesma\u00b2 , and rodrigo hidalgo b . \u00b3\n1 albrecht - von - haller - institute of plant sciences , university of g\u00f6ttingen , untere karsp\u00fcle 2 , 37073 g\u00f6ttingen , germany ; < florianwerner @ urltoken > . 2 department of biological sciences , florida atlantic university , boca raton , u . s . a ; < kledes @ urltoken > . 3 colegio nacional eloy alfaro , gonzales suarez y sucre , cariamanga , ecuador ; < rodrigohb20022002 @ urltoken > .\nfig . 1 . geographical distribution of the genus lagidium . the arrow marks the location of cerro ahuaca . modified after rowlands ( 1974 ) .\nfig . 3 . mountain vizcacha ( lagidium cf . peruanum ) at cerro ahuaca . photo courtesy of lf le\u00f3n .\nthanks to luis fernando le\u00f3n and especially to daniel hidalgo ; also to veronica saenz marin for her assistance with the drawing of the distribution map . we gratefully acknowledge the support by idea wild , minox and the german academic exchange service ( daad ) . this is publication no . 122 of the yanayacu natural history research group .\neisenberg jf and kh redford . 1999 . mammals of the neotropics . the central neotropics . volume 3 . the university of chicago press , chicago . [ links ]\ngrimwood jr . 1969 . notes on the distribution of some peruvian mammals . 1968 . american committee for international wild life protection and new york zoological society . special publication 21 : 1 - 86 . [ links ]\nhenle k , kf davies , m kleyer , c margules , and j settele . 2004 . predictors of species sensitivity to fragmentation . biodiversity and conservation 13 : 207 - 251 . [ links ]\ninamhi . 1950 - 1999 . anuario meteorol\u00f3gico no . 1 - 39 . instituto nacional de meteorolog\u00eda e hidrolog\u00eda , quito . [ links ]\npacheco v . 2002 . mam\u00edferos del per\u00fa . pp . 503 - 549 , in : diversidad y conservaci\u00f3n de los mam\u00edferos neotropicales ( g ceballos and ja simonetti , eds . ) . instituto de ecolog\u00eda de la universidad nacional aut\u00f3noma de m\u00e9xico . [ links ]\npearson op . 1948 . life history of mountain viscachas in peru . journal of mammalogy 29 : 345 - 374 . [ links ]\npearson op . 1957 . additions to the mammalian fauna of peru and notes on some other peruvian mammals . breviora 73 : 1 - 7 . [ links ]\nredford k and jf eisenberg . 1992 . mammals of the neotropics : the southern cone . volume 2 . the university chicago press , chicago . [ links ]\nsierra r ( ed . ) . 1999 . propuesta preliminar de un sistema de clasificaci\u00f3n de vegetaci\u00f3n para el ecuador continental . proyecto inefan / gef - birf y ecociencia , quito . [ links ]\nspotorno ae , jp valladares , jc marin , re palma , and c zuleta . 2004 . molecular divergence and phylogenetic relationships of chinchillids ( rodentia : chinchillidae ) . journal of mammalogy 85 : 384 - 388 . [ links ]\nwalker s , aj novaro , and o monsalvo . 1994 . situaci\u00f3n del \u00abchinchill\u00f3n\u00bb en el sur del neuqu\u00e9n : implicaciones de su estructura metapoblacional para su conservaci\u00f3n . libro de res\u00famenes de las vii jornadas de mastozoolog\u00eda , sarem ( sociedad argentina para el estudio de los mam\u00edferos ) . vaquer\u00edas , c\u00f3rdoba . [ links ]\nwalker rs , g ackermann , j schachter - broide , v pancotto , and aj novaro . 2000 . habitat use by mountain vizcachas ( lagidium viscacia molina , 1782 ) in the patagonian steppe . zeitschrift f\u00fcr s\u00e4ugetierkunde 65 : 293 - 300 . [ links ]\nweir bj . 1974 . reproductive characteristics of hystricomorph rodents . symposium of the zoological society of london 34 : 265 - 301 . [ links ]\nwilson de and dm reeder ( eds ) . 1993 . mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference . second edition . smithsonian institution press . [ links ]\nwoods ca and cw kilpatrick . 2005 . infraorder hystricognathi . pp . 1538 - 1600 , in : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference . ( de wilson and dm reeder , eds ) . third edition , volumen 2 . the johns hopkins university press . [ links ]\ncricyt centro regional de investigaciones cient\u00edficas y t\u00e9cnicas av . ruiz leal s / n parque gral . san martin 5500 - mendoza rep\u00fablica argentina urltoken c . p . 9120 . casilla de correo 128 http : / / urltoken / contacto / enrique . lessa @ gmail . com ; e _ m _ neot @ urltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nand is mostly active soon after dawn and again in the evening . at these times , it emerges from its underground hiding place to feed on what plant material is available , which is mostly\n. part of the day is spent perched on a rock sunbathing , grooming , or resting . southern viscachas are a colonial species and do not venture far from rocks so that they can plunge underground if danger threatens . they use various calls to communicate with each other .\npup ( or sometimes two ) is born which has its eyes open and is fully clad in fur at birth . it suckles for about eight weeks , but is able to supplement the milk with solid food within hours of its birth . the average lifespan is unknown , but one individual survived for 19 years in captivity .\nwalker , r . susan ; novaro , andr\u00e9s j . ; perovic , pablo ; palacios , rocio ; donadio , emiliano ; lucherini , mauro ; pia , m\u00f3nica ; l\u00f3pez , mar\u00eda soledad ( 2007 ) .\ndiets of three species of andean carnivores in high - altitude deserts of argentina\n.\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 10 / 14 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\nenter your log in email address and we\u0092ll send you a link to reset your password .\nsorry , this image isn ' t available for this licence . please refer to the license restrictions for more information .\non the alamy prints site ( powered by art . com ) choose your frame , the size and finish of your photo .\nhome | wild files | n . h . animals | animals a - z | watch online\nleast concern near threatened vulnerable endangered critically endangered extinct in the wild extinct status and range is taken from icun redlist . if no status is listed , there is not enough data to establish status .\nlong - tailed chinchilla - chinchilla lanigera the long - tailed chinchilla is often kept as a pet . source : arkive intended audience : general reading level : middle school teacher section : yes\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 2nd ed . , 3rd printing\nwoods , charles a . , and c . william kilpatrick / wilson , don e . , and deeann m . reeder , eds .\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vol . 2\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service ."]}
{"id": 452, "summary": [{"text": "the cuban solenodon or almiqui ( solenodon cubanus ) , is a species of soricomorph endemic to cuba .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it belongs to the family solenodontidae along with a similar species , the hispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus ) .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the solenodon is unusual among mammals in that its saliva is venomous . ", "topic": 12}], "title": "cuban solenodon", "paragraphs": ["the two living solenodon species are the cuban solenodon ( solenodon cubansus ) and the larger hispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus ) .\nthe cuban solenodon weighs 700 - 1000 g ( 25 - 35 oz ) .\nthe cuban solenodon was discovered in 1861 by the german naturalist wilhelm peters . only 36 cuban solenodons had ever been caught . by 1970 , it was thought that the cuban solenodon had become extinct , since no specimens had been found since 1890 . on june 2 , 1970 , the cuban solenodon was classified as endangered .\nnorvis hernandez , a cuban biologist , is one of the few people on planet earth who has seen a living , wild cuban solenodon . smaller than its hispaniola cousin , the cuban solenodon is easily distinguished by its black - and - white hair .\nmolecular phylogenetic analysis of nuclear genes suggests a cenozoic over - water dispersal origin for the cuban solenodon .\nthe cuban solenodon is found in dense , humid forests and brush country , as well as around plantations .\nthe cuban solenodon is found in dense , humid forests and brush country , as well as around plantations .\nin a new paper , researchers argue that oddball animals like the cuban solenodon should be more aggressively protected .\nhispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus ) , arkive . accessed february 09 , 2015 at urltoken\nmolecular phylogenetic analysis of nuclear genes suggests a cenozoic over - water dispersal origin for the cuban solenodon . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe cuban solenodon measures 16 \u2013 22 inches ( 40 \u2013 55 centimetres ) long from nose to tail with an extremely elongated snout and a long , naked , scaly tail . the cuban solenodon weighs around 1 kilogram ( 2 . 2 pounds ) .\nkifaru bwana also says that havana zoo has kept cuban solenodons and i have read this elsewhere . urltoken - wikipedia , the free encyclopedia [ / ame ] shows a cuban solenodon at new york zoo .\nthe cuban solenodon is an insectivore and emerges from rocks and hollow logs at night to prey on insects , spiders and lizards .\n* * * by 1970 , some presumed the cuban solenodon to be extinct , since no specimens had been collected since 1890 .\nsolenodon are relatively long lived animals . a cuban solenodon lived more than 5 years in captivity . they may be able to live longer as a hispaniolan solenodon lived to 11 years in captivity ( vaughn et al . , 2000 ) .\nit took hernandez and her colleagues 12 days of searching in the field to finally catch a cuban solenodon , known locally as the almiqui .\nthe hispaniolan solenodon belongs to an ancient group of mammals and is one of only two solenodon species alive today .\nmassicot , p . 2001 .\nanimal info - cuban solenodon\n( on - line ) . accessed november 20 , 2001 at urltoken .\nboth species of solenodons are considered endangered according the the iucn redlist . the hispaniolan solenodon faces extinction primarily because of habitat destruction , while the cuban solenodon is endangered mostly as a result of introduced predators including feral cats and dogs . read more about the cuban solenodon . read more about the hispaniolan solenodon . if you are interested in the conservation status of the hispaniolan solenodon check out this website where researchers raise awareness and update the research progress . via nature afield : notes on biophilia\nyoung cuban solenodons remain with their mother for several months , which is exceptionally long for insectivores .\nthere are two species of solenodon : the cuban solenodon and the hispaniolan solenodon . solenodons are similar in appearance to large shrews and like some shrews , both species have venomous bites . neither species is immune to its own venom and competing solenodons have been observed to die from bite wounds after fighting .\nthe cuban solenodon is mainly nocturnal , hiding during the day in rock clefts , hollow trees , or burrows which it excavates itself . the cuban solenodons obtain food by rooting in the ground with their snouts and by tearing into rotten logs and trees with their fore claws .\none of the most mysterious mammals is called the solenodon \u2014 one of just a handful of mammals with venom glands that are capable of delivering a powerful toxin . there are two species of solenodon : the cuban ( solenodon cubanus ) and hispaniolan ( solenodon paradoxus ) , and they were thought to have gone extinct in the 1970s due to deforestation and the introduction of invasive species .\n* * * the cuban and haitian solenodons secrete poison from a gland above their teeth to subdue prey .\nintroduction of the burmese mongoose into cuba is believed to have accounted for the near - extermination of the solenodon . currently , feral cats are probably the greatest threat , since the areas the solenodon inhabits now is not good mongoose habitat . in addition to predation by introduced predators , habitat loss is also a factor contributing to the solenodon ' s rarity . the cuban solenodon is not hunted for food .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - hispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - hispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus )\ntitle =\narkive species - hispaniolan solenodon ( solenodon paradoxus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthere is no negative effect of cuban solenodons on humans , unless one is provoked and bites in self - defense .\ncuban solenodons have venomous bites . the venom is delivered from modified salivary glands via grooves in their second lower incisors .\na primitive , venomous mammal endemic to cuba and once listed as extinct has been rediscovered after a decadelong quest . the shrewlike cuban solenodon ( solenodon cubanus ) \u2014a \u201cliving fossil\u201d that has not changed much in millions of years\u2014was all but wiped out in the 19th century by deforestation and introduced species .\nthree cuban solenodons were captured in 1974 and 1975 and research revealed that it still existed in many places at the eastern end of cuba . however , the cuban solenodon is still very rare . prior to 2003 , the most recent sighting was in 1999 mainly because it is a nocturnal burrower , living underground and it is very rarely seen .\nyes , fortunately i was lucky enough to see the solenodon - but only once .\nthe hispaniolan solenodon is relatively long - lived , potentially reaching 11 years of age .\nalthough the cuban solenodon is not yet extinct , it is still an endangered species because it only breeds a single litter of one to three in a year and because of predation by species that were introduced by humans .\nthe cuban solenodon has small eyes and dark brown to black hair . it is sometimes compared to a shrew , although it most closely resembles members of the family tenrecidae including hedgehogs , shrews , opossums , mice and even otters .\nthe cuban solenodon is one of the species that live in both the caribbean biodiversity hotspot ( cons . intl . ) and the greater antillean moist forests global 200 ecoregion . ( olson & dinerstein 1998 , olson & dinerstein 1999 )\nthat ' s why i placed\nrediscovered\nin ' ' marks the black and white colouration is very unusual , although i ' d never seen a photograph of a cuban solenodon before i saw the news article i linked to .\nthe hispaniolan solenodon is classified as endangered ( en ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthe cuban solenodon is mainly nocturnal , hiding during the day in rock clefts , hollow trees , or burrows which it excavates itself . solenodons obtain food by rooting in the ground with their snouts and by tearing into rotten logs and trees with their foreclaws .\neven as scientists try and find out basic data on the cuban solenodon , researchers are discovering surprises regarding the better - known hispaniolan species . surveying the species\u2019 various populations , samuel turvey and his team recently discovered that the hispaniolan species is actually three distinct subspecies .\ncuban solenodon or almiqui ( solenodon cubanus ) * family : solenodontidae , * genus : solenodon , * species : s . cubanus , * phylum : chordata , * class : mammalia , * order : soricomorpha , * type : mammal , * diet : omnivore , * size : 16 - - 22 inches ( 41 - - 56 cm ) , * weight : about 1 kg ( 2 . 2 lb ) , * * the solenodon adults approach one another with their mouths open , probably giving out high - frequency sounds . more info : urltoken or urltoken or urltoken\nthe cuban solenodons have a long life span and low reproductive rate , as a result of having been among the dominant predators before europeans colonized the new world .\nshe said that the cuban solenodon\u2019s keen senses of smell and hearing make it almost impossible to capture with conventional methods . the species not only avoids human contact but , according to hernandez , is never tricked by the mechanical traps scientists commonly use to catch small mammals .\na female hispaniola solenodon with a radio collar attached so researchers could track its movements . photograph : tiffany roufs\na female hispaniolan solenodon caught for research near the sierra de bahoruco and re - released . photograph : tiffany roufs\nhow to cite this article : sato , j . j . et al . molecular phylogenetic analysis of nuclear genes suggests a cenozoic over - water dispersal origin for the cuban solenodon . sci . rep . 6 , 31173 ; doi : 10 . 1038 / srep31173 ( 2016 ) .\ncuban solenodons are important small , generalized predators in the ecosystems they inhabit . they help to control populations of invertebrates and may disperse the seeds of the fruits they eat .\ncuban solenodons are nocturnal ( vaughn et al . , 2000 ) . during the day , they stay in rock clefts , hollow trees , or burrows ( massicot , 2001 ) . only the toes of solenodon come into contact with the ground . however , they can run surprisingly fast and can also climb ( nowak , 1999 ) . although cuban solenodons are often found near vertical surfaces , they spend much of their time on the ground ( massicot , 2001 ) .\na hispaniolan solenodon is caught on camera trap leaving its burrow at night in the dominican republic . photograph : grupo jaragua\nthe plight of the solenodon in haiti may be the most dire of all . haiti\u2019s forests have been decimated over centuries and the solenodon survives only in the massif de la hotte region , the impoverished nation\u2019s last significant stand of cloud forest .\ncurrently the hispaniola solenodon is considered endangered by the iucn red list \u2013 though two of its subspecies may be close to extinction . the cuban solenodon is in an even more precarious position . also considered endangered , the species has been feared extinct more than once . the zsl\u2019s edge programme , which categorizes animals based on their threatened status and evolutionary distinctness , lists the pair of solenodons as number seven in the top 100 mammals .\nthat the protection of outlier species like the solenodon could have disproportionate\u2014and , to a large extent , untapped\u2014benefits for global biodiversity .\nfirst described in 1861 , scientist lost track of the cuban solenodon near the end of the 19th century . no one had saw it for almost a hundred years \u2013 and many assumed it was extinct \u2013 until researchers spotted a few in the mid - 1970s . and then no one saw it again until 2003 .\nthe international wildlife encyclopedia , 1974 .\nsolenodon\n( on - line ) . accessed november 20 , 2001 at urltoken .\n\u201cthe solenodon lineage diverged from other placental mammals circa 78 million years ago . that means [ it ] has existed since the cretaceous period , \u201d said adam brandt , lead author of a recent study that took the first look at the solenodon\u2019s mitochondrial dna .\njustification : cuban solenodon ( atopogale cubana ) is assessed as endangered because its extent of occurrence is estimated at 3 , 280 km\u00b2 , all individuals are in a single location , where there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat because of predation by introduced predators and habitat loss because of deforestation and mining .\nsolenodon lives in family groups in caves , natural hollows , and burrows in dense , wet mountain forests ( nowak , 1999 ) .\neatroff , a . ( 2002 ) . \u201c solenodon paradoxus , \u201d animal diversity web . accessed february 09 , 2015 at urltoken .\ntheusch , m . ( 2002 ) . \u201c solenodon cubanus , \u201d animal diversity web . accessed february 09 , 2015 at urltoken .\nit turns out , the solenodon has been around for 76 million years \u2014 before the dinosaurs were wiped out by an asteroid , and many believe that other mammals actually evolved out of their venomous bite while the solenodon kept it \u2014 researchers are just not sure why .\nby 1970 , some thought that the cuban solenodon had become extinct , since no specimens had been found since 1890 . however , three were captured in 1974 and 1975 , and subsequent surveys showed that it still occurred in many places in central and western oriente province , at the eastern end of cuba . however , it is rare everywhere .\nthe hispaniolan solenodon is one of only a few mammal species capable of producing toxic saliva , which it uses to immobilise its invertebrate prey .\nottenwalder , j . a . ( 1991 ) the systematics , biology , and conservation of solenodon . phd thesis , university of florida .\nturvey , s . t . , meredith , h . m . r . , and scofield , r . p . ( 2008 ) . continued survival of hispaniolan solenodon solenodon paradoxus in haiti . oryx 42 ( 4 ) : 611\u2013614 . doi : 10 . 1017 / s0030605308001324 .\ncuban solenodons may be preyed on by snakes and birds of prey . their secretive , burrowing habits probably protect them from many predators . they may also be able to use their toxic salivary secretions as a defense mechanism .\nthe cuban solenodon , a shrew - like mammal with venomous saliva , has been performing its houdini act for centuries . it ' s been spotted only 37 times since discovered in cuba in 1861 - - and in 1970 , it was believed to be extinct . but zoologists successfully captured and released a solenodon named\nalejandrito\nin 2003 .\nall we can hope is that there are more and that they could have babies ,\ndouglas long , a biologist at the california academy of sciences , told the ap .\nif there was any justice in the animal kingdom \u2013 any at all \u2013 the solenodon would be as famous as the tiger . the solenodon is a rabbit - sized , shrew - like mammal that is only found on two caribbean islands : cuba and hispaniola ( the dominican republic and haiti ) .\nan asteroid strikes earth as flying reptiles look on . somehow the solenodon survived this . illustration : mark garlick / getty images / science photo library rm\nthe distinctive long snout of the hispaniolan solenodon is attached to the skull with a unique ball - and - socket joint , giving it great flexibility .\nwoods , c . a . ( 1976 ) solenodon paradoxus in southern haiti . journal of mammalogy , 57 ( 3 ) : 591 - 592 .\na number of specimens and signs of the species were observed during the 20th century , but by 1970 some believed that the cuban solenodon had become extinct . however , individuals have been captured at a number of different sites , including recently in 2012 and 2013 when seven individuals were captured in the toldo plateau area of alejandro de humboldt national park ( l . echenique - diaz pers . comm . 2017 ) .\nto cite this page : theusch , m . 2002 .\nsolenodon cubanus\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nsolenodon sightings since then have been few and far between , but one of them was spotted in 2003 in the mountainous alejandro de humboldt national park , a unesco world heritage site on the northeastern end of cuba . a team of cuban and japanese researchers has been searching for the animals , known by locals as almiqu\u00ed , ever since . they finally had success this march and april when they captured and studied seven of the rare creatures .\nturvey said the fact that the solenodon survived so many upheavals \u201cmakes it even more tragic that these \u2018living fossil\u2019 survivors are now in danger of extinction due to human activities . \u201d\n8 . solenodon nipples are located near their rumps . the female solenodon gives birth to one to three young at a time , but only two will survive . she only has two nipples , and they\u2019re located toward her back , almost on her buttocks . young solenodons stay with their mothers for several months , which is long compared with other insectivores .\nborroto - p\u00e1ez , r . 2013 . nidos y refugios de ratas negras ( rattus rattus ) en cuba ( mammalia , rodentia ) . solenodon 11 : 109 - 119 .\nthanks tim did you ever see the solenodon at london zoo ? i once had a talk with h . a . moore , who was a zoo volunteer about 10 years ago . he saw the thylacines that lived in an enclosure near where the snowdon aviary is . perhaps he also saw the solenodon , as well as many other rare and extinct anmals .\ncuban solenodons are generalized omnivores that prefer animal material . they prey primarily on invertebrates , but also scavenge on vertebrate remains ( vaughn et al . , 2000 ) . they also eat insects , worms , small reptiles , roots , fruits , and leaves . unfortunately , even though they have a large array of dietary items to choose from , their population is decling due to the slow rate of breeding ( the international wildlife encyclopedia , 1974 ) . cuban solenodons find food by rooting with their snouts or digging and uncovering animals with their large claws .\nonly a few humans have ever been bitten by a solenodon , but the symptoms are similar to a snake bite , including localized swelling and severe pain which can last for days .\nthe hispaniolan solenodon is one of the most unusual mammals on the planet . notice the small eyes , hairless tail , rusty - orange coloured fur and crazy claws . photograph : miguel landestoy\na solenodons venom is found underneath its lower incisors where the salivary glands send venom along grooves in their teeth . once the solenodon breaks a prey\u2019s skin , the venom gets into the bloodstream .\n3 . they\u2019re venomous . solendons are one of only a few venomous mammals . other venomous mammals , like the duck - billed platypus , are only capable of passively conveying venom ; the solenodon actually injects its venom like a snake through specially modified teeth . the second lower incisors have special grooves through which venom flows . in fact , the name \u201csolenodon\u201d is derived from the greek for \u201cgrooved tooth . \u201d\nfortunately , the solenodon has recently become the focus of conservation efforts . it would be sad if such a unique , mysterious mammal were gone for good\u2014although i imagine the invertebrates of the caribbean wouldn\u2019t mind .\ni ' ve liked solenodon since i first found out about them when i was a young boy . i think it may have something to do with them tripping over their feet , which i can sympathise with .\nthere are a whole slew of reasons why the solenodon\u2019s star should rise , including the facts that it\u2019s one of the only venomous mammals and david attenborough really likes it . but , most of all , the solenodon should be famous because it somehow survived the asteroid collision that killed off the dinosaurs , not to mention the next 66 million years of other catastrophes , from ice ages to the rise of bipedal destroyers named homo sapiens .\n\u201c [ the programme ] drew a lot of international attention to the hispaniolan solenodon , \u201d rupp said . \u201csome of this attention actually spilled over into the dominican press which published a few articles on the species . \u201d\nresearch shows the solenodon evolved more than 70 million years ago \u2013 in time to hang out with dinosaurs . but today these unique mammals face a barrage of threats including stray dogs , feral cats , invasive mongoose and deforestation .\nnatural history museum geneticist , selina brace , who recently co - authored a paper on the hispaniolan solenodon with turvey , called solenodons a \u201cfabulously quirky creature\u201d and said she was \u201cinstantly hooked\u201d after seeing a picture of this oddity .\nsolenodons are some of the most unique and rare mammals in the world . solenodon - like animals lived all over north america 30 million years ago , but today they are only found on the islands of cuba and hispaniola .\nit readily defends itself against one of its own kind , and probably attacks other animals savagely judging from the way a captive solenodon attacked a young chicken and tore it to pieces with its strong claws , before eating it .\nis blackish brown with white or buff . head and body length of cuban solenodons ranges from 280 to 390 mm , tail length from 175 to 255 mm , and they weigh about 1 kilogram . solenodons have glands in their inguinal and groin areas that secrete a musky , goat - like odor . females have two mammae . the submaxillary glands of\ncuban solenodons have relatively large heads , tiny eyes , and large , projecting and partially naked ears . they have a long proboscus with a supporting bone . their forelegs are longer than their hindlegs . on their feet they have five fingers with powerful claws at the end . the tail is thick , scaly , and almost hairless ( grzimek , 1990 ) .\na primitive , venomous mammal endemic to cuba and once listed as extinct has been rediscovered after a decadelong quest . . . a team of cuban and japanese researchers has been searching for the animals , known by locals as almiqu\u00ed , [ since 2003 ] . they finally had success this march and april when they captured and studied seven of the rare creatures .\nthis is the only solenodon that has lived at london zoo , but it seems as if it only lasted a few months . i can check with the relevant edition of the international zoo yearbook to check if it was still alive in 1968 .\n) is abundant in the areas around solenodon borrows ( borroto - p\u00e1ez 2009 , borroto - p\u00e1ez and beque quiala 2011 , borroto - p\u00e1ez and woods 2012 , borroto - p\u00e1ez 2013 ) . mongoose have been invading buffer zones of the pn alejandro de humboldt in recent years ( borroto - p\u00e1ez and beque quiala 2011 ) . in addition to predation by introduced species , habitat loss by deforestation and mining is also a factor contributing to the solenodon\u2019s rarity ( borroto - paez and beque quiala 2012 , borroto - p\u00e1ez\nin 2009 , a number of conservation groups \u2013 dwct , zsl\u2019s the edge programme , la sociedad ornitol\u00f3gica de la hispaniola ( soh ) and the dominican republic\u2019s ministry for environment and natural resources \u2013 kick - started a three - year research and conservation programme on the hispaniola solenodon called the last survivors ( the program also included the hispaniola hutia , a tree - dwelling rodent ) . while it resulted in researchers learning more about the solenodon than ever before , the conservation impacts have been negligible , according to rupp .\nplease note that the hispaniolan solenodon was kept at london zoo . zootierliste also lists this species having lived at frankfurt ( 1966 - 1973 ) , halle ( 1935 - 1937 ) , leipzig ( @ 1930 ) , antwerp and wroclaw ( 1936 - 1940 ) .\n\u2018what is a solenodon ? \u2019 is a question that i have been asked by absolutely no one , ever . this is a shame because solenodons are really cool animals that i think more people should be curious about ! so here is some information about them .\nvery little is known about reproduction in solenodons . cuban solenodons have low reproductive rates of 1 to 2 offspring per litter . the young are born in a burrow . they have two litters per year and the young stay with their mother for several months ( the international wildlife encyclopedia , 1974 ; massicot , 2001 ) . young from multiple litters may stay with their mother , with as many as 8 solenodons being found in a single nest .\ni once had a talk with h . a . moore , who was a zoo volunteer about 10 years ago . he saw the thylacines that lived in an enclosure near where the snowdon aviary is . perhaps he also saw the solenodon , as well as many other rare and extinct anmals .\nas i have said in other threads , i saw the hispaniolan solenodon at frankfurt in ' 73 . i wish i had been able to take a photo , but i do remember the way it waddled around with it back legs far apart , like a baby crawling with a wet nappy .\nhowever , the venom is much more lethal in smaller animals . for example , lizards and mice often suffer from breathing problems , convulsions and paralysis . surprisingly , neither species of solenodon are immune to their own venom , and competing solenodons have been known to die from bite wounds after fighting .\nresearchers aren\u2019t entirely sure where the various solenodon populations were located when the asteroid hit \u2013 whether they were already on the landmasses that would become modern - day cuba and hispaniola or on the mainland \u2013 but they think the populations were close to ground zero of the asteroid\u2019s impact in chicxulub , mexico .\nhowever , solenodons are also omnivores , meaning they eat everything and do not limit their prey to small animals . \u201cthere\u2019s one report of a solenodon kept in captivity in london that ate an entire chicken , \u201d said molecular biologist rodrigo ligabue braun of brazil\u2019s federal university of rio grande do sul to wired .\nsure , fame isn\u2019t everything . in fact , for human beings fame may well be detrimental for well - being . but for species , unfortunately , fame can mean the difference between extinction and survival . famous species rake in far more funding and attention than the millions that live out of the limelight . while hopefully one day we\u2019ll focus more on other attributes for species conservation \u2013 extinction risk , evolutionary distinctness , or ecological roles \u2013 solenodons may not have much time , especially the haitian subspecies and the cuban species .\nfor \u201cpredator week , \u201d i wanted to highlight some unlikely fearsome creatures : venomous mammals . these mammals are a bizarre bunch . the male platypus has spurs on its ankles that release venom , likely to fight off male competitors during mating season . and various species of shrew and the shrew - like solenodon use venomous saliva to disable prey .\nmillions of years ago , venomous mammals may have been more common . but soon the world may lose a couple more : like many other predators , both species of solenodon are highly endangered . deforestation and the introduction of dogs , cats and mongooses that eat solenodons threaten to drive the critters to extinction . and in haiti , people hunt solenodons for food .\n\u201cthis experience of watching this ancient species [ was ] wonderful , it was for a short time because i do not like to feel that this species [ was ] stressed , \u201d said hernandez who caught a female solenodon in alejandro humboldt national park for brief study before releasing it again . \u201ci cannot explain what i felt the first time i touched it . \u201d\nborroto - p\u00e1ez , r . and begue quiala , g . 2012 . solenodon cubanus . in : gonz\u00e1lez alonso , h . , rodriguez - schettino , l . , rodr\u00edguez , a . , mancina , c . a . , ramos garc\u00eda , i . ( ed . ) , libro rojo de los vertebrados de cuba , pp . 275 - 276 . editorial academia , la habana , cuba .\nis another post about solenodons . tim may said that\nthe solenodon arrived at london zoo in 1967 , the year that the clore pavilion opened . it is listed in the zsl annual report for 1967 as not only a species but also a family new to the collection\n. this is the only solenodon that has lived at london zoo , but it seems as if it only lasted a few months . i can check with the relevant edition of the international zoo yearbook to check if it was still alive in 1968 . the yearbook used to list rare animals around the world and it ' s a shame that this section has ben dropped . supposedly , it ' s easy to find the information on the internet , but since isis became a subscription site , the information isn ' t that easy to uncover .\nman\u00f3jina , n . and abreu , r . m . 2012 . the solenodon cubans ( mammalia : insectivora ) in sierra cristal , holguin . in : borroto - paez , r . , woods , c . a . and sergile , f . e . ( eds ) , terrestrial mammals of the west indies : contributions , pp . 209 - 219 . florida museum of natural history and wacahoota press , florida .\nsolenodons are generally solitary animals except when they meet to breed . breeding occurs at any time of year , but a given solenodon will only have a maximum of two litters per year with each litter including one or two young . this low reproductive rate is one reason that both species are now endangered . other reasons are habitat destruction and fragmentation , and asian mongoose that were introduced to the islands to eat rats and other pests but that now eat solenodons as well .\nthe hispaniolan solenodon is nocturnal , secretive and rare , and so , unsurprisingly , is rarely seen and has not been widely studied ( 2 ) . it is capable of climbing near - vertical surfaces but spends most of its time searching for food on the ground . it uses its flexible snout to explore cracks and crevices , and its massive claws to dig under rocks , bark and soil , for invertebrates such as beetles , crickets , insect larvae , earthworms and termites ( 2 ) .\nthere is really nothing on the planet like the solenodon . there are just two surviving species today , one found on cuba and the other , more well known , on hispaniola . but these two species alone are so distinct from any other mammal that they represent an entire biological family : solenodontidae . to put that in perspective every single species of mice and rat \u2013 from the african pygmy mouse to the northern luzon giant cloud rat \u2013 also represent a single family of 700 - plus species .\ns . d . o . planed the research project . j . j . s . and m . k . financially supported the project . s . d . o . , l . m . e . - d . , r . b . - p . , g . b . - q . , j . l . d . - l . , j . g . - d . , j . a . - l . , s . t . n . , n . y . and m . k . did the sampling of seven cuban solenodons . j . j . s . did the laboratory works , conducted the molecular phylogenetic analyses , and drafted the manuscript . all authors reviewed the manuscript and joined the discussion .\nunfortunately , the researchers also found evidence of the invasive species that caused the decline of the solenodon in the first place .\ni collected cat excrement and found evidence of depredation ,\nborroto - p\u00e1ez says . black rats are also abundant in the area . he is currently applying for research grants to study more about cat predation in the park and plans to return to the park in december to trap feral cats . the japanese researchers are also seeking funds to continue their work .\nwe continue trying to do something with our reduced resources ,\nborroto - p\u00e1ez says .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nroca , a . l . , bar - gal , g . k . , eizirik , e . , helgen , k . m . , maria , r . , springer , m . s . , o\u2019brien , s . j . and murphy , w . j . 2004 . mesozoic origin for west indian insectivores . nature 429 : 649 - 651 .\nmancina , c . , soy , j . , borotto - p\u00e1ez , r . & echenique - diaz , l .\nthis species is only known from eastern cuba . however , remains have been found from late quaternary and amerindian sites all over the island ( varona 1980 , hutterer 2005 , silva taboada et al . 2007 , borroto - p\u00e1ez and begue quiala 2011 ) . today only two populations are known : in the pn pico cristal and pn alejandro de humboldt , at elevations of 400 - 800 m asl in the pn alejandro de humboldt ( borroto - p\u00e1ez and beque quiala 2011 ) .\nferal dogs have been known to predate the species . it is also thought that cats may be a threat because they are able to enter their den sites , and the black rat (\nthis species has been recorded from pico cristal and alexander humboldt national parks , and cuchillas del toa biosphere reserve ( borroto - p\u00e1ez et al . 2012 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\na primitive , venomous mammal endemic to cuba and once listed as extinct has been rediscovered after a decadelong quest .\nour finding was great and very important ,\nsays rafael borroto - p\u00e1ez of cuba ' s ecology and ecosystems institute in havana .\nwe were all very happy and excited .\nother researchers working on the quest came from japan ' s university of tsukuba , hokkaido university , national museum of nature and science , and miyagi university of education .\nthe seven solenodons captured this year included four males and three females . borroto - p\u00e1ez says the team used modified traditional snares , similar to those used to local hunters , to catch the animals without harming them .\nall of the animals were very healthy and active and only two almiqu\u00ed showed ectoparasites .\nthe solenodons were observed for two days and then released back into the wild .\nin addition to the captured animals , the team observed signs that more existed nearby .\nwe found excrement , tracks and feeding holes in other places in the zone of research ,\nborroto - p\u00e1ez says . he suggests these as indications that the species ' s population may be recovering .\nthe views expressed are those of the author ( s ) and are not necessarily those of scientific american .\njohn r . platt is the editor of the revelator . an award - winning environmental journalist , his work has appeared in scientific american , audubon , motherboard , and numerous other magazines and publications . his\nextinction countdown\ncolumn has run continuously since 2004 and has covered news and science related to more than 1 , 000 endangered species . john lives on the outskirts of portland , ore . , where he finds himself surrounded by animals and cartoonists .\ndiscover world - changing science . explore our digital archive back to 1845 , including articles by more than 150 nobel prize winners .\nscientific american is part of springer nature , which owns or has commercial relations with thousands of scientific publications ( many of them can be found at urltoken ) . scientific american maintains a strict policy of editorial independence in reporting developments in science to our readers .\nspecies lived on the north american mainland 30 million years ago ( grzimek , 1990 ) .\nhas an incomplete zygomatic arch and no auditory bulla . their dental formula is 3 / 3 , 1 / 1 , 3 / 3 , 3 / 3 = 40 ( vaughn et al . , 2000 ) .\nyoung are cared for in their mothers nest until they reach independence . presumably males do not care for young .\nare listed as endangered by the iucn ( nowak , 1999 ) . populations of\n) , domestic dogs , and domesticc cats into the west indies . the clearing of land for agriculture has also led to their decline ( vaughn et al . , 2000 ) .\ncomes from the words solen ( meaning \u201cchannel\u201d ) and dent ( meaning \u201ctooth\u201d ) . the distribution of\non islands is probably the key to their survival . this is partially due to their low competitive ability ( vaughn et al . , 2000 ) .\nwas thought to be extinct , but it was recently found in many parts of eastern cuba , though it is rare ( nowak , 1999 ) .\nmelissa theusch ( author ) , university of wisconsin - stevens point , chris yahnke ( editor ) , university of wisconsin - stevens point .\nliving in the southern part of the new world . in other words , central and south america .\nyoung are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nrainforests , both temperate and tropical , are dominated by trees often forming a closed canopy with little light reaching the ground . epiphytes and climbing plants are also abundant . precipitation is typically not limiting , but may be somewhat seasonal .\nthe region of the earth that surrounds the equator , from 23 . 5 degrees north to 23 . 5 degrees south .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 3 . 2 / / en\n1 . profile ( picture ) 2 . tidbits 3 . status and trends ( iucn status , countries where currently found , population estimates , history of distribution , threats and reasons for decline ) 4 . data on biology and ecology ( weight , habitat , birth rate , early development , dispersal , diet , behavior , social organization ) 5 . references\n* * * as in most nocturnal terrestrial insectivores , its sense of touch is highly developed , while smell and hearing are also important .\n* * * solenodons can climb near - vertical surfaces , but they spend most of the time foraging on the ground .\n* * * solenodons have a long life span and low reproductive rate , as a result of having been among the dominant predators before europeans colonized the new world .\ninsects and spiders found in soil and leaf litter form most of its diet .\nburton & pearson 1987 , cons . intl . , curry - lindahl 1972 , infonatura , iucn 1969 , iucn 1994 , iucn 1996 , iucn 2000 , iucn 2003a , iucn 2004 , macdonald 1984 , nowak & paradiso 1983 , olson & dinerstein 1998 , olson & dinerstein 1999 , oryx 1972 , oryx 1977b , phillip & fisher 1970 , varona 1980\n\u00a9 1999 - 2014 animal info . endangered animals of the world . sj contact us .\nit\u2019s truly remarkable that the solenodons survived this direct hit , whilst global ecosystems collapsed around them .\nbut brandt\u2019s research was actually the third study to find that solendons very likely scuttled under the feet of dinosaurs .\n\u201cwe can be fairly confident because each of these studies have utilized different genes and phylogenetic analysis methods , \u201d brandt said , noting that with each study the \u201cresult becomes increasingly reliable . \u201d\n\u201cit\u2019s truly remarkable that the solenodons survived this direct hit , whilst global ecosystems collapsed around them \u2013 we have no idea how they did it , \u201d samuel turvey , an expert on modern day extinctions and a senior research fellow with the zoological society of london ( zsl ) , said .\nsolenodons sport a number of weird attributes . they can squeeze venomous saliva out of their incisors . they have evolved a ball and socket joint in their snout to give it extra - special maneuverability . they likely use echolocation to locate prey . their eyes are tiny , their claws are in need of a trim , and they waddle when they walk as if they\u2019d spent too much time at the pub .\nnocturnal mammals , solenodons live in burrows and come out at night to eat grubs and insects , probably just as they did 78 million years ago , only now they don\u2019t have to worry about being stepped on by a sauropod or waking a sleep - deprived tyrannosaur . instead , these species must worry about having their forests chopped down by people or being eaten by a dog or a mongoose .\ntoday , scientists have confirmed there is a small population hanging on in alejandro humboldt national park . but no one knows how many or if its range extends beyond the park\u2019s borders .\nhernandez , whose current work is funded through the mohamed bin zayed species conservation foundation , said research of this endangered species has suffered due to a lack of money , including for non - invasive observation tools like camera traps .\n\u201ci think a lot remains to be done to preserve the species , \u201d she said , adding that many local people don\u2019t even know it exists or erroneously believe it is extinct .\n\u201c [ these ] evolved as a result of local isolation in the island\u2019s geologically complex landscapes , \u201d turvey said , who noted the subspecies can be told apart both through dna and physical attributes .\none subspecies is found in a single forest in haiti and may be perilously close to extinction . another is found throughout the bulk of the northern dominican republic , but is lesser known . the third is located across the southern dominican mountain range \u2013 sierra de bahoruco \u2013 that includes several parks and is the best protected of the subspecies .\nhowever , the discovery complicates conservation of the species as the southern subspecies show very little genetic diversity , while the northern subspecies survives in a highly fragmented landscape . according to global forest watch , the dominican republic lost more than 200 , 000 hectares of forest between 2001 and 2014 .\ndespite having the largest range , ernst rupp , a dominican republic biologist with the local ngo grupo jaragua , said the northern subspecies \u201chas never really been investigated . \u201d however , recent surveys have proved the northern subspecies does still occurs in at least four protected areas , as well as in several areas outside protection .\n\u201cthe massif de la hotte is a spectacular mountainous area in the far south - west of haiti , where one of the few remnants of good quality forest in the country can be found , \u201d said rosalind kennerley with durrell wildlife conservation trust ( dwct ) .\nbut , the region remains under intense pressure for the charcoal trade , which has resulted in almost total deforestation in haiti . even the national park \u2013 macaya national park \u2013 is commonly infiltrated by charcoal producers .\nkennerley is leading a team attempting to get baseline information on the how the haitian subspecies if faring , a project also supported by the mohamed bin zayed species conservation fund , which often gives grants to lesser - known species . not only do solenodons face environment deterioration in haiti , but locals will also kill them and eat them when they are found ."]}
{"id": 530, "summary": [{"text": "aporandria specularia is a species of moth of the family geometridae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in sri lanka , india , vietnam , thailand , the andamans , peninsular malaysia , sumatra , borneo , the philippines and sulawesi . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "aporandria specularia", "paragraphs": ["aporandria warren , 1894 ; novit . zool . 1 ( 2 ) : 385 ; ts : geometra specularia guen\u00e9e\naporandria specularia ; holloway , 1976 , moths of borneo with special reference to mt . kinabalu : 61 ; [ mob9 ] : 248 , f . 276 , 279 , pl . 6\nin front of my flat there are a number of mango trees . this moth is found quite often on the wall outside my flat . this is a great opportunity for me to test out the 40d with the tokina 100mm macro lens and the sigma 500 super dg flash . apparently the camera worked so well with the flash , even able to control the fec ( flash exposure compensation ) that i can find no difference in the exposure from this flash as compared to that of the 580ex . i believe this is the aporandria specularia ( large green aporandria ) whose caterpillars feed on the mango leaves . roger , please correct me if i ' m wrong . sorry les , i added this to your thread . should have started a new one . richard\nhi richard , what i didn ' t comment on ( and should , as it ' s the most noticeable component of your original post ) - was the photo itself - the 100mm lens works a treat . crystal clear focus and plenty of d . o . f . with good colour rendition - i . e . correct white balance ( set to auto or to flashlight ? ) . looks like the sort of set up i should save up for ! incidentally , a . specularia is somewhat surprisingly not yet recorded in hong kong - maybe i should go to a mango grove ( if there is one in hong kong ) and set a light trap ! cheers , roger .\nguen\u00e9e , 1857 , hist . nat insectes , spec . gen . lep . 9 : 342 .\nthe size , in combination with the yellow basal zone and dull pink and red discal mark of the hindwing , distinguish this species .\nsri lanka , india , vietnam , thailand , andamans , peninsular malaysia , sumatra , borneo , philippines , sulawesi .\nthis is a lowland species found in both forested and disturbed or cultivated areas . during the mulu survey it was found more frequently in forest on limestone .\nthe larva was described fully and illustrated by moore ( 1847 ) and described in detail by bell ( ms ) and singh ( 1953 ) . it is slender , the body green , the head strongly bifid and with the true legs pale purplish red with darker spots . early instars are dark yellow .\nthe larva adopts a twig - like posture when at rest . bell mentioned association with ants of the genus oecophylla in some instances . it is a leaf ( singh ) and flower feeder ( kuroko & lewvanich , 1993 ) . the egg ( bell , ms ) is a thick , elongate - oval disc - shape with vertical sides . the top is slightly convex with a rim like a pie - crust , light green with the rim pure white . pupation is in a folded leaf secured by silk . host - plants noted by the authors above and in unpublished iie records are mangifera ( anacardiaceae ) , terminalia ( combretaceae ) , eugenia ( myrtaceae ) , areca ( palmae ) , rhizophora ( rhizophoraceae ) and nephelium ( sapindaceae ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nsrilanka , india , vietnam , thailand , andaman , peninsular malaysia , sumatra , borneo , philippines , slawesi lowland species found in both forested and disturbed or cultivated areas .\nsri lanka , india , vietnam , thailand , andamans , peninsular malaysia , sumatra , borneo , philippines , sulawesi . see [ maps ]\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nhistoire naturelle des insectes . species g\u00e9n\u00e9ral des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e9res . volume 9 . uranides et phal\u00e9nites\n( uranides & phalenides ) : pl . 1 - 10 , ( uranides ) pl . 1 ( 1858 ) ,\n( uranides , phalenides , siculides ) : pl . 12 - 22 , ( 1858 ) pl .\nwarren , 1894 new genera and species of geometridae novit . zool . 1 ( 2 ) : 366 - 466\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nterms | privacy | phone : 831 . 661 . 5551 | email : info @ urltoken | \u00a9 2015 minden pictures inc | all content on this website is protected by copyright\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nif this is your first visit , be sure to check out the faq by clicking the link above . you may have to register before you can post : click the register link above to proceed . to start viewing messages , select the forum that you want to visit from the selection below .\nroger c . kendrick ph . d . c & r wildlife , lam tsuen , tai po , n . t . , hong kong s . a . r . hk moths website : urltoken hk moths recording project on i - naturalist : urltoken hk moths flickr site : urltoken\nthanks roger , for the lesson in english grammar and the id confirmation . richard\nluckily i am not into moth photography , otherwise you will be correcting my english more than the moth ids .\nthank you roger and lc . the setup i used is not that costly , roger i ' m pretty sure you can easily afford that . the canon 40d , the latest of the semi pro eos in the market , is around us1250 and the tokina 100mm macro is possibly one of the cheapest macro lens . coupled with the sigma 500 super dg flash , this whole setup should be under us $ 1800 . richard\neasily afford\ndoes not come to mind at that price - i have a monthly mortgage , two kids , car to run , mouths to feed , insurance , electricity , rates , & c . . . . . . and i don ' t get paid a princely salary doing wildlife conservation work . my wife works too and she has to cover her parents ( both retired with no pension ) costs as well . between us we just break even every month . saving for extras is a luxury at the moment . : ( so for the time being i ' ll have to hope my old coolpix5000 lasts a few more years .\ngood one , roger . puts some perspective into the extravagant spending that we see in singapore . but then again , in my line of work , i understand that people in the profession get paid 3x the singapore salaries .\nkhew sk butterflies of singapore blog try not . do , or do not . there is no try\nthis particular grammatical case is one that is rife in hong kong , and i ' ve had to correct several publications recently in which there were many instances of this mistake . i am well aware that for most members of this forum , english is a second language , so i hope that nobody takes offence if i offer a few notes on the mysteries of the english language when it is appropriate to do so ( i . e . in the context of aiding the lepidoptera discussion and not getting totally off topic - admins please let me know when you think i ' m on a serious tangent ! )\npowered by vbulletin\u00ae version 4 . 2 . 2 copyright \u00a9 2018 vbulletin solutions , inc . all rights reserved .\nwe\u2019ve partnered with invision to make it easier to search and download our images in sketch and adobe\u00ae photoshop\u00ae .\n{ { t ( ' more _ than _ one _ credit ' , { zero : calc . totalcreditcost } ) } }\nonce this video clip is done converting , you ' ll be able to download it from your video conversion queue or download history .\neditorial use only photos don ' t have any model or property releases , which means they can ' t be used for commercial , promotional , advertorial or endorsement purposes . this type of content is intended to be used in connection with events that are newsworthy or of general interest ( for example , in a blog , textbook , newspaper or magazine article ) .\nthis format requires a quick conversion ( usually under 5 mins ) before download begins , or you can get the largest and smallest formats immediately .\ncrop for social , add text and more with istock editor . open in editor\nby clicking\nconfirm download\nyou agree that you ' ve read and agree to all applicable license agreements for this download .\nreceive exclusive deals and awesome artist news and content right to your inbox . free for your convenience ."]}
{"id": 537, "summary": [{"text": "the apennine yellow-bellied toad ( bombina pachypus ) is a species of toad in the bombinatoridae family endemic to italy .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "its natural habitats are temperate forests , temperate grassland , swamps , freshwater marshes , intermittent freshwater marshes , arable land , pastureland , ponds , open excavations , irrigated land , and seasonally flooded agricultural land .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "apennine yellow - bellied toad", "paragraphs": ["fire - bellied toad & apennine yellow - bellied toad . george boulenger , tailless batrachians of europe , vol . 1 ( 1897 ) .\ngenetic diversity and phylogeography of the apennine yellow - bellied toad bombina pachypus , with implications for conservation .\nminden pictures stock photos - apennine yellow - bellied toad ( bombina pachypus ) showing yellow underside , acqua cheta river , foreste casentinesi nation . . .\ngenetic diversity and phylogeography of the apennine yellow - bellied toad bombina pachypus , with implications for conservation . - pubmed - ncbi\nhistorical sciart on twitter :\nfire - bellied toad & apennine yellow - bellied toad . george boulenger , tailless batrachians of europe , vol . 1 ( 1897 ) . urltoken urltoken\nreversing the decline of the endangered apennine yellow - bellied toad in liguria ( northern italy ) through site restoration and population reinforcement .\nthe yellow - bellied toad ( bombina variegata ) on the green moss . brown frog with yellow belly with green and brown backgroun .\ninformation on the appenine yellow - bellied toad is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\n321\nyellow _ bellied _ toad\nstock photos , vectors , and illustrations are available royalty - free .\ncesbin srl , 2017 . reversing the decline of the endangered apennine yellow - bellied toad in liguria ( northern italy ) through site restoration and population reinforcement . final report .\nthe apennine yellow - bellied toad ( also called bombina pachypus ) is a species of toad in the bombinatoridae family endemic to italy . content licensed under creative commons attribution . source : urltoken pictures sources : urltoken urltoken\nthe european fire - bellied toad ( bombina bombina ) captured close up in moss .\ncanestrelli , d . , cimmaruta , r . , constantini , v . , and nascetti , g . ( 2006 ) . ' ' genetic diversity and phylogeography of the apennine yellow - bellied toad\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - appenine yellow - bellied toad ( bombina pachypus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - appenine yellow - bellied toad ( bombina pachypus )\ntitle =\narkive species - appenine yellow - bellied toad ( bombina pachypus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe toad\u2019s odd coloring on its underbelly\u2014black and white with large spots of yellow\u2014serves a very distinct purpose . it is a warning to predators that the apennine yellow - bellied toad is poisonous and not to be messed with . it secretes a toxic substance when it is threatened . the substance is not all bad ; it is also antimicrobial and antifungal .\nstagni , g . , dall ' olio , r . , fusini , u . , mazzotti , s . , scoccianti , c . , and serra , a . ( 2004 ) . ' ' declining populations of apennine yellow bellied toad\ncartoon frog prince with golden crown and blue mantle . green toad with yellow belly . character of children s fairy tale . colorful flat vector design\nbarberio , c . , delfino , g . , and mastromei , g . ( 1987 ) . ' ' a low molecular weight protein with antimicrobial activity in the cutaneous ' venom ' of the yellow - bellied toad (\ndi cerbo , a . r . and ferri , v . 1996 . preliminary data on the ecological observations of the appennine yellow - bellied toad ( bombina pachypus ) in abruzzo , central italy . naturschutzreport 11 ( 1 ) : 91 - 99 .\nguarino , f . m . , picariello , o . and pellegrini , m . 2006 . bombina pachypus ( bonaparte , 1838 ) . ululone appenninico / apennine yellow - bellied toad . in : sindaco , r . , doria , g . , razzetti , e . and bernini , f . ( eds ) , atlante degli anfibi e dei rettili d\u2019italia . , pp . 272 - 277 . societas herpetologica italica , edizioni polistampa . , firenze .\n( fire - bellied toad ) hybridise in overlapping areas in austria , hungary , bulgaria and western ukraine . the high proportion of hybrids , although often not abundant , demonstrates the ongoing speciation process in the basin .\n) are found in the south with abundances decreasing from south to north . the natterjack toad occurs regularly along the river . the\nstagni , g . , dall\u2019olio , r . , fusini , u . , mazzotti , s . , scoccianti , c . and serra , a . 2005 . declining populations of apennines yellow - bellied toad bombina pachypus ( bonaparte , 1838 ) in northern appennines , italy : is batrachochytrium dendrobatidis the main cause ? . ital . j . zool . 71 ( suppl . 2 ) : 151 - 154 .\n) are typical mediterranean species and occur from the delta marshes to mont\u00e9limar . common frog populations have decreased since the 1950s . the midwife toad (\nhofman , s . , spolsky , c . , uzzell , t . , cog\u0103lniceanu , d . , babik , w . , and szymura , j . m . ( 2007 ) . ' ' phylogeography of the fire - bellied toads\nhofman , s . , spolsky , c . , uzzell , t . , cog\u0103lniceanu , d . , babik , w . and szymura , j . 2007 . phylogeography of the fire - bellied toads , bombina : independent pleistocene histories inferred from mitochondrial genomes . molecular ecology 16 : 2301 - 2316 .\nis endemic to italy . it ranges from the southern tip of the italian mainland , north through the apennine region ( or in italian , appenine ) , where it stops just south of the po river valley ( dimartino and ferri 2002 ) . this species occurs in both terrestrial and freshwater habitats ( andreone and corti 2006 ) . it is commonly found in unshaded pools in forests and open areas ( andreone and corti 2006 ) , including pools formed in ditches , irrigation areas , farmland , or pasture land ( guarino et al . 1998 ) .\n, is toxic . the secretions are discharged through the skin when the animal is threatened or stimulated ( barberio et al . 1987 ) . these secretions have also been found to be antimicrobial and antifungal ( barberio et al . 1987 , mastromei et al . 1991 ) . when threatened , the animal will arch its back in response to expose its colorful yellow and black underside as a warning of its toxicity to possible predators ( bajger 1980 ) . this arching of the body is known as the\nunken reflex\nand the behavior is found throughout the genus\nthe dorsal surface can range from a dark - tan to a dark - gray color , and the surface of the skin is tubercular . the eye has a triangular pupil . this species is regarded by some workers as a subspecies of\nis diurnal , when it is active . hibernation takes place from november to late april . this species typically becomes active in may and begins breeding almost immediately , with the period of activity and breeding lasting until september . although\nis considered a prolonged breeder due to the long breeding period , a single animal does not reproduce continuously within that period . multiple distinct periods of calling and oviposition alternate with non - reproductive activity . this reproductive plasticity presumably allows\npopulations to make maximum use of the temporary pools preferred for breeding ( guarino et al 1998 ) . in addition , sperm was found to be constantly present in male testes , but the testes do not always exhibit all stages of spermatogenesis . males apparently use sperm from the preceding fall for the earlier periods of breeding ( guarino et al . 1998 ) .\nthe clutch size ranges from a few eggs to a few tens of eggs . it is thought that each female lays a few eggs during each wave of reproduction , but in different temporary pools . however , it is not clear how often females reproduce in the wild . female frogs in captivity showed varying reproductive activity , with one female laying several eggs multiple times during the month of june , and a few eggs during a short period in september ; another female laid a few eggs during a single short period in july ; a third captive female did not lay any eggs ( guarino et al . 1998 ) .\nthis species is relatively long - lived , with an average lifespan of 8 years , and an apparent maximum lifespan of 16 years . sexual maturity is attained during the third year of life ( guarino et al . 1995 ) .\nthis species is thought to be common in suitable habitat ( iucn 2008 ) but has also been reported as becoming increasingly rare in some parts of its range in southern italy ( caputo et al . 1992 ) .\nfaces a threat from chytrid fungus . this species was the first italian amphibian to be confirmed with chytrid infection , in the summer of 2001 ( stagni et al . 2004 ) . neometamorph\ncollected from the hills in the province of bologna experienced high mortality , dying within one or two weeks from collection and a few days after experiencing symptoms ( skin desquamation , locomotor difficulties , dry skin , anorexia , hyperaemia of fingers ) . in captivity the infection was nearly always fatal for newly metamorphosed\nfroglets , but only sometimes for subadults and adults . in contrast , neometamorphs collected from tuscan - romagna areas during the same time period did not show infection or symptoms ( stagni et al . 2004 ) .\nthe species may be declining due to the loss of wetland habitat as a result of agricultural damage ( canestrelli et al . 2006 ) . it occurs in several protected areas in italy , including parco nazionale d ' abruzzo , parco nazionale pollino and parco nazionale del gran sasso e monti della laga ( iucn 2008 ) . parco nazionale del gran sasso e monti della laga national park began a long - term monitoring program for this species in 1999 ( ferri 2000 ; dimartino and ferri 2002 ) .\nwhich were associated with man - made aquatic environments ( eg . troughs or washtubs ) underwent greater decline than those in natural habitats . maintenance and cleaning by agricultural workers had previously made these ideal for\nreproductive success , by removing shading and vegetation conducive to tadpole predators such as dragonflies and newts . inland depopulation and agricultural abandonment since the 1960 ' s , however , has resulted in the overgrowth or complete loss of these cultivated habitats , resulting in decline of\nman - made , regularly maintained water bodies in cultivated environments have become successful breeding sites for this species , as they provide a sustained , unshaded , vegetation free habitat for tadpole development ( stefano canessa , froglog 2012 ) .\nby lanza and vanni ( 1991 ) due to genetic distance based on allozymes ( nascetti et al . 1982 ) and morphological differences ( vaccaneo 1931 ) . canestrelli et al . ( 2006 ) have argued for maintaining it as a separate species , based on analysis of mitochondrial and nuclear markers , and that calabrian populations deserve special conservation status as the reservoir of significant genetic diversity for this species however , phylogenetic analysis by hofman et al . ( 2007 ) , using mitochondrial cyt b sequences , found that italian populations were nested within\ndi martino , v . , and ferri , v . ( 2002 ) .\nproceedings of third conference , save the amphibians , lugano , june 23 - 24 , 2000 , penne ( pescara ) .\nnel parco nazionale del gran sasso e monti della laga . indicazioni per la conservazione .\nente parco nazionale gran sasso e monti della laga . relazione per l ' ente gestore , italia .\nfromhage , l . , vences , m . , and veith , m . ( 2004 ) . ' ' testing alternative vicariance scenarios in western mediterranean discoglossid frogs . ' '\nguarino , f . m . , angelini , f . , and cammarota , m . ( 1995 ) . ' ' a skeletochronological analysis of three syntopic amphibian species from southern italy . ' '\niucn ( 2008 ) . 2008 iucn red list of threatened species . www . iucnredlist . org . downloaded on 10 october 2008 .\niucn 2008 . 2008 iucn red list of threatened species . www . iucnredlist . org . downloaded on 27 november 2008 .\nlanza , b . , and corti , c . ( 1993 ) . ' ' erpetofauna italiana : acquisizioni ed estinzioni nel corso del novecento . ' '\nlanza , b . , and vanni , s . ( 1991 ) . ' ' notes on the biogeography of the mediterranean island amphibians . ' '\nmastromei , g . , barberio , c . , pistolesi , s . , and delfino , g . ( 1991 ) . ' ' a bactericidal protein in\nnascetti , g . , vanni , s . , bullini , l . , and lanza , b . ( 1982 ) . ' ' variabilit\u00e0 e divergenza genetica in popolazioni italiane del genere\nsimoncelli , f . , fagotti , a . , dall ' olio , r . , vagnetti , d . , pascolini , r . , and di rosa , i . ( 2005 ) . ' ' evidence of\nbollettino dei musei di zoologia e di anatomia comparata della r . universit\u00e1 di torino , series iii\ndustin guericke , john cavagnaro ( dustingrey at gmail . com ) , black hills state university\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nfrost , d . r . 2015 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 . new york , usa . available at : urltoken .\na number of authors consider bombina pachypus to be a subspecies of bombina variegata ( bologna et al . 2000 ; ohler 1997 ; hofman et al . 2007 ) . the taxon was elevated to species level by lanza and vanni ( 1991 ) mainly through the use of preliminary electrophoretic data published in the form of a congress summary ( nascetti et al . 1982 ) and also on the basis of old morphological evidence ( vaccaneo 1931 ) .\njustification : listed as endangered because of a population decline , estimated to be more than 50 % ( but presumably lower than 80 % ) inferred from a decline in the area of occupancy , and significant reduction in mature individuals , in the past 10 years , possibly because of susceptibility of this species to the chytridiomycosis pathogen .\nthis species is endemic to italy , where it occurs south of the po valley , through the appenine region , south to the southern tip of the italian mainland . it ranges from 20 m asl up to almost 1 , 700 m asl ( in latium ) .\nit was formerly common in suitable habitat . however , the species has declined in almost all of its range ( with the exception of calabria , where populations remain stable ) over the last 10 years . a survey of representative sites across the species ' range showed that the species disappeared from > 50 % of surveyed sites between 1996 and 2004 ( 55 occupied sites in 1996 versus 23 occupied sites in 2004 ; barbieri et al . 2004 ) . significant recent declines in the populations of this species have been recorded from the province of siena ( piazzini et al . 2005 ) ; abruzzo ( ferri et al . 2007 ) ; ancona ( fiacchini 2003 ) ; lazio ( bologna et al . 2000 , bologna et al . 2007 ) and emilia - romagna ( stagni et al . 2005 ) .\nthe species occurs in shallow , unshaded pools in forests and open areas . spawning and larval development takes place in these pools . it also occurs in modified habitats , such as low - intensity farmland , pastureland , ditches , irrigations areas , drinking troughs , and ponds .\nthreats to this species are presumed to largely include loss and fragmentation of wetland habitat to drainage for intensive agricultural purposes . however many populations appear to have declined in areas of presumably intact habitat . in some places it may have very small populations ( 10 - 12 individuals ; mattoccia et al . 2005 ) ; these small populations are highly subject to stochastic extinctions . this species might also be threatened with chytridiomycosis , which has been associated with the deaths of several captive animals ( stagni et al . 2002 , stagni et al . 2005 ) , and further research into the possible impacts of this disease on populations of this species is needed . the cause of recent serious population declines remains incompletely known , but it has been speculated that chytridiomycosis is responsible .\nthis species is listed on appendix ii of the bern convention , and on annexes ii and iv of the eu habitats directive , in both cases under bombina variegata . it is known to occur in many protected areas including several national parks . the cause of recent severe declines in this species requires urgent investigation and action .\nreformatted names of assessor ( s ) , reviewer ( s ) , contributor ( s ) , facilitator ( s ) and / or compiler ( s ) .\n( errata version published in 2016 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2009 : e . t54450a86629977 .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n1 . forest - > 1 . 4 . forest - temperate suitability : suitable 4 . grassland - > 4 . 4 . grassland - temperate suitability : suitable 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 4 . wetlands ( inland ) - bogs , marshes , swamps , fens , peatlands suitability : suitable 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 7 . wetlands ( inland ) - permanent freshwater marshes / pools ( under 8ha ) suitability : suitable 5 . wetlands ( inland ) - > 5 . 8 . wetlands ( inland ) - seasonal / intermittent freshwater marshes / pools ( under 8ha ) suitability : suitable 14 . artificial / terrestrial - > 14 . 1 . artificial / terrestrial - arable land suitability : marginal 14 . artificial / terrestrial - > 14 . 2 . artificial / terrestrial - pastureland suitability : suitable 15 . artificial / aquatic & marine - > 15 . 2 . artificial / aquatic - ponds ( below 8ha ) suitability : suitable 15 . artificial / aquatic & marine - > 15 . 5 . artificial / aquatic - excavations ( open ) suitability : suitable 15 . artificial / aquatic & marine - > 15 . 7 . artificial / aquatic - irrigated land ( includes irrigation channels ) suitability : suitable 15 . artificial / aquatic & marine - > 15 . 8 . artificial / aquatic - seasonally flooded agricultural land suitability : marginal\n2 . agriculture & aquaculture - > 2 . 1 . annual & perennial non - timber crops - > 2 . 1 . 3 . agro - industry farming\n2 . agriculture & aquaculture - > 2 . 3 . livestock farming & ranching - > 2 . 3 . 3 . agro - industry grazing , ranching or farming\n8 . invasive and other problematic species , genes & diseases - > 8 . 1 . invasive non - native / alien species / diseases - > 8 . 1 . 1 . unspecified species\n8 . invasive and other problematic species , genes & diseases - > 8 . 1 . invasive non - native / alien species / diseases - > 8 . 1 . 2 . named species\n8 . invasive and other problematic species , genes & diseases - > 8 . 2 . problematic native species / diseases - > 8 . 2 . 1 . unspecified species\n1 . research - > 1 . 1 . taxonomy 1 . research - > 1 . 2 . population size , distribution & trends 1 . research - > 1 . 3 . life history & ecology 1 . research - > 1 . 5 . threats 1 . research - > 1 . 6 . actions 3 . monitoring - > 3 . 1 . population trends\nbarbieri , f . , bernini , f . , guarino , f . m . and venchi , a . 2004 . distribution and status of bombina variegata in italy . italian journal of zoology suppl . 1 : 83 - 90 .\nbologna , m . a . , capula , m . and carpaneto , g . m . 2000 . anfibi e rettili del lazio . fratelli palombi editori , roma .\nbologna , m . a . , salvi , d . and pitzalis , m . 2007 . atlante degli anfibi e rettili della provincia di roma . gangemi editore , roma .\nbonato , l . , fracasso , g . , pollo , r . , richard , j . and semenzato , m . 2007 . atlante degli anfibi e dei rettili del veneto . associazione faunisti veneti , nuovadimensione .\ncaputo , v . , guarino , f . m . , trecroci , t . and tripepi , s . 1992 . amphibian species of campania and calabria : their distribution , ecology and conservation . in : ferri , v . ( ed . ) , atti i convegno italiano sulla salvaguardia degli anfibi . 19 : 109 - 118 .\ndupr\u00e9 , e . and la posta , a . 2008 . la direttiva habitat e lo stato di conservazione dell ' erpetofauna in italia . in : corti , c . ( ed . ) , herpetologia sardiniae . , pp . 235 - 240 . societas herpetologica italica / edizioni belvedere , latina , \u201cle scienze\u201d .\nemanueli , l . 1994 . ululone dal ventre giallo bombina variegata ( linneaeus 1758 ) . in : doria , g . and salvidio , s . ( eds ) , atlante degli anfibi e dei rettili della liguria . , pp . 50 - 51 . regione liguria , genova .\nferri , v . , di tizio , l . and pellegrini , m . r . 2007 . atlante degli anfibi d\u2019abruzzo . ianieri - talea edizioni , pescara .\nfiacchini , d . 2003 . atlante degli anfibi e dei rettili della provincia di ancona . assessorato all ' ambiente della provincia di ancona . nuove ricerche editore .\nfiacchini , d . 2008 . primo contributo per una \u201clista rossa\u201d dell ' erpetofauna marchigiana ( italia centrale ) : amphibia . in : corti , c . ( ed . ) , herpetologia sardiniae . , pp . 258 - 261 . societas herpetologica italica / edizioni belvedere , latina , \u201cle scienze\u201d .\nfromhage , l . , vences , m . and veith , m . 2004 . testing alternative vicariance scenarios in western mediterranean discoglossid frogs . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 31 ( 1 ) : 308 - 322 .\nguarino , f . m . , bellini , l . , mazzarella , g . and angelini , f . 1998 . reproductive activity of bombina pachypus from southern italy . the italian journal of zoology 65 ( 4 ) : 335 - 342 .\niucn . 2009 . iucn red list of threatened species ( ver . 2009 . 1 ) . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 22 june 2009 ) .\niucn . 2016 . the iucn red list of threatened species . version 2016 - 1 . available at : urltoken . ( accessed : 30 june 2016 ) .\nlanza , b . , andreone , f . , bologna , m . a . , corti , c . and razzetti , e . 2007 . fauna d ' italia amphibia . vol . xlii . edizioni calderini de il sole 24 ore editoria specializzta s . r . l . , bologna .\nlanza , b . and vanni , s . 1991 . notes on the biogeography of the mediterranean islands amphibians . atti conv . lincei , roma . 85 : 335 - 344 .\nmattoccia , m . , cari , b . , romano , a . and angelini , c . 2006 . osservazioni sull\u2019ecologia di alcune popolazioni di bombina pachypus ( amphibia : bombinatoridae ) nei monti lepini ( lazio ) . proceedings v congresso nazionale della societas herpetologica italica : 161 - 166 .\nnascetti , g . , vanni , s . , bullini , l . and lanza , b . 1983 . variabilit\u00e0 e divergenza genetica in popolazioni italiane del genere bombina ( amphibia , discoglossidae ) . boll zool . 49 ( suppl . ) : 134 - 135 .\nohler , a . 1997 . supplement to the list of european amphibians . in : gasc , j . - p . et al . ( ed . ) , atlas of amphibians and reptiles in europe , pp . 404 - 40 . societas europea herpetologica & mus\u00e9um national d\u2019histoire naturelle ( iegp / spn ) .\npiazzini , s . , favilli , l . and manganelli , g . 2005 . atlante degli anfibi della provincia di siena ( 1999 - 2004 ) . quaderni naturalistici 1 .\nscillitani , g . , rizzi , v . and gioiosa , m . 1996 . atlante degli anfibi e dei rettili della provincia di foggia . gitto , foggia .\nsindaco , r . , doria , g . , razzetti , e . and bernini , f . 2006 . atlas of italian amphibians and reptiles \\ \\ atlante degli anfibi e dei rettili d ' italia . societas herpetologica italica - edizioni polistampa , firenze .\nstagni , g . , scoccianti , c . and fusini , r . 2002 . segnalazione di chytridiomicosi in popolazioni di bombina pachypus ( anura , bombinatoridae ) dell ' appennino tosco - emiliano . iv congresso della societas herpetologica italica , a ercolano .\nvaccaneo , r . 1931 . ricerche sui caratteri morfologici dei bombinator italiani . bolletino dei musei di zoologia ed anatomia comparata della universit\u00e0 di torino 41 ( 5 ) : 1 - 47 .\nvanni , s . and nistri , a . 2006 . atlante degli anfibi e dei rettili della toscana . regione toscana & museo di storia naturale dell\u2019universit\u00e0 degli studi di firenze , sezione di zoologia \u201cla specola\u201d .\nsorry , preview is currently unavailable . you can download the paper by clicking the button above .\nenter the email address you signed up with and we ' ll email you a reset link .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\ndipartimento di ecologia e sviluppo economico sostenibile , universit\u00e0 della tuscia , via san giovanni decollato 1 , 01100 viterbo , italy . canestrelli @ urltoken\nevery week the panama amphibian rescue and conservation project posts a new photo of a cute frog from anywhere in the world with an interesting , fun and unique story to tell . be sure to check back every monday for the latest addition .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nterms | privacy | phone : 831 . 661 . 5551 | email : info @ urltoken | \u00a9 2015 minden pictures inc | all content on this website is protected by copyright\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u00e2\u20ac\u2122s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nkda ) , is the first amphibian member of the bv8 - prokineticin family . homologs of bv8 are present in the skin secretions of other amphibians such as\n. the striking characteristics of these proteins are their identical n - terminal sequence , avitg , and the presence of 10 cysteines with identical spacing , which define a five - disulfide - bridged motif called a colipase fold .\nthe high degree of identity between amphibian bv8 peptides , fish peptides , and mamba mit - 1 ( 58 % ) suggested that similar peptides could also be present in other species , including mammals . in the mouse , rat , cattle , monkey , and human , cdna cloning identified orthologs of bv8 (\n) . the two mammalian proteins similar to bv8 were named prokineticin 1 ( pk1 or eg - vegf ) and prokineticin 2 ( pk2 or mbv8 ) . a second form of pk2 has been identified and named pk2b ( because of an insert of 21 basic amino acids in its sequence ) . the name prokineticin refers to the ability of these peptides to contract guinea pig ileum , a property shared with amphibian bv8 .\nexpression patterns of rodent and human mrnas for pk1 and pk2 ( prok1 and prok2 ) have been reported in peripheral tissues ( dorsal root ganglia ( drg ) , gastrointestinal tract , endocrine glands , spleen , and human and murine leukocytes ) and the cns .\nprokineticins are also expressed in the neurons of the medial preoptic area , nucleus of solitary tract , trigeminal and facial nuclei , and drg .\nthe two g - protein - coupled receptors for bv8 - pks , prokineticin receptor 1 ( pkr1 ) and prokineticin receptor 2 ( pkr2 ) have an overall identity in their amino acid sequences of 85 % , with most differences at the n - terminal , and are approximately 80 % identical to the previously described mouse orphan receptor gpr73 . in specific endothelial cells , neurons , and transfected cells expressing these receptors , bv8 - induced pkr activation stimulates ca 2 + mobilization and phosphoinositol turnover , indicating a g q / o - protein coupling . receptor binding studies showed that pkr2 is a mit - preferring receptor ; indeed , the affinity of mit for pkr2 ( in the picomolar range ) is approximately 10 times higher than that of pk2 and 50 times higher than that of pk1 . pkr1 is a mit - and pk2 - preferring receptor ; the affinity of mit for pkr1 ( \u223c5\u201310 times lower than for pkr2 ) is comparable to that of pk2 and 60 times higher than that of pk1 . the affinity of bv8 for the receptors is comparable to that of pk2 and is approximately 40 times higher than that of pk1 .\nhuman kallmann syndrome ( ks ) , which combines anosmia , related to defective olfactory bulb morphogenesis , with hypogonadism due to gonadotropin - releasing hormone deficiency , appears to be related to mutations in the genes coding for pk2 and pkr2 . in a cohort of 192 patients affected by ks , 10 different point mutations were identified in the genes encoding pkr2 and four were identified in the genes encoding pk2 . the mutations in pk2 were detected in the heterozygous state , whereas pkr2 mutations were found in the heterozygous , homozygous , or compound heterozygous state . in addition , one of the patients heterozygous for a pkr2 mutation also carried a missense mutation in kal1 , thus indicating a possible digenic inheritance of the disease in this individual . these findings reveal that insufficient prokineticin - signaling through pkr2 leads to the abnormal development of the olfactory system and reproductive axis also in humans .\npkr1 and pkr2 mrnas are expressed in the drg of neonatal and adult rats . pkr1 is mainly expressed in small and medium - size neurons and pkr2 in large neurons . pkr proteins are present in the drg , in the outer layers of the dorsal horns of the spinal cord , and in the peripheral terminals of nociceptor axons . activation of nociceptor pkrs by bv8 in rats and mice produces nociceptive sensitization to thermal and mechanical stimuli , without inducing any spontaneous , overt nocifensive behavior or local inflammation . a physiological role of bv8 - prokineticins as peripheral and central pain modulators is supported by the observation that mice lacking the pkrs or pk2 are less sensitive to noxious heat ( hot - plate test ) than are wild - type mice . pkr1 - null mice also exhibited impaired development of hyperalgesia after tissue injury . the inflammatory agents cfa and mustard oil produced comparable paw edema in wild - type and pkr1 - null mice , but induced inflammatory nociceptive sensitization to heat and pressure significantly lower in pkr1 - knockout than in wild - type mice , demonstrating a role of prokineticins and their receptors in inflammatory pain .\nin situ mrna hybridization experiments demonstrated that pk2 is expressed by inflammatory cells , predominantly neutrophils , in the human inflamed tonsil and appendix and in the rat inflamed paw . pk2 released by inflammatory cells can bind and activate pkrs on the primary sensitive neurons contributing to inflammatory pain . neutrophil extracts , fractionated using ionic exchange chromatography , gel filtration , and reverse phase ( rp ) chromatography , displayed bv8 - like activity , displaced 125 i - mit binding from pkr1 - transfected chinese hamster ovary ( cho ) cell membranes and produced the bv8 - characteristic hyperalgesia when injected intrathecally in rats .\nprokineticin receptors are potential targets for drugs which block the nociceptive information before it reaches the brain . identifying of the structural determinants required for receptor binding and hyperalgesic activity of bv8 - prokineticins is thus mandatory for the design of pkr antagonists . the highly conserved n - terminal sequence avitga and the triptophan residue in position 24 in all members of the bv8 / pk family are required for biological activity ; deletions and substitutions in these conserved residues produce antagonist molecules . preclinical studies are currently being carried out on these mutated pk peptides as pkr antagonists endowed with analgesic properties .\nkda ) . the amino acid sequence was established by automated edman degradation and analysis of proteolytic fragments as well as by cdna cloning . homologs of bv8 have been predicted ( but not yet isolated ) in skin secretions of\n( bm8a ) . these proteins are derived from simple precursors composed of a putative 19 - residue signal peptide and the mature protein . bo8 and bm8a show 96 % and 92 % sequence identity with bv8 . moreover , the putative signal peptides in all three proproteins are 100 % identical (\n) . the primary sequence of bv8 is similar to mit ( mamba intestinal toxin ) , a constituent of the venom of the snake black mamba . the amphibian and snake proteins share the same pattern of cysteine distribution , and their overall identity is 58 % . cdna cloning showed the existence of mouse ( mbv8 ) and human ( hbv8 ) homologs of amphibian bv8 .\n) . a similar cys - motif is also present in mammalian colipase and in the carboxy - terminal region of members of the dickkopf family of extracellular signaling proteins . however , the frog protein does not stimulate the activity of pancreatic lipase , and it is also inactive in an assay for dickkopf functions . starting from the 3d - structure of mammalian colipase , a model was built for frog bv8 in which the hydrophobic amino terminal sequence avitg forms a sort \u201cbeak\u201d exposed at the surface of the tightly folded rest of the protein .\ntwo forms of mbv8 and hbv8 have been characterized in the mouse and human testis . these forms differ in an exon coding for 21 amino acids , the majority of which are basic (\n) . the predominant site of bv8 expression in both humans and mice is primary spermatocytes in the seminiferus tubules of the testis . the genomic structure of these murine and human bv8 genes has been determined , and the chromosomal localization was identified near a synteny breakpoint of mouse chromosome 6 and human 3p21 .\nidentified two human est sequences , one encoding the human protein already described and the other encoding a slightly different bv8 - like protein . the two proteins were named prokineticin 2 ( pk2 ) and prokineticin 1 ( pk1 ) (\n) . the name prokineticin refers to the ability of these peptides to contract gpi , a property shared with amphibian bv8 .\nidentified a protein that induced proliferation , migration , and fenestration in the endothelial cells of steroid synthesizing glands ( ovary , testis , adrenals ) and named it endocrine - gland - derived vascular endothelial growth factor ( eg - vegf ) . eg - vegf and pk1 are the same protein and have an overall identity of 58 % and homology of 76 % with human pk2 and murine bv8 and 43 % identity with amphibian bv8 . pk1 / eg - vegf has been isolated and sequenced also from bovine milk . rat and human mrnas for pk1 and pk2 have been cloned and their expression patterns reported in peripheral tissues and the central nervous system .\nthe distribution of murine bv8 - like proteins , pk1 and pk2 , and their mrnas has been reported in the brain ( olfactory bulb , cerebral cortex , hippocampus , some thalamic and hypothalamic nuclei , purkinje cells of the cerebellum , many nuclei of the brain stem ) , spinal cord , gastrointestinal tract , endocrine glands , and other peripheral organs .\n( being the lowest in the dark phase ) and is severely blunted in mutant mice deficient in clock or cryptochrome genes . pk2 / bv8 , constitutively expressed in cells and organs of myeloid origin , is dramatically upregulated by inflammatory processes .\nreceptors for pk1 and pk2 have been identified in humans , mice , and rats . these receptors , named prokineticin receptor 1 and 2 ( pkr1 and pkr2 ) , belong to the family of g protein - coupled receptors , share approximately 85 % amino acid identity , and are about 80 % identical to the previously described mouse orphan receptor gpr73 . in a study aimed to map the expression of pkr1 and pkr2 in rat and mouse nervous system , we\ndetected pkr2 mrna in the brain ( olfactory bulbs , scn , hippocampus , paraventricular thalamic and hypothalamic nuclei , nucleus arcuatus , subfornical organ ( sfo ) , amygdala , caudate putamen , and cortex ) and in dorsal root ganglia ( drg ) . pkr1 is mainly expressed outside the mammalian central nervous system , with the highest density in the neurons of drg . pkr1 is also expressed by murine macrophages . mice lacking the pkr2 show a dramatic reduction in olfactory bulbs ( ob ) size , and they do not survive ; mice lacking pkr1 are severely deficient in their responses to noxious thermal and chemical ( capsaicin , protons ) stimuli .\nintensive investigation of the bv8 / prokineticin system over the past decade has revealed a dazzling array of physiological functions including the regulation of circadian rhythms , metabolism , angiogenesis , neurogenesis , muscle contractility , hematopoiesis , immune response , reproduction , and pain perception . in addition , the disruption of prokineticin system has been implicated in several pathological conditions , including cancer , immunological response , mood disorder ( anxiety / depression ) ,\ncardiomyopathy , and persistent pain . point mutations in the genes encoding for prokineticins and / or prokineticin receptors are involved in human kallmann\u2019s syndrome and hirschprung\u2019s disease .\nthe isolation of an adequate amount of the amphibian bv8 protein has provided valuable research tools for characterizing the prokineticin pharmacology .\nmm . in cell - based assays , bv8 and eg - vegf / pk1 induce proliferation , migration , and survival of primary adrenal cortical capillary endothelial ( ace ) cells . delivery of bv8 or eg - vegf to the mouse testis results in a potent angiogenic response resulting from activation of pkrs on vascular endothelial cells within the interstitial space .\npmol ) into the lateral ventricles of the rat brain suppress diurnal , nocturnal , deprivation - induced , and neuropeptide y - stimulated feeding . bv8 injected icv also stimulates drinking in a dose - dependent manner . we showed that bv8 stimulates drinking through its receptors in the sfo and inhibits feeding after injection into the arcuate nucleus . rat sensitivity to the bv8 - induced anorexogenic response increases significantly during the dark phase of the circadian cycle ,\nin accordance with the physiological role of bv8 / pk2 in controlling circadian rhythm from the scn .\nin rats , icv and sc injections of bv8 induce antidiuresis dependent on vasopressin release . bv8 injected sc also induces the release of oxytocin and corticosterone .\n) , and intrabrain administration of amphibian bv8 induces hyperalgesia activating the prokineticin receptors that are present on peripheral nociceptors and in regions of the central nervous system associated with pain .\ntranslocation , and sensitization of the vanilloid receptor trpv1 , hence decreasing the nociceptive threshold to mechanical and thermal stimuli .\namphibian bv8 injected into the periaqueductal gray ( pag ) exerts a pronociceptive action by increasing the intrinsic gabaergic tone which , in turn , is responsible for the inhibition of pag antinociceptive output neurons demonstrating that the bv8 / pkr system may also intervene in modulating central pain mechanisms .\nwe have shown that amphibian bv8 activates macrophages to migrate and to produce proinflammatory cytokines . it is also able to affect the t lymphocyte population , because the administration\nof amphibian bv8 skews the th1 / th2 balance toward a th1 response . all these effects depend on the activation of pkr1 because they lack in the lymphocytes and macrophages from pkr1 - ko mice .\nendogenous bv8 / pk2 is overexpressed in inflamed tissues and in animal and human neoplastic tissue , predominantly in infiltrating neutrophils . these cells can secrete it , since the sequence of the precursors contains the typical signal peptide for secretion .\nferrara\u2019s group showed that bv8 regulates myeloid - cell - dependent tumor angiogenesis . we showed that bv8 has a crucial role in neutrophil - dependent inflammatory hypernociception .\nto develop pkr antagonists as novel analgesic and antiinflammatory drugs , structural determinants required for the biological activity of bv8 must be identified .\nstudies from our group suggested that avitga family members could interact with pkr1 / pkr2 by orienting the protein region that comprises the avitga sequence and the conserved tryptophan residue in position 24 . the n - terminal deletion of the first two amino acids in amphibian bv8 molecule ( dav - bv8 ) yield an analog lacking any biological activity but still able to bind the receptors . dav - bv8 is a short acting antagonist\n. substituting trp with ala in position 24 yields a molecule , a - 24 , that preferentially binds and activates pkr2 . it displays weak affinity and efficacy on pkr , acting as an antagonist . a - 24 has an extraordinary , long - lasting antihyperalgasic effect in animal models of postsurgical and inflammatory pain .\nsome nonpeptide molecules , triazine - guanidine derivatives , seem very promising . local or systemic injection of the lead compound , pc1 , abolishes the hyperalgesia in animal models of inflammatory\nand postsurgical pain and speeds up the paw healing being , on a molar base , about a thousand times more potent than indomethacin ( unpublished ) . our results also show an important role for the bv8 / pkr in neuropathic pain at least in rodents . if this role is confirmed in humans , reducing bv8 levels in damaged tissues or antagonizing pkrs might be an innovative strategy to control persistent , invalidating pain .\n) , well - distributed along the rh\u00f4ne river , has disappeared in the swiss rh\u00f4ne downstream of lake l\u00e9man since 1980 , despite multiple re - introductions ( geneva herpetological society ) .\nsome amphibians are mainly found in the northern part of the rh\u00f4ne . smooth newt (\n) are rare in the french upper rh\u00f4ne and lower rh\u00f4ne floodplains upstream of mont\u00e9limar but are absent downstream . south great crested newts (\n) are scarce because of the lack of reproduction areas . backwaters around arles have been identified as the last southern reproduction areas for this species . around geneva , south great crested newt populations have been declining since 1987 because of the non - native italian great crested newt (\n) is found as far as mont\u00e9limar . other amphibians are mainly present in the south part of the rh\u00f4ne river . the mediterranean tree frog (\nis commonly found in camargue and in the lower rh\u00f4ne floodplain . until recently , the mediterranean tree frog and common tree frog co - occurred between lyon and valence but river regulation and the loss of wetlands led to their quasi - extinction . the western spadefoot is present from the delta to valence , and the parsley frog (\nhas disappeared in the mediterranean part of the rh\u00f4ne since the early 20th century . most amphibian species are protected .\n, which is endangered also because of habitat reduction in many areas . among amphibians , the endemic sardinian brook newt (\n) is present in the flumendosa basin , and the few populations are considered endangered .\nthere are four species of salamanders , the most widespread being the fire salamander ( salamandra salamandra ) , common in mountain ranges of continental and peninsular italy . the alpine salamander ( s . atra ) is still frequent in the upper ranges of the central - eastern alps , while the endemic lanza ' s salamander ( s . lanzai ) is restricted to a few locations in the headwaters of the po basin , in the western alps . lastly , the spectacled salamander ( salamandrina terdigitata ) is common along all the apennines , mostly between 300 and 900 m asl . the most common newts are : the alpine newt ( mesotriton alpestris ) , mostly in the western alps and northern apennines , the italian crested newt ( triturus carnifex ) widely distributed throughout italy , except the islands , the italian newt ( lissotriton italicus ) , endemic of the central and southern apennines , and the smooth newt ( l . vulgaris ) , common from the central apennines to the lower ranges of the alps .\n) in the apennines . there also are some endemic frogs , including the tyrrhenian painted frog (\n, which are common in other parts of northern italy , have reduced populations . the only priority species , according to the habitat directive , is the\n) , still present along the whole adige valley but endangered because of a reduction in their specific habitats , represented by small , temporary pools in the river floodplains . reptiles associated with freshwater habitats include the common grass and dice snakes (\n( stebbins & cohen 1995 ) . habitat loss and drought may have also contributed to the decline of these species . recent biomolecular research (\n) . amphibian richness within a given habitat was significantly related to distance from islands , fish density and water temperature . vegetated islands and large woody debris played pivotal roles , directly and indirectly , in maintaining both habitat and amphibian diversity in this gravel - bed river .\n) . two thirds of the amphibians and 1 / 3 of the reptiles prefer riverine landscape elements ; the remaining species occur in adjacent hillslope and upland areas . only three reptiles are truly aquatic :\ndespite the enormous interest in keeping exotic amphibians and reptilians as pets , which can result in abandoned or escaped animals , no introduced alien species have established reproducing populations in the basin until now . nevertheless , there are problems with the ongoing introduction of trachemys scripta elegans and other pond turtles , especially in germany and austria , because they most likely compete with the native turtle emys orbicularis .\n) . many species are protected also by national laws ( e . g . ,\n) . destruction of wetlands is the most serious threat to amphibian populations . even common species like\nis locally threatened due to drainage , pollution , and destruction of breeding ponds and adjacent terrestrial habitats . in recent years ,\nand called it ranatensin . in the same year , and shortly thereafter , erspamer\nby 1978 , similar peptides had been isolated from other amphibians : the nonapeptide ( 9 amino acid peptide ) litorin , the undecapeptide ranatensin c , and the heptadecapeptide ( 17 amino acid peptide ) ranatensin r .\nfrom porcine non - antral gastric tissue . the sequence of this peptide was identified by the same group in the next year ,\nand because of the most prominent function of this peptide , which is stimulation of gastric acid secretion due to the release of gastrin , the peptide was given the name gastrin - releasing polypeptide . the next year , the same group identified grp in the chicken proventriculus as another 27 - amino acid peptide .\ncharacterized three forms of grp ( 27 , 23 , and 10 ) from canine intestinal extracts .\n) in the porcine spinal cord ; the next year , the same group identified grp - 10 in the porcine spinal cord , calling it nmc .\nin 1984 , grp - 27 was isolated and characterized from human pulmonary carcinoid cells .\nlater on , similarity was found between the two classes of peptides , the amphibian peptides and grp , especially at the biologically active cooh - terminal . however , because the nh\nthe highest amphibian diversity is found in the floodplain areas and small waterbodies of the upper and middle rhine . in recent gravel ponds , rare species such as\nin the northern middle rhine . in reed belts and willows of lake constance and floodplains of the upper rhine , tree frogs (\n) can be heard during summer . early studies reported populations of the european water turtle\n) . rare recent sightings of this species are due to the release of aquarium specimens . several non - native reptiles ( mostly the painted turtle\nand other turtles , but even caimans and alligators ) are observed for the same reason ; however they rarely find suitable wintering conditions to maintian populations .\n) . due to land - use changes and river regulation , many amphibian populations declined or gone extinct in floodplains along the rhine tributaries in the netherlands ( delta rhine ) . however , several common amphibian species still occur , such as\ncomplex . the frequencies of occurrence and densities are still rather low in comparison with pristine areas .\nhibernate in meadows , thickets and bushes on sand or clay in the higher as well as lower parts of floodplains .\nclearly prefer sandy habitats in the higher parts of floodplains . the ringed snake snake is still frequently observed in floodplains along the nederrijn and ijssel (\nthe views of darwin , wallace , rensch , and mayr that geographic replacement forms , subspecies and semispecies , are in fact incipient species , has few critics today . most geographic replacement species ( i . e . , \u201csemispecies , \u201d which intergrade only rarely when they meet ) must indeed have evolved from previously interbreeding subspecies . modern genetic data have done nothing to cast doubt on this idea . meanwhile , superspecies became a term reserved for groups of semispecies that intergraded little at their boundaries .\nhowever , under the trinominal approach , taxonomists were now required to describe subspecies , which has never been seen as a particularly noble activity in comparison to the description of species , especially recently . a strong attack on the zoological subspecies was mounted by\n. both were systematists working on ants , a group particularly riddled with poorly conceived trinominals and other named varieties at the time . wilson and brown argued that subspecies rarely , if ever , could be justified on the basis of multiple characters , and that therefore they were not \u201creal taxa . \u201d the only \u201creal taxa\u201d were species , which in a sense were self - defining because interbreeding prevented divergent genes from flowing from one species to another . subspecies that interbred at their boundaries , on the other hand , were not so endowed , so that genes and morphological characters could flow between them . good examples of subspecies were put forward which undoubtedly would be hard to justify on multiple character grounds . this single paper was enormously influential on systematics in the united states , and generations of insect systematists trained at harvard and cornell , where wilson and brown worked , and their own many intellectual descendants , and their students\u2019 students in turn , have eschewed the practice of naming subspecies .\nacross a broad front in europe . the two forms hybridize freely in the contact zone\u2014although the hybrids can be shown to suffer some inviability\u2014and so should really be classified as members of the same species under polytypic or biological species concepts . however , it has always seemed natural to place such well - defined forms in separate species in spite of the fact they have not truly \u201cspeciated . \u201d the two taxa differ strongly in call , morphology , skin thickness , the sizes of water bodies used for breeding , and egg size , as well as in mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid ( dna ) and protein sequence . the levels of differentiation suggest that the\ntaxa have evolved separately for many millions of years . this situation of multiple character changes has now been shown to be true across many examples of subspecies as well as species separated by hybrid zones . gene flow can be shown to be almost completely blocked by hybrid zones such as these , even if hybridization is frequent ("]}
{"id": 547, "summary": [{"text": "apsidophora is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily olethreutinae of the family tortricidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it contains only one species , apsidophora purpurorbis , which is found in thailand , the malay peninsula , sumatra and new guinea .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the wingspan is 17 \u2013 20 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are light purplish-grey .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are deep purplish-brown in the apical third . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "apsidophora", "paragraphs": ["this is the place for apsidophora definition . you find here apsidophora meaning , synonyms of apsidophora and images for apsidophora copyright 2017 \u00a9 urltoken\nhere you will find one or more explanations in english for the word apsidophora . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word apsidophora and , of course , apsidophora synonyms and on the right images related to the word apsidophora .\napsidophora is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily olethreutinae of the family tortricidae . it contains only one species , apsidophora purpurorbis , which is found in thailand , the malay peninsula , sumatra and new guinea .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nby t . m . gilligan 1 , j . baixeras 2 , j . w . brown 3 , and k . r . tuck 4\nurltoken is pleased to offer the complete world catalogue of the tortricidae ( t @ rts ) ! this is a complete list of all world species , utilizing the world catalogue published in 2005 as the foundation for the database . version 3 . 0 of the online catalogue contains 15 , 099 records representing 10 , 883 species . more than 1 , 600 records have been updated from ver 2 . 0 ( jul , 2012 ) , and more than 3 , 000 records have been updated from the original catalogue . the database is completely searchable and contains photos of over 1 , 200 type specimens .\nt @ rts will be updated regularly both with corrections from the original world catalogue and with additions since its publication . as such , these pages will serve as the most up to date information on current tortricid nomenclature . if you find any errors in the data presented here or have any questions / comments , please use the contact form to send the authors an email .\nwe are indebted to all of the original authors of the world catalogue ( j . w . brown , j . baixeras , r . brown , m . horak , f . komai , e . metzler , j . razowski , and k . tuck ) for providing the basis for this project . we would also like to thank the dozens of individuals who have provided corrections or updates to the database since it was first placed online in 2007 .\ngilligan , t . m . , j . baixeras , j . w . brown & k . r . tuck . 2014 . t @ rts : online world catalogue of the tortricidae ( ver . 3 . 0 ) . urltoken\n1 colorado state university , bioagricultural sciences and pest management , 1177 campus delivery , fort collins , co 80523 , usa 2 institut cavanilles de biodiversitat i biologia evolutiva , universitat de valencia , apartat oficial 2085 , 46071 valencia , spain 3 systematic entomology laboratory - usda [ retired ] , smithsonian institution , p . o . box 37012 , national museum of natural history , washington , dc 20013 , usa 4 curator - microlepidoptera [ retired ] , entomology department ( dc2 - 2n ) , natural history museum , cromwell road , london sw7 5bd , uk\nunless noted , all images on these pages are copyright \u00a9 2003 - 14 by todd gilligan . please do not download , copy , print , or otherwise distribute any images from these pages without the permission of the author . contact form .\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nwe use cookies to give you the best possible experience . by using our website you agree to our use of cookies .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\nthe wingspan is 17 - 20 mm . the forewings are light purplish - grey . the hindwings are deep purplish - brown in the apical third .\nnotable tortricids include the codling moth and the spruce budworm , which are among the most well - studied of all insects because of their economic impact . [ 3 ]\nthe head is where many sensing organs and the mouth parts are found . like the adult , the larva also has a toughened , or sclerotized head capsule . [ 22 ] here , two compound eyes , and chaetosema , raised spots or clusters of sensory bristles unique to lepidoptera , occur , though many taxa have lost one or both of these spots . the antennae have a wide variation in form among species and even between diffe\nthough the true dimensions of species diversity remain uncertain , estimates range from 2 . 6\u20137 . 8 million species with a mean of 5 . 5 million . [ 42 ]\nthe embryos of all arthropods are segmented , built from a series of repeated modules . the last common ancestor of living arthropods probably consisted of a series of undifferentiated segments , each with a pair of appendages that functioned as limbs . however , all known living and fossil arthropods have grouped segments into tagmata in which segments and their limbs are specialized in various ways . [\nnearly all animals make use of some form of sexual reproduction . [ 20 ] they produce haploid gametes by meiosis ; the smaller , motile gametes are spermatozoa and the larger , non - motile gametes are ova . [ 21 ] these fuse to form zygotes , [ 22 ] which develop via mitosis into a hollow sphere , called a blastula . in sponges , blastula larvae swim to a new location , attach to the seabed , and develop into a new sp"]}
{"id": 629, "summary": [{"text": "margaret 's batis or boulton 's batis ( batis margaritae ) is a species of small bird in the wattle-eyes family , platysteiridae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in south western central africa . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "margaret ' s batis", "paragraphs": ["margaret ' s batis ( batis margaritae ) is a species of bird in the platysteiridae family .\nthe senegal batis is monotypic and any proposed subspecies are considered to be untenable . it appears to forma superspecies with grey - headed batis , chinspot batis , pririt batis and pale batis , with a possible overlap with pale batis in cameroon .\nboulton , r ( 1934 ) new birds from angola . proc . biol . soc . wash . 47 : 45\u201348 . [ type description of margaret ' s batis , collected at mount moco ]\nthe gabon batis or verreaux ' s batis ( batis minima ) is a species of small bird in the family platysteiridae . it occurs in the humid forests of western central africa .\nthis coexistence , along with the geographical distribution of certain subspecies populations ( e . g . of margaret ' s batis ) , suggests that speciation occurred in cryptosepalum forest fragments when bird populations were isolated there during drier climate cycles .\n( vieillot , 1818 ) \u2013 c & s botswana and w south africa ( e to free state , in s from s namaqualand e to w eastern cape ) .\nthe forest batis or short - tailed batis ( batis mixta ) is a species of bird in the wattle - eye family , platysteiridae occurring in eastern africa .\nthe forest batis or short - tailed batis ( batis mixta ) is a species of bird in the wattle - eye family , platysteiridae occurring in eastern africa .\nthe angolan batis ( batis minulla ) is a species of bird in the family platysteiridae . it is found in western central africa .\nmills , m . s . l . ( 2007a ) swierstra\u2019s spurfowl pternistis swierstrai : a bibliography and summary of museum skins . bull . abc 14 : 175\u2013180 .\n( elliot , 1897 ) \u2013 s ethiopia , djibouti , n & s somalia and locally ne uganda ( mt moroto ) and n kenya ( moyale area ) .\nlouette , m . & de juana , e . ( 2018 ) . margaret ' s batis ( batis margaritae ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nc . m . n . white , 1941 \u2013 s drcongo ( shilatembo , in s katanga ) and nw zambia ; possibly also extreme e angola ( e moxico ) .\nthe ecoregion lies within the eastern portion of the cameroon and gabon lowlands endemic bird area ( eba ) , and includes forest batis ( batis minima ) , rachel ' s malimbe ( malimbus racheliae ) , and forest swallow ( hirundo fuliginosa ) .\n779 species . 1 endemic species : chaplin ' s barbet , on 1977 birds of zambia .\nbingham , m . 1995 . zambia\u2019s vegetation . retrieved ( 2000 ) from : urltoken vegetati . htm\n( heuglin , 1870 ) \u2013 e sudan , ethiopia ( except sw & s ) and eritrea .\nlog in or sign up to get involved in the conversation . it ' s quick and easy .\nthe dark batis has a variety of whistling and harsh churring calls and its wings make a whirring sound in flight . the male ' s song is a series of short , low whistles .\nthe cape batis ( batis capensis ) is a small passerine bird in the wattle - eye family . it is resident in the highlands of southern and eastern south africa and zimbabwe .\nb . m . ultima is smaller than the nominate with the make having a narrow white supercilium and a norrower breastband and b . m . reichenow shows a poorly defined chispot and otherwise looks closer to the cape batis batis capensis . genetic studies have shown that reichenowi , which was previously split either as a species in its own right or as a subspecies of cape batis , nestles within mixta but that the previously lumped dark batis batis brypta is a separate species .\nthe main call of the pygmy batis is a ling series of repeated sharp high pitched whistles .\nili nepre ne batis lin , they could not have ( surely did not ) beat him .\nili batis lin same kiel vin , they beat him the same as ( they did ) you .\nmostly resident . some n - s movement in sw cape province , where it arrives during austral winter ; . . .\nili batis lin same kiel vi , they beat him in the same way as you ( did ) .\nthe pririt batis ( batis pririt ) also known as the pririt puff - back flycatcher or pririt puffback , is a small passerine bird in the wattle - eye family . it is resident in western and central southern africa .\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nthis species is very similar to the west african batis batis occulta and this somewhat masks its true distribution but the gabon batis has been found in gabon , the monte alen national park in equatorial guinea , the lowland dja area in southern cameroon and it has recently been discovered in the dzanga - ndoki national park in the extreme south of the central african republic .\nthe senegal batis inhabits low dry thorny scrub , sparsely treed grasslands and woody savannahs , including open acacia and baobab woodlands .\nthe pygmy batis ( batis perkeo ) is a very small insectivorous bird which finds its food foraging among leaves , it is a member of the wattle - eyes family , the platysteiridae . it occurs in the dry savannahs of north - eastern africa .\n. cd - rom . cambridge , uk : birdlife international . [ information on the status of threatened birds , including swierstra ' s fracolin ] ]\n( wahlberg , 1855 ) \u2013 sw angola ( s from benguela ) , namibia , w botswana and nw south africa ( nw northern cape ) .\nonly members are able to see the rest of the text . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now .\nyou don ' t have any subscription to the hbw alive . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nhuntley , b . j . ( 1974 ) outlines of wildlife conservation in angola . j . s . afr wildl . management assoc . 5 : 157\u2013166 .\nonly subscribers have complete access to the families of the hbw alive . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nthe family is overwhelmingly sedentary . however , some batis species undertake season migrations as well as some local movements due to changing local conditions .\nothers feed on grubs , such as the chaffinch , the sparrow , the \u2018 batis \u2019 , the green linnet , and the titmouse .\nmills , m . s . l . ( 2007b ) vocalisations of angolan birds . volume 1 . cd - rom . cape town : birdsangola and birding africa .\nmuleta , s . , p . simasiku , g . kalyocha , c . kasutu , m . walusiku and s . mwiya . 1996 . proposed terms of reference for the preparation of the management plan for liuwa plains national park . report prepared for iucn upper zambezi wetlands and natural resources management project , western province , zambia .\nmills , m . s . l . ( 2009 ) vocalisations of angolan birds : new descriptions and other notes . bull . abc 16 ( 2 ) : 150\u2013166 .\nthe pygmy batis occurs in southern ethiopia , extreme south eastern south sudan , southern somalia , eastern uganda , inland kenya and north eastern tanzania .\nmills , m . s . l . ( in prep . ) vocalisations of angolan birds . volume 2 . cd - rom . cape town : birdsangola and birding africa .\nau levant , au septentrion et au midi , elle a une grande plaine ; au ponant , une montagne au pied de laquelle sont batis les faubourgs .\nthe senegal batis is found from southern mauritania , senegal and gambia east to nigeria and north and central cameroon , east to the benou\u00e9 plain and mandara mountains .\ncollar , n . j . and stuart , s . n . ( 1985 ) threatened birds of africa and related islands . cambridge , uk : international council for bird preservation / iucn .\nruiz - esparza , j . , da rocha , p . a . , ribeiro , a . d . , ferrari , s . f . & araujo , h . f . p .\nthe main call of the senegal batis is a series of medium piched double and triple note whistles which do not vary in pitch and are frequently introduced with buzzy notes .\nbenson , c . w . and m . p . s . irwin . 1965 . the birds of cryptosepalum forests , zambia . arnoldia ( rhodesia ) 28 ( 1 ) : 1 - 12 .\nalexander , 1908 \u2013 ne nigeria ( just w of l chad from arege to malamfatori ) , ne cameroon , s chad , n central african republic , sw sudan , south sudan and w ethiopia .\ncollar , n . j . and stuart , s . n . ( 1988 ) key forests for threatened birds in africa . icbp monograph no 3 . cambridge , uk : international council for bird preservation .\nmills , m . s . l . and dean , w . r . j . ( 2007 ) notes on angolan birds : new country records , range extensions and taxonomic questions . ostrich 78 : 55\u201363 .\nthe gabon batis is suspected to be experiencing a reduction in range and population as a result of forest clearance and degradation , however the rate of the suspected decline has not been estimated .\nhall , b . p . ( 1960 ) the ecology and taxonomy of some angolan birds . bull . br . mus . ( nat . hist . ) 6 : 367\u2013463 . [ notes on swierstra ' s francolin ]\nmills , m . s . l . , franke , u . , joseph , g . , miato , f . , milton , s . , monadjem , a . , oschadleus , d . and dean , w . r . j . ( in press ) cataloguing the lubango bird skin collection : towards an atlas of angolan bird distributions . bull . abc mills , m . s . l . , olmos , f . , melo , m . and dean , w . r . j . ( submitted ) . the avifauna of the highlands of western angola and the importance of conserving shrinking afromontane forests at the proposed mount moco special reserve . bird conserv . int .\ncollar , n . j . and s . n . stuart . 1985 . threatened birds of africa and related islands . the icbp / iucn red data book , part 1 . 3rd edition . icbp , cambridge , uk .\nlouette , m . ( 2018 ) . pririt batis ( batis pririt ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nlouette , m . ( 2018 ) . grey - headed batis ( batis orientalis ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe forest batis has a slightly shorter tail . males of the two species are very similar but forest batises have a narrower breastband and usually some hint of a white supercilium which is lacking in the male dark batis . the females are more distinctive : female forest batises have a paler breast and chin with more white tips giving a mottled appearance . there is a conspicuous white supercilium and a broad rufous wing - stripe .\nschulze , r . e . and o . s . mcgee . 1978 . climatic indices and classification in relation to the biogeography of southern africa . m . j . a . werger , editor . biogeography and ecology of southern africa . w . junk , the hague .\nthe calls of the angola batis are little known , the territorial call is a series of high - pitched notes ,\nzee - zee - zee - zee - zee\n, which has been likened to a squeaky bicycle pump .\nthe presence of the angola batis in south eastern gabon is yet to be confirmed but the species occurs in the southern congo through western democratic republic of congo into northern angola south to the qui\u00e7ama national park , 70 km from luanda .\none species , the banded wattle - eye , is considered threatened by human activities . the species has a restricted range in cameroon that is vulnerable to forest clearance and is listed as endangered by the iucn . two further species are considered near - threatened , the gabon batis and the white - fronted wattle - eye ; both species are threatened by habitat loss . some species are also very poorly known , and one species , the dark batis , was only identified as a species in 2006\ntaxonomy : batis diops jackson , 1905 , ruwenzori , drcongo . this species and b . margaritae probably belong to the superspecies that also contains b . capensis , b . reichenowi , b . mixta , b . crypta and b . fratrum . monotypic .\nsize and body proportions are quite variable within this family . the genus dyaphorophyia is very short - tailed , and most batis species are rather short - tailed , but the platysteira wattle - eyes have a moderately long tail . among the shrike - flycatchers , megabyas . . .\nthe angola batis occurs in secondary and riverine gallery forest , thick woodland dominated by croton spp as well as adjacent bush , tickets and the ecotone between forest and savannah . occasionally recorded in dry woodland , especially in the southern part of its range , as well as coffee plantations .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : batis margaritae . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nthe breeding biology of the gabon batis is little known but young have been observed during the rainy season following the short dry season , september and february in gabon , and the young stay with their parents for an extended period . solitary , probably dispersing immatures were seen in the long dry season in july and august .\ntaxonomy : batis margaritae boulton , 1934 , mount moco , 6500 feet [ c . 1980 m ] , angola . this species and b . diops probably belong to the superspecies that also contains b . capensis , b . reichenowi , b . mixta , b . crypta and b . fratrum . two subspecies recognized .\nthe gabon batis is found in lowland forest , normally lower than 800m . it avoids primary rainforest , other than at the forest edge , and prefers secondary forest with a dense but broken canopy and thick , low undergrowth , as well as overgrown cacao and coffee plantations . it avoids cultivated land and the vicinity of villages and other man - made habitats .\nwarm , cloudy nights , with a little wind stirring , are generally the most favourable ; but one of the best nights i ever had amongst the\npeach blossoms\nand\nbuff arches\n( thyatira batis and derasa ) was in a wood in warwickshire , when the rain fell in torrents , accompanied with fierce lightning and thunder , from about 11 p . m .\nthe gabon batis is an arboreal forager , preferring to find food above heights of 5m from the ground . it is attracted by flowering trees and prefers to forage in small leafed trees . prey is gleaned from leaves by hovering beside the tree , or in flight or is disturbed by the moving bird and swooped on . the favoured prey is various insects between 5mm and 15mm in length .\ndescription location and general description this small but distinctive ecoregion consists almost entirely of dense evergreen forest dominated by cryptosepalum exfoliatum pseudotaxus , known locally as\nmavunda .\nit falls into white\u2019s ( 1983 ) zambezian regional center of endemism and is mapped as \u2018zambezian dry evergreen forest . \u2019 the two main blocks of cryptosepalum forest are found to the north and south of the kabompo river . together they constitute the largest area of tropical evergreen forest in africa outside the equatorial zone ( bingham 1995 ) .\nit is an arboreal forager and its insect prey is mostly gleaned from foliage , in the outer patrts of branches , sometimes on trunks or stems but almost never on the ground . it will flycatch or hawk insects in the air , making sallies of up to 2m to catch prey from a perch , has also been known to impale larger prey on thorns . the fork - tailed drongo has been recorded as kelptoparasitising prey from the senegal batis .\nonly one protected area , the west lunga national park , falls within this ecoregion . it is surrounded in the east , north and west by game management areas , which provide some protection to game in the form of hunting restrictions . details of the park are found in wcmc\u2019s protected areas database ( http : \\ \\ www . wcmc . org . uk ) . the large lavushi manda national park falls within the central zambezian miombo woodland ecoregion , but includes some cryptosepalum forest patches along rivers within miombo brachystegia - julbernardia woodland vegetation .\nthe pygmy batis is an active , arboreal bird which lives in pairs or small family groups . its habits are considered to be likely to be similar to other savannah batises . they feed mainly within the foliage and glean most of their insect prey from leaves and twigs , with a small proportion taken on the wing . it will join other bird species in mixed foraging parties . the breeding biology is almost unknown but egg laying probably occurs in february and march .\nthe habits of the forest batis are little known , there have been indications of breeding behaviour in may and june in kenya , september and october in tanzania and a single nest with a clutch of 2 eggs has been recorded . like other batises the largest groups seen are small family groups and pairs are territorial . calling males make a repetitive , slow series of hu - hu - hu - hu whistles and they puff their white throat feathers out while performing this song .\nthe pygmy batis , as its name suggests , is a tint , rather dumpy but dapper black , white and grey bird with similarities to the flycatchers . the male has a bluish - grey head and back with a contrasting black face mask and short white supercilium above the yellow eye . the rump and lower back are spotted with white and the rump feathers are relatively long giving a fluffy appearance . it has black wings which have a broad white strip formed by the broad white edges to feathers of the median and greater coverts , and the inner secondaries and tertials . the tail is black but the outer tail feathers have white edges and tips . the underparts are white , broken with a narrow black breast band . the females are similar to the males but have a pale rufous - buff breast band and chin and the face mask , supercilium and wing stripe are buffy brown . the bill and legs are black . the pygmy batis has a body length of 8\u20139 cm and a weight of 5\u20139g .\ntaxonomy : batis reichenowi grote , 1911 , mikindani , tanzania . forms a superspecies with b . capensis , b . mixta , b . crypta and b . fratrum , probably also with b . margaritae and b . diops . formerly considered a race of b . capensis or , more often , of b . mixta ; has some characteristics of both , and recent genetic and morphological information links it most closely to latter ; contrary to some published statements , however , there is no acoustic evidence for its inclusion in either . monotypic .\nthe habits of the angola batis are little known , it feeds on insects which are often caught in the air by sallying from a perch , a behaviour called\nflycatching\n. the appear to be rather solitary , like other batises , being recorded mainly as single or in pairs . the cup shaped nest is built by both sexes from strips of bark and spider webs and is placed in the fork of a small tree at around head height . the only recorded cluches have consisted of 2 eggs . breeding behaviour has been observed in the democratic republic of congo in july .\nthe dark batis is about 10 centimetres in length and weighs 10 - 15 grams . it has a dark bill and legs and red eyes . the male is white below with a broad black breastband . above it has a dark grey crown , grey back with some black feather - tips , a black face - mask and black wings with a white stripe . the female has a greyish crown , brownish back , dark mask , slight white supercilium and a narrow rufous stripe on the wing . below it has a rufous chin - spot and breast with whitish tips to some of the feathers .\ntaxonomy : batis crypta fjelds\u00e5 et al . , 2006 , mdandu forest , kipengere range west of njombe , ludewa district , iringa region , tanzania . until very recently was included as part of nominate race of b . mixta , but , following study of clear - cut morphological change in c tanzania and genetic differences , found to be a separate species ; related also to b . capensis , range of which it approaches without overlap in n malawi . these three belong to a superspecies that also includes b . reichenowi and b . fratrum , and probably also b . margaritae and b . diops . monotypic .\nthe senegal batis maintains a territory throughout the year which the male patrols daily , sitting on high open perches and singing . the territory is shared with the female and with any immatures from the previous years , and they are sometimes seen in family groups . if intruders are seen then the male undertakes and aggressive display which involves an upright stance with the bill held vertically , the breast and crown feather fluffed out , swinging his rear end while jerking his tail . in flight the aggressive display is a bouncing flight with the bill held up and the crown and rump fluffed out . it will also aggressively mob shrikes , especially the brubru with bill snapping and wing fripping but uses different behaviour when mobbing hornbills , cuckoos and pearl - spotted owlets or snakes . when mobbing the owlet it crouches , raises its head and shoulders and flicks its tail , the snakes are mobbed by hovering , rattling calls and bill snapping .\nthe angola batis is a small pied songbird with a rather dumpy appearance and a restless nature . the adult males have a buish greyforehead and crown with a small white spot on the lores and a glossy black mask across the eyes , extending on to the nape and down the sides of the neck with a white spot on the nape . it has a grey mantle , blackish scapulars with the back , rump and uppertail covers being blackish grey with white spots . the wings have black flight feathers with narrow white edges . there is a white wing stripe . the trail is black with white outer tail feathers . the underparts are white except for a black band across the breast and the greyish undertail coverts . the eyes are bright yellow while the bill and legs are black . the female is similar to the male but her breast band is chestnut rather than black . they are about 10 cm long and weigh 10 . 4g\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nzoonomen - zoological nomenclature resource , 2011 . 10 . 27 , website ( version 27 - oct - 11 )\nzoonomen - zoological nomenclature resource\nmaintained by alan p . peterson at urltoken\nwelcome to itis , the integrated taxonomic information system ! here you will find authoritative taxonomic information on plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world . we are a\n) ; other organizations ; and taxonomic specialists . itis is also a partner of\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : although this species may have a restricted range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be not uncommon to locally common ( urban et al . 1997 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n) . small flycatcher - like and shrike - like bird with contrasting black , grey and white ( and some rufous ) colours . male . . .\ncall note a soft whistle , repeated usually about ten times ( up to 26 times recorded ) ; loud alarm . . .\nnominate race occurs in evergreen forest on upper slopes of mt moco , which rises to over 2500 m . . . .\na nest found at mt moco , angola , in mid - jul contained 2 eggs ; the nest , placed in the fork of a sapling at c . 90 cm above the ground , was . . .\nnot globally threatened . has in the past been considered near - threatened . common in its very small range in angola and zambia , but known to occur at only a few localities ; . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nalthough this species may have a restricted range , it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nplease note that the google map for common species will load slowly as there is a lot of data to show . please be patient .\nenglish spanish online dictionary term bank , where you can search in more than 2 million words in categories and different pronunciation options .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 langenscheidt digital gmbh & co . kg , all rights reserved .\nenglish german online dictionary term bank , where you can search in more than 2 million words in categories and different pronunciation options .\nsorry , preview is currently unavailable . you can download the paper by clicking the button above .\nenter the email address you signed up with and we ' ll email you a reset link .\nborrow , n . ( 2005 ) angola , 22 november - 14 december 2005 , tour report . unpublished report . available : urltoken ( accessed 30 / 4 / 2006 ) . [ report on birding in angola , including mount moco ]\nbrooke , r . k . ( 1970 ) geographical variation and distribution in apus barbatus , a . bradfieldi and a . niansae . ( aves : apodidae ) . durban mus . novit . 8 : 363\u2013374 . [ discussses the moco specimen ]\ncleere , n . ( 1995 ) the identification , taxonomy and distribution of the mountain nightjar caprimulgus poliocephalus / fiery - necked nightjar c . pectoralis complex . bull . abc 2 : 86\u201397 . [ information on ruwenzori nightjar , found at mount moco ]\ndean , w . r . j . ( 2000 ) the birds of angola . bou checklist series : 18 . tring , uk : british ornithologists\u2019 union .\ndean , w . r . j . ( 2001 ) angola . pages 71\u201391 in fishpool , l . d . c . and evans , m . i . ( eds ) . important birds areas in africa and associated islands : priority sites for conservation . birdlife conservation series no . 11 . newbury and cambridge , uk : pisces publications and birdlife international .\nheinrich , g . ( 1958a ) zur verbreitung und lebensweise der v\u00f6gel von angola . j . ornithol . 99 : 121\u2013141 .\nheinrich , g . ( 1958b ) zur verbreitung und lebensweise der v\u00f6gel von angola . systematischer teil i ( galli - muscicapidae ) . j . ornithol . 99 : 322\u2013362 .\nheinrich , g . ( 1958c ) zur verbreitung und lebensweise der v\u00f6gel von angola . systematischer teil iii ( hirundinidae - fringillidae ) . j . ornithol . 99 : 399\u2013421 .\nhuntley b . j . and matos , e . m . ( 1994 ) botanical diversity and its conservation in angola . stelitzia 7 : 53\u201374 .\npinto , a . a . ( 1983 ) ornitologia de angola . vol . 1 . lisbon : instituto de investigac\u00e3o cientifica tropical .\nsinclair , i . , spottiswoode , c . , cohen , c . mills , m . , cassidy , r . , vaz pinto , p . and ryan , p . ( 2004 ) . birding western angola . bull abc 11 ( 2 ) : 152\u2013159 .\nstattersfield , a . j . , crosby , m . j . , long , a . j . and wege , d . c . ( 1998 )\n. birdlife conservation series no . 7 . cambridge , uk : birdlife international .\nfound mostly in zambia , this distinctive evergreen forest is confined to an area around the kabompo river . dominated by crypotsepalum exfoliatum pseudotaxus , this is the largest area of tropical evergreen forest outside the equatorial zone . growing on infertile kalahari sands and with no permanent surface water , the cryptosepalum dry forest has remained relatively uninhabited . these forests represent a transition from guineo - congolian rain forest to zambezian woodlands and are hence species - rich , but contain few endemics . the avifauna is especially rich , with a mixture of moist evergreen species , woodland species and wide - ranging species . however , little research has been conducted in this inaccessible region and basic ecological and habitat use assessments are still needed .\nthe ecoregion has a tropical savanna climate with mean annual temperatures between 20\u00b0 and 22\u00b0 c . the annual temperature range averages around 8\u00b0 c . mean maximum temperatures are 28\u00b0 to 30\u00b0 c , and minimum temperatures are around 7\u00b0 to 8\u00b0 c ( schulze and mcgee 1978 ) . mean annual precipitation ranges from 800 to 1 , 200 mm . three seasons can be distinguished : a hot , dry season from august to october ; a hot , wet season from november to april ; and a cool , dry season from may to july .\nbiodiversity features although the flora and fauna of the cryptosepalum dry evergreen forests is distinct from surrounding ecoregions , there is only moderate species richness for most taxonomic groups and low levels of endemism . the area is , however , relatively poorly known biologically , and species values are likely to be underestimated .\ncryptosepalum forests have a distinct and relatively rich avifauna with 381 known species , comprising a mixture of moist evergreen forest species , elements of the brachystegia woodland avifauna , and some widespread species . the highest levels of species richness are found where local habitat disturbance ( such as shifting cultivation ) has resulted in a mosaic of tree savanna , thicket , savanna woodland and forest ( oatley 1969 ) .\nthe ecoregion supports 34 species of reptiles and 14 species of amphibians , with no endemics . its reptile and amphibian fauna falls into a broad transition zone between the tropical fauna that has its centre in the mozambique plain , and the cape fauna of southwestern south africa . relatively few reptiles inhabit evergreen forest , and those that do are most likely to be encountered at the forest edge in clearings where the sun penetrates ( poynton and broadley 1978 ) .\ntypes and severity of threats this ecoregion does not appear to be seriously threatened , although a lack of knowledge prevents a detailed assessment . for reasons discussed above , habitat fragmentation and destruction have not yet occurred on a large scale , and are unlikely to do so in the short - to medium - term given the sparse ( if growing ) human population , lack of water , and poor agricultural potential .\npoaching is a general threat to wildlife in southwestern zambia , even within protected areas . lack of management , infrastructure and funds in protected areas make poaching very difficult to control , and although no data is available , west lunga is unlikely to be an exception . however , due to their remoteness and impenetrability , the cryptosepalum forests are probably less heavily poached than other , more open reserves in more populated areas .\nthis ecoregion forms part of larger complex of caesalpinoid woodland ecoregions that support wet and dry miombo , mopane , thicket , dry forests , baikiaea woodland , and flooded grassland habitats , among others . the dominance of caesalpinoid trees is a defining feature of this bioregion ( i . e . , a complex of biogeographically related ecoregions ) . major habitat types ( e . g . , mopane and miombo ) and the geographic separation of populations of large mammals are used to discriminate ecoregions within this larger region . all of these ecoregions contain habitats that differ from their assigned biome or defining habitat type . for example , patches of dry forest occur within larger landscapes of miombo woodlands in several areas . more detailed biogeographic analyses should map the less dominant habitat types that occur within the larger ecoregions .\nreferences ansell , w . f . h . 1960 . mammals of northern rhodesia . government printer , lusaka .\ndarling , f . f . 1960 . wild life in an african territory . oxford university press , london .\noatley , t . b . 1969 . bird ecology in the evergreen forests of northwestern zambia . the puku 5 : 141 - 179\npoynton , j . c . and d . g . broadley . 1978 . the herpetofauna . m . j . a . werger , editor . biogeography and ecology of southern africa . w . junk , the hague .\nsibley , c . g . and b . l . monroe , jr . 1993 . distribution and taxonomy of birds of the world . ibis , vista , ca .\nvan der straeten , e . 1980 . a new species of lemniscomys ( muridae ) from zambia . annals of the cape provincial museums , natural history 13 : 55 - 62 .\nvan gils , h . 1988 . environmental profile of western province , zambia . itc report to provincial planning unit , mongu , zambia .\nwerger , m . j . a . and b . j . coetzee . 1978 . the sudano - zambezian region . m . j . a . werger , editor . biogeography and ecology of southern africa . w . junk , the hague .\nwhite , f . 1983 . the vegetation of africa . a descriptive memoir to accompany the unesco / aetfat / unso vegetation map of africa ( 3 plates , northwestern africa , northeastern africa , and southern africa , 1 : 5 , 000 , 000 ) . unesco , paris .\nwild , h . and l . a . grandvaux barbosa . 1967 . vegetation map of the flora zambesiaca area . flora zambesiaca supplement 1 - 71 . collins , salisbury .\nwinterbottom , j . m . 1978 . birds . m . j . a . werger , editor . biogeography and ecology of southern africa . w . junk , the hague .\nworld wildlife fund 1250 24th street , n . w . washington , dc 20037\nit is found in the eastern arc mountains of east africa from the ukaguru mountains and uluguru mountains of central tanzania south - westwards as far as the misuku hills in northernmost malawi .\nit inhabits evergreen forest from 540 to 2 , 140 metres above sea - level and is most common around 1 , 500 metres . it forages mainly in the lower and middle levels of trees , feeding on insects such as termites .\nthe preferred habitat is scrub made up of senegalia spp , commiphora spp and other\nthorn\nspecies in arid and semi - arid lowlands with rainfall falling between 250mm and 500mm per year . also found in wooded and bushy grassland , but avoids riverine forest .\nthe adult male has a velvety black head with a white loral spot and narrow supercilium , the head colour fades to blackish - grey on the hindcrown and is separated from the back by a white collar . the mantle and back are velvety - black with a mottled rump which has long , fluffy feathers . the wings are very black with a contrasting white wingstripe . the tail is black with white outer tail feathers . the underparts are white except for a glossy black breast band . the bill and legs are black and the eyes are golden yellow . the females is similar to the male but has a smaller loral spot and supercilium and has a narrower dark grey breast band . they are small birds measuring 9\u201310 cm in length and weighing 8\u201312g .\nthe song is a series of high , evenly pitched thin short notes\npee - pee - pee - pee\nwhich resembles a squeaky bicycle pump .\ngreeney , h . f . , martin , p . r . , gelis , r . a . , solano - ugalde , a . , bonier , f . , freeman , b . & miller , e . t .\nfirst records of white - winged nyctibius leucopterus and rufous potoos n . bracteatus in venezuela\ngender agreement of avian species - group names under article 31 . 2 . 2 of the iczn code\nhandschuh , m . , van zalinge , r . n . , olsson , u . , samphos , p . , chamnan , h . & evans , t . d .\nremarks concerning the all - black coastal boubous ( laniarius spp . ) of kenya and southern somalia\ndowsett - lemaire , f . , demey , r . & dowsett , r . j .\nsilva , m . , albuquerque fran\u00e7a , b . r . , lima hagi , l . y . g . , neto , m . r . , oliveira , d . v . & pichorim , m .\nsign up for the boc email newsletter to receive the latest news , updates , and reminders of upcoming events .\nview the table of contents , selected abstracts , full text or pdfs of individual papers from the latest boc bulletin .\nview videos of talks presented by dr nigel collar and justin jansen at recent boc regular meetings .\nthis website uses cookies . by continuing to browse the site , you are agreeing to our use of cookies .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nc . h . b . grant & mackworth - praed , 1940 \u2013 e red sea province of ne sudan .\n10\u201311 cm ; 8\u00b78\u201313\u00b74 g . small flycatcher - like and shrike - like bird with contrasting black , grey and white ( and some rufous ) colours . male nominate race has forehead . . .\ndescribed as bell - like , usually 4 notes or metallic clicking and a series of high - pitched notes ; . . .\nvegetation near large rivers in arid and semi - arid regions . habitat also described as dry savanna . . .\ndiet insects ; ants ( hymenoptera ) recorded . uses lower part or centre of tree . very active . gleans from foliage .\ncircumstantial evidence indicates season from feb to , probably , jul . territorial . nest a neat small cup of bark and lichens , bound with . . .\nnot globally threatened . status not well known , as very few ornithologists have field experience with this species and probably only few are able to identify it correctly . . . .\nmarginal range overlap with b . molitor from n namibia e to n south africa ; some interaction between the two ( including imitation of call in order to establish interspecific territories ) , also interspecific response to playback of sounds , recorded by researchers . two subspecies recognized .\n11\u201312 cm ; 7\u00b75\u201314 g . small flycatcher - like and shrike - like bird with contrasting black , grey and white ( and some orange - yellow ) colours . male is grey . . .\na long series of whistles . repeats same note slowly twice or three times , sometimes longer series . . .\ndiet insects , including large lepidopterans . forages in middle and lower layers of bushes and trees , seldom higher than 5 m . very active . . . .\nseason mainly oct\u2013jan , vaguely related to rainfall pattern ; may breed opportunistically at any time of year . territorial , defends . . .\nnot globally threatened . locally common . virtual absence from arid woodland on the hartveld of e botswana is remarkable , particularly because this species occupies similar . . .\nfatbirder - linking birders worldwide . . . wildlife travellers see our sister site : wand\nplatysteiridae is a family of small stout passerine birds of the african tropics . the family contains the wattle - eyes and batises . they were previously classed as a subfamily of the old world flycatcher family muscicapidae .\nthese insect - eating birds are found in usually open forests or bush . they hunt by flycatching , or by taking prey from the ground like a shrike . the nest is a small neat cup low in a tree or bush .\nplatysteiridae is a family of small stout passerine birds of the african tropics . the family contains the wattle - eyes and batises ( the shrike - flycatchers have also been re - located ) . they were previously classed as a subfamily of the old world flycatcher family muscicapidae .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) .\ntaxonomy : megabyas flammulata j . verreaux and e . verreaux , 1855 , \u201crivi\u00e8re d\u2019angers\u201d = river muni , gabon . genus sometimes treated as a subgenus of bias . proposed race carolathi ( from angola ) considered synonymous with aequatorialis . two subspecies recognized .\nthe population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nplatyrhynchos musicus vieillot , 1818 , malimbe , cabinda , north angola . some authors separate birds from angola as race pallidiventris , birds from uganda as femininus , those from kenya and e tanzania as changamwensis , and those from zimbabwe , malawi and mozambique as clarens , on basis mainly of paler and more spotted plumage ( of female and immature male ) ; these characteristics are variable , however , and naming of geographical races considered unwarranted . treated as monotypic .\nthe population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be . . .\nthis species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) .\nthis species occurs in southern and central tanzania and extreme north - western malawi , where it is patchily distributed in montane areas .\ntaxonomy : pachyprora mixta shelley , 1889 , mount kilimanjaro , 6000 - 7000 feet [ c . 1830 - 2130m ] , tanzania . forms a superspecies with b . capensis , b . reichenowi , b . crypta and b . fratrum , probably also with b . margaritae and b . diops . until very recently included b . crypta as part of nominate race , but the two found to differ morphologically and genetically ; also , formerly often treated as conspecific with b . reichenowi . according to new study , race ultima , which has in the past been included in b . fratrum , is weakly differentiated from nominate . two subspecies tentatively recognized .\nthe population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\ndespite it not having a large range , this species is not thought to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) .\nthe white - tailed shrike ( lanioturdus torquatus ) occurs only in western angola and namibia and inhabits thorn scrub brush . the species spends a great deal of its time foraging on the ground where it hops from bush to bush scanning the leaves for any insect prey .\nn . a small genus of plants constituting the family batidaceae : low straggling dioecious shrubs .\nn . a generic name applied to the rays or skates : equivalent to raia .\nn . a genus of dicotyledonous shrubs , the type and only genus of the family batidace\u00e6 .\nfrom wordnet 3 . 0 copyright 2006 by princeton university . all rights reserved .\npractical taxidermy a manual of instruction to the amateur in collecting , preserving , and setting up natural history specimens of all kinds . to which is added a chapter upon the pictorial arrangement of museums . with additional instructions in modelling and artistic taxidermy .\nwordnik is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organization , ein # 47 - 2198092 .\nthe adult male has bluish grey upperparts with a black mask across the face , a white spot on the lores and white spots o the rump which are revealed when the long feathers are fluffed out . the underparts are white with a black breast band and blackish thighs . the wings are black with a white stripe , the bill and legs are black while the eyes are red . females are similar in pattern but the upper part colour is more olive in tone , the wings more reddish brown and has a mottled rufous breast band and browner wings . juveniles similar to female but markings less well differentiated . the short black tail is edged with white . it is a small species measuring 9\u00b75\u201310 cm in length and weighing 10\u00b75\u201314\u00b72g .\neast africa from the south eastern coast of kenya and north eastern tanzania including mount kilimanjaro , along the northern eastern arc mountains of tanzania , i . e . nguru , nguu , usambara mountains , pare and kilimanjaro , also in coastal south eastern tanzania .\nat sea level found in coastal forest , miombo woodland and in montane forest up to 2300m on kilimanjaro . it frequents the lower levels of forest and the undergrowth .\nsmall to medium - sized flycatcher - like birds , contrastingly coloured , with rather wide bill , short legs and upright stance ."]}
{"id": 658, "summary": [{"text": "forrest 's pika ( ochotona forresti ) is a species of mammal in the family ochotonidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in bhutan , china , india , and myanmar .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "in india , it has been recorded from arunachal pradesh in the north-east . ", "topic": 27}], "title": "forrest ' s pika", "paragraphs": ["forrest ' s pikas are found in bhutan , china , india and myanmar .\ndark grey area behind each ear\nand these two areas almost meet across the nape in the forrest ' s pika , unlike the pale buffy area which does not meet in the moupin pika\n.\ngenome - wide comparative chromosome map between human and the forrest ' s pika ( ochotona forresti ) established by cross - species chromosome painting : further support for the glires hypothesis .\n70 % of the forrest ' s pika studied had violin shaped\nconfluence of the incisive and palatal foramina due to the abrupt constriction of the sides , whereas this constriction is not found in the moupin pika\n.\ngenome - wide comparative chromosome map between human and the forrest ' s pika ( ochotona forresti ) established by cross - species chromosome painting : f . . . - pubmed - ncbi\nochotona forresti can be distinguished from ochotona gaoligongensis - gaoligong pika by the gaoligong pika ' s brilliant rufous - brown head and neck , and a dull rufous - black back .\nochotona roylei - royle ' s pika\nand with it may form a superspecies\n. ( b605 . 3 . w3 )\nthere is little information on this species and so it is unclear if this species is a burrowing pika , a rock dwelling pika or an intermediate habitat type of pika .\nochotona gaoligongensis - gaoligong pika : from the original description , this form is likely to be proved a synonym or sister species of the forrest ' s pika which also occurs in the same area . they appear to be morphologically similar . ( b605 . 3 . w3 , b607 . w20 )\nthere is little information on this species and so it is unclear if this species is a burrowing pika , a rock - dwelling pika or an intermediate habitat type of pika .\nnote : there is little information on this species and so it is unclear if this species is a burrowing pika , a rock dwelling pika or an intermediate habitat type of pika .\ngenome - wide comparative chromosome map between human and the forrest\u2019s pika ( ochotona forresti ) established by cross - species chromosome painting : further support for the glires hypothesis - fulltext - cytogenetic and genome research 2011 , vol . 132 , no . 1 - 2 - karger publishers\nforrest ' s pika has fairly dark reddish fur , with a dark grey area behind each ear ( nearly meeting each other ) ; the dorsal fur becomes dark grey - brown in winter , while the ventral fur is slightly lighter than this . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )\nr as , r fb r g ra nt s ( a . s . g . ) . f . y . is su pp or ted by th e we ll com e tr us t .\nthe name pika originated from the tungus of siberia who attempted to mimic the call\npeeka\nof the local pika species . ( b285 . w5g )\nochotona gloveri - glover ' s pika : ( the calloceps form ) , yunnan , china ; burma ; and sikkim , india . ( b605 . 3 . w3 ; b607 . w20 )\nit is not known whether this is a rock - dwelling or burrowing pika .\nembryo resorption may occur if the pika encounters adverse conditions . ( b285 . w5a )\nthe o . forresti fibroblast cell line was derived from skin biopsies of a male forrest\u2019s pika collected from gaoligong mountain , yunnan , china . metaphase preparations were made following conventional methods as previously described [ yang et al . , 2003a ] . the o . forresti chromosomes were karyotyped based on inverted dapi - banding patterns that are similar to the g - banding patterns .\nin main characters and size of the skull . however it can be distinguished from this pika\nin this study , we have established the first genome - wide chromosomal homology map between human and forrest\u2019s pika ( ochotona forresti , ofo , 2n = 54 ) by cross - species chromosome painting with human chromosome - specific painting probes . such a map sheds further insight into the ancestral lagomorph karyotype and chromosomal rearrangements underlying the karyotype divergence between leporidae and ochotonidae and provides further support for the glires hypothesis .\nochotona macrotis - large - eared pika ( the chinensis form ) ( b605 . 3 . w3 )\nthe upper incisors ' roots are found in the skull ' s premaxillary bones . however , the length of the lower incisors ' roots varies . (\nnote : there is very little data specific to this species so the details below are from general pika information .\nthis species appears to be a sister species of ochotona erythrotis - chinese red pika . ( b607 . w20 )\nmany species of pika inhabit very restricted ranges and so may be threatened by human environmental disruption . ( b147 )\nochotona thibetana - moupin pika based on a study of the holotype . ( b605 . 3 . w3 , b607 . w20 )\nthe fore claws are notably longer in this species than that of ochotona thibetana - moupin pika . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )\ngeneral pika information : pikas have small , rounded ears which are 12 - 36 mm in length . ( b147 ; b285 . w5g )\nin general , the status of many species of pika is hard to assess because they inhabit such remote areas . ( b285 . w5g )\nochotona nigritia - black pika :\napparently close to o . forresti ; may be only a melanistic individual\n. ( b607 . w20 )\ngeneral pika information : these are shorter in burrowing pikas , such as this species , compared to rock dwelling pikas . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )\npika species living in areas where winter snow is common may also make tunnels in the snow to reach and harvest any nearby vegetation . ( b285 . w5g )\nthis study is supported partly by a grant from the national natural science foundation of china ( no . 30770293 ) and mcb , sb ras , rfbr grants ( a . s . g . ) . f . y . is supported by the wellcome trust .\nchantry - darmon c , bertaud m , urien c , chadi - taourit s , perrocheau m , et al : expanded comparative mapping between man and rabbit and detection of a new conserved segment between hsa22 and ocu4 . cytogenet genome res 111 : 134\u2013139 ( 2005 ) .\npishchukha\nis the russian common name for all species of pika and some gerbils ( rhombomys opimus , meriones tamareiscinus ( muridae - ( family ) ) . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )\n70 % of the ochotona forresti studied had violin shaped\nconfluence of the incisive and palatal foramina due to the abrupt constriction of the sides , whereas this constriction is not found in the moupin pika\n.\ncross - species chromosome painting with human chromosome - specific painting probes has allowed us to construct the first genome - wide comparative chromosome map between human and o . forresti , a representative species of the pika family . an integrated analysis of our comparative chromosome map and the previously published maps [ korstanje et al . , 1999 ; robinson et al . , 2002 ] provides new insight into the comparative genome organization of the lagomorpha .\nlittle or nothing is known regarding the behavior , ecology , and reproduction of ochotona forresti ( smith et al . 1990 ) . o . forresti inhabits mountain slopes at elevations of 2 , 600 to 4 , 400 m in the forest belt ( feng et al . 1986 ) . these high altitude habitats are typically coniferous or mixed broadleaf and conifer forests and shrubland ( smith and xie 2008 ) . it is speculated that this species of pika creates burrows ( smith and xie 2008 ) .\nin spring , summer and / or autumn ( fall ) ( depending on species / location ) many pika species spend much time\nhaying\n- harvesting mouthfuls of vegetation which are carried back to the den for storage . they build up these stores , resembling piles of hay , and use them for consumption during periods of sparse vegetation , often over - harvesting so that it is a rare occurrence for them to run out of food . ( b285 . w5g , b605 . 3 . w3 )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nlissovsky , a . a . 2014 . taxonomic revision of pikas ochotona ( lagomorpha , mammalia ) at the species level . mammalia 78 ( 2 ) : 199\u2013216 .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category .\nochotona forresti ranges from northwest yunnan to northern myanmar . the mapped range in myanmar is totally speculative ( duckworth and thaw pers . comm ) . ochotona forresti occupies elevations of 2 , 600 - 4 , 400 m .\nthe current population status of ochotona forresti is unknown ; there have been no ecological or natural history investigations of this species .\ndue to the general lack of data regarding the population status , behaviour , ecology , and reproduction research in these areas should be undertaken . this species has been regionally assessed in china as near threatened ( jiang et al . 2016 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis species is listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , occurrence in protected areas , and because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category .\nthis species occurs in nujiang and gaoligongshan ( yunnan ) nature reserves in china ( csis 2008 ) . due to the general lack of data regarding the population status , behavior , ecology , and reproduction research in these areas should be undertaken . this species has been regionally assessed in china as near threatened , nearly meeting the criteria for vulnerable under criteria a2c + 3c ( wang and xie 2004 ) .\n. in india , it has been recorded from arunachal pradesh in the north - east .\nsmith , a . t . & johnston , c . h . ( 2008 ) . ochotona forresti . in : iucn 2008 . iucn red list of threatened species . retrieved 10 april 2009 . database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of least concern .\nchoudhury , a . u . ( 2003 ) . the mammals of arunachal pradesh . regency publications , new delhi . 140pp .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthe generic name of ochotona is derived from the mongolian name for pikas :\nogdoi\n. ( b285 . w5g )\npikas are small , egg - shaped , rodent - like lagomorphs which weigh under 500 g . they have rounded , relatively large ears , short legs , and a very short tail which is hardly visible . ( b285 . w5g )\nnewborn pikas are helpless and naked ( b147 , b287 ) or slightly furred . ( b287 )\nrectangular shaped posterior end of the nasals are broader\n. ( b605 . 3 . w3 )\nmale and female pikas are similar in size and can be difficult to tell apart from one another . ( b147 )\n125 - 300 mm , with most species averaging around 200 mm or less . ( b147 )\nrange 4 . 1 - 12 . 7 g , depending on species . ( b287 )\nin general , the head of pikas is blunt and short , and the skull is quite flattened rather than arched . there is also a constriction between the orbits . ( b147 )\nthere are 26 teeth in total - two less than other lagomorphs who have one more upper molar on each side . ( b285 . w5a , b605 . 1 . w1 )\nthe dental formula of pikas is 2 / 1 incisors , 0 / 0 canines , 3 / 2 premolars , and 2 / 3 molars . ( b147 , b605 . 1 . w1 )\nlagomorphs , including pikas , differ from rodents by having two pairs of upper incisors rather than just the one pair . the additional set of incisors are called peg teeth and are found directly behind the long pair in the upper jaw . ( b147 , b285 . w5a , b605 . 1 . w1 )\nat birth , lagomorphs actually have three pairs of upper incisors , but they quickly lose the outer incisor on each side . ( b147 )\n[ note : lagomorphs have teeth which grow throughout their lives . for this reason the portion of the teeth which is not exposed ( not above the gum line ) is strictly speaking not a\nroot\n; however , it is sometimes convenient to describe it as a root . ]\nthe first upper incisors have a cutting edge which is v - shaped . ( b147 )\npikas have high crowned cheek teeth with no roots [ the teeth grow continuously throughout life ] . ( b147 )\nthe lower tooth rows are closer together than the upper tooth rows . ( b147 )\nadult : pikas have eyes positioned to give a broad field of vision ( b285 . w5a )\nnewborn : neonates are blind ; the eyes open at eight to ten days . ( b287 )\nthe hindlimbs are just slightly longer than the forelimbs . ( b147 , b430 . w2 , b605 . 2 . w2 )\nin burrowing pikas , the claws are more straight and powerful than those of the rock dwelling pikas . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )\nthe tail of pikas is virtually absent at a length of 5 mm ( b285 . w5g ) ; it is not visible . ( b147 ; b430 . w2 )\nfine , long , soft and dense coat with fur that covers the feet including the under surface . ( b147 , b285 . w5g )\nmost species have two moults per year with a brighter summer coat - often a yellowish red - and a greyer winter coat . ( b147 )\nnewborn pikas are hairless ( b147 , b287 ) or slightly furred . ( b287 )\nthe uterus is duplex . the placenta is discoid , deciduate and hemochorial , with a mesometrial , superficial implantation . ( b287 )\nthe testes are intra - abdominal outside the breeding season . ( b147 , b287 )\nduring the breeding season they are found in folds of skin at the base of the penis . ( b147 )\nscent glands : pikas have scent glands , as do all lagomorphs . ( b285 . w5a )\nin general , pikas breed twice a year in the spring and summer , and many species will have two or more litters per year . ( b147 )\npikas show induced ovulation and a post - partum oestrus . ( b285 . w5a , b287 )\nin general , burrowing pikas have litters which are twice as large as those of rock dwelling pikas . (\nrock dwelling pikas have few litters per year . they may have two litters annually but often only one is successfully weaned ( b285 . w5g , b605 . 3 . w3 )\nburrowing pikas may have as many as five litters a year , depending on species . ( b285 . w5g )\nburrowing pikas may mature and breed in their summer of birth . however , young rock dwelling pikas will first breed as yearlings . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )\nthe testes are intra - abdominal outside the breeding season ; during the breeding season they are found in folds of skin at the base of the penis ( in lagomorphs , the testes are in front of the penis ) . ( b147 )\nhigh mortality as pikas are prey for many mammals and birds . ( b285 . w5a )\nburrowers : up to three years of age , but usually only one year . ( b285 . w5g )\nburrowing pikas have a high annual mortality , with few animals living more than two years . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )\nrock dwellers : up to seven years old . ( b285 . w5g ) their average mortality is low compared to the burrowing pikas . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )\npikas are herbivorous - they eat grasses , flowering stalks , and leaves . pikas have a preference for those plants highest in protein or other chemicals important to them . ( b285 . w5g )\npikas eat a range of vegetable matter :\nin the summer and early autumn the animals gather grasses , sedges , weeds , and many of the large flowering and woody plants , sometimes climbing a few meters up in trees and out on limbs to cut twigs . the material is sometimes place in exposed locations for curing by the sun\n; many populations create haystacks to store food for winter . ( b147 )\npikas do not hibernate . ( b147 , b285 . w5g , b605 . 3 . w3 )\njaw motion : pikas have a vertical or transverse jaw motion . ( b147 ) ; pikas use a side - to - side jaw motion . ( b285 . w5g )\ncoprophagy : pikas produce two types of faeces , hard faeces like pepper seeds - small green spherical pellets - which are passed during the day ; and soft faeces , sticky and dark green / black , passed at night . faeces of the latter type have high a energy value and b vitamin levels , and are re - ingested . this behaviour , known as coprophagy , may have a similar function to the ruminant behaviour of chewing the cud . ( b147 , b285 . w5a )\npikas are known to be more vocal than other lagomorphs . ( b285 . w5a )\nand a long call used by males during the breeding season which is\na series of squeaks lasting up to 30 seconds\n. some rock dwellers rarely vocalise even weak calls . ( b285 . w5g )\nmuffle and transition calls used by young pikas , which are thought to promote cohesion among siblings . ( b285 . w5g )\npikas have scent glands , as do all lagomorphs . ( b285 . w5a )\npikas are unable to grasp plants with their forepaws ; they eat with a side - to - side jaw motion and carry vegetation in their mouths . ( b285 . w5g )\nsome species continue to forage throughout winter rather than haying , because snows are uncommon . ( b285 . w5g )\neven at a fairly low population density of ten to twelve pikas per hectare , vegetation storage by pikas may be up to 30 kg per hectare . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )\nin the burrowing pikas , the young may form a line behind an adult , usually their father , and follow . ( b285 . w5g )\nit is rare that they interact and usually it is to repel an intruder if they do so . ( b285 . w5g )\neven in a pair of pikas which are contributing to a shared hay pile , they spend a large part of the day apart . ( b285 . w5g )\nthe rock dwelling pikas have large territories defended by the individual ( in north american species ) or defended in pairs ( asian species ) . ( b285 . w5g , b605 . 3 . w3 )\nthe population density is therefore low , at 5 - 25 per acre , and reasonably stable over a period of time . (\npopulation densities of pikas in rocky areas do not usually reach more than 20 per hectare . ( b147 )\nthese pikas are very friendly , sociable mammals that live within family groups where they may play - box , sit in contact , nose rub and spend time socially grooming . ( b285 . w5g )\ncommunal dens house family groups which includes siblings of different ages . ( b285 . w5g )\nthe young may follow behind an adult , usually their father , in a line . ( b285 . w5g )\nhowever , there may be aggression between members of different family groups , in particular , long chases of adult males occur . ( b285 . w5g )\npopulation densities of burrowing steppe dwellers are often much higher than that of the rock dwellers but they are also prone to fluctuate more widely . ( b147 )\nthe population density may be greater than 750 per acre towards the end of the breeding season but this may fluctuate greatly both annually and seasonally . ( b285 . w5g , b605 . 3 . w3 )\nthe maximum density of some steppe pikas is reported to exceed 300 per hectare . ( b147 )\nin general , it appears that pikas are monogamous . ( b285 . w5g , b605 . 3 . w3 )\nmainly active by day . pikas are well - adapted to the cold and sensitive to even moderately warm conditions , therefore they tend to be active only during the cooler parts of the day . ( b285 . w5g )\npikas may be active at all hours , in particular , early morning and evenings . it seems that they are less active on sunny days compared with cloudy days . ( b147 )\npikas which live at high altitudes may be active all day , whereas pikas at warmer , lower altitudes emerge only in the morning and evening . ( b285 . w5g )\nmost pikas live in remote high mountains and wild country and are well adapted to the cold . pikas have become well adapted to living in rocky steppe and alpine habitats . ( b285 . w5g , b605 . 3 . w3 )\nthis species occupies mountain slopes that face the sun . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )\nelevation : 2600 to 4400 metres in the forest belt . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )\nburrowing pikas dig burrows in open alpine meadow , semi desert or steppe environments . ( b285 . w5g )\nrock dwelling pikas nest among rocks or fallen logs . ( b285 . w5g )\ncertain pikas are intermediate in their habitat use in that they burrow but also sometimes live among rocks . however their life history is closer to that of the burrowing pikas . ( b285 . w5g )\nit is common for burrows to be shared with birds or small mammals . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )\nhaypiles created by pikas may provide winter food for domestic cows and horses and also native species such as ungulates or smaller herbivores .\nby recycling soil , burrowing pikas have a positive contribution to ecosystem - level dynamics . ( b605 . 3 . w3 )\ncurrently no species or forms of ochotona are treated on any national list of endangered or threatened wildlife .\n( b605 . 3 . w3 )\nthere are currently no ochotona species cites - listed . ( w354 . april08 . w1 )\niucn - lower risk / near threatened . ( w2 . apr08 . w44 )\nthe status of this species is unknown .\nhowever , its restricted distribution suggests that it may be at some risk\n. ( b605 . 3 . w3 )\ndue to their remote habitat , most pikas\nrarely come into conflict with human economic activity .\n( b147 )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nye j 1 , nie w , wang j , su w , jing m , graphodatsky as , yang f .\nstate key laboratory of genetic resources and evolution , kunming institute of zoology , the chinese academy of sciences , kunming , pr china .\njavascript is currently disabled , this site works much better if you enable javascript in your browser .\nfor manuscript submission , check or review login please go to submission websites list .\nfor the academic login , please select your organization on the next page . you will be redirected to verify your credentials .\nthe order lagomorpha consists of 2 families : leporidae ( hares and rabbits ) , and ochotonidae ( pikas ) , about 91 species [ hoffmann and smith , 2007 ] , of which the domestic rabbit ( oryctolagus cuniculus , 2n = 44 ) is the most well - studied species mainly due to its importance as a model for biomedical research [ korstanje et al . , 1999 ] .\ncomparative cytogenetic studies have made a great contribution to our understanding of karyotype evolution of species within the families leporidae and ochotonidae , respectively [ hsu and benirschke , 1971 ; stock , 1976 ; capanna et al . , 1991 ; ivanitskaya , 1991 ; robinson et al . , 2002 ; robinson , 2006 and literature cited therein ] . however , earlier cross - family comparison based on g - banding has only revealed a few conserved chromosomal segments between representative species from leporidae and ochotonidae , leading to the suggestion that tandem fusion could be responsible for the family - level karyotype divergence in lagomorpha [ stock , 1976 ] .\nfluorescence in situ hybridization ( fish ) images were captured using the genus system ( applied imaging corp . ) as previously described [ yang et al . , 2004 ] . hybridization signals were assigned to specific chromosomes or chromosomal regions as defined by enhanced dapi - banding patterns .\nexamples of cross - species chromosome painting . a hsa chromosome9probe hybridized onto the short arm of o . forresti chromosome 3 . b dapi - banding of the same o . forresti metaphase . c hsa chromosome15probe hybridized onto the long arm of o . forresti chromosome 3 . d dapi - banding of the same o . forresti metaphase .\narnason u , adegoke ja , gullberg a , harley eh , janke a , et al : mitogenomic relationships of placental mammals and molecular estimates of their divergences . gene 421 : 37\u201351 ( 2008 ) .\nasher rj , meng j , wible jr , mckenna mc , rougier gw , et al : stem lagomorpha and the antiquity of glires . science 307 : 1091\u20131094 ( 2005 ) .\nchantry - darmon c , rogel - gaillard c , bertaud m , urien c , perrocheau m , et al : 133 new gene localizations on the rabbit cytogenetic map . cytogenet genome res 103 : 192\u2013201 ( 2003 ) .\nchowdhary bp , raudsepp t , fr\u00f6nicke l , scherthan h : emerging patterns of comparative genome organization in some mammalian species as revealed by zoo - fish . genome res 8 : 577\u2013589 ( 1998 ) .\nferguson - smith ma , trifonov v : mammalian karyotype evolution . nat rev genet 8 : 950\u2013962 ( 2007 ) .\ngraphodatsky as , yang f , dobigny g , romanenko sa , biltueva ls , et al : tracking genome organization in rodents by zoo - fish . chromosome res 16 : 261\u2013274 ( 2008 ) .\nhayes h , rogel - gaillard c , zijlstra c , de haan na , urien c , et al : establishment of an r - banded rabbit karyotype nomenclature by fish localization of 23 chromosome - specific genes on both g - and r - banded chromosomes . cytogenet genome res 98 : 199\u2013205 ( 2002 ) .\nhoffmann rs , smith at : lagomorphs , in wilson de , reeder dm ( eds ) : mammal species of the world ( smithsonian institution press , washington 2007 ) .\nhsu tc , benirschke k : an atlas of mammalian chromosomes . vol 6 , folio 265 ( springer , berlin 1971 ) .\n( ochotonidae , lagomorpha ) , in zaitsev ev ( ed ) : questions of systematics , faunistics and palaeontology of small mammals ( proceeding of the zoological institute press , petersburg 1991 ) .\n) and human by reciprocal chromosome painting . cytogenet cell genet 86 : 317\u2013322 ( 1999 ) .\nkriegs jo , churakov g , jurka j , brosius j , schmitz j : evolutionary history of 7sl rna - derived sines in supraprimates . trends genet 23 : 158\u2013161 ( 2007 ) .\nli t , o\u2019brien pc , biltueva l , fu b , wang j , et al : evolution of genome organizations of squirrels ( sciuridae ) revealed by cross - species chromosome painting . chromosome res 12 : 317\u2013335 ( 2004 ) .\nli t , wang j , su w , nie w , yang f : karyotypic evolution of the family sciuridae : inferences from the genome organizations of ground squirrels . cytogenet genome res 112 : 270\u2013276 ( 2006 ) .\nluckett wp , hartenberger jl : monophyly or polyphyly of the order rodentia : possible conflict between morphological and molecular interpretations . j mamm evol 1 : 127\u2013147 ( 1993 ) .\nmurphy wj , eizirik e , johnson we , zhang yp , ryder oa , et al : molecular phylogenetics and the origins of placental mammals . nature 409 : 614\u2013618 ( 2001a ) .\nmurphy wj , stanyon r , o\u2019brien sj : evolution of mammalian genome organization inferred from comparative gene mapping . genome biol 2 : 1\u20138 ( 2001b ) .\nnie w , fu b , o\u2019brien pc , wang j , su w , et al : flying lemurs \u2013 the \u2018flying tree shrews\u2019 ? molecular cytogenetic evidence for a scandentia - dermoptera sister clade . bmc biol 6 : 18 ( 2008 ) .\nreyes a , gissi c , catzeflis f , nevo e , pesole g , et al : congruent mammalian trees from mitochondrial and nuclear genes using bayesian methods . mol biol evol 21 : 397\u2013403 ( 2004 ) .\n, rodentia sciuridae ) as demonstrated by zoo - fish with human probes . chromosome res 11 : 597\u2013603 ( 2003 ) .\nrobinson tj : order lagomorpha , in o\u2019brien sj , menninger jc , nash wg ( eds ) : atlas of mammalian chromosomes . ( john wiley and sons , hoboken 2006 ) .\nrobinson tj , yang f , harrison wr : chromosome painting refines the history of genome evolution in hares and rabbits ( order lagomorpha ) . cytogenet genome res 96 : 223\u2013227 ( 2002 ) .\nschneider a , cannarozzi gm : support patterns from different outgroups provide a strong phylogenetic signal . mol biol evol 26 : 1259\u20131272 ( 2009 ) .\nstanyon r , stone g , garcia m , froenicke l : reciprocal chromosome painting shows that squirrels , unlike murid rodents , have a highly conserved genome organization . genomics 82 : 245\u2013249 ( 2003 ) .\nstock ad : chromosome banding pattern relationships of hares , rabbits and pikas ( order lagomorpha ) . a phyletic interpretation . cytogenet cell genet 17 : 78\u201388 ( 1976 ) .\nsvartman m , stone g , stanyon r : the ancestral eutherian karyotype is present in xenarthra . plos genet 2 : e109 ( 2006 ) .\ntelenius h , pelmear ah , tunnacliffe a , carter np , behmel a , et al : cytogenetic analysis by chromosome painting using dop - pcr amplified flow - sorted chromosomes . genes chromosomes cancer 4 : 257\u2013263 ( 1992 ) .\ntrifonov va , stanyon r , nesterenko ai , fu b , perelman pl , et al : multidirectional cross - species painting illuminates the history of karyotypic evolution in perissodactyla . chromosome res 16 : 89\u2013107 ( 2008 ) .\nyang f , o\u2019brien pcm , milne bs , graphodatsky as , solanky n , et al : a complete comparative chromosome map for the dog , red fox , and human and its integration with canine genetic maps . genomics 62 : 189\u2013202 ( 1999 ) .\nyang f , fu b , o\u2019brien pc , robinson tj , ryder oa , et al : karyotypic relationships of horses and zebras : results of cross - species chromosome painting . cytogenet genome res 102 : 235\u2013243 ( 2003a ) .\nyang f , alkalaeva ez , perelman pl , pardini at , harrison wr , et al : reciprocal chromosome painting among human , aardvark , and elephant ( superorder afrotheria ) reveals the likely eutherian ancestral karyotype . proc natl acad sci usa 100 : 1062\u20131066 ( 2003b ) .\nyang f , fu b , o\u2019brien pc , nie w , ryder oa , et al : refined genome - wide comparative map of the domestic horse , donkey and human based on cross - species chromosome painting : insight into the occasional fertility of mules . chromosome res 12 : 65\u201376 ( 2004 ) .\nthat is why , we would like to ask you to participate in our survey . to show our appreciation for your participation , we are offering a number of attractive prizes such as the unique vesalius : the fabric of the human body ( value chf 1 , 500 ) or amazon vouchers ( value chf 200 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\n1993 ; murphy et al . , 2001a ; reyes et al . , 2004 ; a\nv , 2007 for review ; nie et al . , 2008 ] . nevertheless ,\nrmed by a later study [ chantry - darmon et a l . , 2005 ]\n. . . thus , o . huangensis is significantly diverging from the main group of the subgenus ochotona by main karyotypic characteristics that corresponds to the data of mtdna study ( yu et al . 2000 , niu et al . 2004 ) . the recent cytogenetic study of o . forresti ( 2n = 54 ) ( ye et al . 2011 ) also greatly expands karyotypic variability of the subgenus conothoa . as yet , the karyotypes of eight species of the subgenus conothoa and three species of the subgenus ochotona are not investigated . . . .\n. . . the presence of the nox5 gene in rabbits makes the rabbit a potentially useful model to study nox5 gene functions . its presence in rabbits and its absence in rodents indicates it is a potential genetic marker to study the taxonomic position of lagomorpha in monophyletic clade glires [ 30 , 31 ] . . . .\n. . . indicates that this specimen is currently accessioned as o . thibetana thibetana in the amnh collection . the forresti specimen used in ye et al . ( 2011 ) , was never accessioned into a collection and has been subsequently lost . to test potential morphological differences between l . melainus and sympatric l . mandshuricus , measurements of l . melainus and l . mandshuricus published by li and luo ( 1979 ) and luo ( 1988 ) were analyzed . . . .\n. . . the 4 th group also from the same geographical area reported by hayata and shimba ( 1969 ) ; vorontsov and ivanitskaya ( 1973 ) which having the chromosome number 2n = 40 to 42 . the 3 rd group reported from qinghai tibet plateau having the chromosome number 2n = 46 to 54 reported by vorontsov and ivanitskaya ( 1973 ) ; ivanitskaya ( 1978 ) ; tan and bai ( 1987 ) ; ye et al . ( 2011 ) etc . the second group is having chromosome number 2n = 60 to 62 from the surrounding himalayan areas ( nadler et al . , 1969 ; vorontsov and ivanitskaya , 1973 ; capanna et al . , 1991 ; puget and berland , 2008 ) . . . .\nreconstruction of karyotype evolution in core glires . i . the genome homology revealed by comparative chromosome painting\nkaryotypic evolution of the family sciuridae : inferences from the genome organizations of ground squ . . .\ncross - species chromosome painting has made a great contribution to our understanding of the evolution of karyotypes and genome organizations of mammals . several recent papers of comparative painting between tree and flying squirrels have shed some light on the evolution of the family sciuridae and the order rodentia . in the present study we have extended the comparative painting to the . . . [ show full abstract ]\nreconstruction of karyotype evolution in core glires . i . the genome homology revealed by comparative . . .\nglires represent a eutherian clade consisting of rodents and lagomorphs ( hares , rabbits , and pikas ) . chromosome evolution of glires is known to have variable rates in different groups : from slowly evolving lagomorphs and squirrels to extremely rapidly evolving muroids . previous interordinal homology maps between slowly evolving glires were based on comparison with humans . here , we used sets of . . . [ show full abstract ]\nkaryotype evolution of giraffes ( giraffa camelopardalis ) revealed by cross - species chromosome painti . . .\nconsidering the giraffe ( giraffa camelopardalis , gca , 2n = 30 ) as a primitive species , its comparative genomic data are critical for our understanding of the karyotype evolution of pecorans . here , we have established genome - wide chromosomal homologies between giraffe , chinese muntjac ( muntiacus reevesi , mre , 2n = 46 ) and human ( homo sapiens , hsa , 2n = 46 ) with whole sets of chromosome - specific . . . [ show full abstract ]\nthe number of rodent species examined by modern comparative genomic approaches , particularly chromosome painting , is limited . the use of human whole - chromosome painting probes to detect regions of homology in the karyotypes of the rodent index species , the mouse and rat , has been hindered by the highly rearranged nature of their genomes . in contrast , recent studies have demonstrated that . . . [ show full abstract ]"]}
{"id": 792, "summary": [{"text": "bucculatrix latella is a moth in the bucculatricidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from california and arizona .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 9.5 \u2013 12 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are white , with scattered minute brown-tipped pale ocherous scales .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the hindwings are white or whitish ocherous . ", "topic": 1}], "title": "bucculatrix latella", "paragraphs": ["californa moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 25608 genus : bucculatrix species : latella sex : location : loma linda county : san bernardino collector : coll _ date : specimen _ loc : url : htt . . . more\nbucculatrix kimballi is a moth in the bucculatricidae family . it is found in north america , where it has been recorded from florida and texas .\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 5490 genus : bucculatrix species : ceanothiella sex : location : fairmont ridge , se san leandro county : alameda collector : hsu , powell coll _ da . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 25607 genus : bucculatrix species : insolita sex : location : san bernardino mts county : san bernardino collector : coll _ date : specimen _ loc : . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 25606 genus : bucculatrix species : micropunctata sex : location : needles county : san bernardino collector : coll _ date : specimen _ loc : url : . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 29872 genus : bucculatrix species : albaciliella sex : location : prisoner ' s harbor , sta cruz is county : santa barbara collector : j . powell co . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 5486 genus : bucculatrix species : dominatrix sex : location : strawberry cyn county : alameda collector : j . powell coll _ date : jun 20 90 specim . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 5488 genus : bucculatrix species : taeniola sex : location : del valle lake rec area county : alameda collector : whitfield , wagner coll _ date : f . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 8599 genus : bucculatrix species : ericameriae sex : location : placerville county : el dorado collector : coll _ date : specimen _ loc : url : http . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 14348 genus : bucculatrix species : eurotiella sex : location : lancaster county : los angeles collector : a . koebele coll _ date : in may 1890 spe . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 23638 genus : bucculatrix species : nigripunctella sex : location : pinyon crest county : riverside collector : r . h . leuschner coll _ date : jul 22 . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 1062 genus : bucculatrix species : tetradymiae sex : f location : oro grande wash county : san bernardino collector : not given coll _ date : apr 25 . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 21135 genus : bucculatrix species : sexnotata sex : location : upper sagehen cr county : nevada collector : j . powell coll _ date : jul 15 66 speci . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 6060 genus : bucculatrix species : tridenticola sex : location : carson pass county : alpine collector : coll _ date : in aug specimen _ loc : cdfa u . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 5484 genus : bucculatrix species : ochristrigella sex : location : oakland county : alameda collector : coll _ date : specimen _ loc : url : https : / . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 7553 genus : bucculatrix species : columbiana sex : location : pt molate , richmond county : contra costa collector : j . powell coll _ date : nov 19 . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 7548 genus : bucculatrix species : longula sex : location : walnut creek county : contra costa collector : j . powell coll _ date : may 16 67 specim . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 10977 genus : bucculatrix species : enceliae sex : location : ocotillo county : imperial collector : coll _ date : in apr specimen _ loc : cdfa url : . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 14351 genus : bucculatrix species : koebelella sex : location : el segundo dunes county : los angeles collector : r . h . leuschner coll _ date : sep . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 14347 genus : bucculatrix species : seneciensis sex : location : mint cyn county : los angeles collector : coll _ date : specimen _ loc : url : http . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 5491 genus : bucculatrix species : quadrigemina sex : location : berkeley , 2135 calif . st . county : alameda collector : f . sperling coll _ date : o . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 5489 genus : bucculatrix species : albertiella sex : location : 2135 ca . st berkeley county : alameda collector : f . sperling coll _ date : aug 18 97 . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 5487 genus : bucculatrix species : separabilis sex : location : berkeley campus county : alameda collector : d . l . wagner coll _ date : apr 10 83 sp . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 7555 genus : bucculatrix species : zophopasta sex : location : ygnacio valley county : contra costa collector : p . a . opler coll _ date : aug 20 68 . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 5485 genus : bucculatrix species : variabilis sex : location : 2135 ca . st berkeley county : alameda collector : f . sperling coll _ date : may 16 967 . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 7552 genus : bucculatrix species : transversata ? sex : location : antioch nwr county : contra costa collector : j . powell coll _ date : jun 15 82 s . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 12234 genus : bucculatrix species : viguierae sex : location : kernville county : kern collector : r . h . leuschner coll _ date : sep 15 73 specimen _ . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 26942 genus : bucculatrix species : franseriae sex : location : pala county : san diego collector : r . h . leuschner coll _ date : jan 19 86 specimen . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 14352 genus : bucculatrix species : leptalea sex : location : bob ' s gap , pearblossom county : los angeles collector : r . h . leuschner coll _ date : . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 11245 genus : bucculatrix species : evanescens sex : location : olancha county : inyo collector : coll _ date : specimen _ loc : url : https : / / essig . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 11246 genus : bucculatrix species : floccosa sex : location : olancha county : inyo collector : coll _ date : specimen _ loc : url : https : / / essigdb . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 13813 genus : bucculatrix species : seorsa sex : location : wendel county : lassen collector : coll _ date : in jun specimen _ loc : cdfa url : https : . . . more\ncaliforna moth specimen database record details seq _ num : 22035 genus : bucculatrix species : illecebrosa sex : location : colfax county : placer collector : coll _ date : specimen _ loc : url : https : / / ess . . . more\ncompiled from kelly richers ' california moth specimen database . kelly has been compiling the database since 1996 from literature sources , museum collections , and ( i believe ) novel collections . these lists are probably not comprehensive ( if such a thing is possible for such a diverse group of organisms ) , but given kelly ' s dedication and the degree of sampling in the state , it ' s probably pretty close at the state and regional level , and approaching that state at the county level . all errors are my own , and if you find any , please let me know .\nsource : richers , k . ( 2015 ) . california moth specimen database . essig museum of entomology , berkeley , ca . accessed 24 22 2015 . ( link )\ncheck lists for individual taxa that live here , e . g .\nbirds of california\n.\nfile should be in the following format : taxon name , description , occurrence status , establishment means . csv should not contain a header row . allowed occurrence status values : present , common , uncommon , irregular , doubtful , absent allowed establish means values : native , endemic , introduced\nthe wingspan is about 7 mm . the forewings are white , the markings formed by fuscous or blackish - tipped scales . the hindwings are whitish ocherous , faintly fuscous - tinged in males . adults have been recorded on wing in from april to may and in september .\nsearch their arrest records , driving records , contact information , photos and more . . .\ncopyright 2018 peekyou . com . a patent pending people search process . all rights reserved .\na taxon identifier is composed of name , author , year and attribute , all separated by a blank . these are all extracted from the original publication .\nthe name is reproduced exactly as proposed in the original publication . the name of a genus is made up of one word and species made up of two words ( genus and species ) separated by a blank .\nthe author ' s name is made up of a string of letters , with no blanks , and multiple authors ' names are separated by a comma . spelling of author ' s name is based on the original publication . if there are more than three authors , only the names of the first two authors are shown , followed by\n, +\nand the number of omitted authors .\nattribute is enclosed in square brackets . this is rarely needed , but to differentiate homo - identifiers , this will contain the page , line or plate number of original publication .\nall diacritic marks , hyphens , and apostrophes are eliminated , thus only the following characters are used : a to z , a to z , 0 to 9 , blank , comma , and opening and closing square brackets . although upper and lower cases are used for the convenience of human recognition , it is not case sensitive .\ncreated by dicky sick ki yu 1997 - 2012 please send me information about errors and omissions ( contact information ) with supporting references , possibly with pdf or hard copy .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nthe wingspan is about 7 . 5 mm . the forewings are white , sparsely dusted with pale ocherous - tipped scales . the markings are formed by groups of ocherous and black - tipped ocherous scales . the hindwings are silvery , faintly ocherous tinged .\nthe wingspan is 22\u201325 mm . the head is pale yellow - ocherous . the antennae are pale ocherous . the thorax and abdomen are pale yellowish - ocherous . the forewings are light brownish - ocherous , often more or less suffused with whitish - ocherous . the hindwings are gray .\nthe wingspan is about . the head is light yellow - ocherous sprinkled with whitish . the antennae are whitish - ocherous , with a dark fuscous line above . the thorax is brownish - ocherous sprinkled with whitish and the abdomen is whitish - ocherous , faintly streaked with brownish . the forewings are brownish - ocherous , slightly sprinkled with whitish , although the dorsal half is suffused with pale whitish - ocherous from the base to the cleft . the hindwings are ferruginous - fuscous .\nthe wingspan is 7\u20138 mm . the forewings are pale ocherous to dark brownish ocherous , with brilliant silvery marks . the hindwings are pale brownish or reddish ocherous to dark fuscous . adults have been recorded on wing from june to july .\nthe wingspan is 11 - 12 . 5 mm . the forewings are white , marked with pale ocherous to brownish ocherous . the hindwings are brownish ocherous . adults are on wing from april to august .\nthe wingspan is 5\u20136 mm . the forewings are ocherous white with brownish ocherous patches . the hindwings are grey .\nthe wingspan is 6 . 5 mm . the forewings are whitish with a slight ocherous tinge and dusted with scattered brownish ocherous scales . the hindwings are pale greyish , faintly ocherous tinged . adults have been recorded on wing in july .\nthe wingspan is about 9 mm . the forewings are pale straw - colour , the marks formed by ocherous brown - tipped scales . the hindwings are pale greyish ocherous , somewhat irrorated .\nthe wingspan is 14 mm . the forewings are white with ocherous - fuscous . the hindwings are pale brownish ocherous . adults have been recorded on wing in may .\nthe wingspan is 9 . 5\u201312 mm . the forewings are white , with scattered minute brown - tipped pale ocherous scales . the hindwings are white or whitish ocherous .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018"]}
{"id": 823, "summary": [{"text": "the riverine rabbit ( bunolagus monticularis ) , also known as the bushman rabbit or bushman hare , is one of the most endangered mammals in the world , with only around 250 living adults .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "this rabbit has an extremely limited distribution area , found only in the central and southern regions of the karoo desert of south africa 's northern cape province .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "it is the only member of the genus bunolagus . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "riverine rabbit", "paragraphs": ["pictures : riverine rabbit # 1 ( 21 kb jpeg ) and riverine rabbit # 2 ( 24 kb jpeg ) ( riverine rabbit cons . proj . ) ; riverine rabbit # 3 ( 19 kb jpeg ) ; riverine rabbit # 4 ( 37 kb ) ( spec . cons . found . )\nconservation the endangered wildlife trust has established a riverine rabbit programme to manage and coordinate the riverine rabbit conservation project , to maintain close relations with landowners and conservation authorities and to ensure the survival of the riverine rabbit and its habitat .\n* * * the riverine rabbit is one of the world ' s rarest mammals .\nthe riverine rabbit ( bunolagus monticularis ) is the 13th most endangered mammal . . .\nthey captured a young riverine rabbit \u2013 proof it is successfully reproducing in this area . after taking genetic samples , the rabbit was released .\nthe fragmentation and degradation of the riverine rabbit ' s habitat due to agricultural development . ( b147 )\na newborn riverine rabbit is altricial . it is reared in a fur - and grass - lined burrow .\nthe riverine rabbit is classified as critically endangered ( cr ) on the iucn red list 2004 ( 1 ) .\nin some parts of the world , declining rabbit populations have strained natural food chains . the european rabbit (\nauthenticated ( 11 / 06 / 07 ) by dr vicky ahlmann , riverine rabbit working group , endangered wildlife trust . urltoken\na riverine rabbit awareness programme has been instituted among the farmers of the central karoo . ( b605 . 8 . w8 )\nthe riverine rabbit weighs 1 . 4 - 1 . 9 kg ( 3 . 1 - 4 . 2 lb ) .\nmammalmap added text to\nthe riverine rabbit according to mammalmap\non\nbunolagus monticularis ( thomas , 1903 )\n.\nthe riverine rabbit produces two types of droppings . at night , when the rabbit is active , hard pellets are deposited . during the day , droppings are soft and are reingested by the rabbit . in this way the riverine rabbit obtains vitamin b , produced by bacteria in its hind gut , and minerals such as calcium and phosphorus are recycled . ( collins 2001 )\npondhaas\n, during the 1940s the curator of the kaffrarian museum offered a pound for each riverine rabbit brought to him .\nin terms of cranial morphology , the riverine rabbit resembles the lepus capensis - cape hare . ( b605 . 8 . w8 )\nthe riverine rabbit is one of the species that live in the cape floristic region biodiversity hotspot ( cons . intl . ) .\nmost people won\u2019t have an easy time trying to identify one type of rabbit from the other however the riverine rabbit is easily recognizable by the long brown stripes in its facial fur that run from its mouth right round to the back of its ears . among the features that define the riverine rabbit include big flexible ears and large lumpy hind feet , the fur of the riverine rabbit is mostly light brown with the exception of the belly and neck which is usually a creamy colored fur . the female riverine rabbit is the bigger of the species , weighing at around 1 . 8kg typically and most riverine rabbits are approximately 340 \u2013 470mm long .\nthe riverine rabbit acts as an indicator species for these river zones as its extinction in many areas of its former natural distribution range indicates the degradation , fragmentation and loss of riverine vegetation . it is also a karoo flagship species and all efforts to conserve the riverine rabbit will be beneficial to other plants and animals in this ecoregion .\n\u201cwith only around 400 individuals left in the wild , the riverine rabbit qualifies as one of the rarest mammals in southern africa . \u201d\na cape provincial nature conservation ordinance protects the riverine rabbit by banning either its hunting or capture . ( b605 . 8 . w8 )\n* * * the riverine rabbit has an unusually low ( for rabbits ) breeding rate of only 1 - 2 young / year .\nthe riverine rabbit is nocturnal , feeding at night and resting during the day in forms , which it scrapes out under a bush .\nin addition to the volcano rabbit of mexico , pygmy rabbits are the only north american rabbit that dig their own burrows .\nhas a limited ecosystem role . the riverine vegetation it feeds on is known to bind soil and regenerates as the rabbit feeds on it . this means that the riverine rabbit ' s feeding habbits indirectly prevents the soil from being washed away in floods ( duthie , 1987 ) .\nthe recent discovery of the riverine rabbit in the sanbona wildlife reserve and vaalkloof private nature reserve are positive signs for the survival of this species .\nthe riverine rabbit creates a subterranean shelter for its offspring ; it is the only species of the african rabbits to do so . ( b147 )\n* * * a riverine rabbit awareness program among the farmers of the central karoo has been instituted . since the rabbit is found only on privately owned farms , its survival depends on the willingness of landowners to adopt farming methods to reduce over - grazing and other harmful practices in the sensitive riverine habitat . some karoo farmers have declared their farms natural heritage sites to protect the riverine habitat and rabbit . ( collins 2001 , yeld 1999 )\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - riverine rabbit ( bunolagus monticularis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - riverine rabbit ( bunolagus monticularis )\ntitle =\narkive species - riverine rabbit ( bunolagus monticularis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nendemic to south africa , the riverine rabbit is found in the semi - arid central , upper , ceres , and klein karoo regions ( 2 ) .\nthe riverine rabbit is predated upon by the african wild cat ( felis libyca , felis - ( genus ) ) . ( b605 . 8 . w8 )\nthis rabbit requires dense riverine vegetation and soft , deep alluvial soils stable enough for it to construct stable breeding burrows . ( n32 . 8 . w1 )\nthe riverine rabbit has a well - defined parietal bone ; this is one feature which distinguishes it from pronolagus , as the latter does not . ( b147 )\nthe riverine rabbit is predominantly a browser , eating flowers and leaves from shrubs . grasses are included in the diet when these are available in the wet season .\nthe most serious threat to the survival of the riverine rabbit is the fragmentation and loss of its unique habitat type . the destruction and modification of the karoo\u2019s unique riverine habitats due to overgrazing and other agricultural practices has had a significant impact on the rabbit\u2019s population over the past century . fertile riverine soil is preferred for cultivation . upwards of 65 % of the original riparian vegetation has been lost due to cultivation .\nthe endangered wildlife trust ' s riverine rabbit project is forging ahead with exciting rabbit research ,\nsays christy bragg , the manager of the conservation programme .\nwe are using mobile camera traps to detect and count these rare critters .\nas the riverine rabbits depend on burrows for protection from predators the soil of their habitat has to be perfect and that is why the riverine rabbits are limited to the central and and southern border of the karoo desert . the foliage that is found in these areas of the karoo desert is excellent for the riverine rabbit\u2019s needs but is subject to seasonal crop .\nthe riverine rabbit has more than its fair share : doekvoet , pondhaas , bushman\u2019s hare , deelfontein hare , boshaas and vlei haas . and for science \u2013 bunolagus monticularis .\nthreats not long after its discovery in 1902 , the riverine rabbit was known as the \u2018pondhaas\u2019 because captain g . c . shortridge , the curator of the kaffrarian museum in king william\u2019s town , offered a pound for each rabbit brought to him . there is no state - owned land protecting the riverine rabbit and its habitat and already two - thirds of its original habitat has been destroyed . most known habitat occurs on private land .\nthe riverine rabbit lives only in dense riverine scrub in the alluvial floodplains of the seasonal rivers in the central karoo desert . it is restricted to riverine scrub of 0 . 5 - 1 m ( 1 . 6 - 3 . 2 ' ) in height and to areas with soil types that allow stable burrows to be constructed . ( avery 1988 , stuart & stuart 1996 )\nthe riverine rabbits are slow breeders and when breeding season comes they may only produce one or two offspring , this is a very low amount considering that the riverine rabbits only live for around three years .\nthe riverine rabbit is native to the karoo desert in south africa and is classed as critically endangered due to loss of habitat from farming and agriculture . there is estimated to be only around 250 of this rabbits left in existence and coupled with the fact that these rabbits are very slow breeders compared to other types of rabbit ( the riverine rabbit only has around 3 - 4 offspring in a lifetime ) means that they are under a very real threat of extinction .\nthis rabbit was snapped in january this year . researchers are hoping camera traps will help them answer a crucial question : just how many riverine rabbits are out there ? image : drylands conservation programme\nriverine rabbits , like other rabbits and hares , are often run over on roads . they also easily become prey to traps that are indiscriminately laid . stray dogs , hunters and the making of firewood along the riverbeds , which destroys the riverine rabbit\u2019s natural habitat , threaten the survival of this small mammal .\nmost closely related to pentalagus furnessi ( amami rabbit ) , caprolagus hispidus ( hispid hare ) and the domestic rabbit ( oryctolagus cuniculus ) . ( n32 . 8 . w1 )\nthe film titled riverine rabbit was done by ogilvy cape town advertising agency for product : the sunday times newspaper ( brand : sunday times ) in south africa . it was released in jun 2008 .\nthe rabbit kitten weighs about 40 g at birth . ( b605 . 8 . w8 )\npygmy rabbits are on average the smallest rabbit , with large individuals weighing about 1 pound .\nthe chances of survival for south africa\u2019s most endangered mammal , the riverine rabbit , looks even more desperate than has commonly been feared . the conservation status of this karoo rabbit has , according to the latest iucn 2002 red data list for endangered species , been raised from endangered to critically endangered .\nthe riverine rabbit , an inhabitant of the central karoo , lives in the ganna bush of the seasonal riverbeds of the districts of beaufort west , loxton , carnarvon , calvinia , sutherland , victoria west and fraserburg . contrary to what is commonly believed about rabbits , riverine rabbits breed very slowly . this rabbit is often confused with the shrub hare , rock rabbits and the cape hare that also live in the central karoo . the riverine rabbit , however , has distinctive long ears , a black - brown stripe on its lower jaw , and a dark fluffy tail , which is visible when it bounces away .\nwith the unpredictable rainfall pattern of the karoo , the condition of vegetation is most likely to play the dominant role in stimulating reproduction in the riverine rabbit .\n( n32 . 8 . w1 )\nriverine rabbits have a polygamous mating system . ( b605 . 8 . w8 , n32 . 8 . w1 )\nis to protect its natural habitat . the dept . of environment and cultural affairs has started a project which encourages farmers to form conservancies for this rabbit . some karoo farmers have taken this step and declared their farms natural heritage sites to protect the riverine habitat and rabbit ( duthie , 1987 ) .\nalthough the ongers river supports roughly 21 % of the remaining suitable habitat for this species , so far no evidence exists that the riverine rabbit is found in that area . ( b605 . 8 . w8 )\nthe riverine rabbit distribution range is roughly surrounded by the towns beaufort west in the south , brandvlei and williston in the north , touwsrivier and calvinia in the west and victoria west in the east .\n* * * rabbits have traditionally not received much attention in africa . the riverine rabbit has been a notable exception . conservation efforts by the wildlife society of southern africa and the south african nature foundation , in concert with research activities , have done much to draw attention to its plight . a number of governmental and non - governmental organizations have joined together in the riverine rabbit conservation project to carry out important conservation work .\ndid you know ? that conversion of habitat for agriculture has been the major threat to the riverine rabbit ? more than 60 % of the original riparian vegetation where this species is found has been converted to cultivation .\nit is ironic that rabbits are a symbol of fertility throughout the world . recent estimates suggest that 25 % of rabbit species worldwide are declining or endangered . examples of declining rabbit species include :\nnot all rabbit populations are under threat - - some threaten other species . read more here .\nthis most beloved creature is the poster bunny for conservation . experts say there may be no more than a few hundred left . not only is the riverine rabbit critically endangered , it is found only in the karoo .\nthe survival of the riverine rabbit now depends on the co - operation among the conservation organizations that are involved with the national riverine rabbit co - ordination committee , landowners , and the general public . a conservation plan of cape nature conservation and the northern cape nature conservation services , which is funded by wwf sa , focuses on the identification of all the areas where the rabbit and its optimal habitat may be found . appropriate management principles are also being laid down for these areas , and a comprehensive awareness campaign is part of the plan .\nthere are currently no riverine rabbits kept by zoos . several zoos support however an in situ conservation project for the species .\nother threats to the rabbit ' s habitat include fragmentation of riverine vegetation through impoundments in river channels , weirs , cultivated and historic lands and habitat destruction due to firewood collecting .\n( n32 . 8 . w1 )\nhelps humans in farming and can only be sustained if this rabbit continues to feed on this vegetation .\nso what went wrong for the riverine rabbit ? over the past 70 years , more than two - thirds of its habitat has been swallowed up by agriculture or ruined by overgrazing . as its name suggests , the riverine rabbit ' s favoured haunts are the fertile floodplains of the karoo ' s seasonal rivers . . . the very same areas that have historically been most in demand for agriculture . with its riverine habitat ploughed over , the rabbit ' s numbers plummeted , an estimated decline of around 60 % over those decades . remaining populations clung to survival mostly on fragments of farmland , outside of protected areas and therefore vulnerable and difficult for conservationists to monitor . things were not looking good for bunolagus monticularis .\n90 % of the rabbit ' s diet consists of karoo shrubs and the remaining 10 % of grasses .\nthe riverine rabbit has a dark brown stripe which runs\nalong the lower margins of the jaw towards the base of the ear .\nno other lagomorph species in the southern african subregion share this characteristic . ( b605 . 8 . w8 )\nthe riverine rabbit is solitary with a polygamous mating system . males and females each maintain home ranges which are exclusive with regard to members of their own sex , with a male ' s home range overlapping with the home ranges of several females .\ncape town - the critically endangered riverine rabbit \u2013 one of south africa\u2019s 10 most endangered mammals \u2013 has taken a short hop away from the precipice of extinction , following the recent discovery of a new population in capenature\u2019s anysberg nature reserve near laingsburg .\nhabitat riverine rabbits are very habitat - specific and are found in dense patches of riverine bush along seasonal rivers of the semi - arid central karoo . they are the only indigenous burrowing rabbit in africa and are dependent on deep and soft alluvial soils . to the south of the escarpment they are found in areas with sparse vegetation near seasonal rivers in both succulent karoo and renosterveld vegetation .\nthe drive started at 9pm and just after 11pm the young rabbit was found , and was caught by hand .\nthe riverine rabbit is a nocturnal species ; during the day it can be found resting under the shade of a bush , within a hollow excavation . ( b147 , b285 . w5c , b605 . 8 . w8 , n32 . 8 . w1 )\nlives in dense riverine scrub along the seasonal rivers in the central karoo desert in the cape province of south africa ( mills , 1997 ) .\nalmost 68 % of the remaining riverine rabbit vegetation is found to be associated with an interconnected network of rivers .\nthese rivers include the sak , klein sak and riet , klein riet located within the central karoo . ( b605 . 8 . w8 )\nirresponsible application of leghold traps ( steel - jawed gin traps ) and snares poses another significant threat to the riverine rabbit even though these devices are only aimed at problem animals such as the blackbacked jackal and caracal .\n( n32 . 8 . w1 )\ndistribution map # 1 ( 14 kb gif ) ( african mammals databank 2004 ) distribution map # 2 ( 25 kb jpeg ) ( spec . cons . found . ) distribution map # 3 ( 60 kb jpeg ) ( riverine rabbit cons . proj . )\nbeloved , cute and rare , this rabbit has faced a constellation of challenges ever since agriculture started in the karoo .\nthe unique life history and specialized habitat requirements of this species have made conserving and restoring this small rabbit especially challenging .\nthe riverine rabbit\u2019s range has been found to stretch far further south , in recent years , than its \u2018traditional\u2019 range around williston , fraserburg , carnarvon , victoria west and loxton . isolated populations have been detected around montagu , klaarstroom , touwsrivier , barrydale and prince albert .\nthis species is superficially similar to the lepus capensis - cape hare in terms of both external and cranial morphology . however , whereas the cape hare has a black and white tail , the riverine rabbit has a uniformly brown tail . ( b605 . 8 . w8 )\nthe endangered wildlife trust has set up the drylands conservation programme in nearby loxton which coordinates efforts to save this charming rabbit .\nafter some genetic samples were taken , the young rabbit caught at anysberg nature reserve was safely released . image : nkosinathi moyo\nthe riverine rabbit weighs up to 1 . 9 kg ( 4 . 2 lb ) . distinguishing marks include a distinctive white ring around each eye and a black stripe running from the corner of its mouth over its cheek . found in dense riverine scrub along the seasonal rivers in the central karoo desert in the cape province of south africa , its diet mainly consists of flowers and leaves ; grasses are included in the wet season . these rabbits are nocturnal and solitary , with a polygamous mating system and an unusually low breeding rate ( for a rabbit ) .\n\u201cthe survival of the riverine rabbit as a unique species truly lies in the hands of our farming community , \u201d says kleynhans . conservancies are areas that are established through voluntary agreements among a number of landowners , most of whose farms border on each other , to manage their environment .\nchocolate bunnies may be abundant this easter season , but some real - life rabbit species around the world are becoming increasingly rare .\nit is thought that riverine rabbit young spend relatively long periods of time within the breeding stop before venturing out to forage independently ; such assumptions have been made based upon data collected on the weights of young wild juveniles ( 500 - 600 g ) . ( b605 . 8 . w8 )\nsince 2004 , more riverine rabbit populations have been discovered in the western cape in areas where the species\u2019 occurrence wasn\u2019t known . the newly discovered area stretches from klaarstrom ( southeastern central karoo ) to montagu and barrydale ( klein karoo ) as well as the ceres karoo . the habitat differs significantly from the typical riverine habitat which is found in the central and upper karoo above the escarpment and is very much dominated by renosterveld . ( v . 142 )\nwith so few riverine rabbits , years can pass before fieldworkers actually catch a glimpse of one , so it\u2019s difficult to build up a picture of their habits .\nnowak , r . 1997 .\nbushman rabbit\n( on - line ) . accessed nov . 18 , 2001 at urltoken .\nfarmers in the northern cape will soon follow this example and establish successful conservancies . landowners who want to get involved in the establishment of a riverine rabbit conservancy can contact chrizette kleynhans ( cnc ) at ( 044 ) 279 1739 or leon muller ( ncncs ) at ( 027 ) 341 - 1779 .\n) which lives in seasonal riverbeds . the species is distinguished by its long ears , a black - brown stripe on its lower jaw , and a dark fluffy tail . unlike most rabbits , the riverine rabbit produces just one offspring per year and an estimated total of four offspring during its lifetime .\nin addition , most remaining pygmy rabbit habitat\u2014throughout its range\u2014is currently grazed by livestock , which may reduce habitat quality for pygmy rabbits . in some areas , wildfires have destroyed remaining pockets of pygmy rabbit habitats . the temperature and frequency of these fires may increase by the invasion of the exotic annual grass , cheatgrass ; thus , it is more likely to destroy sagebrush stands . coyotes\u2014important rabbit predators\u2014have increased in number over the last few decades , presumably because of habitat changes . in addition , diseases like tularemia and sylvatic plague can decimate rabbit populations periodically .\nthis differs slightly in pentalagus furnessi - amami rabbit , with the molars sometimes being 2 / 3 . ( b147 , b623 . w3 )\n) as a threatened or endangered species throughout its range . the rabbit is already listed as endangered in the columbia basin of washington state .\nthe riverine rabbits is a habitat specialist that occupies a very restricted and specialised niche : the discontinuous and dense vegetation on soft and nutrient - rich alluvial soils associated with the seasonal rivers of the karoo . riverine rabbits therefore function as a biological indicator for the river zones in the karoo , which are of enormous economical value for farmers . the extinction of riverine rabbits in many areas of its former distribution range in the northern and western cape is therefore indicative of the severe destruction , fragmentation and loss of this habitat .\nthe riverine rabbit has a typical rabbit shape but the body is more elongated and the ears are longer and more hare - like . distinguishing facial marks include a distinctive white eye ring around each eye and a black brown stripe along the sides of the lower jaw . the tail is uniformly brown and resembles a \u201cpom - pom\u201d . the coat colour is variable but is a reddish - brown shade grizzled with black , the underparts are a drab gray .\nhowever , additionally : s ince 2004 more riverine rabbit populations have been discovered in the western cape in areas where the species\u2019 occurrence wasn\u2019t known . the newly discovered area stretches from klaarstrom ( southeastern central karoo ) to montagu and barrydale ( klein karoo ) as well as the ceres karoo . ( v . 142 )\nsansinena m . j . , owiny d . , denniston r . s . , salamone d . , barry d . ( 2007 ) 52 initiation of pregnancies in south african riverine rabbit ( bunolagus monticulares ) by interspecies nuclear transfer using adipose - derived somatic cells . reproduction , fertility and development 20 , 106 - 107 .\nthe primary food source of the riverine rabbit are wild flowers and leaves of the karoo desert foliage that is common along the seasonal rivers however they have been known to feed on grass when the opportunity presents itself which is limited to the karoo desert\u2019s wet season . the riverine rabbits are nocturnal and live a lonesome life only interacting in the breeding season and even though they live along they live in areas common to their kind and always exclusively of the same gender with borders on the opposite gender only slightly over lapping .\nan endangered columbia basin pygmy rabbit juvenile born at the captive breeding facility at washington state university , pullman , washington , usa . photo : tara davila\nstudies on vegetation composition ( in terms of percentage cover , occurrence and plant heights and widths ) suggest that salsola glabrescens and lycium species are the dominant plants within the riverine rabbit ' s habitat , whilst other species including pteronia erythrocaetha , osteospermum spinescens , kochia pubescens and galenia procumbens are significant contributors . ( b605 . 8 . w8 )\nthe wildlife breeding and research centre in johannesburg supports the project by transporting for free all possible fresh material that can be collected from riverine rabbits , and keeping it in their genetic database .\nbut the technology doesn ' t come cheap . despite receiving some funding to help with its much - needed conservation work , the programme still needs financial help .\nwe are still in desperate need for funds for additional cameras ,\nsays bragg .\nideally , we need to have several batches of cameras working simultaneously throughout riverine rabbit habitat .\n\u201cpeople who are aware of such offences must report it as soon as possible , \u201d says kleynhans . the riverine rabbit\u2019s natural habitat does not lie protected within formal conservation areas like nature reserves , but on the huge sheep farms in the karoo . that is why conservationists believe that the key to its survival lies in a network of conservancies supported by farmers .\nit is the only african rabbit where the female prepares an underground burrow for her young . this nest is lined with grass and fur . ( nowak 1999 )\nsome camera traps were placed at the privately - owned sanbona wildlife reserve , only three hours\u2019 drive from cape town . to everyone\u2019s surprise , this 54 000 hectare reserve is home to several riverine rabbits .\n\u201cit is important to us to gather as much genetic material as possible , so that research can be done on specific genetic populations , diseases and the general condition of riverine rabbits , \u201d says kleynhans .\n\u00bb hays , d . 2001 . 2001 addendum : washington state recovery plan for the pygmy rabbit . washington department of fish and wildlife olympia , washington . 24pp .\nthe riverine rabbit is one of southern africa\u2019s most endangered mammals . its endangered status was first recognised in 1981 . during 2002 its conservation status upgraded to critically endangered . with an estimated 250 or less mature individuals in the wild today ( with less than 1500 in total ) the species is at an extremely high risk of extinction . the following factors have contributed to population reduction .\nsome rabbit species around the world are being squeezed out by known factors such as development and agricultural pressures . others are so little known that their conservation status is uncertain .\nthe riverine rabbit reaches a head - body length of 34 - 48 cm . the tail measures 7 - 11 cm . males weigh about 1 . 5 kg , females up to 1 . 9 kg . this rabbit has very long ears , a soft and silky coat and a light brown woolly tail with a black tip . distinguishing marks include a distinctive white ring around each eye and a black stripe running from the corner of its mouth over its cheek . the belly and throat are cream in colour and the short limbs have particularly thick fur .\nprovides many benefits for farmers . the riverine vegetation that the rabbit feeds on , causing this vegetation to regenerate , binds the soil and prevents it from being washed away in floods . also , this vegetation promotes filtration of rainwater to groundwater , which is a benefit for the farmer who uses windmills to draw up water for his livestock ( burton , 1987 ) . indirectly , the habitat of\nthis means that , according to all indications , there are no more than 250 adult riverine rabbits left , and that the population is showing a continued drop in numbers . according to these criteria there is also not a satellite population of more than 50 adults in existence . this estimate is very conservative measured against the estimate of 500 riverine rabbits world wide , which is generally accepted by conservationists who are actively involved in their protection .\n\u00bb mcallister , k . r . 1995 . washington state recovery plan for the pygmy rabbit . wildlife management program , washington department of fish and wildlife , olympia , wa .\na network of conservancies for the riverine rabbit could create an extensive informal conservation area to protect remaining populations and potential habitat . as such a chain of neighbouring lands also protect ecosystems such as rivers , it could lead to an increase in other wildlife . the use of environmentally friendly farming methods is also encouraged , such as not sowing along the riverbeds , and using snares for problem animals selectively .\nthe home ranges of male riverine rabbits overlap with several female ranges , and cover an area of roughly 21 ha . female home ranges are smaller ( roughly 13 ha . ) and do not overlap . ( b147 )\nin addition to monitoring the ' farmland ' populations , conservation groups now had new rabbit territory to keep an eye on , and lots of research to carry out to determine how the new population differs from riverine rabbits elsewhere . tracking small animals that are rare , elusive , well camouflaged and predominantly nocturnal is no easy task . . . which is why conservationists turned to technology to help them out .\ndistribution most of their distribution range falls outside the western cape province above the escarpment of the nuweveld mountains in the semi - arid central karoo . more populations of riverine rabbit have recently been discovered south of the escarpment in the districts of touwsriver , montagu and barrydale , as well as at klaarstroom , immediately north of meiringspoort . ( records from friedmann and daly ( 2004 ) and the capenature biodiversity database ) .\nhigh - pitched distress squeals are emitted by leporids when captured by a predator , and specific alarm calls are produced in five rabbit species . ( b285 . w5b , b430 . w2 )\ndiffering from the usual rapid breeding of most rabbit species , the riverine rabbit produces just one kitten a year . in a polygynous mating system , males make use of their large home ranges to mate with every female in their territory ( 2 ) . between august and may ( 3 ) , the females will make a nest in a burrow lined with grass and fur , and blocked with soil and twigs ( 4 ) . they give birth to a helpless , blind and hairless kitten 35 days after mating ( 5 ) . this underdeveloped offspring will remain will its mother for some time before dispersing ( 2 ) .\nthis 2012 clio awards silver winning entry titled & apos ; riverine rabbit & apos ; was entered by tbwa \\ hunt \\ lascaris , johannesburg . the piece was submitted to the medium : out of home within the entry type : n / a and the category : poster . it consists of 1 image . this piece is part of a campaign called & apos ; the last ones left & apos ; that consists of 6 elements .\na pygmy rabbit hops out of its artificial burrow during a pilot reintroduction experiment conducted by washington state university designed to develop methods suitable for restoring extirpated populations . photo : rodney sayler , washington state university\n\u00bb hays , d . , and k . warheit . 2004 . columbia basin pygmy rabbit captive breeding and genetic management plan . washington department of fish and wildlife . olympia , washington . 29pp .\nin washington , management efforts by a number of agencies have included acquiring and restoring potential habitat for the endangered columbia basin pygmy rabbit\u2014a slow and expensive task . because some pygmy rabbit habitat is contained within private lands , agencies have attempted to work with local ranchers and farmers to develop mutually beneficial resource management plans and safe harbor agreements . many private landowners are wary of having endangered species on their land and mistrust state and federal natural resource agencies , however , so this work has been sensitive and arduous . as a parallel course of action , and perhaps the last chance for saving the columbia basin pygmy rabbit 4 , washington department of fish and wildlife initiated a program in 2001 for captive breeding and restoration of pygmy rabbits , which is now a key component of the federal recovery plan for the columbia basin pygmy rabbit .\nis an endangered species . the most devastating threat to the riverine rabbit is the loss of its habitat . this habitat is limited to the alluvial floodplains of seasonal rivers in the central karoo . these flood plains , only 100 - 200 m wide , are formed when the rivers overflow during floods , and deposit silt on their banks ( duthie , 1987 ) . this soil is very good for cultivation compared with other soils found in the dry karoo . over the past 50 years , more than two - thirds of its habitat has been ploughed over for this purpose . other threats to its survival include overgrazing and hunting . overgrazing of riverine habitat opens up cover that it needs for shelter and to escape predation .\nis the only african rabbit that prepares an underground shelter for its young . this nest is 10 - 15 cm in diameter , 25 cm long , and lined with grass and fur ( nowak , 1997 ) .\nthis species resides in dense riparian vegetation along seasonal rivers ( b605 . 8 . w8 ) ; dense riverine bush / scrub . ( b147 , b285 . w5c , n32 . 8 . w1 ) in the central karoo region . ( n32 . 8 . w1 )\nsome rabbit species thump the ground with their hind feet when faced with danger ( b285 . w5b , b430 . w2 ) ; this reaction is thought to be a warning to nestlings underground . ( b285 . w5b )\n) , for example , is a staple in the spanish lynx ' s diet . but a pox virus , myxomatosis , has raced through rabbit populations on the iberian peninsula , making them so rare that spanish lynx (\nelsewhere , disappearing rabbits can signal declining health of grassland and sagebrush ecosystems . in the united states , a coalition of conservation groups is petitioning the u . s . government to list the palm - sized pygmy rabbit (\n\u00bb federal register . may 20 , 2005 . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants : 90 - day finding on petition to list the pygmy rabbit as threatened and endangered . federal register 70 : 29 , 253\u201329 , 265 .\n\u201cfor practical reasons it is not always possible to obtain bits of skin or blood from live rabbits , and we are dependent on the public who can supply or report any potential material , \u201d explains kleynhans . she therefore calls on anyone who comes across a dead riverine rabbit or some of its remains , even if it is only a small heap of bones , to contact her ( 044 - 279 - 1739 ) or dr vicky ahlmann ( 053 - 381 - 3107 ) , a german researcher in loxton .\n\u00bb gahr , m . l . 1993 . natural history , burrow habitat use , and home range of the pygmy rabbit of sagebrush flats , washington . m . s . thesis , university of washington , seattle , washington .\ni live outside montagu . we have two riverine rabbits who appear early morning to drink from the water containers we leave for other wild animals eg meerkatte , porcupines , steenbokkies , mountain tortoises etc . with the drought , our \u201cwater holes \u201d have become a gathering place for wild life .\nas of 2001 , it was thought to occur in river catchments in the semi - arid south central karoo between beaufort west and williston , and sutherland and victoria west . it is found only on private farmland in riverine vegetation along seasonal river courses . ( ahlmann 2001 , cape nature conservation )\nmotion - activated camera traps are a great tool for determining the density of populations , in addition to providing important information about rabbit behaviour and habits . knowing more about the species is essential for developing effective conservation strategies . previous trials using camera traps have already shown success , and the technology is now being tested out on a larger scale . a new study launched at the start of this month involves camera traps set up in a specialised grid system to cover large swathes of rabbit territory .\npygmy rabbits are fed commercial and custom rabbit pellets consisting of grains , alfalfa , grass hay , vitamins , and minerals . each breeding facility grows fresh grasses and greens , and rabbits are provided with greenhouse - grown or wild - cut sagebrush ;\nuntil recently , the status of pygmy rabbit populations in the u . s has received little attention . their range consists of the great basin and surrounding intermountain regions , including montana , idaho , wyoming , utah , nevada , northern california , oregon , and washington . there is one exception\u2014the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . it was extirpated from the wild in washington by 2004 , and this genetically distinct population was listed by the u . s . fish and wildlife service as an endangered distinct population .\n\u00bb federal register . march 5 , 2003 . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; final rule to list the columbia basin distinct population segment of the pygmy rabbit ( brachylagus idahoensis ) as endangered . federal register 68 : 10 , 388\u201310 , 409 .\nthe riverine rabbit is a solitary , nocturnal animal and rests during the heat of the day in shallow depressions scraped out under shrubs . the breeding rate is unusually low . breeding occurs between august and may . females dig stable burrows in the soft and deep soils in which they raise , after a pregnancy period of 35 days , one ( rarely two ) offspring per breeding season . the newborn rabbits are blind , hairless and completely dependent on their mother , whereas hare leverets can see and have fur at birth . the live span in the wild hardly exceeds 4 years .\nafrican mammals databank 2004 , ahlmann 2001 , ahlmann 2002 , avery 1988 , burton & pearson 1987 , chapman & flux 1990 , collins 2001 , collins et al . / iucn 2003a , flux 2005 , iucn 2004 , cons . intl . , focus 1995b , iucn 1994 , iucn 1996 , iucn 2000 , iucn 2003a , kingdon 1997 , macdonald 1984 , macdonald 2001 , nowak 1999 , nowak & paradiso 1983 , riverine rabbit cons . proj . , silva & downing 1994 , spec . cons . found . , stuart & stuart 1996 , wwf wild world , yeld 1999\nit has been reported that due to cultivation , the natural vegetation along nearly half of the rivers within the rabbit ' s range has been destroyed . the extent of the riparian habitat loss has exceeded 60 % . ( b147 , b605 . 8 . w8 )\nthe riverine rabbit is nocturnal , spending the night feeding on flowers , leaves and grasses , and the day in shallow depressions under bushes , hiding from predators such as black eagles . at night the droppings are firm , but during the day they are soft and are immediately eaten after deposition . this behaviour is known as coprophagia and occurs in rabbits as their digestive system is basic , and re - ingestion allows further extraction of calcium and phosphorous , as well as the absorption of vitamin b that is produced by the bacteria of the hind gut during the initial ingestion ( 2 ) .\n\u201che was just a few kilometres from a private farm where we\u2019ve been aware of a population for the past two or three years . he appeared to have been following the ( dry ) river course from this farm , so that also opens up a whole lot of other opportunities ( to find other riverine rabbits ) . \u201d\nthere may be just a few hundred and none are in protected areas , all are on private land ,\nsaid smith . conservationists are working with landowners to develop protection plans for the rabbit , which the conservationists say will also help protect south africa ' s riverside ecosystems .\n\u00bb shipley , l . . a . , t . b . davila , n . j . thines , and b . a . elias . 2006 . nutritional requirements and diet choices of the pygmy rabbit ( brachylagus idahoensis ) : a sagebrush specialist . journal of chemical ecology 32 : 2455\u20132474 .\n\u00bb u . s . fish and wildlife service . 2007 . draft recovery plan for the columbia basin distinct population segment of the pygmy rabbit ( brachylagus idahoensis ) . portland , oregon . 118 . pp , urltoken ( accessed 1 / 10 / 08 ; updated 6 / 29 / 10 ) .\nmy name is cronje and i farm in the central karoo region in south - africa . over the last couple of years i have seen numerous riverine rabbits ( oewer koenyn , in afrikaans ) . i\u2019m happy to report that the creatures are doing very well and i believe that their numbers are increasing . i\u2019ll try and take a snap shot the next time i see one . . : )\nthis is a dark , grizzled grey rabbit , tinged rufous , with a contrasting deep rich rufous nape patch ( b147 ) and a dark brown stripe running along the lower margins of the jaw towards the ear base ( no other lagomorph species in the southern african subregion share this characteristic ) . ( b605 . 8 . w8 )\nidentification the riverine rabbit can reach approximately 52 cm in size and has large ears . it has a distinguishing dark brown band running along the side of the lower jaw upwards to the bottom of the ears . the upper parts are a grizzled drab grey while the sides are slightly darker and rufous where it blends with the dense grey hair on the underside . the eyes are encircled with white rings with dark elongated patches above these . the fringed inner margins of the long ears are covered with white hair , the outer margins with short buffy hair and the tips are covered with short black hair . the hair on the nape of the neck is slightly shorter and is a rich rufous colour . the grey - brown tail is short and fluffy , but darker towards the tip .\nfemales give birth to their young into breeding stops which have been lined with grass and fur . ( b605 . 8 . w8 , n32 . 8 . w1 ) . the construction of these breeding stops is thought to be similar to those of oryctolagus cuniculus - european rabbit and ( sylvilagus transitionalis - new england cottontail . ( b605 . 8 . w8 )\nlisa shipley , ph . d . , is a wildlife ecologist and associate professor in the department of natural resource sciences at washington state university . her research focuses on foraging behavior , nutrition , and habitat requirements of wildlife . she directs the pygmy rabbit captive breeding program at washington state university and is a member of the usfws recovery team for pygmy rabbits . urltoken\n# gonehome campaign : a film by rabbit king . 3rd year students in vcd ( visual communication design ) made a series of short stop - motion animations as part of an integrated print , video and online environmental awareness campaign for the endangered wildlife trust , south africa . by : elza grobler , silvie van onselen , robin jones , jenna antrobus , simeon willemse , lila huyzers .\nloss and degradation of habitat are the main threats to the species . over the last century , 50 - 80 % of habitat has been lost as a result of cultivation ( mostly in the past ) and livestock farming ( ongoing ) . other threats to the species include hunting ( the rabbit is hunted for sport and by farm workers ) , and accidental mortality in traps set for pest animals on farmlands .\nthis re - evaluation was done in march in johannesburg at a workshop of the conservation breeding specialist group , a partner of the endangered wildlife trust , during which the conservation status of 300 of southern africa\u2019s mammal species was investigated . ten southern african mammal species are regarded as critically endangered . this includes the black rhinoceros , four kinds of mole , and two bat species . the populations of riverine rabbits and red bush squirrels are , however , the only southern african mammal species that are in such extremely dire straits world wide .\nis easily identified by the black stripe running from the corner of its mouth over its cheek , a brown woolly tail , cream - colored fur on its belly and throat , and a broad , club - like hind foot . its tail is pale brown with a tinge of black toward the tip . its coat is soft and silky and its limbs are short and heavily furred ( nowak , 1997 ) . male riverine rabbits weigh approximately 1 . 5 kg while females weigh about 1 . 8 kg ( duthie , 1987 ) .\nthis elegant rabbit is one of the most endangered terrestrial mammals in southern africa . it has very long ears , a soft and silky coat and a uniformly brown , woolly tail . a distinctive black stripe runs from the corner of the mouth over the cheeks ( 2 ) , and it has white rings around the eyes ( 3 ) . the belly and throat are cream in colour and the short limbs have particularly thick fur ( 2 ) .\npygmy rabbits in washington state , however , have been particularly vulnerable . this population was separated from those in other parts of their range as sagebrush communities receded with climate changes . analysis of the rabbit\u2019s genome suggests that the divergence of the washington population occurred between 15 , 000 and 115 , 000 years ago . because of long - term geographic isolation and local habitat fragmentation , the washington population exhibits significantly lower genetic diversity than the populations in neighboring states .\ndifferences in pregnancy rate between columbia basin and idaho pygmy rabbits , and the extremely low genetic diversity of the columbia basin rabbits , suggested that inbreeding depression might have played an important role in low pregnancy rates . therefore , our second strategy was to begin a process of genetic rescue , where the columbia basin pygmy rabbits were intercrossed with idaho rabbits , aiming for creating and maintaining a captive and release population of greater than 75 % columbia basin genes . intercrossing required maintaining a balance between preserving the unique genetic profile of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit , while increasing the genetic diversity overall . rabbits from the two populations mated readily , and the intercross rabbits had higher pregnancy and siring rates ; thus , they produced more kits per adult than the pure columbia basin pygmy rabbits .\nand then , late last year , an unexpected dose of good news . a new population of the rabbits popped up in a very different part of the karoo \u2013 and this time , the animals were hopping about on protected land , within the 81 , 000 - hectare anysberg nature reserve in south africa ' s western cape province . the species had been spotted in this part of the karoo before ( back in 2003 ) , but this was the first sign of the rabbits in a formally protected area anywhere in the country ( it ' s likely the rabbits had migrated there from a nearby farm ) . a night survey was set up to confirm the sightings and a young rabbit was caught , proving the animals were also doing what rabbits are supposed to do best : breeding ."]}
{"id": 840, "summary": [{"text": "belonion apodion is one of two needlefish in the genus belonion , which is in the family belonidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is native to south america . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "belonion apodion", "paragraphs": ["belonion apodion is one of two needlefish in the genus belonion , which is in the family belonidae .\ncollette , bruce b . 1966 . belonion , a new genus of fresh - water needlefishes from south america . american museum novitates ( 2274 ) : 1 - 22 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n, select family and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the family .\n, select country and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the country .\n, select ecosystem and click on ' identification by pictures ' to display all available pictures in fishbase for the ecosystem .\ncfm script by eagbayani , 30 . 11 . 04 , , php script by cmilitante , 05 / 11 / 2010 , last modified by cmilitante , 14 / 03 / 2013\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nsubmitted as a cd - rom that meets the requirements of article 8 . 6 of the international code of zoological nomenclature ( 1999 )\nspecial publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3\noviparous ( ref . 205 ) . eggs may be found attached to objects in the water by tendrils on the egg ' s surface ( ref . 205 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nour website has detected that you are using an outdated insecure browser that will prevent you from using the site . we suggest you upgrade to a modern browser .\ncarl , h . ( 2003 ) danish fish names . : zoological museum of copenhagen . unpublished .\nchinese academy of fishery sciences ( 2003 ) chinese aquatic germplasm resources database . : urltoken\ncollette , b . b . ( 2003 ) family belonidae bonaparte 1832 - needlefishes . : calif . acad . sci . annotated checklists of fishes ( 16 ) : 22 .\ncollette , bruce b . , 2003 : family belonidae bonaparte 1832 : needlefishes . california academy of sciences annotated checklists of fishes , no . 16 . 1 - 22 .\neschmeyer , william n . , ed . , 1998 : catalog of fishes . special publication of the center for biodiversity research and information , no . 1 , vol 1 - 3 . 2905 .\nfroese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication .\nvarjo , m . , l . koli and h . dahlstr\u00f6m ( 2004 ) kalannimiluettelo ( versio 10 / 03 ) . : suomen biologian seura vanamo ry .\nwu , h . l . , k . - t . shao and c . f . lai ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) latin - chinese dictionary of fishes names . : the sueichan press , taiwan . 1028 p ."]}
{"id": 854, "summary": [{"text": "the levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes ) is a small bird of prey .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it measures 32 \u2013 38 cm ( 13 \u2013 15 in ) in length with a wingspan of 65 \u2013 75 cm ( 26 \u2013 30 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the female is larger than the male , but the difference is not as marked as with eurasian sparrowhawk .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the adult male is blue-grey above , with dark wingtips , and barred reddish below .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the adult female is slate-grey above with darkish wingtips .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "she is barred reddish brown below , and may show a dark throat line .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the juvenile is dark brown above and has dark-streaked underparts .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it shows a dark throat line .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "it breeds in forests from greece and the balkans east to southern russia .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is migratory , wintering from egypt across to southwestern iran .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "it will migrate in large flocks , unlike the more widespread eurasian sparrowhawk .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "the levant sparrowhawk nests in trees , building a new nest , lined with green leaves , each year .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the normal clutch is 3 \u2013 5 eggs .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "it hunts small birds , insects and lizards in woodland , relying on surprise as it flies from a perch to catch its prey unaware .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "this bird is a small raptor with short broad wings and a longish tail , both adaptations to manoeuvring through trees .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it is similar to the eurasian sparrowhawk , but its shorter tail and more pointed wings give it a more falcon-like appearance .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the flight of this hawk is a characteristic flap \u2013 flap \u2013 glide .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the call is a sharp kee-wick . ", "topic": 16}], "title": "levant sparrowhawk", "paragraphs": [", the levant sparrowhawk prefers deciduous forests [ mebs & schmidt 2006 , grin 2010 ] .\nbu aramada levant sparrowhawk kelimesinin s\u00f6zl\u00fck anlam\u0131 ve e\u015fanlam\u0131 nedir , nas\u0131l okunur hakk\u0131nda bilgi verilmektedir . levant sparrowhawk kelimesinin etimolojik ve e\u015fanlamlar\u0131 ile ilgili a\u00e7\u0131klamalar ve bilgiler eksiksiz ve hatas\u0131z olarak an\u0131lmamal\u0131d\u0131r . burada yer alan levant sparrowhawk kelimesi ile ilgili t\u00fcm a\u00e7\u0131klamalar bilgi ama\u00e7l\u0131d\u0131r . eksik ve hatal\u0131 \u00e7evirileri l\u00fctfen bildiriniz . more\nthe levant sparrowhawk is a very secretive species and therefore is hard to count . more research is needed here .\ngorman g 1 998 : the status of levant sparrowhawk in europe . alula 4 : 1 44 - 1 47 .\n, the levant sparrowhawk is a strictly migratory species . it leaves it ' s european breeding range in the second half of august and the first half of september [ mebs & schmidt 2006 ] . the levant sparrowhawk migrates in small flocks ( the\nlevant sparrowhawk - a species for which we know not much about . . . we have some idea that they . . . more\n[ grin 2010 ] global raptor information network . 2010 . species account : levant sparrowhawk accipiter brevipes . downloaded from urltoken on 11 dec 2010\nrecommended citation : global raptor information network . 2018 . species account : levant sparrowhawk accipiter brevipes . downloaded from urltoken on 9 jul . 2018\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes )\ntitle =\narkive species - levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nwhile there are currently no specific conservation measures in place for the levant sparrowhawk ( 1 ) , it occurs in several protected areas ( 7 ) .\nbankovics a 1 991 : levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes , sev . 1 850 ) at the p\u00e9teri - lake . aquila 98 : 1 87 .\nthe levant sparrowhawk is classified as least concern . does not qualify for a more at risk category . widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category .\nthe levant sparrowhawk nests in trees , building a new nest , lined with green leaves , each year . the normal clutch is 3 - 5 egs .\nbreuer g 1 955 : kish\u00e9ja a dun\u00e1nt\u00falon [ the levant sparrowhawk in the dun\u00e1nt\u00fal area ] . aquila 59 - 62 : 379 . [ in hungarian ]\nthe levant sparrowhawk is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 3 ) .\nin europe only in the south - east . the levant sparrowhawk can be found on the balkan , in russia , ukraine , turkey and eastwards to iran .\naspects of the topic levant sparrowhawk are discussed in the following places at britannica . assorted references * description ( in sparrowhawk ( hawk group ) ) . . . dark gray above and brown barred white below , is a common inhabitant of wooded areas throughout europe , in coastal northwestern africa , and in temperate to sub - arctic forests of asia . the levant sparrowhawk , or shikra ( a . more\nthe levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes ) is a small bird of prey in the family accipitridae which also includes many other diurnal raptors such as eagles , buzzards and harriers .\nthe levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes ) is a small bird of prey in the family accipitridae which also includes many other diurnal raptors such as eagles , buzzards and harriers .\ngreschik j 1 934 : kis h\u00e9ja : accipiter brevipes severtz . moh\u00e1cson [ the levant sparrowhawk accipiter brevipes at moh\u00e1cs ] . k\u00f3csag 7 : 73 . [ in hungarian ]\nnumbers may have had a negative effect on the levant sparrowhawk population . along the migration route in israel the number of migrating individuals also declined [ mebs & schmidt 2006 ] .\nthe levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes ) is a small bird of prey in the family accipitridae which also includes many other diurnal raptors such as eagles , buzzards and harriers . more\nfilmed at neot smadar israel 26 . 4 . 2013 latin name : accipiter brevipes levant sparrowhawk is a migrant spices in israel and about 80 , 000 are passing twice a year trough israel\nlevant sparrowhawk is 30 - 37 cm long with a 63 - 76 cm wingspan . the female is larger than the male , but the difference is not as marked as with sparrowhawk . the adult male is blue - grey above , with dark wingtips , and barred reddish below .\nthe levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes ) is a small bird of prey in the family accipitridae which also includes many other diurnal raptors such as eagles , buzzards and harriers . it breeds in forests from greece and the balkans east to southern russia . it is migratory , wintering from egypt across to southwestern iran . it will migrate in large flocks , unlike the more widespread eurasian sparrowhawk the levant sparrowhawk nests in trees , building a new nest , lined with green leaves , each year . more\n[ birdlife international 2004 ] birdlife international . 2004 . birds in europe : population estimates , trends and conservation status . birdlife interntional . cambridge , uk . ( levant sparrowhawk species account available at :\nthe levant sparrowhawk has been recorded over a large range , from south - east europe , east through southern russia to western kazakhstan ( 2 ) , and south through the middle east to the united arab emirates ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 5 ) . a migratory species , the levant sparrowhawk is believed to spend the winter in the east sahel zone of sub - saharan africa ( 2 ) .\nt\u00f3th i , marik p & forg\u00e1ch b 1 998 : a kis h\u00e9ja f\u00e9szkel\u00e9se b\u00e9k\u00e9s megy\u00e9ben [ breeding of the levant sparrowhawk in b\u00e9k\u00e9s county ] . crisicum 1 : 229 - 242 . [ in hungarian ]\nlevant sparrowhawk is 30\u201337 cm ( 12\u201315 in ) long with a 63\u201376 cm ( 25\u201330 in ) wingspan . the female is larger than the male , but the difference is not as marked as with eurasian sparrowhawk . the adult male is blue - grey above , with dark wingtips , and barred reddish below .\nm\u00e9sz\u00e1ros c 201 0 : a kis h\u00e9ja els . bizony\u00edtott f\u00e9szkel\u00e9se csongr\u00e1d megy\u00e9ben [ the first documented breeding of the levant sparrowhawk in the csongr\u00e1d county ] . heliaca 7 : 11 5 . [ in hungarian with english summary ] m\u00e9sz\u00e1ros c & t\u00f3th i 201 0 : kis h\u00e9ja \u00e1llom\u00e1ny adatok - 2009 [ accounts on the status of the levant sparrowhawk - 2009 ] . heliaca 7 [ 2009 ] : 69 . [ in hungarian with english summary ]\nsmall ( l 30 cm ) and slender sparrowhawk with difference in size and in colour between sexes . the levant sparrowhawk is highly selective in its choice of nesting habitats , rarely occurring outside of fragmented deciduous forest alterning with open grasslands , primarly along river valleys . the principal food comprises lizards , small fledging birds and large insectes . resident .\nthe levant sparrowhawk is commonly encountered alone or in a pair around clearings on the edges of woods and sometimes on the outskirts of human settlements . an efficient predator , this species mainly consumes large insects , such as beetles , grasshoppers and locusts , as well as lizards , a variety of small birds , and mice and voles . while most hunting occurs during the day , the levant sparrowhawk has also been observed feeding on agile , aerial prey such as bats at dusk ( 2 ) .\naradi c 1 964 : levant sparrow hawk nesting in the nagyerd . ofdebrecen . aquila 69 - 70 : 250 - 251 .\nendes m 1 992 : kis h\u00e9ja ( accipiter brevipes sev . ) \u201eadataim\u201c - n\u00e9mi aprop\u00f3val [ my \u201cdata\u201d on the levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes ) - with a little apropos ] . calandrella 6 ( 1 ) : 33 - 37 . [ in hungarian ]\nit is migratory , wintering from egypt across to southwestern iran . it will migrate in large flocks , unlike the more widespread sparrowhawk\na handsome , small - bodied bird of prey , the levant sparrowhawk can be distinguished by its barred underparts and striking , dark red eyes . the sexes differ in size and plumage colouration , with the male being significantly smaller than the female and . . . more\nthe levant sparrowhawk feeds on small birds , small mammals like voles and lizards . large insects and even bat are also taken . hunts either from a perch or from flight low above the ground and then surprises the victim [ mebs & schmidt 2006 , grin 2010 ] .\nthe levant sparrowhawk , or shikra ( a . bre vipes ) , is gray above and brown barred white below . it occurs from southeastern europe throughout most of continental southern asia and subequatorial africa . for the small falcon called sparrow hawk in the united states , see kestrel .\nlevant sparrowhawk is being thoroughly studied at the international birding and research centre in eilat ( israel ) during migration . 4 . 25average : 4 . 3 ( 4 votes ) your rating : none voting is for registered members only . please login or create a new account . more\nthe levant sparrowhawk nests in trees , building a new nest , lined with green leaves , each year . the normal clutch is 3\u20135 eggs . it hunts small birds , insects and lizards in woodland , relying on surprise as it flies from a perch to catch its prey unaware .\nkunysz p 1 992 : pierwsze stwierdzenie krogulca kr\u00f3tkonogiego ( accipiter brevipes ) na ziemiach polskich [ first record of a levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes ) in poland ] . notatki ornitologiczne 33 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 57 - 1 59 . [ in polish with english summary ]\nkov\u00e1cs g 2004 : kis h\u00e9ja accipiter brevipes ( severtzov , 1 850 ) [ the levant sparrowhawk accipiter brevipes ( severtzov , 1 850 ) ] , 21 2 . in : ecsedi z ( ed ) , a hortob\u00e1gy mad\u00e1rvil\u00e1ga [ the birds of hortob\u00e1gy ] . hortob\u00e1gy term\u00e9szetv\u00e9delmi egyes\u00fclet , winter fair .\nthere are no known major threats to the levant sparrowhawk\u2019s survival at present . although this species\u2019 global population size and trends are not well known , it is estimated to number between 10 , 000 and 100 , 000 individuals , and does not appear to be undergoing a significant decline ( 1 ) ( 2 ) .\nthe levant sparrowhawk typically occurs in wooded plains , particularly within river basins , as well as amongst foothills and mountain slopes . in the caucasus mountains this species can be found up to elevations of 1 , 000 metres , although in armenia , it has been recorded as high as 2 , 000 metres ( 2 ) .\nstark , h . and liechti , f . ( 2008 ) do levant sparrowhawks accipiter brevipes also migrate at night ? . ibis , 135 : 233 - 236 .\nmarik p , forg\u00e1ch b , t\u00f3th i & t . gye j 1 997 : megfigyel\u00e9sek a kis h\u00e9ja ( accipiter brevipes ) \u00fajabb magyarorsz\u00e1gi f\u00e9szkel\u00e9s\u00e9vel kapcsolatban [ notes on the recent breeding of levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes ) in hungary ] . t\u00fazok 2 ( 2 ) : 49 - 59 . [ in hungarian with english summary ]\nthe remaining habitat must be protected and destroyed habitat should be restored where possible . killing of levant sparrowhawks in the wintering quarters and along the migration route must be stopped .\nbela g & typiak j 2011 : pierwsze stwierdzenie krogulca kr\u00f3tkonogiego accipiter brevipes na pomorzu [ the first occurrence of the levant sparrowhawk accipiter brevipes in pomoria ] . ptaki pomorza 2 : 1 41 - 1 43 . [ in polish with english summary ] bijlsma rg 1 997 : accipiter brevipes lewant sparrowhawk , 1 58 . in : hagemeijer ejm & blair mju ( eds ) , the ebcc atlas of european breeding birds : their distribution and abundance . t & ad ; poyser , london , 903 .\nthe levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes ) is a small bird of prey in the family accipitridae which also includes many other diurnal raptors such as eagles , buzzards and harriers . range / distribution : it breeds in forests from greece and the balkans east to southern russia . it is migratory , wintering from egypt across to southwestern iran . more\nlevant sparrowhawk is 30 - 37 cm long with a 63 - 76 cm wingspan . the female is larger than the male , but the difference is not as marked as with sparrowhawk . the adult male is blue - grey above , with dark wingtips , and barred reddish below . the adult female is slate - grey above with darkish wingtips . she is barred reddish brown below , and may show a dark throat line . the juvenile is dark brown above and has dark - streaked underparts it shows a dark throat line . more\na handsome , small - bodied bird of prey , the levant sparrowhawk can be distinguished by its barred underparts and striking , dark red eyes . the sexes differ in size and plumage colouration , with the male being significantly smaller than the female and possessing dull blue - grey upperparts , along with a pale breast and belly which are lightly marked with pinkish or reddish bars . in contrast , the female is brown above with heavily barred underparts and a dark streak on the throat . the juvenile resembles the adult female , but has streaked rather than barred underparts and a pale spot on the nape ( 2 ) . the levant sparrowhawk produces a shrill \u201ckeeveck - veck - veck\u201d , which is uncharacteristic of sparrowhawks and more akin to the call of the tawny owl ( 4 ) .\nother species : pandion haliaetus : osprey ; gyps fulvus : griffon vulture ; neophron percnopterus : egyptian vulture ; circaetus gallicus : short - toed snake eagle ; circus macrourus : pallid harrier ; circus pygargus : montagu ' s harrier ; circus aeruginosus : western marsh harrier ; accipiter brevipes : levant sparrowhawk ; accipiter nisus : eurasian sparrowhawk ; buteo buteo : common buzzard ; buteo rufinus : long - legged buzzard ; aquila pomarina : lesser spotted eagle ; aquila heliaca : eastern imperial eagle ; hieraaetus pennatus : booted eagle ; falco naumanni : lesser kestrel ; falco tinnunculus : common kestrel ; falco subbuteo : eurasian hobby .\nit breeds in forests from greece and the balkans east to southern russia . it is migratory , wintering from egypt across to southwestern iran . it will migrate in large flocks , unlike the more widespread eurasian sparrowhawk\norta , j . & marks , j . s . ( 2018 ) . levant sparrowhawk ( accipiter brevipes ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nit breeds in forests from greece and the balkans east to southern russia . it is migratory , wintering from egypt across to southwestern iran . it will migrate in large flocks , unlike the more widespread eurasian sparrowhawk .\nthe adult levant sparrow - hawks feed mostly on small birds and small ground mammals , plus occasionally bats . the immatures eat many insects . adults also occasionally eat insects . prey is seized either from the ground or in flight .\non may 1 5 , 201 2 an individual of levant sparrowhawk accipiter brevipes was observed at the southern edge of trebi\u0161ov town in eastern slovakia , situated in the v\u00fdchodoslovensk\u00e1 rovina lowlands . the sighting was documented with photographs . this is the first recorded occurrence of this species in terms of the bird fauna of slovakia . the present article describes in detail its distribution and breeding in eastern hungary and western romania , based on an isolated population in the pannonian basin at the north - western edge of its breeding range . the occurrence of the levant sparrowhawk beyond the boundaries of its breeding range and outside the pannonian basin consists mostly of rare movements by young individuals ( northern moravia , central and northern poland ) far north of its breeding range . an adult male was observed in south - eastern poland in the pre - breeding period , and in slovakia an adult female was observed in the breeding period .\negg - laying takes place during may and early june , with a clutch of three to five eggs deposited in a nest constructed from sticks and twigs , which is placed on a tree branch . the eggs are incubated by the female levant sparrowhawk for around 30 to 35 days , while the male brings food . the chicks fledge after around 45 days , but remain dependent on the parent birds for several weeks afterwards . sexual maturity is reached at one year old ( 2 ) .\na handsome , small - bodied bird of prey , the levant sparrowhawk can be distinguished by its barred underparts and striking , dark red eyes . the sexes differ in size and plumage colouration , with the male being significantly smaller than the female and possessing dull blue - grey upperparts , along with a pale breast and belly which are lightly marked with pinkish or reddish bars . in contrast , the female is brown above with heavily barred underparts and a dark streak on the throat . more\nthis bird is a small raptor with short broad wings and a longish tail , both adaptations to manoeuvring through trees . it is similar to the sparrowhawk , but its shorter tail and more pointed wings give it a more falcon - like appearance .\nthe levant sparrowhawk leaves the breeding grounds in september , migrating south to its african wintering grounds ( 2 ) . during migration , large flocks may form , which travel by day and by night and hunt together . as a trade - off between conserving energy and reducing time spent migrating , this species employs a combination of passive soaring and gliding , as well as energetic flapping flight . the latter technique is particularly used towards the end of migration when individuals become separated from the main migratory stream ( 6 ) .\nthis bird is a small raptor with short broad wings and a longish tail , both adaptations to manoeuvring through trees . it is similar to the eurasian sparrowhawk , but its shorter tail and more pointed wings give it a more falcon - like appearance .\nother species : pandion haliaetus : osprey ; gyps fulvus : griffon vulture ; neophron percnopterus : egyption vulture ; circaetus gallicus : short - toed snake eagle ; circus cyaneus : northern harrier ; circus macrourus : pallid harrier ; circus pygargus : montagu ' s harrier ; circus aeruginosus : western marsh harrier ; accipiter brevipes : levant sparrowhawk ; accipiter nisus : eurasian sparrowhawk ; accipiter gentilis : northern goshawk ; buteo rufinus : long - legged buzzard ; buteo lagopus : rough - legged hawk ; aquila pomarina : lesser spotted eagle ; aquila clanga : greater spotted eagle ; aquila nipalensis : steppe eagle ; hieraaetus pennatus : booted eagle ; falco naumanni : lesser kestrel ; falco tinnunculus : common kestrel ; falco vespertinus ; red - footed falcon ; falco subbuteo : eurasian hobby ; falco cherrug : saker falcon .\nother species : pandion haliaetus : osprey ; pernis apivorus : european honey buzzard ; haliaeetus albicilla : white - tailed eagle ; gyps fulvus : griffon vulture ; neophron percnopterus : egyptian vulture ; gypaetus barbatus : bearded vulture ; circus cyaneus : northern harrier ; circus macrourus : pallid harrier ; circus pygargus : montagu ' s harrier ; circus aeruginosus : western marsh harrier ; accipiter brevipes : levant sparrowhawk ; accipiter nisus : eurasian sparrowhawk ; accipiter gentilis : northern goshawk ; buteo rufinus : long - legged buzzard ; aquila clanga : greater spotted eagle ; aquila nipalensis : steppe eagle ; aquila heliaca : eastern imperial eagle ; aquila chrysaetos : golden eagle ; hieraaetus fasciatus : bonelli ' s eagle ; hieraaetus pennatus : booted eagle ; falco naumanni : lesser kestrel ; falco tinnunculus : common kestrel ; falco vespertinus : red - footed falcon ; falco columbarius : merlin ; falco subbuteo : eurasian hobby ; falco cherrug : saker falcon ; falco peregrinus : peregrine falcon .\nother species : pandion haliaetus : osprey ; milvus migrans : black kite ; gyps fulvus : griffon vulture ; neophron percnopterus : egyptian vulture ; circaetus gallicus : short - toed snake eagle ; circus cyaneus : northern harrier ; circus macrourus : pallid harrier ; circus pygargus : montagu ' s harrier ; circus aeruginosus : western marsh harrier ; accipiter brevipes : levant sparrowhawk ; accipiter nisus : eurasian sparrowhawk ; accipiter gentilis : northern goshawk ; buteo buteo : common buzzard ; buteo rufinus : long - legged buzzard ; aquila clanga : greater spotted eagle ; aquila nipalensis : steppe eagle ; aquila heliaca : eastern imperial eagle ; aquila chrysaetos : golden eagle ; hieraaetus fasciatus : bonelli ' s eagle ; hieraaetus pennatus : booted eagle ; falco naumanni : lesser kestrel ; falco tinnunculus : common kestrel ; falco vespertinus : red - footed falcon ; falco eleonora e : eleonora ' s falcon ; falco columbarius : merlin ; falco subbuteo : eurasian hobby ; falco biarmicus : lanner falcon ; falco cherrug : saker falcon ; falco peregrinus : peregrine falcon .\nmovements : complete long distance migrant ( bildstein 2006 ) , with birds moving through the eastern mediterranean basin and the sinai peninsula , egypt , sudan , and arabia , and wintering in sub - saharan africa . migrates in small flocks instead of singly , as is the case with the eurasian sparrowhawk ( nikolaus 1984 ) . more . . . .\nother species : pandion haliaetus : osprey ; milvus milvus : black kite ; haliaeetus albicilla : white - tailed eagle ; aegypius monachus : cinereous vulture ; gyps fulvus : griffon vulture ; neophron percnopterus : egyptian vulture ; circaetus gallicus : short - toed snake eagle ; circus cyaneus : northern harrier ; circus macrourus : pallid harrier ; circus pygargus : montagu ' s harrier ; circus aeruginosus : western marsh harrier ; accipiter brevipes : levant sparrowhawk ; accipiter nisus : eurasian sparrowhawk ; accipiter gentilis : northern goshawk ; buteo rufinus : long - legged buzzard ; buteo lagopus : rough - legged hawk ; aquila clanga : greater spotter eagle ; aquila heliacal : eastern imperial eagle ; aquila chrysaetos : golden eagle ; aquila nipalensis : steppe eagle ; hieraaetus fasciatus : bonelli ' s eagle ; hieraaetus pennatus : booted eagle ; falco naumanni : lesser kestrel ; falco tinnunculus : common kestrel ; falco vespertinus : red - footed falcon ; falco eleonorae : eleonora ' s falcon ; falco columbarius : merlin ; falco subbuteo : eurasian hobby ; falco biarmicus : lanner falcon ; falco cherrug : saker falcon ; falco peregrinus : peregrine falcon .\nother species : pandion haliaetus : osprey ; pernis apivorus : european honey buzzard ; milvus milvus : red kite ; milvus migrans : black kite ; aegypius monachus : cinereous vulture ; gyps fulvus : griffon vulture ; neophron percnopterus : egyptian vulture ; gypaetus barbatus : bearded vulture ; circaetus gallicus : short - toed snake eagle ; circus cyaneus : northern harrier ; circus macroucus : pallid harrier ; circus pygargus : montagu ' s harrier ; circus aeruginosus : western marsh harrier ; accipiter brevipes : levant sparrowhawk ; accipiter nisus : eurasian sparrowhawk ; accipiter gentilis : northern goshawk ; buteo rufinus : long - legged buzzard ; aquila pomarina : lesser spotted eagle ; aquila clanga : greater spotted eagle ; aquila nipalensis : steppe eagle ; aquila heliaca : eastern imperial eagle ; aquila chrysaetos ; golden eagle ; hieraaetus fasciatus : bonelli ' s eagle ; hieraaetus pennatus : booted eagle ; falco naumanni : lesser kestrel ; falco tinnunculus : common kestrel ; falco vespertinus : red - footed falcon ; falco eleonorae : eleonora ' s falcon ; falco concolor : sooty falcon ; falco columbarius : merlin ; falco subbuteo : eurasian hobby ; falco biarmicus ; lanner falcon ; falco peregrinus : peregrine falcon ; falco pelegrinoides : barbary falcon .\nother species : pandion haliaetus : osprey ; pernis apivorus : european honey buzzard ; milvus migrans : black kite ; gyps fulvus : griffon vulture ; neophron percnopterus : egyptian vulture ; circaetus gallicus : short - toed snake eagle ; circus macroucus : pallid harrier ; circus pygargus : montagu ' s harrier ; circus aeruginosus : western marsh harrier ; accipiter brevipes : levant sparrowhawk ; buteo rufinus : long - legged buzzard ; aquila pomarina : lesser spotted eagle ; aquila clanga : greater spotted eagle ; aquila heliaca : eastern imperial eagle ; hieraaetus fasciatus : bonelli ' s eagle ; hieraaetus pennatus : booted eagle ; falco naumanni : lesser kestrel ; falco tinnunculus : common kestrel ; falco vespertinus : red - footed falcon ; falco eleonorae : eleonora ' s falcon ; falco subbuteo : eurasian hobby ; falco biarmicus : lanner falcon ; falco cherrug : saker falcon ; falco peregrinus : peregrine falcon .\nhabitat and habits : during the breeding season , it prefers river valleys and wooded gorges , abandoned walnut and apricot orchards , stands of willows , and scattered groves of trees ( adamian and klem 1999 ) . more of a ground hunter than the eurasian sparrowhawk , relatively slow in flight , but more maneuverable in highly vegetated habitat ( baumgart 2006 ) . alternates between gliding and flapping when increasing speed or height ( adamian and klem op cit . ) . more . . . .\nother species : pandion haliaetus : osprey ; milvus milvus : red kite ; gyps fulvus : griffon vulture ; neophron percnopterus : egyptian vulture ; circus cyaneus : northern harrier ; circus pygargus : montagu ' s harrier ; circua aeruginosus : western marsh harrier ; accipiter nisus : eurasian sparrowhawk ; accipiter gentilis : northern goshawk ; buteo buteo : common buzzard ; falco naumanni : lesser kestrel ; falco tinnunculus : common kestrel ; falco columbarius : merlin ; falco subbuteo : eurasian hobby ; falco peregrinus : peregrine falcon .\nthe males are particularly striking at close range , with their plain blue faces and red eyes and the juveniles have distinctive lines of dark spots down their underparts . the females are basically similar to a female sparrowhawk but with a neat dark stripe down the middle of the chin . in flight , their gregarious behaviour is usually enough to identify them but you ' ll also notice that the males in the flock are conspicuously pale below with contrastingly dark wingtips . even if plumage details aren ' t visible , lone birds can be identified by their shapes , since , compared to common sparrowhawks , their wings are longer and more pointed , almost falcon - like .\nother species : pandion haliaetus : osprey ; milvus milvus : red kite ; milvus migrans : black kite ; neophron percnopterus : egyptian vulture ; gyps fulvus : griffon vulture ; circaetus gallicus : short - toed snake eagle ; circus cyaneus : northern harrier ; circus macrourus : pallid harrier ; circus pygargus : montagu ' s harrier ; circus aeruginosus : western marsh harrier ; accipiter nisus : eurasian sparrowhawk ; buteo buteo : common buzzard ; buteo rufinus : long - legged buzzard ; aquila clanga : great spotted eagle ; aquila nipalensis : steppe eagle ; aquila heliaca : eastern imperial eagle ; hieraaetus fasciatus : bonelli ' s eagle ; hieraaetus pennatus : booted eagle ; falco vespertinus : red - footed falcon ; falco eleonorae : eleonora ' s falcon ; falco columbarius : merlin ; falco subbuteo : eurasian hobby ; falco biarmicus : lanner falcon ; falco cherrug : saker falcon ; falco peregrinus : peregrine falcon .\nthe levant sparrow - hawk is sexually mature in its first year and will breed with traces of immature plumage still showing . the nests are built in belts of trees along river valleys , usually in broad - leaved trees , and fifteen to thirty feet from the ground . they are small loose structures of sticks about one foot across and a few inches deep , with the cup lined with green leaves . a new one is built each year . in may three to five eggs are laid at one - day intervals . they are pale bluish green , with small markings of grey and brown , and after incubation appear greyish white . the female incubates , beginning with the first egg . the period is probably between 30 and 35 days . the young hatch in early june , and leave the nest in august , after a fledging period of 40 - 45 days . whilst in the nest they are fed by both parents . they remain in the vicinity of the nest for a couple of weeks after fledging , and then migrate southwards . between two and five young per nest are successfully reared , the numbers fluctuating each season .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ncramp , s . and simmons , k . e . l . ( eds ) . 1977 - 1994 . handbook of the birds of europe , the middle east and africa . the birds of the western palearctic . oxford university press , oxford .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe population is estimated to number in the tens of thousands . the european population is estimated at 3 , 500 - 6 , 900 pairs , which equates to 7 , 000 - 13 , 800 mature individuals ( birdlife international 2015 ) . europe forms approximately 75 - 94 % of the global range ( birdlife international 2004 ) , so a very preliminary estimate of the global population size is 7 , 400 - 18 , 400 mature individuals , although further validation of this estimate is needed . this is placed in the band 10 , 000 - 19 , 999 mature individuals . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats . in europe the population trend is unknown ( birdlife international 2015 ) .\nbehaviour the species is a migrant , likely wintering in sub - saharan africa ( del hoyo et al . 1994 , ferguson - lees and christie 2001 ) . birds leave their breeding grounds in september , returning in april and may . it is usually solitary , but may hunt in pairs , and travels in flocks on migration which become especially large at certain bottlenecks ( del hoyo et al . 1994 , snow and perrins 1998 ) . it is sometimes active at twilight , and frequently migrates at night using flapping flight ( del hoyo et al . 1994 , ferguson - lees and christie 2001 ) . habitat it inhabits woody plains , often near water , and usually ranges up to 1 , 000 m ( del hoyo et al . 1994 ) . diet lizards and large insects ( the latter especially in africa ) make up the majority of its diet ( del hoyo et al . 1994 ) . breeding site it nests in tree branches , preferring deciduous trees ( del hoyo et al . 1994 ) . management information deciduous forests in riparian zones appear to be the optimal habitat for this species ( del hoyo et al . 1994 ) .\nit is highly vulnerable to the impacts of potential wind energy development ( strix 2012 ) . this species is considered undesirable for falconry in georgia , and many are killed after being captured by falconers who are attempting to catch other , more desirable species ( orta and marks 2014 ) . following the chernobyl nuclear accident in 1986 , the proportion of juvenile birds migrating over eilat , israel decreased , leading researchers to suggest that radioactive contamination may have resulted in a decrease in reproductive success ( yosef and fornasari 2004 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nenvironment agency - abu dhabi is a principal sponsor of arkive . ead is working to protect and conserve the environment as well as promoting sustainable development in the emirate of abu dhabi .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\ndel hoyo , j . , elliott , a . and sargatal , j . ( 1994 ) handbook of the birds of the world . volume two : new world vultures to guineafowl . lynx edicions , barcelona .\npeterson , r . t . , mountfort , g . and hollom , p . a . d . ( 2001 ) a field guide to the birds of britain and europe . houghton mifflin harcourt , boston .\nhellyer , p . and aspinall , s . ( 2005 ) the emirates : a natural history . trident press limited , united arab emirates .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nthis species is featured in jewels of the uae , which showcases biodiversity found in the united arab emirates in association with the environment agency \u2013 abu dhabi .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\ncombined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size may be moderately small to large , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : accipiter brevipes . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nthis species and a . badius form a clade ( see a . badius ) . formerly considered conspecific with a . badius , but the two breed sympatrically in armenia # r # r ; an apparent hybrid between the two species recorded in s israel # r . monotypic .\nse europe , e ukraine and sw russia e to w kazakhstan ; more locally in turkey , caucasus , iraq and iran . thought to winter mainly in e sahel zone of sub - saharan africa .\n30\u201337 cm ; male 140\u2013275 g , female 183\u2013290 g ; wingspan 64\u201374 cm . adult male dull blue - grey above , breast and belly pale , lightly barred pinkish or . . .\ntypical vocalization a series of shrill\nkeeveek\nor\nkewick\nphrases .\nwooded plains ( particularly in river basins ) , foothills and mountain slopes . prefers to nest in . . .\nlizards and large insects such as grasshoppers , locusts , beetles , cicadas , dragonflies ; also variety of small birds , including sparrows , . . .\nlays in may or early jun . nest a smallish platform of sticks ( 30 cm wide , 15 cm deep ) lined with twigs and sometimes leaves , built in tree . . .\nhighly migratory , forming large groups at bottlenecks . most birds leave breeding areas in sept and . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . cites ii . size and trend of populations insufficiently known owing in part to identification difficulties and species ' secretive . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe winter quarters are in the eastern part of the sahel , maybe also in more western parts of the sahel [ mebs & schmidt 2010 ] . more research is needed here .\nreturns to the european breeding grounds mostly during the 2nd half of april [ mebs & schmidt 2010 ] .\nnests are built in a tree , normally at heights of 6 - 12m [ grin 2010 ] . clutch size is between 3 and 5 eggs with 4 being the most common number of eggs . the eggs are incubated for 29 - 30 days , mostly by the female and the young leave the nest after 29 - 31 days [ mebs & schmidt 2006 ] .\nas with other raptors , the young are fed by the parents after fledging for a while , often at their nest .\n[ birdlife 2004 ] estimated the european populations to be between 3 , 200 and 7 , 700 pairs . the largest populations are found in russia ( 1 , 500 - 3 , 000 ) and greece ( 1 , 000 - 2 , 000 ) . in romania there are 60 - 90 pairs , in bulgaria 50 - 90 . turkey has 600 - 900 pairs .\nthe breeding population may be much higher because during migration much more birds were counted in israel . during autumn migration in 1994 , 60 , 390 ! birds were counted in the northern valley [ mebs & schmidt 2006 ] .\nit is supposed that the population on the balkan has declined considerably . similar trends have been observed along the wolga river . in south - western russia , among other factors , an increase in\nnot much is known about the threats about this secretive raptor . habitat destruction and human persecution along the migration route and in the wintering areas are a known threat [ mebs & schmidt 2006 ] .\nmore research is needed to learn more about the population size in europe , it ' s population ecology and threats in the breeding areas as well as during migration and in the wintering quarters .\n[ mebs & schmidt 2006 ] mebs , theodor & schmidt , daniel ( 2006 ) . die greifv\u00f6gel europas , nordafrikas und vorderasiens . kosmos verlag .\nforsman , dick ( 1999 ) . the raptors of europe and the middle east a handbook of field identification . poyser\nmebs , theodor & schmidt , daniel ( 2006 ) . die greifv\u00f6gel europas , nordafrikas und vorderasiens . kosmos verlag .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 298 , 580 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nit occurs in lowland forests near wetlands , nesting in tall trees . it feeds on unretrieved quarry , small mammals , waterbirds , frogs and snakes , hunting over swamps , wet meadows and , in estonia , over extensively managed agricultural land . breeds in deciduous woodland especially in hilly areas . occurs more widely on passage when flocks may be seen overhead .\naccipiter brevipes is a patchily distributed summer visitor to south - eastern europe , which constitutes > 75 % of its global breeding range . its european breeding population is small ( as few as 3 , 200 pairs ) , but was stable between 1970 - 1990 . although the species remained stable or increased across the vast majority of its european range during 1990 - 2000 , there were declines in the sizeable population in russia , and the species underwent a moderate decline ( > 10 % ) overall . 3 600 - 5 800 breeding pairs in europe . most common in greece 1000 - 1200 , the ukraine 1000 and russia 1500 - 3000 . smaller populations exist in other south - eastern european countries . turkish population 10 - 500 . this bird inhabits south - eastern europe , from the balkan peninsula to the ural mountains . outside europe it is breeding as far east as western kazakhstan and iran . in the european union its distribution is limited to greece , where its population is estimated at 1000 - 1200 breeding pairs , its total european population being around 12000 pairs ( ebcc atlas of european breeding birds ) . being totally migratory , this species is wintering in north - eastern africa , but its exact wintering quarters are not well known .\nthe eu breeding population is estimated to be not over 1 , 000 pairs . the agricultural and recreational development of river valleys affects the species ' nesting and hunting habitats . this important , especially in view of the species ' small population and its rather particular habitats requirements . sharp declines in lizard populations , caused for example , by extremely low winter or spring temperatures , may also disminish the number of breeding pairs . this species has a large range , with an estimated global extent of occurrence of 10 , 000 , 000 km2 . it has a large global population estimated to be 10 , 000 - 100 , 000 individuals ( ferguson - lees et al . 2001 ) . global population trends have not been quantified , but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the iucn red list ( i . e . , declining more than 30 % in ten years or three generations ) . for these reasons , the species is evaluated as least concern . [ conservation status from urltoken ]\nmigratory . most birds leave areas in sept and return in apr or early may ; believed to winter in sub - saharan africa , but winter quarters on africa not well known . migrants concentrate around bosporus , e black sea and especially israel , where there are peaks during very short periods in second half of apr and of sept , and large groups can form ; crossing point between asia and africa probably at gulf of suez . some nocturnal migration recorded , with birds using flapping flight .\navibirds , almere , netherlands 2001 - 2012 - your source to the birds of europe . contact ? mail us : info { @ } avibirds . com\nplease help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . unsourced material may be challenged and removed .\nthe adult female is slate - grey above with darkish wingtips . she is barred reddish brown below , and may show a dark throat line . the juvenile is dark brown above and has dark - streaked underparts . it shows a dark throat line . the flight of this hawk is a characteristic flap \u2013 flap \u2013 glide .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nunep / cms secretariat in abu dhabi , united nations environment programme , c / o environment agency - abu dhabi p . o . box 45553 abu dhabi united arab emirates\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\ndistribution : afrotropical / palearctic . southeastern europe , southwestern ukraine and southern russia east to western kazakhstan ; locally in turkey , caucasia , and iran ; winters in the sahel zone of sub - saharan africa , although the specific areas are largely unknown . more . . . .\ntaxonomy : forms a superspecies with a . badius and a . butleri . formerly considered to be a race of a . badius .\nfood and feeding behavior : adults eat small birds and mammals , and young are fed insects and small reptiles ( dal 1954 ) . on the wintering range , this species preys upon birds , lizards , large insects , and mammals , which are taken in flight or from a perch ( borrow and demey 2001 ) . adept at capturing large , vigilant lizards ( e . g . , lacerta viridis ) ( baumgart 2006 ) . more . . . .\nbreeding : the stick nest is placed in a tree , usually at heights of 6 - 12 m ( adamian and klem 1999 ) . nests have been found in apricot trees in armenia ( leister and sosnin 19442 , dal 1949 ) , in russian olives in kazakhstan , and in elms in turkmenistan ( adamian and klem op cit . ) . more . . . .\nconservation : categorized globally as a species of\nleast concern\nby birdlife international . more . . . .\npopulation estimates : the european population was estimated at 4 , 100 to 4 , 900 breeding pairs by birdlife international / european bird census council ( 2000 ) and later at 3 , 200 to 7 , 700 breeding pairs ( birdlife international ( 2004 ) . more . . . .\nimportant references : birdlife international / european bird census council . 2000 . european bird populations : estimates and trends . birdlife conservation series no . 10 . birdlife international , cambridge , uk . brown , l . h . , e . k . urban , and k . newman . 1982 . the birds of africa . vol . 1 . academic press , london . ferguson - lees , j . , and d . a . christie .\nj . sargatal ( eds ) . handbook of birds of the world . vol . 2 . new world\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\nhorse , ( equus caballus ) , a hoofed , herbivorous mammal of the family equidae . it comprises a single species , \u2026\ndog , ( canis lupus familiaris ) , domestic mammal of the family canidae ( order carnivora ) . it is a subspecies\u2026\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nit hunts small birds , insects and lizards in woodland , relying on surprise as it flies from a perch to catch its prey unaware .\nthe adult female is slate - grey above with darkish wingtips . she is barred reddish brown below , and may show a dark throat line .\nthe juvenile is dark brown above and has dark - streaked underparts it shows a dark throat line .\nthe flight of this hawk is a characteristic\nflap \u2013 flap \u2013 glide\n.\ncopyright : wikipedia . this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license . it uses material from urltoken . . . additional information and photos added by avianweb .\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 / / en\nurltoken\nthe eu breeding population is estimated to be not over 1 , 000 pairs . the agricultural and recreational development of river valleys affects the species ' nesting and hunting habitats . this important , especially in view of the species ' small population and its rather particular habitats requirements . sharp declines in lizard populations , caused for example , by extremely low winter or spring temperatures , may also disminish the number of breeding pairs ."]}
{"id": 872, "summary": [{"text": "the volcano rabbit ( romerolagus diazi ) , also known as teporingo or zacatuche , is a small rabbit that resides in the mountains of mexico .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is the world 's second smallest rabbit , second only to the pygmy rabbit .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it has small rounded ears , short legs , and short , thick fur and weighs approximately 390 \u2013 600 g ( 0.86 \u2013 1.3 lb ) .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it has a life span of 7 to 9 years .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the volcano rabbit lives in groups of 2 to 5 animals in burrows ( underground nests ) and runways among grass tussocks .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "the burrows can be as long as 5 m and as deep as 40 cm .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "there are usually 2 to 3 young per litter , born in the burrows .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "unlike many species of rabbits ( and similar to pikas ) , the volcano rabbit emits very high-pitched sounds instead of thumping its feet on the ground to warn other rabbits of danger .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "it is crepuscular and is highly active during twilight , dawn and all times in between .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "populations have been estimated to have approximately 150 \u2013 200 colonies with a total population of 1,200 individuals over their entire range . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "volcano rabbit", "paragraphs": ["in addition to the volcano rabbit of mexico , pygmy rabbits are the only north american rabbit that dig their own burrows .\nthe volcano rabbit is one of the smallest species of rabbit in the world and is believed to be one of the most primitive rabbit species in the world . the volcano rabbit\u2019s name is derived from its unique environment as they are only found around four prominent volcanoes in mexico , the volcano rabbit is not found anywhere else in the world .\nfine structure of the parotid gland in the pika and the volcano rabbit . - pubmed - ncbi\nthe volcano rabbit weighs 390 - 600 g ( 0 . 86 - 1 . 3 lb ) .\nthe endangered volcano rabbit is endemic to the mountainous areas lying directly to the south of mexico city .\nvolcano rabbits tend to be found in the dense pin forests and undergrowth that covers the volcano slopes and usually at around 3000 meters in elevation .\nmillburn , naomi .\nreasons why the volcano rabbit might be extinct\naccessed july 09 , 2018 . urltoken\n1987 . the volcano rabbit : a shrinking distribution and a threatened habitat . oryx 21 : 85 - 91 .\nthe tiny volcano rabbit , also known as the zacatuche or teporingo , is an endangered lagomorph native to mexico .\nunlawful hunting activities are also a prominent factor in the endangered population status of volcano rabbits . although strictly forbidden in mexico , volcano rabbit hunting still takes place within the species ' range . some parks are even specifically designated as protective sanctuaries for their volcano rabbit residents . the hunting is common both for sustenance and target purposes .\nmillburn , naomi .\nreasons why the volcano rabbit might be extinct .\nanimals - urltoken , http : / / animals . urltoken / reasons - volcano - rabbit - might - extinct - 4855 . html . accessed 09 july 2018 .\nmillburn , naomi . ( n . d . ) . reasons why the volcano rabbit might be extinct . animals - urltoken . retrieved from http : / / animals . urltoken / reasons - volcano - rabbit - might - extinct - 4855 . html\nvolcano rabbits breed throughout the year with a peak during the warm summer . after a\non el pelado volcano , m\u00e9xico . journal of mammalogy 75 : 743 - 749 .\nthe most serious threats to the volcano rabbit are habitat degradation and target shooting . hunters looking for game birds ( such as quail ) will use the rabbit for target practice . the people living in the mountains consider it vermin to be killed off . neither the hunters or the natives eat the volcano rabbit .\nsadly the volcano rabbit population is currently in decline mostly because of their habitat being so close to mexico city . due to being so close to humans the volcano rabbit\u2019s are losing their habitat to human expansion and are often hunted for food or even just target practice .\nbecause of the dense undergrowth on the volcanic slopes the volcano rabbit\u2019s can spend most of their time actually up on the surface although they will occasionally shelter in burrows that have been dug by other animals as the volcano rabbit\u2019s do not have the means to dig burrows .\nthe volcano rabbit occurs in the mexican pine - oak forests global 200 ecoregion . ( olson & dinerstein 1998 , olson & dinerstein 1999 )\nthe volcano rabbit is the second smallest of all rabbit and hares . it lives near the only four volcanoes in mexico , which are popocatepet , izacchihtal , el palado , and tlaloc .\nthe volcano rabbit lives in mexico . the rabbit has been pushed into areas on the slopes of the iztacc\u00edhuatl , pelado , popocatepetl , and tlaloc volcanoes . the volcano rabbit is generally found between elevations of 2800 m and 4250 m in pine forests with a dense undergrowth of bunch grass and rocky terrain called the transverse neovolcanic axis .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - volcano rabbit ( romerolagus diazi )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - volcano rabbit ( romerolagus diazi )\ntitle =\narkive species - volcano rabbit ( romerolagus diazi )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\noryx _ 2014 _ 148 _ hunter _ cresswell _ volcano _ rabbit _ final _ authors _ accepted _ version . pdf ( 724 . 1kb )\nupon first inspection the volcano rabbit may just look like any other type of rabbit with thick dark brown fur and a gray underside , however on closer inspection characteristics like small round ears , almost no tail and very short legs define this unique type of rabbit .\nhunter , m & cresswell , w 2015 , ' factors affecting the distribution and abundance of the endangered volcano rabbit romerolagus diazi on the iztaccihuatl volcano ' oryx , vol 49 , no . 2 , pp . 366 - 375 . doi : 10 . 1017 / s0030605313000525\nthe volcano rabbit is small with short , round ears and small legs . their fur is usually dark brown or black with grey underneath their stomach . they also have yellow on the back and sides of their body . they do not have a visible tail . an average volcano rabbit weighs at least a pound or less . it is approximately 9 - 12 inches in height and has one inch ears . volcano rabbit are herbivores , this includes grass and the bark of alder trees .\nalthough the volcano rabbits are not found outside of mexico there are a handful of isolated populations away from the slopes of the volcanoes but these are very few and far between . the four volcano slopes where these unique rabbits reside are the\nthe volcano rabbit ( romerolagus diazi ) , also known as teporingo or zacatuche , is a small rabbit that resides in the mountains of mexico . it is the world ' s second smallest rabbit , second only to the pygmy rabbit . it has small rounded ears , short legs , and short , thick fur and weighs approximately 390\u2013600 g ( 0 . 86\u20131 . 3 lb ) . it has a life span of 7 to 9 years . the volcano rabbit lives in groups of 2 to 5 animals in burrows ( underground nests ) and runways among grass tussocks .\none of the tiniest rabbits in the world , the furry volcano rabbit makes itself comfortable in the home of mexico . it is given the name\nvolcano rabbit\nfor a reason as it nestles on the slopes of volcanoes , but it doesn ' t stay put ! hopping to various different biomes including forests , it mainly resides in the tropical grassland biome where it has become endangered .\nthe volcano rabbit feeds on green leaves in zacaton grasses , the undeveloped leaves of spiny herbs and the bark of alder trees . during the rainy season , it will also eat oats and corn from crops .\nliving in family groups of up to five individuals the volcano rabbit\u2019s feed mostly on leaves , bark and herbs and are nocturnal which means most activities take place during the night . not much is known about the breeding cycle of the volcano rabbits but it is known that females generally give birth to a litter of 2 or 3 young after successful mating .\nthe volcano rabbit has traditionally been hunted for food and sport . although laws have been passed outlawing the hunting of the animals , they are seldom enforced . forest fires , the conversion of forest land into farmland , the overgrazing of cattle and sheep , and the cutting of trees for timber have all contributed to the destruction of volcano rabbit habitat . many of the forest fires result when farmers burn bunchgrass areas in hopes of promoting new growth for their livestock ( a process known as slash - and - burn agriculture ) . each of the remaining volcano rabbit populations lies within a 45 - minute drive of mexico city . now the world\u2019s largest city , it has a rapidly growing population of 20 , 000 , 000 people . as the city and rural settlements around it continue to expand , volcano rabbit habitat continues to decrease . as of 1998 , only 16 patches of suitable habitat exist . part of the volcano rabbit\u2019s present - day range lies within the izta - popo and zoquiapan national parks . however , habitat destruction continues even with these protected areas .\nthe volcano rabbit feeds on the green leaves of zacaton grasses , the young leaves of spiny herbs and the bark of alder trees . during the rainy season , it may also eat oats and corn from crops .\nvolcano rabbits feed on zacaton grasses , herbs and the bark of alder trees . during the rainy season they will also eat corn and oats .\nstudies conducted on the pelado volcano , one of the four core areas of zacatuche rabbit , indicated that densities estimated using line transects ranged from 0 . 11 to 1 . 20 rabbits / ha according to habitat characteristics (\nthe volcano rabbit , also known as the mexican pygmy rabbit , has short , thick dark brown hair . it is one of the few species of short - eared rabbits . its rounded ears measure just 1 . 6 inches ( 4 centimeters ) long . the animal also has short hind legs and feet and a very short tail . an average volcano rabbit has a head and body length of 10 . 5 to 13 inches ( 26 . 5 to 33 centimeters ) and weighs between 14 and 18 ounces ( 397 and 510 grams ) . active mainly during the day , the volcano rabbit feeds on the tender young leaves of zacaton or bunchgrass ( various wiry grass species that grow in low clumps in mexico and the southwestern united states ) . its main predators are long - tailed weasels , bobcats , and rattlesnakes . a volcano rabbit blending in with its surroundings . volcano rabbits construct elaborate burrows in deep sandy soil . entrances are hidden in the base of grass clumps . for temporary shelter during the day , the animals sometimes use abandoned pocket - gopher burrows or the hollows between rocks and boulders . scientists know little about the social structure of volcano rabbits . groups of two to seven animals have been observed in the wild . male and female volcano rabbits mate primarily between january and april . after a gestation ( pregnancy ) period of 38 to 40 days , a female gives birth to a litter of one to five infants .\n* * * the volcano rabbit is restricted to the volcanic slopes near mexico city , within a 45 minute drive of 17 million people . as a result it is subjected to the pressures of habitat degradation , tourism and hunting .\nthere are no established conversations for volcano rabbits . there are laws in mexico that make hunting them illegal , but enforcement of the law is difficult . some zoos in the americas have bred them in captive to help increase their population . organizations teach the public about volcano rabbits and how to help protect them .\nan initial robotic testing phase has nearly been completed on the piano del lago area of the volcano , a desolate stretch of terrain buffeted by strong winds .\n) found in central mexico ( durrell and mallinson 1970 ) . pygmy rabbit burrows\nthe volcano rabbit ( scientific name romerolagus diazi ) is more commonly called zacatuche or teporingo by the locals living in the mountainous regions of mexico where these tiny animals are found . easily identified by their minute appendages ( ears , legs , feet , tail ) and thick stubby fur , volcano rabbits are rather small mammals with , adult individuals weighing only 1 . 3 lbs , making them the second smallest rabbit in the world , following only the pygmy rabbit . these animals are equipped with two upper incisors designed specifically for gnawing , a body feature which sets them apart from rodents .\nunlike other rabbits , who warn others of danger by thumbing their feet , volcano rabbits emit very high - pitched sounds and whistles when they are aware of danger approaching .\nthe young volcano rabbits are born in an underground nest . they remain in the nest for 2 weeks and begin to eat solid food and move about after 3 weeks .\nvolcano rabbits ( romerolagus diazi ) are diminutive mammals that are native to mexico , where they have an extremely limited geographic scope . outside of mexico , they are not found anywhere else on earth . though volcano rabbits still exist and are not considered to be extinct , they are indeed an endangered species , with an array of different risk factors .\nlivestock grazing may be compatible with pygmy rabbit conservation efforts over the long - term .\npygmy rabbits are on average the smallest rabbit , with large individuals weighing about 1 pound .\nwhat really needs to be addressed though is the purposeful burning of the forests in which they live . humans shouldn\u2019t simply be allowed to burn forests down for the purpose of creating more pastures . this does not just hurt the volcano rabbit , but anything and everything that was living there .\nthe volcano rabbit is found only in central mexico on the slopes of four volcanoes : popocatepetl , iztaccihautl , el pelado , and tlaloc . the animal inhabits pine forests on those slopes at elevations between 9 , 000 and 14 , 000 feet ( 2 , 740 and 4 , 270 meters ) . these areas are often dry in the winter and rainy in the summer . biologists ( people who study living organisms ) are unsure of the total number of volcano rabbits currently in existence .\nit is ironic that rabbits are a symbol of fertility throughout the world . recent estimates suggest that 25 % of rabbit species worldwide are declining or endangered . examples of declining rabbit species include :\nnot all rabbit populations are under threat - - some threaten other species . read more here .\nvolcano rabbits are , as of the official 2008 iucn red list of threatened species determination , not yet extinct . however , the wee rabbits are considered to be\nendangered\nanimals , which indicates that , without intervention and management , extinction may be an imminent possibility for the future . as of the assessment , numbers for volcano rabbits were believed to be going up , rather than dropping .\nthe most serious threats to the volcano rabbit are habitat degradation and target shooting . a variety of factors appear to be responsible for the continued degradation of the rabbit ' s forest / zacaton habitat . these include forest fires , overgrazing by cattle and sheep , encroachment by development ( both from the expansion of mexico city as well as additional rural settlements near the rabbit ' s core habitat ) and agriculture , over - exploitation of timber and cutting of zacaton grasses for thatch and brush manufacture .\nissue 6 : we received a number of comments and questions concerning how we determined the historic range of the pygmy rabbit , what the abundance and status of various pygmy rabbit populations are , how abundance estimates are determined , and the causes behind the recent declines in the columbia basin pygmy rabbit .\nvolcano rabbits are the second smallest rabbit in the world , only the pygmy rabbit is smaller . they have a body length between 23 and 32 cms ( 9 - 12 . 5 inches ) , a tail length between 1 and 3 cms ( 0 . 4 - 1 . 2 inches ) and they weigh between 375 and 600 g ( 13 . 2 - 21 . 2 oz ) .\nthese robots are roaming mount etna on the island of sicily , italy . they pair are using the volcano as a testing ground for future missions to the lunar surface . ( antonio parrinello / reuters )\nthe volcano rabbit is endemic to mexico and is restricted to the central part of the mexican transverse neovolcanic belt ( tnb ) . populations are currently restricted to three patchily distributed areas on the slopes of just four volcanoes ( popocatepetl , iztaccihuatl , el pelado and tlaloc ) ( 1 ) ( 6 ) .\nas you could have probably have guessed judging by the lack of size and no adaptations to harm others , the volcano rabbit falls prey to vicious secondary consumers such as bobcats , coyotes , and long - tailed weasels . the only thing that this innocent rabbit harms is the vegetation as it consumes various grasses ( since it is a herbivore ) such as stipa ichu grass which is a type of zacaton grass .\nfa , j . e . and bell , d . j . ( 1990 ) the volcano rabbit romerolagus diazi . in : chapman , j . a . and flux , j . e . c . ( eds ) rabbits , hares and pikas : status survey and conservation action plan . iucn , gland , switzerland .\nthe volcano rabbit is generally found between 2800 and 4250 m ( 9200 - 13 , 900 ' ) in pine forests with a dense undergrowth of bunch grass (\nzacaton\n) and rocky substrates . it is also found in secondary alder forests with a heavy grass - shrub understory . most of the areas where the rabbit is found have winter drought and summer rains with a mean annual precipitation of about 1500 mm ( 60 in ) .\nother skills that i have gained as a result of doing this project are how to create a wikispace and use it . i learnt about both african and mexican tropical grassland animals and how they differ from each other . i also learnt how tricky it is to distinguish where exactly my volcano rabbit lives at it likes to live in various different habitats .\nunlike many species of rabbits ( and similar to pikas ) , the volcano rabbit utters very high - pitched sounds instead of thumping its feet on the ground to warn other rabbits of danger . it is nocturnal and is highly active during twilight , dawn and all times in between . as of 1969 , there were 1000 to 1200 in the wild .\n) . the top of the highest volcano the rabbit inhabits is 5452 m and the other volcano is 5222 m . climatically , it would therefore have some room to move upwards . however , according to the static vegetation cover map we used , suitable habitat does not currently reach to the very top , so any movement upslope , as predicted by our models , corresponds to a loss of range . although this may be an overly conservative assumption , vegetation may be constrained by other factors such as soil type and moisture availability , or shifts in suitable vegetation may simply lag behind climate change .\nthe unique life history and specialized habitat requirements of this species have made conserving and restoring this small rabbit especially challenging .\n) is a small rabbit that resides in the mountains of mexico . it is the world ' s second smallest rabbit , second only to the pygmy rabbit . it has small rounded ears , short legs , and short , thick fur and weighs approximately 390\u2013600 g ( 0 . 86 - 1 . 3 lb ) . it has a life span of approx . 7 to 9 years . the volcano rabbit lives in groups of 2 to 5 animals in burrows ( underground nests ) and runways among grass tussocks . the burrows an be as long as 5m ( 16 ' ) and as deep as 40 cm ( 1 . 3 ' ) . there are usually 2 to 3 young per litter , born in the borrows .\na robot wheels across a rocky , windswept landscape that looks like the surface of some distant planet from a science fiction film . but it is not in outer space , it ' s on the slopes of europe ' s most active volcano .\nthen there are rabbits that may be endangered , but have no recognized protection . one of these is a cottontail rabbit (\nhayward af ( 1966 ) an electron microscopic study of developing gall bladder epithelium in the rabbit . j anat 100 : 245\u2013259\nthe volcano rabbit romerolagus diazi is an endangered species endemic to mexico , with a range of < 400 km2 . we investigated threats from destruction , fragmentation and degradation of habitat , hunting , and cattle grazing intensity in relation to the distribution and abundance of the volcano rabbit on the iztaccihuatl volcano . faecal pellet counts were taken as a proxy for rabbit abundance in 1 , 718 random 0 . 2 m2 quadrats at 859 sampling points along 25 transects , covering an area of c . 100 km2 at altitudes of 3 , 400\u20134 , 000 m . presence of the species was significantly associated with absence of closed forest , absence of long grass types ( not bunchgrass ) , shallow inclines , absence of cattle grazing , lower altitude , low hunting pressure ( measured by proximity to ranger station ) , absence of bare ground and , contrary to previous findings , increased frequency of fire . the species was significantly more abundant in habitats with a greater percentage cover of zacaton ( bunchgrass ) and short grass types . it was significantly less abundant in areas with more hunting ( measured by proximity to ranger station ) and cattle grazing . key conservation priorities are therefore the protection of the subalpine zacaton bunchgrass - dominated habitat type , strict enforcement of hunting laws and the removal of livestock from relevant national park boundary areas . however , the results suggest that frequent fires have a significant positive effect on the occurrence of the volcano rabbit as a result of habitat improvement and this is often a consequence of anthropogenic management of land for cattle grazing .\nthe parotid glands of the pika and the volcano rabbit were examined by light and transmission electron microscopy . the acinar cells of the pika consisted of light cells containing basophilic granules of low density , while in the volcano rabbit the acinar cells consisted of light and dark cells containing acidophilic granules of moderate density . intercalated duct cells were composed of light cells containing a few granules of moderate density . these segments of the two animals were similar in morphology . the striated duct cells in both species were composed of light and dark cells . most of those in the pika contained a few moderately dense granules . in both animals , no myoepithelial cells were detected around the acini , intercalated ducts or striated ducts , while nerve terminals were observed among the adjacent acinar cells .\nvolcano rabbits can be found on the volcanic slopes in central mexico . they have a restricted range and they are usually found in pine forests at elevations between 2 , 800 and 4 , 250 m ( 9 , 186 - 13 , 944 ft ) .\nto remedy the situation , ruedas suggests that more attention needs to be paid to documenting the number of rabbit species in the world and performing long term studies on populations to determine whether or not certain rabbit populations are naturally low or truly in a decline .\nour response : we concur with these clarifications and continue to consider disease a significant potential threat to the columbia basin pygmy rabbit .\nrouco , c . , g . norbury , and d . ramsay . 2014 . kill rates by rabbit hunters before and 16 years after introduction of rabbit haemorrhagic disease in the southern south island , new zealand . wildlife research 41 : 136 - 140 .\nwe chose two lagomorph species with contrasting geographic patterns as study systems : the range - restricted r . diazi ( volcano rabbit ) and the locally abundant british metapopulation of the relatively widespread l . timidus ( european mountain hare ; see the electronic supplementary material for details ) . spatially explicit metapopulation models were developed for r . diazi and l . timidus separately , using a three - step process .\nmeanwhile , australians wrestle with an overabundance of rabbits . english landowners introduced the european rabbit to the continent in 1859 , seeking game animals for sport hunting . with no natural predators in their new homeland , european rabbit populations soon spiraled out of control in australia .\nthose with suitable habitat where rabbits were sighted and traces ( pellets ) were found . the results presented here clearly meet these criteria , therefore indicating that the cobioch must be also considered a core area of the zacatuche rabbit . added to that , our result regarding the estimated annual density also provides evidence that the cobioch is one of the most important habitats for zacatuche rabbit populations . density estimated is higher than the only previous report of 1 . 2 rabbits / ha for the area of the pelado volcano using a similar methodology (\nthe volcano rabbit is mostly nocturnal and crepuscular , although it can also be active by day , particularly when the sky is overcast . it lives in runways and burrows among grass tussocks . the burrows can be as long as 5 m ( 16 ' ) and as much as 40 cm ( 1 . 3 ' ) underground . the burrow entrance is concealed at the base of a grass tussock .\ntormey j mcd , diamond jm ( 1967 ) the ultrastructural route of fluid transport in rabbit gallbladder . j gen physiol 50 : 2031\u20132060\nsanchez - trocino , m . , g . d . mendoza , f . gual - sill , f . x . plata , j . a . martinez , h . lee , and m . m . crosby . 2013 . the effect of muhlenbergia macroura dietary level on intake , digestibility and weight changes in volcano rabbit ( romerolagus diazi ) . journal of applied animal research 41 : 234 - 239 .\nin addition , most remaining pygmy rabbit habitat\u2014throughout its range\u2014is currently grazed by livestock , which may reduce habitat quality for pygmy rabbits . in some areas , wildfires have destroyed remaining pockets of pygmy rabbit habitats . the temperature and frequency of these fires may increase by the invasion of the exotic annual grass , cheatgrass ; thus , it is more likely to destroy sagebrush stands . coyotes\u2014important rabbit predators\u2014have increased in number over the last few decades , presumably because of habitat changes . in addition , diseases like tularemia and sylvatic plague can decimate rabbit populations periodically .\ndue to the combined influence of the above threats , extirpation of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit from the wild may occur at any time ( wdfw 2001b ) . in addition , the risks to the captive portion of the population , and the potential for extinction of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit , remain high . we have carefully assessed the best scientific and commercial information available regarding the past , present , and potential future threats faced by the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . based on our evaluation of the five threat factors discussed above , we have determined that the columbia basin pygmy rabbit is in danger of extinction . as such , we are listing the columbia basin pygmy rabbit as endangered .\nin relatively large , well distributed pygmy rabbit populations , the above threats are not likely to represent a significant risk to their long - term security . however , due to the extremely small size and localized occurrence of both the wild and captive portions of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit\ncastellucci m , caggiati a ( 1980 ) surface aspects of the rabbit gallbladder mucosa and their functional implications . j submicrosc cytol 12 : 375\u2013390\nhoehn , m . , p . kerr , and t . strive . 2013 . in situ hybridisation assay for localisation of rabbit calicivirus australia - 1 ( rcv - a1 ) in european rabbit ( oryctolagus cuniculus ) tissues . journal of virological methods 188 : 148 - 152 .\nmutze , g . j . , r . g . sinclair , d . e . peacock , 2014 . is increased juvenile infection the key to recovery of wild rabbit populations from the impact of rabbit haemorrhagic disease ? european journal of wildlife research 60 : 489 - 499 .\nthese furry creatures , as their names convey , live amidst volcanoes , specifically those of the chichinautzin volcanic field roughly 200 miles away from mexico city . volcano rabbits usually weigh between 14 and 21 ounces and are usually 9 to 13 inches long . their thick , short coats are a blend of black , gray and deep brown . their tiny tails are practically impossible to make out . volcano rabbits tend to remain in social units of two to five individuals . they are mostly nocturnal and are especially busy in the times leading up to daybreak and immediately following nightfall .\nhunting of the volcano rabbit is now illegal under mexican law , but enforcement remains difficult . the species is found within two protected areas , izta - popo and zoquiapan national parks , but habitat destruction nevertheless continues to occur even within these areas ( 1 ) ( 6 ) . in 1990 , the world conservation union species survival commission ( iucn / ssc ) lagomorph specialist group created an action plan for this rabbit , focusing on the need to manage burning and overgrazing and to enforce laws prohibiting the capture , sale and hunting of the animal ( 6 ) . as a result , the population of volcano rabbits is higher now than a decade ago ( 7 ) . captive breeding colonies exist at los coyotes park and the chapultepec zoo in mexico city , but there are currently no plans to reintroduce captive - bred individuals into the wild ( 6 ) ( 7 ) .\nvolcano rabbits are endangered because their habitat get destroyed by fires and pollution . they are also hunted for food and practice by humans . they are preyed on by predators in the region , such as the komodo dragon . the volcanoes they live by are active , which contributes to thier endangerment .\nthe volcano rabbit plays an easy game of hide and seek as it has a distinct dark colour to its fur that allows it to blend in with volcanic soils . this structural adaptation proves to be very useful as it helps protect them from predators with its camouflage as well . these cute creatures are also considered to be the second smallest breed of rabbit in the whole world ! this comes to be a great advantage for them as this is another factor that helps them stay very well hidden from predators . while most rabbits stomp their feet to warn their fellow allies of danger , the volcano rabbits make high - pitched sounds and whistles instead , knowing that they can potentially be eaten at any moment . that would be an example of a behavioural adaptation as it finds tricky ways to out - smart the carnivores that wish to consume them . other important characteristics of this rabbit is that they have small and rounded ears , short legs , and a barely visible tail where as most rabbits have large ears with a matching fluffy tail .\nthe words endangered and rabbit don ' t come easily together in people ' s minds because they have such a reputation as being pests in people ' s minds ,\nsaid bell .\nin reality a number of rabbit species are endangered . it is important to recognize that .\nissue 13 : concern was expressed regarding our use and incorporation of information from other pygmy rabbit populations in the background biological discussions and other sections of the emergency and proposed listing rules . in addition , questions were raised regarding whether this information is appropriate or applicable to the columbia basin pygmy rabbit .\nan endangered columbia basin pygmy rabbit juvenile born at the captive breeding facility at washington state university , pullman , washington , usa . photo : tara davila\nthe columbia basin pygmy rabbit has been physically discrete from the remainder of the taxon for several millennia ( see distribution and status , above ) . in addition , there is current evidence that the columbia basin pygmy rabbit is genetically and ecologically discrete from the remainder of the taxon ( see significance , below ) . based on this information , we find that the columbia basin pygmy rabbit population segment is discrete from the remainder of the taxon pursuant to the act . physiological , behavioral , or morphological differences between the columbia basin pygmy rabbit and populations throughout the remainder of the species ' range are not known at this time .\nvolcano rabbits are primarily herbivores , meaning to say they feed mostly on plants , especially grasses , that abound within their natural habitats . examples of their grassy food sources are the leaves and twigs of such plants as eryngium rosei , muhlenbergia macroura , and stipa ichu . those kept in captivity are typically fed with corn , apples , and oats , while those found living in forests are able to survive on tree bark , herbs , and other greenery . volcano rabbits prefer to forage for food during dusk or dawn , although some individuals , especially those belonging to the same burrows , have been observed to be active during the daytime as well .\nour response : this final rule lists as endangered the pygmy rabbit in the columbia basin of central washington ( figure 2 ) . appropriate sites within this region that could potentially be used for reintroduction efforts will be identified as our recovery program is further developed . pygmy rabbit populations in other states throughout the species ' historic range are not included in this listing action , nor will any areas outside of the historic range of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit population be considered for any recovery actions .\n\u00bb hays , d . 2001 . 2001 addendum : washington state recovery plan for the pygmy rabbit . washington department of fish and wildlife olympia , washington . 24pp .\nissue 8 : the suggestion was made that the status of the pygmy rabbit as a monotypic genus could be a consideration regarding the potential significance of its discrete populations .\nissue 3 : we received a number of comments concerning critical habitat and how it relates to the emergency , proposed , and final rules for the columbia basin pygmy rabbit .\n( 3 ) washington state legislation ( hb 1309 ) provides measures with regard to conservation of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . see summary of factors affecting the dps section .\nresults from recent genetic analyses indicate that the columbia basin pygmy rabbit is markedly different from other pygmy rabbit population segments ( wdfw 2001c ; k . warheit , pers . comm . 2001 , 2002 ) . these differences are consistent in both mitochondrial dna and nuclear dna indices , and between current ( washington versus idaho and montana ) and museum ( washington versus idaho , montana , oregon ) samples . the genetic results suggest that the columbia basin pygmy rabbit diverged ( i . e . , was genetically isolated ) from the remainder of the taxon at least 10 , 000 to 25 , 000 years bp , and possibly as long as 40 , 000 to 115 , 000 years bp ( wdfw 2001c ; k . warheit , pers . comm . 2001 , 2002 ) . the genetic differences that have so far been identified between the columbia basin pygmy rabbit and other pygmy rabbit populations are similar in nature to subspecific differences recognized in other mammal species . however , potential taxonomic reorganization of the pygmy rabbit species will require additional study ( wdfw 2001c ) .\nunfortunately , these vulnerable creatures fall victim to the symbiotic relationship known as parasitism . these small rabbits act as a host to many different endoparasites which include roundworms , whipworms , and flatworms . as if that wasn ' t enough , they also act as a host to numerous ectoparasites such as various species of fleas , ticks , and flies . although there are many examples to choose from , the main focus is going to be on the whipworm . this thin parasite has eggs that enter the volcano rabbit through the consumption of grains . there , they enter the small intestine and after awhile , the eggs will develop and grow into full whipworms which then make their way over to the large intestine where they start to cause harm . even though this parasite benefits , the volcano rabbit is harmed as the whipworm makes itself comfortable in the home of the large intestine and begins to bite the tissue of of the large intestine , sucking blood . this not only leads to blood loss from my animal , but can also cause infection in a messy case of diarrhea !\n\u00bb mcallister , k . r . 1995 . washington state recovery plan for the pygmy rabbit . wildlife management program , washington department of fish and wildlife , olympia , wa .\nissue 12 : concerns were expressed regarding the potential impacts to the columbia basin pygmy rabbit from various ongoing research and conservation activities , and our potential actions to address these concerns .\nissue 10 : we received a number of comments regarding the captive propagation program established by the wdfw and our potential management activities to address recovery of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . these comments addressed a wide variety of issues and questions , including the health and breeding success of captive pygmy rabbits , impacts to pygmy rabbit populations associated with research or conservation efforts , other potential differences between the various pygmy rabbit populations ( e . g . , physiological , behavioral , morphological ) , the survival characteristics of captive bred versus wild individuals , habitat enhancement or restoration standards for mitigation efforts , federal recovery policy for down - listing or delisting the columbia basin pygmy rabbit , and reintroduction protocols and potential release sites for the recovery program .\nvolcano rabbits are mostly crepuscular ( 4 ) , although they can also be active by day , particularly when the sky is overcast ( 8 ) . the diet includes the tender green leaves of grasses , the young leaves of spiny herbs , the bark of alder trees and , during the rainy season , also the oats and corn from cultivated crops ( 4 ) .\nissue 5 : it was emphasized that a successful captive propagation program should be considered extremely important for the conservation and management of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit ' s unique genetic profile .\nkaye gi , wheeler ho , whitlock rt , lane n ( 1966b ) fluid transport in the rabbit gallbladder . a combined physiological and electron microscopic study . j cell biol 30 : 237\u2013268\nvolcanic rabbits are only found on the rainy mountainous areas of mexico . specifically , these are the wet inclines of tlaloc , popocatepetl , el pelado and iztaccihuatl , to where they are considered endemic . hunting and selling of these endangered mammals is prohibited , although the mexican government is facing substantial challenges in implementing these restrictions . large scale destruction of their natural habitats , such as by logging and burning of the forests to make way for agriculture , has greatly decreased the population of the volcano rabbits , although many conservation parks like the zoquipan national park have made significant progress in breeding their colonies . as of yet , no proposal has been set forth by the mexican government to introduce captive colonies of the volcano rabbit into the wild . their populations are affected by climate change as well , and they are classified as an\nendangered ' species by the international union for the conservation of nature ' s ( iucn ' s ) red list of threatened species .\nissue 7 : we received a large number of comments concerning our interpretation of the available information with regard to livestock grazing and the potential effects it has on the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . some comments suggested that we were overly critical concerning the negative effects of livestock grazing and did not adequately address its potential benefits to the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . in contrast , other comments suggested that we down - played the negative effects of livestock grazing and implied that regulatory restrictions should be placed on grazing activities in all areas currently or potentially used by the columbia basin pygmy rabbit .\nissue 14 : several commenters expressed concern regarding the area affected by the listing , and the potential extent of reintroduction efforts that may be undertaken to address recovery of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit .\nit is appropriate to propose a species for listing at the time when sufficient information is available . for the columbia basin pygmy rabbit , when we had sufficient information we took the appropriate action .\n( 1 ) the common raven is a significant potential predator of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit , and we also discuss wdfw ' s past and ongoing management efforts to address this threat factor .\nkaye gi , maenza rm , lane n ( 1966a ) cell replication in rabbit gallbladder . an autoradiographic study of epithelial and associated fibroblast renewal in vivo and in vitro . gastroenterology 51 : 670\u2013680\nalthough the volcano rabbit is a greatly adorable animal , humans have caused much destruction among their home , the topical grasslands . one major problem is loss of vegetation . as the population doesn ' t cease to increase , this causes for more of the precious grassland to be cleared for agriculture to feed this increasing population , which can cause soil erosion due to over - cultivation . as more people start to pile in around these grassland areas , they begin to raise more and more animals as well for more food for their stomachs , which can also cause soil erosion due to the excessive amount of animals over eating the vegetation . over population has lead people to use these grasslands for urban development and construct buildings and houses in replacement of the natural habitat that was once lively . did you know that about 16 percent of tropical grasslands have been converted for urban development and agriculture ? much of the land is cleared for crops which leads to a loss in habitat for not just the volcano rabbit , but for the other organisms living in this biome as well ! you will see that this affects my rabbit tremendously as the growth of mexico city threatens it to leave its habitat . the destruction of habitat plays a huge role in why my animal is endangered , but hunting also poses a threat as well ! people have actually been hunting down this furry creature for sport and for sale !\n) . based on this , the zacatuche rabbit is considered a habitat specialist . its habitat has been severely fragmented due to factors such as urbanization , agricultural conversion , illegal logging , and wildfires (\nas well as its annual density within the cobioch and its influence area . the outcomes are further discussed in the light of the relevance of this protected area for conservation of the endangered zacatuche rabbit .\na pygmy rabbit hops out of its artificial burrow during a pilot reintroduction experiment conducted by washington state university designed to develop methods suitable for restoring extirpated populations . photo : rodney sayler , washington state university\n\u00bb hays , d . , and k . warheit . 2004 . columbia basin pygmy rabbit captive breeding and genetic management plan . washington department of fish and wildlife . olympia , washington . 29pp .\nit is unlikely that any of the above activities alone has played a significant role in the long - term population decline and range reduction of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . however , due to the current vulnerability of both the wild and captive portions of this population segment , any additional source of mortality may now play a significant role and could impair efforts to conserve the columbia basin pygmy rabbit .\n. within this , four core and 12 peripheral areas were recognized . this information was used to do the distributions maps for the zacatuche rabbit that are now available in the literature and on web pages (\nour response : the available information we have regarding the biology and ecology of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit , impacts to the populations , and mitigation efforts is referenced within the preamble to this final rule .\nplanillo , a . , and j . e . maio . 2013 . motorway verges : paradise for prey species ? a case study with the european rabbit . mammalian biology 78 : 187 - 192 .\nin washington , management efforts by a number of agencies have included acquiring and restoring potential habitat for the endangered columbia basin pygmy rabbit\u2014a slow and expensive task . because some pygmy rabbit habitat is contained within private lands , agencies have attempted to work with local ranchers and farmers to develop mutually beneficial resource management plans and safe harbor agreements . many private landowners are wary of having endangered species on their land and mistrust state and federal natural resource agencies , however , so this work has been sensitive and arduous . as a parallel course of action , and perhaps the last chance for saving the columbia basin pygmy rabbit 4 , washington department of fish and wildlife initiated a program in 2001 for captive breeding and restoration of pygmy rabbits , which is now a key component of the federal recovery plan for the columbia basin pygmy rabbit .\ngenetic indices indicate that the columbia basin pygmy rabbit had less genetic diversity historically than the remainder of the taxon . in addition , this population segment has undergone further loss of genetic diversity since roughly the mid - 1900s . severe loss of genetic diversity may make the columbia basin pygmy rabbit more susceptible to extinction due to inbreeding depression or , assuming inappropriate introduction of other pygmy rabbit genes , swamping of their unique genetic profile . reduced genetic diversity , and the relatively few family lineages remaining in the columbia basin pygmy rabbit population , may also complicate captive breeding strategies conducted to reestablish a minimum effective population size . ultimately , an appropriate effective population size will help ensure the maintenance and enhancement of the genetic heterogeneity that is still present within this population segment ( k . warheit , pers . comm . 2001 , 2002 ) .\nduring the fall of 2000 , the wdfw , in cooperation with the oregon zoo , initiated a study of husbandry techniques for pygmy rabbits ( wdfw 2001a ) . this study used five pygmy rabbits captured in idaho and was undertaken to improve the information base for proposed captive propagation and release efforts for the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . due to the continuing decline of pygmy rabbit subpopulations and active burrows in washington , the wdfw , in cooperation with wsu , expedited their captive propagation efforts for the columbia basin pygmy rabbit during the spring of 2001 ( wdfw 2001b ; d . hays , pers . comm . 2001 ) .\nresearch and management activities for the columbia basin pygmy rabbit will be regulated under the section 10 permitting process . the wdfw has closely coordinated its management activities to conserve the columbia basin pygmy rabbit with us . in addition , in cooperation with the wdfw , wsu , and the oregon zoo , we have developed a number of appropriate measures to avoid or reduce the risk of take of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . these measures were made conditions of the december 18 , 2001 , recovery permit and its revisions that we issued for the captive propagation program and ongoing management activities at the sagebrush flat site ( see previous federal action , above ) . we will continue to work cooperatively with interested parties on activities conducted for scientific purposes or to enhance the propagation or survival of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit under section 10 of the act .\nour response : neither our emergency , proposed , nor this final rule designates critical habitat for the columbia basin pygmy rabbit . we find that designation of critical habitat for the columbia basin pygmy rabbit is not determinable at this time because information sufficient to perform the required analyses of the impacts of the designation is lacking ( see critical habitat , below ) . we will continue to protect the columbia basin pygmy rabbit and its habitat through section 7 consultations on federal actions that may affect this population segment , through the recovery process , through hcps under section 10 , and through enforcement of take prohibitions under section 9 of the act .\nwith regard to the past distribution and abundance of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit , we assume that this population was more broadly distributed and had a greater abundance of individuals within this region historically . this assumption is based on the available information addressing other pygmy rabbit populations , the population dynamics of other leporid species , and the general concepts and theory of minimum viable populations . given this available information , it is unlikely that the columbia basin pygmy rabbit would have persisted within this region for thousands of years with such a limited distribution and at such minimum abundance levels . nevertheless , the available information only indicates the occurrence of several small subpopulations in portions of five counties in central washington since the early 1900s . as such , the historic distribution and abundance of the columbia basin pygmy rabbit that we report in this final rule represent minimum estimates ."]}
{"id": 885, "summary": [{"text": "the pygmy sperm whale ( kogia breviceps ) is one of three species of toothed whale in the sperm whale family .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "they are not often sighted at sea , and most of what is known about them comes from the examination of stranded specimens . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "pygmy sperm whale", "paragraphs": ["this whale is 1 of 3 species of sperm whale ; the other two are the sperm whale and the dwarf sperm whale .\necholocation also provides the pygmy sperm whale with an early warning to incoming predators .\nthe pygmy sperm whale is a toothed whale that belongs to the cetacean species which includes all species of whale , dolphin and porpoise .\nen - pygmy sperm whale , fr - cachalot pygm\u00e9e , sp - cachalote pigmeo .\nthe pygmy sperm whale \u2013 kogia breviceps the firecracker whale by max newman april 1996 . a then - current study of available information on this remarkable whale the firecracker whale\nonce sexually mature the pygmy sperm whale can begin mating and reproducing offspring of its own .\ndr steve van dyck from queensland museum talks to kim honan about the pygmy sperm whale .\nacs pygmy sperm whale cetacean fact sheet - american cetacean society on 03 jan 2002 , a 2 . 88m ( 9 . 45ft ) adult pygmy sperm whale was stranded at thurlestone sands in south devon . [ photos ] irish whale and dolphin group : pygmy sperm whale , kogia breviceps whale and dolphin conservation society ( wdcs )\ninformation on the pygmy sperm whale is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nneuron numbers in sensory cortices of five delphinids compared to a physeterid , the pygmy sperm whale .\nsperm whale links sperm whales from the\nwhales in danger information service\nin australia . whalenet , for teachers and students . the sperm whale project - promoting ocean conservation . listen to a sperm whale\ndwarf sperm whalethe dwarf sperm whale ( kogia simus ) is a small toothed whale - it is also known as owen ' s pygmy sperm whale ( because it was originally described by the english scientist richard owen in 1866 ) .\nthe diet of the pygmy sperm whale consists mostly of crab , shrimp , fish , octopus and squid .\na pygmy sperm whale who was found beached at la jolla shores friday was in critical condition at seaworld saturday .\n1994 .\npygmy sperm whale\n( on - line ) . accessed december 4 , 1999 at urltoken .\nsource unidentified , pygmy sperm whale , page 88 , provided by karin cooper , fairbanks , alaska , 1996 .\nthe skull that acts to produce the sounds for echolocation . although the pygmy sperm\nthe second unknown behavior of the pygmy sperm whales was a process of regurgitation .\na pygmy killer whale calf with shark bite wounds . photo by dan mcsweeney .\nneuron numbers in sensory cortices of five delphinids compared to a physeterid , the pygmy sperm whale . - pubmed - ncbi\npygmy sperm whale on the beach . by inwater research group - own work , cc by - sa 4 . 0\nat sea it is often difficult to separate the pygmy sperm whale from the dwarf sperm whale . externally the only real difference is that the latter has a larger more prominent dorsal fin .\ndiet : a squid lover , the pygmy sperm whale sometimes preys on fish and crustaceans . it is believed that the pygmy sperm whale uses its eyesight to locate food in the deep as many of the squid it takes are light emitting .\nmore information about the dwarf and pygmy sperm whales at noaa\u2019s southwest fisheries science center .\nfacts on dwarf and pygmy sperm whales ( kogia sp ) . - ocean blue adventures\nnot much is known about pygmy sperm whales reproduction and mating . it is known that\nthe classification of the pygmy sperm whale . the american naturalist of 1871 had an article describing the current state of classification of\nlong , , d . j . 1991 . apparent predation by a whale shark on carcharodon carcharias on a pygmy sperm whale kogia breviceps . fisheiry bulletin 538 - 540 .\nsighting notes : similar in appearance to the pygmy sperm whale , but has a larger dorsal fin , generally set nearer the middle of the back . also , the dwarf sperm whale\u2019s blowhole is positioned further forward .\n. an adult sperm whale can eat about a ton of food each day .\nanother view of the pygmy killer whale calf with shark bite wounds . photo by robin baird .\npygmy sperm whales resemble dwarf sperm whales and were not recognised as a separate species until 1966 . as with the dwarf sperm whale , the pygmy sperm whale appears to have an unusual defence mechanism . when startled , it releases a cloud of reddish - brown intestinal fluid and then dives . this may act as a decoy very similar to that of squid ink .\ndwarf sperm whales ( kogia sima ) and pygmy sperm whales ( kogia breviceps ) are the only two members of the family kogiidae , and both species are found in hawaiian waters . in our work we ' ve encountered dwarf sperm whales 84 times between 2002 and 2017 , while we ' ve seen pygmy sperm whales on only six occasions . however , pygmy sperm whales strand much more frequently than dwarf sperm whales in hawai\u2018i .\nin baltimore reported adult pygmy sperm whales can eat 25 - 30 lb . daily . their relatives ,\nsimilar to squids , pygmy sperm whales use an ink - like liquid to evade and deter predators .\nkey west \u2014 a juvenile pygmy sperm whale that volunteers tended round the clock for more than four months died early wednesday in a freak accident .\na pygmy sperm whale who was found beached at la jolla shores friday was in critical condition at seaworld saturday . ( photo courtesy of seaworld )\nthe small size and solitary behavior of the pygmy sperm whale makes them an ideal target for larger predators looking for an easy , defenseless meal .\nhave 12 - 16 teeth on each side and their blowhole is slightly displaced to the left . these two traits distinguish the pygmy sperm whale ,\nthe dorsal fin is also smaller in size when compared to the dwarf sperm whale .\nbreaches , landing in the water tail first . also like the great sperm whale ,\ndwarf sperm whale with apparent line injury on dorsal fin . photo by annie douglas .\npygmy sperm whales , kogia breviceps , feed on octopuses , squid , crab , fish , and shrimp .\njune 30 , 1995 .\npygmy sperm whale hawaiian stock\n( on - line ) . accessed december 4 , 1999 at http : / / swfsc . ucsd . sars . pygmy _ hi . htm .\nthe pygmy sperm ( kogia breviceps ) is a small grey whale up to 4 metres long , which is more often seen after stranding than at sea . it too has spermaceti oil in its head . the pygmy is hard to distinguish from the very much rarer dwarf sperm whale ( kogia simus ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - pygmy sperm whale ( kogia breviceps )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - pygmy sperm whale ( kogia breviceps )\ntitle =\narkive species - pygmy sperm whale ( kogia breviceps )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - pygmy sperm whale mouth and teeth detail\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - pygmy sperm whale mouth and teeth detail\ntitle =\narkive photo - pygmy sperm whale mouth and teeth detail\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nin terms of size the pygmy sperm whale is slightly larger than its smaller cousin ( the dwarf sperm whale ) measuring between 9 1 / 2 \u2013 11 1 / 2 ft . long and typically weighing between 600 \u2013 1 , 000 pounds .\nso a pygmy sperm whale is the most interesting thing i\u2019ve found on the beach . it\u2019s not the montauk monster , but it was far more interesting .\nwhale has ears , the earholes are plugged with wax . this whale actually\nhears\nwater , a behavior the japanese name uik - kujira or floating whale . the whale would\nbrain than in many other odontocete brains examined , i . e . bottlenose dolphin , common dolphin , beluga whale and even sperm whale (\ncan be confused with : pygmy sperm whale and dwarf sperm whale are somewhat difficult to distinguish at sea . pygmy sperm whales grow to somewhat greater total lengths , and have smaller , more rounded dorsal fins , set farther back on the body . there is some degree of overlap in most of characteristics of these 2 species , and identifications must be made cautiously .\nadult pygmy sperm whales range from 2 . 7 \u2013 3 . 4 meters in length . they have three stomachs\nseveral lineages of sperm whale were alive during the miocene epoch , from 5m to 24m years ago , but they suddenly became much less diverse during climatic cooling at the end of the epoch . today , there are only three living species : the sperm whale , the pygmy sperm whale and the dwarf sperm whale . modern sperm whales have smaller teeth in the lower jaw and are almost toothless in the upper jaw . they feed on squid at depth , which they capture by sucking in water .\npygmy sperm whales grow up to 14 feet in length and are similar to the great sperm whales for which they are named , according to the american cetacean society .\nmystic \u2014 a pygmy sperm whale that surprised researchers by living far longer than expected died recently in its outdoor holding tank at the back of the mystic marinelife aquarium .\n2d ct slice of the head in sagittal view of a pygmy sperm whale ( kogia breviceps ) demonstrating densities in the melon ( circles ) . ( related poster )\nduring the middle of the miocene epoch , between about 13m and 12m years ago , the sea which once blanketed present - day peru was home to an array of marine predators of gargantuan proportions . the famous\nmegashark\ncarcharocles megalodon swam these waters and so did the prehistoric cousins of the modern sperm whale , called physeteroids . this group of ancient sperm whales is only represented by three species today ( the sperm whale , the dwarf sperm whale , and the pygmy sperm whale ) , but the sperm whales of the miocene were quite distinct from their extant cousins .\nthe sperm whale was named for the valuable spermaceti oil ( wax ) that this whale produces in the spermaceti organ ( located in its head ) .\na pygmy sperm whale that beached itself on la jolla shores was in critical condition saturday as veterinarians and other animal - care specialists from seaworld worked to save its life .\nmale sperm whales can reach up to 20 metres in length , making it the largest toothed whale .\nthe pygmy sperm whales is a very rarely sighted marine mammal due to its small size , oceanic habitat and inactive nature .\nclarke mr ( 1980 ) cephalopoda in the diet of sperm whales of the southern hemisphere and their bearing on sperm whale biology . discovery reports 37 : 1\u2013324\nthe pygmy sperm whale is amongst the smallest of all whales ; they are about 1 . 2m at birth , growing to around 4m at maturity . adults weigh about 400kg .\nthe pygmy sperm whale rarely visits canadian waters . the animals reach about 3 . 6 metres when full grown and eat octopus , squid , crab fish and shrimp . this whale likely mistook the plastic for one of those creatures .\nrecords from india : that there are two distinct species of small sperm whales , the dwarf and the pygmy , was recognised relatively recently . older records have therefore lumped the two together . from india , there are records of the pygmy sperm whale from visakhapatnam and trivandrum . with the available information , it is not clear whether these are distinct from the records of the dwarf sperm whale from the same localities .\ncascadia research and the wild whale research foundation are continuing studies of this species in hawai\u2018i . in early december 2008 the first - ever satellite tag was deployed on a pygmy killer whale off the island of hawai\u2018i to examine movements , and another satellite tag was deployed on a pygmy killer whale in april 2009 .\nthe dwarf sperm whale has a shark - like profile ( but with a more pointed snout than the pygmy sperm whale ) , gray and white countershading , and a light pigment block resembling a shark\u2019s gill slit on the side of its head . generally , a pair of short grooves similar to those in beaked whales is present on the dwarf sperm whale throat . it contains spermaceti in its melon .\ndiet pygmy sperm whale only have teeth in their bottom jaws ( between 20 and 32 teeth ) , which are used to consume squid and , less commonly , crustaceans and small fish .\nthe sperm whale ( physeter macrocephalus ) is the largest of the toothed whales , with males growing up to 20 metres in length . the sperm whale also has the largest brain of any living animal , and it was a sperm whale that was pitted against captain ahab in herman melville\u2019s classic novel , moby dick ( 2 ) .\nnowadays the dwarf sperm whale is generally classified as one of two species , along with the pygmy sperm whale , in the kogiidae family and kogia genus , however it was not until 1966 that the two species were regard as separate and even more recently kogiidae was regarded as a subfamily of physeteridae .\nthere have been no reports of a pygmy killer whale dying as a result of hawaii\u2019s long - line tuna and swordfish fishery . but the mouth of a pygmy killer whale stranded on oahu in 2006 had hook and line marks , indicating fishing lines affect the animals .\nsatellite tagged pygmy killer whale with companions ( including hifa006 , photo above ) , december 7 , 2008 . photo by robin baird .\ntaxonomy nowadays the dwarf sperm whale is generally classified as one of two species , along with the pygmy sperm whale , in the kogiidae family and kogia genus , however it was not until 1966 that the two species were regard as separate and even more recently kogiidae was regarded as a subfamily of physeteridae .\nthe pygmy sperm whale is largely a solitary mammal that prefers traveling alone or in small groups although they may be found traveling in small pods of up to 8 other whales during certain times .\na pygmy sperm whale that washed up on a beach near mackay harbour in north queensland could have died after it was caught in fishing gear , from swallowing plastic bags or just old age .\nthe dwarf and pygmy sperm whales are the only two extant species in the family kogiidae , and as their name suggests they are small compared to their distant cousin the sperm whale . like sperm whales , their mouth is on the underside of their body , but unlike sperm whales they have very few and very small teeth that are sharply pointed and curved . like sperm whales , they are suction feeders and eat mostly squid .\npygmy and dwarf sperm whales are probably not rare , but are not common sightings , because of their offshore distribution and small group sizes .\nthe pygmy and dwarf sperm whales are two little known deep ocean dwelling cetaceans . their habit of lying motionless near the sea surface far from shore makes them difficult to detect . pygmy sperm whales are though to be more pelagic and dwarf sperm whales more coastal ( reeves et al . 2002 ) . pygmy sperm whales have been seen from japan , hawaii , washington state south to chile and the tasman sea ( reeves et al . ) . dwarf sperm whales are recorded from japan to british columbia south to new zealand and chile .\nspecifically , staudinger and colleagues hoped to identify differences , if any , in ecological niches occupied by pygmy and dwarf sperm whales . these smaller cousins of the sperm whale were once thought to be a single species until modern analyses showed they are genetically distinct .\nwhen a potential predator is nearby the pygmy sperm whale can use echolocation to identify the threat and will release a dark ink cloud to block the view of its predator so that it can escape .\nan inquisitive pygmy killer whale off the bow of our research vessel , off o\u2018ahu in october 2010 . photo by robin w . baird .\npygmy killer whale with healing injury on mouth - line , probably due to an interaction with a line fishery . photo by russ andrews .\nthe sperm whale is found in all of the oceans of the world , except the high arctic ( 6 ) .\npygmy sperm whales are found singly or in groups of two to three individuals . however , they are rarely sighted at sea , so most of what we know about this species comes from stranded animals . pygmy sperm whales are also one of the most commonly stranded species in nsw .\nthe whale , an 8 - foot - long male weighing about 500 pounds , was stranded on the atlantic coast of long island in july with a bile - duct obstruction . the pygmy sperm whale is a warm - water species that occasionally travels into colder waters .\nnow accepted as a distinct species , the dwarf sperm whale is found throughout much of the worlds tropical and temperate oceans .\nvidal o ( 1987 ) recent records of pygmy sperm whales in the gulf of california , mexico . marine mammal sci 3 ( 4 ) : 354\u2013356\ntaxonomy nowadays the dwarf sperm whale is generally classified as one of two species , along with the pygmy sperm whale , in the kogiidae family and kogia genus , however it was not until 1966 that the two species were regard as separate and even more recently kogiidae was regarded as a subfamily ( kogiinae ) of physeteridae . ( wiki )\nnowadays the dwarf sperm whale is generally classified as one of two species , along with the pygmy sperm whale , in the kogiidae family and kogia genus , however it was not until 1966 that the two species were regard as separate and even more recently kogiidae was regarded as a subfamily ( kogiinae ) of physeteridae . ( full text )\nwang mc , walker wa , shao kt , chou ls ( 2002 ) comparative analysis of the diets of pygmy sperm whales and dwarf sperm whales in taiwanese waters . acta zoologica taiwanica 13 ( 2 ) : 53\u201362\na pygmy sperm whale off kona , photo by daniel webster . we see pygmy sperm whales so infrequently we have not obtained many photos . this individual shows the very long back relative to the size of the dorsal fin , the rounded tip of the dorsal fin , and the hump in the back when logging at the surface , all characteristic of this species .\nthere are very few , probably less than 200 individuals , in this distinct pygmy killer whale population off the islands . the population\u2019s limited number make it more vulnerable than other whale populations to potentially harmful human behavior .\noelschl\u00e4ger ha , kemp b ( 1998 ) ontogenesis of the sperm whale brain . j comp neurol , 399 : 210 - 228\nthe sperm whale is a toothed whale that lives in pods . it has a huge brain that weighs about 20 pounds ( 9 kg ) ; it is the largest brain of any animal . the sperm whale has a single blowhole that is s - shaped and about 20 inches long . the blowhole is located on the left side of the front if its huge head . the sperm whale has a 4 - 12 inch thick layer of blubber .\nthe sperm whale was named by the early whalers who discovered whitish oil in the whale\u2019s head and thought the fluid looked like semen . it is possible that this spermaceti oil helps to focus the sound emitted during echolocation , and to stun the whale\u2019s prey .\ncaldwell , d . k . and m . c . caldwell . 1989 . pygmy sperm whale kogia breviceps ; dwarf sperm whale kogia simus . pp . 235 - 260 in ( s . h . ridgway and r . harrison ( eds . ) . handbook of marine mammals : river dolphins and the large toothed whales . academic press , london .\nbeak analysis from cephalopod remains showed the diet of pygmy sperm whales to be more diverse than that of the dwarf species , the researchers report , and prey sizes were slightly larger for the pygmy than for the dwarf , but not statistically significantly so .\nwell , it turns out that there was one a large sperm whale that didn\u2019t use its massive teeth and jaws to hunt squid .\nfossil hunters have recovered the remains of an ancient sperm whale that boasted one of the largest bites of any predator that ever lived .\nan adult dwarf sperm whale off the island of hawai\u2018i . photo by daniel webster . note the blunt head and large dorsal fin .\ngomez - villota f ( 2006 ) sperm whale diet in new zealand . unpublished mappsc thesis , auckland university of technology , 231 pp\nsperm whales produce ambergris , a dark , waxy substance ( related to cholesterol ) that is produced in the lower intestines , and is sometimes found containing squid beaks . ambergris may help protect the sperm whale from the stings on the giant squid , its major food . large lumps of ambergris may be vomited up by the sperm whale .\npygmy sperm whales are known from deep waters in tropical to warm temperate zones of all oceans . they appear to be especially common over and near the continental slope .\ngenerally , the mammals don ' t live much longer than a few weeks once they have beached themselves , said george donnelly of the mystic aquarium . in 140 years , no one has restored a beached pygmy sperm whale to health .\npoth c , fung c , g\u00fcnt\u00fcrk\u00fcn o , ridgway sh , oelschl\u00e4ger hha ( 2005 ) neuron numbers in sensory cortices of five delphinids compared to a physeterid , the pygmy sperm whale . brain res bull , 66 : 357 - 360\nthe sperm whale \u2013 physeter macrocephalus \u2013 is an oddball among living cetaceans . as big as many of its baleen - bearing cousins , yet armed with a lower jaw full of teeth slung below its blunt head , the sperm whale is the largest predaceous vertebrate in the sea .\ni knew that i had come across a pygmy sperm whale . i was quite surprised . i ran back to tell my parents , who followed me closesly back to the whale . by then a crowd had gathered aroud the whale . and suddenly found myself like george costanza , an impromptu marine biologist . i explained the taxonomy of the species and how it was related to the bigger sperm whale that everyone knows . i explained how its jagged teeth helped it catch squid , which are its primary food source .\nfor the first time , researchers know how much fish a pygmy sperm whale needs to eat daily to maintain or gain weight , what is contained in the mammal ' s feces and how it might attempt to defend itself in the wild .\nwe ' ve been accumulating records for 150 years and of the 15 specimens that we ' ve got of the pygmy sperm whale in the museum they ' ve all come from the coast between brisbane and rockhampton ,\nhe said .\nthough there are sightings of solitary individuals , most of the whales travel in small pods of 3 - 6 . like the great sperm whale ,\nsperm whale dives can last up to 2 hours and reach depths of up to 3 , 000 metres , making it the deepest diving mammal .\npygmy sperm whales are found either singly or in small groups of 3 - 5 . they are infrequently seen in the wild as they avoid marine traffic . strandings are found on coasts in the southeastern united states , some are found alive either as single individuals or cows with their calves . attempts to rescue stranded pygmy sperm whales have been unsuccessful .\ndownload the above for information on how to distinguish between pygmy killer whales and melon - headed whales .\npygmy sperm whales are the second - most common species to strand in florida , after bottlenose dolphins . they almost always die after stranding , and none is alive in captivity .\nadult pygmy sperm whales are 2 . 7 to 3 . 4 m long , and newborns are about 1 . 2 m . adults may weigh as much as 400 kg .\nanother very distinctive dwarf sperm whale off kona . photo by daniel webster . we have also found that dwarf sperm whales , like their larger cousin the sperm whale , often shed skin even when just resting at the surface , and we have been able to collect several samples for genetic analyses just by looking in the\nfluke prints\nof whales after they dive .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - sperm whale ( physeter macrocephalus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - sperm whale ( physeter macrocephalus )\ntitle =\narkive species - sperm whale ( physeter macrocephalus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ncould be confused with : there is a possibility of confusion with the dwarf sperm whale kogia simus . the two species can be distinguished as follows :\nbut these animals aren ' t long lived , i think the longevity in pygmy sperm whales is about 25 years so at some stage they ' ve got to die .\n3d volume rendering technique ( vrt ) reconstruction from ct scans of the head in mid - sagittal view of a pygmy sperm whale ( kogia breviceps ) demonstrating the positions of the melon ( anterior section of blue transparency ) , skull , and soft tissues .\npygmy killer whale rolling at the surface , december 2008 . photo by robin baird . note the scarring on the mouth - line , probably due to interaction with a line fishery .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive video - sperm whale with netting caught in mouth\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive video - sperm whale with netting caught in mouth\ntitle =\narkive video - sperm whale with netting caught in mouth\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ni knew what i had come across . a few months before , i had purchased a guide book to the marine mammals of north america . i had learned that there were three species of sperm whale . one was the cachalot , the great whale that grappled with giant squid many fathoms down below the surface . it was the species immortalized in melville\u2019s moby dick . the other two were much smaller . the one most common on the east coast is the pygmy sperm whale , and it is better known for being a light shade gray and a more conical head shape . the other species of sperm whale is also small . it is called the dwarf sperm whale . it has a squarer head and darker coloration . it also has a larger dorsal fin in proportion to its body size .\ncaldwell , d . k . , j . h . prescott and m . c . caldwell : production of pulsed sounds by the pigmy sperm whale ,\npygmy and dwarf sperm whales are very difficult to detect , except in extremely calm seas . pygmy sperm whales have a shark - like head with a narrow underslung lower jaw . the flippers are set high on the sides near the head . the small falcate dorsal fin ( < 5 % of the body length ) is usually set well behind the midpoint of the back .\nsperm whales ( physeter macrocephalus ) are toothed whales ( suborder odontoceti ) although dna analysis shows that the sperm whale is actually more closely related to the baleen whales . these whales are one of 76 cetacean species and are marine mammals .\nstranded specimens : present in the lower jaw are 10 to 16 pairs of thin , inward curved and sharp - pointed teeth , whilst no teeth are present in the upper jaw . the teeth have been described as being ' strongly reminiscent of the teeth of pythons\u2019 . the number of teeth makes it easy to distinguish a dead pygmy sperm whale from a dwarf sperm whale k . simus ( q . v . ) .\nshe adds that isotopic tracer data suggest these two rare species , while not exactly the same , showed no significant differences in foraging parameters . \u201cwe found the ecologic niche of the two species is very similar in u . s . atlantic waters , which is consistent with other global studies , \u201d staudinger summarizes . \u201cthe pygmy sperm whale consumes a greater diversity and size of prey , which means they may be diving deeper than dwarf sperm whales to feed , this makes sense because pygmy sperm whales grow to larger sizes than dwarf sperm whales , however , this could also be an artifact of small sample sizes . \u201d\nsantoro , a . k . i . marten , and t . w . crawford . 1989 . pygmy sperm whale sound kogia breviceps . pp . 59 in abstracts of the 8th biennial conferenc eon the biology of marinn mammals . pacific grove , ca , usa .\nbaird , r . w . , d . nelson , j . lien and d . w . nagorsen . 1996 . the status of the pygmy sperm whale , kogia breviceps , in canada . canadian field - naturalist 110 : 525 - 532 . download pdf copy\nwhales or toothed whales . the other two odontocete whales are the larger sperm whales\nthe sperm whale is by far the largest of the toothed whales , and the size difference between males and females is much more marked than in any other whale species . males are about 18 metres long and weigh 32\u201345 tonnes , and are up to 40 % longer and 300 % heavier than females . the sperm whale\u2019s brain weighs almost 10 kilograms , and is the heaviest of any animal .\nthe sperm whale is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and is listed under appendix i of cites ( 4 ) .\nthe pygmy sperm whale , very similar to the dwarf sperm whale in appearances , is seldom seen as it prefers living in the deep waters that are far away from the shore . for this reason , there is not much known about its behaviour and habits . it is usually seen when it is floating at the surface of the water , in its resting position , with its back and head bobbing lazily out of the water .\ngenerally regarded more as a common species rather than abundant , the threat the pygmy sperm whale faces is not direct hunting , although this does occur . rather , the increasing incidence of entanglement in nets and ingestion of marine pollution such as plastic bags is the main threat .\ndr van dyck says there is no shortage of the pygmy whales and the mammals are found world - wide .\nthis whale is a bluish gray color with a lighter pinkish colored under body .\nin efficient click production that the whale has lost the ability to produce whistles .\npygmy sperm whales rely on echolocation in order to hunt for food and navigate the ocean and may have difficulty distinguishing sounds due to human created sounds becoming more and more common in their aquatic habitat .\nfalcate dorsal fin is located to the rear of the midback . unlike the giant sperm\nthe pygmy sperm whale ' s diet largely consists of a variety of squid and cuttlefish however they are also known to take shrimp , crabs and some fish . they are thought to forage over a range of ocean depths , which includes some time feeding on or near the ocean bottom .\ntable of contents showtoctoggle (\nshow\n,\nhide\n) 1 taxonomy 2 physical description 3 population and distribution 4 human interaction 5 see also 6 references taxonomy nowadays the dwarf sperm whale is generally classified as one of two species , along with the pygmy sperm whale , in the kogiidae family and kogia genus , however it was not until 1966 that the two species were regard as separate and even more recently kogiidae was regarded as a subfamily of physeteridae .\nthe name for this newly discovered whale is quite literary . its name is leviathan melvillei . leviathan\u2013 for the sea creature that is mentioned in the book of job . melvillei\u2013 for the author who created the image of the fierce sperm whale in the public consciousness .\nwhether or not their teeth are necessary for hunting prey is uncertain as their larger sperm whale relative is known to successfully capture prey without teeth and even with a deformed jaw .\nfound in : pygmy sperm whales may be primarily oceanic . however , they tend to stay close to or over the continental slope . they feed on squid , fish and crabs from both deep and shallow water .\nsperm whales , which can be found throughout the mediterranean sea , typically feed on squid .\nthe small , stocky body of the pygmy sperm whale is dark grey or blue - grey on top and pale on its belly . in some individuals , this paler belly has a slightly pink colouration . the body can appear wrinkled in many cases . its blowhole is situated ahead of its eyes , on the top of its head , which is far further forward than most other whale species .\npygmy sperm whales , kogia breviceps , may be found in all temperate , sub - tropical , and tropical waters . they are not known to migrate . population figures are unknown , but they are not considered endangered .\nbaird , r . w . 2005 . sightings of dwarf ( kogia sima ) and pygmy ( k . breviceps ) sperm whales from the main hawaiian islands . pacific science 59 : 461 - 466 . download pdf copy\nthe sperm whale captures its prey by diving deep into the ocean\u2019s trenches . it reaches depths of 3 , 000 metres , descending at a rate of over 100 metres a minute . the whale can stay there up to an hour and , in the dark , find its prey by echolocation . on surfacing , the whale takes 45\u201350 breaths to re - oxygenate .\nsperm whales are found in many open oceans , both in tropical and cool waters . sperm whales live at the surface of the ocean but dive very deeply to catch the giant squid .\ni had an encounter with a dead pygmy sperm whale that washed up on the beach on the outer banks of north carolina . i had been walking on the beach that morning , as was my normal custom . i saw this pinkish thing off in the distance , and people were stopping to look at it .\nscott , m . d . and j . g . cordaro . 1987 . behavioral observations of the dwarf sperm whale , kogia simus . marine mammal science 3 : 353 - 354 .\na 4 . 5 tonne sperm whale that washed ashore in southern spain died from ingesting large amounts of plastic sheets used in greenhouses on farms in the region , a scientist said thursday .\nbaird , r . w .\npygmy killer whale\nencyclopedia of marine mammals . ed bernd w\u00fcrsig , j . g . m . thewissen , kit kovacs . 3rd edition . elsevier inc . 2018 . download pdf copy\nand the slightly smaller dwarf sperm whales . see table 1 and figure 1 . it has been\npygmy killer whales , one of the most poorly - known species of dolphins in the world , are observed at least several times a year within hawaiian waters . through photo id\u2019s , they ( unlike pygmy killer whales anywhere else in the world ) seem to be \u201cregular\u201d residents \u2013 never leaving the coastline . our onboard studies have shown that oahu has it\u2019s own resident pod of pygmy killer whales .\nthe whale is being treated inside a rehabilitation pool at the park\u2019s animal health and rescue center .\nsolve the 1 - digit addition problems , then do letter substitutions to answer a whale question .\nsolve the 1 - digit subtraction problems , then do letter substitutions to answer a whale question .\nfor the best tips to spot this elusive species , visit our whale watching tips and guidelines .\nthe modern sperm whale , for all its ferocious teeth , is a gentle giant compared with its ancestors ( click to enlarge ) . illustration : the royal natural history / richard lydekker ( 1893 )\nthere has been no documented case of a pygmy killer whale being hurt by sonar . but there\u2019s low probability anyone would be able to document such harm given the whales are so rare and because they generally spend their time miles offshore .\nhabitat : dwarf sperm whales are oceanic animals , moving across and over the continental shelf to feed .\nthe lack of information about the pygmy sperm whale ' s social structure makes life history data difficult to gather . most of what is known is obtained from the many single animals or occasionally mothers with calves that strand . the gestation period is thought to be about 12 months and it appears likely that females give birth on a yearly basis .\nthe researchers , who were led by dr . christian de muizon , realized they had discovered something unusual . they had discovered a predatory form of sperm whale that did not live mostly on giant squid .\npeople spotted the whale swimming in the harbour , moving slowly with injuries to its neck and tail .\nthe pygmy sperm whale uses echolocation to detect its prey and they occur in small groups of 6 - 10 individuals . it has a spermaceti organ in its forehead ( hence the name ) and a sac in its intestines that contains a dark red fluid that is expelled when it is frightened , a feature that is used to confuse and disorient predators .\nonly one species of the genus kogia ( k . breviceps ) was recognized until 1966 , when studies clearly showed the pygmy and dwarf ( k . sima ) sperm whales to be distinct species ( handley 1966 , chivers et al . 2005 ) .\nsperm whales are the deepest diving whales . although they live at the surface they dive to hunt giant squid\ndwarf sperm whales are usually solitary creatures but have occasionally been seen in small groups . ( full text )\nthe common sperm whale is the largest predator on earth . the great rorquals , such as the fin and blue whale , are quite a bit larger , but they are not considered true predators . they are filter feeders , who rely upon the baleen in their mouths to strain out tiny fish and krill for sustenance .\ngroup sizes tend to be small , most often less than five individuals ( although groups of up to 10 have been recorded ) . this species , like the pygmy sperm whale , is shy and undemonstrative when observed at sea . they often drift motionless at the surface . when startled , dwarf sperm whales may leave a large rust - colored cloud of fecal material behind as they dive . in at least one area , there appears to be a calving peak in summer .\nthrough their discovery and description , brygomophyseter , zygophyseter , acrophyseter , and livyatan have fleshed out the wider evolutionary context for the extant sperm whale . the cachalot is the suction - feeding remnant of a lineage of rapacious , predatory whales which were the equivalent of orcas in their ecosystems , and we now know that some of the traits previously thought to be unique adaptations of the living sperm whale are actually many millions of years old .\nvolunteers searched the lagoon and found the whale underwater and unresponsive . they tried to resuscitate her but failed .\ngeneral description : the pygmy sperm whale has a sharklike appearance . it has a robust body with a short head . in larger animals , the head is boxlike or rectangular , at times bulbous . the lower jaw ends well behind the tip of the snout . there is no beak and the tail stock is narrow . the nose is swollen and filled with spermaceti .\nmy suspicions were furth substantiated when i read about this indo - pacific bottlenosed dolphin in new zealand . this dolphin had helped a female pygmy sperm whale and her calf that came to close to the shore . the dolphin guided the whales back away from the beach and into deeper water . perhaps that was what the atlantic bottlenose dolphins were doing that day in north carolina .\nnow , those were the facts i knew about sperm whales . they are pretty much just strange toothed whales .\nthis new specimen should give us additional information about the past diversity of sperm whales ,\nsaid lambert .\npygmy sperm whales are countershaded , ranging from dark grty on the back to white below . often the belly has a pinkish tone . there is a light coloured bracket mark , dubbed the\nfalse gill\n, along the side between the eye and the flipper .\nfor the investigation , which used two complementary methods to characterize whale foraging ecology , staudinger and colleagues at the university of north carolina wilmington ( unc ) analyzed stomach contents collected by the marine mammal stranding network from 22 pygmy and nine dwarf sperm whales found dead on the mid - atlantic coast between 1998 and 2011 . study results appear in the april issue of marine mammal science .\nwillis , p . m . , and r . w . baird . 1998 . status of the dwarf sperm whale ( kogia simus ) in canada . canadian field - naturalist 112 : 114 - 125 . download pdf copy\nthis is important information , staudinger says , because if these two species show no evidence of resource partitioning there are likely enough food resources to support both their populations in the region . though if resources shifted or became limiting , pygmy sperm whales would likely have an advantage over dwarf sperm whales as they show evidence of being able to exploit a wider range of food resources and habitats .\nhandley , c . o . 1966 . a synopsis of the genus kogia ( pygmy sperm whales ) . pp 62 - 69 in whales , dolphins and porpoises ( norris , k . s . , ed ) . university of california press , los angeles , california .\neven though it was about the same size as the modern sperm whale , this creature was like a giant orca ; for instead of eating giant squid , its diet most likely consisted of other marine mammals , including other whales .\nhowever , there are two other species that are quite a bit smaller . these are the two whales in the genus kogia \u2014 the dwarf and the pygmy sperm whales . they are significantly smaller than the cachalot . they are both dolphin - sized creatures . like the common sperm whale , both of these creatures have spermaceti organs in their heads . both also carry a reddish substance in their intestines . if they are spooked , they will release that substance . it is thought to be used in the same way as the octopus\u2019s ink . the predator becomes confounded in the substance , allowing the little whale to escape .\nwe also know sperm whales from herman melville\u2019s moby dick , which is partly based upon a true story of a bull sperm whale that rammed a whaling ship in the south pacific . bulls are known to be quite protective of their cows , and it is not an urban legend that they might ram a ship to in defense of their females .\na post - mortem last week showed that the whale died of an abscess deep in its right lung . the abscess appeared to have been caused by a pine needle the whale had inhaled , veterinarian j . lawrence dunn said .\ndiagnostic features : at sea , size of the whale ( up to 3 . 4 m long ) , false gill , low and sickle - shaped dorsal fin , rust - coloured fecal stain left by the whale when alarmed .\nthis whale was dated to 12 million years ago , and although it may be a bit speculative , it suggests that the common sperm whales evolved from a group of giant predatory whales that later became more specialized as the ecology changed .\nthis sperm whale could firmly hold large prey with its interlocking teeth , inflict deep wounds and tear large pieces from the body of the victim ,\nthe researchers write in the journal nature ( vol 466 , p 105 ) .\nthe aquarium expressed disappointment at the whale ' s death , but donnelly said the rescue effort was not in vain .\nresearchers found that the whale , like an octopus using ink , may release a substance to hide itself from enemies .\ncitation :\npygmy sperm whales , kogia breviceps ~ marinebio . org .\nmarinebio conservation society . web . accessed monday , july 9 , 2018 . < urltoken > . last update : 1 / 14 / 2013 2 : 22 : 00 pm ~ contributor ( s ) : marinebio\nhuggenberger s , andr\u00e9 m , oelschl\u00e4ger h ( 2014 ) the nose of the sperm whale : overviews of functional design , structural homologies and evolution . j mar biol ass uk : 11 - 24 . doi : 10 . 1017 / s0025315414001118 .\npygmy killer whales prior to deployment of a suction - cup attached time - depth recorder / vhf radio tag , used to study diving behavior . photo by robin baird .\nwhen i got closer , i realized it was a whale , and not only that , i knew what it was .\nsuch was the fate of the whaler known as the essex . it was sunk when a bull sperm whale rammed it , and the whalers had to escape in their smaller whale chasing boats across the south pacific . a really good account can be found in this book . let\u2019s just say that the story includes cannibalism , including sucking the marrow out of another human\u2019s bones .\nthe cachalot or the common sperm whale ( physeter macrocephalus ) is the one most think of when considering these toothed whales . it is a relatively large whale , reaching lengths in excess of 65 feet . it is known for having the largest brain of any living mammal , and it is also known diving to great depths to grapple with giant squid , its main prey source .\nkiller sperm whales were not just restricted to the waters of prehistoric south america . in 2006 researchers toshiyuki kimura , yoshikazu hasegawa , and lawrence barnes reassessed 15 - 14m - year - old fossil remains from japan which had been attributed to a little - known physeteroid called scaldicetus . this genus had been established on the basis of a few isolated teeth from belgium , but when further fossil remains of the whale from japan were found they were distinctive enough to establish the new genus of killer sperm whale , brygmophyseter .\noelschl\u00e4ger hha , ridgway sh , knauth m ( 2010 ) cetacean brain evolution : dwarf sperm whale ( kogia sima ) and common dolphin ( delphinus delphis ) \u2013 an investigation with high - resolution 3d mri . brain behav evol , 75 : 33 - 62\nthe head of the pygmy sperm whale is short and supports a bulbous snout that becomes blunter with age . the snout contains the spermaceti organ . the short narrow underslung mouth is characteristic of the family kogiidae group and in this species contains 12 to 16 pairs of teeth in the lower jaw . the overall upper body colour is a bluish steel grey , which fades to a dull white below the head , body , flippers and flukes ."]}
{"id": 896, "summary": [{"text": "the gray-collared chipmunk ( neotamias cinereicollis ) is a species of rodent in the family sciuridae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is endemic to arizona and new mexico in the united states . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "gray - collared chipmunk", "paragraphs": ["gray - collared chipmunk by lambert m . surhone , mariam t . tennoe , susan f . henssonow\nafter hibernation , gray - collared chipmunks diligently search the ground for any seeds that remain from the previous summer . since these are usually uncommon ,\nare easily recognized by the light and dark stripes on their back and head . they bear distinct facial markings and have only five dark stripes on their back . there is a distinct central line that extends forward onto the head . the gray - collared chipmunks are covered in shades of gray and share distinctive patterns of black , pale gray , and buff stripes .\npredators include as hawks , weasels , coyotes , martens , foxes , and snakes . fighting during the breeding season is also a source of injury and death for many gray - collared chipmunks .\nfleharty , e . d . 1960 . the status of the gray - necked chipmunk in new mexico . j . mamm . 41 : 235 - 242 .\ngray - collared chipmunks are not in any danger of going extinct any time soon . in fact , this species experiences only tiny fluctuations in its population from year to year . these fluctuations have been attributed to predators such as hawks , weasels , coyotes , martens , foxes , and snakes . fighting during the breeding season is also a source of injury and death for many gray - collared chipmunks .\nsince chipmunks prey upon insects , their food habits influence the growth of various plants . gray - collared chipmunks are also important in the dispersal of seeds because of their habit of storing them beneath the layer of decaying vegetation on the forest floor . in this way ,\npalmer ' s chipmunk ( neotamias palmeri ) is a medium - sized chipmunk whose range is limited to the higher - elevation areas of the spring mountain range , nevada . a second chipmunk species , the panamint chipmunk ( neotamias panamintinus ) , is more broadly distributed and lives in lower - elevation , primarily pinyon - juniper ( pinus monophylla - juniperus osteosperma ) habitat . . .\nwith the onset of cold weather , chipmunks enter a restless hibernation during late fall or early winter and are relatively inactive during the winter months . some individuals , however , occasionally come out on warm , sunny days during the winter . by early march , most gray - collared chipmunks have emerged from hibernation .\nhart , e . 1976 . life history notes on the cliff chipmunk , eutamias dorsalis , in utah .\nhabitat : central new mexico and central arizona . coniferous and spruce forests especially around clearing with deadfall . description : only squirrel with gray cheeks . 5 dark and 4 light well defined stripes on back . grayish body with prominent gray on cheeks , upper back and shoulders . source : audubon online guides\npalmer ' s chipmunk resembles other chipmunks in that it has solid black and white stripes that run down its body dorsally . the body of the chipmunk is tan while its ventral side is more pale . total body length is\n. on warm winter days , palmer ' s chipmunk will come out of its burrow to visit their caches for food .\nforest - floor disturbance reduces chipmunk ( tamias spp . ) abundance two years after variable - retention harvest of pacific northwestern forests\ngray - collared chipmuinks , along with many other chipmunks , have charming personalities . they charm campers and hikers with their small size , their boldness in search of food , and their constant activity . in fact , they are not hard to approach at all . they are easily persuaded to accept seeds or nuts from a person ' s hands ( sheppard , 1990 ) .\ngashwiler , j . s . 1965 . longevity and home range of a townsend chipmunk . journal of mammalogy 46 : 693 .\nwadsworth , c . e . 1972 . observations of the colorado chipmunk in southeastern utah . southwestern naturalist 16 : 451 - 454 .\n. eutamias dorsalis is recognizable by the near absence of dorsal stripes . an occasional individual may have more prominent stripes , but even in such a specimen the dorsal wash of gray is evident\nthis article contains basic information ( identification , food sources , nesting and breeding habits , etc . ) about chipmunks . if there is a need to control chipmunks , the behavior and food preferences ( along with other information in this article ) will come into play . chipmunk control page will give information on how to get rid of nuisance animals . for trapping , go to chipmunk trap information page . chipmunk pictures\nsheppard , d . 1990 .\nchipmunk .\ncanadian wildlife service hinterland who ' s who . urltoken ( 1 dec . 1997 )\nbroadbooks , h . e . 1970b . populations of the yellow pine chipmunk , eutamias amoenus . american midland naturalist 83 : 472 - 488 .\npopulations occurs during periods of food shortage such as when there is seed crop failure and the chipmunk doesn ' t have enough food stored for its hibernation .\nwhen these chipmunk prepare food for storage , they holds the seeds in their dexterous front paws and with their specialized incisors . their incisors are especially long and directed forward .\nbroadbooks , h . e . 1970a . home ranges and territorial behavior of the yellow - pine chipmunk , eutamius amoenus . journal of mammalogy 51 : 310 - 26 .\nchipmunks are often confused with the thirteen - lined ground squirrel . from the same family of animals as tree squirrels , chipmunks are identified differently because of the stripes above and below their eyes . there are two kinds of chipmunks in north america : the eastern chipmunk and the western chipmunk . the name \u201cchipmunk\u201d comes from the two types of chattering calls they make to mate and to communicate between each other . one sound is a thrilling chip - chip - chip repeated rapidly while the other is a lower pitched chuck - chuck - chuck . the main predator of the chipmunk is the long - tailed weasel ; however they are also preyed upon by hawks , foxes , bobcats and house cats .\n, which are an important food resource of the chipmunk . this species has also been known to eat local fruits , grass , insects , and the seeds of other conifers .\n12 - hart , e . b . 1976 . life history of the cliff chipmunk , eutamias dorsalis , in utah . southwest nat . , 21 - 243 - 246 .\nchipmunks can be serious destructive pests when they become numerous around homes and gardens . the burrowing activity of chipmunks can cause significant structural damage by undermining foundations , concrete patios and steps , retaining walls and sidewalks . they may also be destructive to gardens when they dig up and eat bulbs and seeds or attack garden fruits . when they become over - abundant , gray - collared chipmunks can prevent normal reforestation of some trees , especially pines , by eating their seeds . when this occurs , they have to be trapped by humans .\nnational wildlife federation .\ncliff chipmunk , urltoken\n( on - line ) . urltoken . accessed 12 / 08 / 02 at http : / / www . urltoken / fieldguide / showspeciesgs . asp ? sort = 1 & curgroupid = 99 & display = 1 & area = 99 & searchtext = cliff + chipmunk & curpagenum = 1 & recnum = ma0186 .\nelliot , l . 1978 . social behavior and foraging ecology of the eastern chipmunk ( tamias striatus ) in the adirondack mountains . smithsonian contributions to zoology no . 265 . 107 pp .\n13 - hart , e . b . 1971 . food preferences of the cliff chipmunk , eutamias dorsalis , in northern utah . great basin nat . , 31 - 182 - 188 .\nellis , l . s . , and l . r . maxxon . 1979 . evolution of the chipmunk genera eutamias and tamias . journal of mammalogy 60 ( 2 ) : 331 - 334 .\nthere are no obvious mounds around the burrow entrance because the chipmunk carries the dirt in its cheek pouches and scatters it on the ground away from the burrow to make the burrow entrance less conspicuous . the chipmunk\u2019s main tunnel is between 20 and 30 feet in length , but complex burrowing systems occur where cover is sparse . burrow systems normally include a nesting chamber , one or two food storage chambers , various side pockets connecting to the main tunnel , and separate escape tunnels . the average territory of a chipmunk is about 1 / 4 to 1 / 2 acre , but the adult usually only defends an area about fifty feet around the burrow entrance .\nthe average territory of a chipmunk is about 1 / 4 to 1 / 2 acre , but an adult usually only defends an area about fifty feet around the burrow entrance ( corrigan , 1997 ; sheppard , 1990 ) .\nthe eastern chipmunk prefers nuts , acorns , seeds , mushrooms , fruits , berries , corn , and sunflower seeds . it also eats insects , bird eggs , snails and small mammals like baby mice . they collect most of their food from the ground ; however they will scale trees to gather acorns and other nuts when they are ripe . when eating , they will sit upright and hold their food with their front feet . the eastern chipmunk uses its teeth to grind nuts down to size to stuff in their cheek pouches . this grinding sound is very loud and can be heard from several feet away . the eastern chipmunk doesn\u2019t truly hibernate but rather wakes every few weeks during the winter months to eat .\nnew mexico : new mexico cooperative fish & wildlife research unit , new mexico state university , p . o . box 30003 , msc 4901 , las cruces , nm 88003 , principle investigators : bruce thompson , ken boykin , database creator : robert deitner , habitat modelers : susanne propeck - gray , jennifer puttere , cynthia king , zachary schwenke ,\ngray - collared chipmunks are found only in coniferous forests , at elevations of 1 , 950 - 3 , 440 m . they eat all kinds of vegetation , and collect and store acorns underground or in hollow logs . their tracks are often seen in the snow , but they probably remain in their dens during the coldest months , sleeping or feeding on their cache of acorns . one litter , of 4 - 6 , is born a year , usually in june in a nest under a log or stump . nests have also been found in woodpecker holes in trees . when they are 36 - 40 days old , the young begin eating solid food , and less than a week later , stop nursing . by fall , they are almost fully grown .\nchipmunk is the common name for any of the small , striped , squirrel - like rodents comprising the genus tamias of the tribe marmotini in the family sciuridae . traditionally , eutamias had been considered a second genus of chipmunks , but today is generally considered a subgenus of tamias .\nis a smoky - gray chipmunk with dark stripes on its back . these dark stripes are more distinct on the summer fur than on the winter fur . it lacks the white stripes often found in the pelage of this genus . the flanks are light brown in color , and the undeparts are creamy - white . the tail is bushy with black on top and cinnamon brown underneath . the feet have a hint of yellow . the molt in may and june from winter to summer pelage occurs from anterior to posterior . females tend to molt into their summer pelage in june and july , later than males , due to the engergy requirements of pregnancy and lactation .\nland unit forest service lands , new mexico usfs - cibola national forest usfs - gila national forest usfs - luna / quemado / reserve district usfs - negrito watershed ( reserve district ) nmdgf - misc . lands - double e the nature conservancy lands the nature conservancy lands - gray ranch , ( formerly tnc ) other distribution references - 19 , 27 , 29 , 33 , 38 , 54\na chipmunk ' s main tunnel is between 20 and 30 feet in length , but complex burrowing systems occur where cover is sparse . burrow systems normally include a nesting chamber , one or two food storage chambers , various side pockets connecting to the main tunnel , and separate escape tunnels .\nif unmolested , they often become bold enough to take food from the hands of humans . the temptation to pick up or pet any wild animal should be strictly avoided , however . while rabies is exceptionally rare ( if not non - existent ) in rodents , chipmunk bites can transmit virulent and dangerous bacterial infections .\nwe evaluated the two - year effects of variable - retention harvest on chipmunk ( tamias spp . ) abundance ( n ^ ) and habitat in mature coniferous forests in western oregon and washington because wildlife responses to density / pattern of retained trees remain largely unknown . in a randomized complete - block design , six . . .\nremoves seeds from pods with its incisors , then uses its tongue to shift the seeds backward . it stuffs the seeds between its teeth and inside of its cheekpouches . the capacity of these cheekpouches increases with maturity . when they cheek pouches are full , a chipmunk deposits the seeds in its nest or buries them in shallow holes .\nthe burrow systems of the eastern chipmunk are quite vast and have many entrances . chipmunks create tunnels up to ten feet long and three feet deep . there are separate tunnels for storing food , sleeping , and keeping empty shells and feces . the eastern chipmunk will defend up to fifty feet around its den and has been known to burrow in stone walls and rotting logs . when together in a group , they can cause damage to stone walls , patios , stairs and foundations by burrowing under them . this type of damage as well as damage that is sometimes done to gardens and landscaping are reasons why chipmunks are often considered a pest ( nuisance wildlife . )\nwe used radiotelemetry to examine the effects of spring prescribed fire for preharvest oak ( quercus spp . ) shelterwood management on eastern chipmunk ( tamias striatus ) home - range attributes and burrow use on the fernow experimental forest in the central appalachian mountains of west virginia . results for 21 chipmunks showed that prescribed fire had little discernable . . .\nwe report the first voucher of the cliff chipmunk ( neotamias dorsalis ) and observations of brazilian free - tailed bats ( tadarida brasiliensis ) from the huachuca mountains , arizona , where these species had not been documented . while presence of t . brasiliensis was expected on fort huachuca , n . dorsalis was a surprise after a century . . .\nthe diets of a fungal specialist , northern flying squirrel ( glaucomys sabrinus ( shaw , 1801 ) ) , and a dietary generalist , lodgepole chipmunk ( neotamias speciosus ( merriam , 1890 ) ) , were examined in the old - growth , mixed - conifer forest at the teakettle experimental forest in california ' s southern sierra nevada . spores of fungi . . .\nchipmunks ( tamias spp . ) in western north america are important for their numerical abundance , their role in pathogen transmission , and the composition and structure of food webs . as such , land management agencies ( e . g . , u . s . forest service ) often conduct field surveys to monitor the diversity and abundance of chipmunk species as a measure . . .\ntwice a year when the female adult eastern chipmunk is ready to mate , she produces a series of calls called chips . these sounds entice the males who gather and compete for a chance to mate . females will often mate with several males . after mating , the males have no further contact with the female or the babies that are produced . three to five young are delivered in the nesting burrows and are born blind and hairless . they open their eyes after thirty days and emerge from their burrow after six weeks .\nthough they are commonly depicted with their paws up to the mouth , eating peanuts , or more famously their cheeks bulging out on either side , chipmunks eat a variety of foods . their omnivorous diet consists of grain , nuts , birds ' eggs , fungi , worms , and insects . at the beginning of autumn , many species of chipmunk begin to stockpile these goods in their burrows , for winter . other species make multiple small caches of food . these two kinds of behavior are called larder hoarding and scatter hoarding . larder hoarders usually live in their nests until spring .\ntamias cinereicollis spends much of its day collecting and storing seeds , which are its most important source of food . they often forage on the ground and they easily climb trees and shrubs to harvest nuts and fruits . the diet of these chipmunks consists of various kinds of nuts , berries and seeds , but they also eat mushrooms , cherry and plum pits , insects , worms and carrion . rare instances of t . cinereicollis preying on birds or small mammals have been observed . when the chipmunk prepares its food for storage , it holds the seeds in its dexterous front paws and with its specialized incisors .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\npatterson , b . d . and norris , r . w . 2016 . towards a uniform nomenclature for ground squirrels : the status of the holarctic chipmunks . mammalia 80 ( 3 ) : 241\u2013251 . doi : 10 . 1515 / mammalia - 2015 - 0004 .\njustification : listed as least concern because it is relatively widespread , common , there are no major threats , and its population is currently stable .\nthis species occurs in the mountains of central and eastern arizona and central and southwestern new mexico in the united states ( hoffmann et al . in wilson and reeder 1993 ) , at elevations of 1 , 950 - 3 , 440 m asl ( most common at 2 , 100 - 3 , 300 m asl ) ( hilton and best 1993 ) .\nthis species is considered common . population density in arizona was estimated at 5 / ha in may , 12 . 5 / ha in august ( hoffmeister 1986 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nwe use cookies to enhance your experience on our website . by continuing to use our website , you are agreeing to our use of cookies . you can change your cookie settings at any time .\ndepartment of zoology and wildlife science and alabama agricultural experiment station , 331 funchess hall , auburn university , alabama 36849 - 5414 .\nclayton d . hilton , troy l . best ; tamias cinereicollis , mammalian species , issue 436 , 23 april 1993 , pages 1\u20135 , urltoken\nyou could not be signed in . please check your email address / username and password and try again .\nmost users should sign in with their email address . if you originally registered with a username please use that to sign in .\nto purchase short term access , please sign in to your oxford academic account above .\noxford university press is a department of the university of oxford . it furthers the university ' s objective of excellence in research , scholarship , and education by publishing worldwide\nfor full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nis found all throughout central and eastern arizona and central and southwest new mexico in the united states ( findley , 1986 ; nowak , 1991 ) .\nthese chipmunks are found primarily in coniferous forests at elevations between 1 , 950 abd 3 , 440 meters . they prefer mature woodlands and woodlot edges , but they also inhabit areas in and around suburban and rural homes such as around ornamental plantings , rockpiles , outbuildings and below patios and building foundations . although they are mostly burrowing rodents , they regularly climb oak trees to gain access to rooftops ( best , 1999 ; corrigan , 1997 ; grzimek , 1990 ; sheppard , 1990 ) .\nis one of the smaller chipmunks . it has a total length between 208 and 242 mm , with males measuring slightly smaller than females . weights range between 55 and 70 g . it has a relatively long tail , comprising from 90 to 109 mm of the total length of the animal ( best , 1999 ; grzimek , 1990 ; sheppard , 1990 ) .\nmating occurs two times a year , during early spring and again during the summer or early fall . there is a 30 to 31 day gestation period . two to five young are born in the spring ( early may ) and again between august and october . they are born naked and blind . young can eat solid foods by the age of 36 to 40 days , and are weaned by the age of 41 to 45 days . the young are sexually mature within one year and adults may live for up to three years . young appear for the first time above ground when they are 2 / 3 full size . the babies are reared by the mother without any help from the fathers ( best , 1999 ; corrigan , 1997 ; sheppard , 1990 ) .\nbreeding season this species breeds in the spring as well as in summer or early fall .\nis most active during the early morning and late afternoon . these chipmunks are generally solitary and protect their territories except during courtship , or when the young are developing . populations of chipmunks average between 2 and 4 animals per acre . the home ranges often overlap among individuals , and the home ranges of adults are larger than those of juveniles . the home ranges of females tend to be smaller than those of males .\nare the first to emerge in the spring . the females emerge one or two weeks later . once females emerge , breeding takes place near a female ' s burrow . competition occurs between males for females , and a male may mate with more than one female during a mating season .\nare well - hidden near buildings ( such as basements and garages ) , gardens , stumps , woodpiles or brushpiles . the burrow entrance is usually about 2 inches in diameter . there are no obvious mounds around the burrow entrance because these chipmunks carry the dirt in their cheek pouches and scatters it on the ground away from the burrow to make the burrow entrance less conspicuous .\nspends much of its day collecting and storing seeds , which are its most important source of food . these chipmunks often forage on the ground and they easily climb trees and shrubs to harvest nuts and fruits .\nconsists of various kinds of nuts , berries , and seeds . mushrooms , cherry and plum pits , insects , worms and carrion are also consumed . rare instances of\nmay eat young leaves and shoots until new fruit and seeds become available ( corrigan , 1997 ; schultz , 1995 ; sheppard , 1990 ) .\ndepends on this food during the winter when it doesn ' t have access to seeds that are covered by snow , etc . ( shepppard , 1990 ) .\nassist in the spread of shrubs , trees , and other plants . as a prey species , populations of\nmay have some impact upon predator populations . ( corrigan , 1997 ; sheppard , 1990 ) .\n, have also been associated as being carriers of the hantavirus in the southwestern united states . human infection may occur when infective saliva or excreta are inhaled as aerosols produced directly from the animal . persons have also become infected after being bitten by rodents ( corrigan , 1997 ; healthtouch , 1997 ; sheppard , 1990 ) .\npopulations occurs during periods of food shortage such as when there is seed crop failure and chipmunks doesn ' t have enough food stored for hibernation .\ndepends on stored food during the winter when it doesn ' t have access to seeds that are covered by snow , etc . ( shepppard , 1990 ) .\ncandace t . smith ( author ) , university of michigan - ann arbor .\nliving in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\nreferring to a burrowing life - style or behavior , specialized for digging or burrowing .\nthe state that some animals enter during winter in which normal physiological processes are significantly reduced , thus lowering the animal ' s energy requirements . the act or condition of passing winter in a torpid or resting state , typically involving the abandonment of homoiothermy in mammals .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthis terrestrial biome includes summits of high mountains , either without vegetation or covered by low , tundra - like vegetation .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\nplaces a food item in a special place to be eaten later . also called\nhoarding\nthat region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .\nliving in cities and large towns , landscapes dominated by human structures and activity .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\nfindley , j . s . 1987 . the natural history of new mexican mammals . university of new mexico press , albuquerque .\ngrzimek , b . 1990 . encyclopedia of mammals . mcgraw - hill publishing , co . vol 3 . pp . 78 - 82\nhantavirus infection - southwest united states .\nhealthtouch online . urltoken ( 1 dec . 1997 )\nnowak , r . m . 1991 . walker ' s mammals of the world . fifth edition . johns hopkins university press , baltimore . pp . 586 - 589\n) . pp . 362 - 363 in d wilson , s ruff , eds .\nto cite this page : smith , c . 1999 .\ntamias cinereicollis\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nallen , j . a . , 1890 . a review of some of the north american ground squirrels of the genus tamias , p . 94 . bulletin of the american museum of natural history , 3 : 45 - 116 .\nmammal species of the world ( opens in a new window ) . mammalian species , american society of mammalogists ' species account ( opens in a new window ) .\nuse these links to obtain additional detailed information and research . life history information is invaluable because it provides diet and habitat info that can be used to formulate diets as well as identify release environments\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nbiokids is sponsored in part by the interagency education research initiative . it is a partnership of the university of michigan school of education , university of michigan museum of zoology , and the detroit public schools . this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation under grant drl - 0628151 . copyright \u00a9 2002 - 2018 , the regents of the university of michigan . all rights reserved .\nis found mainly in the southwestern united states of america . its range inludes the states of nevada , utah , arizona , and new mexico as well as the northern portion of mexico .\ncliff chipmunks spend much of their time near cliffs . dens , particularly winter dens , are in rocky outcroppings . in summer , chipmunks will stay overnight in cliffs , but much of their diurnal activity is away from the den area .\ngenerally inhabits elevations of 1500 to 3700 m with scrub - type habitat . the tendency is toward occupying patches of juniper (\n) . cliff chipmunks have been found in lava fields and deserts at lower elevations .\nadults of this species average 70 g . females are larger than males , weighing between 70 and 74 g . the smaller males weigh between 61 and 64 . 5 g .\nranges between 217 and 249 mm , with the hind foot measuring between 34 and 37 mm . they have 22 teeth . eight mammae are present on the females .\nthere are several subspecies reported , and these subspecies are reported to have clinal variation which intergrades them phenotypically . the subspecies may be defined mainly by differences in body and skull dimensions , pelage characters , dental characeters , and differences in the baculum .\nthe species is diagnosed by its baculum . this has a thin shaft , ranging in length from 2 . 64 to 3 . 69 mm . the distal half of the shaft is somewhat laterally compressed . the keel , which is 20 % of the length of the tip , is low . the tip of the baculum is between 20 % and 40 % the length of the shaft , and forms an angle of 140 degrees with the shaft .\ndetails on the reproductive system of this species are scant . however , one estrus female was the center of attention of as many as 14 males , indicating that there is probably some competition among males for access to these females . it is not known whether the female in this report mated with more than one of the males .\nmales are reproductively active from january through june although most breeding occurs in march . a study of\nin the mountains of arizona suggests that copulation does not occur until may with birth in late june and early july . these discrepancies can be attributed to the duration of winter and the quantity of food available .\ndoes not gain weight before winter , but will loose some over the winter . february through april are lean months and may play a crucial role in the copulation and breeding success of\ncliff chipmunks have only one litter per year , with an approximate size of 4 to 6 young . parturition normally occurs in the months of april to july with the young emerging from burrows about a month later .\nalthough details on the development of this species are lacking , cliff chipmunks are probably like other members of their genus .\nyoung are reported to nurse for 41 to 45 days . they are capable of eating solid foods at 36 to 40 days of age .\nthe young spend their early days in the den of their mother , and are presumed to be altricial . as mammals , females of this species provide their young with milk , grooming , and protection . mature females in arizona have been recorded in transport of half - grown young which are carried in the mouth . males are not reported to be involved in the care of the young .\nhas been described as shy . generally , cliff chipmunks are diurnal with activity mainly in the mornings and then again from the late afternoon until dusk .\nwas recorded to have 57 % of its activity foraging and 3 % as grooming behavior .\ntakes dust baths by lowering its belly into a dry , powdery soil and alternately writhing its head or tail end . it then flips over and throws its hindquarters around in the soil also .\ngrooms its head with the forepaws and will groom its tail end as well by biting into the fur .\ncan be territorial and will chase others if the minimum individual distance has been violated . however , these territorial encounters apparently occur mainly in the area around dens . away from dens , most encounters result in mutual nosings or chases . females can be somewhat gregarious , and form feeding aggregations during the morning feeding . as many as 10 chipmunks may gather at a food source , and slowly travel together through the food sources , keeping a distance of 3 to 10 meters betwen individuals . individuals in these aggregations may vocalize to identify themselves , or to maintain spacing .\nis typically found close to refugia . although it may take cover in trees , the species is most likely to climb steep rocks when it is alarmed .\ncliff chipmunks usually make their dens and nests in rocky bluffs and cliffs . sometimes underground burrows and tree nests are used . there may be different use of habitat in summer versus winter , with different nesting sites used in different seasons . also , seasonal migrations may occur , and if they do , they appear to be related to availability of food sources .\nhome ranges have been reported to range between 0 . 4 and 2 hectares . individuals of this species are reported to typically maintain home ranges with a greatest dimension of about 100 m .\nhas three different calls that characterize different meanings . a bark emitted during standing , resting , or squatting suggests normal activity . a sharp\nwhsst\nor\npsst\nchirp from an upright , alert position and tail twitching indicates excitement . a mixture of high - pitched sounds represents being surprised or threatened .\nin addition to its vocal communications , it is likely that this diurnal species uses other visual signals to communicate with conspecifics . for example , body posture may indicate friendly or hostile intentions when two individuals come together .\ntactile communication is undoubtedly important between mates as well as rivals , and also occurs between a mother and her young . although specific scent based communication has not been reported for this species , it may occur .\nforages for juniper berries , pine seeds , and acorns . these make up a large portion of the diet of this species .\nis an opportunistic forager and will eat available plant material . seeds are gathered during prime availability and are carried in cheek pouches and are transported to temporary caches . seeds and vegetation are generally cached within 100 m of the home cliff , with many of these caches being retrieved later . use of plants as food sources seems to influence both daily and seasonal movements . females have been noted to spend more time foraging than males .\nis mainly herbivorous although these chipmunks have been noted to eat a wide variety of insects , herps , birds , and eggs in utah .\nremains close to the cliff faces and rocks for easily available cover . the indistinctness of their stripes is also supposed to serve as an anti - predator adaptation . potential predators in different regions include cooper ' s hawks (\ncliff chipmunks are food for a variety of carnivores and raptors . they also cache seeds , and so may be an important means of seed dispersal . they compete with other species of chipmunks and ground squirrels for seeds . bot - fly larva (\nthese animals are not reported to have any positive economic impact on humans . however , as a prey species , they do provide food for some of the larger predatory species that humans enjoy watching . also , because they are themselves sort of cute , they may provide entertainment for tourists in natural areas .\n, the possibility of crop damage is present although it has not been documented .\n(\nthe iucn red list of threatened species\n, 2002 ;\ncites appendices\n, 2002 ;\nendangered species information , u . s . fish and wildlife service\n, 2002 )\nhas kidney specializations that are adaptive to dry habitats . a number of subspecies exist and contribute to the differences noted in each category . differences between subspecies also contributes to the reported shyness or lack of shyness in different regions . synonym :\nlouise venne ( author ) , university of wisconsin - stevens point , chris yahnke ( editor , instructor ) , university of wisconsin - stevens point .\nyoung are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .\nhaving markings , coloration , shapes , or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment ; being difficult to see or otherwise detect .\n( as keyword in perception channel section ) this animal has a special ability to detect heat from other organisms in its environment .\ncites . 2002 .\ncites appendices\n( on - line ) . accessed 12 / 05 / 02 at urltoken .\nu . s . fish & wildlife service . 2002 .\nendangered species information , u . s . fish and wildlife service\n( on - line ) . accessed 12 / 05 / 02 at urltoken .\nuniversity of new mexico . 1998 .\nsevilleta lter data\n( on - line ) . accessed 12 / 06 / 02 at urltoken .\niucn . 2002 .\nthe iucn red list of threatened species\n( on - line ) . accessed 12 / 05 / 02 at urltoken .\n) . pp . 363 - 365 in d wilson , s ruff , eds .\ndunford , c . 1974 . annual cycle of cliff chipmunks in the santa catalina mountains , arizona .\nto cite this page : venne , l . 2004 .\ntamias dorsalis\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ninformation on this page has been gathered from member submissions . effort has been made to avoid any infringement of copyright . additionally , any use is anticipated to be within the\nfair use\ndoctrine . if any copyright has been infringed , please notify the webmaster . the disputed information will be removed and your issue will be resolved . if you are a submitting member , please inform and discuss with haz if you think you are submitting any copyright issue . please help us stay with the law .\nlike all rodents , members of sciuridae are noted for their teeth . they have a pair of large incisors on the upper and one on the lower jaw that grow continuously and need to be kept short and sharpened by frequent gnawing . ( the word\nrodent\ncomes from the latin word for\ngnawing .\n) the second pair of incisors , the canines , and the first premolars are missing in rodents , creating a gap between the incisors and the grinding teeth .\neastern chipmunks mate in early spring and again in early summer , producing litters of four or five young twice each year . western chipmunks only breed once a year . the young emerge from the burrow after about six weeks and strike out on their own within the next two weeks .\nchipmunks construct expansive burrows , which can be more than 3 . 5 meters in length with several well - concealed entrances . the sleeping quarters are kept extremely clean as shells and feces are stored in refuse tunnels .\nchipmunks fulfill several important functions in forest ecosystems . their activities harvesting and hoarding tree seeds play a crucial role in seedling establishment . they consume many different kinds of fungi , including those involved in symbiotic mycorrhizal associations with trees , and are an important vector for dispersal of the spores of subterranean sporocarps ( truffles ) , which have co - evolved with these and other mycophagous mammals and thus lost the ability to disperse their spores through the air .\nthese small squirrels play an important role as prey for various predatory mammals and birds , but are also opportunistic predators themselves , particularly with regard to bird eggs and nestlings . in oregon , mountain bluebirds ( siala currucoides ) have been observed energetically mobbing chipmunks that they see near their nest trees .\nhowell , a . h . 1929 . revision of the american chipmunks . washington , d . c . : u . s . department of agriculture , bureau of biological survey . no . 52 .\nmyers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2006 . genus tamias ( chipmunks ) animal diversity webs ( online ) . retrieved january 3 , 2008 .\nnadler , c . f . , r . s . hoffmann , j . h . honacki , and d . pozin . 1977 . chromosomal evolution in chipmunks , with special emphasis on a and b karyotypes of the subgenus neotamias . am . mid . nat . 98 : 343\u2013353 .\nnichols , j . d . , and e . nyholm . 1995 . a concise dictionary of minnesota ojibwe . minneapolis : university of minnesota press . isbn 0816624275 .\npiaggio , a . j . , and g . s . spicer . 2001 . molecular phylogeny of the chipmunks inferred from mitochondrial cytochrome b and cytochrome oxidase ii gene sequences . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 20 ( 3 ) : 335 - 350 .\nwhitaker , j . o . , and r . elman . 1980 . the audubon society field guide to north american mammals , 2nd edition . new york : knopf . isbn 0394507622 .\nwhite , j . a . 1953 . the baculum in the chipmunks of western north america . univ . kansas publ . mus . nat . hist . 5 ( 35 ) : 611\u2013631 .\nwilson , d . e . , and d . m . reeder . 2005 . mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . isbn 0801882214 .\nnew world encyclopedia writers and editors rewrote and completed the wikipedia article in accordance with new world encyclopedia standards . this article abides by terms of the creative commons cc - by - sa 3 . 0 license ( cc - by - sa ) , which may be used and disseminated with proper attribution . credit is due under the terms of this license that can reference both the new world encyclopedia contributors and the selfless volunteer contributors of the wikimedia foundation . to cite this article click here for a list of acceptable citing formats . the history of earlier contributions by wikipedians is accessible to researchers here :\nnote : some restrictions may apply to use of individual images which are separately licensed .\nthis page was last modified on 2 april 2008 , at 04 : 38 .\ncontent is available under creative commons attribution / share - alike license ; additional terms may apply . see terms of use for details .\njustification : this species is listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , tolerance of a broad range of habitats , and because it does not appear to be under threat and is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category . subspecies sonoriensis and carminis have very restricted distributions and merit attention .\nit occurs in southwestern united states and northcentral mexico . in the united states , from idaho south through the mountains of arizona and western new mexico . in mexico , from sonora and western chihuahua to northeastern sinaloa and northwestern durango . there are three disjunct population segments ( wilson and ruff 1999 ) .\nthere are no known conservation measures specific to this species . however , there are several protected areas within its range .\nthis errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .\n( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t42571a115190634 .\nnests are most commonly built on the ground but can occasionally be found in trees . in late spring to early summer , female chipmunks have litters of 3 or 4 pups which are born hairless . after a month or so , the pups have developed a smooth fur coat and begin to move in and out of the nest . at about 6 weeks old , the pups have moved to a mostly solid food diet ."]}
{"id": 922, "summary": [{"text": "the golden-capped parakeet ( aratinga auricapillus ) is a species of parrot in the family psittacidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in brazil and paraguay .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry forests , subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , dry savanna , and plantations .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "golden - capped parakeet", "paragraphs": ["information on the golden - capped parakeet is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nof the sun parakeet , but most recent authorities maintain their status as separate species . alternatively , it has been suggested that the sun parakeet and the sulphur - breasted parakeet represent one species , while the jenday parakeet and golden - capped parakeet represent a second . of these , the sulphur - breasted parakeet only received widespread recognition in 2005 , having gone unnoticed at least partially due to its resemblance to certain pre - adult plumages of the sun parakeet . the sun , jandaya , and golden - capped parakeets will all\nthe gold - capped conures ( aratinga auricapillus ) - also known as golden - capped parakeets - are endemic to brazil and paraguay .\nthe golden - capped parakeet is a bird from the psittacidae family . description from focusingonwildlife . com . i searched for this on urltoken | pinterest | \u2026\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - golden - capped parakeet ( aratinga auricapillus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - golden - capped parakeet ( aratinga auricapillus )\ntitle =\narkive species - golden - capped parakeet ( aratinga auricapillus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nhowever , gold - capped conures are prolific breeders , making them popular birds in aviculture , and hand - fed golden cap babies are generally available .\ngolden - capped conure also go through nippy stages and they require some training to stop this behavior . fortunately , they are smart and respond well to training .\ngolden - capped conures breed very well in captivity and reach sexual maturity at about two years of age . golden - cappeds are not sexually dimorphic - only a dna test , or the laying of an egg , will establish an individual ' s sex .\nin captivity ( it is likely , but unconfirmed , that the sulphur - breasted also will interbreed with these ) . in the wild , hybrids between the jandaya parakeet and golden - capped parakeet have been reported in their limited area of contact , but it has been speculated that most such individuals could be sub - adults ( which easily could be confused with hybrids ) . as far as known , the remaining\nfor ' of the summer solstice ' , hence ' sunny ' , and refers to its golden plumage .\nspecies : scientific : aratinga auricapilla aurifrons aka aratinga solstitialis aurifrons . . . english : golden - capped conure . . . dutch : goudkop aratinga . . . german : goldkappensittich . . . french : perruche \u00e0 front dor\u00e9\nthese are some keyword suggestions for the term\nplum - headed parakeet\n. description from suggestkeyword . com . i searched for this on urltoken | pinterest\u2026\nlike other members of the genus aratinga , the sun parakeet is social and typically occurs in groups of up to 30 individuals . it has been reported as nesting in palm cavities . it mainly feeds on fruits , flowers , berries , nuts , and the like . otherwise , relatively little is known about its behavior in the wild , in part due to confusion over what information refers to the sun parakeet and what refers to the sulphur - breasted parakeet . regardless , the behavior of the two is unlikely to differ to any great extent .\ncollar , n . , boesman , p . , de juana , e . & kirwan , g . m . ( 2018 ) . golden - capped parakeet ( aratinga auricapillus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe golden - capped conures are cheerful , affectionate little birds , who love to cuddle . they need plenty of playtime and one - on - one attention . the gold caps are a little more mellow than some of the other smaller conure birds . they are trainable , and can learn to speak a few words .\nimmature golden - capped conures are essentially green , with some orange around the eyes , above the beak , and on the breast near the wings . some navy is mixed in with the green of the tail . the bird ' s full coloration is not seen until they are sexually mature at about two years of age .\ncites birdlife international internet bird collection parrots : a guide to parrots of the world , juniper and parr , 1998 ml media collection catalogue 114646 , golden - capped parakeet aratinga auricapillus , remold , heinz , minas gerais , brazil , nov . 10 1998 , cornell lab of ornithology . site parrots : status survey and conservation plan 2000 - 2004 , snyder , mcgowan , gilardi and grajal , 2000 . parrots of the world , forshaw and cooper , 1977 . 2010 edition parrots of the world , forshaw , 2006 . parrots in aviculture , low , 1992 . psittacine aviculture , schubot , clubb and clubb , 1992 .\nadults have a rich yellow crown , nape , mantle , lesser wing - coverts , tips of the greater wing - coverts , chest , and underwing - coverts . the face and belly are orange with red around the ears . the base of the greater wing - coverts , tertials , and base of the primaries are green , while the secondaries , tips of the primaries , and most of the primary coverts are dark blue . the tail is olive - green with a blue tip . from below , all the flight feathers are dark greyish . the bill is black . the legs and the bare eye - ring are grey , but the latter often fades to white in captivity ( so using amount of grey or white in the eye - ring for determining\npurity\nof an individual can be misleading ) . it is easily confused with the closely related jandaya parakeet and sulphur - breasted parakeet , but the former has entirely green wing - coverts , mantle and vent , while the latter has green mottling to the mantle and less orange to the underparts . the sun parakeet is also superficially similar to the pale - billed golden parakeet .\ngold - capped conures have a loud scream and typically are noisy at dawn and at bedtimes . they will also shriek when they are scared or excited - - when you come home , for example , he or she will enthusiastically greet you .\nthe sun parakeet occurs only in a relatively small region of north - eastern south america : the north brazilian state of roraima , southern guyana , extreme southern suriname , and southern french guiana . it also occurs as a vagrant to coastal french guiana . its status in venezuela is unclear , but there are recent sightings from the south - east near santa elena de uair\u00e9n . it may occur in amap\u00e1 or far northern par\u00e1 ( regions where the avifauna generally is very poorly documented ) , but this remains to be confirmed . populations found along the amazon river in brazil are now known to belong to the sulphur - breasted parakeet .\nspecies : scientific : aratinga auricapilla auricapilla aka aratinga solstitialis auricapilla . . . english : golden - headed conure . . . dutch : goudkap aratinga . . . german : goldscheitelsittich . . . french : perruche \u00e0 capuche d ' or . . . cites ii - endangered\n30 cm . green parakeet with orange - red belly and facial markings . red frontlet , lores and area around eyes grading to bright orange in forecrown and bright yellow in mid - crown . large , dull orange - red belly patch , mottled yellow . reddish underwing - coverts . bluish primaries with green patch . dull bluish tail with green in base and red on central rectrices . feathers of lower back and rump edged reddish . blackish bill . race\nthe gold - capped conure grows to about 13 to 14 inches in length and weighs about 150 grams . their bodies are mainly green , with blackish bills , gray feet and brown irises . the forehead , the areas around the eyes and underwing coverts are usually red . the breast feathers are a red and green mix . their tail feathers are olive green with a bluish tip . the primary feathers , wing coverts , and under - wing coverts are blue .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\nis deeper green with more extensive red on head , reduced patch on belly and no red on mantle .\nthis species is thought to have a moderately small population which is suspected to be declining in some areas owing primarily to habitat loss . however , it seems to cope relatively well with the alteration of its habitat . it is consequently classified as near threatened .\n. in s\u00e3o paulo and paran\u00e1 , the species has only been recorded in the humid eastern forests . it has apparently vanished from espirito santo , and has been recently recorded from single sites in rio de janeiro and paran\u00e1 . despite the loss of habitat and collecting for the pet trade , it is still locally common in goi\u00e1s , ( where it occurs over most of its former distribution ) , minas gerais and bahia . it is described as very common along the rio grande basin ( v . t . lombardi\n. 2011 ) . a recent survey in bahia found it in 18 out of 30 sites surveyed , including eight protected areas , being recorded in large groups and using secondary vegetation ( cordeiro 2002 ) . the discovery that it is still widespread and has not declined over much of its northern range ( bahia , minas gerais , goi\u00e1s ) , and its ability to cope with habitat fragmentation suggest its status is more secure than formerly thought .\nthis species ' s population size has not been formally estimated and in the absence of sufficient data it is preliminarily estimated to number more than 10 , 000 individuals , roughly equivalent to 6 , 700 mature individuals ; however , detailed research is required .\nthe species ' s population is suspected to be in decline owing to continued habitat loss and some trapping for the pet trade .\nit is found in both humid atlantic coastal forest and inland transitional forests . it is largely dependent on semi - deciduous forest , but forages and breeds in forest edge , adjacent secondary growth , agricultural areas and even urban areas ( v . t . lombardi\n, it seems to adapt well to mosaics of forest fragments , pastures and agriculture , and in goi\u00e1s and minas gerais it also uses areas of cerrado ( f . olmos\n. 2003 ) . pairs have been seen in november and dependent young in march ( l . f . silveira\n1999 ) , indicating breeding in the austral summer . it feeds on fruits ( such as mango , papaya and orange ) ( l . f . silveira\n1999 ) and seeds ( such as maize ) , and was formerly considered a serious pest .\n2000 ) . trapping for trade has probably had a significant impact since it was relatively common in illegal brazilian markets in the mid - 1980s and imported in hundreds into west germany in the early 1980s . however , the precise effect is obfuscated by high numbers of captive - bred birds , which presumably reduce pressure on remaining wild populations ( l . f . silveira\n1999 ) . despite its tendency to occasionally nest near human habitation , it is apparently not the most favoured species for the pet trade ( v . t . lombardi\n. 2011 ) . there are no records of persecution in response to crop degradation .\n( silveira 1998 ) and serra do capara\u00f3 national parks , rio doce state park and caratinga reserve .\nsurvey to locate any major new populations and define the limits of its current range . study to determine its population dynamics and dispersive capacity , and provide a detailed analysis of its habitat requirements at different sites . ensure the protection of key reserves . protect the species under brazilian law .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nsometimes treated as conspecific with a . solstitialis and a . jandaya ( see a . solstitialis ) . races apparently intergrade in bahia ; aurifrons considered by some authors to be undiagnosable # r . two subspecies tentatively recognized .\n( kuhl , 1820 ) \u2013 n & c bahia , in e brazil .\n30 cm ; 130 g . area around eye onto forehead red , shading through orange on forecrown to yellow on mid - crown ; bare orbital skin dark ; head , body and wings fairly deep green , . . .\na high - pitched , shrill , screeching note repeated several times \u201ccrree crree crree\u201d , both in flight . . .\nfringes of semi - deciduous forests , being less common in second growth and pastureland with . . .\nfruits and seeds . in an anthropogenic area in nw of s\u00e3o paulo state , birds were recorded foraging on 28 plant species , 16 of them . . .\nalmost no information . nest in hole of tree . general evidence suggests breeding around oct . a well - grown chick recorded in early nov . . .\nno information available , but some movements in response to food availability seem likely .\nnot globally threatened . currently considered near threatened . cites ii . in 19th century a common species ; possibly in decline for two hundred years with steady and now . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nrecent reappraisal of higher taxonomy of parrots # r proposed arrangement into three superfamilies , here treated as families ( strigopidae , cacatuidae , psittacidae ) ; same study split psittacidae , as here defined , into three families , with additional recognition of psittrichasidae ( psittrichas to coracopsis , below ) and psittaculidae ( psephotus to micropsitta , below ) ; in present work , separation of these families considered to require further study and perhaps additional support . in the past , present family was often split into two , with recognition of family loriidae ; at the other extreme , it was sometimes considered to include all psittaciformes .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nclassified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 2 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : aratinga auricapillus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\n. only wpt members gain exclusive access to some of the world ' s top parrot specialists .\nlisten to exciting podcast interviews with parrot specialists from around the world , many available for wpt members only .\na . a . auricapillus : both adults forehead and lores to area around eyes orange / red , yellow forecrown , some birds cheeks yellow as well ; abdomen and lower breast red ; rump and low back margined red . bill black . eye ring grey , eye dull yellow . a . a . aurifrons : as in auricapillus , but sides of head , throat and upper breast darker green with no yellow ; also rump and low back red absent .\nas in adult but with less evident head markings , in particular the yellow on the forecrown ; cheeks deeper green ; almost no red on rump and low back ; red of underparts on flanks and centre of abdomen only . eye ring pale grey , eye brown .\naviary or suspended enclosure , minimum length 2 or 3m ( 6 . 5 or 9 . 8 ft ) .\nfruit such as : apple , pear , orange , cactus fruits , pomegranate , forming about 30 percent of diet ; fresh vegetables if taken , such as : carrot , celery , green beans and peas , corn on the cob , green leaves ; spray millet , small seed , complete pellet .\nprovide overhead misters or shallow water bowls for bathing ; bird - safe , unsprayed flowering , fir , pine , willow or elder branches , climbing toys ( ladders , ropes , swings ) , puzzle toys , wooden block or vegetable tanned leather chew toys .\nvertical box , 12\nx 12\nx 18\n( 30 . 5cm x 30 . 5cm x 46cm ) .\nextensive clearance for crops ( coffee , soybean and sugarcane ) and other agriculture ; trapping for trade may have had significant effect in the 1980s .\na . a . auricapillus : restricted to n and c bahia ; birds from s bahia intermediate between this subspecies and a . aurifrons . a . a . aurifrons : se brazil , from minas gerais and southern goias south to santa catarina .\noccurs in forest , forest edge and clearings , including coastal moist evergreen atlantic forest and deciduous and cerrado - type woodlands of interior . up to 2180m ( 7150 ft ) .\n3 to 5 broadly elliptical eggs , 30 . 5 x 23 . 5mm ( 1 . 2 x 0 . 9 in )\ngain exclusive access to 600 + pages of additional research , seminars and podcasts , specialists to ask your toughest questions , and dozens of other fun resources - when you become a wpt member . join today > >\n\u2191 contact us | terms & conditions | privacy policy | disclaimer | \u00a9 2018 world parrot trust . all rights reserved . | design : david occhino design\ndouble - check spelling , grammar , punctuation . translators work best when there are no errors or typos .\nif words are different , search our dictionary to understand why and pick the right word .\nif phrases are different , try searching our examples to help pick the right phrase .\nwe ' ve combined the most accurate english to spanish translations , dictionary , verb conjugations , and spanish to english translators into one very powerful search box .\nspanishdict is devoted to improving our site based on user feedback and introducing new and innovative features that will continue to help people learn and love the spanish language . have a suggestion , idea , or comment ? send us your feedback .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml + rdfa 1 . 0 / / en\nurltoken\ncites is an international agreement between governments , aimed to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival .\n{ { t ( ' get _ image _ for ' , { price : formatprice ( selectedsize . premiumpacksavings . priceperimage ) } ) } }\n{ { t ( ' buy _ card . add _ to _ cart ' ) } }\n{ { t ( ' buy _ card . update _ cart ' ) } }\n{ { t ( ' buy _ card . view _ cart ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . add _ notes ' ) } } { { : : t ( ' errors . messages . enter _ required _ info ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . project _ codes ' ) } } { { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . select _ project _ code ' ) } } { { projectcode } } { { : : t ( ' errors . messages . enter _ required _ info ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . download _ will _ be _ saved _ to _ dropbox ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' buy _ card . calculate _ price _ cta ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' buy _ card . save _ to _ cart _ cta ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' buy _ card . view _ cart ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' site _ specific . getty . request _ preview ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . usage _ rights _ restrictions ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . eza _ restrictions _ info ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . eza _ agreement _ title ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' download _ workflow . eza _ agreement _ check _ info ' ) } }\n{ { : : t ( ' buy _ card . download _ button ' ) } }\nmix and match royalty - free images , videos , and editorial with packs that never expire . *\n{ { t ( ' save _ amount ' , { amount _ saved : formatprice ( selectedsize . premiumpacksavings . fivepackpricing . amountyousave ) } ) } }\n{ { t ( ' save _ amount ' , { amount _ saved : formatprice ( selectedsize . premiumpacksavings . tenpackpricing . amountyousave ) } ) } }\n{ { t ( ' compared _ with _ single _ price ' , { price : formatprice ( selectedsize . price ) } ) } }\nyou are welcome to use content from the getty images site on a complimentary basis for test or sample ( composite or comp ) use only , for up to 30 days following download . however , unless a license is purchased , content cannot be used in any final materials or any publicly available materials . no other rights or warranties are granted for comp use .\nthe ibm strategic repository for digital assets such as images and videos is located at urltoken . this repository is populated with tens of thousands of assets and should be your first stop for asset selection .\naratinga conure info . . . aratingas as pets . . . aratinga conure species\nconure info . . . index of conure species . . . photos of the different conure species for identification\ntheir natural habitats include subtropical or tropical dry forests , subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , dry savanna , and plantations .\nthey love to\ncustomize\ntheir environment , i . e . , chew on your furniture and take things apart . providing them with lots of wooden toys and natural branches will be important to keep them occupied and , hopefully , stop them from destroying your furniture .\nfor updates please follow beautyofbirds on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\ngenus : scientific : aratinga . . . english : conures . . . dutch : wigstaartparkieten . . . german : keilschwanzsittiche . . . french : aratinga\nsub - species / races including nominate : auricappila , aurifrons . . . cites ii - endangered\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\non average , sun parakeets weigh approximately 110 g ( 4 oz ) and are around 30 cm ( 12 in ) long .\nand resemble similar - aged sulphur - breasted parakeets . the distinctive yellow , orange , and reddish colouration on the back , abdomen , and head is attained with maturity .\nits exact ecological requirements remain relatively poorly known . it is widely reported as occurring in savanna and coastal forests , but recent sightings suggest it mainly occurs at the edge of humid forest growing in foothills in the guiana shield , and crosses more open habitats only when traveling between patches of forest .\nfrom the former and rare in the latter . it is very rare in french guiana , but may breed in the southern part of the country ( this remains unconfirmed ) . this species is very popular in captivity , and large numbers have been caught for the pet trade . today it is regularly bred in captivity , but the capture of wild individuals potentially remains a very serious threat . this has fueled recent discussions regarding its status , leading to it being uplisted to\nat around 2 years of age , and can live for 25 to 30 years . the hen lays a clutch of three to five eggs , with an\nthe sun conure is noted for its very loud squawking compared to its relatively small size . it is capable of mimicking humans , but not as well as some larger parrots .\nsun conures are popular as pets because of their bright coloration though they have a very limited ability to talk . due to their inquisitive temperaments , they demand a great deal of attention from their owners , and can sometimes be loud . like many parrots , they are determined chewers and require toys and treats to chew on .\nhand reared pets can be very friendly towards humans that they are familiar with , but they may be aggressive towards strangers .\nlinnaeus , c ( 1758 ) . systema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . tomus i . editio decima , reformata . ( in latin ) . holmiae . ( laurentii salvii ) . p . 824 .\nsimpson , d . p . ( 1979 ) . cassell ' s latin dictionary ( 5 ed . ) . london : cassell ltd . isbn 0 - 304 - 52257 - 0 .\narndt , t . ( 1997 ) . lexicon of parrots . arndt verlag . isbn 3 - 9805291 - 1 - 8\nsilverira , l . , de lima , f . , & h\u00f6fling , e . ( 2005 ) . a new species of aratinga conure ( psittaformes : psittacidae ) from brazil , with taxonomical remarks on the aratinga solstitialis complex . the auk 122 ( 1 ) : 292 - 305 .\nbirdlife international ( bli ) ( 2008 ) : 2008 iucn redlist status changes . retrieved 2008 - may - 23 .\nhilty , s . ( 2003 ) . birds of venezuela , 2nd edition . princeton university press , new jersey . isbn 0 - 691 - 02131 - 7\njuniper , t . , & parr , m . ( 1998 ) . a guide to the parrots of the world . pica press , east sussex - isbn 1 - 873403 - 40 - 2\njutglar , \u00e1 . ( 1997 ) . aratinga solstitialis ( sun conure ) . p . 431 in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , & sargatal , j . eds ( 1997 ) . handbook of birds of the world . vol . 4 . sandgrouse to cuckoos . lynx edicions , barcelona . isbn 84 - 87334 - 22 - 9\nrestall , r . , rodner , c . , & lentino , m . ( 2006 ) . birds of northern south america - an identification guide . vol . 1 : species accounts . helm , london . isbn 0 - 7136 - 7242 - 0\nsun conure ( aratinga solstitialis ) : uplist to near threatened ? birdlife international discussion board .\nmich\u0430el fr\u0430nkis set\naratinga solstitialis\nas an exemplar on\naratinga solstitialis ( linnaeus , 1758 )\n.\nwilliam marcus added a link to\nthe sun conure as a pet\non\naratinga solstitialis ( linnaeus , 1758 )\n.\nkari pihlaviita marked the common name\naurinkoaratti\nin an unknown language from\naratinga solstitialis ( linnaeus , 1758 )\nas trusted .\ncyndy parr marked\nn113 _ w1150\nas trusted on the\naratinga solstitialis\npage .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !"]}
{"id": 953, "summary": [{"text": "the ussuri brown bear ( ursus arctos lasiotus ) , also known as the black grizzly is a population of the brown bear .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "one of the largest brown bears , ussuri brown bears approach the kodiak brown bear in size . ", "topic": 21}], "title": "ussuri brown bear", "paragraphs": ["an alaskan brown bear , a relative of the ussuri brown bears of japan .\nursus arctos lasiotus \u2014amur brown bear ( or\nussuri brown bear ,\nblack grizzly ,\nor\nhorse bear\n) , russia : southern kuril islands , sakhalin , maritime territory , and the ussuri / amur river region south of the stanovoy range . china : northeastern heilongjiang . japan : hokkaid\u014d\na statue of kesagake , the brown bear responsible for the worst bear attacks in japanese history .\nimage caption : ussuri brown bear ( ursus arctos lasiotus ) in the beijing zoo . credit : jz85 / wikipedia ( cc by - sa 3 . 0 )\ngiant panda cubs have also been reportedly eaten by brown bears ( brown 1993 ) .\nshadow of the bear ( sotb ) . n . d . brown bear reproduction . shadow of the bear . retrieved december 28 , 2008 .\nthere is only one brown bear species , but there are many subspecies . depending on where they live brown bears are also known as the alaskan , grizzly , european , syrian , and kodiak brown bear .\nthe ussuri brown bear , sometimes called the black grizzly , can be found in many regions including the korean peninsula , kunashiri islands , northeastern china , sakhalin , and the shantar islands , among other places . it is a subspecies of the brown bear . the usurri brown bear is thought to be an ancestor of the north american brown bear , and may have traveled to its current locations from alaska 13 , 000 years ago .\nthe brown bear ( ursus arctos ) is a large bear distributed across much of northern eurasia and north america and is the largest terrestrial carnivoran . there are several recognized subspecies within the brown bear species .\nreconstruction of a brown bear confronting a wolf pack by adolph murie ( 1944 ) .\nthe brown bear is a european protected species , given protection throughout the european union .\nfigure 33 . the den of a large male brown bear (\nsidun\n) .\nwho was zergthe replying to ? snow leopard ? nice thread . i want to learn about evolution of brown bear and cave bear .\na memorial for the sankebetsu brown bear incident . author : \u3055\u3048\u307c\u30fc . cc by 4 . 0\nthere has been a recent increase in interactions between brown bears and polar bears . brown bears have been seen moving increasingly northward into territories formerly claimed by polar bears . brown bears tend to dominate polar bears in disputes over carcasses , and dead polar bear cubs have been found in brown bear dens ( dye 2005 ) .\na brown bear cub\u2019s life is dangerous . there are many animals that don\u2019t mind eating bear cubs and male adult bears are one of them !\nin north america , two ecotypes of the single species ursus arctos horribilis are generally recognized\u2014the coastal brown bear and the inland grizzly ; these two types broadly define the range of sizes of all brown bear subspecies .\nthe ussuri brown bear has attacked humans before , and the attacks are well documented . in the sankebetsu brown bear incident , occurring in sankei in the sankebetsu district in december of 1915 , seven people were killed . the eight hundred and thirty - seven pound bear attacked twice , killing the second set of victims during the prefuneral vigil being held for the first victims . this incident is thought to be the cause of the bear\u2019s man eating image . during the first fifty - seven years of the 20th century , the ussuri bear injured three hundred people , and one hundred and forty - one were killed .\nand on another a brown bear boldy slept in the same den with a male tiger . your point ?\nbrown , g . 1996 . great bear almanac . new york : lyons & burford . isbn 1558212108 .\nthe incident began when kesagake , a huge ussuri brown bear , appeared near the ikeda homestead , in mid november , and spooked the family horse . when the bear reappeared , the ikeda men went after it and managed to wound it with gunfire . thinking the bear would now fear humans , they decided not to track it further .\nless than one year before a shark terrorized america , a bear brought down a reign of terror on northern japan . it was december of 1915 , and bear sightings among the rural villages were common at the time . the ussuri brown bear , cousin of the grizzly , typically left humans alone , only occasionally breaking into village food stores .\nthe brown bear is one of the largest bear species . it ranges in color from dark to reddish brown to cream toned . they resemble but are generally larger than the black bear . they have longer claws for their different feeding habits and a stronger body mass .\nbrown bears have fur in shades of brown , black , tan or blond , or a combination of those colors . the longer outer guard hairs of the brown bear are often tipped with white or silver , giving a\ngrizzled\nappearance .\nwhen you see a bear , talk to it . let the bear know you are human .\nin europe , the brown bear shared its habitat with other predators such as the cave lion , cave hyena , and the larger , closely related cave bear , which the brown bear ultimately outlasted . the cave bear was hunted by neanderthals who may have had a religion relating to this bear , the cave bear cult . however , the neanderthal population was too small for their consumption of cave bear to result in the species ' extinction , and the cave bear outlasted the neanderthals by 18 , 000 years , becoming extinct about 10 , 000 years ago . the cave bear and brown bear diets were similar , and the two species probably lived in the same area at the same time . why the cave bear died out is not known .\ni believe that tiger vs brown bear at parity is 50 / 50 , maybe a slight edge to the feline due its jaws . i ' m merely correcting your false assumptions on the historical data of tiger vs brown bear conflicts .\nursus arctos collaris \u2014siberian brown bear ; siberia ( except for the habitat of the kamchatka and amur brown bears . ) also in northern mongolia , far northern xinjiang , and extreme eastern kazakhstan .\nthere are several recognized subspecies within the brown bear species . in north america , two types of the subspecies ursus arctos horribilis are generally recognized\u2014the coastal brown bear and the inland grizzly bear ; these two types broadly define the range of sizes of all brown bear subspecies . an adult grizzly living inland in yukon may weigh as little as 80 kg ( 180 lb ) , while an adult coastal brown bear in nearby coastal alaska living on a steady , nutritious diet of spawning salmon may weigh as much as 680 kg ( 1 , 500 lb ) . the exact number of overall brown subspecies remains in debate .\non one occasion a brown bear was even observed running from tiger tracks ( which isn ' t even the tiger itself ) .\nthe brown bear has existed in north america since at least the most recent ice age , though it is thought that the larger , taller , and stronger giant short - faced bear , or bulldog bear , was the dominant carnivore at the time . the giant short - faced bear was a tall , thin animal adapted to eating large mammals , whereas the grizzly or brown bear has teeth appropriate for its omnivorous diet .\nbrown bears usually dominate other bear species in areas where they coexist . due to their smaller size , american black bears are at a competitive disadvantage over brown bears in open , non - forested areas . although displacement of black bears by brown bears has been documented , actual interspecific killing of black bears by brown bears has only occasionally been reported . the black bear ' s habit of living in heavily forested areas as opposed to the brown bear ' s preference for open spaces usually ensures that the two species avoid confrontations in areas where they are sympatric .\nrussian hunting agency ( rha ) . 2007 . brown bear hunting in russia . russian hunting agency . retrieved december 28 , 2008 .\nas winter approaches the mother brown bear ( a sow ) will prepare her den . she will enter the den while pregnant and begin hibernation . while hibernating she will give birth to brown bear cubs between winter and early spring . in some warmer habitats hibernation may not occur .\nthere are very few reports of brown bears killing adult male tigers . still , usually brown bears are larger than tigers . hence , brown bears killing tigers isn ' t anywhere near as impressive as the reverse , where the feline is usually smaller .\ndescription : smaller than kamchatka brown bears ( u . a . beringianus ) but larger than eurasian brown bears ( u . a . arctos ) with long and dense fur , usually dark but varies from pale brown through cinnamon to dark brown . some bears ( the upper yenisei river population ) have white collars , hence their latin name .\nbrown bears can be recognized by their most distinctive feature , their shoulder hump . super strong shoulder muscles help this bear to dig up roots and tear apart logs to find food . these muscles are located in the \u2018hump\u2019 of the brown bear . brown bears can move rocks and logs and dig through hard soil and rocky ground using their long sharp claws when making their dens .\nreports of ussuri brown bears hunting siberian tigers have been reported . these incidents occur because of disputes over prey or territory . some bears will change their course if they smell a tiger has passed , while others will follow the tiger\u2019s trail and even sleep in its den . it has even been reported that some ussuri bears have followed tigers in order to eat the leftovers from its kills . scientists have dubbed these bears \u201csatellite bears\u201d because of this frequent behavior .\nin canada , the brown bear is listed as vulnerable in alberta , british columbia , northwest territories , and yukon territory . prairie populations of grizzly bear are listed as extirpated in alberta , manitoba , and saskatchewan .\ntheir fur can be brown or black , but also yellowish . they are extremely powerful .\nthe forearms of brown bears end in massive paws with claws up to 15 centimeters ( 6 inches ) in length , which are mainly used for digging . brown bear claws are not retractable , and have relatively blunt points . like all bears , brown bears are plantigrades and can stand up on their hind legs for extended periods of time .\na re - creation of a pioneer cottage in hokkaido , located at the sankebetsu brown bear incident reconstruction location . author : \u30bf\u30af\u30ca\u30ef\u30f3 . cc by 3 . 0\nthis bear has many similarities to the kamchatka brown bear , but its differences include a slightly darker color , a longer skull , cheekbones that are not as separated , and a lower forehead . the skulls of adult males can reach a width of 9 . 2 inches and a length of up to 15 . 2 inches . the ussuri brown bear can differ in size depending on its location ; bears in the southern regions of injeba\u2019k mountain can weigh up to five hundred and fifty - one pounds , while the bears found north of the mountain can weigh up to 1 , 322 pounds .\nthere are many methods used by scientists to define bear species and subspecies as no one method is always effective . genetic testing is now perhaps the most important way to scientifically define brown bear relationships and names . generally genetic testing uses the word clade rather than species because a genetic test alone cannot define a biological species . most genetic studies report on how closely related the bears are ( or their genetic distance ) . there are hundreds of obsolete brown bear subspecies , each with its own name , and this can become confusing ; hall ( 1981 ) lists 86 different types . the exact number of overall brown subspecies and its precise relationship to the polar bear remains in debate . the polar bear is a recent offshoot of the brown bear , having diverged approximately 400 , 000 years ago .\nbear facts ( bf ) . n . d . types of bears in the yukon . bear facts . retrieved december 28 , 2008 .\nwhen attempting to steal a kill , one tigress was able to severely injure an adult brown bear ( who was probably close to twice her weight ) before going down .\nit all began on a mid - november morning when the brown bear appeared on the doorstep of the ikeda family . this first encounter with the bear was scary but essentially harmless , as the bear took some corn and left shortly afterward . although it was too early for a bear to wake up , meetings with wild animals weren\u2019t uncommon in the area since it was a freshly settled community .\nrange : eastern siberia from the river yenisei to the altai mountains . also found in northern mongolia , far northern xinjiang in china , and in extreme eastern kazakhstan . not present in the habitat areas of the kamchatka ( u . a . beringianus ) and ussuri or amur ( u . a . lasiotus ) brown bears .\nthe recent killings have revived memories of japan\u2019s deadliest bear attacks \u2013 known collectively as the sankebetsu incident - in which an 8 . 85 ft brown bear weighing 749 lb killed seven villagers and injured three others on the northern island of hokkaido in 1915 .\nthe brown bear ' s principal range includes parts of russia , india , china , canada , the united states ( mostly alaska ) , scandinavia and the carpathian region ( especially romania ) , anatolia , and caucasus . the brown bear is recognized as a national and state animal in several european countries . it is the most widely distributed of all bears .\ngrizzly bear has brown fur , but hairs on the shoulders and back have white tops which give them\ngrizzled\nlook . that is why they are known as grizzly bears .\nbrown bears live in north america , asia , and europe . in north america their appearance and fur color varies depending on facts such as habitat , diet , season , etc . the state of alaska contains 70 percent of the brown bear population in north america according to conservation records .\nhibernation : duration depends on habitat . generally october through march . hibernating brown bears can awaken if necessary .\nthe brown bear is a massive animal , weighing between 100 and 700 kilograms ( 220 - 1 , 500 pounds ) and its larger populations , such as the kodiak bear , match the polar bear as the largest extant land carnivores . while the brown bear ' s range has shrunk , and it has faced local extinctions , it remains listed as a least concern species with a total population of approximately 200 , 000 . its principal range countries are russia , the united states ( especially alaska ) , canada , and finland .\nrelocation has been used to separate the bear from the human environment , but it does not address the problem bear ' s newly learned humans - as - food - source behavior . nor does it address the environmental situations which created the human habituated bear . and attracting multiple bears to an area can lead to competition , social conflict , and bear - on - bear injuries and death .\nblack ice , ursus never disproved my argument in regards to the tigress vs large brown bear , the fact remains the bear got severe wounds as a result of the tussle with the tigress , what was being shown by ursus is that felines can defend themselves quite well , even when faced with larger opponents ; the leopard vs lionesses being his counter example . the fight that the tigress put up against the large brown bear was quite impressive , nonetheless .\nbrown bears generally avoid alpha siberian tigers at all costs . even when in conflict with females , bears need to be careful . when attempting to steal a kill , one tigress was able to severely injure an adult brown bear ( who was probably close to twice her weight ) before going down .\nbrown bears engage in infanticide ( bellemain et al . 2006 ) . an adult male bear may kill the cubs of another bear either to make the female sexually receptive or simply for consumption . cubs will flee up a tree when they sight a strange male bear and the mother will defend them even though the male may be twice her size .\none such event occurred in sankebetsu , japan , between december 9 and 14 , 1915 , when a brown bear awoke early from hibernation and proceeded to terrorize the local population for five days .\neven if bicep strength is the same . the bear is still stronger .\nthe videos are split into bear species to further encourage independent reading and learning .\nabout 130 species of land mammal occur in japan . the largest are the ussuri brown bear of hokkaid\u014d and the asian black bear in the mountainous areas of honsh\u016b , ky\u016bsh\u016b and shikoku . smaller carnivores include the red fox , raccoon dog and japanese marten . the leopard cat occurs on tsushima island while the iriomote cat is unique to the eponymous island . grazing mammals include the sika deer , japanese serow and wild boar . among japan ' s most famous mammals is the japanese macaque , the world ' s most northerly monkey .\nyet on the shiretoko peninsula of hokkaido , japan \u2013 an area recognised for having one of the planet\u2019s most densely packed brown bear populations \u2013 bears are no longer feared by the people living there .\nbrown bears have powerful arms and legs with sharp claws . they will fight any animal that tries to attack them .\nthere is little agreement on the classification of brown bears because there are so many ways to name and group them .\nboth the cave bear and the brown bear are thought to be descended from the plio - pleistocene etruscan bear ( ursus etruscus ) that lived about 5 . 3 mya to 10 , 000 years ago . the last common ancestor of cave bears and brown bears lived between 1 . 2 and 1 . 4 mya . the immediate precursor of the cave bear was probably ursus deningeri ( deninger ' s bear ) , a species restricted to pleistocene europe about 1 . 8 mya to 100 , 000 years ago . the transition between deninger ' s bear and the cave bear is given as the last interglacial , although the boundary between these forms is arbitrary , and intermediate or transitional taxa have been proposed , e . g . ursus spelaeus deningeroides , while other authorities consider both taxa to be chronological variants of the same species .\nthe topic is\nussuri brown bear vs siberian tiger\n, right ? so , evidence , real evidence from the siberian tiger project ( monograph of 2005 , in russian ) prove that tigers win most of the fights , so 2 + 2 = 4 , no ? the tiger will normally win in those encounters , even better , the only fight recorded among two full grow adult males resulted in the victory of the tiger ( maz\u00e1k , 1983 ) .\nthere is not a single case of a bear killing a full grow male tiger .\nbut few people have heard the unsettling tale of the sankebetsu bear attack of japan .\nwhile the black bear is found only throughout north and central america , the brown bear family is spread all over the world . they live in dense forests in mountains , valleys and meadows and can be found in canada , in central regions of the u . s . and throughout europe and asia .\nplease cut the childish crap . i ncan read . your source didn ' t prove anything except tigers kill brown bears through hunts , even then 2 lone accounts don ' t help your general case . i posted a couple accounts of brown bear killing male tigers on cf and i ' ll post them again soon as i find them .\nfigure 31 . an above - ground den of a female himalayan bear with her cub .\nthe mexican grizzly bear is listed as an endangered species , but it may be extinct .\nthis bear book for kids mixes facts , photos and even includes a video clip section .\nthe cave bear ( ursus spelaeus ) was a species of bear that lived in europe during the pleistocene and became extinct about 24 , 000 years ago during the last glacial maximum .\nit was a cold winter in sankebetsu rokusen sawa , which is some 18 miles inland from the west coast of hokkaido island . the year was 1915 , and the world was at war . but in japan , besides fighting imperial germany , the inhabitants of sankebetsu rokusen sawa had a different kind of enemy : a huge ussuri brown bear . the bear had woken early from its hibernation . hungry and looking for food , it began a killing spree that would devastate many lives . due to the meticulous japanese records kept since that time , almost all the details of the events are known today .\noriginal file name : ours _ brun _ parcanimalierpyrenees _ 1 european brown bear ( ursus arctos arctos ) . jpg resolution : 800x600 file size : 325663 bytes upload time : 2007 : 08 : 20 16 : 07 : 50\nnorth american brown bears seem to prefer open landscapes , whereas in eurasia they inhabit mostly dense forests . it is thought that the eurasian bears that colonized america were tundra adapted , something indicated by brown bears in the chukotka peninsula on the asian side of bering strait , which are the only asian brown bears to live year - round in lowland tundra like their american cousins ( rha 2007 ) .\nif the bear makes contact , surrender ! now you know what that white piece of cloth is for . take it out , wave it , and hope that the bear acknowledges your surrender .\nsource on bear attacks in japan : the associated press tokyo dated 21 . 10 . 2010 .\npeople in northern japan have been warned to stay away from mountain forests after four people were killed in a spate of bear attacks , amid a dramatic rise in the number of bear sightings .\nbut in the end , hunting threatens to have its way with the population of ussuri bears . russian authorities estimate that there are between 15 , 000 and 30 , 000 specimens left . note the precision of the number . cruel practices are often used by hunters . wealthy people looking for thrills pay others to take them near a bear ' s winter lair . the trackers force the bear out of its lethargy by filling its lair with smoke . furious and disoriented , the bear leaves its den to escape , and then it is shot with bullets usually used to kill elephants !\nthe brown bear\u2019s diet is quite similar to all other bears . they eat grass , fruit , insects , roots and bulbs of plants along with carrion and , when hungry enough , they will hunt small animals . brown bears that live near the coast feed on fish , particularly salmon . these bears will grow much larger than others because of their protein rich diet .\nthere are about 200 , 000 brown bears in the world . the largest populations are in russia , with 120 , 000 , the united states with 32 , 500 , and canada with 21 , 750 . ninety - five percent of the brown bear population in the united states is in alaska , though in the western united states they are repopulating slowly but steadily along the rockies and plains . in europe , there are 14 , 000 brown bears in ten separate fragmented populations , from spain in the west , to russia in the east , and from scandinavia in the north to romania , bulgaria , and greece ( with about 200 animals ) in the south . they are extinct in the british isles , extremely threatened in france and spain , and in trouble over most of central europe . the brown bear is finland ' s national animal . the carpathian brown bear population is the largest in europe outside russia , estimated at 4 , 500 to 5 , 000 bears .\n2013 ) . nearly all european countries have some form of bear management plan , action plan or bear management strategy . however , in a number of countries these documents have not been adequately implemented .\nin arctic areas , the potential habitat of the brown bear is increasing . the seeming warming of that region has allowed the species to move farther and farther north into what was once exclusively the domain of the polar bear . in non - arctic areas , habitat loss is blamed as the leading cause of endangerment , followed by hunting .\nonce during tracking we also noted the following fact : a tiger retreated , not attempting to hunt a large male brown bear in its den . the bear had set himself up for the winter in a small depression that he had dug near a fallen , broken - off shrub ( fig . 33 ) , and the bear was quite visible . the tiger , having encountered the bear by chance , abruptly turned around at a distance of more than 25 m from this place and walked in the opposite direction by following his own old tracks .\nthe grizzly bear , sometimes called the silvertip bear , is listed as threatened in the continental united states . it is slowly repopulating in areas where it was previously extirpated , though it is still vulnerable .\ntheir teeth were very large . cave bear teeth show greater wear than most modern bear species , suggesting a diet of tough materials . however , tubers and other gritty food , which cause distinctive tooth wear in modern brown bears , do not appear to have constituted a major part of cave bears ' diets on the basis of dental microwear analysis .\nbrown bears love fish and are fond of salmon . they are excellent at fishing . in fact each bear has its favorite spot and will try to \u201creserve\u201d it from other bears . mother bears bring their cubs to give them a teaching lesson .\ncameron , w . 2005 . learn to identify black bears and grizzly ( brown ) bears . mountain nature . retrieved december 28 , 2008 .\ns have furry coats in shades of blonde , brown , black , or a combination of those colors . the longer outer guard hairs of the\nthere are an average of two fatal bear attacks a year in north america ( herrero 2002 ) . in scandinavia , there are only four known cases since 1902 of bear encounters that have resulted in death . the two most common causes for bear attack are surprise and curiosity ( smith and herrero 2007 ) .\nthe entrance of a brown bear ' s den is a tunnel that goes down to a small \u2018bedroom\u2019 . the female bear will hibernate all winter long , not even waking up to give birth ! the baby cubs will find their way to their mother\u2019s chest and nurse and sleep until the mother bear wakes up . by the time she does wake up her teeny little cubs are much larger and quite playful ! the den will probably be used only once .\nbellemain , e . , j . e . swenson , and p . taberlet . 2006 . mating strategies in relation to sexually selected infanticide in a non - social carnivore : the brown bear . ethology 112 ( 3 ) : 238 - 246 .\nhowever , some evidence points toward the occasional inclusion of animal protein in cave bear diets . for example , toothmarks on cave bear remains in areas where cave bears are the only recorded potential carnivores suggests occasional cannibalistic scavenging , possibly on individuals that died during hibernation , and dental microwear analysis indicates the cave bear may have fed on a greater quantity of bone than its contemporary , the smaller eurasian brown bear additionally , cave bear remains from pe\u0219tera cu oase in the southwestern tip of the romanian part of the carpathian mountains had elevated levels of nitrogen - 15 in their bones , indicative of omnivorous diets , although the values are within the range of those found for the strictly herbivorous mammoth .\nand biceps\nwhen the bear has a large hump on its . these bears have more impressive biceps .\ndye , l . 2005 . grizzlies encroaching on polar bear country . abc news march 16 , 2005 .\nskull of ursus spelaeus : cave bears lacked the usual two or three premolars present in other bear species .\nif you haven\u2019t been able to attract a bear yet , invite him to dinner . set up a bear - feeding station as mentioned above and install a sidewalk with footlights to guide the bear at night . it seems to me that it would be a whole lot safer to not even take any food into the forest .\ngrizzly bear is subspecies of the brown bear . these huge animals originate from europe and asia , but today they can be found only in north america and canada . they live in woodlands , forests and valleys near rivers . during 1970s number of grizzly bears dropped significantly because of the mass hunt . since that time , hunting of bears is prevented by law , and their number gradually increased in time . today , grizzly bear is\nthreatened\nspecies which means almost endangered .\nas the largest living land predators in the world and capable of running at speeds of around 30mph ( 48kmph ) , brown bears can be extremely dangerous .\nthe size of a bear somewhat flatters their actual physique , felines of equal size are at least equally impressive .\nhave you ever seen the shoulders and loose fur of a bear ? there ' s no way a tiger could kill a bear with one throat bite . most hunts , even if including ambush , eventually turn into fights .\nthe time of the arctodus extinction is about the same as the extinction of the long - horned bison and other megafauna . both of these animals were replaced by eurasian immigrants , specifically the brown bear and american bison . since this was also about the same time as the clovis tool kit hunting culture appeared in north america , with culturally advanced humans entering the americas from asia , the implication is that the brown bear was better adapted to human competition than the megafauna , presumably due to a long term coexistence in the old world with people .\nthis bear is solitary , crepuscular and nocturnal . it spends its days roaming the taiga and looking for food . the siberian summer is short and the bear only has a few months to reproduce and build up its fat reserves .\nthe morphological features of the cave bear chewing apparatus , including loss of premolars , have long been suggested to indicate their diets displayed a higher degree of herbivory than the eurasian brown bear . indeed , a solely vegetarian diet has been inferred on the basis of tooth morphology . results obtained on the stable isotopes of cave bear bones also point to a largely vegetarian diet in having low levels of nitrogen - 15 and carbon - 13 , which are accumulated at a faster rate by carnivores as opposed to herbivores .\nbrown bears have a bulky muscle mass located above the shoulders . this hump is designed to power the forelimbs and makes them exceptionally powerful diggers . this is one of the features that distinguishes them from the more common north american black bear which lacks such a shoulder hump\nstay calm and do not run . c\u2019mon , it\u2019s just a bear attack , what are you worried about ? !\ndon\u2019t try to outrun the bear . bears can run up to 50 kph , which is much faster than you .\nthe brown bear also shared north america with the american lion and smilodon , carnivorous competitors . the modern grizzly can eat plants , insects , carrion , and small and large animals . the american lion , smilodon , and giant short - faced bear had a more limited range of food , making them vulnerable to starvation as the supply of available large mammals decreased , possibly due to hunting by humans .\nfirst , you\u2019ll need three things to be safe from bears : a bell , a white piece of cloth and a ferrari . these correspond to the three stages of a bear attack : the bear sighting , the attack and the escape .\nfun fact : brown bears can climb trees to eat or escape predators , but only when they are cubs ! as they become adults they become too heavy for climbing .\nthe genetic diversity of present - day brown bears ( ursus arctos ) has been extensively studied over the years and appears to be geographically structured into five main clades .\ntoday , in rokusen sawa , there is a forest shrine called the sankebetsu brown bear incident reconstruction location . here , in memory of those who died , the story is presented authentically , with an original house from that period having been reconstructed and full explanations given of the events that occurred .\nthere is no shortage of safety tips telling what to do if you do see a bear when hiking in the mountains .\nevery single time any bear has ever stolen the kill off a tiger , the tiger was either a female or juvenile .\nthe caledonian bear was said to be so fierce that it was favored by the romans who used them in their amphitheatres .\nbear books for children - a fun and fascinating way for young readers to find out more about these highly intelligent creatures .\nthere is little agreement on classification of brown bears . some systems have proposed as many as 90 subspecies , while recent dna analysis has identified as few as five clades ( fws 2005 ) . dna analysis has recently revealed that the identified subspecies of brown bears , both eurasian and north american , are genetically quite homogeneous , and that their genetic phylogeography does not correspond to their traditional taxonomy ( waits et al . 1998 ) . the subspecies of brown bears have been listed as follows ( one of which , called clade i by waits et al . ( 1998 ) , part of the subspecies identified as u . a . sitkensis , by hall and u . a . dalli by kurt\u00e9n , appears to be more closely related to the polar bear than to other brown bears ( waits et al . 1998 ) ) :\nbrown bears are one of the more familiar bears since they are widely distributed compared to other species . their preferred living areas vary from meadows and valleys to forests and mountains .\nnearby , news of the attack reached the miyouke family . there , the women and children of the miyouke and saito families had gathered , while the men hunted for the bear . though the bear returned to the \u014dta home in search of more prey , it was chased off by several of the hunting party . the bear turned it\u2019s sights on the now unprotected miyouke farm .\nbears become attracted to human created food sources such as garbage dumps , litter bins , and dumpsters ; and venture into human dwellings or barns in search of food as humans encroach into bear habitat . in the united states , bears sometimes kill and eat farm animals . when bears come to associate human activity with a\nfood reward ,\na bear is likely to continue to become emboldened and the likeliness of human - bear encounters increases , as they may return to the same location despite relocation . the saying ,\na fed bear is a dead bear ,\nhas come into use to popularize the idea that allowing bears to scavenge human garbage , such as trash cans and campers ' backpacks , pet food , or other food sources that draw the bear into contact with humans can result in a bear being put into a situation where it has to be killed for safety reasons .\nin spite of being classified as carnivores , about 75 % to 85 % of a bear\u2019s diet is made up of plants .\nseveral men from the village found expert bear hunter yamamoto heikichi , who told them the bear\u2019s name was \u201ckesagake\u201d and that it had killed at least three other women in it\u2019s life . yamamoto refused to help them however , having sold his gun for alcohol .\nnow , i have not seen any such detailed info on the muscles of pantherines or ursids , however , joints suggest that overall brown bears have a significant flexibility advantage over pantherines .\nwith a local guide , yamamoto managed to track the bear and killed it with two shots , one to the heart and one to the head . the bear weighed in at 340 kg ( 749lbs ) and measured 2 . 7 meters ( almost 9 feet ) in length . a necropsy performed later found human remains in the bear\u2019s stomach , confirming that this was indeed the infamous kesagake .\nwaits , l . p . , s . l . talbot , r . h . ward , and g . f . shields . 1998 . mitochondrial dna phylogeography of the north american brown bear and implications for conservation . conservation biology 12 ( 2 ) : 408 - 417 . retrieved december 28 , 2008 .\nfor a bear , there is too much risk is involved in trying to challenge a tiger of near equal size for a carcass .\nattacks on humans can be fatal and are more likely if bears are surprised or someone comes between a mother bear and her cubs .\ngrizzly bear is huge animal . most bears weigh between 300 and 800 pounds , but some captured animals weighed up to 1400 pounds .\ntakeshi komatsu , a local vet , said it was possible that the four were killed by the same bear . \u201cafter tasting human flesh ( for the first time ) , the bear may have realised that it can eat them , \u201d komatsu told kyodo news agency .\nsize of tigers and bears in the sikhote alin region : this is an actualization of the morphological data on the ussuri bears captured in the sikhote alin mountains by dr kucherenko ( 2003 ) ; the data on tigers is from my last document on them sizes , actualized at 2013 , which include all available scientific data about amur tigers captured by scientists . amur tigers : amur bears : greetings to all .\nif available brown bears will hunt for animal prey . they will eat rodents , squirrels , foxes , and other small animals . they have also been known to attack young deer and sheep .\noften it ' s not easy to distinguish which animal is more flexible or stronger going by visuals alone . for instance , you might think that a brown bear is exponentially more robust than any tiger of equal weight , when in reality , they there is very little to split the two animals in chest girth and bicep girth .\nsoon after these tragic events , rokusen sawa became a ghost town , as many of the villagers left in fear of more bear attacks .\ni remember 221extra bringing that same argument up against ursus on cf . ursus disproved the whole thing . i ' ll find it and post it probably in an hour . then again , a female brown bear once killed a 500lb male tiger and a emaciated and severely underweight and heat exhausted polar bear managed to wreck a healthy male lion before finally dying . says a lot doesn ' t it ? now i know these are circus accounts but the general point still stands .\nthe chest girth of a lion and grizzly bear was measured as being only 1 . 8 inches apart , and the lion population was a few kg lighter than the bear population . there is no sufficient evidence to suggest that bears have more powerful upper bodies than lions or tigers .\nsources on bear hunting in siberia : vsd no . 1647 - 18 dated 24 march 2009 andre\u00ef rudakov ( warning , some photos are violent )\ni never denied it . it ' s usually bear fans who try to deny the fact that brownies avoid adult male tigers at all costs .\nherrero , s . 2002 . bear attacks : their causes and avoidance , revised edition . guilford , ct : lyons press . isbn 158574557x .\n101 facts . . . bears ! bear books for kids - amazing facts , photos & video links . ( 101 animal facts book 3 )\nthe bear , whose rampage inspired novels , radio and stage productions , and a film , was tracked down and shot dead by a hunter .\nyayo meanwhile had escaped into the night and ran to find help . the men made it back to the village and hurried to the home , where the bear was still on a rampage inside . though they tried to corner and shoot it , once again the bear managed to escape .\nfood : more carnivorous than european brown bears , will take mammals ranging in size from hares up to caribou ( reindeer ) and elk . known to raid hunters\u2019 food stores and huts for food . data on diet is sparse but , in common with other brown bears , will eat a wide variety of vegetation , seeds , nuts , fruit , roots and tubers , small mammals , carrion and fish .\na search party mobilized to find and kill the bear , and recover any of mayu\u2019s remains . they soon found the massive animal , and though they shot it the bear managed to escape . mayu\u2019s remains with found cached in the snow nearby ; all that remained was her head and legs .\nhaving once again successfully shot the bear without killing it , the party followed the animals bloody tracks into the woods the following morning . this time they were accompanied by no - longer - retired - yamamoto , who found the bear and finally shot it to death , once in the heart , once in the head . the bear was nearly 9 feet tall and 750 pounds , and the remains of its victims were found in its stomach .\nstatus : russia has the largest black bear population in the world . the brown bears of east siberia are populous but , nonetheless , are considered to be endangered as they are still largely treated as a game animal . around 5 , 000 bears in the altai mountains and over 16 , 000 in the east siberian taiga . other population figures not known .\nbrown bears are omnivores and feed on a variety of plant products , including berries , roots , and sprouts , as well as fungi and meat products such as fish , insects , and small mammals . despite their reputation , most brown bears are not particularly carnivorous as they typically derive up to 90 percent of their dietary food energy from vegetable matter ( dced ) . their jaw structure has evolved to fit their dietary habits .\nthe animal is found in the siberian ussuri taiga , as its name indicates , on sakhalin island , along the banks of the amour river , on the korean peninsula , and in northeast china and in japan . in fact , five sub - populations have been identified on hokkaido island . it inhabits mixed forests in mountainous areas , where asian black bears also live . but encounters between the species are rare , as they do not live at the same altitudes .\nboth the name\ncave\nand the scientific name spelaeus are because fossils of this species were mostly found in caves , showing that cave bears may have spent more time in caves than the brown bear , which uses caves only for hibernation . consequently , in the course of time , whole layers of bones , almost entire skeletons , were found in many caves .\nthe bear reappeared on the morning of december 9 , this time at the home of the ota family . inside the house , abe mayu , the wife of the head of the ota household , was babysitting a baby ( which was not related to her ) called hasumi mikio . the bear entered the house , attacked the baby , and killed it . a few seconds later , the bear took mayu and dragged her out of the house . the scene was terrible ; mayu was later found by a search party and her remains were buried under a tree in the snow . the search party finally located the bear 150 meters into the forest . five of the men shot at it , but only one bullet hit and the wounded bear managed to escape again .\nthe giant short - faced bear existed up until 11 , 000 years ago . it is believed to be the largest carnivorous mammal to have ever lived .\naside from akita , there have been sightings of mother with their cubs in several other prefectures , as well as reports of injuries due to bear attacks .\nbrown bears have heads that are large and round with a concave facial profile , a characteristic used to distinguish them from other bears . their snout protrudes from this concave or\nhollow\nface ( grzimek et al . 2004 ) . they also have a large hump of muscle over their shoulders ( grzimek et al . 2004 ) , which helps to distinguish them from such species as the black bear ( ursus americanus ) , which lacks this characteristic hump ( cameron 2005 ) . their tail is short , 10 to 13 centimeters ( 4 to 5 inches ) long ( brown 1993 ) .\nthe brown bear is primarily solitary animals , although they may gather in large numbers at major food sources and form social hierarchies based on age and size ( dewey and ballenger 2002 ; grzimek et al . 2004 ) . they may be active at any time , but primarily forage in the morning and at dusk , and rest during the day ( dewey and ballenger 2002 ) .\nthe cave bear had a very broad , domed skull with a steep forehead . its stout body had long thighs , massive shins and in - turning feet , making it similar in skeletal structure to the brown bear . cave bears were comparable in size to the largest modern - day bears . the average weight for males was 400 to 500 kilograms ( 880 to 1 , 100 lb ) , while females weighed 225 to 250 kg ( 495 to 550 lb ) . of cave bear skeletons in museums , 90 % are male due to a misconception that the female skeletons were merely\ndwarfs\n. cave bears grew larger during glaciations and smaller during interglacials , probably to adjust heat loss rate .\nbrown bears were once native to the atlas mountains in africa , and may have existed as late as the mid - 1800s in algeria and morocco and as late as 1500s in the sinai of egypt , but are not extinct in these areas ( mclellan et al . 2008 ) . they also were once in mexico , but were extirpated there and in a large portion of the southwestern united states during the twentieth century ( mclellan et al . 2008 ) . although many hold on to the belief that some brown bears still may be present in mexico and the atlas mountains of morocco , both are almost certainly extinct . the last known mexican brown bear was shot in 1960 . very small numbers remain in iraq and nepal , but they have apparently been eliminated from syria and possibly bhutan ( mclellan et al . 2008 ) .\nsimilar books to 101 facts . . . bears ! bear books for kids - amazing facts , photos & video links . ( 101 animal facts book 3 )"]}
{"id": 1072, "summary": [{"text": "tegeticula elatella is a moth of the prodoxidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in the united states in western texas , from the big bend region through southern new mexico to south-eastern arizona and the verde valley of central arizona .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the habitat consists of grassland and shrub desert .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is 21 \u2013 28 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the forewings are white and the hindwings are white with an area of light to medium gray near the apex .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the larvae feed on yucca verdiensis .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "they feed on developing seeds .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "pupation takes place in a cocoon in the soil . ", "topic": 11}], "title": "tegeticula elatella", "paragraphs": ["have a fact about tegeticula elatella ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\nhave a definition for tegeticula elatella ? write it here to share it with the entire community .\ntegeticula elatella pellmyr , 1999 , n . sp . , systematic entomology , v . 24 , no . 3 , p . 243 - 271 .\ntegeticula elatella is a moth of the prodoxidae family . it is found in western texas , from the big bend region through southern new mexico to south - eastern arizona and the verde valley of central arizona . the habitat consists of grassland and shrub desert .\npellmyr , o . 1999 . systematic revision of the tegeticula yuccasella complex ( lepidoptera : prodoxidae ) north of mexico . systematic entomology 24 : 243 - 271 .\nholotype for tegeticula elatella pellmyr , 1999 catalog number : usnm collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of entomology sex / stage : male ; preparation : pinned collector ( s ) : o . pellmyr & e . augenstien year collected : 1995 locality : big bend national park , s persimmon gap nr nine pt . draw , brewster , texas , united states elevation ( m ) : 700 to 800\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwing expanse 21 - 28 mm . forewing white ; hindwing white with light to medium grey near apex , occasionally with rusty tinge . male genitalia with aedeagus 1 . 5 - 1 . 7 mm long , 0 . 08 - 0 . 10 mm in cross section ; female genitalia with posterior apophyses 4 . 4 - 5 . 1 mm long , large corpus bursae with signa 1 . 25 - 1 . 30 mm in diameter .\nsimilar especially to the allopatric sister species superficiella , but generally lighter and with broader wings . genitalia are highly characteristic for identification ; a diagnostic key is provided .\nthe species is known from the capsular - fruited yucca elata ( y . verdiensis ) . eggs are laid just below the ovary surface . the larva feeds on developing seeds . pupation occurs in a cocoon in the soil .\nwestern texas from the big bend region , extending across southern new mexico to southeastern arizona and the verde valley of central arizona .\ntypical habitat includes grassland and shrub desert . altitudinal range 700 - 1800 m .\nthis media file is licensed under the creative commons attribution - noncommercial license - version 3 . 0 .\n. note that images and other media featured on this page are each governed by their own license , and they may or may not be available for reuse . click on an image or a media link to access the media data window , which provides the relevant licensing information . for the general terms and conditions of tol material reuse and redistribution , please see the\neach tol leaf page provides a synopsis of the characteristics of a group of organisms representing a leaf at the tip of the tree of life . the major distinction between a leaf and a branch of the tree of life is that a leaf cannot generally be further subdivided into subgroups representing distinct genetic lineages .\nfor a more detailed explanation of the different tol page types , have a look at the structure of the tree of life page .\ntree of life design and icons copyright \u00a9 1995 - 2004 tree of life project . all rights reserved .\nphotographs are the copyrighted property of each photographer listed . contact individual photographers for permission to use for any purpose .\npowell , j . a . & p . a . opler , moths of western north america , pl . 1 . 36m ; p . 42 . book review and ordering\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nholotype : pellmyr , o . 1999 . systematic entomology . 24 ( 3 ) : 261 .\nis 21\u201328 mm . the forewings are white and the hindwings are white with an area of light to medium grey near the apex .\nthe larvae feed on yucca verdiensis . they feed on developing seeds . pupation takes place in a cocoon in the soil .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nsign in to disable all ads . thank you for helping build the largest language community on the internet .\nhave a better pronunciation ? upload it here to share it with the entire community .\nsimply select a language and press on the speaker button to listen to the pronunciation of the word . leave a vote for your preferred pronunciation .\nenter your proceedings of the royal society of london b : biological sciences username .\nyou may be able to gain access using your login credentials for your institution . contact your library if you do not have a username and password .\npay per article - you may access this article or this issue ( from the computer you are currently using ) for 30 days .\nregain access - you can regain access to a recent pay per article or pay per issue purchase if your access period has not yet expired .\nthank you for your interest in spreading the word on proceedings of the royal society of london b : biological sciences .\nnote : we only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it , and that it is not junk mail . we do not capture any email address .\nmessage body ( your name ) thought you would like to see the proceedings of the royal society of london b : biological sciences web site ."]}
{"id": 1101, "summary": [{"text": "the spined dwarf mantis ( ameles fasciipennis ) is a species of praying mantis that is endemic to italy .", "topic": 16}, {"text": "it has only been collected once , probably in 1871 in the tolentino area , and has not been seen since , despite extensive entomological surveys of the region . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "spined dwarf mantis", "paragraphs": ["i ' ve already debunked one common mistake in the title , which in my opinion puts me way ahead of the game already . the name of the insect is often incorrectly spelled\npreying mantis ,\nand that ' s understandable , since mantises are famed for their ability to eat other bugs and even each other . ( the female mantis will often devour her mate after sex , a dream come true if the male mantis is a\nvore\nfetishist , but a pretty raw deal otherwise . ) but no , the name refers to the posture of the insect ' s bent forearms , which look a little like hands clasped in prayer .\nthe human - like ( and religious ! ) posture of the mantis may be what led to a tradition in many ancient cultures , from greece to egypt to china , that this insect is a noble and perhaps even magical creature . that tradition is probably the source for the modern belief that mantises are protected by law , an urban legend i remember from my childhood . or maybe that ' s common - sense advice due to the insects ' value to modern gardeners . a single mantis will eat its own weight in garden pests , from aphids to yellow jackets , ever single day !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthis species is endemic to italy , the type ( and only ) specimen being collected from\ntolentino\n.\nonly one specimen of a . fasciipennis is known which is also the holotype .\nthe only known specimen is labelled as being collected from\ntolentino\n, a town in central italy which now has intensive land cultivation over most of its territory . it is possible that , when this specimen was collected at the end of the 19th century , tolentino was less intensively cultivated and a more suitable vegetation for this genus of mantids was present , such as mediterranean vegetation and natural grassland and shrubland , but we have no detailed data on this .\nthe main threat to this species is habitat reduction since tolentino is now located in an intensively cultivated area unsuitable for large populations of other species of mantids which can now only be found in the peripheries . however , no real information exists on the effect this has had on a . fasciipennis due to only one specimen being known .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nah , june . the bees are buzzing , the crickets are chirping , the fireflies are glowing , and the june bugs are\u2014doing whatever june bugs do , i guess ? it ' s their month . in the united kingdom , the connection between summer and the insect kingdom has been formalized by turning the last week of june into national insect week . we ' re also celebrating our six - legged friends all month , and we ' ve called in ken jennings ( not an insect , but at least a wasp ) as a guest expert . he tells us that our insect knowledge has a few bugs .\nken jennings is the author of eleven books , most recently his junior genius guides , because i said so ! , and maphead . he ' s also the proud owner of an underwhelming bag o ' crap . follow him at urltoken or on twitter as @ kenjennings .\nwoot - off special offers : $ 5 ships all day and 25 % off shirt . woot ! !\nurltoken is operated by woot services llc . products on urltoken are sold by woot , inc . , other than items on gourmet . woot which are sold by the seller specified on the product detail page . product narratives are for entertainment purposes and frequently employ literary point of view ; the narratives do not express woot ' s editorial opinion . aside from literary abuse , your use of this site also subjects you to woot ' s terms of use and privacy policy . woot may designate a user comment as a quality post , but that doesn ' t mean we agree with or guarantee anything said or linked to in that post .\nwoot logos , site design , & content \u00a9 woot , inc . 2004 - 2018 . all rights reserved .\nfor the arctiid moth genus erroneously named ameles by walker in 1855 , see aemilia ( moth ) .\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 10 / 13 / 2015 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\nit has only been collected once , probably in 1871 in the tolentino area , and has not been seen since , despite extensive entomological surveys of the region .\nit has beautiful images and viral videos that are way more fun than reading all the text in traditional encyclopedias .\nif you found sussle interesting , then give back by adding something interesting for others .\nit ' s super easy , so it won ' t take more than a minute .\ncopyright \u00a9 2016 sussle . all rights reserved . all registered trademarks are the property of their respective owners without intent to infringe .\nwe collect the best images , videos , and facts by topic . please join us .\nto ensure the integrity of sussle ' s content , we must verify that each member represents a distinct person . please send an email from your primary facebook email to :\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nwith the help of more than 100 of the iucn species survival commission\u2019s specialist groups , global wildlife conservation has compiled this list of species considered lost across more than 160 countries as part of the search for lost species . the definition of \u201clost\u201d varied by taxa . we welcome additional nominations and encourage conservationists , scientists and naturalists to launch searches for species on this broad list . report an observation on the search for lost species inauralist page . iucn red list of threatened species status key :\ncar\u00ec\u00e1bido de doramas ( fide machado , a . , & morera , m . ( eds . ) . ( 2005 ) . nombres comunes de las plantas y los animales de canarias . islas canarias : academia canaria de la lengua .\nprobably extinct in mart\u00ec _ n esquivel , j . l . , fajardo gonz\u00ec\u00e1lez , s . , cabrera p\u00ec\u00a9rez , m . \u00ec\u0081 . , arechavaleta hern\u00ec\u00e1ndez , m . , aguiar clavijo , a . , mart\u00ec _ n de abreu , s . , & naranjo morales , m . ( 2005 ) . evaluaci\u00ec _ n 2004 de especies amenazadas de canarias . especies en peligro de extinci\u00ec _ n , sensibles a la alteraci\u00ec _ n de su h\u00ec\u00e1bitat y vulnerables . santa cruz de tenerife : consejer\u00ec _ a de medioi ambiente y ordenaci\u00ec _ n territorial , gobierno de canarias .\nwant more info ? go to urltoken or contact us at info @ urltoken .\nthere are lots of additional ways you can join the global search ! make a donation to support the expeditions . become a corporate sponsor of the initiative or sponsor a specific expedition . share the lost stories on facebook , instagram and twitter .\nno matter how big or small , there is always something you can do to help spread the conservation message .\n\u00a9 2017 global wildlife conservation . all rights reserved . global wildlife conservation is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nunfortunately , the page you were trying to retrieve is not available on myfwc . com . this could have happened as content on our site is constantly being reviewed and updated , and occasionally , deleted .\nbelow is a helpful list of urltoken ' s most viewed pages . if you still are unable to find what you are looking for , please use the search box in the upper right - hand corner of this page .\nfwc facts : bears are sexually dimorphic . this means adult males are larger than adult females of the same age .\nflorida fish and wildlife conservation commission \u2022 farris bryant building 620 s . meridian st . \u2022 tallahassee , fl 32399 - 1600 \u2022 ( 850 ) 488 - 4676\npursuant to section 120 . 74 , florida statutes , the fish and wildlife conservation commission has published its 2017 agency regulatory plan .\nunder florida law , e - mail addresses are public records . if you do not want your e - mail address released in response to a public records request , do not send electronic mail to this entity . instead , contact this office by phone or in writing ."]}
{"id": 1115, "summary": [{"text": "the mexican redknee tarantula ( brachypelma hamorii ) is a terrestrial tarantula native to the western faces of the sierra madre occidental and sierra madre del sur mountain ranges in mexico .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "they are a large species , and are a popular choice for enthusiasts .", "topic": 11}, {"text": "like most tarantulas , they have a long lifespan . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "mexican redknee tarantula", "paragraphs": ["today i want to write about a scary looking spider , the mexican redknee tarantula .\nmexican redknee tarantula - buy mexican redknee tarantula by surhone , lambert m . | editorial ; tennoe , mariam t . | editorial ; henssonow , susan f . | editorial online at best prices in india - urltoken\nthis page contains mexican redknee tarantula facts for kids ( and adults ) . this animal is part of the\nredknee tarantula with previous exoskelton . click / double - click image to enlarge .\nmexican redknee tarantula ( english , paperback , lambert m . surhone , mariam t . tennoe , susan f . henssonow )\nthe mexican redknee tarantula is the most common pet tarantula in the world . in the usa , only captive - grown spiders are allowed to be sold .\nthe mexican redknee is a large and distinctive tarantula . it is one of the most common pet tarantulas and the most popular tarantula to be used in movies !\nthe mexican redknee tarantula is a native to the western faces of the sierra madre occidental and sierra madre del sur mountain ranges in mexico .\ntarantula mythbusters 2 : detailed vid of b . smithi ( mexican red knee )\nthe mexican redknee tarantula has eight eyes , and can see forwards and backwards at the same time . however , the redknee\u2019s eyesight is poor , and it relies more on its excellent sense of touch when hunting .\nthe mexican redknee tarantula has a hairy , black body . the orange - red patches on the joints of its legs give the species its name .\nalthough thought of as a powerful predator , the mexican redknee tarantula is just as likely to be preyed on by animals such as birds and lizards .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - mexican redknee tarantula ( brachypelma smithi )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - mexican redknee tarantula ( brachypelma smithi )\ntitle =\narkive species - mexican redknee tarantula ( brachypelma smithi )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe mexican redknee tarantula is found on the pacific coast of mexico . it mainly lives in dry areas such as deserts and mountainsides , and is also found in forests . it digs deep burrows in soil banks , which provide protection from predators . the mexican redknee tarantula is a solitary animal and lives alone .\nbrachypelma smithi , the mexican redknee tarantula in premolt . the bald patch has darkened to nearly black because of the developing pigmentation in the underlying , new bristles .\nyoung mexican redknee tarantulas eat crickets and small insects . adults eat crickets , insects , small frogs , small lizards and mice .\nbrachypelma smithi , the mexican redknee tarantula displaying the bald patch during intermolt . the tip of the arrow points to the very faint , rear end of the heart .\n, mexican redleg tarantula .\nthe duchess .\nthe date on the photo was 1975 .\nthe mexican redknee tarantula is classified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , and is listed on appendix ii of cites ( 2 ) .\nthis particular species is the most popular captive tarantula species in the world , and prior to 1985 it was collected in thousands ( 6 ) . habitat loss is now the major threat to the mexican redknee tarantula .\nthis particular species is the most popular captive tarantula species in the world , and prior to 1985 it was collected in thousands ( 6 ) . habitat loss is now the major threat to the mexican redknee tarantula .\nmexican redknee tarantulas are classified as \u201c near threatened \u201d by the iucn , and measures are now in place to protect them in the wild .\nthe spider\u2019s natural habitat is being destroyed by local farming and climate change . mexican redknee tarantulas are also illegally captured and sold to the pet trade .\nterrifying new footage has emerged online , which shows the moment a mexican red knee tarantula sheds its entire skin .\nthe mexican redknee tarantula lives in ground burrows ( 6 ) , in rocky areas under thorny vegetation , usually in scrubland or desert , dry thorn forest or tropical deciduous forest ( 4 ) ( 5 ) .\nthe mexican redknee tarantula is generally docile , easy to handle and harmless to humans . it will only bite if threatened , but its venom is not fatal . the bite is equivalent to a bee sting .\nlike all arachnids , the mexican redknee has eight legs . the male and female are similar in appearance , but the male usually has a smaller body and longer legs .\nsensitive hairs on the mexican redknee\u2019s legs can pick up the tiniest vibrations . a small area at the end of each leg is sensitive to smell , taste and touch .\nthe mexican redknee tarantula is an ambush predator . it lies in wait in its burrow for prey to pass , before leaping out to subdue its victim with a venomous bite . the prey is then dragged back into the burrow .\nmexican redknee tarantulas are found along the central pacific coast of mexico , from southern coastal jalisco to north - western oaxaca state and inland to the states of mexico and morelos ( 5 ) .\nmexican redknee tarantulas shed their external skeleton ( hard outer skin ) in a process called molting . all tarantulas must go through the molting process a few times a year in order to grow .\nmy mex . redknee , frida has an annoying habit . please tell me if this is indicative of a problem .\nmexican red knee for sale believed to be a female . contact for pictures . locally only\ntwo days ago one of the juvenile mexican red knee tarantulas ( brachypelma smithi ) molted .\n[ \u2026 ] sunday , june 10 the smaller of the redknee tarantula juvenile siblings ( brachpelma smithi ) molted . on thursday , june 13 the larger juvenile [ \u2026 ]\n[ \u2026 ] one of several unexpected darkling beetle larvae feeding on the exuvial fluids of a molting mexican red knee tarantula ( brachypelma smithi ) . this really brought home the vulnerability of arthropods during and shortly after molting . original link \u2013 \u201credknee tarantula ( brachypelma smithi ) molt & an arthropod husbandry lesson\u201c [ \u2026 ]\nmexican red knee for sale believed to be a female . contact for pictures . locally only tranksbear\nthe tarantula , by william j baerg tarantula spiders ; tarantulas of usa and mexico , by andrew m . smith\nthe vibrations , so can your tarantula . turn your stereo down , or move the tarantula to another room .\ncan any one tell me what is the exact life span of a male mexican red leg tarantula ? ? i had heard they live longer than other male species .\nbrachypelma emilia , the mexican redleg tarantula displaying the bald patch during intermolt . the tip of the arrow points to the very faint , rear end of the heart .\nlisted on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) in 1985 , the mexican redknee tarantula can now only be traded internationally according to quotas and with trade permits ( 6 ) , and in mexico permits are required to collect or remove any spider from the theraphosid family ( 5 ) .\nmexican redknee tarantulas mate between july and october . the female makes a silk pad , onto which she lays between 200 and 400 eggs . she then covers this with a sticky substance , and wraps the whole bundle with silk , making an egg sack .\nthis is my basic care video for the brachypelma smithi - mexican red knee tarantula . if you have any special requests or feedback them drop me a message over at : urltoken\nfemale mexican red - knee tarantulas typically live 25 to 30 years while males rarely live more than 10 years .\nit ' s of a wild tarantula ( putatively grammostola rosea , the chilean rose tarantula ) taken near algarroba , chile in september 2008 .\nthe adult mexican red knee tarantulas reach a leg span of about 5 inches . the males typically live for around 10 years while females live for much longer and can live upwards of 25 to 30 years . if you are planning on having a pet mexican red knee tarantula as a pet , be aware of these lifespans , as a female pet tarantula is a serious time commitment .\nmexican redknee tarantulas don\u2019t weave webs to catch insects , but wait in their burrows for the opportunity to ambush their prey , using their powerful legs to hold down their meal while they bite them with their large venomous fangs . they eat insects , small frogs , small lizards and mice .\nthe mexican red - kneed tarantula can be bred in captivity if certain pre - mating conditions are maintained . the females seem to benefit from a cooling period of a couple of months prior to mating .\nafter a large meal , the tarantula might not eat again for a month .\nthe tarantula stops eating entirely and lays still for two weeks before it molts .\nthe tarantula stops eating entirely and lays still for two weeks before it moulted .\ntime lapse tarantula molting ! b . smithi . ( watch in hd ! )\nthe tarantula hawk , a large wasp , is one of the tarantula\u2019s deadliest enemies . some are metallic blue to green with reddish orange wings . the tarantula hawk uses its venom to paralyze the tarantula . the wasp then drags the prey back to its lair , where its immobilized body is used as an incubation site for their eggs . when the eggs hatch , they consume the tarantula\u2019s still living body .\nthe mexican red knee tarantula originates from the semi - desert scrubland of mexico and panama . its abdomen is black with a few red hairs . its legs are black striped with bands of orange , tan and red colorations .\none of the most well - known tarantulas is the brachypelma smithi , otherwise known as the mexican red knee tarantula . these tarantulas have very vibrant\nred knees\nthat contrast with their very dark body color , making them easy to distinguish from other types of tarantulas . the mexican red knee tarantula originates from the pacific coast of mexico , where its natural habitat is very dry with little to no vegetation . this the\nclassic\npet tarantula and has enjoyed tremendous popularity due to its beauty , temperament , and long lifespan .\nthe tarantula has two hollow fangs , through which it injects its prey with venom .\ntoo much of it . our tarantula is rapidly losing its slim , girlish figure .\ndistribution and natural history of mexican species of brachypelma and brachypelmides a . locht , m . yanez and i . vazquez \u2013 journal of arachnology , 1999\nmexican red - knee spiders are considered\nnear threatened\nby the iucn and are on apendex ii of cites , which limits trade of individuals between countries . it is illegal to catch and sell wild individuals . mexican red - knee spiders are at risk because of the pet trade and habitat destruction .\ntnx all for your guides . yes dear xhexdx i mean the total life span . i have a 6cm mexican red leg so i wanted to know .\nwas described by cambridge in 1897 . they originate from mexico and are found on western faces of the sierra madre occidental and sierra madre del sur mountain ranges . they are a burrowing species living in deciduous tropical forests in the hilly terrain . other common names it is known by are red - kneed tarantula and mexican red knee tarantula .\nmaintaining a consistent temperature and humidity is an important element of mexican red knee tarantula care . the recommended temperature for the terrarium is around 75 - 80 f and the humidity levels should be kept around 50 to 60 % . if you notice your tarantula constantly hiding out in a corner of the terrarium , it is probably too humid .\nthe tarantula ' s eating habits also change in the lead - up to the molting .\nthe tarantula ' s eating habits also change in the lead - up to the moulting .\nmexican red - kneed tarantulas are successfully bred in captivity . captive bred specimens are found in the united states and are imported from successful breeders in europe . the\nhunting at night by lying in ambush , the mexican redknee tarantula attacks insects , small frogs , small lizards , and mice . an area on the end of each leg is sensitive to smells , tastes and vibrations , and this is used to detect prey . the tarantula holds its prey with its pedipalps ( front limbs ) and injects it with venom delivered via two hollow fangs . this venom has a double purpose , paralysing the prey as well as beginning digestion . once the venom has acted , the tarantula is able to suck up the proteins and fats of its prey , leaving just a small ball of undigested body parts ( 4 ) .\nadult mexican red knee tarantulas will eat crickets and other large insects ( these absolutely must be pesticide free ) , the occasional pinky mouse , lizards , or even a fuzzy mouse . do not be surprised when your tarantula eats something as large as themselves .\nto do this , the tarantula must contract its abdomen , pushing fluid into the upper body .\nforce your tarantula to endure 24 / 7 / 365 darkness for the same reasons given above .\nto shed the skin , the tarantula must contract its abdomen , pushing fluid into the upper body . the fluid increases the pressure on the exoskeleton , allowing the tarantula to break through its weak spots\na . m . smith tarantula spiders \u2014 tarantulas of the u . s . a . and mexico\ntarantulas have very few natural enemies , other than humans . its only real natural enemy is an insect known as the tarantula hawk or tarantula killers ( pepsis wasps ) , it is a giant wasp .\nthe fluid increases the pressure on the exoskeleton , allowing the tarantula to break through its weak spots .\nin this episode of exotic pet facts i present you the mexican red kneed tarantula in all its pre - molting glory . if you have any questions please leave them in the comment section below . as all my exotic pet facts videos , this was shot at petcircus in ottawa .\nwhen a tarantula moults it lies on its back with its legs in the air , at this time the tarantula is very vulnerable and can be attacked and killed by the insects that it usually feeds on .\ndeep , between the spread chelicerae can be seen a small , light colored structure . this is the tarantula ' s mouth ! the actual position and structure of a tarantula ' s mouth is very rarely seen , much\nthis applies to most tarantula species with few exceptions ( the megaphobema genus is one example of an exception ) .\nif a tarantula loses a leg or other appendage before a moult , after the tarantula has moulted it may have partially or fully re - grown the missing limb , this is called regeneration . many reptiles can also do this .\ncare sheet the mexican red knee tarantula will need a five to ten gallon aquarium or terrarium tank with a locking screen top . you should line the bottom of the tank with about two inches of bed - a - beast or eco earth . the tank will also require a shallow water dish and hide area .\nim thinking of getting a mexican red knee and i was wondering what website to get it on i want a female for a not to big price . if you know any good sites please tell me\nthe real tarantula of course is , like the other spiders wrongly named after it , are not really dangerous to most humans . you may feel a little sick if you have been bitten by a tarantula , but normally that is all .\nmexican red - kneed tarantula is a stocky species . it has a striking tan and black carapace , dark abdomen and legs and red - orange patches on the joints of its legs . adult females can have a leg span reaching up to 6 inches ( 15 cm ) , with males being smaller bodied but with longer legs .\nthe wasp stings the tarantula , which paralyses it , the wasp then lays an egg on its abdomen and then buries it in the tarantulas burrow . when the egg hatches the tarantula is used as a living food source by the wasp grub .\ni had no idea that these larvae were in the inch - deep layer of substrate on the bottom of the tarantula container .\nwarm them up to the appropriate temperature and watch them . if they show signs of weakness or disorientation , placing the tarantula in an\nbrachypelma vagans \u2013 although tarantulas are not native to florida , several species have been introduced due to pet trade and importation . the most recognized species in florida is the brachypelma vagans . originally of mexican origin , these spiders are believed to have entered florida in the 1980s , although official identification did not occur until 1998 . also commonly known as mexican red rumps , these arachnids are black with red abdomens . while painful , their bites are not fatal to humans .\n) called urticating bristles . ( no old world tarantula possesses urticating bristles or displays a bald spot . ) these urticating bristles are only very loosely attached and are lost quite easily . this loss produces a bald area through which the tarantula ' s fatty tissue and even the\npredators : tarantulas have few enemies except the tarantula hawk wasps . members of this wasp family use their sting to paralyze species specific tarantulas .\nas always , if you have any questions about your pet tarantula , be sure to speak with a veterinarian that specializes in exotic pets .\nmortality / longevity : tarantulas have few enemies except tarantula hawk wasps . members of this wasp family use their sting to paralyze species specific tarantulas . the wasp lays an egg on the tarantula\u2019s abdomen and then seals the spider in its burrow . the wasp larva hatches and feeds on the immobile and doomed tarantula . males usually die shortly after maturity and mating . females can live over 20 years in the wild , perhaps significantly longer .\nabout twice a year we hear from someone who wants to know if the sound from their stereo will have an adverse effect on their tarantula .\na parallel situation exists with a tarantula kept in a busy passageway , kitchen , den , or recreation room , especially if there are a number of people living in the same home . if the tarantula hides in its burrow or cave all the time , this may be a contributing cause .\nthe real tarantula is a small slightly hairy spider ( about 2 inches ( 5cm ' s ) across ) . it is not dangerous to humans !\nthe asian ( old world ) species does not use urticating hairs , this type of tarantula tends to run away and only bite only if provoked .\na small ( 5 to 10 gallon ) tank is suitable for mexican red knee tarantulas . the width of the tank should be two to three times wider than the leg span of the spider wide and only as tall as the spider & apos ; s leg span . the substrate ( or bottom of the habitat ) should be a mix of peat moss , soil , or vermiculite . the substrate needs to be about half the height of the terrarium . this gives the tarantula plenty of space to burrow and will also make sure that any falls do not injure the tarantula . wood , cork bark , or half of a small clay flower pot can be used for a shelter / retreat for the tarantula .\nthere have been no substantiated deaths attributed to tarantula bites . indeed more people have died from bee stings and snake bites than by any type of spider .\nthe warmer the enclosure and the more often you feed , the faster the tarantula will molt and the faster it will grow , mature , and die .\nthe red - kneed tarantula will feed aggressively on large insects and large specimens can be fed an occasional pink mouse ( once every couple of months ) .\nmoments later the darkened area below the tarantula began to vibrate . a wormlike larval beetle head emerged from the substrate and the larva began to feed on the exuding liquids . it rapidly transferred its feeding activity from the substrate to the old exoskeleton of the emerging tarantula . this was clearly a dune sandworm moment .\none of the more remarkable cases of fasting concerns grammostola rosea , the chilean rose tarantula . the interested reader is referred to our webpage on that topic .\nthe first pair of legs are spread wide in a classic threat pose . the tibial hooks appear prominently , especially on the tarantula ' s left leg .\nthe name ' tarantula ' nowadays refers to the media image of large hairy spiders , most of these are only distantly related to the real tarantula , they belong to a different family of spiders , this family is know as theraphosids or mygalomorphs . spiders are members of the arachnid family , they are not insects !\ncomes from a real spider that is found in southern italy , it lives mainly in an area around the town of taranto . in fact the real tarantula (\nwest , r . c . ( 2005 ) the brachypelma of mexico . journal of the british tarantula society , 20 ( 4 ) : 108 - 119 .\nwest , r . c . ( 2005 ) the brachypelma of mexico . journal of the british tarantula society , 20 ( 4 ) : 108 - 119 .\nthe excessive heat of sunlight is a serious threat . and , the exposure often incites the tarantula to hypersensitivity and hyperactivity . yes , we are well aware of people who do this from time to time for various reasons , but the practice isn ' t needed by the tarantula , and exposes the spider to much risk .\nnowadays , all large hairy spiders have been given the name tarantula , even though many are only very distantly related to the real tarantula . tarantulas are often called bird eating spiders , very few actually eat birds , those that do usually raid nests and take the young chicks , most however , like our native spiders only eat insects .\nlocht , a . , y\u00e1\u00f1ez , m . and v\u00e1zquez , i . ( 1999 ) distribution and natural history of mexican species of brachypelma and brachypelmides ( theraphosidae , theraphosinae ) with morphological evidence to support their synonymy . the journal of arachnology , 27 ( 1 ) : 196 - 200 .\nas you can see from those figures there is no way a tarantula could survive if it escaped into our countryside ( uk ) , one sharp frost would kill it .\neurypelma californicum \u2013 this species is the most common tarantula in the u . s . and can be found in the desert areas of california , texas , and arizona .\nthese bristles are so loosely attached that almost any disturbance or physical contact will loosen them and they will waft away in local air currents . and , because the tarantula flicks these bristles into the air around it when startled , if it feels threatened , or even if it simply feels a little nervous or overwrought , many if not most such tarantulas sport such bare spots . thus , while disturbance may prompt a tarantula to flick or kick the urticating bristles into a little cloud around them , this is definitely not the only reason or way that a tarantula may lose those bristles . and most certainly their loss does not necessarily indicate that a tarantula is experiencing great or undue stress .\nlives in deep burrows along the pacific coast of mexico . a captive enclosure for the mexican red - kneed tarantula should try to mimic these conditions . in a ten - gallon enclosure , use a deep ( 6 to 8\n) substrate composed of a mixture of slightly damp sand and peat moss ( 50 / 50 ratio ) . add a cave - like shelter at one end and begin a burrow under this shelter . the spider will typically continue the excavation .\ntarantulas do not eat food like we do , when a tarantula catches an insect , it injects venom in to it . this does two things , it first paralyses the prey and then the venom breaks down the insects body tissue , so that the tarantula can suck the liquid up . this usually leaves a hollow shell that was an insect .\nthe tarantula takes between two and twelve hours on average to complete the sheding of its old exoskeleton ( its skin ) . once this has been accomplished , the tarantula will not eat for two or more days , as its fangs are still soft : the fangs are also part of the exoskeleton and are shed with the rest of the skin .\ndespite looking very scary , they are actually easy to handle which , when combined with their unique markings , makes them the most popular tarantula species to be used in movies .\na tarantula on its back is probably not sick . most tarantula species flip onto their backs during molting . though this is a very stressful and delicate time for tarantulas , if the humidity and warmth levels are correct , they will molt their exoskeleton , roll over , harden up , and within a week or two be ready for their next meals .\napart from its powerful bite , the tarantula can also brush hairs from its abdomen at its attacker . these hairs are barbed , and can cause severe irritation and even blindness .\nplace a bright light over or on your tarantula ' s cage . tarantulas neither need or enjoy the bright light nor the heat . normal room lighting is adequate , however .\nhair : they are distinguishable from other spiders by the dense body hair . this hair , which covers the entire body of the tarantula , serves as a defense mechanism against predators .\nthere is a review that the paint job on this is awful , i found no such thing , and this is a very accurate tarantula . lovely , and a reasonable price !\nthe huge spider , which is around 10cm long , with a leg span of 15cm , is shedding its skin as part of a moulting process which helps the tarantula to grow .\nthis tarantula when fully grown is known to reach a leg span of 12 inches across ! if you put it on a large dinner plate its legs would probably not touch the sides .\nthe very first thing one sees are the anterior medial eyes glowing menacingly in the late afternoon sunlight . truly , this tarantula is in its prime and more than ready for a fight !\nas one of the most popular species in captivity , the mexican red - kneed tarantulas are often available from dealers and breeders who have produced an egg sac , or purchased specimens from successful breeders in europe . this species , protected by cites , must be accompanied by paperwork and importation documentation when they are imported from outside the united states .\nthe people of the southern italian town of taranto , believed that if they were bitten by they spider that they called tarantula , if the bite was not treated quickly , that they would die .\nscary because the fool thing doesn ' t know how to do it safely ! now , the alien is learning a better way to do it , and the tarantula is getting used to it .\ntarantulas are shy creatures , if they are disturbed they will usually run away , either to their burrow or to the nearest cover . if an animal tries to attack a tarantula , it will defend itself in one of two ways : all american ( new world ) species will first kick urticating ( irritating ) hairs out of its abdomen at its attacker , this will usually drive the attacker off , the tarantula will only bite its attacker if the first step fails . the asian ( old world ) species does not use urticating hairs , this type of tarantula tends to run away and only bite if provoked .\nthis is my first lego ideas project . it is also my first major project . as the title says this here is a mexican red - knee tarantula ; i tried my best to make look good and also posable in any way you want . i built it on ldd and honestly i don\u2019t know if its legs can hold its weight . i don\u2019t have the pieces to build a real life replica but the legs should be able to hold . if anyone can in any way test it to see if the legs would hold i would greatly appreciate it .\nit is often said , mistakenly so , that a female tarantula kills and eats her mate , in fact about 60 percent of males manage a getaway without being killed , many though , do sustain wounds .\nnative to , er , mexico , this specific type of tarantula species can live for up to 30 years and is relatively docile , making it a popular pet among spider enthusiasts . also , cool colours !\nno sooner than seven days ( ten days would be better ) after receiving the tarantula , but only if it appears to be in good health , offer it one ( 1 ) cricket in the evening .\nthere have been no substantiated deaths attributed to tarantula bites . tarantulas are in fact very clean creatures , they are not known to carry any communicable diseases that can be picked up by humans or indeed any animal .\ncrickets and locusts are usually available from pet shops that sell tarantulas and reptiles and you can try other livestock which you catch yourself , such as moths and caterpillars . some will even eat earthworms . a tarantula of about 3 - 4 cm in body length will eat 8 - 10 crickets each week although it will survive on less . you can in an emergency also feed your tarantula on cubes of beef heart though this mill be lacking nutrients if it is the sole diet . like most arachnids tarantulas seem happier with a bit of variety in their diet . the prey items you feed your tarantula should be quite a bit smaller than the tarantula . small spiderlings can be fed on large aphids , flightless fruitflies and newly hatched crickets ( called pinheads in pet shops ) . as you spider moults and grows so the size of the prey it can eat will increase .\nthe arboreal tarantula rarely set foot upon the ground , eating and drinking high in the tree where it has made its home . they drink water droplets from early morning dew or rain that form on their silken homes .\nthis usually docile tarantula will kick hairs off the abdomen with its hind legs when threatened , which cause blindness if they hit the eyes of a predator and can also cause a rash on the skin ( 4 ) .\nremarks : this usually docile tarantula will kick hairs off the abdomen with its hind legs when threatened , which cause blindness if they hit the eyes of a predator and can also cause a rash on the skin . references\ni don ' t know what to do . there ' s a dead cricket in my tarantula ' s cage that i need to get out . how do i remove the cricket without stressing mephistopheles out ?\nmexican red - knee tarantulas have eight eyes located around their head so they can see both forward and backward . however , their vision is relatively poor . hairs on their legs are used to sense vibrations , and the palps on the end of their legs allow them to smell , taste , and feel . each foot has two claws , enabling the spider to climb slippery surfaces .\nexoskeleton : they have strong exteriors known as exoskeletons . the tarantula\u2019s body is comprised of two major parts : the prosoma , also known as the cephalothorax , and the abdomen , or opisthosoma . these two parts are joined by a pedicle , or pregenital somite , which is perceived to be the waist of the tarantula\u2019s body . this pedicle is crucial to the mobility and agility of these spiders , as it allows the opisthosoma a larger range of movement .\nlights are not necessary . an under tank heat pad should be supplied . the main diet for the tarantula will be gut - loaded crickets fed a couple times a week . mealworms or waxworms may also used in the diet .\ntarantulas are shy creatures , if they are disturbed they will usually run away , either to their burrow or to the nearest cover . if an animal tries to attack a tarantula , it will defend itself in one of two ways : all american ( new world ) species will first kick urticating ( irritating ) hairs out of its abdomen at its attacker , this will usually drive the attacker off . the tarantula may possibly bite its attacker if the first step fails .\nhowever , if a tarantula bites a person who is highly allergic to the venom , typical reactions to the bite may include pain , breathing difficulty , itchiness , rapid heart rate , and swelling at the site where the bite occurred .\nkeep your tarantula ' s cage on top of the stereo ' s speakers ! tarantulas possess a very keen sense of vibration . a constant barrage of vibrations from the speakers is very much the same as you living on top of a\nthe mexican red knee is a dark spider overall with a black abdomen covered with brown hairs . its characteristic legs have orange to dark red - orange\nknees\nand it commonly has some smaller patches of orange on the legs . they have a long lifespan , and slow growth is a characteristic of most long - lived species . female specimens which have been in captivity for over 25 years are common .\nmexican red knee tarantulas are generally docile and calm . however , like most tarantulas , if they are disturbed , they will likely kick urticating hairs from their abdomens and their back legs . these hairs are a natural defense mechanism and can embed in an animal & apos ; s skin or eyes , usually causing great discomfort and physical irritation . in humans , the urticating hairs may cause an allergic skin reaction which can result in inflammation , rash , and itching . the allergic reaction can last for several hours or days . once the tarantula releases the urticating hairs , there will be a noticeable bald spot on the abdomen where the hair originated from .\naphonopelma chalcodes \u2013 also known as the desert tarantula , this species is primarily found in arizona and other arid locations . desert blond tarantulas can grow up to 7 . 5 cm in length and range in color from gray to dark brown .\nthe mexican red knee is a striking spider , and its common name says it all . they have a strong contrasting coloration , a dark tan and black body with bright orange patches on the joints of the legs . they are a medium - sized terrestrial species with adult females reaching a leg span of up to 6 inches ( 15 cm ) . males are comparable , because they are smaller bodied but with longer legs .\nthe humidity in the tank should not be less than 50 - 60 % and you should buy a little humidity gauge to stick on the inside of your tank . if the humidity drops below 50 % your tarantula may die during its next moult .\nsize : they are the largest known arachnids . on average , they measure 7 to 10 cm in length . however , they are capable of exceeding 30 cm . the perceived size of specimens is oftentimes exaggerated , due to the tarantula\u2019s abundant hair .\nvery realistic , scared the bejeezus out of my son . we have an orange baboon tarantula , which is one of the not - friendly ones with an exceedingly painful bite , so when he saw this & thought it was our obt , he jumped !\nexpose your tarantula to ultraviolet ( uv ) light . while this rule may be violated for extremely brief episodes ( a matter of a few seconds ) , there is really very little reason to even do that . tarantulas do not fluoresce as scorpions and a few other arachnids do . and , since their visual , light sensitivity is most acute in the ultraviolet ( and green ) portions of the spectrum , doing so is equivalent to forcing you to live under a glaring searchlight . be kind to your tarantula .\nmale tarantulas , during the breeding season may roam many tens of miles searching for a suitable ( approachable ) mate . the male tarantula ( of most species ) can easily be sexed , because of a set of mating hooks on the first pair of legs .\nduring extended transport , the unrelenting vibrations , rolling and turning , and bouncing cause the tarantula to constantly try to maintain its equilibrium and relatively constant position . not only is this very tiring , but the frequent impacts with the walls of the container almost literally beat the tarantula up . the result is an often bruised and exhausted spider that ' s half dead before it ever gets near it ' s future home cage . we call this\nshipping shock\nand the treatment is an extended period of peace and quiet .\nw . j . baerg , ( 1977 ) the tarantula . fitzgerald publishing , london k . hancock and j . hancock , ( 1993 ) sex determination of immature theraphosid spiders from their cast skins k . hancock and j . hancock , ( 1993 ) . simply tarantulas : a guide for the beginner k . hancock and j . hancock , ( 1993 ) . tarantulas : keeping and breeding arachnids in captivity a . m . smith , ( 1995 ? ) tarantula spiders tarantulas of usa and mexico . fitzgerald publishing , london\nwater is vital to your tarantula . it can survive for weeks without food but quickly die without water . a small container such as a coffee jar lid half - filled with water and with oasis will provide drinking water for larger specimens and help keep the humidity up .\ndue to this spider\u2019s docile nature , colorful appearance , large size and long life they have become a popular type of tarantula to keep as pets . the spider requires little care and little space . it is an excellent choice of pet for with all levels of experience .\nwhen they begin to molt , they lay on their backs with their legs up in the air looking as if they are dead . be sure not to disturb your tarantula when you see this . the shedding process goes quickly and smoothly as long the environment has adequate humidity .\ndo they bite ? tarantulas have long , needle - like fangs . they rarely bite humans , but can if they are provoked or unable to defend themselves by escaping . u . s . tarantula bites are not normally serious , and the bite produces pain comparable to a honey bee sting .\nthe red - kneed tarantula is one of the most docile species available in captive collections . they may rear up when agitated and will even occasionally flick urticating hairs . after a short display , they will beat a hasty retreat or more commonly will simply walk away . these tarantulas make wonderful pets .\ngeneral characteristics : the body and legs are dark brown with orange - red leg joints . the ends of the legs can detect vibrations , smells and tastes , to help the tarantula locate prey and the opposite sex , although it also has a group of eight eyes on the top of the carapace .\nit should go without mentioning that tarantulas will suffer great physiological stress during times of extreme starvation . but , few enthusiasts appreciate the levels of starvation that these spiders can achieve and survive . for instance , the longest that any tarantula has been reported to fast and still survive seems to be slightly more than\nthe tarantula is usually very weak and dehydrated after moulting . most tarantulas , once they reach maturity only moult once a year or once every two years , depending on species . spiderlings ( baby tarantulas ) , moult up to eight times in their first year of life , each moult becoming progressively further apart .\nis a burrowning species originating in mexico . this spider has been , and is still , the most popular pet spider in the hobby . they make an excellent tarantula pet for novice keepers . they have a good temperament , are hardy and long lived , and the lifespan for females is over 25 years in captivity .\nthe red - kneed tarantula is one of the most docile species available . they may rear up when agitated and will even occasionally flick urticating hairs from their abdomen and back legs . but after a short display they will beat a hasty retreat , or more commonly will simply walk away . these tarantulas make wonderful pets .\nthe process starts well before the actual molt . for several weeks prior to shedding they will be growing a new skin under their old one . during this time it is not unusual for a tarantula to get quite lethargic and even stop eating . there may also be lots of web spinning activity as they prepare to molt .\nand , they ' re forced to live in a bland ,\napartment beige\nplace with nothing to do but sit and stare at those gross , alien things as they stare back in return . once in a while the tarantula is touched by one of those aliens , even picked up ! at first it ' s\nunder 1970 - 80 this was the most common tarantula in captivity . it was imported in thousands to the pet trade . today the entire genus brachypelma are protected by a cites ii listing and wildcaught smithi are not so common anymore in the pet trade . its bred successfully in europe and north america so spiderlings are often available .\na good habit to get into is cleaning up any uneaten prey items the day after feeding your tarantula as decaying organic matter commonly attracts mites , fungus , mold and other potentially harmful organisms into the enclosure . if your pet has recently molted , remove uneaten prey items immediately . newly molted tarantulas are vulnerable until their exoskeletons hardens .\nin retrospect , i introduced several mealworms ( tenebrio molitor ) into the tarantula\u2019s cage in december . i assumed the mealworms had been eaten , but the occurrence of two beetles in march made clear that i was wrong . i removed the beetles from the enclosure , but obviously not before adults had opportunity to mate and lay eggs .\nthere are quite a few species of tarantulas available commercially these days , between them they offer a range of difficulty in rearing and breeding . for your first tarantula you don ' t want an aggressive , difficult to keep or very expensive species . the following are all easy to keep and are therefore recommended . however , if you go to a pet shop , before you buy have a good look at the tarantula . if it has no water , then it is not well cared for , if it seems lethargic it is also quite possible maltreated and dying . in either case i would leave the shop and look elsewhere . as a general piece of advice breeders are better to buy from than mere sellers .\nappearance : said to be the third largest spider in the world , this is a large - bodied tarantula with abdomen and legs covered with sensitive , long , and partially pink or salmon - colored hairs . maximum size : body , 9 - 10 cm ( 3 . 5\u20134 in ) ; leg span , 20 - 25 cm ( 8\u201310 in ) .\nother problems are usually the result of some type of environmental stress . there may be a drop in the temperature of the enclosure , there may be parasites , or the tarantula may just not be comfortable with the depth of its hiding place . these things can be easily adjusted or changed , or you can try moving your pet to a new enclosure .\ngeneral characteristics : said to be the third largest spider in the world , this is a large - bodied tarantula with abdomen and legs covered with sensitive , long , and partially pink or salmon - colored hairs . maximum size : body , 9 - 10 cm ( 3 . 5\u20134 in ) ; leg span , 20 - 25 cm ( 8\u201310 in ) .\ndo tarantulas spin webs ? tarantulas are capable of producing silk and can use it for similar purposes , depending on species . even the burrowing terrestrial species use silk to line their burrows , and some use silk to create door - like entrances to their burrows . the tarantula\u2019s silk acts as an alarm system , alerting the arachnid to potential threats or prey outside its home .\nhowever , because these reports are unverified , anecdotal comments made on the internet , we must still retain some level of skepticism . precise dates for the last time food was accepted and the precise date on which the tarantula resumed eating would be a big boon to the argument . any who read this essay and who may be able to volunteer such data are encouraged to contact the\nhome | spiders | scorpions | snakes | snails | search | feedback | news | faq ' s | blog forums | caresheets | intro to arachnids | tarantula gallery | other spiders gallery | scorpion gallery | taxonomic gallery | snail gallery | snake gallery | cartoon gallery downloads | games , etc . | bookstore | links | message boards , etc view guest book | sign guest book\nlegs & fangs : the eight legs , pedipalps and fangs of the tarantula are also connected to the body at the prosoma . the chelicerae , or fangs , which release venom , are located below the eyes . the legs are seven - segmented and feature retractable claws , which are used for climbing . hairs present on the legs are also useful in climbing upright or slippery surfaces .\nhome | spiders | scorpions | snakes | snails | search | feedback | news | faq ' s | caresheets | intro to arachnids | blog | forums tarantula gallery | other spiders gallery | scorpion gallery | taxonomic gallery | snail gallery | snake gallery | cartoon gallery downloads | games , etc . | bookstore | links | message boards , etc | view guest book | sign guest book\nif you decide to keep more than one tarantula you may in time want to try breeding them . you really should not try this until you are quite familiar with your spider . spiders , with few exceptions are raised individually , which is how they live in the wild . so if you wish to breed you will need to introduce the adult male into the females cage and not the other way around . before hand make sure both are well fed , you can over feed a tarantula it will not eat what it doesn ' t want , then remove any live food . once you have introduced the male there is little you can do except watch in fascination . after the mating you should remove the male if he is still alive , which he may well be , especially with species like the chilean rose ."]}
{"id": 1177, "summary": [{"text": "the dusky eagle-owl ( bubo coromandus ) is a species of owl in the family strigidae that is widespread in bangladesh , china , india , malaysia , myanmar , nepal , pakistan , and thailand and listed as being of least concern by iucn .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "affects watered and well wooded tracts .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "mango tree groves , and old tamarind and other densely foliaged trees are preferred .", "topic": 28}, {"text": "parochial and a pair often inhabits the same grove year after year .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "the nesting season is from november to april .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "the nest is made of sticks in the fork of the trunk of a large tree preferably near water and often in the vicinity of human habitation . ", "topic": 28}], "title": "dusky eagle - owl", "paragraphs": ["select an image : 1 . dusky eagle owl > > chicks in nest 2 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 3 . dusky eagle owl > > immature 4 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 5 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 6 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 7 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 8 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 9 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 10 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 11 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 12 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 13 . dusky eagle owl 14 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 15 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 16 . dusky eagle owl > > immature 17 . dusky eagle owl > > immature 18 . dusky eagle owl > > subadult 19 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 20 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 21 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 22 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 23 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 24 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 25 . dusky eagle owl > > immature 26 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 27 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 28 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 29 . dusky eagle owl > > nesting 30 . dusky eagle owl 31 . dusky eagle owl 32 . dusky eagle owl 33 . dusky eagle owl 34 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 35 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 36 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 37 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 38 . dusky eagle owl > > on nest 39 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 40 . dusky eagle owl 41 . dusky eagle owl 42 . dusky eagle owl > > pair 43 . dusky eagle owl > > in flight 44 . dusky eagle owl > > adult at nest 45 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 46 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 47 . dusky eagle owl > > adult 48 . dusky eagle owl > > chick 49 . dusky eagle owl > > adult and juvenile on nest 50 . dusky eagle owl 51 . dusky eagle owl 52 . dusky eagle owl > > male\nthe dusky eagle owl is a fairly large owl with prominent ear - tufts .\nthe dusky eagle - owl species are distributed in india , pakistan , nepal , bangladesh , china , myanmar , thailand and malaysia .\nthese owl species are distributed in india , pakistan , nepal , bangladesh , china , myanmar , thailand and malaysia . these eagle - owl species are large birds with grayish - dusky plumage . there are two recognized subspecies of these owl species .\nhunting & food : dusky eagle owls feed on small mammals , birds , reptiles , frogs , fish , and large insects .\nthe important bird and biodiversity areas ( iba ) of the dusky eagle - owl in nepal are , bardia national park , chitwan national park , sukla phanta wildlife reserve and koshi tappu wildlife reserve and koshi barrage .\nthe iucn ( international union for conservation of nature ) has categorized and evaluated the owl species and has listed it as of\nleast concern\n. cites ( the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora ) status is \u2018evaluated\u2019 for the dusky eagle - owl (\nthe breeding season of the dusky eagle - owl is from november to april in india , with a peak in december and january . these species usually lay eggs in the abandoned stick nests of kites , raptors and other birds of prey .\nthe overall plumage of dusky eagle - owl is grayish . the ear - tufts are prominent and have rounded tips . the facial disc is pale and demarked by narrow black stripe . the upperparts are brownish gray . the underparts are paler and are streaked .\ndusky eagle owl ( bubo coromandus ) . size 53 cm ( 21 in ) . large size with erect ear tufts when alert . greyish brown upperparts marked with narrow dark streaks together with pale greyish buff underparts with fine blackish streaks distinctive . iris orange . feathered tarsi .\nhabitat : well - wooded and well - watered country , never in arid or desert regions . the dusky eagle owl is also found in old mango plantations , and in other densely foliaged trees in proximity of water and habitation , normally on the plains . occurs up to 250m above sea level .\nthese owl species have medium forest dependency . these species occur in altitudes from 0 to 250 meters .\nhabits : although not completely nocturnal , the dusky eagle owl usually spends the daytime in the seclusion of a shady bough or foliage , becoming active about an hour before sunset . they have been observed on the move and hunting in the day , especially cloudy days , but never during the brightest and hottest hours . they are usually found in pairs , and are very faithful to localities . these owls can be heard calling at all hours of the day , and are most vocal during the rainy and cold seasons .\nthe diet of these owl species is mostly birds . crows , bee - eaters , parakeets , rollers , coucals , pigeons and doves are their primary food .\nholt , d . w . , berkley , r . , deppe , c . , enr\u00edquez rocha , p . , petersen , j . l . , rangel salazar , j . l . , segars , k . p . , wood , k . l . & marks , j . s . ( 2018 ) . dusky eagle - owl ( bubo coromandus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\n48\u201353 cm ; no data on body mass . large , greyish owl with prominent ear tufts rounded at tips . pale facial disc framed by narrow black lines ; above , dark brown with . . .\n) does not approach the thresholds for being vulnerable , either under the range size criterion , or under the population trend criterion or under the population size criterion . loss of habitat is the main threat that may endanger the survival of these owl species .\nthe account for this species mentions ' record of ground nesting in bombay ' . i cannot find any other mention of this in the literature and wonder whether ' bombay ' is in error for pakistan ? the bibliography includes : mirza , z . b . ( 1985 ) new record of dusky horned owl nesting on ground . pakistan j . zool . 17 ( 1 ) : 109 - 110 , which seems to be the only appropriate reference . i have not managed to obtain a copy of this reference so if anybody can provide more details from it i would be very grateful .\n) has not been quantified . the overall population trend of these owl species is considered to be under decline . throughout its range it is reported to be widespread , uncommon to fairly common . the generation length is 11 . 6 years . their distribution size is about 9 , 250 , 000 sq . km .\nbreeding : breeding season overall spans from november to april . in northern india , it is principally december to january , and later in the south . this owl uses abandoned stick nests of larger birds in the fork of a large tree , preferably standing in or near water . normally two eggs are laid , sometimes only one . eggs are white and roundish - oval in shape , averaging 59 . 3 x 48 . 2mm . they are laid several days apart , so chicks end up being very different in size . usually , only the larger and stronger one survives . while both the male and female have been observed on the eggs , it is likely that the female does the incubation , and the male will briefly cover the eggs when the female leaves the nest for a short time . incubation and fledging periods are unknown .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . and fishpool , l . d . c . 2014 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 1 : non - passerines . lynx edicions birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be widespread , uncommon to fairly common ( del hoyo et al . 1999 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be in decline owing to ongoing habitat destruction .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing , the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : bubo coromandus . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\n( latham , 1790 ) \u2013 e pakistan , n & c india and s nepal e to assam and bangladesh ; apparently this race also in e china .\nsong a series of deep , accelerating croaking notes , \u201cwo wo wo wo wo - wo - wowowo\u201d , . . .\nopen , level areas with plenty of woodland , generally near water ; riparian forest , old plantations , . . .\nlays late nov\u2013apr , mainly dec\u2013jan , later in s ; fledglings found from early feb . typically lays in old stick nest of raptor , . . .\nresident , aside from\nstraggling\nof non - breeding birds . old records from peninsular . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . cites ii . little information ( global population size and population trends unknown ) . widespread but uncommon in india , more frequent . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\ndescription : the facial disc is whitish with dark shaft - streaks of feathers and a distinct , narrow and darker rim . the irises of the eyes are bright yellow . the cere and bill are bluish - lead in colour with a pale yellowish - horn tip . the prominent ear - tufts are a darker greyish - brown colour . the upperparts are brownish - grey with blackish shaft - streaks and dark brown and whitish vermiculations . the scapulars have whitish outer webs , finely vermiculated brown , forming an indistinct scapular row . the underparts are very pale buffish - grey with prominent , dark shaft - streaks and brown cross - bars . the primary and secondary flight feathers are barred light and darker greyish - brown . the tail is pale brownish - grey with white tips , and has 4 - 5 broad , dark greyish - brown bars . the tarsi are feathered to or beyond the base of the toes . the sparsely bristled tips of the toes are plumbeous - grey in colour with paler soles . claws are blackish - brown .\nsize : length 48 - 53cm . wing length 380 - 435mm . tail length 187 - 224mm . weight ( no current data available ) . females are larger and heavier than males .\nvoice : the song is a phrase of resonant , accelerating , croaking notes : kro kro kro - kro - krokrokoikoikokog , with the ending notes given in a rapid staccato sequence , resembling a tremolo . this phrase lasts about 3 seconds . male and female may be heard duetting during courtship .\ndistribution : indian subcontinent , nepal and bangladesh , burma and malaysia . also disjunctly in southeast china .\nstatus : not uncommon in india and bangladesh in suitable habitats . very rare in easternmost parts of range .\noriginal description : latham , john . 1790 . index orntihologicus , sive systema ornithologiae ; complectens avium divisionem in classes , ordines , genera , species , ipsarumque varietates : adjectis synonymis , locis , descriptionibus , & c . ( index orn . ) 1 : p . 53 .\ndel hoyo , elliott & sargatal . 1999 .\nhandbook of the birds of the world : barn owls to hummingbirds\n. buteo books .\nduncan , james r . . 2003 .\nowls of the world : their lives , behavior and survival\n. firefly books .\nk\u00f6nig , claus & weick , friedhelm . 2008 .\nowls : a guide to the owls of the world ( second edition )\n. yale university press .\nmikkola , heimo . 2013 .\nowls of the world : a photographic guide ( second edition )\n. bloomsbury .\nvoous , karel h . . 1988 .\nowls of the northern hemisphere\n. the mit press .\ntwo adults seen ; third bird is a presumed fledged juvenile . calling from daytime roost ( at dusk ) near edge of tall most evergreen forest at edge of seasonally inundated grassy flat area . ( elevation actually 160 m ) . pair duet given by two adults ; the rasping notes are thought to have been given by the juvenile . this is the first documented recording of this little known subspecies .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 300 , 332 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nrarest bird in the world : the cone - billed tanager , the mystery .\natlapetes blancae , 8 years later , still not found . wish or species ?\nmembers of the genus bubo are the largest of the owls . heavily built with powerful talons they are recognisable by their size , their prominent ear - tufts , and their eyes that vary in colour from yellow to brown but are frequently vivid orange . the genus , including the asian fish owls of the genus ketupa \u2013 now believed to be part of bubo \u2013 comprises of 20 species ranging eurasia , indonesia , africa and the americas . dna evidence suggests that the snowy owls of nyctea and the fish owls of scotopelia are also candidates for inclusion in this genus .\nfound in forest and forest edge , plantation . prefers watered and well wooded areas . mango tree groves , and old tamarind and other densely foliaged trees are preferred .\nthe nest is made of sticks in the fork of the trunk of a large tree preferably near water and often in the vicinity of human habitation . clutch size 1 - 3 eggs which hatch asynchronous . usually the older chicks survive . both parents take care of the young .\nthe legs are covered with whitish feathers . the feet are pale gray . the beak is bluish gray . the irises are pale orange . their call is an accelerating \u201cwo wo wo wo\nsound .\nis distributed in pakistan , north and central india , nepal , bangladesh , northeast india and east china . the subspecies\nthey inhabit artificial ecosystems like plantations , dense rural gardens and groves with densely foliaged trees . the natural ecosystem of these species includes tropical and subtropical moist lowland forests , dense woodlands , rivers , streams and creeks .\npost breeding , the juveniles may disperse and establish in new locations within the range . they may make local movements for feeding and breeding within their range .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is reported to be widespread , uncommon to fairly common ( del hoyo et al . 1999 ) .\naffects watered and well wooded tracts . mango tree groves , and old tamarind and other densely foliaged trees are preferred . parochial and a pair often inhabits the same grove year after year .\nthe nest is made of sticks in the fork of the trunk of a large tree preferably near water and often in the vicinity of human habitation .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !"]}
{"id": 1199, "summary": [{"text": "hyperolius wermuthi is a species of frog in the family hyperoliidae .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is found in ivory coast , southern guinea , and liberia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the correct name for this species is likely hyperolius soror .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "it is so similar to hyperolius fusciventris that it has likely been overlooked elsewhere in west africa .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "common name wermuth 's reed frog has been coined for this species . ", "topic": 25}], "title": "hyperolius wermuthi", "paragraphs": ["it is likely that hyperolius wermuthi is a synonym of this species ( schi\u00f8tz 1999 ) .\nhyperolius wermuthi is a species of frog in the hyperoliidae family . it is found in ivory coast , guinea and liberia .\nthere have been no recent records , but it is presumably uncommon , as with hyperolius wermuthi , with which this species is presumably conspecific .\nthe call of hyperolius wermuthi is similar to that of h . f . fusciventris from the same areas , but apparently slower and higher pitched .\nthe hyperolius wermuthi is classified as near threatened ( nt ) , is close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future .\nr\u00f6del , m . - o . & schi\u00f8tz , a . 2004 . hyperolius wermuthi . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 22 july 2007 .\nnote sur les hyperolius et quelques afrixalus ( saleintia ) du mus\u00e9e de berlin .\nthere is no information on threats to it , but as with h . wermuthi , agricultural expansion , logging , and encroaching human settlements are presumably all threats affecting it .\nthis species is very similar to h . fusciventris lamtoensis and h . wermuthi . it differs from the former by its translucent ventrum without traces of red marbling and the absence of dark lateral pigmentation . it differs from h . wermuthi by its white , not green ventral pigmentation , but should be compared critically with that species since the differences between them seem very small .\nhyperolius wermuthi laurent , 1961 , rev . zool . bot . afr . , 64 : 71 - 72 . holotype : mnhnp , according to r . laurent in frost , 1985 , amph . species world : 219 . type locality :\nboussou . . . , champ avec mare\n, mont nimba , ivory coast .\nthis species is probably a synonym of hyperolius soror , which is known with certainty only from its type locality in southern guinea ( schi\u00f8tz 1999 ) .\nschi\u00f8tz , a . & howell , k . 2004 . hyperolius minutissimus . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 22 july 2007 .\nschi\u00f8tz , a . & r\u00f6del , m . - o . 2004 . hyperolius laticeps . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 22 july 2007 .\nschi\u00f8tz , a . & r\u00f6del , m . - o . 2004 . hyperolius nienokouensis . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 22 july 2007 .\nschi\u00f8tz , a . & r\u00f6del , m . - o . 2004 . hyperolius soror . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 22 july 2007 .\nmost similar to hyperolius fusciventris according to the original publication . see photograph , map , description of geographic range and habitat , and conservation status in stuart , hoffmann , chanson , cox , berridge , ramani , and young , 2008 , threatened amph . world : 286 . schi\u00f8tz , 1999 , treefrogs afr . : 110\u2013111 , provided a brief account and considered the date of publication of the original to be 1999 . moreover this author regarded the call to be identical to that of hyperolius wermuthi , with which he thought it might eventually be found to be conspecific .\nthe males call from leaves and twigs . the voice is a high , shrill insect - like sound , shorter and lower that that of h . f . lamtoensis . the voice is very similar or identical to that of h . wermuthi .\nhyperolius laticeps is a species of frog in the hyperoliidae family . it is endemic to togo . its natural habitats are rivers , swamps , freshwater marshes , and intermittent freshwater marshes .\nsince the name h . wermuthi has been used for all subsequent records , there is no specific information on the habitat and ecological requirements of this species , although it is presumably also found only in primary forest , where it breeds in swamps and small temporary ponds .\nhyperolius soror is a species of frog in the hyperoliidae family . it is endemic to guinea . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , swamps , and intermittent freshwater marshes .\nthis species is not known from any protected areas , but if it is conspecific with h . wermuthi ( and further taxonomic research is required to resolve this ) then it is likely to be found in the mount nimba world heritage site , ta\u00ef national park , and di\u00e9ck\u00e9 classified forest .\nthis species is not known from any protected areas , but if it is conspecific with h . wermuthi ( and further taxonomic research is required to resolve this ) then it is likely to be found in the mount nimba world heritage site , ta national park , and dick classified forest .\nthis species is known only from southern guinea , liberia and western c\u00f4te d\u2019ivoire . it is so similar to hyperolius fusciventris that it might well be overlooked . it probably occurs up to over 1 , 000m asl on mount nimba .\nthis species is known only from southern guinea , liberia and western cte divoire . it is so similar to hyperolius fusciventris that it might well be overlooked . it probably occurs up to over 1 , 000m asl on mount nimba .\nhyperolius nienokouensis is a species of frog in the hyperoliidae family . it is endemic to ivory coast . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , swamps , and intermittent freshwater marshes . it is threatened by habitat loss .\nhyperolius minutissimus is a species of frog in the hyperoliidae family . it is endemic to tanzania . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical high - altitude grassland , swamps , and intermittent freshwater marshes . it is threatened by habitat loss .\nthis is a small hyperolius with a brown dorsum and broad light canthal and dorsolateral stripes that may be green or yellow . some individuals also have light spots on the legs and dorsum ( text from harper et al . , 2010 ) .\na small , compact hyperolius ( males 19 - 21 mm , females 23 mm ) from south - western c\u00f4te d\u0092ivoire . dorsum translucent green , sometimes with fine black points . ventrum in both sexes translucent greyish white . discs green . no canthal stripe . pupil horizontal .\na small forest hyperolius ( males 18\u201323 mm , females 22\u201329 mm ) from western west africa , similar to h . fusciventris but phase j never with a dark vertebral line . in life phase f with red canthal stripe . no dark lateral pigmentation . ventrum transparent bluish green . pupil horizontal .\nhyperolius nienokouensis r\u00f6del , 1998 , rev . fr . aquar . herpetol . , 25 : 124 . holotype : zfmk 65392 , by original designation . type locality :\nsouth - western edge of tai national park , foot of mont ni\u00e9nokou\u00e9 approximately 15 km west of guiroutou , 5\u00b0 25\u2032 n , 7\u00b0 10\u2032 w , ivory coast\n.\na hyperolius from the savanna at high altitude in tanzania , with the males minute ( 12 - 17 mm ) , and the females medium - sized ( 18 - 24 mm ) . dorsum brown with light canthal and dorsolateral lines . gular flap smooth and very large . a few black spinosities present in front of the gular flap near the tip of the jaw . pupil horizontal . some females have broad light canthal , and irregular dorsolateral , stripes , and spots on dorsum .\nbut phase j never with a dark vertebral line . in life phase f with red canthal stripe . no dark lateral pigmentation . ventrum transparent bluish green . pupil horizontal .\n, especially after preservation , but differs in a number of minor morphological characters and , in life , by its ventral coloration . furthermore\nis a forest form , so although their ranges overlap they may not actually be sympatric . the correct name for this species may be\nfound in swamps in dense forest . only known from a small forested area in liberia and c\u00f4te d\u2019ivoire , but may have been overlooked elsewhere in west africa since it is so similar to\nthis species shows developmental changes in patterning , with two phases , j ( juveniles and many mature males ) and f ( mature females and some mature males ) . all newly metamorphosed individuals are phase j , which is normally brownish to green with paired light dorsolateral lines , or an hourglass pattern . all females , and some males , develop into phase f before the first breeding season . phase f is often colorful and variable , showing the diagnostic color characteristics for the species or subspecies . either well - defined morphs may be present , or graded variation .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed jul 9 , 2018 .\n> university of california , berkeley , ca , usa . accessed 9 jul 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html + rdfa 1 . 1 / / en\nexcept where otherwise noted , content on this site is licensed under a creative commons attribution cc by licence .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nfrost , d . r . 2016 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 ( 31 march 2016 ) . new york , usa . available at : urltoken .\njustification : listed as near threatened because its extent of occurrence is probably not much greater than 20 , 000 km2 , and the extent and quality of its habitat are probably declining , thus making the species close to qualifying for vulnerable .\nit is found only in primary forest , and breeds in swamps and small temporary ponds .\nagricultural expansion , logging , and encroaching human settlements are threats affecting this species .\nit occurs in several protected areas , including the mount nimba world heritage site , ta\u00ef national park , and di\u00e9ck\u00e9 classified forest . further taxonomic work is required to resolve the possibility that this species is a synonym of h . soror .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n* will not find nomina inquirenda ; use basic search ( above ) for that purpose .\nwill find all uses of\nhyl . . .\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hylarana , hyla , hylidae , hylinae , hylaedactyla .\nwill find all uses of\n. . . hyla\nanywhere in a record : e . g . , hyla , hylidae , plectrohyla , ptychadena hylaea , adenomera hylaedactyla\nwill find all records that contain stand - alone uses of hyla : e . g . , hyla , hyla arenicolor\ninterprets this as\nlithobates or pipiens\nso will find the union of all records that contain either\nlithobates\nor\npipiens\n: e . g . , lithobates omiltemanus , hylorana pipiens\ninterprets this as\nlithobates and pipiens\nso will return all records that have the character string\nlithobates pipiens\nanywhere within a record : e . g . , all members of the lithobates pipiens complex .\nwermuth ' s reed frog ( frank and ramus , 1995 , compl . guide scient . common names amph . rept . world : 68 ) .\nplease note : these links will take you to external websites not affiliated with the american museum of natural history . we are not responsible for their content .\nfor access to available specimen data for this species , from over 350 scientific collections , go to vertnet .\ncopyright \u00a9 1998 - 2018 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nright now the scientific names on some species do not show on the site - we are working to fix this problem which should be solved after the back - up this morning .\nupload tip : if your photo does not get uploaded properly , try to resize it to less than 3 mb .\nwould you like to see your friends photos in the igoterra gallery ? invite them and get 2 months free subcription extension for every new friend who joins . click here to get to the invitation page\n: 219 . type locality :\nboussou . . . , champ avec mare\n, mont nimba , ivory coast .\ncopyright \u00a9 1998 - 2013 , darrel frost and the american museum of natural history . all rights reserved .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , world , geography , . . . more\nthe type locality is n ' z\u00e9r\u00e9kor\u00e9 in southern guinea ( chabanaud 1921 ) .\n. the taxonomic validity of this species is uncertain . it may be the correct name for\nchabanaud , p . ( 1921 ) . ' ' contribution a l ' etude de la faune herpetologique de l ' afrique occidentale . ' '\nthis species is known with certainty only from n ' z\u00e9r\u00e9kor\u00e9 in southern guinea .\nthis species is known only from the poorly defined type locality of togo . no range map has been prepared for this species , since the type locality is not specific , and this is almost certainly not a valid species .\nthere is no information on its habitat and ecological requirements , but it presumably breeds in water .\nlisted as data deficient in view of continuing uncertainty as to its taxonomic validity as well as absence of recent information on its extent of occurrence , status and ecological requirements .\nit has not been recorded from any protected areas . resolution of its taxonomic status is required asthis is almost certainly not a valid species .\nthis account was taken from\ntreefrogs of africa\nby arne schi\u00f8tz with kind permission from edition chimaira publishers , frankfurt am main .\nschi\u00f8tz , a . ( 1999 ) . treefrogs of africa . edition chimaira , frankfurt am main .\nfound in swamps in dense forest . only known from a small forested area in liberia and c\u00f4te d\u0092ivoire , but may have been overlooked elsewhere in west africa since it is so similar to h . fusciventris .\nschi\u00e3\u00b8tz , a . ( 1999 ) . treefrogs of africa . edition chimaira , frankfurt am main .\nlisted as near threatened because its extent of occurrence is probably not much greater than 20 , 000 km2 , and the extent and quality of its habitat are probably declining , thus making the species close to qualifying for vulnerable .\nit occurs in several protected areas , including the mount nimba world heritage site , ta national park , and dick classified forest . further taxonomic work is required to resolve the possibility that this species is a synonym of h . soror .\nits natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , swamps , and intermittent freshwater marshes . it is threatened by habitat loss and environmental damage .\nthis species is known only from two localities in south - western c\u00f4te d\u2019ivoire : the foot of mont ni\u00e9nokou\u00e9 ( approximately 15km west of guiroutou ) on the south - western edge of ta\u00ef national park ; and a nearby locality 30km to the north of this .\nknown from a single forest locality in tai n . p . , c\u00f4te d\u0092ivoire .\nit is found only in primary rainforest , and probably attaches eggs to leaves above shallow temporary ponds and swamps , where the larvae develop .\nlisted as endangered because its extent of occurrence is probably less than 5 , 000 km2 , it is known from a single location , and the quality and extent of its forest habitat in cote d ' ivoire is declining .\nit is a very uncommon species . a visit to the type locality in 2002 was unsuccessful in locating the species .\nit is presumably threatened by ongoing habitat loss for logging , agriculture and human settlements .\ndescribed by schi\u00f8tz ( 1999 ) as \u201ca fast series of quiet , unmelodic clicks . \u201d\nthe tiny males may be confused with h . pictus metamorphs , but the latter typically have three distinct lines on the dorsum which h . minutissimus lacks . h . minutissimus is similar to h . spinigularis , but h . minutissimus lacks blue coloration and the males are substantially smaller than in h . spinigularis ( harper et al . , 2010 ) .\nmales range from 12\u201317 mm in snout - vent length , while females are larger , measuring 18\u201324 mm ( harper et al . , 2010 ) .\nthis species is found in open high - elevation grasslands and forest clearings at elevations above 1800 m ( harper et al . , 2010 ) .\nbreeds in temporary pools in grasslands ( harper et al . , 2010 ) .\nlisted as vulnerable because its extent of occurrence is probably less than 20 , 000 km2 , it is known from fewer than five locations , and the quality and extent of its montane grassland habitat in the udzungwa mountains and southern highlands of tanzania is declining .\nit is rarely seen , but easily overlooked , and so perhaps not as rare as records suggest .\nthe call is a fast series of quiet , unmelodic clicks with an ill - defined frequency - intensity maximum at 4200 - 4300 cps .\nits montane grassland habitat is threatened by afforestation , agricultural expansion , fire , and human settlement .\nit has not been found in the udzungwa national park , though it might occur there .\nthe most remarkable feature of this species is the minute size of the males which are no larger than newly metamorphosed h . pictus , a sympatric species . the species is not well known and in some respects resembles h . spinigularis . it is possible they belong to the same complex .\nthis species is known only from southern tanzania , where it has been recorded from the udzungwa mountains and from the njombe area in the western part of the southern highlands . it has been suggested that it might occur in northern malawi , but recent surveys on mount rungwe , in southern tanzania , close to the malawi border , did not find this species . its altitudinal range is not recorded , but it is likely to be mainly above 1 , 800m asl .\ncollected on open , windswept grasslands in south - eastern tanzania . easily overlooked .\nthis species was named for the sankuru province of the democratic republic of congo where it was first discovered .\nthis species is known with certainty only from n ' zrkor in southern guinea .\nchabanaud , p . ( 1921 ) . ' ' contribution a l ' etude de la faune herpetologique de l ' afrique occidentale . ' ' bulletin of the comit\u00e3\u00a9 d\u00e2\u0080\u0099etudes historiques et scientifiques de l\u00e2\u0080\u0099afrique occidentale fran\u00e3\u00a7aise , 1921 , 445 - 472 .\ndifferent sources may delimit this genus differently , and as new species are still being described , different number of species can be found . as of early 2015 ,\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ntaxon assessments are documents assessing the current status of a species , usually conservation status . for example , a regional conservation organization might use them to organize information and solicit feedback about the status of several threatened taxa in the region .\nknown only from tai national park and a locality 30 km to the north , southwestern ivory coast .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more"]}
{"id": 1200, "summary": [{"text": "syngrapha interrogationis , the scarce silver y , is a moth of the noctuidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in the northern areas of the world , from alaska , through canada , iceland , europe , siberia up to northeast asia including japan . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "syngrapha interrogationis", "paragraphs": ["scarce silver y ( syngrapha interrogationis ) - norfolk moths - the macro and micro moths of norfolk .\nsyngrapha interrogationis ( linnaeus , 1758 ) = phalaena interrogationis linnaeus , 1758 = noctua aemula fabricius , 1787 = phalaena conscripta h\u00fcbner , 1790 = noctua subpurpurina haworth , 1802 = phalaena aurosignata donovan , 1808 = plusia borealis reuter , 1893 = plusia epsilon ottolengui , 1900 = autographa zeta ottolengui , 1902 = syngrapha pyrenaica hampson , 1913 = syngrapha interrogationis norrlandica schulte , 1956 = syngrapha flammifera chou & lu , 1979 = syngrapha octoscripta epsilon = syngrapha octoscripta zeta .\nhabitat : syngrapha interrogationis is associated with acidophilous and coniferous , humid woodlands such as moor woodlands or montane spruce forests with vaccinium undergrowth .\nendangerment factors : syngrapha interrogationis is endangered through the intensification in forestry which results in ever darker , uniformous forests , locally also through tourism and usage of wind energy .\nautographa interrogationis herschelensis benjamin , 1933 ; pan - pacific ent . 9 ( 2 ) : 61 ; tl : herschel island , yukon\n= syngrapha alias ( ottolengui , 1902 ) ; [ mna25 . 1 ] , 115\n= syngrapha altera ( ottolengui , 1902 ) ; [ mna25 . 1 ] , 101\n= syngrapha angulidens ( smith , 1891 ) ; [ mna25 . 1 ] , 117\n= syngrapha ignea ( grote , 1864 ) ; [ mna25 . 1 ] , 113\n= syngrapha rectangula ( kirby , 1837 ) ; [ mna25 . 1 ] , 116\nremarks : syngrapha interrogationis has an holarctic distribution ( north america , europe , northern asia ) . in europe it is common in the north and becomes more and more local and restricted to mountains in the south where it occurs to the pyrenees , middle italia and bulgaria .\nsyngrapha diasema ab . connexa warren , 1913 ; gross - schmett . erde 3 : 346\nsyngrapha hochenwarthi alaina [ sic ] ; [ ne10 ] , 161 ( missp . ? )\nsyngrapha interrogationis has only been found in extreme northwestern british columbia near the border with yukon territory . it is probably more widely distributed along the east slope of the rocky mountains and in other northern mountains in the province since it occurs in the alberta rocky mountains just to the east of british columbia .\nsyngrapha interrogationis ; [ nacl ] , # 8937 ; [ mna25 . 1 ] : 106 , f . 48 , pl . 3 , f . 14 - 16 , pl . f , f . 8 , pl . ) , f . 6 ; [ ne10 ] : 244 , pl . 16 , f . 28 - 34 , gen . 265 , 330\nsyngrapha ain ; [ ne10 ] : 243 , pl . 16 , f . 46 - 50 , gen . 264 , 329\nsyngrapha rectangulata ab . demaculata strand , 1917 ; archiv naturg . 82 a ( 2 ) : 47 ; tl : north america\nsyngrapha devergens rilaecacuminum varga & ronkay , 1982 ; acta zool . hung . 2 : 150 ; tl : bulgaria , rila mts .\nsyngrapha ain persibirica ronkay , ronkay , behounek & mikkola , 2008 ; witt catalogue 1 : 107 , pl . 36 , f . 7 - 8 ; tl : mongolia\nsyngrapha hochenwarthi lapponaris ; [ ne10 ] : 240 , pl . 16 , f . 19 , 20 ; ronkay , ronkay & behounek , 2008 , witt catalogue 1 : 104\nsyngrapha microgamma r . nearctica ferguson , 1955 ; bull . brooklyn ent . soc . 50 : 25 ; tl : prospect road , goodwood , halifax co . , nova scotia\nsyngrapha abstrusa eichlin & cunningham , 1978 ; u . s . dept . agric . tech . bull . 1567 : 46 ; tl : lake katherine , oneida co . , wisconsin\nsyngrapha cryptica eichlin & cunningham , 1978 ; u . s . dept . agric . tech . bull . 1567 : 47 ; tl : lake katherine , oneida co . , wisconsin\nsyngrapha rilaecacuminum ; [ ne10 ] : 238 , pl . 16 , f . 14 - 18 , gen . 259 , 324 ; ronkay , ronkay & behounek , 2008 , witt catalogue 1 : 102\nsyngrapha hochenwarthi hochenwarthi ; [ ne10 ] : 239 , pl . 16 , f . 21 - 23 , gen . 260 , 325 ; ronkay , ronkay & behounek , 2008 , witt catalogue 1 : 103\nsyngrapha devergens ; [ nacl ] , # 8947 ( extralim . ) ; [ ne10 ] : 237 , pl . 16 , f . 9 - 13 , gen . 258 , 323 ; ronkay , ronkay & behounek , 2008 , witt catalogue 1 : 101\nsyngrapha hochenwarthi is a moth of the noctuidae family . it is found in the alps ( on height of 1700 to 2500 m ) , the mountainous areas of northern norway and finland , the ural mountains , the balkan , the caucasus and the altai mountains .\nsyngrapha orophila ; [ nacl ] , # 8930 ; [ mna25 . 1 ] : 112 , f . 52 , pl . 3 , f . 25 , pl . g , f . 3 , pl . p , f . 3 ; [ ne10 ] , 161\nsyngrapha alias ; [ nacl ] , # 8939 ; [ mna25 . 1 ] : 115 , f . 56 , pl . 3 , f . 34 - 36 , pl . g , f . 7 , pl . p , f . 7 ; [ ne10 ] , 160\nsyngrapha altera ; [ nacl ] , # 8925 ; [ mna25 . 1 ] : 101 , f . 43 , pl . 3 , f . 1 - 2 , pl . f , f . 2 , pl . n , f . 8 ; [ ne10 ] , 160\nsyngrapha angulidens ; [ nacl ] , # 8943 ; [ mna25 . 1 ] : 117 , f . 59 , pl . 3 , f . 42 - 44 , pl . g , f . 10 , pl . q , f . 2 ; [ ne10 ] , 160\nsyngrapha borea ; [ nacl ] , # 8934 ; [ mna25 . 1 ] : 111 , f . 51 , pl . 3 , f . 23 - 24 , pl . g , f . 2 , pl . p , f . 2 ; [ ne10 ] , 161\nsyngrapha celsa ; [ nacl ] , # 8944 ; [ mna25 . 1 ] : 118 , f . 60 , pl . 3 , f . 45 - 47 , pl . h , f . 1 , pl . q , f . 3 ; [ ne10 ] , 161\nsyngrapha cryptica ; [ nacl ] , # 8941 ; [ mna25 . 1 ] : 115 , f . 57 , pl . 3 , f . 37 - 38 , pl . g , f . 8 , pl . p , f . 8 ; [ ne10 ] , 161\nsyngrapha rectangula ; [ nacl ] , # 8942 ; [ mna25 . 1 ] : 116 , f . 58 , pl . 3 , f . 39 - 41 , pl . g , f . 9 , pl . q , f . 1 ; [ ne10 ] , 161\nsyngrapha selecta ; [ nacl ] , # 8928 ; [ mna25 . 1 ] : 104 , f . 46 , pl . 3 , f . 11 - 12 , pl . f , f . 6 , pl . o , f . 4 ; [ ne10 ] , 161\nsyngrapha surena ; [ nacl ] , # 8938 ; [ mna25 . 1 ] : 109 , f . 50 , pl . 3 , f . 19 - 20 , pl . f , f . 10 , pl . o , f . 8 ; [ ne10 ] , 161\nsyngrapha viridisigma ; [ nacl ] , # 8929 ; [ mna25 . 1 ] : 103 , f . 45 , pl . 3 , f . 9 - 10 , pl . f , f . 5 , pl . o , f . 3 ; [ ne10 ] , 161\nsyngrapha u - aureum ; [ nacl ] , # 8936 ; [ mna25 . 1 ] : 108 , f . 49 , pl . 3 , f . 17 - 18 , pl . f , f . 9 , pl . o , f . 7 ; [ ne10 ] , 161\nsyngrapha epigaea ; [ nacl ] , # 8927 ; [ mna25 . 1 ] : 105 , f . 47 , pl . 3 , f . 13 , pl . 4 , f . 14 , pl . f , f . 7 , pl . o , f . 5 ; [ ne10 ] , 161\nsyngrapha abstrusa ; [ nacl ] , # 8940 ; [ mna25 . 1 ] : 114 , f . 55 , pl . 3 , f . 31 - 33 , pl . 4 , f . 16 , pl . g , f . 6 , pl . p , f . 6 ; [ ne10 ] , 160\nsyngrapha montana ; [ nacl ] , # 8945 ; [ mna25 . 1 ] : 120 , f . 62 , pl . 3 , f . 50 - 51 , pl . 4 , f . 18 , pl . h , f . 3 , pl . q , f . 5 ; [ ne10 ] , 161\nsyngrapha ignea ; [ nacl ] , # 8949 ; [ mna25 . 1 ] : 113 , f . 2d - f , 54 , pl . 3 , f . 28 - 30 , pl . 4 , f . 15 , pl . g , 5 , pl . p , f . 5 ; [ ne10 ] , 161\nsyngrapha octoscripta ; [ nacl ] , # 8926 ; [ mna25 . 1 ] : 102 , f . 2g , 44 , pl . 3 , f . 6 - 8 , pl . 4 , f . 13 , pl . f , f . 4 , pl . o , f . 2 ; [ ne10 ] , 161\nsyngrapha ottolenguii ; lafontaine , 1986 , j . lep . soc . 40 ( 3 ) : 158 - 162 ; [ mna25 . 1 ] : 102 , f . 43 , pl . 3 , f . 3 - 5 , pl . f , f . 3 , pl . o , f . 1 ; [ ne10 ] , 161\nsyngrapha parilis ; [ nacl ] , # 8948 ; [ mna25 . 1 ] : 122 , f . 64 , pl . 3 , f . 52 - 53 , pl . h , f . 5 , pl . q , f . 7 ; [ ne10 ] : 238 , pl . 16 , f . 24 - 27 , gen . 261 , 326 ; ronkay , ronkay & behounek , 2008 , witt catalogue 1 : 102\nsyngrapha diasema ; [ nacl ] , # 8935 ; [ mna25 . 1 ] : 110 , f . 51 , pl . 3 , f . 21 - 22 , pl . g , f . 1 , pl . p , f . 1 ; [ ne10 ] : 240 , pl . 16 , f . 41 - 45 , gen . 263a - b , 328 ; ronkay , ronkay & behounek , 2008 , witt catalogue 1 : 106\nsyngrapha microgamma ; [ nacl ] , # 8946 ( extralim . ) ; [ mna25 . 1 ] : 119 , f . 61 , pl . 3 , f . 48 - 49 , pl . 4 , f . 17 , pl . h , f . 2 , pl . q , f . 4 ; [ ne10 ] : 242 , pl . 16 , f . 35 - 40 , gen . 262 , 327 ; ronkay , ronkay & behounek , 2008 , witt catalogue 1 : 108\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ngaden s . robinson , phillip r . ackery , ian j . kitching , george w . beccaloni and luis m . hern\u00e1ndez\nrecords of caterpillar hostplants are scattered through published and manuscript sources worldwide and are difficult to retrieve . many rearing records are never published and so are not accessible to other entomologists . but collected hostplant records form a valuable scientific resource that can be used eventually to answer broader biological questions about how lepidoptera and plants interact ( eg , letourneau , hagen & robinson , 2001 ) . it provides information of immediate relevance to agriculture , ecology , forestry , conservation and taxonomy .\nhosts brings together an enormous body of information on what the world ' s butterfly and moth ( lepidoptera ) caterpillars eat . the web - based version presented here offers a synoptic data set drawn from about 180 , 000 records comprising taxonomically ' cleaned ' hostplant data for about 22 , 000 lepidoptera species drawn from about 1600 published and manuscript sources . it is not ( and cannot be ) exhaustive , but it is probably the best and most comprehensive compilation of hostplant data available .\nwe hope that it will be useful to a wide range of biologists and that it will act as a spur to further recording and analysis of caterpillar - plant interactions .\nhosts can be searched in two ways , using text search and drill - down search modes .\nin text search mode , use either lepidoptera or hostplant criteria or a combination of the two . hosts operates only using scientific names . it is not possible to search for the hostplants of the red admiral butterfly but a search for hostplants using its scientific name , vanessa atalanta , will be successful . enter the generic name ( vanessa ) in the - lepidoptera criteria - genus box ; enter atalanta in the species : box ; click search .\nhint : leave the ' starts with ' command as the default and in the species entry box omit the last few letters of the species - name ( eg , atalant ) . this will get around the problem of variable gender - endings . hosts uses original orthography of species - group names as far as possible , but some checklists follow the convention of altering the species - group name to accord with the presumed gender of the generic name ( eg flava , flavus ) .\nrestrict or refine searches using additional criteria ; choosing ' usa ' from the drop - down location box and entering [ starts with ] ' urt ' in the hostplant family box will return hostplant records of vanessa atalanta from urticaceae in the usa .\nhint : restricting location may deliver a very incomplete subset of records : in the previous example all records specified as from the nearctic region ( usa + canada ) would be missed .\ndrill - down search mode allows the user to home in from the starting - point of either the lepidoptera or the plant family . choose a family group from the drop - down box and allow time for all genera of that family in the database to load to the genus drop - down box ; choose a genus and wait for the species to load . the search button can be pressed at any time , but the record delivery limit may be exceeded at higher taxonomic levels . drill - down search allows the user to see by scrolling all the taxa that are represented in the database . following the previous example , choose nymphalidae , then choose vanessa from the genus drop - down box and then atalanta from the ten possible species of vanessa included in hosts .\nthe preliminary search results pages give family , genus and species of the caterpillar and its hostplant . note that many hostplants are recorded as a plant genus only . clicking the caterpillar name will give the full record . the full record listing gives , additionally , the author of the lepidoptera species , subspecific information on the insect and the plant , if available , together with details of larval damage . laboratory rearings where the food utilised may not be the natural hostplant are indicated . the status of the record ( whether considered true , erroneous or suspect ) is not currently implemented in this version of hosts .\nleguminosae ( c ) - caesalpinioideae . leguminosae ( m ) - mimosoideae . leguminosae ( p ) - papilionoideae .\nall lepidoptera groups are covered and subspecific taxa are differentiated . the original source of the record , original form of the names used ( prior to taxonomic ' cleaning ' and standardisation of nomenclature ) and validation and verification fields are not included . this information is , however , retained in the databases used to generate this site . while we have included species that do not feed on green plants , the known food substrates of these are not listed exhaustively . such species comprise detritophages and predators and include , for example , most tineidae and the stored - products pests . the published compilations from hosts ( see more detail - publications from hosts ) include record status and the sources of all records .\ndetailed published compilations from hosts are available in press . these books give greater detail than the website , together with comprehensive cross - indexes , record status and full bibliographies . they are indispensable tools for naturalists and professional entomologists .\nrobinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hern\u00e1ndez , l . m . 2001 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of the oriental region . 744 pp .\nrobinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hern\u00e1ndez , l . m . 2002 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of america north of mexico . 824 pp . [ memoirs of the american entomological institute , volume 69 . ]\nbeccaloni , g . w . , viloria , a . l . , hall , s . k . & robinson , g . s . 2008 . catalogue of the hostplants of the neotropical butterflies / cat\u00e1logo de las plantas hu\u00e9sped de las mariposas neotropicales . m3m - monograf\u00edas tercer milenio , volume 8 . zaragoza , spain : sociedad entomol\u00f3gica aragonesa ( sea ) / red iberoamericana de biogeograf\u00eda y entomolog\u00eda sistem\u00e1tica ( ribes ) / ciencia y tecnolog\u00eda para el desarrollo ( cyted ) / natural history museum , london , u . k . ( nhm ) / instituto venezolano de investigaciones cient\u00edficas , venezuela ( ivic ) . 1 - 536 pp . , 1 fig , 3 tabs .\ngaden robinson was responsible for the overall project design and management of the hosts database , and for records of lepidoptera exclusive of butterflies and bombycoid moths . phillip ackery and george beccaloni were responsible for butterfly data , including data drawn from card catalogues developed by ackery , whilst ian kitching was responsible for hostplant data of bombycoid moths . luis m . hern\u00e1ndez was responsible for abstracting in the latter two years of the project and for development of the bibliography for the hardcopy versions of the data .\nwe are extremely grateful to the many people who contributed their own rearing records of lepidoptera or personal accumulations of data for inclusion in the hosts database , particularly mike bigger ( uk ) , john w . brown ( usa ) , chris conlan ( usa ) , rob ferber ( usa ) , konrad fiedler ( germany ) , jeremy holloway ( uk ) , frank hsu ( usa ) , jurie intachat ( malaysia ) , alec mcclay ( canada ) , bill palmer ( australia ) , pierre plauzoles ( usa ) and the generous individuals who contributed rearing records through the worldwideweb and who are known to us only as an email address .\nwe are particularly grateful to julian donahue and the los angeles county museum of natural history for allowing us to include data on microlepidoptera from the card catalogue prepared by the late j . a . comstock and c . henne , and for access to manuscript records by noel mcfarland .\nmarian fricano ( santa clara university ) and aileen giovanello ( clark university , international internship 1996 ) made substantial contributions of abstracted data ; fran love ( north carolina ) painstakingly checked scanned texts and reformatted them for import to paradox .\nwe are indebted to all our helpers for their diligence , accuracy and patience , and for their unswerving faith that this daunting project would reach a conclusion .\nwe thank the trustees of the loke wan tho memorial foundation for their generous support for this project .\nrobinson , g . s . , p . r . ackery , i . j . kitching , g . w . beccaloni & l . m . hern\u00e1ndez , 2010 . hosts - a database of the world ' s lepidopteran hostplants . natural history museum , london . urltoken . ( accessed : 18 aug . 2010 ) .\nbrummitt , r . k . 1992 . vascular plant families and genera . [ vi ] + 804 pp . , royal botanic gardens , kew .\nkartesz , j . t . 1994 . a synonymized checklist of the vascular flora of the unites states , canada and greenland . timber press , portland . 1 , checklist , lxi + 622 pp ; 2 , thesaurus , vii + 816 pp .\nkitching , i . j . & cadiou , j . - m . 2000 . hawkmoths of the world : an annotated and illustrated revsionary checklist . xx + 500 pp . , cornell university press , ithaca .\nkitching , i . j . & rawlins , j . e . 1999 . the noctuoidea . pp . 355 - 401 . in : kristensen , n . p . ( ed . ) lepidoptera , moths and butterflies . 1 . evolution , systematics and biogeography . handbook of zoology , 4 ( 35 ) . lepidoptera . x + 491 pp . de gruyter , berlin .\nletourneau , d . k . , hagen , j . a . & robinson , g . s . 2001 . bt crops : evaluating benefits under cultivation and risks from escaped transgenes in the wild . pp . 33 - 98 . in : letourneau , d . k . & burrows , b . e . ( eds ) , genetically engineered organisms : assessing environmental and human health effects . [ viii ] + 438 pp . , crc press , boca raton .\nmabberley , d . j . 1987 . the plant book . a portable dictionary of the higher plants . xii + 707 pp . , cambridge university press . [ the 1993 reprint edition is currently used in editing . ]\nnielsen , e . s . , edwards , e . d . & rangsi , t . v . ( eds ) 1996 . checklist of the lepidoptera of australia . monographs on australian lepidoptera . 4 . xiv + 529 pp . , csiro , melbourne .\nnye , i . w . b . ( ed . ) 1975 - 91 . the generic names of moths of the world . 1 : 568 pp . ( noctuoidea ( part ) - nye , i . w . b . , 1975 ) ; 2 : xiv + 228 pp . ( noctuoidea ( part ) - watson , a . , fletcher , d . s . & nye , i . w . b . , 1980 ) ; 3 : xx + 243 pp . ( geometroidea - fletcher , d . s . , 1979 ) ; 4 : xiv + 192 pp . ( bombycoidea to zygaenoidea - fletcher , d . s . & nye , i . w . b . , 1982 ) ; 5 : xv + 185 pp . ( pyraloidea - fletcher , d . s . & nye , 1984 ) ; 6 : xxix + 368 pp . ( microlepidoptera - nye , i . w . b . & fletcher , d . s . , 1991 ) . british museum ( natural history ) / the natural history museum , london .\nrawlins , j . e . 1984 . mycophagy in lepidoptera . pp . 382 - 483 . in : wheeler , q . & blackwell , m . ( eds ) fungus - insect relationships . perspectives in ecology and evolution . 514 pp . , columbia university press .\nrobinson , g . s . 1999 . hosts - a database of the hostplants of the world ' s lepidoptera . nota lepidopterologica , 22 : 35 - 47 .\nrobinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hern\u00e1ndez , l . m . 2001 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of the oriental region . 744 pp . southdene sdn bhd , kuala lumpur .\nrobinson , g . s . , ackery , p . r . , kitching , i . j . , beccaloni , g . w . & hern\u00e1ndez , l . m . 2002 . hostplants of the moth and butterfly caterpillars of america north of mexico . memoirs of the american entomological institute , 69 : 1 - 824 .\nscoble , m . j . ( ed . ) 1999 . a taxonomic catalogue to the geometridae of the world ( insecta : lepidoptera ) . 2 vols . csiro publications , melbourne .\nroyal botanic garden edinburgh dipterocarpaceae database : http : / / 193 . 62 . 154 . 38 / diptero /\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\na moorland species , distributed throughout scotland and northern england in suitable habitat . it also occurs sparingly in wales and south - west england , and occasional immigrants appear in the south - east .\nthe flight period of the adults is from june to august and can be seen flying in the sunshine , though at night it comes to light .\nukmoths is built , run and maintained by ian kimber , with thanks to the many kind contributors who provide photos and information .\nthe ukmoths facebook page is a great place to post your identification queries . more often than not you ' ll get a positive id on most photos fairly quickly .\nlooking for a specific moth species ? enter just part of the name below .\nprocache : v317 render date : 2018 - 07 - 08 20 : 53 : 18 page render time : 0 . 2772s total w / procache : 0 . 3236s\nyou appear to have javascript disabled or are using a browser that does not support it . please enable javascript to experience all features of the site !\nab rocky mtns , mountain cr drainage , . 75mi se of pocahontas , 3600 ft 53 . 2 , - 117 . 9 july 29 , 1994 , lg crabo & j troubridge . specimen courtesy of lgcc photograph copyright : merrill a . peterson\nthis species flies in boreal , montane , and subarctic forests across canada . it is associated with forested bogs in western alberta .\nthis is a holarctic species that is most widely distributed in the old world . it occurs from scandinavia and the mountains of central europe east across asia . in north america it is predominantly a species of the northern boreal zone and the subarctic . it is found from alaska to labrador near the limit of trees . the range extends south to the rocky mountains of alberta .\nthis species feeds on arctic tundra shrubs including dwarf huckleberries ( vaccinium spp . ) in the ericaceae and dwarf birch ( betula nana ) in the betulaceae .\nthis species flies during late summer , usually from late july to september . it is nocturnal and comes to lights .\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - noncommercial - sharealike 4 . 0 international license\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nhost plants : the caterpillars feed on vaccinium species , especially vaccinium myrtillus and vaccinium uliginosum .\nlife cycle : the caterpillar hibernates and is fully - grown in may or early june . they live openly on mostly low growing vaccinium . the moths are on the wing between late june and early september , according to the location and year .\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nnewfoundland - new jersey , s . canada , montana , n . new mexico . see [ maps ]\nlarva on picea engelmannii , pinus banksiana , picea glauca [ mna25 . 1 ] , 114\nalps , s . urals , s . siberia , korea , japan . see [ maps ]\nphalaena ain hochenwarth , 1785 ; beitr . ins berl . 6 : 337 , pl . 7 , f . 8\nnewfoundland , n . quebec - alaska , new jersey , n . north carolina , new mexico , idaho , n . california . see [ maps ]\nautographa alias ottolengui , 1902 ; j . n . y . ent . soc . 10 : 69 , pl . 8 , f . 7 , 13 ; tl : jefferson , new hampshire\nlarva on picea glauca , p . mariana [ mna25 . 1 ] , 115\nautographa altera ottolengui , 1902 ; j . n . y . ent . soc . 10 : 69 , pl . 8 , f . 9 ; tl : lake nipigon , ontario\nnewfoundland , labrador , n . manitoba , northwest territory , w . alaska , rocky mountains , washington . see [ maps ]\nplusia alticola walker , [ 1858 ] ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 12 : 912 ; tl :\nrocky mountains\ns . alaska - british columbia , washington , oregon , rocky mountains , e . nevada , arizona , new mexico . see [ maps ]\nlarva on abies ? , pseudotsuga ? stevens , carolin & stein , 1983 , j . lep . soc . 37 ( 2 ) : 134\nautographa alta ottolengui , 1919 ; j . n . y . ent . soc . 27 : 125 ( unnec . repl . autographa excelsa ottolengui , 1902 )\nw . greenland , alaska , yukon - alberta , se . british columbia . see [ maps ]\nbritish columbia - california , idaho , nevada , arizona , new mexico . see [ maps ]\nlarva on abies lasiocarpa , a . grandis , a . concolor , picea egelmannii , p . glauca , pinus monticola , tsuga heterophylla [ mna25 . 1 ] , 119\nautographa celsa r . sierrae ottolengui , 1919 ; j . n . y . ent . soc . 27 : 123 ; tl : lake tahoe , sierra nevada , california\ncaloplusia composita warren , 1913 ; gross - schmett . erde 3 : 345 , pl . 64 a ; tl : thian shan mts . , turgan aksu\nnova scotia , prince edwards i . , n . maine , michigan , wisconsin . see [ maps ]\nalps , tien - shan , alai mts . , ili region . see [ maps ]\nnoctua devergens h\u00fcbner , [ 1813 ] ; samml . eur . schmett . [ 4 ] : pl . 107 , f . 500 - 510 ; tl : europe\nn . scandinavia , n . european russia , n . siberia , altai , tien shan , n . mongolia , labrador - alaska , n . quebec . see [ maps ]\n500x540 ( ~ 42kb ) finland : lk : muonio , 753 : 38 , m 15 . 7 . 1984 , f 14 . 7 . 1984 , markku savela leg .\nlarva on betula sp . , b . nana , vaccinium , populus , trollius europaeus [ ne10 ] , 241\nw . canada , s . canada , pennsylvania , n . ohio , n . wisconsin , british columbia - to ( oregon , colorado ) . see [ maps ]\nlarva on vaccinium spp . , vaccinium angustifolium , kalmia angustifolia [ mna25 . 1 ] , 105\ncatoplusia hochenvarthi hampson , 1913 ; cat . lepid . phalaenae br . mus . 13 : 408 ( unj . emend . )\n500x531 ( ~ 47kb ) finland : li : utsjoki , 775 : 50 , m + f 9 . 7 . 1983 , markku savela leg .\ncaloplusia hochenwarthi cuprina warren , 1913 ; gross - schmett . erde 3 : 34 , pl . 64 a ; tl :\ntura\ncatoplusia hochenwarthi lapponaris schulte , 1952 ; ent . zeitschr . 62 : 121 ; tl : sweden , torne - lappmark\nalaska - rocky mountains , cascades ( washingon , oregon ) , california ( sierra nevada ) . see [ maps ]\nplusia ignea grote , 1864 ; proc . ent . soc . philad . 2 : 274 ; tl : pikes peak , colorado\nlarva on ( reared ) vaccinium sp . , salix [ mna25 . 1 ] , 114\nplusia hochenworthi [ sic ] var . alaica galvagni , 1906 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 56 : 82 ; tl : alai mts .\n1175x881 ( ~ 191kb ) finland : vaala , ouluj\u00e4rvi , manamansalo , pantioniemi , 18 . 8 . 2006 , photo \u00a9 harri arkkio\n500x593 ( ~ 51kb ) finland : ka : virolahti , 671 : 53 , m 2 . 7 . 1983 , f 6 . 7 . 1970 , markku savela leg .\nlarva on betula sp . , b . nana , calluna vulgaris , vaccinium myrtillus , v . uliginosum , andromeda polifolia\nfennoscandia , baltia , poland , n . european russia , c . asia ( mountains ) , kamchatka . see [ maps ]\n500x575 ( ~ 45kb ) finland : ka : virolahti , m + f 27 . 6 . 1970 , markku savela leg .\nlarva on ledum groenlandicum , cassandra calyculata , vaccinium spp . [ mna25 . 1 ] , 120\nlabrador , nova scotia , maine , new hampshire , n . michigan , quebec - saskatchewan , alaska . see [ maps ]\nplusia montana packard , 1869 ; guide to the study of insects ( ? 9th edn . ) : 313 ; tl : mt . washington , new hampshire\nalaska , w . canada , s . canada - to ( wisconin , n . ohio , e . pennsylvania , new jersey ) . see [ maps ]\nbritish columbia , nw . wyoming , washington , idaho , oregon . see [ maps ]\nplusia orophila hampson , 1908 ; can . ent . 40 ( 3 ) : 104 ; tl : brobokton creek , alberta\naleutians ( attu ) , japan , ne . china - magadan , kamchatka . see [ maps ]\narctic europe , iceland , n . siberia , coast ( s . greenland ) , arctic america . see [ maps ]\n600x406 ( ~ 39kb ) finland : lk : muonio , 754 : 36 , m 7 . 7 . 1984 , markku savela leg .\nnewfoundland , quebec , n . ontario - manitoba , new jersey , n . pennsylvania , s . michigan , n . wisconsin , north carolina , virginia , british columbia , alberta , montana , n . idaho , cascades ( washington , oregon ) . see [ maps ]\nlarva on abies balsamea , tsuga heterophylla , picea glauca , pseudotsuga menziesii [ mna25 . 1 ] , 117\nsw . montana - ne . utah , new mexico , colorado . see [ maps ]\nnova scotia , newfoundland - alberta - nw . canada , n . michigan , maine ? , minnesota ? . see [ maps ]\nplusia selecta walker , [ 1858 ] ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 12 : 912 ; tl : st . martin ' s falls , albany river , hudson bay , ontario\nnewfoundland , labrador , n . saskatchewan , alberta , maine . see [ maps ]\nplusia surena grote , 1882 ; bull . u . s . geol . surv . 6 ( 3 ) : 585 ; tl : orono , maine\nplusia hochenwarthi var . tibetana staudinger , 1895 ; dt . ent . z . iris 8 ( 2 ) : 329 ; tl : betwen lob noor and kuku noor\ne . manitoba - quebec , labrador , s . greenland , newfoundland , n . maine , n . new hampshire , n . new york . see [ maps ]\ncanada - to ( massachusetts , n . new york , michigan , n . washington ) , rocky mountains , cascades ( oregon ) . see [ maps ]\nplusia viridisignata grote , 1875 ; can . ent . 7 ( 11 ) : 205 ( unn . emend . )\nlarva on picea glauca , abies balsamea , pseudotsuga menziesii [ mna25 . 1 ] , 104\nfor the time being these pictures are only for this site . other usage not allowed .\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nnotes on aberrational names omitted from the barnes and mcdunnough check list ( lepid . )\nhistoire naturelle des insectes . species g\u00e9n\u00e9ral des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e9res . tome sixi\u00e9me . noctu\u00e9lites . tome 2\nthe natural history of british insects ; explaining them in their several states . . . with the history of such minute insects as require investigation by the microscope\npapers from the harriman alask expedition . xii . entomological results ( 6 ) : lepidoptera\nadditions to the catalogue of u . s . lepidoptera , no . 3 - 5\nin uhler , p . r . report upon the insects collected by p . r . uhler during the explorations of 1875 , including monographs of the families\nnew moths , principally collected by mr . roland thaxter in maine , with notes on noxious species and remarks on classification\n( 1 ) : [ 1 - 6 ] , 7 - 31 , [ 32 ] , 4pls , ( 2 ) : [ 33 - 35 ] , 36 - 56 , 4pls , ( 3 ) : [ 57 - 59 ] , 60 - 79 , [ 80 ] , 4pls , ( 4 ) : [ 81 - 83 ] , 84 - 100 , 4pls , : [ 101 - 103 ] , 104 - 128 ( nachtrag and suppl . ) , : [ 129 - 134 ] ( index )\nsystema naturae per regna tria naturae , secundum clases , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , symonymis , locis . tomis i . 10th edition\nwalker , [ 1858 ] list of the specimens of lepidopterous insects in the collection of the british museum list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 9 : 1 - 252 ( 1856 ) , 10 : 253 - 492 ( [ 1857 ] ) , 11 : 493 - 764 ( 1857 ) , 12 : 765 - 982 ( [ 1858 ] ) , 13 : 983 - 1236 ( [ 1858 ] ) , 14 : 1237 - 1520 ( 1858 ) , 15 : 1521 - 1888 ( 1858 )\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nupcoming events 2018 bugguide gathering in virginia july 27 - 29 : registration and discussion photos of insects and people from the 2015 gathering in wisconsin , july 10 - 12 photos of insects and people from the 2014 gathering in virginia , june 4 - 7 . photos of insects and people from the 2013 gathering in arizona , july 25 - 28 photos of insects and people from the 2012 gathering in alabama photos of insects and people from the 2011 gathering in iowa photos from the 2010 workshop in grinnell , iowa photos from the 2009 gathering in washington\n. the wedge entomological research foundation , p . 106 ; pl . 3 , figs . 14 - 16 .\nthe moths of america north of mexico . fascicle 25 . 1 . noctuoidea , noctuidae ( part ) , plusiinae j . donald lafontaine , robert w . poole . 1991 . the wedge entomological research foundation .\ncontributed by maury j . heiman on 9 may , 2014 - 9 : 06pm last updated 26 july , 2014 - 11 : 38am\ndisclaimer : dedicated naturalists volunteer their time and resources here to provide this service . we strive to provide accurate information , but we are mostly just amateurs attempting to make sense of a diverse natural world . if you need expert professional advice , contact your local extension office .\ncontributors own the copyright to and are solely responsible for contributed content . click the contributor ' s name for licensing and usage information . everything else copyright \u00a9 2003 - 2018 iowa state university , unless otherwise noted .\nrecorded in 14 ( 20 % ) of 69 10k squares . first recorded in 1964 . last recorded in 2017 .\nunderlying maps using digital map data \u00a9 norfolk online lepidoptera archive - nola\u2122 2018 . \u00a9 james wheeler - n o r f o l k m o t h s 2007 - 2018 . data \u00a9 nola\u2122 2018\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nthe source code for the wiki 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the mozilla foundation , google , and apple . you could also do it yourself at any point in time .\nwould you like wikipedia to always look as professional and up - to - date ? we have created a browser extension .\nit will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .\ni use wiki 2 every day and almost forgot how the original wikipedia looks like .\nof perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .\nlarva pale green ; dorsal line dark , with pale edges ; several pale wavy subdorsal lines and a broad whitish lateral line with dark upper edge . the larvae feed on the leaves of various plants , including vaccinium myrtillus , vaccinium uliginosum , betula , calluna vulgaris , andromeda polifolia and urtica . [ 2 ]\nseitz , a . ed . , 1914 die gro\u00dfschmetterlinge der erde , verlag alfred kernen , stuttgart band 3 : abt . 1 , die gro\u00dfschmetterlinge des palaearktischen faunengebietes , die palaearktischen eulenartigen nachtfalter , 1914\nrobinson , g . s . , p . r . ackery , i . j . kitching , g . w . beccaloni & l . m . hern\u00e1ndez , 2010 . hosts - a database of the world ' s lepidopteran hostplants . natural history museum , london .\nthis page was last edited on 15 february 2018 , at 21 : 24 .\nbasis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation .\naustria , belgium , bulgaria , great britain , hungary , germany , denmark , ireland , iceland , italy , latvia , lithuania , the netherlands , norway , poland , romania , the soviet union - the european part , finland , france , czech republic , switzerland , sweden , estonia .\nregions of the russian federation : the volga - don , east caucasus , gorno - altaisk , the european north - east , the european north - west , the european central european south taiga , transbaikalia , western caucasus , kaliningrad , kamchatka , karelia , kola , krasnoyarsk , nizhny - amursky , nizhneobsky , prealtay , of baikal , pribaikalskiy , primorye , sakhalin , the north okhotsk , mid - amur , the volga - average , average urals , sredneobskaya , tuva , chukotka , south west siberian yuzhno - kuril , south ural , south yakutia .\nandorra , austria , belarus , belgium , bulgaria , the british isles , france , germany , denmark ( mainland ) , ireland , iceland , spain ( mainland ) , italy ( mainland ) , latvia , lithuania , netherlands , norway ( mainland ) poland , russia , romania , northern ireland , slovakia , ukraine , finland , france ( mainland ) , czech republic , switzerland , sweden , estonia .\n[ 10 ] de jong , y . s . d . m . ( ed . ) ( 2011 ) fauna europaea version 2 . 4 ( faunaeur . org )\n[ 28 ] moths and butterflies of europe and north africa ( leps . it ) , 2012\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nall ranks domain kingdom subkingdom phylum subphylum superclass class subclass infraclass superorder order suborder infraorder superfamily family subfamily tribe subtribe genus subgenus species subspecies variety group ( polytypic ) group ( monotypic ) species split life sp . ssp . intra - specific hybrid interspecific hybrid intergeneric hybrid species pair\nthe latest sighting details and map for scarce silver y are only available to our birdguides ultimate or our birdguides pro subscribers .\nall records ( accepted , rejected , pending ) . to filter / search please enter a phrase . e . g . to filter rejected records , type rejected into the search box , all columns can be filtered .\nhave you seen something interesting ? click submit to share your rare bird sightings via our simple form .\n\u00a9 2018 birdguides , warners group publications plc . all rights reserved . company registered in england no . 2572212 | vat registration no . gb 638 3492 15\nthe wingspan is 24\u201330 mm . the moth flies from june to september depending on the location .\nthe wingspan is 32\u201338 mm . the moth flies from june to august depending on the location .\nthe larvae feed on the leaves of various plants , including vaccinium myrtillus , vaccinium uliginosum , betula , calluna vulgaris , andromeda polifolia and urtica .\nwe are using cookies for the best presentation of our site . continuing to use this site , you agree with this . ok\ndoctype html public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nappendix ii ( noctuidae plates ) \u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026 . . . \u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026\u2026 . . . . . . 12\nsite 6 ) beside rock lake on july 22 , 2000 in a white spruce forest .\nlasionycta uniformis , l . alberta , l . perplexa , l . conjugata ,\nover a couple of years to get a more accurate list . i suspect that this fma could have as\nhandfield , l . 1999 . le guide des papillons du quebec . version scientifique . broquet .\ndominick , r . b . et al . the moths of america north of mexico , fassicle 27 . 2 .\ndominick , r . b . et al . the moths of america north of mexico , fassicle 25 . 1\nnoctuinae ( part \u2013 euxoa ) in dominick , r . b . et al . the moths of america north of mexico\nlafontaine , j . d . 1987 . noctuidea , noctuidae ( part ) , noctuinae ( part \u2013 euxoa ) in dominick , r . b . et al . the moths of america north of mexico , fassicle 27 . 2 .\nlafontaine , j . d . and r . w . poole . 1991 . noctuidea , noctuidae ( part ) , plusiinae in dominick , r . b . et al . the moths of america north of mexico , fassicle 25 . 1\npolia purpurissata ( grt . ) * 65 ) polia propodea mccabe * 66 ) lacanobia nevadae ( grt\npolia rogenhoferi carbonifera hampson * 64 ) polia purpurissata ( grt . ) * 65 ) polia propodea mccabe * 66 ) lacanobia nevadae ( grt . )\nlasionycta alberta b . & benj . * 71 ) lasionycta perplexa ( sm . ) *\ncompilation of literature and collection records , for the provinces and territories of canada .\nto document all species of lepidoptera found in this park and to further strengthen its status as an ecological reserve .\nto document all species found in the peace river parkland ecoregion to help increase our knowledge of the biodiversity in this region .\nthere is a small area parkland natural region that is located in the northwest corner of alberta along the banks of the peace river . during 2005 and 2006 i began surveying lepidoptera in this area . the habitat targeted was the peace river parkland subregion that consists of open grassland with aspen bluffs . the following is a list of 503 species representing 38 different families .\nalberta lepidoptera inventories are initiated by both the alberta government and members of the alberta lepidopterist guild ( alg ) who are working together to document all species found in alberta\u2019s parks and protected areas . resulting species lists are used by personnel in resource management planning . this report summaries all species that are known from the park . a total of 17 families and . . . [ show full abstract ]\nalberta lepidoptera inventories are initiated by both the alberta government and members of the alberta lepidopterist guild ( alg ) who are working together to document all species found in alberta\u2019s parks and protected areas . resulting species lists are used by personnel in resource management planning . this report summaries all species that are known from the park . a total of 22 families and . . . [ show full abstract ]\nlepidoptera survey of the peace river parkland subregion in northwestern alberta - 2012 project upda . . .\nis nive of t ned eris e . n larv be cla plie lenguii nd nea and atk afonta ed by a o jinb ve bee recently , kusunoki and yasuda ( 2002 ) described v . citis - idaea , v . journal\u2026\neffect of larval crowding on development , growth and reproduction of earias vittella ( f . ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae )\nsensory receptors on the larval maxillae and labia of heliothis zea ( boddie ) and heliothis virescens ( f . ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae )\nplusiinae is a smallish ( for noctuid standards ) subfamily of the moth family noctuidae . as the noctuidae appear to be a paraphyletic assemblage , the plusiinae may eventually be raised to family status ( weller et al . 1994 ) .\n( 1994 ) : phylogeny of noctuoid moths and the utility of combining independent nuclear and mitochondrial genes .\nmarkku savela ' s lepidoptera and some other life forms : plusiinae . version of 2007 - mar - 15 . retrieved 2007 - jun - 03 .\nthis page is based on a wikipedia article written by authors ( here ) . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 license ; additional terms may apply . images , videos and audio are available under their respective licenses ."]}
{"id": 1211, "summary": [{"text": "the pied triller ( lalage nigra ) is a species of bird in the campephagidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in brunei , india , indonesia , malaysia , the philippines , singapore , and thailand . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "pied triller", "paragraphs": ["pied trillers measure between 6 . 3 - 7 inches ( 16 to 18 cm ) in length .\npied trillers occur naturally in brunei , india , indonesia , malaysia , the philippines , singapore and thailand .\n\u201cspotted a pied triller ( lalage nigra ) nest with two chicks , the usual brood number ( above ) . i was watching another bird and was already close to the nest ( 4 - 5 meters ) before i spotted it .\npied trillers feed on various insects , which are taken on the ground , picked up from foliage , or are caught in mid - air .\ntheir plumage on top is boldly patterned in brownish / black and white ( commonly referred to as\npied\n- hence their common time ) and whitish below .\ntwo trips with dev ' s tours firstly birdwatching with wendy who was very knowledgeable and enthusiastic . she was very excited when we saw a pied triller and we were very excited by three species of hornbill . we saw 42 species in a morning . binoculars can be supplied and wendy brought her telescope to help us see the birds more clearly . secondly . . .\ntaylor , b . ( 2018 ) . pied triller ( lalage nigra ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthey are closely related to the white - rumped trillers ( lalage leucopygialis ) and some authorities lump them together into one species . however , based on plumage differences , some feel they are more closely related to the white - shouldered triller ( lalage sueurii ) .\nhd video footage of a pied triller ( lalage nigra chilensis , endemic race , male ) calling from the top of a tall gmelina tree , filmed in habitat under available light . capture info - canon 7d + 400 2 . 8 l is + stacked canon 2x / sigma 1 . 4x tcs , 1120 mm , f / 11 , 1 / 125 sec , iso 400 , 475b / 3421 support , manual exposure in available light , captured in 1080 / 30p , played as 720 / 30p , paranaque city , philippines , dec . 30 , 2009\ncebuano : bugaungon . . . chinese : ? ? ? ? . . . czech : housen ? \u00edk ? ernoh ? bet\u00fd , housenc\u00edk cern\u00fd . . . danish : broget triller . . . dutch : bonte triller . . . finnish : kurnulivert\u00e4j\u00e4 . . . french : \u00e9chenilleur t\u00e9rat . . . german : wei\u00dfstirnlalage , wei\u00dfstirn - lalage . . . indonesian : kapasan , kapasan kemir . . . italian : mangiabruchi gazza . . . japanese : madaranakisanshoukui . . . malay : rembah kening putih . . . norwegian : parktrillefugl . . . polish : gasienicojad srokaty , g ? sienicojad srokaty . . . russian : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? - ? ? ? ? ? ? ? , ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? . . . slovak : h\u00faseniciarka bielocel\u00e1 . . . spanish : gorjeador p\u00e1lido . . . swedish : svartvit drillf\u00e5gel . . . thai : ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?\npreviously published on avocet as av10569 . certainty : 100 % . id determined by : not specifically indicated ; recordist normally sees birds recorded and indicates if any question . gps : xeno - canto .\nthis juvenile was found on the ground and when i made this recording it was sitting on my finger chirping away .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nkloss , 1926 \u2013 c nicobar is ( camorta , katchall , trinkat ) .\n( horsfield , 1821 ) \u2013 s thailand , peninsular malaysia , singapore , sumatra ( including nias i ) , bangka , belitung and w java ( including karimunjawa is ) .\n( j . r . forster , 1781 ) \u2013 borneo and adjacent islands , and philippines .\n) ; 20\u201331 g . male nominate race has forehead , crown , nape , mantle and scapulars . . .\nhas rather nasal chuckles , e . g . \u201cchaka - chevu\u201d , \u201cwh\u00e9\u00e9k - chuk\u201d and similar ; rattling \u201cwheek . . .\nopen woodland , forest edge , farmland , roadsides and gardens in villages and towns , cultivation , . . .\nfood arthropods , mainly caterpillars ( lepidoptera ) and \u201chard insects\u201d ; some fruit , mostly small berries ( e . g . of euphorbs such as\nbreeds may in nicobars , feb\u2013aug in malay peninsula , feb\u2013apr and jun\u2013aug in sumatra , jun in borneo and may\u2013jun in . . .\nprimarily resident . recorded seasonal changes in abundance in singapore are suggestive of migration . . .\nnot globally threatened . in peninsular malaysia , regular and common in s and on w coastal plain , but local and uncommon to rare elsewhere ; locally common to uncommon in s . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\naviceda , juan sanabria , desmond allen , josep del hoyo , paul clarke .\nwilliam ip , zotyesz , joe kelly , tomas grim , dannie polley , manakincarmelo , khamikaze , natthaphat chotjuckdikul , yvonne stevens , hickson fergusson , marco valentini , jainymaria .\nlife in shah alam lake garden - canon 7d + sigma 100 - 300 f4 + sigma 1 . 4x\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\nthis species has an extremely large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : lalage nigra . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 295 , 730 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nfound on the island of borneo ( located north of java island , indonesia ) and adjacent islands , and the philippines .\nfound in southern andaman islands and central nicobar islands ( camorta , katchall , trinkat ) .\nfound in southern thailand , peninsular malaysia , singapore , sumatra ( including nias island ) , bangka , belitung and western java ( including karimunjawa islands ) .\nthe face is white with one black stripe through each eye . the bill is black and the legs and feet greyish .\nthe open cup nest is constructed out of twigs , mosses and other plant material and usually attached to a branch . a clutch consists of 1 - 2 eggs .\nfor updates please follow beautyofbirds on google + ( google . com / + avianweb )\nthe articles or images on this page are the sole property of the authors or photographers .\n; however , mistakes do happen . if you would like to correct or update any of the information , please send us an e - mail . thank you !\nthroughout history , crows , ravens and other black birds were feared as symbols of evil or death . \u2026\nplease note : any content published on this site is commentary or opinion , and is protected under free speech . it is only provided for educational and entertainment purposes , and is in no way intended as a substitute for professional advice . avianweb / beautyofbirds or any of their authors / publishers assume no responsibility for the use or misuse of any of the published material . your use of this website indicates your agreement to these terms .\nwe noticed that you ' re using an unsupported browser . the tripadvisor website may not display properly . we support the following browsers :\ndev ' s adventure tours is an eco - friendly company with a dedicated group . . .\ndev ' s adventure tours is an eco - friendly company with a dedicated group of nature guides who will give you an introduction to langkawi ' s natural wonders . experience the flora and fauna of langkawi in a kayak , in a boat or on a bicycle and you will be amazed what this island has to offer . all trips will start with a minimum of 2 guest and there are many last - minute options , especially for single travellers .\n* tripadvisor llc is not a booking agent and does not charge any service fees to users of our site . . . (\ntripadvisor llc is not responsible for content on external web sites . taxes , fees not included for deals content .\n\u201cdecided to just stay still and the parents accepted my presence . they both brought insects prey frequently to feed the nestlings . above image shows the male with a grasshopper , below the female with a caterpillar for the chicks .\nat times the chicks were unable to handle a large prey , like a grasshopper , and the parent had to retrieve the prey and re - process it before re - feeding ( below ) .\nit was chilly morning so the female also remained at times at the nest to keep the chicks warm ( below ) .\n\u201cthe nest was located on the forked branch of a very young rain tree ( albizia saman ) approximately 3 . 5 meters above the ground level ( below ) . the nest construction included a strip of creeping ficus ( ficus pumila ) .\n\u201cone of the fascinating observations was how the adults and chicks dealt with waste . just after feeding the female positioned herself at the rear of one of the chick in anticipation of receiving a faecal sac .\n\u201cthere was some unspoken signal given for this to happen but i did not spot it . when the faecal sac , covered by a gelatinous membrane , was partially ejected ( above ) , the female picked it up ( below ) for disposal some distance from the nest . i did not see the parents consuming any faecal sacs . \u201d\nthe first part of the series can be read here . note : see this excellent write . . .\nall the way from northern india , near to the foothills of the himalayas , specifically dehradun . . .\ndato\u2019 dr amar - singh hss was at the kledang - sayong forest reserve in ipoh , malaysia on 29th . . .\na black - headed bulbul ( pycnonotus atriceps caecilii ) was observed collecting nesting material by dato\u2019 dr amar - singh . . .\n\u201ci was out today to re - visit old locations in the city , with secondary jungle / scrub , that . . .\nin the avian world , it is the law of the jungle , the survival of the . . ."]}
{"id": 1230, "summary": [{"text": "pelagia benovici ( piraino , aglieri , scorrano & boero , 2014 ) is a jellyfish in the family pelagiidae , along with pelagia noctiluca .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "in latin , pelagia means \" of the sea \" .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "the team who discovered this jellyfish named it benovici , after a late colleague , adam benovic . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "pelagia benovici", "paragraphs": ["no one has contributed data records for pelagia benovici yet . learn how to contribute .\na new species of jellyfish , pelagia benovici , was discovered off the coast of venice , italy .\npiraino and his colleagues published their description of the new jellyfish\u2014dubbed pelagia benovici\u2014this month in the journal zootaxa .\npiraino and his colleagues published their description of the new jellyfish \u2014dubbed pelagia benovici\u2014 this month in the journal zootaxa .\nin latin , pelagia means\nof the sea\n. the team who discovered this jellyfish named it benovici , after a late colleague , adam benovic .\nredescription of pelagia benovici into a new jellyfish genus , mawia , gen . nov . , and its phylogenetic position within pelagiidae ( cnidaria : scyphozoa : semaeostomeae )\nredescription of pelagia benovici into a new jellyfish genus , mawia , gen . nov . , and its phylogenetic position within pelagiidae ( cnidaria : scyphozoa : semaeostomeae ) invertebrate systematics , 2016 , 30 , 523\u2013546 urltoken\nthe december issue of invertebrate systematics an article with the description of a new genus mawia under the title redescription of pelagia benovici into a new jellyfish genus , mawia , gen . nov . , and its phylogenetic position within pelagiidae ( cnidaria : scyphozoa : semaeostomeae ) .\nscientists including boero set about trawling records of known jellyfish species to try to identify it , but found no match .\nit ' s a new species ,\nsaid boero . the team decided on the name pelagia benovici , after a late colleague , adam benovic .\nthe jellyfish - spotting project is no longer receiving reports of pelagia benovici , whose sudden appearance appears to have lasted until march .\nbut jellyfish have this erratic distribution . they are present in their millions , then they disappear and then they come back ,\nsaid boero .\nrussell , f . s . ( 1964 ) on scyphomedusae of the genus pelagia . journal of the marine biological association uk , 44 , 133\u2013136 . urltoken\nto cite this page : leverenz , e . 2000 .\npelagia noctiluca\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\nmawia benovici was noticed in september 2013 in the northern adriatic in the catch of small pelagic fish and attracted attention immediately . a survey of older observations revealed its presence in the gulf of trieste in february of 2005 by documented photograph . original image of mawia benovici was made by tihomir makovec . the geographic origin of the species is still unclear . authors of research are massimo avian , andreja ram\u0161ak , valentina tirelli , isabella d\u2019ambra , alenka malej .\nthey found that it bore similarities to pelagia noctiluca , a mauve jellyfish known for its venomous stings , which wiped out a 100 , 000 - strong salmon farm in northern ireland in 2007 .\nquite how pelagia benovici got to the north adriatic and within the venice lagoon remains a mystery . scientists think it was probably introduced to the area in the ballast water of ships . in the 1980s , mnemiopsis leidyi , a kind of comb jellyfish known as the sea walnut , was suspected to have been introduced into the black sea via the ballast water of merchant ships . its arrival caused a dramatic decline in the local fish populations .\ncornelius , p . f . s . ( 2013 ) pelagia p\u00e9ron & lesueur , 1810 . available from : urltoken aphia . php ? p = taxdetails & id = 135262 ( accessed 4 march 2014 )\npiraino , s . ; aglieri , g . ; martell , l . ; mazzoldi , c . ; melli , v . ; milisenda , g . ; scorrano , s . ; boero , f . ( 2014 ) . pelagia benovici sp . nov . ( cnidaria , scyphozoa ) : a new jellyfish in the mediterranean sea . zootaxa . 3794 ( 3 ) : 455 - 468 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nexperts aren ' t sure where p . benovici comes from , but it ' s a good bet that it could be native to the indian ocean , says marine biologist mills . it ' s an understudied part of the world known for a surprising amount of diversity in marine organisms .\ngul , s . & morandini , a . c . ( 2013 ) new records of scyphomedusae from pakistan coast : catostylus perezi and pelagia cf . noctiluca ( cnidaria : scyphozoa ) . marine biodiversity records , 6 , e86 . urltoken\npelagia , like other jellyfish in the scyphozoan order semaeostomeae are mainly distinguished from the other orders by having simple oral arms with frilled or folded lips . the order semaestomae comprises three families : pelagiidae , cyaneidae , and ulmaridae , distinguishable by the following characters :\nmiller , b . j . , von der heyden , s . & gibbons , m . j . ( 2012 ) significant population genetic structuring of the holoplanktic scyphozoan pelagia noctiluca in the atlantic ocean . african journal of marine science , 34 ( 3 ) , 425\u2013430 .\nstopar , k . , ram\u0161ak , a . , trontelj , p . & malej , a . ( 2010 ) lack of genetic structure in the jellyfish pelagia noctiluca ( cnidaria : scyphozoa : semaeostomeae ) across european seas . molecular phylogenetics and evolution , 57 , 417\u2013428 .\nresearchers are just starting to get to know p . benovici , and much work remains to be done . they aren ' t sure how painful its stings are , since many of the fishers who handled the jellyfish wore gloves . and they aren ' t sure what it eats , although closely related species are carnivores that eat fish eggs and larvae , as well as tiny crustaceans , says piraino .\nresearchers are just starting to get to know p . benovici , and much work remains to be done . they aren ' t sure how painful its stings are , since many of the fishers who handled the jellyfish wore gloves . and they aren ' t sure what it eats , although closely related species are carnivores that eat fish eggs and larvae , as well as tiny crustaceans , says piraino .\ncanepa , a . , fuentes , v . , sabat\u00e9s , a . , piraino , s . , boero , f . & gili , j . m . ( 2014 ) pelagia noctiluca in the mediterranean sea . in : pitt , k . a . & lucas , c . h . ( eds . ) , jellyfish bloom . springer , netherlands , pp . 237\u2013266 . urltoken\nin vitro experiments on developmental stages and fertilization in pelagia noctiluca ( forsk\u00e5l ) confirm previous observations both in the laboratory ( rottini sandrini & avian , 1983 ) and in the field ( rot\u2010tini sandrini et al . , 1983 / 84 ) that sea temperature exerts a marked effect on this species . development slows down at 13 . 5\u00b0c compared with 19\u00b0c . no development is observed at 4 . 5\u00b0c .\ncornelius , p . f . s . ( 1996 ) pelagia flaveola eschscholtz 1829 ( little brown stinger or little yellow stinger ) . in : williamson , j . a . , fenner , p . j . , burnett , j . w . & rifkin , j . r . ( eds . ) , venomous and poisonous marine animals : a medical and biological handbook . university of new south wales press , sydney , pp . 230\u2013231 .\nit is a member of the cnidarian class scyphozoa and adapted to a pelagic mode of life . whereas most scyphozoan jellyfish ( also called scyphomedusae ) have a complex life cycle with both the pelagic ( swimming ) jellyfish , or medusa , stage and a bottom - living polyp stage , pelagia has adapted in such a way that the polyp stage is absent , thus direct development exists . the male and female jellyfish spawn respectively sperm and eggs , which develop directly into young jellyfish .\n. . . on the basis of the observed sensitivity of polyps to low temperatures , it was suggested that the dispersal of rhopilema nomadica could be limited to the eastern mediterranean [ 95 ] . the nematocysts of rhopilema nomadica were studied using light and electron microscopy and three morphological types were identified : heterotrichous isorhiza haploneme , holotrichous isorhiza haploneme and heterotrichous microbasic eurytele ; the latter is typical of scyphozoans and was recognized as similar to those from pelagia and rhizostoma [ 97 ] . this species , existing in huge numbers , poses a big threat to humans producing burning , pain and redness of the affected skin that is counteracted by topical treatment with vinegar . . . .\nscientists in italy say they have discovered a new species of jellyfish in the gulf of venice .\nsightings of yellow jellyfish in the north adriatic sea were reported to a citizen science project last year , said ferdinando boero , a zoologist .\npeople were saying , this jellyfish is not in your poster [ of the region ' s known jellyfish ] , we don ' t know what it is ,\nsaid boero , from the university of salento .\nthey were in their thousands . fishermen had them in their nets . they couldn ' t fish easily because there were so many jellyfish .\ncould this new species pose the same kind of threat ?\nwe really don ' t know because there have not been so many investigations besides what it is . what it does is a completely different story ,\nsaid boero .\nthere have to be more investigations about it .\n\u00a9 2018 guardian news and media limited or its affiliated companies . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ncarlotta mazzoldi dipartimento di biologia e stazione idrobiologica umberto d\u2019ancona , chioggia , universit\u00e0 di padova .\nvalentina melli dipartimento di biologia e stazione idrobiologica umberto d\u2019ancona , chioggia , universit\u00e0 di padova .\nbayha , k . m . & dawson , m . n . ( 2010 ) new family of allomorphic jellyfishes , drymonematidae ( scyphozoa , discomedusae ) , emphasizes evolution in the functional morphology and trophic ecology of gelatinous zooplankton . biological bulletin woods hole , 219 , 249\u201367 .\nbayha , k . m . , dawson , m . n . , collins , a . g . , barbeitos , m . s . & haddock , s . h . ( 2010 ) evolutionary relationships among scyphozoan jellyfish families based on complete taxon sampling and phylogenetic analyses of 18s and 28s ribosomal dna . integrative and comparative biology , 50 ( 3 ) , 436\u2013455 . urltoken\nboero , f . ( 2013 ) review of jellyfish blooms in the mediterranean and black sea . studies and reviews . general fisheries commission for the mediterranean 92 , fao , rome , 54 pp .\nboero , f . , bouillon , j . , gravili , c . , miglietta , m . p . , parsons , t . & piraino , s . ( 2008 ) gelatinous plankton : irregularities rule the world ( sometimes ) . marine ecology progress series , 356 , 299\u2013310 . urltoken\nbrotz , l . & pauly , d . ( 2012 ) jellyfish populations in the mediterranean sea . acta adriatica , 53 , 211\u2013230 .\nciesm ( 2001 ) gelatinous zooplankton outbreaks : theory and practice . ciesm worshop series 14 , mediterreanan science commission , monaco , 112 pp .\ncornelius , p . f . s . ( 1997 ) class scyphozoa \u2013 jellyfish . in : richmond , m . d . ( ed . ) , a guide to the seashores of eastern africa and the western indian ocean islands . sida / department for research cooperation , sarec , stockholm , pp . 122\u2013125 .\ndawson , m . n . ( 2005 ) cyanea capillata is not a cosmopolitan jellyfish : morphological and molecular evidence for c . annaskala and c . rosea ( scyphozoa : semaeostomeae : cyaneidae ) in south - eastern australia . invertebrate systematics , 19 , 361\u2013370 .\ndawson , m . n . & jacobs , d . ( 2001 ) molecular evidence for cryptic species of aurelia aurita ( cnidaria , schyphozoa ) . biological bullettin woods hole , 200 , 92\u201396 .\ndawson , m . n . , raskoff , k . & jacobs , d . ( 1998 ) preservation of marine invertebrate tissues for dna analyses . molecular marine biology and biotechnology , 7 , 145\u2013152 .\nfolmer , o . , black , m . , hoeh , w . , lutz , r . & vrijenhoek , r . ( 1994 ) dna primers for amplification of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit i from diverse metazoan invertebrates . molecular marine biology and biotechnology , 3 , 294\u2013299 .\ngalil , b . s . ( 2009 ) taking stock : inventory of alien species in the mediterranean sea . biological invasions , 11 , 359\u2013372 . urltoken\ngalil , b . s . ( 2012 ) truth and consequences : the bioinvasion of the mediterranean sea . integrative zoology , 7 , 299\u2013311 . urltoken\ngalil , b . s . , kumar , b . a . & riyas , a . j . ( 2013 ) marivagia stellata galil and gershwin , 2010 ( scyphozoa : rhizostomeae : cepheidae ) , found off the coast of kerala , india . bioinvasions records , 2 , 317\u2013318 . urltoken\ngalil , b . s . , spanier , e . & ferguson , w . ( 1990 ) the scyphomedusae of the mediterranean coast of israel , including two lessepsian migrants new to the mediterranean . zoologisches mededlingen , 64 , 95\u2013105 .\ngalil , b . s . , gershwin , l . - a . , douek , j . & rinkevich , b . ( 2010 ) marivagia stellata gen . et sp . nov . ( scyphozoa : rhizostomeae : cepheidae ) , another alien jellyfish from the mediterranean coast of israel . aquatic invasions , 5 , 331\u2013340 . urltoken\ngershwin , l . - a . & collins , a . g . ( 2002 ) a preliminary phylogeny of pelagiidae ( cnidaria , scyphozoa ) , with new observations of chrysaora colorata comb . nov . journal of natural history , 36 , 127\u2013148 . urltoken\nhuang , x . & madan , a . ( 1999 ) cap3 : a dna sequence assembly program . genome research , 9 , 868\u2013877 . urltoken\nkramp , p . ( 1961 ) synopsis of the medusae of the world . journal of the marine biological association uk , 40 , 1\u2013469 . urltoken\nkrasinska , s . ( 1914 ) beitr\u00e4ge zur histologie der medusen . zeitschrift f\u00fcr wissenschaftliche zoologie , 109 , 256\u2013348 .\nlewinsohn , c . & holthuis , l . b . ( 1978 ) on a new species of alpheus ( crustacea decapoda , natantia ) from the eastern medeterranean . zoologisches mededlingen , 53 , 75\u201382 .\nmaas , o . ( 1903 ) die scyphomedusen der siboga expedition . siboga expedition monographs , 11 , 1\u201391 . urltoken\nmaddison , d . r . & maddison , w . p . ( 2005 ) macclade 4 : analysis of phylogeny and character evolution . version 4 . 08a . available from : urltoken ( accessed 25 april 2014 ) .\nmariscal , r . ( 1974 ) nematocysts . in : muscatine , l . & lenhoff , h . ( eds . ) , coelenterate biology . reviews and new perspectives . academic press , new york , pp . 129\u2013178 .\nmenon , m . g . k . ( 1930 ) the scyphomedusae of madras and the neighbouring coast . bulletin of the madras government museum , 3 , 1\u201328 .\nmianzan , h . w . & cornelius , p . ( 1999 ) cubomedusae and scyphomedusae . in : boltovskoy , d . ( ed . ) , south atlantic zooplankton . blackuys publishers , leiden , pp . 513\u2013559 .\nmorandini , a . c . & marques , a . c . ( 2010 ) revision of the genus chrysaora p\u00e9ron & lesueur , 1810 ( cnidaria : scyphozoa ) , zootaxa , 97 , 1\u201397 .\nocchipinti - ambrogi , a . , marchini , a . , cantone , g . , castelli , a . , chimenz , c . , cormaci , m . , froglia , c . , furnari , g . , gambi , m . c . , giaccone , g . , giangrande , a . , gravili , c . , mastrototaro , f . , mazziotti , c . , orsi - relini , l . & piraino , s . ( 2011 ) alien species along the italian coasts : an overview . biological invasions , 13 , 215\u201337 . urltoken\nortman , b . d . , bucklin , a . , pag\u00e8s , f . & youngbluth , m . ( 2010 ) dna barcoding the medusozoa using mtcoi . deep sea research part ii topical studies in oceanography , 57 , 2148\u20132156 .\n\u00f6stman , c . ( 2000 ) a guideline to nematocyst nomenclature and classification , and some notes on the systematic value of nematocysts . scientia marina , 64 , 31\u201346 .\n\u00f6stman , c . & hydman , j . ( 1997 ) nematocyst analysis of cyanea capillata and cyanea lamarckii ( scyphozoa , cnidaria ) . scientia marina , 61 , 313\u2013344 .\nprieto , l . , armani , a . & macias , d . ( 2013 ) recent stranding of the giant jellyfish rhizostoma luteum quoy and gaimard , 1827 ( cnidaria : schyphozoa : rhizostomeae ) on the atlantic and mediterranean coasts . marine biology , 160 , 3241\u20133247 .\nrussell , f . s . ( 1970 ) the medusae of the british isles ii . pelagic scyphozoa with a supplement to the first volume on hydromedusae . cambridge university press , cambridge , 284 pp . available from : urltoken publications / medusae _ 2 / medusae _ 2 _ complete . pdf ( accessed 25 april 2014 ) .\ntamura , k . , peterson , d . , peterson , n . , stecher , g . , nei , m . & kumar , s . ( 2011 ) mega5 : molecular evolutionary genetics analysis using maximum likelihood , evolutionary distance , and maximum parsimony methods . molecular biology and evolution , 28 , 2731\u20132739 . urltoken\nthompson , j . d . , gibson , t . j . , plewniak , f . , jeanmougin , f . & higgins , d . g . ( 1997 ) the clustal _ x windows interface : flexible strategies for multiple sequence alignment aided by quality analysis tools . nucleic acids research , 25 , 4876\u20134882 . urltoken\nweill , r . ( 1934 ) contribution a l\u2019\u00e9tude des cnidaries et de leurs n\u00e9matocystes . ii : valeur taxonomique du cnidome . travaux de la station zoologique de wimereux , 10 / 11 , 348\u2013701 .\ncollins , a . g . ; jarms , g . ; morandini , a . c . ( 2018 ) . world list of scyphozoa .\npiraino , aglieri , scorrano & boero , 2014 . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 851656 on 2018 - 07 - 09\nmarchini , a . ; ferrario , j . ; sfriso , a . ; occhipinti - ambrogi , a . ( 2015 ) . current status and trends of biological invasions in the lagoon of venice , a hotspot of marine nis introductions in the mediterranean sea . biological invasions . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance . if your browser does not accept cookies , you cannot view this site .\nthere are many reasons why a cookie could not be set correctly . below are the most common reasons :\nyou have cookies disabled in your browser . you need to reset your browser to accept cookies or to ask you if you want to accept cookies .\nyour browser asks you whether you want to accept cookies and you declined . to accept cookies from this site , use the back button and accept the cookie .\nyour browser does not support cookies . try a different browser if you suspect this .\nthe date on your computer is in the past . if your computer ' s clock shows a date before 1 jan 1970 , the browser will automatically forget the cookie . to fix this , set the correct time and date on your computer .\nyou have installed an application that monitors or blocks cookies from being set . you must disable the application while logging in or check with your system administrator .\nthis site uses cookies to improve performance by remembering that you are logged in when you go from page to page . to provide access without cookies would require the site to create a new session for every page you visit , which slows the system down to an unacceptable level .\nthis site stores nothing other than an automatically generated session id in the cookie ; no other information is captured .\nin general , only the information that you provide , or the choices you make while visiting a web site , can be stored in a cookie . for example , the site cannot determine your email name unless you choose to type it . allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer , and only the site that created the cookie can read it .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhundreds of golden jellyfish that clogged fishing nets off the coast of venice , italy , are in fact a new species , experts say .\nlast fall , fishers in the adriatic sea ( map ) near venice , italy , pulled up nets full of hundreds of two - inch - wide ( five centimeter ) , golden jellyfish . having never seen the jellyfish before , the fishers sent pictures to researchers , who identified the beautiful interlopers as a new species .\nabout two or three new jellyfish species pop up every year , says claudia mills , a marine biologist at the university of washington in friday harbor . however , finding such a conspicuous newcomer in a relatively shallow body of water close to shore is extremely rare , says stefano piraino , a jellyfish researcher at the universit\u00e0 del salento in lecce , italy .\nthe find comes as a surprise to scientists because the adriatic sea is one of the best studied bodies of water in the world . the fact that this jellyfish avoided detection until last year suggests that it is a fairly recent arrival , the study authors assert . this means that it ' s probably an invasive species , piraino said in an email interview .\nthe gulf of venice in the adriatic sea is a hot spot for alien species introduction , he explains . intense transcontinental shipping activity , as well as the aquaculture trade , provides plenty of opportunities for invasive species to set up shop .\nwe believe this species entered the mediterranean sea by ballast water transfer [ by ships ] ,\npiraino says .\n< p > an evidence describes the source of an annotation , e . g . an experiment that has been published in the scientific literature , an orthologous protein , a record from another database , etc . < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ manual / evidences\n> more . . . < / a > < / p >\nhelp pages , faqs , uniprotkb manual , documents , news archive and biocuration projects .\nyou are using a version of browser that may not display all the features of this website . please consider upgrading your browser .\n< p > when browsing through different uniprot proteins , you can use the \u2018basket\u2019 to save them , so that you can back to find or analyse them later . < p > < a href = ' / help / basket ' target = ' _ top ' > more . . . < / a > < / p >\n< p > this will take you to the blast page where you can edit options < / p > < p > < a href =\n/ help / sequence - searches\n> more . . < / a > < / p >\nwe ' d like to inform you that we have updated our privacy notice to comply with europe\u2019s new general data protection regulation ( gdpr ) that applies since 25 may 2018 .\nthe precise description of species is essential for numerous fields such as ecology , identification of invasive species and their effects on both ecosystems and humans . achievement is important due to the complicated systematics of scyphozoans combined with their complex life and unpredictable appearances , ecological plasticity and unfortunately lack of taxonomists .\nyou ' re currently viewing our forum as a guest . this means you are limited to certain areas of the board and there are some features you can ' t use . if you join our community , you ' ll be able to access member - only sections , and use many member - only features such as customizing your profile and voting in polls . registration is simple , fast , and completely free .\nis an animal , thus non - photosynthetic , multicellular eukaryote , in the phylum cnidaria . being a cnidarian it is diploblastic , having an ectoderm and endoderm separated by an ectodermally derived mesoglea that can be cellular or acellular .\nin addition , members of the pelagiidae have no ring canal , and the marginal tentacles arise from umbrella margin .\nlast fall , fishers in the adriatic sea near venice , italy , pulled up nets full of hundreds of two - inch - wide ( five centimeter ) , golden jellyfish . having never seen the jellyfish before , the fishers sent pictures to researchers , who identified the beautiful interlopers as a new species .\nabout two or three new jellyfish species pop up every year , says claudia mills , a marine biologist at the university of washington in friday harbor . however , finding such a conspicuous newcomer in a relatively shallow body of water close to shore is extremely rare , says stefano piraino , a jellyfish researcher at the universit\u00e0 del salento in lecce , italy .\nm . avian , a . ram\u0161ak , v . tirelli , i . d ' ambra and a . malej\nantonio archidona - yuste , juan a . navas - cort\u00e9s , carolina cantalapiedra - navarrete , juan e . palomares - rius and pablo castillo\nxiphinema species are an important group of plant - parasitic nematodes with a high number of species and distributed almost worldwide . the aim of this work is to describe two new species of xiphinema ( x . macrodora , sp . nov . and x . oleae , sp . nov . ) using an integrative approach ( morphologically , morphometrically and molecularly ) . this study expands the biodiversity and morphological traits of this genus . image : line drawing of the female lip region of xiphinema macrodora , sp . nov .\ntwo spider species new to science have been discovered in the western italian alps , one of the most important biodiversity hot spot in europe . the new species belong to a group of cave dwelling spiders ( pimoa ) represented so far in europe by two species only . according to the molecular analysis , these spider species originated as a result of dramatic climatic change occurring in europe between 13 and 1 million years ago . photograph : pimoa graphitica , sp . nov . , by francesco tomasinelli .\nhigh - mountain regions are known to harbour considerable biodiversity , although it is not all well known , especially in world\u2019s largest mountain range , the himalayas . intensive field surveys of limnic molluscs resulted in the discovery of a species that can be clearly distinguished from all other sphaeriid bivalve species with oriental biogeographical affinity occurring in nepal . our findings highlight the importance of studies of the freshwater biodiversity at high - altitude ecosystems . images : line drawings of left \u2013 pisidium alexeii , sp . nov . and right \u2013 p . prasongi .\nmorphology and distribution of body scales are fundamental in the classification and evolution of entomobryidae . molecular phylogeny clustered the new genus lepidodens , having pointed scales on dens , with entomobryinae rather than seirinae . this study clearly undermines the traditional separation of entomobryinae and seirinae / lepidocyrtinae , and demonstrate that dental scales could occur in all entomobryid subfamilies containing scaled taxa . photographs : scales in lepidodens similis , gen . and sp . nov .\nthe description here of two new shark tapeworms belonging to the genus calliobothrium suggests that diversity in this genus has been underreported and that species exhibit tighter host - specificity than once thought . molecular phylogenetic analyses of species of calliobothrium and the closely related genus symcallio provide insight into the evolution of diagnostic morphological features . comparison of this phylogeny with that of their hosts , sharks of the genus mustelus , reveals interesting host association patterns . image : line drawing of calliobothrium cisloi , sp . nov . scolex .\nmichele cesari , sandra j . mcinnes , roberto bertolani , lorena rebecchi and roberto guidetti\nantarctica is an ice - dominated continent and all its terrestrial and freshwater habitats are fragmented , which leads eventually to speciation . acutuncus antarcticus is the most common antarctic tardigrade , and morphological and molecular analyses elucidated its genetic diversity and distribution . all analysed specimens were morphologically indistinguishable and presented the same 18s rrna sequence , while cytochrome c oxidase subunit i analysis showed higher variability . acutuncus antarcticus can still be considered a pan - antarctic species , although there is the potential for future speciation events . photograph : acutuncus antarcticus , from crater cirque , victoria land , antarctica .\nchien - lin chen , joseph w . goy , heather d . bracken - grissom , darryl l . felder , ling ming tsang and tin - yam chan\nfound in the mediterranean and the atlantic ocean , it lives mainly in the open ocean as well as in coastal waters . ( grzimek 1972 )\nthe habitat is primarily pelagic , or in the open ocean . however , this species can survive almost anywhere ocean currents carry it , including benthic and temperate coastal habitats . ( calder 2000 ; grzimek 1972 )\nlike other cnidarians , this species is radially symmetrical . they have distinct tissues , but no organs , and only one body opening . the tissues are the outer epidermis , the inner gastrodermis , and a middle layer of gelatinous mesoglea , which has a cartilege - like consistency . the medusa stage is most prominant , and no bottom - dwelling stage exists . the umbrella edge is divided into eight lobes , where sense organs such as light receptors and odor pits are located . the umbrella can be bell - shaped or hemispherical , and color can range from purple to brownish - red .\nhas a frilled edge on the bell , with eight thin , stinging tentacles and four lobes hanging down from the mouth , called oral arms . the tentacles are very elastic . the name means\nnight light\nin german for a reason . very colorful , this jellyfish phosphoresces when disturbed and can leave a luminous mucous behind if handled . it is called the\nmauve jelly\nby the british . also known as the oceanic jelly , this species is adapted to life in the open water . it is in the class scyphozoa , the true jellyfish . the estimated lifespan of\nis two to six months , and death is usually caused by rough waters . ( grzimek 1972 ; stachowitsch 1991 ; calder 2000 ; marr 1999 )\nthe adults , which have separate sexes , reproduce sexually by releasing gametes from gonads located near the center of the body . the ova and sperm are released through the mouth of the jellyfish , and fertilize externally . each fertilized egg forms a planulae , an undifferentiated mass of cells that swims with external cilia . planula may be widely dispersed by oceanic currents . unlike other species which have a bottom - dwelling polyp stage ,\n' s planulae develop directly into ephyrae , young medusae . the ephyrae quickly grows into an adult medusa , completing the life cycle . ( banister and campbell 1985 ; stachowitsch 1991 ; calder 2000 )\nhas appeared in shoals 45 kilometers in length , with thousands of jellyfish involved . they move by rhythmically contracting a muscular ring on the bottom of the bell , which propels them . the ring is formed by many specialized epithelial cells that can each contract individualy as well . the mesoglea can aid in buoyancy by expelling certain ions , which are replaced by lighter ones . however , the jellyfish usually end up wherever the currents take them .\ndefends itself with the same nematocysts used to capture prey . the nematocysts are\nfired\nby using water pressure . first , a high concentration of ions is built up inside the cells . when the nematocyst is stimulated to discharge , the walls become permeable to water . the water rushing in shoves the barb out and into the other organism , injecting a toxin along the way . this is one of the fastest cellular processes known in nature . ( banister and campbell 1985 ; grzimek 1972 ; raven and johnson 1999 )\ncarnivorous like other cnidarians , this species preys mainly on zooplankton , small fish , crustaceans , other jellyfish , and eggs .\ncaptures its prey with tentacles armed with cnidocytes , each of which contains a nematocyst . nematocysts have barbed filaments to trap their prey and toxins to stun them . they can even pierce the shell of a crab with their barbs . food is digested intracellularly as well as extracellularly , in a gut cavity , enabling them to eat multicellular animals . ( raven and johnson 1999 ; banister and campbell 1985 )\nare beautiful , especially when they phosphoresce . the chemical reactions causing their luminescence are currently of great interest to researchers . other jellyfish are used for medical and therapeutic purposes , and\nmight soon be helpful for humans . one possible use of their fluorescent protein is as a genetic marker to detect protein movement or gene expression in research in developmental , environmental and medical biology . ( manning 1997 )\n- is among the jellyfish that scare tourists away from beaches , especially in the mediterranean . italian beaches were overrun by large groups of them in the summer of 1999 . the sting of -\n- is venomous to humans , but normally only causes a whip - like scar across the body . in rare cases of allergic reactions , life - threatening conditions like anaphylactic shock can occur . fishermen are also affected by jellyfish , including -\n- . there have been reports from france of jellyfish tearing holes in fishing nets . ( marr 1999 ; calder 2000 )\n- is not in danger of extinction at the present time . they are multiplying in number in the mediterranean , but are expected to return to normal levels in the next few years . ( marr 1999 )\nerin leverenz ( author ) , southwestern university , stephanie fabritius ( editor ) , southwestern university .\nthe body of water between africa , europe , the southern ocean ( above 60 degrees south latitude ) , and the western hemisphere . it is the second largest ocean in the world after the pacific ocean .\nreferring to an animal that lives on or near the bottom of a body of water . also an aquatic biome consisting of the ocean bottom below the pelagic and coastal zones . bottom habitats in the very deepest oceans ( below 9000 m ) are sometimes referred to as the abyssal zone . see also oceanic vent .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\na form of body symmetry in which the parts of an animal are arranged concentrically around a central oral / aboral axis and more than one imaginary plane through this axis results in halves that are mirror - images of each other . examples are cnidarians ( phylum cnidaria , jellyfish , anemones , and corals ) .\nbanister , d . , d . campbell eds . . 1985 . sea anemones and jellyfishes . pp . 176 - 177 in\ncalder , . .\nkeys to marine invertebrates of the woods hole region\n( on - line ) . accessed february 6 , 2000 at urltoken .\nmarr , m . august 23 , 1999 .\nelectronic library ( members only ) ' italy smarts from invasion of the jellyfish '\n( on - line ) . accessed february 2 , 2000 at urltoken .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\nrhopilema nomadica\u2014a recently discovered scyphomedusa in the eastern mediterranean\u2014is considered a lessepsian migrant . its nematocysts were extracted from the scapular and mouth - arm tentacles and examined using light and electron microscopy techniques . the morphometric parameters of the nematocysts were measured before and after complete discharge . three categories of nematocysts were identified : heterotrichous isorhiza haploneme , holotrichous isorhiza haploneme , and heterotrichous microbasic eurytele . the relative abundance of the nematocysts and their occurrence in tissues of the jellyfish were noted . a brief discussion concerning the classification of certain types of nematocysts is given . a comparison with the available data on other rhopilema species revealed that the nematocyst categories of r . nomadica are more similar to those of the atlantic r . verrilli than to those of the western pacific r . esculentum . a brief comparison of the injuries caused by these species is given . \u00a9 1995 wiley - liss , inc .\n. . . when stimulated , the coiled tubule everts , penetrating the epidermis of human skin , and venom is injected from the capsule through the tubule into the tissue of the victim [ 8 ] . three categories of nematocysts have been identified in r . nomadica : heterotrichous isorhiza haploneme , holotrichous isorhiza haploneme , and heterotrichous microbasic eurytele [ 9 ] . the venom mostly contains enzymatic polypeptides , including a heat - stable phos - pholipase a 2 that hydrolyzes the phospholipids of epi - thelial cells , leading to lysis . . . .\n. . . this may explain the local dermonecrotic and systemic cardior - espiratory events that can occur after envenomation . the severity of injury is related to the area affected and depends on individual sensitivity [ 9 ] , as well as the chemical composition of the venom , number of nema - tocysts discharged , and the general condition of the victim . . . .\n. . . es - esculenta \u043e\u043d \u043c\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0442 \u0437\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0432\u044b\u0448\u0430\u0442\u044c 450 \u043c\u043c . \u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043e \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0445 , \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0438\u043c\u0443\u0449\u0435\u00ad \u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0449\u0438 \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0438 , \u0434\u043e\u00ad \u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u043d\u044b \u0434\u043b\u044f r . esculenta , r . nomadica \u0438 r . verilli ( calder , 1972calder , , 1977chen , ding , 1981 ; avian et al . , 1995 ) . \u043f\u043e\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043d\u043e , \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0437\u0440\u0435\u043b\u044b\u0435 \u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u0438 \u044d\u0442\u0438\u0445 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u0441\u043e\u0434\u0435\u0440\u0436\u0430\u0442 \u043d\u0435\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0435 \u0447\u0438\u0441\u043b\u043e \u0442\u0438\u043f\u043e\u0432 \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0430\u00ad \u0442\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0441\u0442 . . . .\n. . . \u0443 r . verilli \u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u043d\u044b \u0442\u0440\u0438 \u0442\u0438\u043f\u0430 \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u2013 \u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0438\u0437\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0437\u044b ( \u0430\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0445\u0438 a - \u0438\u0437\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0437\u044b ) , \u0433\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0438\u00ad \u0445\u0438 \u0433\u0430\u043f\u043b\u043e\u043d\u0435\u043c\u044b ( \u0438\u043d\u0430\u0447\u0435 \u2013 \u0433\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0437\u044b , calder , 1977 ) \u0438 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0430\u0437\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0433\u0435\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0445\u0438 \u044d\u0432\u00ad \u0440\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 . \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0436\u0435 \u0442\u0438\u043f\u044b \u043d\u0435\u043c\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0446\u0438\u0441\u0442 \u043e\u0431\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0435\u043d\u044b \u0438 \u0443 r . nomadica ( avian et al . , 1995 ) . \u043d\u0435\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0437avian et al . , 1995 ) . . . .\n. . . jellyfish tentacles contain these specialized nematocyst structures , which allow envenomation due to highly coiled tubules armed with spines and is species dependent [ there are several morphological types of nematocysts with a variation of discharge velocities , capsular size , tubule length , and trajectory . variable reported stinging potencies of individual nematocyst types have been reported that suggest the severity of the sting differing between species in different geographic locations , dependent on nematocyst composition [ 19 , 24 , 27 , 28 ] . there are several morphological types of nematocysts with a variation of discharge velocities , capsular size , tubule length , and trajectory . . . .\n. . . there are several morphological types of nematocysts with a variation of discharge velocities , capsular size , tubule length , and trajectory . variable reported stinging potencies of individual nematocyst types have been reported that suggest the severity of the sting differing between species in different geographic locations , dependent on nematocyst composition [ 19 , 24 , 27 , 28 ] . . . .\n. . . fishing tentacles and oral arms were used for the preparation of intact cnidocysts following the methods described in endean ( 1987 ) , burnett et al . ( 1992 ) , avian et al . ( 1995 ) and bloom et al . ( 1998 ) . the methodology was modified to accommodate large scale preparation for biochemical and analytical purposes and to suit available laboratory facilities on board the research vessel . . . .\n. . . it was concluded that the two types of nematocysts found in the macerated samples were consistent with the measurement data given by calder ( 1977 ) . the method of maceration with dw is described in numerous other studies ( avian et al . 1995 ; rottini et al . 1995 ; helmholz et al . 2007 ) . all these studies implement the maceration by a mechanical treatment of the used tissue , e . g . . . .\n. . . when the jellyfish swarms draw nearer shore they adversely affect tourism , fisheries and coastal installations . local municipalities in israel reported a decrease in holiday makers frequenting the beaches because of the public ' s concern over the painful stings inflicted by the jellyfish ( avian et al . 1995 , kokelj et al . 1995 ) . coastal trawling and purse - seine fishing are disrupted for the duration of the swarming due to net clogging and inability to sort yield , due to the overwhelming presence of the venomous jellyfish in the nets . . . .\nthe lessepsian migration is the largest marine invasion in the world . hundreds of species have already passed the suez canal and settled in the eastern mediterranean sea . in the last few decades , s\u2026\n[ more ]\na tropical jellyfish , rhopilema nomadica ( scyphozoa , rhizostomeae ) has recently invaded the eastern mediterranean . its painful stings have been the bane of bathers and fishermen from egypt to turkey . this paper reports on the presence of haemolytic activity and alpha - chymotrypsin - like serine protease activity in the venom of the r . nomadica nematocysts . in addition , the presence of . . . [ show full abstract ]\navian , m . , galil , b . , spanier , e . , rottini sandrini , l . 1994 . rhopilema nomadica ( cnidaria ; scyphozo . . ."]}
{"id": 1242, "summary": [{"text": "luprisca incuba is an extinct species of ostracod \u2014 a group related to crabs , shrimps and lobsters .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it was described as a new species in 2014 , following discovery and analysis of fossilised specimens in mudstone rocks from new york state , usa .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "a team of researchers from the universities of yale and kansas , oxford and the japan agency of marine science and technology made the discovery . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "luprisca incuba", "paragraphs": ["the ostracod luprisca incuba , as imaged by x - ray and ct scans eggs and possible hatched young are in yellow .\na newly discovered fossil ostracod called luprisca incuba , showing limbs and eggs , from 450 - million - year old rocks in new york .\nthe scientific team \u2014 which included researchers from the universities of yale and kansas , oxford and the japan agency of marine science and technology \u2014 named the new species luprisca incuba after lucina , the goddess of childbirth , and incuba , indicating the mother was sitting , incubating , her eggs .\nhave shell , will travel . the pyritized luprisca incuba in all its glory with leg - like antennae on top and eggs on bottom . from siveter et al . , 2014 . click image for source .\nimage : have shell , will travel . the pyritized luprisca incuba in all its glory with leg - like antennae on top and eggs on bottom . from siveter et al . , 2014 . click for source .\nthe newly discovered species reported in the study was named luprisca incuba after lucina , the roman goddess of childbirth . the fossils are now part of the collection at the yale peabody museum of natural history , the researchers said .\nan x - ray ct scan of fossilized luprisca incuba reveals 10 embryos and bivalved juveniles ( highlighted in yellow ) preserved inside her . legs are at right . fig . 2d from siveter et al . , 2014 . click image for source .\nthe scientists have named the ostracods luprisca incuba , after lucina , the goddess of childbirth in ancient rome . babusonas and those who insist that only doting bengali mothers are capable of delivering the highest levels of maternal care might have wished a different nomenclature .\nbut the squishy bits inside those countless ostracod shells rarely survived the fossilization process . in this case , by a miracle of geology , they did . the fossil at the top of this page and three others like it from beecher ' s were studied by a team of scientists from the united kingdom , japan , and the united states and their findings were published in current biology this month . they named the new species luprisca incuba .\na researcher at the university of kansas is part of a team to uncover strong evidence of brood - care parenting strategy in 450 - million - year - old crustaceans \u2014 the oldest verification of ovarian - to - juvenile brood care in the fossil record . the new species of ostracod exhibiting brood care , which the team named luprisca incuba , are held at yale\u2019s peabody museum of natural history and were collected in central new york state .\neven though brood care has been posed as an extended reproductive strategy across the crustacea and has evolved independently multiple times , fossil evidence of such behavioural repertoires is poorly known within the clade , and has only been unequivocally documented in two female myodocope ostracods , nymphatelina gravida and luprisca incuba , retaining eggs and possible juveniles in a brood space 37 , 38 ; and two comparatively modern miocene isopods 39 . the egg - brooding reproductive mode for ostracoda ( particularly myodocopes ) is coupled with morphological specializations such as a posteriorly inflated carapace , and is completely different from those specializations which enable the ventrally - suspended marsupium of peracarids .\nhowever , not all details have remained unchanged . the external shell of l . incuba has none of the characteristic features of the living ostracod group it is believed to belong to , the myodocopida . even with organisms i rightly believe can be called\nliving fossils\n, some things change , some remain the same .\nthe pyrite also preserves a few other tiny , stunning details of anatomy . remember those elegant , bristly antennae and that nubbly shell from the film ? well , 450 million years ago , it was thus . at left are the antennae and setae ( f ) and the shell texture ( g ) from l . incuba .\naccording to this team , the little fossils - - just 1 - 2 mm long - - are the only known invertebrate fossils that seem to indicate simultaneous brooding of eggs , embryos , and young . the fossils also indicate that this habit , maintained by some ostracods today , has persisted for at least 450 million years . most living ostracods lay their eggs outside their bodies , although a few living groups , including the one our fossil ostracod is believed to have belonged to , brood their embryos inside . the number and size of l . incuba ' s brood is similar to its modern descendants , and the overlap of eggs , embryos and the recently hatched is also known today .\nscientists have uncovered a new fossil species preserved in a way that reveals how parents took care of their young 450 million years ago .\na team comprised of scientists from the u . s . , u . k . and japan discovered a new species of a fossil ostracod \u2014 a group related to crabs , shrimps and lobsters \u2014 in mudstone rocks from new york state .\nostracods are tiny crustaceans that live in lakes , ponds , rivers and oceans .\nscientists used x - ray techniques to examine the fossils , which are preserved in pyrite .\nwhat they discovered , the scientists said in the study published in the journal current biology , was a \u201cnursery in the sea\nin which the species were preserved incubating their eggs together with some eggs already hatched .\nthis a very rare and exciting find from the fossil record , \u201d said david siveter , a professor of paleontology at the university of leicester in britain .\n\u201conly a handful of examples are known where eggs are fossilized and associated with the parent . this discovery tells us that these ancient tiny marine crustaceans took particular care of their brood in exactly the same way as their living relatives .\nresearchers say their find marks what they say is the oldest evidence of a reproductive and child - care strategy of any species .\nthe newly unearthed fossils are only two to three millimetres long and are said to be \u201cexceptionally well - preserved , \u201d complete with the shell and also the soft parts of the animal within the shell .\nto encourage thoughtful and respectful conversations , first and last names will appear with each submission to cbc / radio - canada ' s online communities ( except in children and youth - oriented communities ) . pseudonyms will no longer be permitted .\nby submitting a comment , you accept that cbc has the right to reproduce and publish that comment in whole or in part , in any manner cbc chooses . please note that cbc does not endorse the opinions expressed in comments . comments on this story are moderated according to our submission guidelines . comments are welcome while open . we reserve the right to close comments at any time .\naudience relations , cbc p . o . box 500 station a toronto , on canada , m5w 1e6\nit is a priority for cbc to create a website that is accessible to all canadians including people with visual , hearing , motor and cognitive challenges .\nclosed captioning and described video is available for many cbc - tv shows offered on cbc watch .\ncredit : siveter , david j . , tanaka , g . , farrell , c . \u00fa . , martin , m . j . , siveter , derek j & briggs , d . e . g .\nthe oldest fossil evidence of animal\nbabysitting\nnow comes from 450 - million - year - old rocks in new york .\nsmall marine animals called ostracods , a group of crustaceans that includes more than 20 , 000 species living today , were discovered buried with their eggs and young by a team led by researchers from the university of leicester in britain . the findings were published today ( march 13 ) in the journal current biology .\nthis is a very rare and exciting find from the fossil record ,\ndavid siveter , lead study author and a geologist at the university of leicester , said in a statement .\nonly a handful of examples are known where eggs are fossilized and associated with the parent . this discovery tells us that these ancient , tiny marine crustaceans took particular care of their brood in exactly the same way as their living relatives .\nthe ostracod specimens are among the rare fossils that preserve body tissues , such as limbs , embryos and other soft parts . these tissues have been replaced by the mineral pyrite , or fool ' s gold , but the mineralization means the researchers could closely examine the tiny fossils by x - ray and ct scanning .\nthe tiny fossils , each less than a quarter - inch ( 2 to 3 millimeters ) long , were collected from a rock layer called the lorraine group . composed of muddy seafloor sediments , the layers have also yielded other spectacular sea creatures from the ordovician period , such as spiky trilobites . researchers have uncovered older evidence of egg laying by animals , such as 600 - million - year - old fossil embryos from rocks in south china , but this is the first time that brooding has been discovered so far back in invertebrates .\nemail becky oskin or follow her @ beckyoskin . follow us @ livescience , facebook & google + . original article on live science .\nbecky oskin covers earth science , climate change and space , as well as general science topics . becky was a science reporter at live science and the pasadena star - news ; she has freelanced for new scientist and the american institute of physics . she earned a master ' s degree in geology from caltech , a bachelor ' s degree from washington state university , and a graduate certificate in science writing from the university of california , santa cruz .\nonce upon a time there lived a little crustacean inside a little shell . this is not a usual state of affairs for a crustacean . most are clad in figure - hugging armor ( like lobsters or crabs ) , but they don\u2019t live inside clam - like shells .\nonce upon a time there lived a little crustacean inside a little shell . this is not a usual state of affairs for a crustacean . most are clad in figure - hugging armor ( like lobsters or crabs ) , but they don ' t live inside clam - like shells . this one was different . it had both armor and a hinged shell . inside her cozy little fortress , she lived together with her children . there were nearly a dozen , some hatched , some not . she had long front legs , which she may have used for hauling around her nursery / mobile home . together , they lived in the deep center of a quiet , soft - bottomed marine basin , near some nice trilobites called triarthrus . their days were all numbered .\none day , a great choking cloud of sediment plunged into the basin . it was a turbidity current - - an underwater landslide . it swept swiftly down like an avalanche , suffocating and burying everything in its path .\nit wasn ' t a very happy ending for our heroine , an ostracod crustacean . but it was a very happy ending for paleontologists . the inhabitants of this underwater canyon were all to become part of the glittering beecher ' s trilobite bed in oneida county , new york . the animals entombed there , thanks to their rapid burial , empressment under heavy sediment , and some lucky chemistry , were exquisitely preserved in iron sulfide . you may remember this mineral from geology 101 as as pyrite , or perhaps by its more famous name : fool ' s gold .\nfool ' s gold is the pale , pedestrian gold impersonator cursed by many a naive prospector . though the shiny mineral ordinarily has little value , against a drab , gray mudstone background , this pyrite preserved treasures beyond price . the golden fossils had by chance recorded the tiniest details of the trilobites ' soft parts , including antennae , legs , gills , and muscles . it also preserved the beautiful details of our little ostracod and her family , frozen in time together till the end of the earth .\nfortunately for us and them , her relations survived for another 450 million years - - the majority of the time during which large multicellular life has existed on our planet - - through mass extinctions , asteroid impacts , glaciations , and eras where the earth went berserk with volcanism , and they are with us still today . here are a few showing off those long , segmented legs that you can see in the fossil above ( note both videos below have sound ) :\nand here is another walking around and feeding in hd . note the knobby , painted shell and the graceful , brush - like antennae covered in hairs called setae ( see ' - tee ) :\ntoday ostracods are abundant wherever water is found . as you saw , they have little shrimp - like bodies without clearly defined segments sandwiched between their bivalved shell , an appearance that has also inspired the name\nseed shrimp\n. the shell hinges on their backs . underneath , they may or may not have jointed legs for scuttling or swimming .\nthough they ' re abundant , they ' re still virtually unknown to humans , which may be because the whole organism is usually no bigger than a few millimeters long . in spite of their ubiquity both now and for the last half billion years , they don ' t even rate a mention in my dk big book of ocean , or even in their beautiful , fossil - filled prehistoric life , which is rather shocking considering that ostracod shells are\nby far the most common arthropods in the fossil record .\ni guess size does matter .\nfig . 1 f and g from siveter et al . , 2014 . scale bar 500 micrometers in f , 75 micrometers in g . click image for source .\nincredibly , the paper describing these new fossils notes that the arrangement of some of the structures on the first antenna is the same as that of the group of living ostracods they are hypothesized to have belonged to ,\neven down to the tiny ventral seta and two long distal setae .\nthat such details could remain unchanged over 450 million years is , in my opinion , mind - boggling .\nwe are beyond lucky to have fossils of such exquisite detail that we can make such pronouncements on the details of delicate shells and microscopically fine antennae . had any of us to have been around 450 million years ago to speculate on the fate of our little be - shelled ostracod and her brood , i ' m pretty sure that no one would have put money on our still being able to see her and her offspring today , much less count the hairs on her one of her compatriot ' s antennae . and yet . . .\nthe views expressed are those of the author ( s ) and are not necessarily those of scientific american .\njennifer frazer is a aaas science journalism award - winning science writer . she has degrees in biology , plant pathology / mycology , and science writing , and has spent many happy hours studying life in situ .\ndiscover world - changing science . explore our digital archive back to 1845 , including articles by more than 150 nobel prize winners .\nscientific american is part of springer nature , which owns or has commercial relations with thousands of scientific publications ( many of them can be found at urltoken ) . scientific american maintains a strict policy of editorial independence in reporting developments in science to our readers .\nsiveter , d . ; tanaka , g . ; farrell , \u00fa . ; martin , m . ; siveter , d . ; briggs , d . ( 2014 ) . exceptionally preserved 450 - million - year - old ordovician ostracods with brood care . current biology . 24 ( 7 ) : 801 - 806 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nbrand\u00e3o , s . n . ; angel , m . v . ; karanovic , i . ; perrier , v . & meidla , t . ( 2018 ) . world ostracoda database .\nsiveter , tanaka , farrell , martin , siveter & briggs , 2014 \u2020 . accessed through : world register of marine species at : urltoken ; = 877093 on 2018 - 07 - 09\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nfull reference : d . j . siveter , g . tanaka , c . farrell , m . j . martin , d . j . siveter and d . e . g . briggs . 2014 . exceptionally preserved 450 - million - year - old ordovician ostracods with brood care . current biology 24 : 1 - 6\ntype specimen : ypm 307300 , a carapace ( whole body including brood chamber ) . its type locality is\nbeecher ' s trilobite bed ,\nutica shale , ny , which is in a caradoc marine shale in the utica shale formation of new york .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nelon musk ' s plan to rescue trapped thai boys ? a kiddie submarine that looks like a coffin .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n. . . incredibly , the paper describing these new fossils notes that the arrangement of some of the structures on the first antenna is the same as that of the group of living ostracods they are hypothesized to have belonged to , \u201ceven down to the tiny ventral seta and two long distal setae . \u201d that such details could remain unchanged over 450 million years is , in my opinion , mind - boggling . . . .\nreminder : june general meeting is on friday , june 8th , 2018 - dr . rex hanger from the university of wisconsin\nnew delhi , march 13 : long before humans , kangaroos or dinosaurs , there was mother\u2019s love \u2014 and she wasn\u2019t a doting bengali mom but a tiny shrimp - like creature .\nscientists today announced their discovery of the earliest evidence for parental care in the fossils of small shrimp - like creatures that lived about 450 million years ago in a period that geologists call the ordovician era .\nthe fossils recovered from mudstone rocks in the state of new york in the us suggest that the creatures called ostracods carried their eggs and hatchlings around with them just as their descendants continue to do even today , the scientists have said .\n\u201cthe mother kept the eggs and the hatchlings in brooding pouches within her body until the young ones were big enough to go out on their own , \u201d david siveter , professor of geology at the university of leceister in the uk who led the study , told the telegraph .\n\u201cthis is somewhat similar to what we see in kangaroos , among other animals today , \u201d he said . a research paper by siveter and his colleagues describing the ostracod fossils was published today in the journal current biology .\nostracods are tiny \u2014 about one to two - millimetres in size \u2014 crustaceans , the relatives of shrimps and crabs , and thousands of species of ostracods are found in all types of aquatic environments : rivers , lakes , oceans , even garden ponds .\nalthough these crustaceans are among the most abundant of fossil arthropods , their fossilised soft parts are exceedingly rare . the newly studied fossils are significant because their soft parts are well preserved .\nthe fossils suggest that ostracods carried eggs and hatchlings before releasing them into the water . \u201cthis tells us that this type of brood care has been around for 450 million years , \u201d derek briggs , professor of geology at yale university and team member , said .\nscientists say the fossils provide a snapshot of biology of creatures from an ancient era which remain ubiquitous .\n\u201cbrood pouches have been reported earlier , but this seems to be the earliest evidence of parental care in a group of creatures that exist even today , \u201d said ashu khosla , a palaeontologist at panjab university in chandigarh who was not associated with the new findings but has studied ostracods from a later geological period called the cretaceous era , from about 65 million years ago .\njavascript is disabled on your browser . please enable javascript to use all the features on this page .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 elsevier b . v . or its licensors or contributors . sciencedirect \u00ae is a registered trademark of elsevier b . v .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nthe spice compound that gives curry dishes their yellow color and pungent flavor is emerging as a prime candidate for a less expensive treatment for alzheimer\u2019s disease ( ad ) , according to an article in the current edition ofchemical & engineering news . c & en is the weekly newsmagazine of the american chemical society , the world\u2019s largest scientific society .\nlauren k . wolf , c & en associate editor , explains that pharmaceutical companies have invested heavily in developing new drugs for ad . more than 5 million people in the u . s . alone already have that memory - robbing disease . projections suggest that the number will rise to 16 million by 2050 . new medications are in the pipeline , but the most advanced candidates , made of monoclonal antibodies , are expensive to produce and may cost tens of thousands of dollars annually to treat each patient .\ncredit : wikipedia as a result , scientists are seeking less - pricey alternatives , such as substances that can be extracted in abundant amounts from plant compounds . one of the most promising is curcumin , a spice compound extracted from the rootstalks of the turmeric plant . the article details scientific evidence about curcumin\u2019s potential and the hurdles that chemists must overcome to craft it into a drug . for instance , only tiny amounts of powdered curcumin taken by mouth get into the blood , let alone the brain .\nturmeric has been used in india for over 2500 years and is a major part of the ayurvedic system of medicine . it was first used as a dye and then later for its medicinal properties . the etymology of the word\nturmeric\nprobably comes from the early french\nterre merite\nvia the latin\nterra merita\n, literally\ndeserving earth\nturmeric paste is traditionally used by indian women to keep them free of superfluous hair and as an antimicrobial . turmeric paste , as part of both home remedies and\n, is also said to improve the skin and is touted as an anti - aging agent . turmeric figures prominently in the bridal beautification ceremonies of india , nepal , bangladesh , and pakistan . staining oneself with turmeric is believed to improve the skin tone and tan . turmeric is currently used in the formulation of some sunscreens .\ncredit : wikipedia the government of thailand is funding a project to extract and isolate tetrahydrocurcuminoids ( thc ) from turmeric . thcs are colorless compounds that might have antioxidant and skin - lightening properties , and might be used to treat skin inflammations , making these compounds useful in cosmetics formulations .\noutstanding post , i think people should learn a lot from this web - blog its real user genial . so much good information on here . curcumin capsules 95 %\nresearchers have 3 - d printed food with customized texture and body absorption characteristics . imagine a home appliance that , at the push o . . .\nmosquito season is around the corner , bringing with it a higher risk of catching potentially serious diseases transmitted by their bite . mo . . .\ninsurance fraud seems like it might be an easy thing to do . insurance companies are often so huge , one wonders how they might not even notic . . .\nscientists demonstrated for the first time that horses integrate human facial expressions and voice tones to perceive human emotion , regard . . .\nexplosive volcanic eruptions that shot jets of hot ash , rock and gas skyward are the likely source of a mysterious martian rock formation , . . .\ncertain types of bacteria and viruses are readily ejected into the atmosphere when waves break while other taxa are less likely to be trans . . .\nscientists may have solved a long - standing puzzle over why conditions on earth have remained stable enough for life to evolve over billions . . .\nscientists have shown that at the anzick site in montana \u2013 the only known clovis burial site \u2013 the skeletal remains of a young child and th . . .\ndescription : until 2014 , ostracods were only known from bivalved shells . due to the fact that a number of other arthropods possess such shell , this evidence was not definitive . with the discovery of these specimens showing soft tissue preservation , the record is now confirmed . not only are soft tissues such as limbs preserved , embryos and juveniles have been found , demonstrating that this ostracod exhibited brood care some 450 million years ago , just as do myodocope ostracods today . this one clearly shows the antennae and embryos within , a fine example of the first and as yet only fossil invertebrate that demonstrates such care . this is the only example i have to offer .\nreference : current biology 24 , march 31 , 2014 , pp1 - 6 .\nthe sustainability tracking , assessment & rating system\u2122 ( stars ) is a transparent , self - reporting framework for colleges and universities to measure their sustainability performance .\nin order to complete the research inventory for faculty and staff participating in sustainability related research , individuals in the center for sustainability contacted the ku office of research , which provided an inventory of all registered research projects receiving outside funding - this was the best option to inventory current research - that were active during the reporting period of fy14 . center staff reviewed the list of 584 total projects and identified 226 projects that related to sustainability based on their descriptive titles and the principal investigator ' s recorded research areas . the inventory also identified the faculty researchers and departments for each project .\nphysicists at the university of kansas have fabricated an innovative substance from two different atomic sheets that interlock much like lego toy bricks . the researchers said the new material \u2014 made of a layer of graphene and a layer of tungsten disulfide \u2014 could be used in solar cells and flexible electronics .\nevery minute in the united states , power plants that generate electricity use nearly triple the amount of water that surges over niagara falls during that same time , according to the union of concerned scientists . in an era of drought and diminishing aquifers , freshwater sources are an ever - more - precious resource \u2014 and power plants\u2019 use of freshwater has become a critical issue . one researcher at the university of kansas is investigating new ways to cool plants more efficiently with technology used in everyday laptop computers .\nthis fall the kansas biological survey created and launched the online kansas lakes and reservoirs data repository portal \u2014 with funding from the kansas water office and the kansas gis policy board \u2014 to bring together data from a variety of sources , making it free and readily available to the public .\nan environmental and earth science data project , led by a multi - university team including ku\u2019s biodiversity institute , has been awarded $ 15 million by the national science foundation to continue to discover and aggregate data for scientists and policymakers alike .\nresearchers at the center for remote sensing of ice sheets based at the university of kansas have unlocked important new details below the ice in key areas of greenland and antarctica that will reshape how scientists forecast changes to sea level . data collected through radar systems created at ku provide the first - ever detailed maps of the subsurface conditions on prominent and scientifically important glaciers on opposite sides of the earth .\na university of kansas law professor has authored a study and will argue before the supreme court on a water rights case via a method that can be thought of as a more civil version of civil war .\nthe university of kansas center for russian , east european & eurasian studies ( crees ) has been awarded a major grant from the u . s . department of state as part of the u . s . - russia peer - to - peer dialogue program . the grant calls for crees , working with the center for transboundary cooperation in st . petersburg , russia , to identify , train and connect eco - reps from the midwest with their counterparts in russia . these eco - reps will design and enact projects with the goal of raising awareness and educating about sustainability , and creating positive environmental , social and economic effects in their schools , communities and small businesses .\nthe bioscience & technology business center at the university of kansas has earned a major federal grant for its role as a business accelerator and economic engine for northeast kansas . the btbc at ku has been awarded $ 50 , 000 by the u . s . small business administration through the agency\u2019s inaugural growth accelerator fund competition , which is designed to support the development of outstanding business accelerators , incubators and other entrepreneurial ecosystem models that are playing major roles in their region .\nfour university of kansas students have been selected for prestigious fulbright awards for research and study for the 2014 - 15 academic year .\na researcher at the university of kansas has earned an army research office young investigator award grant to conduct research on cutting - edge photovoltaic technology intended to give american forces tactical advantages in the field .\njilu li , assistant research professor with the center for remote sensing of ice sheets ( cresis ) at the university of kansas , received a three - year $ 299 , 178 grant through nasa\u2019s new investigator program to provide a complete subsurface map at the point where the ice meets bedrock for greenland and the west antarctic ice sheet . li\u2019s team will utilize ice sheet data collected by cresis and ku researchers over the past two decades to piece together the maps .\nthe american council of learned societies has awarded three university of kansas faculty members fellowships for humanities research to be undertaken in academic year 2014 - 15 . the council , one of the premier humanities - focused granting agencies , is a private , nonprofit federation of 71 national scholarly organizations that supports scholarship in the humanities and related social sciences .\nmayor sly james , kansas city , mo . , announced last month the new we women\u2019s empowerment initiative to get more women into leadership roles , whether it\u2019s on city boards , task forces and commissions or in business settings . university of kansas research will play a crucial role in the initiative through a $ 23 , 000 research grant awarded from the women\u2019s foundation of greater kansas city .\na section of antarctica now bears the name of a university of kansas professor and alumnus . the u . s . board on geographic names announced it has registered the \u201cgogineni subglacial trench , \u201d which acknowledges the contributions of school of engineering distinguished professor prasad gogineni . the subglacial trench sits in proximity to landmarks with highly recognized names such as the darwin mountains and the queen elizabeth mountain range .\ninding renewable energy sources to sustain the environment and the economy is one of the major challenges of the 21st century . wai - lun chan , assistant professor in the department of physics and astronomy , has received a prestigious award from the national science foundation to fund research that could help find such viable low - cost renewable energy , while teaching children and adults about the importance of renewable energy .\na team of researchers from the center for remote sensing of ice sheets ( cresis ) at the university of kansas has received a grant from the paul g . allen family foundation to develop technology that better maps and tracks the conditions within glaciers and at the bottom of fast - flowing ice sheets .\nthe environmental studies program at the university of kansas has entered into a partnership with instituto sustentar , a nongovernmental organization based in brazil headed by ku alumnus douglas trent . the arrangement will facilitate travel , study and research in brazil by investigators and students from ku , and also help to educate local residents and a generation of brazilian schoolchildren about the significance of the environment of the pantanal\nthe kansas geological survey at the university of kansas has been awarded a $ 650 , 000 grant from the company xri geophysics to improve on technologies used to detect underground voids and faults , to determine the fitness of earthen dams and levees , and in other endeavors .\na hidden aquifer the size of ireland recently discovered within the ice layers of a glacier in greenland could hold the key to better understanding how annual melting at the ice surface could affect sea level rise . the dec . 22 issue of the prestigious scientific journal nature details the existence of a significant amount of melt water stored in old compacted snow , known as firn . radar technology developed by researchers at the center for remote sensing of ice sheets ( cresis ) at the university of kansas played a key role in identifying and confirming the previously undetected pool of water within the ice sheet .\nresearchers at the center for environmentally beneficial catalysis ( cebc ) at the university of kansas recently received a four - year , $ 4 . 4 million federal grant as part of the networks for sustainable molecular design and synthesis program . it is one of only four such awards made this year by the national science foundation and the environmental protection agency .\nthe kansas geological survey ( kgs ) at the university of kansas has received a $ 46 , 000 grant to preserve at - risk drilling records and rock cuttings that hold valuable information about oil and gas deposits in kansas and clues to the earth\u2019s geologic history . funded by the u . s . geological survey national geological and geophysical data preservation program , the grant will be used to process and electronically archive oil and gas records in the data resources library at the main kgs office in lawrence and to archive sample cuttings \u2014 bits of underground rock broken up during drilling and flushed up to the surface \u2014 at the kgs\u2019s wichita well sample library .\nuniversity of kansas geologists have synthesized the mineral dolomite at a low temperature without the aid of microorganisms \u2014 a feat that scientists have been trying to accomplish for almost a century . announced in a paper published today in the proceedings of the national academy of sciences ( pnas ) , this work will eventually provide researchers with more accurate tools for understanding climate change and give geologists better methods for finding new sources of petroleum , said jennifer roberts , associate professor of geology and lead author of the paper .\na graduate student at the university of kansas is the lead author on a recently published description of a new bird species , the junin tapaculo , found in the remote andes mountains of central peru .\na three - year , $ 90 , 000 nasa fellowship will allow a university of kansas school of engineering graduate student to design tools that will help more precisely predict future sea level rise based on the impact of climate change on the polar ice sheets .\nresearch inventory did not include the med center , as it was not included in the campus geographical footprint .\nif you want to start over , go to the homepage . if you ' re stuck , let us help you .\ncopyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 ebay inc . all rights reserved . accessibility , user agreement , privacy , cookies and adchoice\nthank you for visiting nature . com . you are using a browser version with limited support for css . to obtain the best experience , we recommend you use a more up to date browser ( or turn off compatibility mode in internet explorer ) . in the meantime , to ensure continued support , we are displaying the site without styles and javascript .\nparental care in animal evolution has long fascinated biologists , but tracing this complex of behavioural repertoires is challenging , as these transitory states often leave no corporeal traces as fossils . among modern invertebrates , the tanaidaceans ( malacostraca : peracarida ) , a lineage of marsupial crustaceans , show an interesting variety of brooding strategies . here we report on fossil tanaidaceans from the cretaceous of spain and france that provide conclusive evidence for marsupial care of brood - offspring . two exceptionally preserved female specimens of alavatanais carabe and a . margulisae from late albian pe\u00f1acerrada i amber ( spain ) possess four pairs of rudimentary oostegites , indicating formation of a marsupium . from recent data , given the taxonomic distribution of a marsupium of four pairs of oostegites , we hypothesize that this may be plesiomorphic for the tanaidomorpha . we also report on a peculiar tanaidacean specimen referable to the fossil family alavatanaidae , daenerytanais maieuticus gen . et sp . nov . , from early cenomanian la buzinie amber ( france ) , preserved with its marsupial pouch and content . our discoveries provide early evidence of the peracarid reproductive strategy , as seen in modern tanaidacea , and argue that this form of parental care may have played a role in the diversification of the lineage during this period .\nthe fossil record provides a rich and valuable repository of behavioural and evolutionary developments despite the influence of biases in preservation or density of taxonomic representation . many behaviours are fleeting , uncommonly leaving behind trace fossils , and are therefore captured by exceptional \u2018frozen moments\u2019 or are inferred indirectly from functional morphology . nonetheless , the behaviours of extinct species are critical to understanding the totality of their lives ; for placing them within broader palaeoecological settings ; and for revealing intra - and interspecific interactions that were undoubtedly at play . they are also critical for the documentation of evolutionary novelties and trends , and understanding phylogenetic relationships .\nthe tanaidacea are a diverse and abundant group of usually small and cryptic crustaceans that , except for some rare freshwater and brackish species , today constitutes an almost entirely marine order that is found at all latitudes and in almost all marine benthic habitats from the littoral to hadal zones 8 . despite a wealth of information on the taxonomy and phylogeny of these widespread crustaceans , our empirical understanding of their life history and parental care trade - offs is currently limited to a few descriptive reviews 9 , 10 , with a few taxon - specific studies 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 . fossil evidence revealing the origin and evolutionary history of their reproductive strategy is lacking , although modern - looking tanaidaceans have recently been discovered in the cretaceous 17 , 18 , 19 .\nthe preservation of fossil tanaidaceans is rare , mostly because they have non - recalcitrant tissues and cuticles , and there are extensive gaps present in the fossil record for the order . fossilised specimens have been dated from as far back as the lower carboniferous , with the oldest species being discovered in scotland 20 , 21 . several rock - impressions have been found , and recent studies identified many tanaidaceans as bioinclusions in lower\u2013upper cretaceous fossil resins from spain and france 17 , 18 , 19 . from the cenozoic only four , as - of - yet undescribed specimens have been recorded in lower miocene mexican amber 22 .\nrecent discoveries in the cretaceous ambers of spain and france have revealed an unexpected diversity and abundance of tanaidacea , showing that this period was significant in the diversification and evolution of the order 18 , 19 . earlier accounts of spanish and french amber tanaidaceans reported a total of seven genera and ten species which has now grown by one new genus and species from la buzinie ( charente , france ) ( fig . 1 ) . all the cretaceous species known to date are members of the tanaidomorpha ( one of two suborders in tanaidacea ; the former neotanaidomorpha and anthracocaridomorpha are no longer recognized ) . extant tanaidomorphans are characterized by having a ventral marsupium of variable conformation , but overall formed by one or four pairs of oostegites 49 .\ntimeline of fossil tanaidomorphans described from amber . 1 = pe\u00f1acerrada ( upper albian ) , note that only one specimen of alavatanais carabe was found in the el soplao outcrop ( upper albian ) , 2 = archingeay / les nouillers ( upper albian ) , 3 = champniers / la buzinie ( early cenomanian ) , 4 = fourtou ( middle cenomanian ) , and 5 = la garnache ( turonian ) . numerical ages are from 70 .\nlow sexual dimorphism described for alavatanais carabe from the two morphs preserved was based on differences in size , number of antennular articles ( four - or five - articled in females versus seven - articled in males ) , and robustness of the cheliped 18 . however , the most remarkable character shared by females of a . carabe and a . margulisae is the presence of pairs of bud - like developing oostegites at the coxal plates of pereopods i\u2013iv , as found in related extant \u2018preparatory\u2019 females , which eventually expand to become more laminar and complete the marsupium during the copulatory stage . the oostegites appear as inwardly directed , medium - sized , pear - shaped structures of an average length and width of 0 . 07 and 0 . 03 mm in a . margulisae , and 0 . 08 and 0 . 04 mm in a . carabe ( fig . 2 ) .\nfemale alavatanaids from the lower cretaceous amber of pe\u00f1acerrada i , spain . ( a ) lateral overview of alavatanais margulisae ( holotype mcna 9583a ) showing the oostegites ; ( b ) camera lucida drawing of the specimen in a highlighting the oostegites in orange ( modified from s\u00e1nchez - garc\u00eda et al . 18 ) ; ( c ) detail of right oostegites i\u2013iv of the same specimen ; ( d ) detail of the third and fourth right oostegites of a . carabe ( mcna 13890 ) ; ( e ) lateral overview of the same specimen of a . carabe showing the oostegites .\nother amber - preserved species known from isolated specimens were potentially assigned as males or females based on secondary sexual characters such as the number and / or shape of the antennular articles , and from modifications of the male cheliped 18 . greatly lengthened chelipeds with the shape of the chelae altered \u2014 the dactylus and propodus having a convex curvature resulting in a central gap when the chela is closed \u2014 were reported for males of the genus eurotanais s\u00e1nchez - garc\u00eda , pe\u00f1alver & delcl\u00f2s and alavatanais vonk & schram . the only reported functions for this enlargement of the male cheliped in the recent fauna are to tear open female mucous tubes 11 or to fight with other males 50 .\nthe new genus from the early cenomanian of la buzinie is unambiguously referred to paratanaoidea , as evidenced by ( 1 ) its general habitus ; ( 2 ) antennule with five or fewer articles in females ( and often with more than five articles in males , although the male is unknown in the present fossil species ) ; ( 3 ) antenna with seven or fewer articles ; ( 4 ) presence of an ischium on all pereopods ; and ( 5 ) pleon never with the two last pleonites fused / reduced ( and always with pleopods in males , although these may be reduced : unknown for the present fossil species as males remain to be discovered ) 49 . the large compound eyes , unreduced pereonites i\u2013iii , short pleon with five free pleonites not fused with the pleotelson , antennules with four to five articles ( in females ) , pereopod coxa present on all pereopods , pereopod i with medium - long dactylus , dactylus and unguis of pereopods iv\u2013vi claw - like but not fused , and the pleopods well - developed with long setae bundled together all support inclusion to the family alavatanaidae despite the lack of preservation for the posterior region of the body .\nfamily alavatanaidae vonk & schram ( sensu s\u00e1nchez - garc\u00eda et al . 18 )\nthe generic name is a matronym for daenerys targaryen , a principal character in the popular fantasy novel series a song of ice and fire by george r . r . martin , alluding to her principal role as the mother of dragons ; and combined with tanais latreille ( presumably taken from the ancient greek city in the maeotian marshes of the same name ) , an early generic name used widely as a suffix in the tanaidomorpha and as the typical genus for the order . the gender of the name is , however , masculine following the precedent of the genus tanais .\nbody relatively slender , about five times longer than wide . cephalothorax subtriangular when viewed dorsally ( much longer than wide ) , with a lateral constriction beyond its midlength . antennule with five articles . antenna short and slender , with subequal articles , never square . cheliped somewhat robust ; propodus with fixed finger deflexed almost perpendicular to palm ; dactylus directed medially , extending beyond fixed finger . pereon rather short ( about 0 . 5 times body length ) . pereopod i with long dactylus plus unguis ( not longer than propodus ) ; pereopods ii\u2013iii with dactylus plus unguis much shorter than in pereopod i ; pereopods iv\u2013vi armed with weak spines , with dactylus plus unguis as long as in pereopods ii\u2013iii but stouter . pleon rather short ( less than 0 . 3 times body length ) . male : latet .\nholotype ( igr . buz - 1 . 13 ) , female , of daenerytanais maieuticus gen . et sp . nov . , from the mid - cretaceous french amber of la buzinie . ( a ) dorsal habitus . ( b ) camera lucida drawings of the cephalothorax in dorsal view ( left ) , and the ventral habitus ( right ) . ( c ) detail of the marsupium . ( d ) eggs . abbreviations : pi\u2013pvi = pereopods i\u2013vi .\nthe specific epithet is taken from the greek maieutikos , \u2018skilled in midwifery\u2019 , and refers to the possession of a developed marsupium for the care of offspring .\nholotype and only known specimen igr . buz - 1 . 13 , \u2640 . ( coll . couillard , housed in the geological department and museum of the university rennes 1 , france ) . the specimen , nearly complete except for the uropods , is embedded in a small piece of light - yellow amber with multiple bubbles and slightly clouded by organic debris . it can be observed in dorsal and ventral views but not in profile , and thus some chelipedal characters are not currently visible . some pereopods are badly preserved or cut beyond the basis ; the pattern of setation is difficult to distinguish without optimal lighting and magnification .\nspecimen igr . buz - 1 . 13 was originally part of a larger piece ( igr . buz - 1 ) containing many fossils and divided into 20 individual components for study . the original set of syninclusions comprised 12 dolichopodid flies ( microphorinae : microphorites deploegi nel et al . ) 51 , two schizopterid bugs ( buzinia couillardi perrichot et al . ) 52 , one scale insect , four scelionid wasps , one roach , one centipede ( buziniphilus antiquus edgecombe et al . ) 53 , four entomobryomorphan springtails , five prostigmatid mites ( acari : parasitengona ) , one isolated nematode , and several amoebae and diatoms 54 , 55 .\nla buzinie outcrop , in champniers near angoul\u00eame , department of charente , nouvelle - aquitaine region , southwestern france ; early cenomanian ( amber level a2a ) 56 .\nbody medium - sized , estimated total length approximately 1 . 20 mm , about 4 . 59 times longer than wide ; subcylindrical , slightly flattened dorsoventrally . all observed setae simple .\npereon ( the six thoracomeres after the cephalothorax ) rather short , about 0 . 45 of total body length ; all pereonites wider than long , with apical margins weakly convex dorsomedially ; pereonites i\u2013iii subequal in size , about 3 . 49 times wider than long ; pereonites iv and v largest segments , subequal in size , about 2 . 23 times wider than long , each about 1 . 53 times individual lengths of pereonites i\u2013iii ; pereonite vi shorter than preceding pereonite , 2 . 98 times wider than long , about as long as individual lengths of pereonites i\u2013iii ( 1 . 01 times ) . pereopods i\u2013iii without discernible setae ; coxae present on all pairs ; basis fairly slender , cylindrical , 7 . 05 times longer than thick , longer than combined lengths of merus and carpus ; ischium short ( only visible on right pereopod ii and left pereopod iii ) ; merus and carpus subequal in size , not widening distally ; propodus longer than carpus , 4 . 03 times longer than thick , tapering distally ; dactylus plus unguis curved and long on pereopod i ( 0 . 88 times length of propodus ) , becoming shorter on pereopods ii and iii , ( 0 . 45 times length of dactylus plus unguis i ) . pereopods iv\u2013vi similar in length to pereopods i\u2013iii but stouter ; coxae present on all pairs ; basis fairly robust , more inflated than in pereopods i\u2013iii , not measurable in length as preserved ; ischium short ( only visible on left pereopod iv ) ; merus and carpus subequal in size ; propodus longer than carpus , 3 . 89 times longer than thick , tapering distally , with up to two distal spines ( weak as preserved ) ; dactylus plus unguis claw - like but not fused ( only visible on right pereopods iv\u2013vi ) , as long as dactylus plus unguis of pereopods ii and iii , but stouter . marsupium present and filled with eggs ( as preserved ) ; eggs around 6\u20139 microns in diameter ."]}
{"id": 1254, "summary": [{"text": "desmoxytes rhinoceros is an aposematic species of dragon millipede in the genus desmoxytes .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is only known from champasak and sekong provinces in southern laos .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it was first described , along with d. rhinoparva , in 2015 .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "both species were discovered in laos , the first dragon millipedes identified there , d. rhinoceros in the south of the country and d. rhinoparva in the north .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "the holotype is in the museum of zoology , chulalongkorn university , bangkok , thailand .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "the body length is 17 \u2013 24 mm ( 0.67 \u2013 0.94 in ) in males and 20 \u2013 25 mm ( 0.79 \u2013 0.98 in ) in females .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the color is dark red . ", "topic": 23}], "title": "desmoxytes rhinoceros", "paragraphs": ["meet desmoxytes rhinoceros ( top ) and desmoxytes rhinoparva ( bottom ) \u2013 two of the newest additions to the dragon millipede family .\n[ invertebrate \u2022 2015 ] desmoxytes rhinoceros & d . rhinoparva \u2022 two new sspecies of dragon millipedes , genus desmoxytes chamnerlin , 1923 ,\ndesmoxytes rhinoceros is an aposematic species of dragon millipede in the genus desmoxytes . it is only known from champasak and sekong provinces in southern laos .\nspecies new to science : [ invertebrate \u2022 2015 ] desmoxytes rhinoceros & d . rhinoparva \u2022 two new sspecies of dragon millipedes , genus desmoxytes chamn\u2026 | pinteres\u2026\nfigure 1 . habitus , live coloration . a , b : desmoxytes rhinoceros sp . n . , male holotype . c , d : desmoxytes rhinoparva sp . n . , male holotype . photographed not to scale .\nspecies new to science : [ invertebrate \u2022 2015 ] desmoxytes rhinoceros & d . rhinoparva \u2022 two new sspecies of dragon millipedes , genus desmoxytes chamnerlin , 1923 , from laos ( diplopoda : polydesmida : paradoxosomatidae ) , with redescriptions of all four species of attems from vietnam\nsome of the other specimens of d . rhinoceros were donated to the zoological museum , state university of moscow in russia .\ntwo new species of desmoxytes are described and abundantly illustrated : d . rhinoceros sp . n . and d . rhinoparva sp . n . , from southern and northern laos , respectively . illustrated redescriptions of all four vietnamese desmoxytes species proposed by carl attems are also provided , based on type material .\ntwo new species of desmoxytes are described and abundantly illustrated : d . rhinoceros sp . n . and d . rhinoparva sp . n . , from southern and northern laos , respectively . illustrated redescriptions of all four vietnamese desmoxytes species proposed by carl attems are also provided , based on type material .\nthe new species , d . rhinoceros , is clearly aposematic , whereas the authors of the latest study noted d . rhinoparva as\nquite remarkable\nin its colouration , having contrasting pale brownish segments in the middle of the body in both sexes .\ntwo new species of dragon millipedes , genus desmoxytes chamnerlin , 1923 , from laos ( diplopoda : polydesmida : paradoxosomatidae ) , with redescriptions . . . - pubmed - ncbi\ndragon millipedes are members of the desmoxytes genus , which currently contains 33 species ranging from northern china , through indochina and south through myanmar , thailand , vietnam and southern malaysia .\ntwo new species of dragon millipedes , genus desmoxytes chamnerlin , 1923 , from laos ( diplopoda : polydesmida : paradoxosomatidae ) , with redescriptions of all four species of attems from vietnam .\nenghoff , h . , sutcharit , c . & panha , s . ( 2007 ) the shocking pink dragon millipede , desmoxytes purpurosea , a colourful new species from thailand . zootaxa , 1563 , 31\u201336 .\nit was first described , along with d . rhinoparva , in 2015 . both species were discovered in laos , the first dragon millipedes identified there , d . rhinoceros in the south of the country and d . rhinoparva in the north . the holotype is in the museum of zoology , chulalongkorn university , bangkok , thailand .\ngolovatch , s . i . & enghoff , h . ( 1994 ) review of the dragon millipedes , genus desmoxytes chamberlin , 1923 ( diplopoda , polydesmida , paradoxosomatidae ) . steenstrupia , 20 ( 2 ) , 45\u201371 .\nfigure 1 . habitus , live coloration . a , b in two new species of dragon millipedes , genus desmoxytes chamnerlin , 1923 , from laos ( diplopoda : polydesmida : paradoxosomatidae ) , with redescriptions of all four species of attems from vietnam\nfigure 1 . habitus , live coloration . a , b in two new species of dragon millipedes , genus desmoxytes chamnerlin , 1923 , from laos ( diplopoda : polydesmida : paradoxosomatidae ) , with redescriptions of all four species of attems from vietnam | zenodo\nliu , w . , golovatch , s . i . & tian , m . ( 2014 ) a review of the dragon millipede genus desmoxytes chamberlin , 1923 in china , with descriptions of four new species ( diplopoda , polydesmida , paradoxosomatidae ) . zookeys , 448 , 9\u201326 .\nnguyen , a . d . , golovatch , s . i . & anichkin , a . e . ( 2006 ) the dragon millipedes in vietnam ( polydesmida : paradoxosomatidae , genus desmoxytes chamberlin , 1923 ) . arthropoda selecta , 14 ( 3 ) , 251\u2013257 . [ for 2005 ]\ngolovatch , s . i . , geoffroy , j . j . & mauri\u00e8s , j . p . ( 2010 ) two new species of the millipede genus desmoxytes chamberlin , 1923 ( diplopoda , polydesmida , paradoxosomatidae ) from caves in southern china . arthropoda selecta , 19 ( 2 ) , 57\u201361 .\n( of pteroxytes jeekel , 1980 ) golovatch , s . i . ; enghoff , h . ( 1994 ) . review of the dragon millipede , genus desmoxytes chamberlin , 1923 ( diplopoda , polydesmida , paradoxosomatidae ) . steenstrupia , 20 ( 2 ) : 1 - 71 . copenhagen page ( s ) : 46 [ details ]\n( of hylomus cook & loomis , 1924 ) golovatch , s . i . ; enghoff , h . ( 1994 ) . review of the dragon millipede , genus desmoxytes chamberlin , 1923 ( diplopoda , polydesmida , paradoxosomatidae ) . steenstrupia , 20 ( 2 ) : 1 - 71 . copenhagen page ( s ) : 46 [ details ]\ngolovatch , s . i . , li , y . , liu , w . & geoffroy , j . j . ( 2012 ) three new cavernicolous species of dragon millipedes , genus desmoxytes chamberlin , 1923 , from southern china , with notes on a formal congener from the philippines ( diplopoda , polydesmida , paradoxosomatidae ) . zookeys , 185 , 1\u201317 . urltoken\nsergei i . golovatch , youbang li , weixin liu , and jean - jacques geoffroy . 2012 . three new cavernicolous species of dragon millipedes , genus desmoxytes chamberlin , 1923 , from southern china , with notes on a formal congener from the philippines ( diplopoda , polydesmida , paradoxosomatidae ) . zookeys . 2012 ; ( 185 ) : 1\u201317 . doi : 10 . 3897 / zookeys . 185 . 3082\ngolovatch , s . ; li , y . ; liu , w . ; geoffroy , j . - j . ( 2012 ) . three new cavernicolous species of dragon millipedes , genus desmoxytes chamberlin , 1923 , from southern china , with notes on a formal congener from the philippines ( diplopoda , polydesmida , paradoxosomatidae ) . zookeys . 185 : 1 - 17 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 13 ; note : key to species currently known to occur in china . [ details ]\nif you go down to the woods today , you\u2019re in for a big surprise . well , if you happen to be in certain parts of laos .\nand , according to the authors of the paper published in zootaxa , these are the first species of dragon millipedes to be recorded in laos .\nall but one of the species are found in a single or , at most , a very small group of locations .\nso named for their peculiar - looking spiky appendages and often brightly coloured bodies , most dragon millipedes look like characters from an extra - terrestrial horror movie going to a rave .\none of the most vividly coloured , d . purpurosea , from northern thailand , has been nicknamed the ' shocking pink dragon millipede ' , or ' mangkorn chomphoo ' in thai .\nits bright aposematic colouration is a clear warning to potential predators that these millipedes are seriously poisonous : they have glands that produce hydrogen cyanide for protection .\nand because they produce cyanide , it has been said that they give off an almond - like smell .\nthe holotypes \u2013 a single type specimen upon which the description and naming of a new species is based \u2013 of laos ' first dragon millipedes are currently housed in the museum of zoology , chulalongkorn university in bangkok , thailand .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nanimal systematics research unit , department of biology , faculty of science , chulalongkorn university , bangkok , 10330 , thailand . ; email : kongerrrr @ hotmail . com .\ninstitute for problems of ecology and evolution , russian academy of sciences , leninsky pr . 33 , moscow 119071 , russia ; email : sgolovatch @ yandex . ru .\nanimal systematics research unit , department of biology , faculty of science , chulalongkorn university , bangkok , 10330 , thailand . ; email : somsak . pan @ chula . ac . th .\nnew & recent described flora & fauna species from all over the world esp . asia , oriental , indomalayan & malesiana region\n, natdanai , sergei i . golovatch & somsak panha . 2015 . two new sspecies of dragon millipedes , genus\n, from laos ( diplopoda : polydesmida : paradoxosomatidae ) , with redescriptions of all four species of attems from vietnam .\nwuodendron b . xue , y . h . tan & chaowasku wuodendron praecox ( hook . f . & thomson ) b . xue , y . h . tan & x . l . hou in xue , tan . . .\n[ botany \u2022 2017 ] begonia fulgurata | \u0e14\u0e32\u0e14\u0e14\u0e32\u0e23\u0e32\u0e23\u0e31\u0e28\u0e21\u0e35 \u2022 a new species ( sect . diploclinium , begoniaceae ) from chiang mai , northern thailand\nbegonia fulgurata c . - i peng , c . w . lin & phutthai \u0e14\u0e32\u0e14\u0e14\u0e32\u0e23\u0e32\u0e23\u0e31\u0e28\u0e21\u0e35 | | doi : 10 . 3767 / blumea . 2017 . 62 . 03 . 01 urltoken be . . .\nchamaelirium viridiflorum l . wang , z . c . liu & w . b . liao in liu , feng , wang & liao , 2018 . doi : 10 . 11646 / phytotaxa . 357 . . . .\ngreat - billed seed - finch sporophila maximiliani ( cabanis , 1851 ) in ubaid , silveira , medolago , et . al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 11646 / . . .\nendocerids with their filtering apparatus in mironenko , 2018 . doi : 10 . 1080 / 08912963 . 2018 . 1491565 reconstruction by andre . . .\naristolochia tongbiguanensis j . y . shen , q . b . gong & s . landrein in gong , landrein , xi , et al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 6165 / tai . . . .\nbagualosaurus agudoensis pretto , langer & schultz , 2018 doi : 10 . 1093 / zoolinnean / zly028 illustration : jorge blanco c . . .\nthe hypothetical phylogenetic relationships of ceratosaurs based on current topologies . the main source is from wang et al . ( 2016 . . .\nnipponosaurus sachalinensis nagao , 1936 in takasaki , chiba , kobayashi , et al . , 2018 \u30cb\u30c3\u30dd\u30ce\u30b5\u30a6\u30eb\u30b9 | | doi : 10 . 1080 / 08912963 . 2017 . . . .\nbegonia medogensis jianw . li , y . h . tan & x . h . jin in li , tan , wang , et al . , 2018 . doi : 10 . 3897 / phytokeys . 103 . 25392 . . .\n[ ichthyology \u2022 2015 ] ghatsa spp . \u2022 on the paraphyl . . .\n[ ichthyology \u2022 2015 ] four new species of trimma ( p . . .\n[ mammalogy \u2022 2014 ] a summary of the taxonomy and d . . .\npartial solar elipse to be visible from parts of australia , new zealand and antarctica on firday 13 july 2018 .\non this day ( july 10th ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .\nthe benefits and costs of academic travel . or\nthere and back again ; again and again\ncanon renueva su gama de 70 - 200 mm f : 2 . 8 y f : 4\nplants go extinct , but sometimes species are rediscovered . this one after 151 years .\ni ' m killing antediluvian salad but even in death there is rebirth . . .\nnecps carnivorous plant show : sept . 9 - 10 at tower hill botanical garden\nthis is a particularly beautiful species of centrolenid - the granular glass frog , cochranella granulosa .\nthe body length is 17\u201324 mm ( 0 . 67\u20130 . 94 in ) in males and 20\u201325 mm ( 0 . 79\u20130 . 98 in ) in females . the color is dark red .\nchamnerlin , 1923 , from laos ( diplopoda : polydesmida : paradoxosomatidae ) , with redescriptions of all four species of attems from vietnam .\nchamberlin , r . v . ( 1923 ) . two diplopod immigrants taken at honolulu . proceedings of the biological society of washington , 36 : 165 - 168 page ( s ) : 165 [ details ]\n( of pratinus attems , 1937 ) attems , c . m . t . graf von ( 1937 ) . myriapoda 3 . polydesmoidea i . fam . strongylosomidae . das tierreich , 68 : 1 - 300 . berlin , leipzig page ( s ) : 113 [ details ]\n( of ceylonesmus chamberlin , 1941 ) chamberlin , r . v . ( 1941 ) . new polydesmoid diplopods intercepted at quarantine . proceedings of the entomological society of washington , 43 ( 2 ) : 32 - 35 page ( s ) : 33 [ details ]\n( of prionopeltis pocock , 1895 ) pocock , r . i . ( 1895 ) . viaggio di leonardo fea in birmania e regioni vicine . lxvii . the myriopoda of burma , pt . iv . report upon the polydesmoidea collected by sig . l . fea , mr . e . w . oates and others . annali del museo civico di storia naturale di genova , serie 2 . 14 : 787 - 834 . genova . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 828 [ details ]\n( of pteroxytes jeekel , 1980 ) jeekel , c . a . w . ( 1980 ) . the generic allocation of some little - known paradoxosomatidae from south - ast asia ( diplopoda , polydesmida ) . revue suisse de zoologie , 87 : 651 - 670 . gen\u00e8ve page ( s ) : 655 [ details ]\n( of ceylonesmus chamberlin , 1941 ) jeekel , c . a . w . ( 1980 ) . the generic allocation of some little - known paradoxosomatidae from south - ast asia ( diplopoda , polydesmida ) . revue suisse de zoologie , 87 : 651 - 670 . gen\u00e8ve page ( s ) : 652 ; note : described as a subgenus of euphyodesmus for a new species intercepted in hawai\u2019i on plants imported from sri lanka . [ details ]\n( of pratinus attems , 1937 ) jeekel , c . a . w . ( 1980 ) . the generic allocation of some little - known paradoxosomatidae from south - ast asia ( diplopoda , polydesmida ) . revue suisse de zoologie , 87 : 651 - 670 . gen\u00e8ve page ( s ) : 652 ; note : treated as a valid genus by zhang , 1986 : acta zootaxonomica sinica , 11 ( 3 ) , 253\u2013257 , as a synonym by subsequent authors [ details ]\n( of prionopeltis pocock , 1895 ) jeekel , c . a . w . ( 1980 ) . the generic allocation of some little - known paradoxosomatidae from south - ast asia ( diplopoda , polydesmida ) . revue suisse de zoologie , 87 : 651 - 670 . gen\u00e8ve page ( s ) : 652 ; note : preoccupied by prionopeltis hawle and corda , 1847 , trilobita ; see attems , 1938 : m\u00e9moires du mus\u00e9um national d\u2019histoire naturelle , 6 ( 2 ) : 217 ; replaced by pratinus attems , 1937 [ details ]\n( of hylomus cook & loomis , 1924 ) jeekel , c . a . w . ( 1971 ) . nomenclator generum et familiarum diplopodorum : a list of the genus and family - group names in the class diplopoda from the 10th edition of linnaeus , 1758 , to the end of 1957 . monografieen van de nederlandse entomologische vereniging , 5 : 1 - 412 . amsterdam page ( s ) : 224 [ details ]\n( of hylomus cook & loomis , 1924 ) hoffman , r . l . ( 1980 ) . classification of the diplopoda . 1 - 237 . gen\u00e8ve . page ( s ) : 169 [ details ]\nnatdanai likhitrakarn animal systematics research unit , department of biology , faculty of science , chulalongkorn university , bangkok , 10330 , thailand .\nsergei i . golovatch institute for problems of ecology and evolution , russian academy of sciences , leninsky pr . 33 , moscow 119071 , russia\nsomsak panha animal systematics research unit , department of biology , faculty of science , chulalongkorn university , bangkok , 10330 , thailand .\nattems , c . ( 1938 ) die von dr . c . dawydoff in franz\u00f6sisch indochina gesammelten myriopoden . m\u00e9moires du mus\u00e9um national d\u2019histoire naturelle , nouvelle s\u00e9rie , 6 , 187\u2013321 .\nattems , c . ( 1953 ) myriopoden von indochina . expedition von dr . c . dawydoff ( 1938\u20131939 ) . m\u00e9moires du mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle , new series , s\u00e9rie a , 5 ( 3 ) , 133\u2013230 .\ndecker , p . ( 2010 ) contributions to the myriapod fauna of thailand\u2014new records of millipedes and centipedes from thailand ( myriapoda : diplopoda , chilopoda ) . schubartiana , 4 , 23\u201334 .\nenghoff , h . ( 2005 ) the millipedes of thailand ( diplopoda ) . steenstrupia , 29 ( 1 ) , 87\u2013103 .\nenghoff , h . , golovatch , s . i . & nguyen , a . d . ( 2004 ) a review of the millipede fauna of vietnam ( diplopoda ) . arthropoda selecta , 13 ( 1\u20132 ) , 29\u201343 .\ngolovatch , s . i . ( 1983 ) millipedes ( diplopoda ) of the fauna of vietnam . in : sokolov , v . e . ( ed . ) , fauna and animal ecology of vietnam . nauka , moscow , pp . 178\u2013186 . [ in russian ]\njeekel , c . a . w . ( 1964 ) two new species of pratinus attems , with taxonomoc notes on the genus and a redescription of its type - species ( diplopoda , polydesmida ) . beaufortia , 11 ( 137 ) , 61\u201373 .\njeekel , c . a . w . ( 1968 ) on the classification and geographical distribution of the family paradoxosomatidae ( diplopoda , polydesmida ) . academisch proefschrift , rotterdam , 162 pp .\njeekel , c . a . w . ( 1980 ) the generic allocation of some little - known paradoxosomatidae from south - east asia ( diplopoda , polydesmida ) . revue suisse de zoologie , 87 , 651\u2013670 .\nlikhitrakarn , n . , golovatch , s . i . & panha , s . ( 2014a ) a checklist of the millipedes of laos ( diplopoda ) . zootaxa , 3754 ( 4 ) , 473\u2013482 . urltoken\nlikhitrakarn , n . , golovatch , s . i . & panha , s . ( 2014b ) the millipede genus orthomorpha bollman , 1893 in laos ( diplopoda , polydesmida , paradoxosomatidae ) , with descriptions of new species . zookeys , 374 , 1\u201322 .\nlikhitrakarn , n . , golovatch , s . i . & panha , s . ( 2014c ) review of the southeast asian millipede genus enghoffosoma golovatch , 1993 ( diplopoda , polydesmida , paradoxosomatidae ) , with descriptions of new species . zootaxa , 3811 ( 4 ) , 491\u2013514 .\nlikhitrakarn , n . , golovatch , s . i . & panha , s . ( 2014d ) three new species of the millipede genus tylopus jeekel , 1968 from thailand , with additional notes on species described by attems ( diplopoda , polydesmida , paradoxosomatidae ) . zookeys , 435 , 63\u201391 . urltoken\nnguyen , a . d . & sierwald , p . ( 2013 ) a worldwide catalog of the family paradoxosomatidae daday , 1889 ( diplopoda : polydesmida ) . check list , 9 ( 6 ) , 1132\u20131353 . available from : urltoken ( accessed 9 december 2014 )"]}
{"id": 1269, "summary": [{"text": "the manipur bush rat ( hadromys humei ) also known as hume 's rat or hume 's hadromys , is a species of rodent in the family muridae .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "it is found in northeastern india , and is listed as endangered . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "manipur bush rat", "paragraphs": ["text : wikipedia articles on \u201c allan octavian hume \u201d and \u201c manipur bush rat \u201c .\nthe manipur bush rat was just one of 258 new species of animals and birds described from specimens of his collection .\n48 . all of these animals are named after a . o . hume\u2022 hume\u2019s warbler\u2022 the manipur bush rat ( hadromys humei ) \u2022 hume\u2019s argali\nindia 2006 birds - manipur bush - quail , u / m ms ( 4 x 4stamps ) 5 r . major varieties\nthe manipur bush rat ( hadromys humei ) painted by john gerrard keulemans ( 1842\u20131912 ) in the proceedings of the zoological society of london 1886 . ( public domain image )\nthe gestation period of the bush rat varies between 22 and 24 days . the\nnursery\nof the bush rat is its burrow . the nursing period lasts for about the first 20\u201325 days of life .\n) and in addition , the bush rat ' s foot pads are a pink colour , whereas the swamp rat ' s foot pads are dark brown .\nthe bush rat is found primarily in the coastal regions of southwestern australia . while it is mainly found in the lowlands , the bush rat can also be found in parts of the australian alps and on some offshore islands .\n\u2026 that the manipur bush rat ( pictured ) was described from the collection of a . o . hume which he donated after his life\u2019s work of ornithological notes were sold by a servant as waste paper ?\nwith the predation pressure posed by the rat . this rat also may have played a role in the complete\nthe bush rat is primarily a burrower , the burrow leads down into the nest chamber and is lined with grass and other vegetation .\nbush rats first arrived in australia in the second wave of rodent migration , around two million years ago .\nhainan white - bellied rat , niviventer lotipes ( formerly in n . tenaster )\nthe bush rat is prey to some local predators , including ; dingoes ( canis familiaris ) and foxes ( vulpes vulpes ) , and non - mammalian predators such as ; avian raptors and reptiles .\n, mauitaha and araara , have now been set aside as sanctuaries for the polynesian rat .\nthe sunburned rat or rattus adustus is a species of rat from enggano island in indonesia . it is only known from the holotype and has not been recorded since its description in 1940 .\nundertakes programs to eliminate the polynesian rat on most offshore islands in its jurisdiction , and other conservation groups have adopted similar programs in other reserves seeking to be predator - and rat - free .\nthe polynesian rat is similar in appearance to other rats , such as the black rat and the brown rat . it has large , round ears , a pointed snout , black / brown hair with a lighter belly , and comparatively small feet . it has a thin , long body , reaching up to\nthe new britain water rat ( hydromys neobrittanicus ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae .\nthe bush rat is strictly nocturnal and is active year - round . adults seem to be nomadic , but will rarely leave the forest floor . the bush rat was once considered to be solely a herbivore but recently it has been discovered that it is an omnivore . it is considered to be a pest species because it can destroy cane fields . it is also the host to more parasites than any other australian rodent . they exhibit stereotypically normal behavior when approaching an intruder ; boxing , threat - posture , clash , approach .\ntwo prominent murine human commensals have become vital laboratory animals . the brown rat and house mouse are both used as medical subjects .\nthe pagai spiny rat ( maxomys pagensis ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae . it is found only in indonesia .\nbartels ' s spiny rat ( maxomys bartelsii ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae . it is found only in indonesia .\nthe palawan spiny rat ( maxomys panglima ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae . it is found only in the philippines .\nthe northern water rat ( paraleptomys rufilatus ) is an endangered species of rodent in the family muridae found in the highlands of new guinea .\nmurinae ( rat ) preys on : coconut based on studies in : polynesia ( reef ) this list may not be complete but is based on published studies .\nthe red spiny rat ( maxomys surifer ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae . it is found in cambodia , indonesia , laos , malaysia , myanmar , thailand , singapore and vietnam .\nwhich was much earlier than the accepted dates for polynesian migrations to new zealand , this finding has been challenged by later research showing the rat was introduced to both of the country ' s main islands around 1280 ad .\nthis species is endemic to northeastern india recorded only from the three locations of angarakhata in kamrup district , assam ( agrawal 2000 ) , and bishnupur and senapati in manipur ( agrawal 2000 ) at elevations ranging between 900 and 1 , 300 m asl ( molur et al . 2005 ) . it is a relictual species which ranged much more widely in the pleistocene ( musser and carleton 2005 ) .\nthe ivory coast rat ( dephomys eburneae ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae . it is found in ivory coast , possibly ghana , and liberia . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and subtropical or tropical swamps .\nin new zealand and its offshore islands , many bird species evolved in the absence of terrestrial mammalian predators , so developed no behavioral defenses to rats . the introduction by the maori of the polynesian rat into new zealand resulted in the eradication of several species of terrestrial and small seabirds .\njanet m . wilmshurst , atholl j . anderson , thomas f . g . higham , and trevor h . worthy ( 2008 ) . dating the late prehistoric dispersal of polynesians to new zealand using the commensal pacific rat , proceedings of the national academy of sciences , 105 , 7676\u20137680 .\nthe defua rat ( dephomys defua ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae . it is found in ivory coast , ghana , guinea , liberia , and sierra leone . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical swamps , and subtropical or tropical moist montane forests .\n17 . 6 in 2010 this comic journalist visited india to doa long form feature on rural poverty . thecommunity he chose to study was themusahars , the traditional rat catchers of northindia . he went to a historical town in up to dothe research and named the resulting work afterit . name the comic and also explain the town\u2019shistorical relevance . pic\nthere is an incredibly diverse range of body types in this subfamily . murines can be shrew - like , gerbil - like , vole - like , gopher - like , squirrel - like , mouse - like , and rat - like , with many variations on each body plan . some are small and gracile , like tiny african pygmy mice (\npolynesian rats are nocturnal like most rodents , and are adept climbers , often nesting in trees . in winter , when food is scarce , they commonly strip bark for consumption and satisfy themselves with plant stems . they have common rat characteristics regarding reproduction : polyestrous , with gestations of 21\u201324 days , litter size affected by food and other resources ( 6\u201311 pups ) , weaning takes around another month at 28 days . they diverge only in that they do not breed year round , instead being restricted to spring and summer .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as endangered , in view of its extent of occurrence of less than 5 , 000 km\u00b2 and area of occupancy of less than 500 km\u00b2 , with all individuals in fewer than five locations , and a continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat .\nit is a nocturnal and fossorial species occurring in in tropical evergreen , moist deciduous forests . also found in secondary forests ( molur et al . 2005 ) .\nthe major threats to the species are habitat loss and fragmentation from general encroachment on its habitat , hunting and fire ( molur et al . 2005 ) .\nit is listed in the schedule v ( considered as vermin ) of the indian wildlife ( protection ) act , 1972 . it is not known from any protected area . survey , monitoring and life history studies are recommended for this species ( molur et al . 2005 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n2005 ) . it is a relictual species which ranged much more widely in the pleistocene ( musser and carleton 2005 ) .\nkari pihlaviita added the finnish common name\nmanipurinpensasrotta\nto\nhadromys humei ( thomas , 1886 )\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nallan octavian hume allan octavian hume cb ( 6 june 1829 \u2013 31 july 1912 ) was a civil servant , political reformer and amateur ornithologist and horticulturalist in british india . known to most of us as one of the founders of the indian national congress , a political party that was later to lead the indian independence movement , few know that he was an extremely notable ornithologist who has been called \u201cthe father of indian ornithology\u201d and , by those who found him dogmatic as \u201cthe pope of indian ornithology . \u201d\nallan octavian hume ( image : frontispiece of \u201cthe nests and eggs of indian birds ( vol ii ) . public domain )\nhume had a vast network of correspondents all over india who sent him many skins and much information . read about his network here on shyamal \u2018s blog :\n\u201c . . of eight great rooms , six of them full , from floor to ceiling , of cases of birds , while at the back of the house two large verandahs were piled high with cases full of large birds , such as pelicans , cranes , vultures , & c . an inspection of a great cabinet containing a further series of about 5000 eggs completed our survey . \u201c\nhume\u2019s interest in life science was lost in 1885 when all his manuscripts were sold by an unscrupulous servant as waste paper and after a landslip caused by heavy rains in simla damaged his personal museum and specimens .\nashwin baindur blogs here about nature , wildlife , travel , science , postage stamps and his own articles but wishes there was much , much more about butterflies . . . . .\nenter your email address to subscribe to this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email .\nall text of posts ( less the material not of my authorship ) and my images are licensed as below . take your pick .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nconfused by a class within a class or an order within an order ? please see our brief essay .\nto cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nthis species is endemic to australia , where it is widely distributed mainly along the forested and coastal heath of the southern and eastern portions of the country . it is also present on a number of offshore islands ( including kangaroo island ) ( lunney 2008 ) .\nrecorded from subalpine woodland , coastal scrub , coastal heath , eucalypt forest , and tropical moist forest . it is a largely terrestrial and ground - dwelling species that occurs in areas with a dense undergrowth of shrubs and ferns ( lunney 2008 ) . females give birth to about five young and several litters may be produced in a good season ( lunney 2008 ) .\nmaximum longevity : 5 . 3 years ( captivity ) observations : weaned animals live about one year , but there is a field record of 3 . 8 years and a laboratory record of 5 . 3 years ( taylor and calaby 1988 ) .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there are 7 barcode sequences available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is a sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\nlamoreux , j . ( global mammal assessment team ) & amori , g . ( small nonvolant mammal red list authority )\nlisted as least concern in view of its wide distribution , large population , occurrence in a number of protected areas , lack of major threats , and because it is unlikely to be declining .\nit is generally common in most parts of its range , and locally abundant . it is very common , for instance , in coastal heaths ( a . burbidge pers . comm . ) .\nthis species is very sensitive to habitat disturbance and land clearing , and may be threatened in parts of its range by inappropriate fire regimes and bushfire , as well as logging activities .\nthe bushrat doesn ' t show much overlap in diet with other local rodent species . in the summer it consumes primarily fruit , arthropods , and seeds , but in the winter its main source of food is from a particular cyperaceous species . when found in the forest it consumes primarily fungi and various fibrous plant material .\n) begins breeding around november and has litter sizes ranging usually between 4 - 5 . the majority of individuals do not live to a second breeding cyle due to their short life span .\ncheal , dc ( 1987 ) . the diets and dietary preferences of rattus - fuscipes and rattus - lutreolus at walkerville in victoria . australian wildlife research 14 , 35\u201344 .\nwood , dh ( 1971 ) . the ecology of rattus fuscipes and melomys cervinipes ( rodentia : muridaae ) in a south - east queensland rain forest . australian journal of zoology 19 , 371\u2013392 .\nbaillie ( 1996 ) . rattus fuscipes . 2006 . iucn red list of threatened species . iucn 2006 . urltoken . retrieved on 12 may 2006 .\nthis species is endemic to montane forests on volcanoes of west and central java . the type locality is at 1 , 830 m ( musser and carleton 2005 ) . it is possible that the species could be found on adjacent peaks after appropriate surveys , however , its presence here needs to be confirmed .\nit has been recorded from tropical montane forest . it is relatively disturbance - tolerant and can be found at the forest edge .\namori , g . ( small nonvolant mammal red list authority ) & schipper , j . ( global mammal assessment team )\nthis species is listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , tolerance of a broad range of habitats , and because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category .\nit it present in gunung gede pangrango national park and may be present in other protected areas . further studies are needed into the distribution of this species .\nbaillie , j . 1996 . maxomys bartelsii . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 19 july 2007 .\nmusser , g . g . ; carleton , m . d . ( 2005 ) .\nsuperfamily muroidea\n. in wilson , d . e . ; reeder , d . m . mammal species of the world ( 3rd ed . ) . johns hopkins university press . pp . 894\u20131531 . isbn 978 - 0 - 8018 - 8221 - 0 . oclc 62265494 .\nthis species is endemic to the palawan faunal region , philippines ( balabac , palawan , busuanga , calauit , and culion islands ) , from sea level to 1 , 550 m ( esslestyn et al . 2004 ; heaney et al . 1998 ; p . widmann pers . comm . ; j . c . gonzalez pers . comm . ) .\nit occurs in forested lowland and lower montane habitats , including primary , secondary , agricultural areas , and also tree plantations ( esselstyn et al . 2004 ; barbehenn et al . 1972 / 1973 ; hoogstraal 1951 ; musser et al . 1979 ; sanborn 1952 ) .\nheaney , l . , balete , d . , rosell - ambal , g . , tabaranza , b . , ong , p . , ruedas , l . , widmann , p . & gonzalez , j . c .\nthis species is listed as least concern in view of its wide distribution , presumed large population , occurrence in a number of protected areas , and because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category .\nbaillie , j . 1996 . maxomys panglima . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 19 july 2007 .\nin length from the nose to the base of the tail , making it slightly smaller than other human - associated rats . where it exists on smaller islands , it tends to be smaller still [ e . g .\n] . it is commonly distinguished by a dark upper edge of the hind foot near the ankle . the rest of its foot is pale .\naccidentally or deliberately introduced it to the islands they settled . the species has been implicated in many of the\nr . exulans is an omnivorous species , eating seeds , fruit , leaves , bark , insects , earthworms , spiders , lizards , and avian eggs and hatchlings . polynesian rats have been observed to often take pieces of food back to a safe place to properly shell a seed or otherwise prepare certain foods . this not only protects them from predators , but also from rain and other rats . these\nhusking stations\nare often found among trees , near the roots , in fissures of the trunk , and even in the top branches . in new zealand , for instance , such stations are found under rock piles and fronds shed by nikau palms .\nsubsequent elimination of rats from islands has resulted in substantial increases in populations of certain seabirds and endemic terrestrial birds . as part of its program to restore these populations , such as the endangered\nholdaway , r . n . ( 1996 ) . arrival of rats in new zealand , nature , 384 , 225\u2013226 .\n. vol . 29 no 4 , december 1999 , pp . 265\u2013290 . archived from\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 11 / 7 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nslideshare uses cookies to improve functionality and performance , and to provide you with relevant advertising . if you continue browsing the site , you agree to the use of cookies on this website . see our user agreement and privacy policy .\nslideshare uses cookies to improve functionality and performance , and to provide you with relevant advertising . if you continue browsing the site , you agree to the use of cookies on this website . see our privacy policy and user agreement for details .\nwe use your linkedin profile and activity data to personalize ads and to show you more relevant ads . you can change your ad preferences anytime .\n3 . 1 in february 2012 , it was reported that unitedstates marine corps scout snipers had been usingthis device to symbolize their function since at leastthe 1980s . it was adopted from the indigenousgermanic character which originally symbolized thesun . this simple but striking device consisted oftwo letters side by side like lightning bolts . thisdevice became so popular in nazi germany thattypewriters had an extra key so that one can printthis character with one key stroke instead of two . what ?\n5 . 2one of the major changes in the indian armypost independence was the dropping of a termwhich is derived from a persian word meaningarmy for a persian word meaning young . thefirst term is preferred by the british historians todenote an event in indian history while indiahistorians generally dont use it . what was thechange ?\n8 . 3 * his father umar sheikh mirza died in a freakaccident . an avid pigeon flyer , he lost his lifewhen his dovecot built on the edge of a ravinein the corner of the castle tumbled down intothe depths below in a landslide carrying himalong with it .\numar sheikh mirza , flew with hispigeons and their house and became a falcon\nwrote his son in his memoir , considered the firstof it\u2019s kind in the islamic world . who ?\n14 . 5this ancient sumerian city is now within anamerican air base in iraq . in 1999 , saddamhussein denied pope john paul ii access to thesite , which is supposedly the birthplace ofabraham . which city also famous for thismassive structure ?\n20 . 7 it was this tamizh scholar who collected andpublished tamizh sangam era classics . thusstarting with jeevaka chintamani in 1887 , heprinted and published manimekalai ( 1888 ) , silappathikaram ( 1889 ) , paththupaattu ( 1889 ) and purananooru ( 1894 ) , all appendedwith scholarly commentaries . who ? whatnickname did he get because of these efforts ? < pic >\n23 . 8 excerpt from a 1924 article titled\nshall we allcommit suicide ?\n:\n\u2026 . . could not explosiveseven of the existing type be guided automaticallyin flying machines by wireless or otherrays , without a human pilot , in ceaselessprocession over a hostile city , arsenal , camp ordockyard ?\nwords of someone who claimedthat he could pass an examination on h . g . wellss works . who and what present daymenace did he imagine at that time ?\n26 . 9in ussr the term\nvrag naroda\nwas used to atvarious times applied , in particular , to tsarnicholas ii and the imperialfamily , aristocrats , thebourgeoisie , clerics , businessmen , anarchists , kulaks , monarchists , mensheviks , bundists , trotskyists , bukharinists etc . what similar term was invogue in the states during 1930s ?\n29 . 10it was described as ,\nthe pearl in the necklaceof the forts of hind\n. this place is also famousfor the last stand of rani lakshmibhai . thediscovery of a tablet recording the establishmentof a small 9th century hindu temple in the fortgenerated a lot of interest as it was the oldestrecorded evidence of something . id the fortand also what did they find here ?\n32 . 11 the central institute of psychiatry in ranchi isprobably the oldest lunatic asylum in asia . twoinmates of this hospital were released as agoodwill gesture in 2003 . this was right afterwhen pm atal behari vajpayee visited aneighboring country . they have been inmates ofthis institution under special status for 42 years . one of these inmates suffered briefly fromschizophrenia but otherwise both of them werehealthy . who are these people ?\n34 . the inmates were yang chen and shihliang , two prc soldiers who were held aspows in india . vajpayee had gone to china andhad met wen jiabao .\n35 . 12it states that if equilateral triangles areconstructed on the sides of any triangle , eitherall outward , or all inward , the centres of thoseequilateral triangles themselves form anequilateral triangle . what theorem ? < pic >\n37 . \u2022 napoleon bonaparte was a amateur mathematician and this sort of a geometric construction is called a napoleon triangle and the statement is called napoleon\u2019s theorem .\n38 . 13 during the world war two , it is believed thatthere was an informal agreement between thegermans and the allies that the allies won\u2019tbomb the german towns of g\u00f6ttingen andheidelberg in return for sparing two englishtowns . one strong evidence pointing in thisdirection is the unearthing of some germanplans to make one of these cities the capital ofoccupied england . name hitler\u2019s englishcapital .\n41 . 14 the library of the archeological department ofthe delhi is named after the man whocommissioned it . it was his persian translationof upanishads that attracted sir williamjones , the father of indology , to upanishads . his life has inspired many works of fiction oneof the most popular is shown below . manyhistorians consider his failure as a great \u201cifmoment\u201d in india\u2019s history . who ? < pic >\n43 . dara shikoh . the heir apparent to shahjahan , itwas by defeating him that aurangazeb ascendedthe throne of delhi .\n49 . 17the painting depicts the quaestor of sicilydiscovering a famous tomb . the quaestor ( sortof a roman consul ) , had heard the locals speakof this tomb , but none of them knew the exactlocation . name both the quaestor ( a famousman in his own right ) and the man who\u2019s tombwas discovered . < pic >\n51 . \u2022 cicero discovering archemedes\u2019 grave . \u2022 the tomb has the famous sphere inscribed within a cylinder .\n52 . 18 * located in modern day poland , the malbrokcastle ( or marienburg castle ) is a unescoworld heritage site . it is said to be the largestcastle in the world by surface area . it was builtby a particular group after their conquest of oldprussia in the 13th century . name the specificgroup that built it .\n54 . \u2022 the teutonic knights ( the order of brothers of the german house of saint mary in jerusalem ) .\n55 . 19 * this jesuit priest was the confessor of louis xiv . in 1804 , the city of paris bought a plot of land where he had once lived . the plot was converted into something that bears his name . today it is the largest of its kind within the city and attracts hundreds of thousands of visitors . what ?\n57 . \u2022 the confessor was pere francois de la chaise . \u2022 the pere lachaise cemetery in paris is named after him .\n58 . 20\u201cmy client is not in a hurry\u201d \u2013 famous response by a man when asked about the duration of his celebrated project . he had worked on it from 1883 to 1926 and left it unfinished at his death . what was he talking about ?\n61 . 21he had attended the aicc meeting in 1928 . thirtyyears later , he visited india again . he describes ameeting thus : \u201cdark , cold eyes looked at mewithout feeling . thirty years before , he and hisfather had been introduced to me at a huge rally forindependence . i mentioned this to him , but itproduced no change in his face . he replied inmonosyllables to everything i said , scrutinizing mewith his steady , cold eyes . \u201d who about whom ?\n66 . \u2022 \u201cnight of the long knives\u201d ( hitler\u2019s purge of the sa / \u201croehm putsch\u201d ) .\n69 . \u2022 casey jones , a railroad engineer , who was the only casualty of the \u201ccannonball express\u201d collision .\n70 . 24 * when the athenians were voting on whom to ostracize , to sendinto exile for ten years , by writing names on potsherds , anilliterate farmer who did not know _ _ _ asked him to write aname down for him on his piece of pottery . _ _ _ _ _ asked himwhat name to write , and the farmer replied \u201c _ _ _ _ _\n. hedutifully wrote his own name , and then asked the farmer whatharm _ _ _ _ _ had ever done him .\nnone at all ,\ncame thereply ,\nbut im sick and tired of hearing him being called thejust all the time . name this \u201cstrategos\u201d of athens , who wasrecalled from his exile later and played a key role in the defeat ofthe persian invasion .\n73 . 25 . an artist\u2019s re - creation of a famous structure in its ancient glory . identify the structure .\n76 . 26 . in august 1943 , an 18 year old soldier named charlesherman kuhl got diagnosed with a case ofpsychoneurosis . he had repeatedly returned from thebattle front with similar issues and was admitted to the15th infantry hospital . although his soldierly career wassomewhat unspectacular , he became famous during hisillness . in fact , he may well have influenced one of thecrucial decisions of the war . explain .\n78 . \u2022 charles herman kuhl was the victim of the infamous \u201cpatton slap\u201d . \u2022 during a visit to the hospital , general patton was enraged when he found kuhl , who had no apparent wounds , sitting in the hospital . he accused him of cowardice and slapped him . there was public pressure on eisenhower to take action . it may have been one of the contributing factors for patton not receiving a command during the first phase of normandy landings .\n79 . 27 the cartoon mocks a 1901 ideology , that was added on as a corollary to the monroe doctrine . what diplomacy ?\n81 . \u2022 big stick diplomacy , as proposed by theodore roosevelt . \u2022 \u201cspeak softly and carry a big stick ; you will go far . \u201d\n82 . 28 . \u2022 according to the popular story , the idea was born when the congress leader kamaraj was at a train intersection near the town of cheranmahadevi in tirunelveli district of tamil nadu . as he was waiting for a train to pass , he noticed young boys tending to their goats and cattle . he asked one small boy , \u201cwhat are you doing with the cows ? why didn\u2019t you go to school ? \u201d . the boy\u2019s response made kamaraj think , and he went back and started a new program to attract kids like him to school . what did kamaraj do ?\n85 . 29 . \u2022 during his tenure at the government mint in calcutta , he reformed weights and measures , introduced a uniform coinage and devised a balance so delicate as to indicate the three - thousandth part of a grain . a gifted architect , he rebuilt the minaret of aurangzeb in benares and improved the drainage system of calcutta by building a tunnel between the hooghly river and the sunderbans mangrove forest . the ghat shown below was erected in his honor by the citizens of calcutta . who ?\n87 . \u2022 james prinsep , more famous for deciphering the brahmi script and the rock edicts of ashoka . \u2022 the prinsep ghat in kolkatta was built in his honour .\n88 . 30 * this castle in rotherham , yorkshire , was built in the1770s . the earl who built it named it after a place toshow his support to the activists who were protestingagainst the english . so strong was his opposition to thegovernment position that he resigned his commission . quite cheekily , he also banned a particular beveragefrom parties held at the castle . name the castle . < pic >\n90 . 31\u2022 the society of american travel writers conducts the annual lowell thomas travel journalism competition for outstanding print , online and multimedia works and for travel photography . the awards are named after lowell thomas , an american writer and broadcaster who had a distinguished career at cbs and nbc radio networks . thomas traveled all over the world and made interesting broadcasts . but he shot into the limelight through exhibitions of dramatic video footage that he shot over a short period of time in 1917 . the subject of his films received world wide fame due to his exhibitions . who / what are we talking about ?\n92 . \u2022 lawrence of arabia . \u2022 lowell thomas was the man who made lawrence of arabia famous . he made several recordings of lawrence attired in his arab dress and engaged in his desert war .\n93 . 32\u2022 from the 17th century into the 19th century , the area was known to the british as the\npirate coast\n, as raiders based there harassed the shipping industry despite navies patrolling the area . the british often led campaigns against the pirate bases along the coast . raids continued intermittently until 1835 , when the rulers agreed not to engage in hostilities at sea . in 1853 , they signed a treaty with the united kingdom . the independent territories which signed the agreement were called\n_ _ _\n, after this treaty . they were declared as british protectorates . in 1971 , britain ended this agreement and the territories joined together to form a single nation . by what name were these protectorates known till 1971 ?\n95 . \u2022 the sheikdoms were called \u201cthe trucial states\u201d after an agreement under which they agreed to a\nperpetual maritime truce\u201c . in 1971 , they became a confederation known as the uae .\n96 . 33 * \u2022 identify the person , portrayed on the cover of this book .\n98 . \u2022 roger casement , the irish revolutionary who was also a campaigner for human rights in congo and peru . the cover is from the mario vargas llosa work \u201cthe dream of the celt\u201d\n99 . 34\u2022 x = hebrew word for german . \u2022 y = hebrew word for spanish . \u2022 x and y together form the two main subcultures of a particular group . what words ?\n101 . \u2022 x = ashkenazi\u2022 y = sephardi . \u2022 these are the two main subcultures of judaism .\n102 . 35 * \u2022 this building in tangier , morocco is the first property acquired abroad by its owners . it is also the only _ _ _ _ _ _ on foreign soil . name the building or fill in the blanks .\n104 . \u2022 the american legation in tangier is the first property acquired by the united states government outside the country . \u2022 it is also the only national historic landmark on foreign soil .\nclipping is a handy way to collect important slides you want to go back to later . now customize the name of a clipboard to store your clips .\nsri lanka 1977 ( error ) 75c girl guides anniversary . 75c girl guides anniversary single with yellow missing resulting in a magenta - coloured sun . extraordinary , previously unrecorded error . superb unmounted mint .\nindia 1974 ( error ) r1 veena . spectacular and scarce . superb unmounted mint . sg723a ; sc624var ; ind1446a .\nsingapore 1966 sg71 1 cent , unmounted mint block x 4 , r1 / 1 / showing variety of nick in the fin . good clean condition\n1979 , int . stamp exhibition india ' 80 de havilland 30 ( p ) superb u / m block of four , major errors / varieties : background in the colour lilac instead of blue - with another block of four for comparison , rare misprint .\nindia 1991 gandhi 1 r . u / m marginal block of 6 , major varieties : color smearing\nindia / gandhi / major errors & varieties . m / m mounted mint with original gum . unused without gum . world errors / varieties abarten . otherwise for both sides arise avoidable overhead and unnecessary costs .\npakistan 1979 2 r definitive s . g . 477aw u / m imperforated with inverted watermark\notherwise for both sides arise avoidable overhead and unnecessary costs . m / m mounted mint with original gum . offene kommunikation . der angegebene preis ist ein endpreis zzgl . leichte besch\u00e4digungen , bedingt durch die bef\u00f6rderung ( z . b . kleine einrisse , kleine eckb\u00fcge ) sind bei gebrauchten ganzsachen als normal anzusehen und also vollwertig .\nkleinbogen ( 4 x 4 st\u00fcck ) 5 r . , abarten : bei den unteren zwei reihen wurde die rote farbe nicht richtig bedruckt dadurch vier marken mit den farben rot und gelb statt orange und vier marken mit leichte spuren davon im oberen bereich , unikat , selt .\nvietnam - issues of the vietcong ( 2072 ) . vietcong 10 ( 2 ) . 1965 , vietcong - ausgabe 1 . kab . - st\u00fcck , abart : fehlende farbe grau , mit vergleichsst\u00fcck , extrem selten , rr ! otherwise for both sides arise avoidable overhead and unnecessary costs .\n2072 vietnam 1957 world trade union congress vfu bl . of 4 major variety / error\n( vietnam / errors & varieties ( 2072 ) . 1957 , 4th . - exclusive fees ) and one vfu block ( realized price not known ) were sold both in usa , october 2011 ) , this is the only known used block of four with the variety / error - stamp in the lower right corner of the block of four , unique , exhibition - item , rrr !\ncambodia 1984 olympic winter games sarajevo - figure skating , 6 r . 2 vfu variety\nvfu very fine used . kab . - bl\u00f6cke , abart : beine braun statt rotbraun und block um 9 mm breiter als das vergleichsexemplar \u2013 hier fehlendes rot / pink , extrem selten , rr ! schwerpunktm\u00e4\u00dfig finden sie hier briefmarken , briefe und ganzsachen sowie ansichtskarten aus aller welt , aber auch m\u00fcnzen , historische wertpapiere usw .\nindonesia 1981 president suharto 300 ( r . ) unused on piece , error / variety : look\n1981 , president suharto 300 ( r . ) unused on piece , error / variety : look at the jacket , exhibition - item , r ! auctiva ' s free counter . unused without gum . otherwise for both sides arise avoidable overhead and unnecessary costs .\nm / m mounted mint with original gum . unused without gum . leichte besch\u00e4digungen , bedingt durch die bef\u00f6rderung ( z . b . kleine einrisse , kleine eckb\u00fcge ) sind bei gebrauchten ganzsachen als normal anzusehen und also vollwertig .\n1981 , 80 p . kab . - r - gu mit zusatzfrankatur n . england , abarten : 20 p . oliv dahlien ungez\u00e4hntes statt gez\u00e4hntes randpaar , ( s . g . 26 flowers vfu imperforated marginal pair , variety / error not known by sg / pierron ) rr !\n( 2x4 ) ; a = perf . k 13 1 / 4 : 12 3 / 4 ; b = imperforated . 45 j . diplomatische beziehungen mit china - geschnittener kb ( i ) error e ( ii ) - ( ) . 1998b kb ( i ) e ( ii ) . kb ( i ) , date of issue : 7 . 7 . 2006 . quantity kb ( i ) : 2 , 500 pieces .\ninternationales jahr der berge - error / lao prd - ( ) . nach entdeckung des fehlers wurden die marken zur\u00fcckgezogen und durch minr . 1813ii - 1814ii ersetzt . here as a\nmint never hinged ( mnh )\nset . all other pictures are only for your information of other available versions for this issue !\n997 - 1009 ( souvenir sheet 10 ) oz . all other pictures are only for your information of other available versions for this issue ! here as a\nmint never hinged ( mnh )\nsouvenir sheet with missing digit number top right .\nrotes kreuz 1975 - error / fehlender eindruck - ( ) minr . 739 - 740 4er e ( i ) . odr ; . wmk 4 ; perf . k 13 1 / 2 ; with bdr . all other pictures are only for your information of other available versions for this issue !\ninternationales jahr der berge - error / lao prd fdc ( i ) - i - . nach entdeckung des fehlers wurden die marken zur\u00fcckgezogen und durch minr . 1813ii - 1814ii ersetzt . fdc ( i ) , date of issue : 30 . 3 . 2002 . 1813i - 1814i fdc ( i ) - i - .\na sign refers to a particular group of stars , ther being a total of twelve zodiac signs . images of different types of animals are used to represent particular signs for each of the years . das wort\nsongkran\nleitet sich von sanskrit ab , was den eintritt der sonne in das sternbild widder , das erste zeichen des tierkreises , bedeutet .\n1148 - 1151 ( souvenir sheet 16 ) oz . all other pictures are only for your information of other available versions for this issue ! here as a\nmint never hinged ( mnh )\nsouvenir sheet without counting number top right !\nbangkok 1983 ( iii ) ( 13b ) - error / imperforated without number - ( mnh ) mino . 1048b - 1051b ( souvenir sheet 13b ) oz . minr . 1048b - 1051b ( block 13b ) oz . here as a\nmint never hinged ( mnh )\nimperforated souvenir sheet without !\ndefinitive : king bhumibol 10th s . 50b csp 1 . p - sheet ( i ) error / without number - ( mnh\n( freimarke : k\u00f6nig bhumibol 10 . dof ) king bhumibol aduljadeh , rama ix . ( 1927 ) ; in marshal - uniform of he royal thai air force . dof ) k\u00f6nig bhumibol aduljadeh , rama ix . ( 1927 ) ; in uniform . specialists distinguish three versions of the 3 baht issue that can be recognized by the different sheet sequence number .\n( 115 jahre staatsbesuch k\u00f6nig chulalongkorn in \u00f6sterreich ( 297 ) - error - ( ) minr . 3265 - 3266 ( block 297 ) e ( i ) . ech ) king chulalongkorn , rama v ( 1853 - 1910 ) . ech ) k\u00f6nig chulalongkorn , rama v . ( 1853 - 1910 ) .\nhere as a fdc ( version i ) with missing ! the dragon used to be the symbol of the chinese emperor . fdc ( i ) , date of issue : 13 . 4 . 2000 . 2013a fdc ( i ) e ( i ) . quality fdc ( i ) : 20 , 000 pieces . fdc ( i ) , ausgabedatum : 13 . 4 . 2000 .\ncopyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 ebay inc . all rights reserved . user agreement , privacy , cookies and adchoice\nthis west african species is patchily distributed from sierra leone , through liberia , guinea and cte d ' ivoire to ghana .\ntype for dephomys defua catalog number : usnm 83837 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of mammals sex / stage : male ; adult preparation : skin ; skull collector ( s ) : r . currie year collected : 1897 locality : mount coffee , montserrado , liberia , africa elevation ( m ) : 122 to 152\ntype : miller , g . s . 1900 dec 28 . proceedings of the washington academy of sciences . 2 : 635 .\nthis species has been reported from lowland and montane rain forest , and also in secondary forest associated with swampy soils .\namori , g . ( small nonvolant mammal red list authority ) & cox , n . ( global mammal assessment team )\nlisted as least concern because , although it is seldom recorded , it has a relatively wide distribution , is tolerant of some habitat degradation , has a presumed overall large population , and because it is unlikely to be declining fast enough to qualify for listing in a more threatened category .\nthe threats to this species are not well known , but its association with forest habitats suggest that it may be threatened by deforestation .\nit is not known if the species is present in any protected areas . additional studies are needed into the distribution , abundance , general ecology and threats to this little - known species .\ntaylor , p . 2004 . dephomys eburnea . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 9 july 2007 .\ntaylor , p . 2004 . dephomys defua . 2006 iucn red list of threatened species . downloaded on 19 july 2007 .\nmurinae , the old world rats and mice , is the largest subfamily of muroid rodents . there are an astonishingly diverse 561 species in this subfamily , which are divided among 126 genera in 29 divisions .\nmusser , g . , m . carleton . 2005 . superfamily muroidea . d wilson , d reeder , eds . mammal species of the world . baltimore and london : the johns hopkins university press .\nrats and mice are native to the ethiopian , palearctic , and oriental regions , including africa , the arabian peninsula , europe , the middle east , india , china , taiwan , korea , japan , the indo - malayan region , the philippines , new guinea , australia , and tasmania . in addition , murines have been introduced around the world by humans , and now have a virtually cosmopolitan distribution .\ncarleton , m . , g . musser . 1984 . muroid rodents . pp . 289 - 379 in s anderson , j jones jr . , eds . orders and families of recent mammals of the world . new york : john wiley and sons .\nthe dental formula is 1 / 1 , 0 / 0 , 0 / 0 , 3 / 3 = 16 in most murine genera . the incisors can be opisthodont , orthodont , or proodont . most have ungrooved incisors . the molars are rooted and are not evergrowing . the molars range from brachydont to hypsodont , and the third molars are always smaller than the first and second molars . most murines have three lingual cusps on the upper molars , giving a triserial cusp arrangement ; there is always at least an anterolingual cusp on the second upper molars . in addition , the lower molars usually have labial cusplets . murines vary widely in skull characteristics , and the diversity is so great that no synapomorphies of the skull can be identified , except of the lack of a sphenofrontal foramen or squamosoalisphenoid groove . a skeletal characteristic that all murine genera share is the presence of a prominent neural spine on the second thoracic vertebra . diploid chromosome numbers for murines range from 25 to 68 .\nhubbard , c . 1972 . observations on the life histories and behavior of some small rodents from tanzania . zoologica africana , 7 ( 2 ) : 419 - 449 .\nmurines occupy a wide variety of boreal , temperate , subtropical , and tropical habitats , including : coniferous and deciduous forests , subtropical broadleaf forests , tropical rainforests , monsoon forests , savannahs , steppes , grasslands , scrub forests , alpine meadows , deserts , rocky outcrops , river valleys , marshes , swamps , lakes , rivers , streams , agricultural fields , cities , and towns . murines span a greater elevational range than any other muroid subfamily ; they have been found in high mountains at more than 4 , 000 meters , and in mine shafts more than 500 meters below the earth ' s surface .\nnowak , r . 1999 . walker ' s mammals of the world , vol . 2 . baltimore and london : the johns hopkins university press .\n, carrion , and even household items such as glue , paste , and soap . individual murine species range from dietary generalists that will eat just about anything to specialist herbivores and specialist carnivores . many murine species cache their food in burrows or crevices for later use .\nmurines are essential components of many ecosystems . they have roles as seed dispersers , pollinators ( johnson et al . 2001 ) , predators , and / or prey . not all ecosystem roles are positive , however . some murine species have been introduced to areas where they were previously absent , and they have devastated ecosystems by outcompeting or feeding on native wildlife . a few murine species have developed a commensal relationship with humans , and , especially in urban areas , rely on human - produced waste to survive . in turn , various parasites use murines as hosts , including\njohnson , s . , a . pauw , j . midgely . 2001 . rodent pollination in the african lily massonia depressa ( hyacinthaceae ) . american journal of botany , 88 ( 10 ) : 1768 - 1773 .\nroberts , l . , j . janovy jr . . 2000 . foundations of parasitology . new york : mcgraw - hill .\ncochran , p . , j . cochran . 1999 . predation on a meadow jumping mouse , zapus hudsonius , and a house mouse , mus musculus , by brown trout , salmo trutta . canadian field - naturalist , 113 ( 4 ) : 684 - 684 .\nw . a . niering , terrestrial ecology of kapingamarangi atoll , caroline islands , ecol . monogr . 33 ( 2 ) : 131 - 160 , from p . 157 ( 1963 ) .\nehret , g . 2005 . infant rodent ultrasounds - a gate to the understanding of sound communication . behavior genetics , 35 ( 1 ) : 19 - 29 .\nthompson , r . , b . robertson , a . napier , k . wekesa . 2004 . sex - specific responses to urinary chemicals by the mouse vomeronasal organ . chemical senses , 29 ( 9 ) : 749 - 754 .\nmurines usually do not live more than a few months in the wild , and those that do rarely live to be three years old . in captivity , however , some murines may live nearly a decade .\nmost murines have a polygynandrous mating system , with each male and female only associating for the brief time required for copulation and each individual having multiple mates . a few species are monogamous , at least within one breeding season , and males stay with their mates and help to raise their young .\nfemale murines , like all mammals , provide their young with milk before the young are able to eat solid food . many murines build nests - - the size , shape and location of which varies among species - - in which they raise their young . yet females of other species simply allow their babies to clamp on to their teats and then carry their young around with them . the time to weaning is relatively short , as young murines grow and develop quickly . both altricial and precocial murine species are known . male parental care is rare , but not unheard of , in this group . for example , male four - striped grass mice ("]}
{"id": 1639, "summary": [{"text": "the greenthroat darter ( etheostoma lepidum ) is found in found in colorado , guadalupe and nueces river drainages in texas ; and in pecos river system in new mexico .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it inhabits gravel and rubble riffles , with a preference for spring-fed and vegetated riffles of headwaters , creeks , and small rivers . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "greenthroat darter", "paragraphs": ["hubbs , c . , and k . strawn . 1957 . the effects of light and temperature on the fecundity of the greenthroat darter , etheostoma lepidum . ecology 38 : 596 - 602 .\nhubbs , c . , a . e . peden , and m . m . stevenson . 1969 . the developmental rate of the greenthroat darter , etheostoma lepidum . amer . midl . nat . 81 : 182 - 188 .\nhubbs , c . 1985 . darter reproductive seasons . copeia 1985 ( 1 ) : 56 - 68 .\nin new mexico , davenport and archdeacon ( 2008 ) summarized recent survey results . this species was collected annually from bitter creek between 1995\u20131998 but has not been collected from bitter creek / lost river since 1999 . it was collected from the west side spring ditch in the majority of years sampled , including 2007 . sampling at cottonwood creek in 2002 and 2003 found no greenthroat darters ( the channel was filled with vegetation and tumbleweeds ) ; further sampling is needed to determine the current status of the greenthroat darter in this location . no greenthroat darters were collected from the rio penasco in 2007 , but researchers could not access previously sampled sites on private property .\nplatania , s . p . 1980 . etheostoma lepidum ( baird and girard ) , greenthroat darter . pp . 661 in d . s . lee et al . , atlas of north american freshwater fishes . n . c . state mus . nat . hist . , raleigh , i - r + 854 pp .\n( pflieger 1997 ) ; lepidum : denotes pretty . this darter is a colorful addition to the local fauna ( kuehne and barbour 1983 ) .\ntotal adult population size is unknown . this darter is common on the edwards plateau in texas , uncommon in new mexico ( page and burr 2011 ) .\nin new mexico , many spring fed tributaries of the pecos river have decreased or ceased to flow since increase in appropriation from the artesian and shallow aquifers ; loss of these habitats led to restriction of greenthroat darters to the few remaining springs with flow ( davenport and archdeacon 2008 ) .\nhubbs , c . , m . m . stevenson , and a . e . peden . 1968 . fecundity and egg size in two central texas darter populations . southwestern naturalist 13 : 301 - 323 .\n. 1990 ) . this darter is most common in riffle areas with rocky , plant - covered surfaces . eggs are laid on vegetation or on any solid substrate including the undersides of rocks ( page 1983 , sublette\npaine , m . d . 1984 . ecological and evolutionary consequences of early ontogenies of darter ( etheostomatini ) . pp . 21 - 30 . in : lindquist , d . g . , and l . m . page ( eds . ) , environmental biology of darters . dr w junk publishers , the hague .\nit is easily confused with the orangethroat darter ( etheostoma spectabile ) , which has a less developed banding on the caudal peduncle ; also , the lateral line is almost complete in e . lepidum ( kuehne and barbour 1983 ) . female hybrids of e . lepidum x e . spectabile are fertile ; males are sterile ( hubbs 1958 ) . most closely related to allopatric rio grande darter ( e . grahami ) of lower pecos river and closely adjacent area ( platania 1980 ) ; e . grahami is deeper bodied ; has many small red ( on male ) or black ( on female ) spots on side of body , red edge on 1 st dorsal fin ( page and burr 1991 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\njustification : listed as near threatened because although the extent of occurrence is fairly large and the species is represented by a relatively large number of subpopulations and locations , the area of occupancy may be less than 2 , 000 sq km and habitat quantity and quality are subject to ongoing slow declines . population size is unknown but apparently not particularly small .\nextent of occurrence exceeds 20 , 000 square kilometres and may be roughly 40 , 000 square kilometres .\nthis species is represented by a moderate number of occurrences ( subpopulations ) , most of which are in texas . texas natural history collections ( 1997 ) mapped 22 collection sites in texas and 8 sites in new mexico .\ntrend over the past three generations is uncertain but probably slowly declining . regionally , this species faces no immediate danger of extinction ; it persists in much of the historical range in texas and new mexico ; distribution has become somewhat restricted due to habitat alteration ; status of some populations is precarious ( see new mexico department of game and fish 1996 ) . in new mexico , several populations were extirpated in historical times , and others may have been reduced in distribution or abundance ( see new mexico department of game and fish 1996 ) . in new mexico , davenport and archdeacon ( 2008 ) found this species at all previously sampled sites except bitter creek on the bitter lake national wildlife refuge . warren\nthe primary threat is habitat alteration through groundwater mining , flow diversion , excessive sedimentation , modification of stream morphology , and pollution from industrial , agricultural , and domestic sources ( see new mexico department of game and fish 1996 ) .\n) into the riparian area of bitter creek likely caused the disappearance of this species from bitter creek on the bitter lake national wildlife refuge in new mexico ( davenport and archdeacon 2008 ) .\nthis species would benefit from habitat restoration , improved habitat protection and management , species management , and better information on distribution , abundance , population trend , and threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\n- - natureserve explorer is a source for authoritative conservation information on more than 50 , 000 plants , animals and ecological communtities of the u . s and canada . natureserve explorer provides in - depth information on rare and endangered species , but includes common plants and animals too . natureserve explorer is a product of natureserve in collaboration with the natural heritage network .\nitis reports - - itis ( the integrated taxonomic information system ) is a source for authoritative taxonomic information on plants , animals , fungi , and microbes of north america and the world .\nfws digital media library - - the u . s . fish and wildlife service ' s national digital library is a searchable collection of selected images , historical artifacts , audio clips , publications , and video .\nrio leona at uvalde , uvalde co . , texas ( baird and girard 1853 ) .\n: color of species is geographically variable ( hubbs 1976 ) . throat blue or green in males ( lost in preservation ) . 10 to 12 body bars . no black spot on upper margin of pectoral fins , no pale longitudinal streak along lateral line , and no large black rectangular blotches present on sides ( hubbs et al . 1991 ) .\ndorsum is olive ; belly of male is orange , female yellow to white . 8 - 13 dark green - brown vertical bars along the side ; bars encircle the body posteriorly , anteriorly extending ventrally only onto upper part of the belly . interspaces between bars yellow and speckled with orange . breast and branchiostegal membranes of male are green , those of female white . 3 vertically aligned spots at base of the caudal fin . prominent black pre - and suborbital bars ; postorbital bar reduced to a spot . in the male 1\ndorsal fin has a blue - green margin , clear submarginal band , broad red - orange band , and in some areas of the species\u2019 range a basal blue - green band . the 2\ndorsal and caudal fins have many red - brown spots arranged in concentric bands . pelvic and anal fins mostly blue - green , often have orange or red - orange medially . fins of the female mostly spotted with brown . pelvic fins of both sexes clear . in breeding male , colors of fins are accentuated , breast and branchiostegal membranes bright blue - green , and bright orange blotches contrast with the dark green bars on the side of the body ( page 1983 ) .\n2 anal fin spines ( hubbs et al 1991 ) . page ( 1983 ) lists the following counts for this species : 43 - 67 ( 48 - 55 ) lateral scales , 19 - 42 pored ; scales above lateral line 5 - 7 ( 6 ) ; scales below lateral line 7 - 10 ; transverse scales 12 - 19 ; scales around caudal peduncle 19 - 25 ; dorsal spines 7 - 12 ( 9 - 10 ) ; dorsal rays 8 - 14 ( 10 - 12 ) ; pectoral rays 9 - 14 ( 11 - 12 ) ; anal rays 4 - 9 ( 6 - 8 ) .\nbody cross section oval ; body depth contained in standard length less than five times ; head profile rounded , profile in front of eye less than 45 degrees ( hubbs et al . 1991 ) .\nrather small and slender , having a small conical head ( kuehne and barbour 1983 ) . body deepest under middle of 1\npreopercle smooth or weakly serrate ; upper jaw not extending as far as to below middle of eye ( hubbs et al . 1991 ) .\nu . s . distribution : a disjunct series of populations inhabits tributaries of the pecos river in new mexico ( platania 1980 ; hubbs et al . 1991 )\ntexas distribution : inhabits edwards plateau streams , especially spring - influenced headwaters in the colorado river southward to the nueces river basin ( hubbs et al . 1991 ) . warren et al . ( 2000 ) list the following drainage units for distribution of etheostoma lepidum in the state : colorado river , san antonio bay ( including minor coastal drainages west of mouth of colorado river to mouth of nueces river ) , nueces river .\npopulations in southern drainages are currently stable ( warren et al 2000 ) . common in texas ( page 1983 ) .\n: scarce or absent from very eurythermal locations ( hubbs 1985 ) . occurs in a variety of non - turbid stream habitats with substrates from bedrock to silt covered ( platania 1980 ) . a typical riffle species occurring over gravel and rubble , especially when aquatic vegetation is present . it also lives in spring areas , sometimes in cool vegetated pools ( kuehne and barbour 1983 ) . largest populations occur in vegetated rocky riffles ( strawn 1955 ; hubbs et al . 1953 ;\nhubbs and strawn 1957 ; hubbs and echelle 1972 ) . species benthic after hatching ( hubbs and strawn 1957 ; paine 1984 ) .\nspawning season : october or november through may , with populations in stenothermal environments having a longer spawning season than those in more eurythermal environments ( hubbs and strawn 1957 ; hubbs 1985 ) . in the colorado river , texas , spawning occurs november \u2013 may ( hubbs 1961a ) ; in the south concho river , texas , spawning occurs october \u2013 may ( hubbs et al . 1968 ) . hubbs ( 1985 ) reported marked drop in reproductive activity when water temperature was raised from 20 to 23 degrees c .\nspawning habitat : eggs laid on vegetation ( strawn 1956 ) , or on the underside of rocks ( hubbs and strawn 1957 ) .\nhubbs and echelle ( 1972 ) reported water supply and habitat problems leading to decline in distribution . species in no immediate danger of extirpation ; however , some populations are in a precarious position ( kuehne and barbour 1983 ) .\n[ additional literature noting collection of this species from texas locations includes , but is not limited to the following : hubbs ( 1957 ) ; hubbs and hettler ( 1958 ) ; hubbs ( 1960 ) ; hubbs and martin ( 1965 ) ; hubbs 1967 ) . ]\nbaird , s . f . and c . girard . 1853 . descriptions of new species of fishes collected by mr . john h . clark , on the u . s . and mexican boundary survey , under lt . col . jas . d . graham . proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 6 ( 7 ) : 387 - 390 .\nevermann , b . w . , and w . c . kendall . 1894 . the fishes of texas and the rio grande basin , considered chiefly with reference to their geographic distribution . bull . u . s . fish comm . 57 - 126 .\nhubbs , c . 1957 . distributional patterns of texas fresh - water fishes . the southwestern naturalist 2 ( 2 / 3 ) : 89 - 104 .\nhubbs , c . 1958 . fertility of f\u0131 hybrids between the percid fishes , etheostoma spectabile and e . lepidum . copeia 1958 : 57 - 59 .\nhubbs , c . 1960 . duration of sperm function in the percid fishes etheostoma lepidum and e . spectabile , associated with sympatry of the parental populations . copeia 1960 ( 1 ) : 1 - 8 .\nhubbs , c . 1961a . developmental temperature tolerance of four etheostomatine fishes occurring in texas . copeia 1961 : 195 - 198 .\nhubbs , c . 1961b . differences in the incubation period of two populations of etheostoma lepidum . copeia 1961 : 198 - 200 .\nhubbs , c . 1967 . geographic variations in survival of hybrids between etheostomatine fishes . bulletin of the texas memorial museum 13 : 1 - 72 .\nhubbs , c . 1976 . a checklist of texas freshwater fishes . rev . ed . tech . ser . tex . parks wildl . dep . 11 . 12 pp .\nhubbs , c . , and a . a . echelle . 1972 . endangered non - game fishes of the upper rio grande basin pp . 147 - 167 . in : rare and endangered wildlife of southwestern unites states . new mexico game and fish dept . , santa fe .\nhubbs , c . , and p . s . martin . 1965 . effects of darkness on egg deposition by etheostoma lepidum females . the southwestern naturalist 10 ( 4 ) : 302 - 306 .\nhubbs , c . , and w . f . hettler . 1958 . flutuations of some central texas fish populations . the southwestern naturalist 3 ( 1 / 4 ) : 13 - 16 .\nhubbs , c . , r j . edwards , and g . p . garrett . 1991 . an annotated checklist of the freshwater fishes of texas , with keys to identification of species . texas journal of science , supplement 43 ( 4 ) : 1 - 56 .\nhubbs , c . , r . a . kuehne , and j . c . ball . 1953 . the fishes of the upper guadalupe river . texas journal of science 5 ( 2 ) : 216 - 244 .\nkuehne , r . a . , and r . w . barbour . 1983 . the american darters . the university press of kentucky . lexington . 177 pp .\npage , l . m . 1983 . handbook of darters . t . f . h . publications , inc . , ltd . , neptune city , nj . 271 pp .\npage , l . m . , and b . m . burr . 1991 . a field guide to freshwater fishes : north america , north of mexico . houghton mifflin company , boston , massachusetts . 432 pp .\npflieger , w . l . 1997 . the fishes of missouri . missouri department of conservation , jefferson city . 372 pp .\nstrawn , k . 1955 . a method of breeding and raising three texas darters . part i . aquarium journal 26 : 408 - 412 .\nstrawn , k . 1956 . a method of breeding and raising three texas darters . part ii . aquarium journal 27 ( 1 ) : 11 - 32 .\nwarren , m . l . , jr . , b . m . burr , s . j . walsh , h . l . bart , jr . , r . c . cashner , d . a . etnier , b . j . freeman , b . r . kuhajda , r . l . mayden , h . w . robison , s . t . ross , and w . c . starnes . 2000 . diversity , distribution , and conservation status of the native freshwater fishes of the southern united states . fisheries 25 ( 10 ) : 7 - 29 .\nadults occur in gravel and rubble riffles , especially spring - fed and vegetated riffles , of headwaters , creeks and small rivers ( ref . 5723 ) . eggs are found attached to the substrate unguarded ( ref . 7043 ) .\nnorth america : found in colorado , guadalupe and nueces river drainages in texas , usa ; and in pecos river system in new mexico , usa .\n6 . 6 cm tl ( male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5723 ) )\nlectotype for boleosoma lepida catalog number : usnm 744 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of fishes collector ( s ) : j . clark locality : rio leona at uvalde , a tributary of rio nueces , texas . , uvalde county , texas , united states , north america\nnon - migrant : no . all populations of this species make significant seasonal migrations .\nlocally migrant : no . no populations of this species make local extended movements ( generally less than 200 km ) at particular times of the year ( e . g . , to breeding or wintering grounds , to hibernation sites ) .\nlocally migrant : no . no populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km .\ncomments : eats small crustaceans , aquatic insects , alagae on solid substates in riffles , and aquatic vegetation ( sublette et al . 1990 ) .\nnote : for many non - migratory species , occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations .\ncomments : this species is represented by a moderate number of occurrences ( subpopulations ) , most of which are in texas . texas natural history collections ( 1997 ) mapped 22 collection sites in texas and 8 sites in new mexico .\nspawns late october or november through may ( hubbs 1985 ) . eggs laid in several groups and usually are fertilized by largest male present . eggs hatch in 4 - 5 days at 28 c , about 40 days at 9 c ( page 1983 ) .\nthe following is a representative barcode sequence , the centroid of all available sequences for this species . there are 8 barcode sequences available from bold and genbank .\nbelow is a sequence of the barcode region cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 ( coi or cox1 ) from a member of the species .\nreasons : occurs in tributaries of colorado , guadalupe , and nueces rivers of edwards plateau , texas , and pecos river system in southeastern new mexico ; common in texas , uncommon in new mexico ; distribution has become somewhat restricted due to habitat alteration through groundwater mining , flow diversion , excessive sedimentation , modification of stream morphology , and pollution from industrial , agricultural , and domestic sources .\ncomments : boloeosoma phlox cope , formerly assigned to this species , is a junior synonym of e . spectabile ( page 1983 ) . apparently has hybridized with percina caprodes in texas ; hybridization probably related to abnormally high turbidity ( hubbs et al . 1988 ) .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nbiokids is sponsored in part by the interagency education research initiative . it is a partnership of the university of michigan school of education , university of michigan museum of zoology , and the detroit public schools . this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation under grant drl - 0628151 . copyright \u00a9 2002 - 2018 , the regents of the university of michigan . all rights reserved ."]}
{"id": 1685, "summary": [{"text": "crombrugghia tristis is a moth of the pterophoridae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in most of europe , except the benelux , great britain , ireland and scandinavia .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is also known from southern siberia , asia minor and central asia .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "the habitat consists of sandy areas overgrown with hieracium .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the wingspan is 16 \u2013 17 millimetres ( 0.63 \u2013 0.67 in ) , making it the smallest species in the crombrugghia genus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "it is greyish , light-brown coloured .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "the larvae feed on hieracium echioides , hieracium umbeliferum , hieracium dubium , hieracium cymosum , hieracium piloselloides , hieracium fallax , hieracium pilosella and hieracium amplexicaule . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "crombrugghia tristis", "paragraphs": ["crombrugghia tristis is a moth of the pterophoridae family . it is found in most of europe , except the benelux , great britain , ireland and scandinavia . it is also known from southern siberia , asia minor and central asia . the habitat consists of sandy areas overgrown with hieracium .\nthe wingspan is 16\u201317 millimetres ( 0 . 63\u20130 . 67 in ) , making it the smallest species in the crombrugghia genus . it is greyish , light - brown coloured .\npterophorus tristis zeller , 1841 : zeller ( 1841 ) : 788 . [ description originale ] zeller , p . c . 1841 . vorl\u00e4ufer einer vollst\u00e4ndigen naturgeschichte den pterophoriden , einer nachtfalterfamilie . isis von oken , 10 : 756 - 794 . [ urltoken ]\non the systematics and origin of the generic group oxyptilus zeller ( lep . alucitidae )\nbiostor is built by @ rdmpage , code on github . page images from the biodiversity heritage library .\nenter the name or part of a name you wish to search for . the asterisk character * can be used as wildcard . e . g . ' papilio * ' . keep in mind that the search is only based on the full taxon name .\nwe are still having problems with the search feature . unfortunately we cannot give a timeline when the advanced search will be fixed .\nthe id resolving service for stable taxon ids is currently under maintenance . meanwhile , please use the name search in order to find the taxon page .\nmuseum f\u00fcr naturkunde leibniz - institut f\u00fcr evolutions - und biodiversit\u00e4tsforschung invalidenstr . 43 10115 berlin germany e - mail : fauna - eu ( at ) mfn - berlin . de website : urltoken\nin continuing your browsing of this site , you accept the use of cookies to offer you suitable content and services and realize visits statistics . learn more about cookies .\n: angiospermivora regier , c . mitter , kristensen , davis , van nieukerken , rota , simonsen , k . t . mitte , kawahara , yen , cummings & zwick , 2015\n: euheteroneura regier , c . mitter , kristensen , davis , van nieukerken , rota , simonsen , k . t . mitte , kawahara , yen , cummings & zwick , 2015\nnational inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .\neu , asia minor , north africa , canary islands . see [ maps ]\nlarva on crepis capillaris , c . tectorum , hieracium pilosella , hieracium amplexicaule , crepis succifolia , c . conyzaefolia , c . albida , c . capillaris , sonchus asper , s . arvensis , cichorium intybus , picris hieracioides [ me1 ]\nlarva on hieracium echioides , h . umbeliferum , h . dubium , h . cymosum , h . piloselloides , h . fallax , h . pilosella , h . amplexicaule [ me1 ]\npterophorus kollari stainton , 1851 ; suppl . cat . br . tineidae and pteroph . : 28\nseu , north africa , canary islands , asia minor , iraq . see [ maps ]\noxyptilus lantoscanus milli\u00e8re , 1883 ; ann . soc . linn . lyon ( n . s . ) 29 : 176\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\na natural history of the british lepidoptera . a text - book for students and collectors\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nbuggallery v . 1 . 3 \u00a9 2007 - 2018 by boris loboda . php v . 5 . 3 . 3 - 7 + squeeze19 . mysql v . 5 . 5 . 44 - 0 + deb7u1 .\n2011 - 01 - 26 by & van nieukerken , dr erik j . karsholt , dr ole & by dr . cees gielis\nthis work is licensed under a creative commons attribution - share alike 3 . 0 license\npesi is funded by the european union 7th framework programme within the research infrastructures programme . contract no . ri - 223806 . activity area : capacities . period 2008 - 2011 - website hosted & developed by vliz banner picture : gannet ( morus bassanus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) by karl van ginderdeuren - contact pesi\nthe larvae feed on hieracium echioides , hieracium umbeliferum , hieracium dubium , hieracium cymosum , hieracium piloselloides , hieracium fallax , hieracium pilosella and hieracium amplexicaule ."]}
{"id": 1720, "summary": [{"text": "the mindanao horned frog or southeast asian horned toad ( megophrys stejnegeri ) is a species of amphibian in the megophryidae family .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "it is endemic to the philippines .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical moist montane forests , rivers , and intermittent rivers .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it is threatened by habitat loss . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "mindanao horned frog", "paragraphs": ["the mindanao horned frog is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .\nthe mount malindang national park on mindanao is currently one of the few protected areas providing a safe haven to some populations of the mindanao horned frog ( 1 ) .\nthe mindanao horned frog is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) , considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - mindanao horned frog ( megophrys stejnegeri )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - mindanao horned frog ( megophrys stejnegeri )\ntitle =\narkive species - mindanao horned frog ( megophrys stejnegeri )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nit is vitally important that more information is collected on the biology and true range of the mindanao horned frog , in order to determine the best methods of protecting it ( 6 ) .\nlike other species in the genus megophrys , the mindanao horned frog is likely to have a large head and mouth , making it well - adapted to swallowing relatively large prey ( 3 ) .\nburger , r . m . ( 2000 ) taxon management account : malaysian horned frog . dallas zoo , dallas , texas .\nmindanao horned frogs are endemic to the philippines . its relatively small distribution makes it vulnerable to a range of threats including habitat destruction and degradation .\nthe mindanao horned frog has a relatively small distribution , and it is therefore vulnerable to a number of specific threats across its range . the primary threats to this species include logging activity in the lowland forests of the philippines , as well as contamination of nearby mountain streams and rivers due to mining activity and agricultural runoff , which are resulting in the destruction of the mindanao horned frog\u2019s natural habitat ( 1 ) .\nthe mindanao horned frog is endemic to the philippines ( 4 ) . it has been observed in a number of provinces , including basilan , bohol , leyte , mindanao , dinagat , biliran and samar , but it is possible that its distribution may be more extensive than this ( 1 ) .\nburger , r . m . , ( 2000 ) . taxon management account : malaysian horned frog , megophyrs montana nasuta . in frog forum . retrieved 10 november 2013 , from http : / / www . frogforum . net\n- although it is called the mindanao horned frog , you can still find this creature in bohol . its natural habitat is a subtropical or moist lowland forest . it is mostly found near a fresh water supply when it can lay its eggs or in dense underbrush , leaf litter , or other fallen object covering the ground . the number of mindanao horned frogs are decreasing in number because of deforestation and ' ' kaingin ' ' .\nthe mindanao horned frog ( megophrys stejnegeri ) is a member of the large and ancient megophryidae family , which diverged from the other amphibian families roughly 70 million years ago . more commonly known as the \u2018asian toadfrogs\u2019 , this diverse family contains around 136 species of frog , which range in size from 2 to 12 . 5 centimetres long .\nthe mindanao shrew rat ( crunomys melanius ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae . it is found only in the philippines . endemic to camiguin , leyte , and mindanao .\nreptiles canada - a beautiful collection or horned frogs get together for a photoshoot and flaunt their impressive coloration .\nthe mindanao horned frog ( megophrys stejnegeri ) is a member of the large and ancient megophryidae family , which diverged from the other amphibian families roughly 70 million years ago . more commonly known as the \u2018asian toadfrogs\u2019 , this diverse family contains around 136 species of frog , which range in size from 2 to 12 . 5 centimetres long ( 2 ) .\nventral view of the frog . note the mottled appearance of the abdominal surface .\nst concern in view of its wide distribution throughout all islands of the mindanao paic and presumed large population .\nmegophrys nasuta adopting a crouched position , enabling it to blend into the leaf litter ( . . . perhaps a crouching frog thinks it is a hidden frog . . )\nthe mindanao horned frog spends the majority of its time hiding among detritus and leaf litter , on the floor of lowland and montane rainforests . it is generally found close to mountain streams , which it requires for breeding , and the tadpoles of this species can usually be found in secluded pools along these streams ( 1 ) .\n- the giant visayan frog is considered endangered because of habitat loss . the habitat of this frog is a subtropical or moist lowland forests . this frog is part of the dissglossidae family . giant visayan frogs can be found in moist lowland forests in cebu , panay and siquijor\nfound this little frog on a rainy day going to a waterfall near calinan / bukidnon tropical jungle .\nthis nocturnal frog is terrestrial to semi - arboreal . it relies on its camouflage to avoid predation .\nthere is a need for improved protection on mindanao , leyte , samar , and bohol to protect the remaining forest on these islands .\nfield herp forum - grumpy frog may have met his match in the intimidating gaze of the megophrys nasuta .\nthe mindanao shrew rat ( crunomys melanius ) is a species of rodent in the family muridae . it is found only in the philippines .\ncoeliccia exoleta is a philippine endemic species , confined to mindanao and camiguin islands . so far , the species has been recorded in 12 sites . the species has a very fragmented range and occurs in low numbers . it was recorded once in camiguin , and there is reference in muller ' s collection to several sites in mindanao . surveys of several of the mindanao sites in recent years have failed to find the species .\nthe slender mud frog ranges across hong kong , southern china , myanmar , thailand , vietnam , and malaysia .\nthis montane frog prefers forests and streams at elevations above 4 , 950 ft ( 1 , 400 m ) .\nthe mindanao treeshrew ( urogale everetti ) , also called the philippine tree shrew , is a species of treeshrew endemic to the mindanao region in the philippines . it is the only member of the genus urogale . the scientific name commemorates british colonial administrator and zoological collector alfred hart everett .\namphibian species as a whole are hugely under threat . around 32 percent of amphibian species are currently threatened with extinction , while a further 43 percent have declining populations ( 5 ) . species that are restricted to a small geographic area , such as the mindanao horned frog , are most at risk of extinction due to changes in their habitat , often as a result of human influence and climate change ( 6 ) .\nthe asian horned frog is nocturnal . its impeccable camouflage makes it extremely difficult to see on the forest floor . if it is discovered , either during the day or at night , it will crouch down further into the leaf litter and wait for the disturbance to go away .\nreptile forums uk - great pictures of a striking pair of ceratophrys cornuta , a less common species of pacman frog .\nthis species is currently known from a few mountains on north - western mindanao island , in the philippines . listed as endangered because its extent of occurrence is less than 5 , 000 km , its distribution is severely fragmented , and there is continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat on mindanao in the philippines .\nthe malayan horned frog was first described by the german ornithologist and herpetologist hermann schlegel in 1858 . it is often touted as a charismatic species due to its unusual appearance \u2013 a pair of horn - like skin projections on its head , and an extended , pointed snout . betrayed by its loud metallic \u2018honk\u2019 for a\nin singapore , this species is easily distinguished from other frog species due to the prominence of its triangular projections of\nhorns\nand snout .\nthe bana leaf litter frog is nocturnal and terrestrial ; it spends most of its time taking refuge in the leaf litter deep in the forest .\ndorsal view of m . nasuta adult . the frog\u2019s excellent camouflage is largely due to both body shape and colour patterns that closely mimic that of dried leaves .\ndraco mindanensis , commonly known as the mindanao flying dragon , is a lizard species endemic to the philippines . characterized by a dull grayish brown body color and a vivid tangerine orange dewlap , this species is one of the largest of the genus draco . it is diurnal , arboreal , and capable of gliding . the mindanao flying dragon inhabits regions of primary and secondary - growth forests . there appears to be a dependence on primary dipterocarp forest for this species ' survival . d . mindanensis is noted for being a bioindicator for the forested regions of mindanao . threatened heavily by deforestation , the iucn has listed d . mindanensis as vulnerable . currently , there are no specific conservation efforts being made to preserve the species . rather , there are projects that target the protection of the habitats in which the mindanao flying dragon lives .\nthe mindanao brown dove ( phapitreron brunneiceps ) is a threatened species of bird in the family columbidae . it is endemic to forests on the philippine islands of mindanao and basilan , but it has not been recorded from the latter island since 1937 . it is threatened by habitat loss and hunting . until recently , it was considered conspecific with the tawitawi brown dove and collectively called the dark - eared brown dove .\nthe philippine leafbird ( chloropsis flavipennis ) is a species of bird in the chloropseidae family . it is endemic to the philippines . it is found in the islands of mindanao , leyte , and cebu . its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests . it is threatened by habitat loss . its stronghold appears to be mindanao , with populations small in leyte and in cebu , the species could already be extinct .\nreaching 100 - 120 mm in snout - vent length ( svl : the length from snout to vent ) and females capable of reaching a svl of up to 160 mm ( malkmus et al . , 2002 ) . the species is characterized by the existence of prominent triangular projections on its upper eyelids and snout : these appendages create what looks like \u201chorns\u201d from which its common name , the \u2018horned\u2019 frog , is derived .\nwildenhues , m . , rauhaus , a . , bach , r . , karbe , d . , van der straeten , k . , hertwig , s . t . , ziegler , t . ( 2012 ) : husbandry , captive breeding , larval development and stages of the malayan horned frog megophrys nasuta ( schlegel , 1858 ) ( amphibia : anura : megophryidae ) . amphibian and reptile conservation 5 ( 3 ) : 15 - 28\nthe normal species , ceratophryne dorsata , [ can be found ] from guyana and brazil , will become just as big as a normal frog ( sometime in the future but not now ) .\nthreatened heavily by deforestation , the iucn has listed d . mindanensis as vulnerable . currently , there are no specific conservation efforts being made to preserve the species . rather , there are projects that target the protection of the habitats in which the mindanao flying dragon lives .\n. these tubercles serve to identify individual frogs as tubercle presence , shape , number and location on body surface vary from individual to individual . the colour of the frog allows it to blend in with the colour of leaf\ncongrats , shauming ! this is a great series ! i ' ve seen this frog only once , also in calinan , but it was a very long time ago . i hope they ' re still there . . .\ndraco mindanensis , commonly known as the mindanao flying dragon , is a lizard species endemic to the philippines . characterized by a dull grayish brown body color and a vivid tangerine orange dewlap , this species is one of the largest of the genus draco . it is diurnal , arboreal , and capable of gliding .\ndespite its grumpy and disapproving demeanour , this species is actually shy in nature and will crouch down , motionless , when startled or disturbed . this is part of the frog ' s strategy to avoid detection and for greater camouflage among the leaf litter .\nthis species is known from basilan , biliran , bohol , dinagat , leyte , samar , and many parts of mindanao , in the southern and eastern islands of the philippines . it is found from around sea level up to 1 , 800 m asl ( diesmos et al . 2014 ) . it probably occurs more widely than current records suggest .\nasian toadfrogs vary from being extremely common to exceedingly rare . the slender mud frog ( leptolalax pelodytoides ) has a vast distribution and during the breeding season can be the most abundant species in a stream habitat . on the other hand , sung ' s slender frog ( leptolalax sungi ) is known only from a 50 - yd ( 50 m ) stretch of one mountain stream . efforts are being made to protect the rapidly disappearing habitat in which asian toadfrogs live . as of the year 2002 , no asian toad - frogs were listed as endangered or threatened by the iucn .\nbickford , d . , ng , t . h . , qie , l . , kudavidanage , e . p . , and bradshaw , c . j . ( 2010 ) . forest fragment and breeding habitat characteristics explain frog diversity and abundance in singapore . biotropica 42 ( 1 ) , 119 - 125 .\nthe head of the frog is relatively large and broad as compared to its body size with a hidden tympanum . the tympanum can be described as\n. . . diagonally placed , rounded below , somewhat angular on upper edge , [ and ] separated from eye by a distance greater than greatest diameter of tympanum\n( taylor , 1962 ) .\nmales are 2 . 3\u20132 . 9 in ( 57 . 2\u201373 . 0 mm ) long , and females are 3 . 1\u20133 . 3 in ( 79 . 9\u201384 . 2 mm ) long . this heavy - bodied frog has a head that is broad and flat . the limbs are slender and short and seem disproportionately small for the body . the protruding eyes are dark , except for the upper third , which is white . the pupil is vertical . a narrow white membrane is visible around the margin of the eye . from above , the bana leaf litter frog is uniformly dark brown with red spots on the flanks and hind limbs ; the belly is gray with minute white spots .\nhowever , the protection of the rest of the forested areas of the philippines requires much work ( 1 ) . conservation international and the critical ecosystem partnership fund have been working to support conservation and increase conservation awareness throughout the philippines , including in areas such as east mindanao . however , there are fears that in the already established national parks , land is being disturbed by human settlements and the boundaries of protected areas are not being properly enforced ( 7 ) .\nmales grow up to 1 . 43 in ( 36 . 2 mm ) in length and females up to 1 . 79 in ( 45 . 4 mm ) . this bizarre toothless frog has a narrow mouth and an extremely truncated snout . small , pointy tubercles are present above the eye and leaflike venations are on the back . the color of the back ranges from light to dark brown , with some irregular mottling on the head and back . the pupil is diamond - shaped , and the iris is golden brown .\nmegophrys nasuta is known to inhabit mature rainforest or swamp forest , where its characteristic loud \u201chonk\u201d call can be heard especially during the early hours of dusk and just before rain : it is then that calling frequency increases , as opposed to almost solitary calls during the later hours of the night . this may be due to those periods being suitable breeding periods for the frog - it is perhaps useful to note here that most frogs usually call ( period of greatest vocalization ) in the later hours of dusk ( bickford et al . , 2010 ) .\nmales grow up to 1 . 31 in ( 33 . 4 mm ) and females to 1 . 62 in ( 41 . 2 mm ) . an elongate frog , it is orange to light brown , with irregular dark brown mottling on the back and head . the chin and belly are creamy white , and the slender limbs have black transverse bars . the upper lip includes several vertical black bars and one cream - colored vertical bar at the apex of the snout . small tubercles may be scattered along the back . the tadpole is long and slender and has a subterminal mouth . the body and tail are light brown , and the edges of the tail fin are translucent .\nasian toadfrogs come in just about every size and shape imaginable . the largest species , the broad - headed toad ( brachytarsophrys ) , attains a maximum length of 6 . 6 in ( 168 mm ) , and the smallest species , the borneo frog ( leptobrachella ) , is a mere 0 . 7 in ( 17 . 8 mm ) long . females are typically larger than males , except among the moustache toads ( vibrissaphora ) and two species of alpine toads ( scutiger ) . other sexually dimorphic characters include keratinized nuptial patches on the chest and fingers of breeding male alpine toads and cateyed frogs ( oreolalax ) and bizarre keratinized spines seen on the upper lip of the male moustache toad during the breeding season .\nmales grow to 1 . 7\u20133 . 6 in ( 44\u201392 mm ) in length and females to 2 . 6\u20134 . 4 in ( 67\u2013111 mm ) . this is a stocky , large - bodied frog with a bizarre , elongated\nhorn\non the upper eyelid and , in some forms , a fleshy appendage projecting off the nose . this skin is smooth , except for one or two pairs of fleshy ridges that extend from behind the head to the groin . the color of the back is light brown to reddish brown , occasionally with a few black tubercles . the flanks bear numerous fleshy tubercles and are slightly darker in color than those on the back . the color and overall shape of this species is a perfect imitation of a dried leaf . the pupil is vertical , and the iris is dark brown . tadpoles have a funnel mouth , and the body and tail are brown .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nfrost , d . r . 2017 . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 6 . 0 . american museum of natural history , new york , usa available at : urltoken .\nthis species was removed from the synonymy of megophrys montana by iskandar ( 1998 ) , where it had been placed previously by inger ( 1954 ) .\nthis terrestrial species inhabits primary and secondary montane and lowland rainforests and is dependent on mountain streams where it breeds . individuals of this species are found among leaf litter , or exposed on the forest floor , near tree roots and standing water pools ( plaza and sanguila 2015 ) . tadpoles are suspension feeders and prefer quiet pools in streams . it apparently has a wide tolerance of ecological disturbance ( sanguila et al . 2016 ) .\nthe species is traded at low levels for the domestic pet trade ( philippines red list assessment workshop may 2017 ) .\nsome subpopulations of this species are protected in national parks , such as mount malindang national park , and other protected areas , including mount apo natural park .\nmore information is needed on this species ' distribution , population status , ecology , and threats . additional taxonomic studies are recommended given this species ' widespread distribution ( plaza and sanguila 2015 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ngenerally , megophrys species spend much of their time quietly hidden in leaf litter , where they hunt prey and hide from predators . however , when defending a territory against a potential rival , they have been known to rear up and inflate their lungs to make them look bigger , before screaming loudly and leaping at their opponent ( 2 ) .\nmembers of the genus megophrys tend to move about using short hops , as their large body size relative to their short legs makes larger jumps more difficult ( 4 ) .\nthis information is awaiting authentication by a species expert , and will be updated as soon as possible . if you are able to help please contact : arkive @ urltoken\nstuart , s . n . , chanson , j . s . , cox , n . a . , young , b . e . , rodrigues , a . s . l . , fischman , d . l . and waller , r . w . ( 2004 ) status and trends of amphibian declines and extinctions worldwide . science , 306 ( 5702 ) : 1783 - 1786 .\nsodhi , n . s . , bickford , d . , diesmos , a . c . , lee , t . m . , koh , l . p . , brook , b . w . , sekercioglu , c . h . and bradshaw , c . j . a . ( 2008 ) measuring the meltdown : drivers of global amphibian extinction and decline . plos one , 3 ( 2 ) : e1636 .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nproject noah is a tool to explore and document wildlife and a platform to harness the power of citizen scientists everywhere .\nwow , thanks for all the compliments , been busy setting up business in kota kinabalu lately , surely will continue spotting for pn .\nawesome series shauminglo . . ! congrats for the sotd . . : - )\nfantastic pictures sir ! and a fine spotting ( english accent ) ! : p for real tho . good stuff .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\ncaptive bred reptile forums uk - see photos of a wicked looking megophrys stejnegeri owned by brian santos .\nit ' s that time of the year in wisconsin when many repti . . .\nthis is an excellent write - up on how to prepare for the . . .\nif you know the book but cannot find it on abebooks , we can automatically search for it on your behalf as new inventory is added . if it is added to abebooks by one of our member booksellers , we will notify you !\nby using the web site , you confirm that you have read , understood , and agreed to be bound by the terms and conditions . \u00a9 1996 - 2018 abebooks inc . all rights reserved . abebooks , the abebooks logo , abebooks . com ,\npassion for books .\nand\npassion for books . books for your passion .\nare registered trademarks with the registered us patent & trademark office .\nuniversity of san carlos school of law and governance , pelaez st . , cebu city\nhombron ' s kingfisher or the blue - capped kingfisher ( actenoides hombroni ) is a species of bird in the family alcedinidae endemic to the philippines . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical , moist , lowland forests and subtropical or tropical , moist , montane forests . it is threatened by habitat loss .\nalthough called a warty pig , facial warts of this species are small and only found in males . these pigs are best recognized by the white stripe which runs over the bridge of the nose behind the mouth .\nnumbers of wild visayan warty pigs are not available , but the species has lost 95 % of its former range in recent times and is highly endangered .\nfound only on one tiny island in the philippines , the camiguin forest rat is a little - known species as it has only been known to scientists since 2002 . the camiguin forest rat has soft , thick dark reddish - brown fur , which is slightly paler on the underside . the snout and the sides of the face are covered in dark grey hairs . the camiguin forest rat has small , nearly naked ears , relatively large forefeet , and long , wide hindfeet . the relatively short tail , which measures less than the head and body length , is almost entirely hairless .\nthe grey imperial pigeon ( ducula pickeringii ) is a species of bird in the family columbidae . it is found in brunei , indonesia , malaysia , and the philippines . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests and plantations . it is threatened by habitat loss .\nthe dinagat gymnure ( podogymnura aureospinula ) is a species of mammal in the family erinaceidae . it is endemic to the philippines . its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical dry forests . it is threatened by habitat loss .\nany bird of the order passeriformes ) bird . this species of passerineformes has been declared as a critically endangered species last january 24 , 2014 , according to www . philstar . com . it was feared to be extinct , because of the clearance of most of the islands forests , but it was rediscovered in 1992 in a small patch of limestone forest in\n- the visayan warty pig has been considered endangered due to the destruction of its habitat , specifically the forest . this species can be found in panay , negros , cebu and aklan . they mainly feed on cultivated vegetables , fallen fruits and root crop .\n- the tarsier is a primate found in the bohol . the tarsier jumps tree to tree to hunt for their food , tarsiers are insect based , they mainly eat insects by pouncing on them at the right time . tarsiers are born with fur and their eyes open and can climb trees within an hour of birth . the majority of tarsier species are now endangered or threatened , and some are designated critically endangered .\n- the philippine flying lemur locally known as ' ' kagwang ' ' is one of the two species of flying lemurs , the only two living species in the order dermoptera ( arboreal gliding mammals found in southeast asia ) . this species shows sexual dimorphism , which means when the female is larger than the male . this species is categorized as the least concern endangered species .\n- the black shama can be found in the forests of cebu . its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests , subtropical or tropical moist shrubland , and plantations . it is threatened by habitat loss from kaingin farming and deforestation .\n- the panay cloudrunner is the second largest cloud rat , a squirrel like rodent that can be found in the island of panay . the late date of discovery was because the lack of forest cover on panay lead to the island being largely ignored by biologists . the lack of habitat has brought this cloud rat species to be categorized as an an endangered species .\n- is a species of bird of the zosteropidae family , in the genus dasycrotapha . it is classified as vulnerable sue tot he loss of habitat , deforestation and kaingin farming .\n- is a megabat that mostly lives on negros island . two small populations were also found on cebu island in the philippines . like other bare - backed fruit bats , its wings meet along the midline of their bodies , making it a very agile flier . by the mid - 1980 ' s , the fruit bat vanished because of replacing the lowland forest to a sugar cane plantation , but was later rediscovered last 1996 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndorsal ( back ) view of adult megophrys nasuta individual : the\nhorns\n, snout , vent , tubercles and dorsolateral folds are labelled .\nthe arms and legs are also marked by the mottled appearance \u2013 arms are moderate in size , and fingers are widened at the tips , and lack webbing between . toes , however , show signs of webbing , while displaying similar widening at the tips as fingers ( inger , 1966 ) .\nor plants by animals ) in the litterfall of the forest grounds ( inger , 1966 ; wildenhues , 2012 ) .\n42 ( gosner , 1960 ; inger , 1984 ) . tadpoles posses a distinctly shaped oral groove formed from the horizontal expansion of the lips , which results in a dorsally oriented funnel - mouth \u2013 this structure is unique to megophryid species ( inger , 1984 ) . juvenile frogs are similar in colour to adults with noticeable protrusions at the eyelids and snout , although these are not fully formed .\nfor more details and pictures , please refer to the ' biology ' section below .\nmegophrys nasuta pair in amplexus . note the obvious size difference between the male ( smaller individual ) and female : a clear example of sexual dimorphism . ( click picture to find out more about sexual dimorphism )\nmegophrys nasuta exhibits inguinal amplexus : a type of amplexing position where the male clasps the female around her pelvic region . males typically rest their feet on the female\u2019s thighs ( see picture ) . this posture is typically maintained for hours , ( sometimes even for weeks ) , and pairs will usually not break away from the stance even when disturbed ( burger , 2000 ; wildenhues et al . , 2012 ) .\neggs are laid either adhered to surfaces in water or partially submerged in streams . oviposition ( that is , egg laying ) is usually conducted beneath structures such as submerged logs or rocks . the large white eggs ( of about 2 cm in diameter , including glutinous layer ) are glutinous and laid attached to each other ( wildenhues , 2012 ) . the larvae take approximately one week to hatch following egg deposition . the larvae are white and heavily dependent upon the yolk for sustenance and as a energy reservoir : following the early days of hatching , they remain motionless on the stream\u2019s bottom .\npartial view of megophrys nasuta egg clutch : eggs are usually laid partially submerged in water under structures such as dead wood or rocks .\nside view of megophrys nasuta tadpole . the tunnel shaped mouth is clearly observed here .\nthe larvae , when hatched , are a pale white in colour , and are attached to their yolk reservoir : a week later , they develop brownish pigment . larvae begin to metamorphsose in about two and a half months , although this may be delayed to up to seven months , depending upon development temperature . captive breeding of megophrys nasuta has shown that lower temperature of development ( ranging from about 19\u00b0c to 22\u00b0c ) would result in a longer and slower development rate , while higher temperatures led to quicker development rates . however , larvae that developed quicker resulted in smaller metamorphs and juveniles as compared to that raised in lower temperatures ( wildenhues et al . , 2012 ) .\nlarvae commence development from metamorphs ( gosner stage * 45 ) into juvenile frogs ( gosner stage 46 ) where their tail is completely resorbed from about three to seven months following egg deposition .\n* gosner stages define different stages of the developing anuran young : from its two cell stage ( gosner stage 1 ) to when it has completely resorbed its tail ( gosner stage 47 ) .\njuvenile megophrys nasuta . this individual had a snout - vent length of 18 mm and was found hiding along stream bank vegetation .\nmegophrys nasuta is known to be a voracious opportunistic predator . adults are observed to feed on crickets , cockroaches , locusts , worms , slugs , and even snails , although this list is likely more diverse ( obst et al . , 1984 ; burger , 2000 ; wildenhues et al . , 2012 ) . its cryptic colouration and camouflage aid in its feeding strategy , allowing it to prey on smaller unsuspecting animals on the forest ground .\nfront view of m . nasuta tadpole . note the funnel - shaped mouth .\nthe large funnel mouth shape of m . nasuta tadpoles is a specialized structure for its feeding strategy . the funnel creates a suction that channels in water , which carries fine food particles such as algae , plankton and microbes . the tadpole then utilizes its internal oral ridges ( fine folds in its oral cavity ) to filter and select for appropriately sized and appropriate food in the water ( inger , 1954 ; burger , 2000 ) .\nmegophrys nasuta is known to primarily occur in mature rainforest - it is a forest specialist . the species inhabits lowland and submontane forests , and is usually found in the vicinity of clear forests stream : which serves as a necessary habitat for its tadpole and breeding grounds ( inger , 1954 ; berry , 1975 ; dring , 1979 ) . in singapore , it is found in the more pristine forested areas of bukit timah nature reserve , in addition to more mature swamp - forest in central catchment nature reserve ( teo & rajathurai , 1997 ) .\nadult frogs are completely terrestrial in nature , although usually always found near streams . tadpoles , however , spend their entire larval period in streams , and are often observed congregated on the sides of streams : they are known to favour the root mats of streamside vegetation , and areas of dead leaves accumulation , possibly as these are areas of greater plankton abundance ( inger , 1954 ; burger , 2000 ) .\nglobally , the native range of m . nasuta stretches from yala , southern thailand , throughout the malay peninsula , singapore , sumatra , borneo , till the natuna islands .\nin singapore , m . nasuta is confined within the central catchment nature reserves ( ccnr ) and bukit timah nature reserve ( btnr ) . due to sensitivity of this species\u2019 location in singapore , the exact sites within the reserves cannot be revealed .\nmap of singapore . locations of megophrys nasuta are found within the shaded areas .\nthe international union for conservation of nature ( iucn ) lists m . nasuta as a taxon of \u2018 least concern \u2019 due to its presumed wider distribution range , and population size ( van dijk et al . , 2004 ) . however , forest fragmentation coupled with habitat destruction and loss threatens population size\u2014this is further compounded by harvesting for the pet trade ( wildenhues , 2012 ) .\nfrogs often serve as indicators of ecosystem health . some frogs - such as forest specialists like megophrys nasuta , are particularly sensitive ( and susceptible ! ) to changes in the environment : such as rising temperature , a drop in precipitation , and even the presence of pollutants in the stream . in fact , because frogs ( like many amphibians ) are partly aquatic and partly terrestrial , this makes them even more vulnerable to environmental changes and decline .\na comprehensive survey of the amphibians in singapore was carried out from 1993 to 1997 by teo and rajathurai of the vertebrate study group of singapore\u2019s nature society . the survey , carried out over four years with a six year pre - survey period ( 1987 to 1993 ) , listed 36 records of m . nasuta in singapore , confined to bukit timah nature reserve and catchment nature reserve . this was corroborated in part by m . nasuta records from \u2018the pangolin\u2019 , a quarterly bulletin of singapore\u2019s vertebrates published by the malayan nature society singapore ( lim , 1998c , 1989c , 1989d , 1990c , 1995 ) . however , current knowledge regarding this species\u2019 current status in singapore is lacking or unpublished .\n\u201czij hebben in het algemeen de kenmerken der kikvorschen ; maar hun kop is veel grooter en plat ; hun muil is buitengewoon wijd , en hunne bovenste oogleden zijn meer of min puntig verlengd . men vindt hen in zuid - amerika en achter - indie . \u201d\n\u201cthey generally have the characteristics of the frogs , but their head is much larger and flat ; their mouth is extremely wide , and their upper eyelids are more or less pointed extended . one can find them in south america and back indies . \u201d\nhowever , m . nasuta does look similar to other megophrys species ( all of which are not found in singapore ) . there are currently five recognized species under the megophrys ( frost , 2011 ) .\npalpebral projections with wide large head . ventral surface is mottled light - dark brown in colour .\nwith a wide large head . similar in morphology to m . nasuta , but is lacking the elongated pointed snout .\ntubercles on skin surface . tubercles greater in number as compared to that in m . nasuta . body colour ranges from dark brown to greyish\noriginal description of m . nasuta ( page 56 - 57 ) . extracted from schlegel , h . [ 1858 ] . image courtesy of biodiversity heritage library .\nschlegel orignally placed m . nasuta within the ceratophryne genus - this was later revised several times and finally placed under megophrys in 1929 by gee and boring ( gee & boring , 1929 ) .\n\u201czij hebben in het algemeen de kenmerken der kikvorschen ; maar hun kop is veel grooter en plat ; hun muil is buitengewoon wijd , en hunne bovenste oogleden zijn meer of min puntig verlengd . men vindt hen in zuid - amerika en achter - indie .\n, van guyana en brazilie , wordt nogeens zoo groot als onze gewone pad . zij heeft , door haren grooten kop , een ge - drogtelijk aanzien , is echter met zeer fraaije groene en roode kleuren versierd . op java wordt eene bruine soort ,\nthey generally have the characteristics of the frogs , but their head is much larger and flat ; their mouth is extremely wide , and their upper eyelids are more or less pointed extended . one can find them in south america and back indies .\nshe has , because of her big head , an ugly [ appearance ] , however [ it ] is decorated with beautiful green and red colours .\non java you find a brown species , cer . montana which is of the same size of the other amphibians , which is replaced on sumatra by a related specie , cer . nasuta , which has one pointed skin flap to the muzzle .\ndr . albert gunther was a german zoologist and herpetologist who described more than 340 species . however , he mistakenly identified adult megophrys montana males as megophrys nasuta females ( then referred to as megalophrys montana and megalophrys nasuta ) - and only discovered his error when he was presented with specimens of larger size that were females , as compared to the smaller sized males that he dealt with ( gunther , 1873 ) . dr gunther also mistakenly brought this information to charles darwin \u2013 who in his book \u2018the descent of man , and selection in relation to sex\u2019 , incorrectly wrote about the \u2018differences\u2019 between the\nmales\nand\nfemales\nof megalophrys montana , although these were in fact two different species .\ntype specimen : two syntypes , rmnh 2143 , deposited in the national museum of natural history , leiden , the netherlands ( miracle et al . , 2007 )\nmaximum likelihood of amphibian phylogeny : megophrys nasuta ( boxed in red ) is seen to be in the same clade with brachytarsophrys and xenophrys . numbers at node are maximum likelihood boot - strap values . ( source : adapted from science direct ; direct permission not obtained , but within the limits of fair use )\na recent study conducted by pyron and wiens in 2011 based on analysis of sequence data from 12 genes : three mitochondrial and nine nuclear reflects the position as megophryidae as the sister taxon to pelobatidae .\nmegophryidae is accepted as monophyletic \u2013 this is based on analyses carried by frost et al . , using comparative anatomical character evidence of haas ( 2003 ) , with dna sequences from mitochondrial transcription unit h1 and several nuclear genes : h3 , rhodopsin , tyrosinase and the large ribosomal subunit 28s ( frost et al . , 2006 ) .\nbarcode obtained from bold systems from data deposited in genbank , ncbi . ( clicking on the image will take you to the boldsystems databse )\n. the cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 ( cox i ) gene sequence is available on genbank .\n2 . wild singapore ' s page on amphibians in singapore : a blog on singapore ' s wildlife .\nberry , p . y . ( 1975 ) . family rhacophoridae . the amphibian fauna of peninsular malaysia . tropical press , kuala lumpur . pp . 90 - 109 .\ndavison , g . w . , ng , p . k . , and ho , h . c . ( 2008 ) . the singapore red data book : threatened plants & animals of singapore . nature society ( singapore ) .\ndring , j . c . m . ( 1979 ) . amphibians and reptiles from northern trengannu , malaysia , with descriptions of two new geckos : cnemaspis and cyrtodactylus . bull . brit . mus . nat . hist . ( zool . ) 34 ( 5 ) : 181 - 241 , i pi . 17 figs .\nfrost , d . r . , grant , t . , faivovich , j . , bain , r . h . , haas , a . , haddad , c . f . , de sa , o . r . , channing , a . , wilkinson , m . , donnellan , s . c . , raxworthy , c . j . , campbell , j . a . , blotto , b . l . , moler , p . , drewes , r . c . , nussbaum , r . a . , lynch , j . d . , green . d . a . and wheeler , w . c . ( 2006 ) . the amphibian tree of life . bulletin of the american museum of natural history , 1 - 291 .\nfrost d . r . ( 2011 ) . amphibian species of the world : an online reference . version 5 . 5 ( 31 january 2011 ) . [ online : electronic database . american museum of natural history , new york , new york ] . available : urltoken [ accessed 10 november 2013 ]\ngee , n . g . and boring , a . m . ( 1929 ) , peking nat . hist . bull . , vol . 4 , pt . 2 , pp . 20 , 40\ngosner , k . l . ( 1960 ) . a simplified table for staging anuran embryos and larvae with notes on identification . herpetologica 16 ( 3 ) , 183 - 190 .\ngunther , a . c . l . g . ( 1873 ) contribution to our knowledge of ceratophrys and megalophrys . annals and magazine of natural history , series 4 , 11 : 417 - 419 . available : http : / / urltoken [ accessed 14 november 2013 ]\nhaas , a . ( 2003 ) . phylogeny of frogs as inferred from primarily larval characters ( amphibia : anura ) . cladistics , 19 ( 1 ) , 23 - 89 .\ninger r . f . ( 1954 ) . systematics and zoogeography of philippine amphibia . fieldiana zoology 33 , 183 - 531 . natural history museum , chicago , illinois . p . 531\ninger , r . f . ( 1966 ) , the systematics and zoogeography of the amphibia of borneo . fieldiana ( zool . ) 52 , 1 - 402 , 71 figs .\ninger , r . f . , shaffer , h . b . , koshy , m . , and bakde , r . ( 1984 ) . a report on a collection of amphibians and reptiles from the ponmudi , kerala , south india . part 1 . journal of bombay natural history society 81 ( 2 ) , 406 - 427 .\nlim , k . k . p . , ( 1989c ) . recent reports : amphibians . the pangolin , malayan nature society singapore branch 2 ( 3 )\nlim , k . k . p . , ( 1989d ) . recent reports : amphibians . the pangolin , malayan nature society singapore branch 2 ( 4 )\nlim , k . k . p . , ( 1990c ) . recent reports : amphibians . the pangolin , malayan nature society singapore branch , 1 ( 3 )\nlim , k . k . p . , ( 1995 ) . recent reports : amphibians . the pangolin , malayan nature society singapore branch\nlim , k . k . p . and yang , c . m . ( 1991 ) . \u2018an annotated checklist of the amphibians of singapore , with emphasis on material in the zoological reference collection\u2019 , raffles bulletin of zoology 39 , 21 5 - 233 .\nleong , t . m . , and chou , l . m . ( 1999 ) . larval diversity and development in the singapore anura ( amphibia ) . raffles bulletin of zoology 47 , 81 - 138 .\nmiracle , m . e . g . , ostende , l . , & arntzen , j . w . ( 2007 ) . type specimens of amphibians in the national museum of natural history , leiden , the netherlands . zootaxa , 1482 , 25 - 68 .\nobst , f . , k . richter , and u . jacob . ( 1984 ) . atlas of reptiles and amphibians for the terrarium . neptune , city , nj : t . f . h . , publishing , inc . .\npyron , a . r . , & wiens , j . j . ( 2011 ) . a large - scale phylogeny of amphibia including over 2800 species , and a revised classification of extant frogs , salamanders , and caecilians . molecular phylogenetics and evolution , 61 ( 2 ) , 543 - 583 .\ntaylor , e . h . 1962 . the amphibian fauna of thailand . university of kansas science bulletin 43 ( 8 ) : 267 - 599 .\nteo , r . c . h . and rajathurai , s . ( 1997 ) . mammals , reptiles and amphibians in the nature reserves of singapore \u2013 diversity , abundance and distribution . in chan , l and corlett , r . t . ( eds ) , biodiversity in the nature reserves of singapore . ( pp . 353 \u2013 425 ) . singapore : national parks board .\nvan dijk p . p . , iskandar d . , and inger r . ( 2004 ) . megophrys nasuta . in : iucn 2011 . iucn red list of threatened species . version 2011 . 2 . [ online ] . available : www . iucnredlist . org . [ accessed : 10 november 2013 ] .\nthank you for reading this web - page ! should you have any queries or comments , spot an error in the information above or perhaps have more local ( singapore ) information about this species , please feel free to drop me an email at prar . selv @ gmail . com . : ) your comments are very much appreciated , and will help in adding to our knowledge of this species in singapore .\ncontributions to urltoken are licensed under a creative commons attribution share - alike 3 . 0 license . portions not contributed by visitors are copyright 2018 tangient llc tes : the largest network of teachers in the world\n2018 copyright . all rights reserved . the sponsored listings displayed above are served automatically by a third party . neither the service provider nor the domain owner maintain any relationship with the advertisers . in case of trademark issues please contact the domain owner directly ( contact information can be found in whois ) . privacy policy\nall asian toadfrogs have eight vertebrae and intervertebral discs that are not fused to adjacent vertebrae at the time of metamorphosis . the sacral diapophyses are dilated , and the pectoral girdle is arciferal , with a long bony sternum . on the roof of the mouth the neopalatines are absent ; to compensate ,\na palatal process of the maxilla is elongated . asian toadfrogs share a common ancestor with north american and european spadefoot toads ( pelobatidae ) and parsley frogs ( pelodytidae ) . some researchers have recognized these three families as the suborder pelobatoidea . asian toadfrogs can be distinguished from their sister groups by their paddle - shaped tongue and a hyoid that is simplified and elongated ; the hyoid lacks any remnant of a cartilaginous connection to the back of the skull .\nthe broad - headed toads are sit - and - wait predators , consuming fairly large prey that may be moving along the forest floor . little else is known about the foraging activities of the remaining species . random examination of stomach contents has found that moths , spiders , crickets , cockroaches , beetles , scorpions , centipedes , and snails are all potential prey of asian toadfrogs .\nfunnel - mouth tadpoles feed on minute particles on the surface of the water . while feeding , the larvae position their upturned lips at the level of the water . taking advantage of the gentle currents that they prefer , they simply allow water and any small particles on the surface film to flow over the edge of the funnel and into the mouth . papillae ( small fleshy fingerlike projections ) around the lips direct the food particles into the mouth . when the papillae come in contact with a particle that is too large , the tadpole quickly dives to avoid the obstruction and resurfaces to resume the feeding process . the non\u2013funnel - mouth tadpoles of leptobrachiinae all forage on the detritus or algae that accumulate in streams . one study has shown that in the same microhabitat , leptobrachine larvae consume food particles that are on average three times the size of what the funnel - mouth tadpoles eat .\nin seasonal climates breeding activity occurs during the wet season . in vietnam , this is typically late fall to early spring , and it may last one to two months . in these climates , it is not uncommon to find peak breeding activity when evening temperatures are 41\u201344\u00b0f ( 5\u20137\u00b0c ) . males also may be heard calling during the day , but these efforts are never made with the enthusiasm that is heard at night . female leaf - litter frogs from borneo are full of eggs in january , june , july , and august ; these equatorial megophryids may breed all year round ."]}
{"id": 1726, "summary": [{"text": "baird 's tapir ( tapirus bairdii ) , also known as the central american tapir , is a species of tapir native to mexico , central america and northwestern south america .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "it is one of four latin american species of tapir . ", "topic": 3}], "title": "baird ' s tapir", "paragraphs": ["baird ' s tapir is classified as a vulnerable species by the iucn ( 1996 ) .\nbaird ' s tapir ( jan . 2011 - may 2012 , in aza 2011 ) :\nfor more pictures of baird ' s tapirs , check out ' more tapir photos ' .\nthe south american or brazilian tapir ( tapirus terrestris ) is one of five species in the tapir family , including : the mountain tapir , the malayan tapir , the baird ' s tapir , and the kabomani tapir .\nnew year\u2019s day was extra special at franklin park zoo \u2026 a baird\u2019s tapir , named abby , gave birth to a female calf .\nterwilliger , v . 1978 . natural history of baird ' s tapir on barrow colorado island , panama canal zone .\nbaird ' s tapir foraging and swimming . click on image above for video . audio and video from arkive . some rights reserved\nhere\u2019s an animal you don ' t see everywhere , but you can see it during your vacation in costa rica\u2014baird\u2019s tapir ( tapirus bairdii ) spanish name : danto , danta .\nwith the addition of the new calf , the zoo is now home to three baird\u2019s tapirs . a total of four baird\u2019s tapirs have been born at nashville zoo since the species was introduced there in 2008 .\nthe baird ' s tapir ( tapirus bairdii ) , like this one in guatemala ' s laguna del tigre national park , is central america ' s largest land mammal , and depends intimately upon surface water for survival .\nsouth american tapirs are one of five species of tapirs living today . the others are the mountain tapir , malayan tapir , baird\u2019s tapir , and kabomani tapir . they have short prehensile snouts , which aid in grabbing tender foliage to eat .\nhybrid tapirs from the baird ' s tapir and the brazilian tapir were bred at the san francisco zoo around 1969 and produced a second generation around 1970 ( tg 2007b ) .\nthough an adult baird\u2019s tapir\u2019s coat is solid brown , babies are born with unique markings , similar to brown and white - striped watermelons . juvenile tapirs lose these markings after one year .\nbaird ' s tapir is the largest land mammal in central and south america . baird ' s tapirs average 6 . 5 feet ( 2 m ) in length . they are generally between 2 . 4 to 4 feet ( 73 to 120 cm ) in height . adult baird ' s tapirs range between 330 and 880 lbs . ( 150 and 400 kg ) .\nour research has shown with photos like the one above and through finding tapir tracks in the mud that the baird ' s tapir is not extinct on the atlantic coast of nicaragua .\nfoerster , c . , c . vaughan . 2002 . home range , habitat use , and activity of baird ' s tapir in costa rica .\nbreeding season baird ' s tapirs can breed anytime of the year but likely breed just prior to the rainy season .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - baird ' s tapir ( tapirus bairdii )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - baird ' s tapir ( tapirus bairdii )\ntitle =\narkive species - baird ' s tapir ( tapirus bairdii )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nbreeding interval baird ' s tapirs breed at most once per year , average reproduction attempts per year is 0 . 7 .\nnorton , j . , m . ashley . 2004 . genetic variability and population structure among wild baird ' s tapirs .\nthe baird ' s tapir is easy to track because it often follows previously used paths and it leaves distinctive three - toed tracks ( each toe has a broad hoof ) .\nthe baird ' s tapir project of costa rica is the longest ongoing tapir project in the world , having started in 1994 . it involves placing radio collars on tapirs in costa rica ' s corcovado national park to study their social systems and habitat preferences . [ 36 ]\nthe baby\u2019s arrival was long awaited by the animal care staff , as the gestation period for baird\u2019s tapirs is thirteen months . similar to a deer fawn , baird\u2019s tapir calves are distinctly marked with watermelon like white stripes and spots , which help to camouflage them in the dappled light of the rainforest . the stripes begin to fade between five and six months of age .\nour findings will better inform the scientists and managers who are trying to conserve baird ' s tapirs . our work is showing the opposite of what people thought was true . instead of being extinct , there is a small but thriving population of baird ' s tapirs in our region .\nlength varies among the 5 species - longest in malayan tapir . shortest in brazilian tapir\nas with other tapirs , the short trunk of the baird ' s tapir is composed of nose and upper lip . the tapir uses its trunk to pick up grasses , leaves , and fruit and carry them to the mouth .\njanzen , d . h . ( 1982a ) . wild plant acceptability to a captive costa rican baird ' s tapir . brenesia 19 / 20 : 99 - 128 . [ links ]\ntapirs have considerably reduced in numbers due to hunting for their meat and hide . habitat loss is also a major threat to the tapir . the brazilian tapir and the malayan tapir are now classed as \u2018vulnerable\u2019 . the baird\u2019s tapir and the mountain tapir are both classed as \u2018endangered species\u2019 with the mountain tapir being the most threatened species . there are a number of conservation efforts in progress . the tapir specialist group are currently striving to help the tapir with its survival with programs to save , restore and manage the four species of tapir .\nhernandez - divers , s . , r . aguilar , d . leandro - loria , c . foerster . 2005 . health evaluation of a radiocollared population of free - ranging baird ' s tapirs (\nterwilliger , v . j . ( 1978 ) . natural history of baird ' s tapir on barro colorado island , panama canal zone . biotropica 10 : 211 - 220 . [ links ]\nnashville zoo is pleased to announce the birth of a male baird\u2019s tapir . the yet - to - be - named calf arrived on march 7 and weighed - in at 22 . 8 pounds .\nhybrids of the baird ' s and the brazilian tapirs were bred at the san francisco zoo around 1969 and later produced a backcross second generation . [ 2 ]\njanzen , d . h . ( 1981 ) . digestive seed predation by a costa rican baird ' s tapir ( tapirus bairdii ) . biotropica 13 ( suppl . ) : 59 - 63 . [ links ]\nthis birth is significant because this species is currently listed as \u201cendangered\u201d on the iucn red list . baird\u2019s tapirs are threatened by hunting , population fragmentation and habitat destruction .\nthe research being done by the authors of the virtual rainforest ( dr . gerald urquhart and christopher jordan ) has revealed new scientific insights about baird ' s tapirs . we use camera traps to take photos of wild animals in nicaragua . before our project , some scientists thought that baird ' s tapirs were extinct on the caribbean coast of nicaragua .\nthe baird\u2019s tapirs , at franklin park zoo , make their home in the \u2018tropical forest\u2019 exhibit . the new baby is expected to make her public debut within a few weeks .\nfoerster , c . & amp ; vaughan , c . ( 2002 ) . home range , habitat use and activity of baird ' s tapir in costa rica . biotropica 34 ( 3 ) : 423 - 437 . [ links ]\nbaird ' s tapir can be either diurnal or nocturnal , although in areas where it is hunted most activity occurs during the night . they are very agile and can negotiate steep slopes with ease . the tell - tale sign of baird ' s tapir are repeatedly used paths through the jungle , which the tapirs mark regularly . these tapirs usually stay close to water , and on hot days have been observed submerged with only their heads above the surface . they communicate with shrill whistles .\ntapir gallery ( tg ) . 2007a . tapirs described . the tapir gallery . retrieved september 7 , 2007 .\nhowever , the four other tapir species are on the iucn red list . the mountain tapir and baird\u2019s tapir are listed as endangered because their populations may have declined more than 50 percent in the past three generations ( 33 years ) . it is also thought that they will have a future decline of greater than 50 percent decline in the next three generations .\nit ' s not you , it ' s us . it is possible the page you were looking for may have been moved , updated or deleted\nin some habitats , baird\u2019s tapirs are important seed dispersers . however , because the amount of fruit consumed varies by habitat and region , this role varies as well . it has also been suggested that\nthe little one is bonding with mom behind the scenes . until she goes into the public tapir habitat along the zoo\u2019s tropics trail , she can be seen via the minnesota zoo\u2019s social media channels and a special webcam .\nlike all baby tapirs , a newborn baird\u2019s tapir born august 28 at the nashville zoo looks suspiciously like a brown watermelon with a snout . but rest assured , this little male will eventually sport a smooth , dark brown coat and weigh up to 800 pounds .\ncites \u2013 appendix i ; u . s . esa and iucn \u2013 endangered .\ntapirus is a latinized corruption of tapyra - the tupi name for the tapir ( the tupis are an aboriginal tribe from the amazon ) . w . m . baird was an american naturalist who made an expedition to mexico in 1843 . although baird is credited with its ' discovery ' , this tapir was first documented by w . t . white , another american naturalist .\nhistorically , baird\u2019s tapirs ranged from southeastern mexico through northern colombia to the gulf of guayaquil in ecuador . today they are found in isolated populations in the same range . they are considered extinct in el salvador .\nthe world ' s biggest tapir is found in the old world\u2014southeast asia . the black - and - white malay tapir can grow to 800 pounds . it inhabits the forests and swamps of malaysia and sumatra .\nin the wild , the tapir ' s diet consists of fruit , berries , and leaves , particularly young , tender growth . tapirs will spend many of their waking hours foraging along well - worn trails , snouts to the ground in search of food . baird ' s tapirs have been observed to eat around 40 kg ( 85 lb ) of vegetation in one day .\nin the wild , the tapir\u2019s diet consists of fruit , berries , and leaves , particularly young , tender growth . tapirs will spend many of their waking hours foraging along well - worn trails , snouts to the ground in search of food . baird\u2019s tapirs have been observed to eat around 40 kilograms ( 85 pounds ) of vegetation in one day ( todd and wilson 2001 ) .\nin the wild , the tapir ' s diet consists of fruit , berries , and leaves , particularly young , tender growth . tapirs will spend many of their waking hours foraging along well - worn trails , snouts to the ground in search of food . baird ' s tapirs have been observed to eat around 40 kg ( 85 lb ) of vegetation in one day . [ 24 ]\nsince the announcement was made , there has been much debate about whether the kabomani tapir is a new species or is simply the misidentification of juvenile brazilian tapir . the iucn ' s tapir specialist group has not declared the kabomani tapir a\nunit of conservation importance ,\nand the proposed species has not received a categorization on the iucn red list of threatened species .\npictures of t . bairdii x t . terrestris cross taken by sheryl todd , the tapir gallery , web site of the tapir preservation fund\nbaird ' s tapirs ( tapirus bairdii ) are broad , primitive creatures whose appearance has changed little in thousands of years . a relative of the horse and the rhino , tapirs are the largest land animal in central and south america .\nthe calf\u2019s parents , romeo and juliet , were brought to the nashville zoo from central america to introduce a new genetic line to the zoo - dwelling tapir population .\nthis is the second calf for four - year - old mom , juju . the calf\u2019s father , romeo , passed - away last year . romeo was also the father of tybalt , the nashville zoo\u2019s other male tapir , who was born in august 2016 .\nthis article ' s content derived from wikipedia , the free encyclopedia ( see original source ) .\nbaird\u2019s tapirs are found in most vegetation types at elevations ranging from sea level to 3 , 600 meters . they are found in marsh and swamp areas , mangroves , wet tropical rainforests , riparian woodlands , monsoon deciduous forests , montane cloud forests , and paramo ( treeless alpine plateau ) . food and water availability are important factors in habitat selection . when both primary and secondary forest habitat is available , baird\u2019s tapirs prefer secondary forest due to the increase in understory plants for foraging and protection .\n) are potential predators of young tapirs . baird\u2019s tapirs rely largely on camouflage and their large size for protection against predators : at night they blend in extremely well with leafy shrubs , during the day they resemble stationary objects , such as large rocks .\nchalukian , s . , bustos , m . s . , & amp ; lizarraga , r . l . ( 2013 ) . diet of lowland tapir ( tapirus terrestris ) in el rey national park , salta , argentina . integrative zoology8 : 48 - 56 [ links ]\nthe bairds tapir ranges from southern mexico to northern columbia and are endangered throughout their range . the main threats to the tapir survival is hunting and deforestation .\ntapir gallery ( tg ) . 2007b handsome hybrid in the san francisco zoo , san francisco , california . tapir gallery . retrieved september 7 , 2007 .\nhistorically , baird\u2019s tapirs were an important food source for rural and indigenous people across central america . their rarity makes them no longer a significant game animal . they are large , charismatic animals that can attract ecotourism interest because of their association with pristine tropical forest habitats .\npoaching and habitat loss have caused tapir numbers to decrease dramatically in recent years .\nall tapir species are at - risk largely due to hunting and habitat loss .\ntapir a - z animals . web . accessed on december 14 , 2014 .\nmalayan tapir animal diversity web . web . accessed on january 11 , 2015 .\ntapirs of the world tapir specialist group web . accessed on january 11 , 2015\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\nwhat ' s a baby ferret called ? how bout a baby eel ? find out here . . .\nthis tapir survives in dry deciduous forest and tropical evergreen forest and other habitats . range this species of tapir can be found from veracruz , mexico down to ecuador .\n\u201cwe are thrilled to share this wonderful news , \u201d said john linehan , zoo new england president and ceo . \u201cgiven the small size of the north american captive population , this is a very important birth for this endangered species . zoo new england is committed to tapir conservation and has supported important field work being done on behalf of baird\u2019s tapirs in nicaragua . \u201d\non january 31 , a female south american tapir calf was born at poland\u2019s wroc\u0142aw zoo . the baby , named sarah , will be part of zoo breeding programs designed to save this vulnerable species .\ntapirs - status survey and conservation action plan . iucn / ssc tapir specialist group .\ns . p . parker . new york : mcgraw - hill . volume 4 , pp . 597 - 608 .\nadult tapirs are large enough to have few natural predators , and the thick skin on the backs of their necks helps to protect them from threats such as jaguars , crocodiles , anacondas , and tigers . the creatures are also able to run fairly quickly , considering their size and cumbersome appearance , finding shelter in the thick undergrowth of the forest or in water . hunting for meat and hides has substantially reduced their numbers and , more recently , habitat loss has resulted in the conservation watch - listing of all four species : both the brazilian tapir and the malayan tapir are classified as vulnerable ; and the baird ' s tapir and the mountain tapir are endangered .\nmalayan / asian tapir ( jan . 2011 - may 2012 , in aza 2013 ) :\nthe baird ' s tapir is the largest american tapir . it is brown to blackish above and paler on the sides of the head and venter . the ears are usually edged in white . the head body length is about 200 cm , the height at the shoulder about 120 cm . it weights 150 - 330 kg . females are slightly heavier . the coat is short , sparse and not concealing the skin in lowland populations , but longer ad thicker in the highland populations of guatemala and costa rica .\na 2013 paper in the journal of mammology announced that a new species of tapir had been discovered in brazil and colombia , although it had been known to local tribes . the kabomani tapir was said to be the largest mammal to be discovered in 100 years , according to world tapir day .\nthe thick hide is covered with a short , bristly - haired , dark brown coat . young animals have a reddish - brown coat brightly marked with white streaks and spots . at higher elevations , animals grow thicker coats as protection from the cold . the throat and cheeks are a light grayish - yellow , and there is usually a dark spot situated below and behind the eye . the edges of the rounded ears are white . the most noticable feature of the tapir is its prehensile nose , which looks and functions like a shortened version of an elephant ' s trunk . baird ' s tapir is the largest and heaviest of the new world tapir species , with a barrel - shaped body and stocky legs . there is no crest on the neck .\nwilliams , k . ( 1984 ) . the central american tapir in northwestern costa rica . ph . d . thesis . michigan state university , east lansing , michigan , u . s . a . 84pp . [ links ]\nadult tapirs are large enough that they have few natural predators , and the thick skin on the backs of their necks helps to protect them from threats such as jaguars , crocodiles , anacondas , and tigers . the creatures are also able to run fairly quickly , considering their size and cumbersome appearance , finding shelter in the thick undergrowth of the forest or in water . hunting for meat and hides has substantially reduced their numbers and , more recently , massive habitat loss has resulted in the conservation watch - listing of all four species : both the brazilian tapir and the malayan tapir are classified as vulnerable ; and the baird\u2019s tapir and the mountain tapir are endangered . tapirs tend to prefer old growth forests and the food sources that can be found in them , making the preservation of primary woodlands a top priority for tapir conservationists .\neisenberg , j . f . ; et al . ( 1990 ) .\ntapirs\n. in parker , s . p .\nauthenticated ( 19 / 6 / 02 ) by sheryl todd . president , tapir preservation fund . urltoken\nwhat can i do ? : visit the tapir preservation fund for information on how you can help .\nthe tapir family is old by mammalian standards . the earliest fossil tapir dates to the early oligocene ( about 30 million years ) , and eocene rocks from as early as 55 million years ago contain a wide range of tapir - like animals , and they have changed little since ( taylor 2007 ) .\nmyers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2006a . the diversity of cheek teeth . the animal diversity web . retrieved june 20 , 2006 .\nthe baird\u2019s tapir is found in forested areas with ponds and streams ( wet tropical rainforest , tropical subdeciduous forest and montane cloud forests ) , palm swamps , paramo , mangrove , riparian forest , and successional vegetation ( caused by natural disturbances ) , as well as in narrow oak - forest strips covering the top of medium - altitude mountains ; from sea level to 3 , 620 m ( brooks et al . 1997 , naranjo and vaughan 2000 ) .\nthe word\ntapir\ncomes from an indigenous brazilian language ; it means\nthick ,\nreferring to the animal ' s hide , according to the san diego zoo .\ntapir\ncan be pronounced at least two ways , according to the random house dictionary ; it can rhyme either with\npaper\nor with\nappear .\nmyers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2006b . the basic structure of cheek teeth . the animal diversity web . retrieved june 20 , 2006 .\nbin momin khan , mohd khan .\nstatus and action plan of the panda tapir ( tapirus indicus )\ntapirs : status survey and conservation action plan published by iucn tapir specialist group , 1997 , page 1\nbin momin khan , mohd khan .\nstatus and action plan of the malayan tapir ( tapirus indicus )\ntapirs : status survey and conservation action plan published by iucn tapir specialist group , 1997 , page 2\nbaird ' s tapir consumed more than 100 plant species in different vegetation types of tropical dry and humid forests of costa rica and panama ( terwilliger , 1978 ; janzen , 1982a ; williams , 1984 ; and naranjo , 1995a ) . in the present study , tapir 132 consumed 126 different plant species . williams and petrides ( 1980 ) found similar results studying t . indicus in malaysia , reporting more than 115 species consumed . chalukian et al ( 2013 ) found t . terrestris fed on 57 species of plants based on fecal samples in el rey national park in argentina .\nmyers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2006 . the diversity of cheek teeth . the animal diversity web ( online ) . retrieved june 20 , 2006 .\naccording to keepers , the new calf and mom , bertie , are doing well . this is the minnesota zoo\u2019s third tapir birth in 6 years . the new calf is also one of only 37 tapirs that are currently housed in zoos across north american .\nmyers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2006 . the basic structure of cheek teeth . the animal diversity web ( online ) . retrieved june 20 , 2006 .\nwilliams , k . 1984 . the central american tapir in northwestern costa rica . ph . d . dissertation .\nin other words , tapir 132 was willing to travel farther and take fewer bites to increase her fruit consumption .\n, the tapir is commonly referred to as\ncipan\n,\ntenuk\nor\nbadak tampong\n.\nbaird\u2019s tapirs are native to mexico , central america , and northern south america , where they are the largest land mammals . they have very few natural predators , but are listed as endangered by the international union for conservation of nature , mainly due to habitat destruction and poaching . tapirs are legally protected in most of their range , but lack of enforcement results in significant losses .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nsarah\u2019s mother , 23 - year - old sonia , was also born at the wroc\u0142aw zoo . her father is 22 - year - old tapinos .\nok , maybe it ' s you . you may have typed the web address incorrectly . please check the address and spelling to eliminate any spaces .\nmohd , azlan j .\nrecent observations of melanistic tapirs in peninsular malaysia\n. tapir conservation : the newsletter of the iucn / ssc tapir specialist group , june 2002 , volume 11 , number 1 , pages 27 - 28\nthe specimen was scanned along the coronal axis for a total of 395 slices , each slice 1 . 0 mm thick with a 1 . 0 mm interslice spacing . the scanning was done by richard ketcham , cambria denison and matthew colbert on 03 march 1998 . the animations of baird ' s tapir are reduced from the original data for optimal web delivery . see the inspector for unreduced ct data . click on the thumbnail below to see the detail discernible in an unreduced sample slice through the braincase .\nbreed well into their 20\u2019s . a female t . indicus at the san diego zoo gave birth to 15th offspring at age 30 ( barongi 1993 ) .\na healthy female tapir can give birth every 2 years . young tapirs such as the brazilian tapir often have reddish / brown coats that are striped and flecked with white . this pattern provides them with camouflage in the dappled forest shade .\nthe tapir may have evolved from the paleothere hyracotherium ( once thought to be a primitive horse ) . [ 32 ]\n( all - black ) malayan tapirs have been observed . in 1924 , an all - black tapir was sent to\nin thailand , for instance , capture and sale of a young tapir may be worth us $ 5500 . 00 .\nsimon , tamar . \u201cthe tapir : a big unknown\u201d article from discovery channel canadian website , july 22 , 1999 .\ncould serve as a carrier of these diseases to new areas . tapirs also sometimes forage in agricultural areas and have been known to damage corn and other grains . however , this is rare because tapirs generally avoid human - disturbed areas and are few in number . baird\u2019s tapirs often defecate in water and have the potential to affect human water sources downstream , although their rarity makes this a small problem .\nd . m . brooks , r . e . bodmer , and s . matola . iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk . available online at\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nhughes , j . 1998 . woman ' s arm bitten off in zoo attack . associated press , november 20 , 1998 . retrieved september 7 , 2007 .\nboza , m . a . ( 1992 ) . parques nacionales de costa ricaincafo , s . a . madrid , espa\u00f1a . 333 p . [ links ]\ntalamoni , s . a . & amp ; assis , m . a . ( 2009 ) . feeding habit of the brazilian tapir , tapirus terrestris ( perissodactyla : tapiridae ) in a vegetation transition zone in southeastern brazil . zoologia curitiba impresso26 : 251 - 254 . [ links ]\nrzss edinburgh zoo keepers are hearing the \u201cpitter - patter\u201d of tiny hooves with the birth of an endangered malayan tapir calf .\nbbc . 2007 . wildfacts sheet on the brazilian tapir ( tapirus terrestris ) . bbc . retrieved september 7 , 2007 .\nbrooks , d . m . , bodmer , r . e . & matola , s . ( 1997 ) tapirs - status survey and conservation action plan . ( english , spanish , portuguese ) iucn / ssc tapir specialist group . iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk .\nzoo new england is running a naming contest via crowdrise , with donations supporting global wildlife conservation\u2019s nicaragua tapir project . with a $ 5 minimum donation , members of the public can vote for their favorite name for the calf , now through january 31 . follow this link to vote : urltoken\ngoudot , j . 1843 . nouvelles observations sur le tapir pinchaque ( recent observations on the tapir pinchaque ) . comptes rendus vol . xvi , pages 331 - 334 . available online with english translation by tracy metz . retrieved september 7 , 2007 .\ndata collection : tapir 132 was located in the field using a telonics tr - 2 receiver and ra - 14 antenna ( telonics inc . , meza , az . 85204 ) . at five minute intervals , data was collected on diet and foraging activity . because of the relative tranquil nature of tapir 132 , we had a unique opportunity to collect field data . no other tapir 132 in the study area allowed us to collect data as did tapir ; therefore the study is limited to one individual .\n\u201cwe are very excited to welcome this new tapir to the minnesota zoo . malayan tapirs are endangered and this birth is a significant conservation achievement , as it\u2019s estimated that fewer than 1 , 500 exist in the wild . the recent success we\u2019ve had with tapir births over the past six years is an example of the incredible care our zookeeper and veterinary teams provides our animals , \u201d said tropics trail curator , tom ness .\nnote the flexible nose and ears tipped with white ; characteristics shared by all tapir species . image credit : san diego zoo global\nzooborns featured news of the birth in a january 8 post : \u201c new year , new tapir at franklin park zoo \u201d .\npercent observations of different activity states for tapir 132 from july 1995 to april 1996 . numbers in parenthesis are monthly sample sizes .\nperiod of the malayan tapir is approximately 390\u2013395 days , after which a single offspring , weighing around 15 pounds ( 6 . 8 kg ) , is born . malayan tapirs are the largest of the four tapir species at birth and grow more quickly than their\ntapirs are generally shy , but when they are scared they can defend themselves with their very powerful jaws . in 1998 , a zookeeper in oklahoma city was mauled and had an arm severed by a tapir bite , after she attempted to feed the attacking tapir ' s young ( hughes 1998 ) . in 2006 , a 46 - year - old man ( who was the environmental minister at the time ) who was lost in the corcovado national park at costa rica was found by a search party with a\nnasty bite\nfrom a wild tapir .\na malayan tapir and her baby . calves look like brown - and - beige - striped watermelons , which is good for camouflage .\npercent composition of major food items consumed by tapir 132 from june 1995 to april 1996 . numbers in parenthesis are monthly sample sizes .\nthe females are usually larger than the males . like the other types of tapir , they have small stubby tails and long , flexible\nin chinese , korean , and japanese , the tapir is named after a beast from chinese mythology . a feature of this mythical creature is a snout like that of an elephant . it is said to eat people ' s dreams . in chinese , the name of this beast , subsequently the name of the tapir , is m\u00f2 in mandarin and mek in cantonese . the korean equivalent is maek , while it is called baku in japanese .\nwilson & burnie , animal : the definitive visual guide to the world ' s wildlife . dk adult ( 2001 ) , isbn 978 - 0 - 7894 - 7764 - 4\nattentive mother , chiquita , has been protectively caring for her sweet , striped son . the new family , including dad farrusco , is at home in the zoo\u2019s south american exhibit .\ndobson , f . s . & amp ; jinping , y . ( 1993 ) . rarity in neotropical forest mammals revisited . conservation biology7 : 586 - 591 . [ links ]\nwoodland park zoo ( wpz ) . 2007 . animal fact sheet : malayan tapir ( tapirus indicus ) . retrieved september 7 , 2007 .\ntpf news , tapir preservation fund , vol . 4 , no . 7 , july 2001 . see section on study by charles foerster .\nthe malayan tapir ( tapirus indicus ) , also known as the asian tapir , is the largest of four tapir species and is the only old world tapir . they are native to the rainforests of burma , malaysia , sumatra and thailand . their noses and upper lips are extended to form a prehensile proboscis , which they use to grab leaves . tapirs normally measure 1 . 8 to 2 . 5m ( 6 to 8 feet ) in length , with a shoulder height of 0 . 9 to 1 . 1m . ( 3 to 3 . 5 feet ) .\ntheir most distinctive feature is their snout . it is flexible like an elephant ' s trunk . however , the tapir\u2019s trunk is actually its upper lip and nose . tapirs can grab things with their trunks , somewhat like an elephant . they use them to pluck leaves and fruit out of trees , according to national geographic , and then place these goodies in their mouths . and , according to the san diego zoo , when threatened , tapirs will submerge themselves in a river and use their snouts like a snorkel .\nbrooks , d . m . , r . e . bodmer , and s . matola ( compilers ) . 1997 . tapirs - status survey and conservation action plan . ( english , spanish , portuguese . ) iucn / ssc tapir specialist group . iucn , gland , switzerland and cambridge , uk . viii + 164 pp .\nzoo de beauval is pleased to announce the birth of a male brazilian tapir . the handsome three - week - old has been named diego .\nalthough it spends most of its time in the water or lying in the mud , the tapir can move quickly and is an excellent swimmer .\nthe tapir is a herbivore and spends its time browsing for food . the tapir eats leaves , twigs , branches , buds , shoots , berries , fruits and aquatic plants . due to its large size , the tapir has few natural predators in its environment . it is known to be preyed upon by wild cats such as tigers , jaguars and cougars along with large reptiles like crocodiles and even the odd snake . the human is believed to be the most common predator of the tapir as they have been hunted for food and even domesticated in some areas . [ 2 ]\ncheyenne mountain zoo ( cmz ) . 2006 . mountain tapir conservation at the cheyenne mountain zoo . cheyenee mountain zoo . retrieved september 7 , 2007 .\nfrank buck wrote about an attack by a tapir in 1926 , which he described in his book , bring ' em back alive . [ 41 ]\ndenver zoo is happy to announce the birth of umi , an endangered malayan tapir . the female calf , whose name means \u201clife\u201d in malayan , was born to mother rinny and father benny early in the morning on may 6 . she is only the third malayan tapir ever born at the denver zoo .\ntapir 132 was observed for a minimum of 20 hrs . per month from june 1995 to april 1996 , excluding august 1995 . considering that tapir activity was predominantly nocturnal ( foerster & vaughan , 2002 ) , diet and foraging behavior data was collected between 1800 - 0600 hrs . observation periods lasted between two and 11 hrs .\ntapirs are largely nocturnal and crepuscular , although the smaller mountain tapir of the andes is generally more active during the day than its congeners . they have monocular vision .\ntapirs are largely nocturnal and crepuscular , although the smaller mountain tapir of the andes is generally more active during the day than its congeners . they have monocular vision .\nolmos , f . ( 1997 ) . tapirs as seed dispersers and predators . in : brooks , d . m . , bodmer , r . e . , matola , s . ( eds . ) tapirs - status survey and conservation action plan . ( pp . 3 - 9 ) . iucn / ssc tapir specialist group . iucn , gland , switzerland . [ links ]\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\ntapirs measure between 1 . 8 \u2013 2 . 5 metres ( 6 \u2013 8 . 25 feet ) in length depending on species \u2013 the malayan tapir is the largest and the mountain tapir is the smallest . their weight can vary between 180 \u2013 320 kilograms ( 396 \u2013 704 pounds ) and they can stand around 1 metre ( 3 feet ) at shoulder height . tapirs coats are short and can range in colour from reddish brown to black , with the malayan tapir being the only subspecies to have a white saddle - shaped marking on its back which may help it to camouflage in dimly lit forest undergrowth and the mountain tapir having a more woolly fur covering .\nbites taken during ten minute periods : the study long average for number of bites taken during ten minute periods was 49 , 7 ( n = 147 , s . d . = 30 , 14 ) . the wet and dry season averages for bites taken during ten minute periods were 42 , 1 ( s . d . = 29 , 21 ) and 58 . 2 ( s . d . = 29 , 07 ) respectively . the wet season values for bites per ten minute interval were significantly smaller than dry season paces per ten minute period ( f = 11 , 18 , d . f . = 1 , 145 ; p = 0 , 0011 ) .\nwas estimated to be 0 . 24 individuals per square kilometer in areas where there was low hunting pressure and 0 . 05 tapirs per square kilometer in persistently hunted areas . however , densities can reach up to 0 . 8 individual per square kilometer in areas with lush vegetation . although baird\u2019s tapirs are largely solitary and typically feed alone , social interactions are often observed . individuals have been observed feeding together on occasion and even exchanging non - threatening physical contact . they have also been observed charging each other , but the charges rarely last for more than a few seconds .\nthe asian tapir is classified as endangered due to estimated population decline of more than 50 percent in the next three generations . their endangerment is mostly due to habitat loss .\n. they have four toes on each front foot and three toes on each back foot . the malayan tapir has rather poor eyesight but excellent hearing and sense of smell .\ncozzuol , m . a . ; clozato , c . l . ; holanda , e . c . ; rodrigues , f . v . h . g . ; nienow , s . ; de thoisy , b . ; redondo , r . a . f . ; santos , f . c . r . ( 2013 ) .\na new species of tapir from the amazon\n.\nthe malayan tapir ' s gestation period varies from 390 - 419 days . mothers usually give birth every 2 - 4 years to a single calf , and twins are rare . at birth , a calf weighs approximately 10 - 20 pounds . for the first 6 - 8 months of their life , tapir calves resemble furry watermelons with legs . they are dark brown to black with alternating bands of yellowish - white stripes and spots . young tapirs grow quickly and can weigh as much as 450 pounds at one year of age ; they reach adult size in 2 - 3 years .\nthe tapir is a large pig - like , browsing mammal that belongs to the family : tairidae . tapirs are odd - toes ungulate animals that can be found in the rainforests of south and central america and southeast asia . there are 4 living species of tapir of which three are native to the american rainforests and one native to the asian rainforests .\ngoudot , justin .\nnouvelles observations sur le tapir pinchaque ( recent observations on the tapir pinchaque ) ,\ncomptes rendus , paris 1843 , vol . xvi , pages 331 - 334 . available online with english translation by tracy metz . report contains accounts of wild mountain tapirs shying away from human contact at salt deposits after being hunted , and hiding .\ntapirs have brown eyes , often with a bluish cast to them , which has been identified as corneal cloudiness , a condition most commonly found in malayan tapirs . the exact etiology is unknown , but the cloudiness may be caused by excessive exposure to light or by trauma . [ 17 ] [ 18 ] however , the tapir ' s sensitive ears and strong sense of smell help to compensate for deficiencies in vision .\nthe tapir mostly eats leaves , twigs , fruits , and some seeds . it is an important disperser of seeds for several plants ( e . g . , raphia faedigera ) .\nin indonesia , the animal is called\nbadak ,\nwhich is the same word for rhinos . and in thailand , the word for tapir is\np ' som - sett ,\nwhich means\nmixture is finished ,\nand refers to the belief that the tapir was created from leftover parts of other animals , according to the san diego zoo .\nhouck , m . l . , s . c . kingswood , and a . t . kumamoto . 2000 . comparative cytogenetics of tapirs , genus tapirus ( perissodactyla , tapiridae ) . cytogenetics and cell genetics 89 : 110 - 115 .\nthere are five species of tapir , and they are all relatively similar in size . they range from 29 to 42 inches ( 74 to 107 centimeters ) from foot to shoulder and weigh a hefty 500 to 800 lbs . ( 227 to 363 kilograms ) . the largest species is the malayan tapir , which can grow up 800 lbs . ( 363 kg ) .\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nbodmer , r . e . ( 1990 ) . fruit patch size and frugivory in the lowland tapir ( tapirus terrestris ) . journal of zoology222 : 121 - 128 . [ links ]\na number of conservation projects have been started around the world . the tapir specialist group , a unit of the iucn species survival commission , strives to conserve biological diversity by stimulating , developing , and executing practical programs to study , save , restore , and manage the four species of tapir and their remaining habitats in central and south america and southeast asia . [ 35 ]\nthe malayan tapir has very poor eyesight , making them rely greatly on their excellent sense of smell and hearing to go about in their everyday lives . the malayan tapir has small , beady eyes with brown irises on either side of their face . their eyes are often covered in a blue haze , which is corneal cloudiness thought to be caused by repetitive exposure to light .\ntoday , there are large forest reserves in belize to protect the remaining populations , and the tapir is found in these protected areas with the exception of guanacaste national park and rio blanco . the tapir is an extra special animal for its importance to belize . the protection of these precious first animals is vital and we must all do our part in helping with the conservation process .\njanzen , d . h . ( 1982b ) . seeds in tapir dung in santa rosa national park , costa rica . brenesia 19 / 20 ) : 129 - 135 . [ links ]\nfragosoj . , silviusk . , & correaj . ( 2003 ) . long - distance seed dispersal by tapir increases seed survival and aggregates tropical trees . ecology84 : 1998 - 2006 . [ links ]\ngiven that bark and flower were minor components of tapir 132 ' s diet in most months of the study , variations in monthly percent of fruit in the diet were primarily reflected in negative correlations with percent leaf matter . as a result , where percent fruit was positively associated with mnc observations and paces taken per unit of time , percent leaf was negatively correlated with those same categories . where percent fruit was negatively correlated with sc observations and number of bites per ten minute periods , positive associations were seen with percent leaf consumption . this is the only tapir study combining diet and foraging , therefore it is impossible to compare results and correlations with other research .\nalina bradford is a contributing writer for live science . over the past 16 years , alina has covered everything from ebola to androids while writing health , science and tech articles for major publications . she has multiple health , safety and lifesaving certifications from oklahoma state university . alina ' s goal in life is to try as many experiences as possible . to date , she has been a volunteer firefighter , a dispatcher , substitute teacher , artist , janitor , children ' s book author , pizza maker , event coordinator and much more .\nalger , s . , vaughan , c . & amp ; foerster , c . ( 1998 ) . resting site microhabitat selection by tapirus bairdii during the dry season in corcovado national park , costa rica . vida silvestre neotropical7 : 136 - 138 . [ links ]\ntapirs are related to rhinoceroses and horses . male tapirs are called \u2018bulls\u2019 , females are called \u2018cows\u2019 and a baby tapir is a \u2018calf\u2019 . the name for a group of tapirs is called a \u2018candle\u2019 .\ntapirs have brown eyes , often with a bluish cast to them , which has been identified as corneal cloudiness , a condition most commonly found in malayan tapirs . the exact etiology is unknown , but the cloudiness may be caused by excessive exposure to light or by trauma . however , the tapir ' s sensitive ears and strong sense of smell help to compensate for deficiencies in vision . tapirs have simple stomachs and are hindgut fermenters that ferment digested food in a large cecum .\ntapirs have a gestation period of approximately 13 months . keepers had been closely monitoring juju\u2019s progress and noticed she was restless the day before she gave birth . once juju went into labor , she welcomed her new calf about five minutes later , without the help of keepers .\ngiven the estimated consumption of about 11 , 9 kilos of biomass ( dry wt ) per day or 4 , 307 kilos per year . naranjo ( 1995b ) estimated between 155 - 249 tapirs in cnp . if the total tapir population in cnp was calculated as 200 tapirs , the total biomass consumed by tapirs in the park would be 872 , 400 kilos of biomass ( dry wt ) yearly , which could greatly impact the park ' s vegetation , especially those species consumed .\n, tapirs are seldom hunted for food , as their physical similarity to pigs has made tapir meat a taboo , but in some regions they are hunted for sport or shot accidentally when mistaken for other animals .\ncastellanos , a . , c . roerester , d . lizcano , e . naranjo , e . cruz - alden , i . lira - torres , r . samudio , s . matola , j . schipper , j . gonzalez - maya . 2008 . tapirus bairdii .\nwith all said , the tapir is an extra special animal for its importance to belize . the protection and of these precious animals is vital and we must all do our part in helping with the conservation process .\ncommon tapir characteristics include a large body size , short legs , a flexible proboscis ( nose ) , and rounded ears with white tips . note the differences in adult pelage ( coat ) color for four species .\nnaranjo , e . ( 1995a ) . h\u00e1bitos de alimentaci\u00f3n del tapir ( tapirus bairdii ) en un bosque tropical h\u00famedo de costa rica . vida silvestre neotropical4 ( 1 ) : 32 - 37 . [ links ]\nwitmer , l . , s . d . sampson , and n . solounias . 1999 . the proboscis of tapirs ( mammalia : perissodactyla ) : a case study in novel narial anatomy . journal of zoology london . 249 : 249 - 267 . retrieved september 7 , 2007 .\nfoerster , c . r . ( 1998 ) . comportamiento de forrajeo y dieta de una danta centroamericana en un bosque h\u00famedo tropical de costa rica . m . s . thesis . programa regional en manejo de vida silvestre , universidad nacional , heredia , costa rica . [ links ]\nhartshorn , g . s . ( 1983 ) . plants . in : d . h . janzen ( ed ) . costa rican natural history . ( pp . 119 - 160 ) . the university of chicago press , chicago , illinois , usa . 865 pp . [ links ]\nmarch , i . j . ( 1994 ) . la situaci\u00f3n actual del tapir en m\u00e9xico . centro de investigaci\u00f3n ecol\u00f3gicas del surestemonograf series , no . 1san crist\u00f3bal de las casas , chiapas , m\u00e9xico . [ links ]\nrodr\u00edguez , m . , olmos , f . & amp ; galetti , m . ( 1993 ) . seed dispersal by tapir in southeastern brazil . mammalia 57 ( 3 ) : 460 - 461 . [ links ]\ncastellanos , a . , cruz - ald\u00e1n , e . , foerster , c . r . , gonz\u00e1lez - maya , j . f . , lira torres , i . , lizcano , d . j . , matola , s . , samudio jr , r . & schipper , j .\na terrestrial biome found in temperate latitudes ( > 23 . 5\u00b0 n or s latitude ) . vegetation is made up mostly of grasses , the height and species diversity of which depend largely on the amount of moisture available . fire and grazing are important in the long - term maintenance of grasslands .\nwilliams , k . d . & amp ; petrides , g . a . ( 1980 ) . browse use , feeding behavior and management of the malayan tapir . journal of wildlife management44 : 489 - 494 . [ links ]\nthe minnesota zoo is thrilled to announce the birth of an endangered malayan tapir calf . the little female , named indah , was born on january 6 after an approximately 400 - day gestation period and weighed - in at 16 pounds .\nnaranjo , e . ( 1995b ) . abundancia , uso de h\u00e1bitat y dieta del tapir ( tapirus bairdii ) en un bosque tropical h\u00famedo de costa rica . vida silvestre neotropical4 ( 1 ) : 20 - 30 . [ links ]\nyoung tapirs reach sexual maturity between three and five years of age , with females maturing earlier than males . under good conditions , a healthy female tapir can reproduce every two years ; a single young , called a calf , is born after a gestation of about 13 months . the natural lifespan of a tapir is about 25 to 30 years , both in the wild and in zoos . apart from mothers and their young offspring , tapirs lead almost exclusively solitary lives ."]}
{"id": 1779, "summary": [{"text": "the smoky shrew ( sorex fumeus ) is a medium-sized north american shrew found in eastern canada and the northeastern united states and extends further south along the appalachian mountains . ", "topic": 12}], "title": "smoky shrew", "paragraphs": ["\u00a9 copyright roger barbour . all rights reserved . sorex _ fumeus - - smoky shrew\nnorth american least shrew , northern short - tailed shrew , and southern short - tailed shrew have shorter tails .\na shrew mole or shrew - mole is a mole that resembles a shrew . species with that name include :\nother small mammals of maine include species of several different families . these include the following : hairy - tailed mole , star - nosed mole , water shrew , smoky shrew , long - tailed shrew , pygmy shrew , cinereus shrew , and the northern short - tailed shrew .\nthe smoky shrew , known for its 2 color molts , occurs in middle and eastern tennessee .\nsmoky shrew - sorex fumeus smoky shrews travel and forage in underground tunnel systems , but they usually nest in stumps or logs . # wildohio # ohiom\u2026 | pinterest\n. it is also known as gibb ' s shrew mole and least shrew mole .\na mole shrew is a shrew that resembles a mole . species with that name include :\nthe asian house shrew (\nsuncus murinus\n) grey musk shrew , asian musk shrew , or money shrew is a widespread , adaptable species of shrew found mainly in south asia but introduced widely throughout asia and eastern africa .\nthe eurasian pygmy shrew (\nsorex minutus\n) , often known simply as the pygmy shrew , is a widespread shrew of northern eurasia . it is the only shrew native to ireland .\nthe panay shrew (\ncrocidura panayensis\n) is a species of shrew from the philippines .\nthe sibuyan shrew (\ncrocidura ninoyi\n) is a species of shrew from the philippines .\nthe batak shrew (\ncrocidura batakorum\n) is a species of shrew from the philippines .\ncompared with the cinereus shrew , the smoky shrew is more selective in habitat , favoring cool and moist sites , and is less often found in drier forested stands .\nthe arizona shrew (\nsorex arizonae\n) is a species of shrew native to north america .\nthe cinereus shrew or masked shrew (\nsorex cinereus\n) is a small shrew found in alaska , canada and the northern united states . this is the most widely distributed shrew in north america , where it is also known as the common shrew .\nthe eurasian least shrew (\nsorex minutissimus\n) , also called the lesser pygmy shrew , is the second - smallest mammal after the etruscan shrew .\nthe vagrant shrew (\nsorex vagrans\n) , also known as the wandering shrew , is a medium - sized north american shrew . at one time , the montane shrew and the orizaba long - tailed shrew were considered to belong to the same species .\nthe sardinian shrew (\nasoriculus similis\n) is an extinct species of shrew from europe ( sardinia ) .\nlike all shrew - moles , the stomach size of this shrew mole in inversely proportional to its body weight .\nthe cyrenaica shrew or alexander ' s shrew (\ncrocidura aleksandrisi\n) is a species of white - toothed shrew in the family soricidae which is endemic to libya .\nthe long - tailed shrew or rock shrew (\nsorex dispar\n) is a small north american shrew found in atlantic canada and the north - eastern united states .\nthe african black shrew (\ncrocidura nigrofusca\n) is a species of shrew . it is native to africa , where it is widespread . other common names include tenebrous shrew .\nhome range has not been reported for smoky shrews , and territory size also is unknown .\nkozlov ' s shrew (\nsorex kozlovi\n) is a red - toothed shrew found only at the mekong river , tibet , china . this shrew listed as a\ndata deficient\n.\nmountain species of shrew found from southeastern canada west to the great lakes and south to the smokies is known as the smoky shrew . mainly nocturnal , the smoky shrew is active day and night and has a head and body that grows up to three inches in length . they are found in cool moist and shady birch or hemlock forests that have lots of leaf and fern growth .\nthe long - tailed shrew has a slender body , long snout , small eyes and a long , thick tail . its body averages to 2 . 75 inches in length , and its tail can be between 2 . 2 to 2 . 5 inches long . the long - tailed shrew is dark gray with slightly paler under parts . these shrews are often confused with the smoky shrew , but the smoky shrew has a wider body and a shorter , bicolored tail .\nthe smoky shrew lives in extensive burrows in the leaf mold of the forest floor and are active in even the coldest weather . they constantly twitter as they forage .\nfelix , z . , l . gatens , y . wang , c . schweitzer . 2009 . first records of the smoky shrew ( sorex fumeus ) in alabama .\nwhen smoky shrews are disturbed , they release a high - pitched squeaking noise , throw themselves onto their backs , and wave their limbs . when searching for food , smoky shrews produce a faint twittering noise .\nsmoky shrews are insectivores who prey on many insects and their larvae . they are also prey for snakes , owls , weasels , hawks and larger shrews . smoky shrews are hosts to many parasites including mites (\nsmoky shrews molt their fur twice annually so they have brown with a hint of yellow coat in the summer and gray and white in the winter which provides cryptic coloration . smoky shrews dwell mostly on the forest floor , small enough to maneuver leaf and other vegetative matter . this habitat allows them natural camouflage . when disturbed , smoky shrews produce a high - pitched noise . the main predators of smoky shrews are bobcats (\nlaerm , j . , w . ford , b . chapman . 2007 . smoky shrew . pp . 95 - 98 in m trani , w ford , b chapman , eds .\nwhitaker , j . o . , jr . 1999 . smoky shrew . pages 22 - 23 . in : wilson , d . e . and s . ruff ( editors ) .\nwhen smoky shrews are disturbed , they emit a high - pitched squeaking noise , throw themselves onto their backs , and wave their limbs . when searching for food , smoky shrews produce a faint twittering noise , which might be a crude form of echolocation . this has not largely been studied in smoky shrews , but other shrews in\nis flat and it does not have an elongated crown , like shrew do .\nthe smoky shrew has brown fur in the summer and gray fur in the winter months . they have lighter gray under parts and a long tail that is brown on top and yellow underneath .\njuvenile and adult smoky shrews are distinguished by weight and tooth , tail , and hair wear . because smoky shrews do not breed within the year they are born , they most often survive until the subsequent breeding season and live a total of 14 to 17 months . the lifespan on smoky shrews in captivity has not been reported and is not currently known .\nthe smoky shrew is primarily a northern and mountain species and is found throughout the northeastern united states and adjacent canada , south in the appalachian mountains to northern georgia , and west to central ohio and kentucky .\nsmoky shrews are listed as a species of \u201cleast concern\u201d on the iucn red list . cites and the us federal list list smoky shrews as no special status . the michigan natural features inventory states that smoky shrews are\nthreatened ,\nbecause there have been fewer than half a dozen captures of these individuals in the state . current management efforts are in place to maintain forest cover and leaf litter on the forest floor . it ' s likely that these efforts positively impact smoky shrews .\n) . the smokey shrew is near the southern limit of its range in the park .\ncinereus shrew is browner , has a smaller body , and has a relatively longer tail .\nsmoky shrews were named for their slate - gray or blackish - gray winter coat , which develops by the end of october .\n: during the summer , the smoky shrew is a medium - sized , uniformly dull brown . during the winter , the pelage of the smoky shrew is usually a uniform gray . the bi - colored tail is brownish above and yellowish below . shrews possess long tapering snouts and tiny eyes and ears . hearing and smell are acute . the tips of the incisor teeth are dark chestnut in color . shrews have five toes on each foot .\nsmith , t . r . and j . m . mouzon . 1985 . small mammal survey in the spruce - fir zone of great smoky mountains national park . typewritten final research report . in library of great smoky mountains national park , gatlinburg , tennessee .\n, which means that it lives in loosely organized communities of about 12 to 15 shrew moles .\nsmoky shrews prefer moist hardwood forests with decaying logs , thick leaf litter , and moss - covered rocks ; frequently found in higher elevations .\nlong - tailed shrew has a longer , thicker tail with more hair and is dark gray all year .\nthe long - tailed shrew is a mid - sized shrew with a slender body and long tail . it lives in cool , rocky , forested areas and can be found year - round in the appalachian mountains .\ndig with their forepaws held directly below their body , but shrew - moles dig using lateral - strokes .\n: smoky shrews are found at all elevations . they are most abundant in cool , damp woodlands with a deep layer of leaf mold on the ground .\n: all plants and animals are protected within great smoky mountains national park . collection requires a permit which is usually granted only for research or educational purposes .\nsipe , t . , r . browne . 2004 . phylogeography of masked ( sorex cinereus ) and smoky shrews ( sorex fumeus ) in the southern appalachians .\nlinzey , d . w . 1995a . mammals of great smoky mountains national park . blacksburg , virginia : the mcdonald & ; woodward publishing company , inc .\nforsman , k . , m . malmquist . 1988 . evidence for echolocation in the common shrew , sorex araneus .\namerican shrew - moles are described to be\ncommon\nthroughout their range ( wilson and ruff , 1999 ) .\ndue to these factors , it is common for shrew - moles to forage through tunnels that have been dug by other shrew - moles because it is more energetically efficient and more prey might be present in tunnels that have been abandoned .\nonly turns into bone in the adults and the roots of the upper molars are exposed in immature shrew - moles .\nmr . animal helps you better understand the wild one animal at a time . this episode talks about the smokey shrew .\nhorvath , o . 1965 . arboreal predation on bird\u2019s nest by masked shrew . journal of mammalogy , 46 : 495 .\nthe smoky shrew is active at all times during day and night throughout the year , though populations are at their peak between july and october . like many other small mammals , populations are cyclical from year to year and surveys should be conducted for several consecutive years to obtain the most reliable results .\nwhitaker , j . o . , jr . 1999 . smoky shrew ( sorex fumeus ) . pages 22 - 23 in d . e . wilson and s . ruff , editors . the smithsonian book of north american mammals . smithsonian institution press in association with the american society of mammalogists , washington .\nsmoky shrews are deemed in need of management by both twra and tennessee department or environment and conservation . they are uncommon in the state , but can be abundant in some areas .\nit is believed by some that the sound that the wind produces as it goes through the bottle scares the shrew - moles away .\nlinzey , d . w . 1995b . mammals of great smoky mountains national park - 1995 update . journal of the elisha mitchell scientific society 111 ( 1 ) : 1 - 81 .\nwhen underground shrew - moles can suffer from a low levels of oxygen , high levels of carbon dioxide , and high levels of humidity .\nkomarek , e . v . and r . komarek . 1938 . mammals of the great smoky mountains . bulletin of the chicago academy of science 5 ( 6 ) : 137 - 162 .\nthe average total length of smoky shrews is 111 . 4 millimeters , with an average weight of 7 . 6 grams . average tail length is 43 . 8 millimeters , and their hind feet are , on average , 13 . 2 millimeters long . both male and female shrews are similar in size . newborn shrews are blind , toothless , lack fur and weigh 0 . 14 grams . by one month old , they weigh 4 grams . smoky shrews have a generally flattened skull . like all shrews , the snout of smoky shrews is elongated , and they have ears that are often concealed within their fur . smoky shrews have 32 teeth with a dental formula of incisors 1 / 1 , canines 5 / 1 , premolars 1 / 1 , and molars 3 / 3 .\nyoung born in the spring often breed later in the same year . the average life span of a masked shrew is less than 14 months .\nthe nest of the smoky shrew is the size of a baseball , created out of grasses and leaves about twenty inches below ground , in stumps and logs . adult females have two to three litters per year with five to six young in each litter . young leave the nest after about a month . most adults don ' t survive their second winter which is why juveniles are usually the only ones found in the wintertime . this highly aggressive shrew only has a lifespan of 14 - 17 months\nusing bait is another method used to control these shrew - moles . the bait usually consists of some type of cereal grain that is treated with chemicals .\nvery little is known about the ecology and population status of smoky shrews in minnesota . the preferred habitat of the species is currently not uncommon in northern minnesota , so it is possible that habitat is not a limiting factor for the species in the state . the minnesota biological survey targeted smoky shrews in their 2003 survey , and documented six new locations , expanding the known range of the species in minnesota west into lake county . it is not known , however , if smoky shrews inhabited this area historically and simply remained undetected until recently . future surveys are needed to determine the full extent of the species ' distribution and population in the state .\nthe shrew - mole makes permanent tunnels by digging with its forelimbs and using its forefeet to soften the soil that will be removed to make a hollow tunnel .\nin order to cope with these conditions , shrew - moles contain lungs that can hold large volumes and sometimes even more than 20 % of their body weight .\nthe short - tailed shrew is the only north american mammal with a poisonous bite . that ' s a cool fact , but too bad for an unfortunate snake !\nthere are also many home remedies that are used to get rid of these shrew - moles , but whether or not these methods are successful are usually not evident .\nthe presence of smoky shrews is related to soil moisture and mesic habitats , with more individuals being found in larger ( mcshea et al . 2003 ) , older patches of habitat ( kuttner and malcolm 2001 ) . because of this and the fact that little is known about the species ' ability to recolonize areas after logging , the potential presence of smoky shrews should be considered when mesic forests in the vicinity of documented occurrences of this species are slated for harvest .\n. males use high - pitched vocalizations to complete with other males when looking for mates . usually in groups of three , the male masked shrews will jump in a breeding chase . it\u2019s likely that smoky shrews have a similar mating system .\nlaerm , joshua ; ford , w . mark ; chapman , brian r . 2007 . smoky shrew , sorex fumeus . in : trani , margaret k . ; ford , w . mark ; chapman , brian r . , eds . the land manager ' s guide to mammals of the south . durham , nc : the nature conservancy ; atlanta , ga : u . s . forest service : 95 - 98 .\nthe long - tailed shrew\u2019s range extends from nova scotia , canada to eastern tennessee and north carolina . in the chesapeake bay watershed , they are particularly abundant in the appalachian mountains .\nshrew - moles usually live in areas where it is difficult to cultivate so they are usually economically neutral , but there are some cases where they do damage people ' s homes .\nthe smoky shrew is a small mammal ( 4 . 3 to 5 . 0 in / 11 to 12 . 6 cm in length ) with an elongated head , pointed nose , tiny eyes , and short dark fur . the tail is two - toned , dark on top and yellowish - tan below , and is between 1 . 7 and 2 . 0 inches ( 4 . 2 and 5 . 2 cm ) in length .\nthroughout its range , smoky shrews occur in deciduous and coniferous forests , bogs , and swamps . moist habitats are important ( mcshea et al . 2003 ) and the preferred microhabitat includes a cool , damp forest floor with a thick litter layer , mossy covered rocks , and decaying debris ( owen 1984 ) . in minnesota , smoky shrews have been found in glacial boulder streams ; second - growth black spruce , fir , paper birch forests ( jannett and oehlenschlager 1994 ) ; mossy , talus slopes ; and sphagnum bogs .\nsmoky shrews are insectivores feeding on various invertebrates . a north carolina study reported that centipedes ( 36 . 5 % of stomach contents , by volume ) were the most common food item , followed by earthworms ( 19 % ) and adult lepidopterans ( 19 . 5 % ) , and ground beetles in the family scarabidae ( 10 % ) . insects ( adults and larvae ) , spiders , isopods , and some fungi are included in the diets of smoky shrews . in captivity , the shrews also could eat salamanders and snails .\nthe fact that males lack a scrotum and the female ' s vagina is sealed , makes it difficult to determine the sex of shrew - moles that are not breeding without performing a dissection .\nlinzey , d . w . and a . v . linzey . 1973 . notes of food of small mammals from great smoky mountains national park , tennessee - north carolina . journal of the elisha mitchell scientific society 89 ( 1 and 2 ) : 6 - 14 .\ndoucet , g . j . and j . r . bider . 1974 . the effects of weather on the activity of the masked shrew . journal of mammalogy , 55 : 348 - 363 .\nas the shrew - mole continues to dig through the soil , the amount of prey in the soil is significantly less than the amount present in soil that has not been dug through by them .\nthe coloration of smoky shrews is an identifying feature among similar species . in the summer months , the dorsal fur is brown , with a yellow tint , and the ventral fur is pale brown . their winter coat is dark gray on the dorsal side with silver hues on the ventral side . smoky shrews molt twice annually , once in preparation for winter and again in preparation for summer . the molt for winter happens in october for a thicker fur as well as a change of color to accommodate surroundings ; the other in preparation for summer happens in april or may for a thinner coat with brown fur . the tail of smoky shews is consistently bicolored , following the different hues among the months . the tail is a light brown with yellows hues in the summer months , and dark brown with silver hues in the winter months .\nus forest service . influence of elevation and forest type on community assemblage and species distribution of shrews in the central and southern appalachian mountains . none . none provided : international society of shrew biologists . 2005 .\nsmoky shrews typically either take over other small mammals burrows to make use of them for themselves , or build rounded nests ca . 5 . 08 centimeters in diameter on the forest floor , often underneath forest debris . nests are built using various mammal hair and vegetative matter on sheltered forest floors .\njannett , f . j . , jr . , and r . j . oehlenschlager . 1994 . range extension and first minnesota records of the smokey shrew sorex fumeus . american midland naturalist 131 : 364 - 365 .\nsmoky shrews are constantly active through all hours of the day , and throughout the year . colder temperatures do not semm to be limiting , as they have been captured in the snow . these shrews typically are not social , but clustering of captures suggest that they might live in colonies . they do not migrate .\nis found in western north america , from mid - california to lower british columbia . it ranges from the pacific ocean to the cascade and sierra nevada mountains . shrew - moles are also found on destruction island , washington ( campbell , 2001 ) .\ndo have an effect on controlling bark beetles and other harmful insects in their own habitats . but this is of minimal economic benefit , because most areas where the shrew - mole is found are bad sites for logging or farming ( dalquest , 1942 ) .\nshrews tend to have short lifespans , and it is estimated that long - tailed shrew live up to two years in the wild . they are active both during the day and at night throughout the year . they are generally solitary animals and spend almost all of their time foraging .\nprefer soils that are easy to dig , and where there is plenty of organic matter . they are mostly found in the temperate rainforests of northwest north america , where soils are soft and deep . shrew - moles can also be found in areas that are moist and weedy or brushy ( campbell , 2001 ) .\ndue to their small size and active lifestyles , long - tailed shrews need to eat almost constantly , often consuming twice their body weight in a day . above , a long - tailed shrew in woburn , mass . , on may 11 , 2014 . ( photo courtesy sylvia scharf under a cc by - nc license )\ndalquest ( 1942 ) observed that if a shrew - mole is scared into hiding , it will reemerge in search of food in less than a minute . this makes them an easy target for predators , though they are not the major diet of any species ( racey , 1929 ) . owls seem to be their biggest predator ( carraway , 1991 ) .\nthe long - tailed shrew\u2019s major predators include snakes , weasels , other small mammals and birds of prey . in order to avoid predators , long - tailed shrews tend to feed at night and remain under forest debris . since they are small and can be confused for mice , they also have a distinct musky odor that could serve as a deterrent for predators .\nsmoky shews are often found in higher elevations , typically above 700 m , in or around deciduous montane forests . at the southern edge of their geographic range , it ' s been reported that they exists at elevations as low as 300 m . they occur in a variety of forest types , on talus slopes , and occasionally some wetter areas ( bogs , swamps , bankside of rivers ) . however , although it appears that they are more abundant in moisture - rich forests , they are much less common ( or absent ) in seasonally or permanently inundated wetland habitats .\nthe shrew - mole also makes shallow surface runways by moving the front part of its body 45 degrees to the right and then to the left . then back again to the right , then left , and so on . when it moves to the right , the left forepaw is thrust up rapidly lifting soil in the process and when it moves to the left , the right forepaw is thrust up to lift soil .\nfood and feeding behavior : little information is available about the food preferences of the rock shrew , but what is known suggests a diet of insects , spiders , and centipedes . activity and movement : the seasonal and daily activity patterns are unknown . reproduction : only a handful of specimens offer clues about breeding habits . these indicate litter size may vary from 2 - 5 , and that the reproductive season extends from early spring , april or may , until late summer , through august .\nshrew - mole has a relatively long breeding season . reproduction happens once a year and lasts from late february to august . the length of the gestation period is unknown , but is assumed to be at least four weeks long ( yates , 1982 ) . the nests are built above ground , although one nest was observed in a stump about a meter off the ground ( dalquest , 1942 ) . the babies are born blind and weigh less than a gram ( wilson and ruff , 1999 ) .\nthe masked shrew displays characters typical of all shrews . the slender , cylindrical body has a short , velvety , directionless fur . the long , tapered head ends in a flexible , tubular snout , with the narrow nostrils located on the outer edges of the tip . the small external ears are barely visible or are completely hidden by the fur . the eyes are tiny , the tail scantily haired , and the limbs short . all are features adapting shrews to a semi - fossorial life between the interface of soil particles and plant debris .\nis the smallest species of new world talpidae ( wilson and ruff , 1999 ) . its hair is black or blue - black and not as plush as other moles ( dalquest , 1942 ) . shrew - moles ' forefeet are slightly broadened , not webbed and modified for digging only ( wilson and ruff , 1999 ) . the external ears are absent . eyes are greatly reduced , and these animals have a flat , elongated nose ( carraway , 1991 ) . the tail is about half as long as the body and reasonably wide ( reed , 1951 ) .\nsocial system - the social behavior of all north american shrews is little known . a few causal observations of a male near a pregnant or lactating female suggest the masked shrew may be monogamous . studies completes in other parts of the species\u2019 range indicate a home range of 0 . 2 - 0 . 6 ha ( 0 . 5 - 1 . 5 acre ) which overlap conspecifics . densities vary from 2 . 5 - 100 per ha ( 1 - 40 per acre ) with 3 - 25 per ha ( 1 - 10 per acre ) being more common , and may change dramatically from one year to the next within any particular area .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\n( cassola , 2016 ; hamed and laughlin , 2015 ; owen , 1984 ; felix , et al . , 2009 )\n( cassola , 2016 ; choate , et al . , 1994 ; laerm , et al . , 2007 ; merritt , 1987 ; nowak , 1999 ; owen , 1984 ; webster , et al . , 2004 )\nolder shews tend to have fur with whiter tips . the younger shrews are distinguished from the older shrews not only because they are smaller , but also because they have long hairs on the tips of their tails that disappear once maturing to adults .\n( best and dusi , 2014 ; choate , et al . , 1994 ; kurta , 1995 ; merritt , 1987 ; naughton , 2012 ; owen , 1984 )\n( brown , 1997 ; elbroch and rinehart , 2011 ; laerm , et al . , 2007 ; merritt , 1987 ; naughton , 2012 ; owen , 1984 )\nthe mothers groom , nurse , and regurgitate food for their young . females take care of the young for up to a month after the young are fully weaned . young stay in the nest until the mother leaves to mate again . at this point , the young leave the nest to find new nesting sites . beyond mating , males have no parental investment .\nare able to use echolocation to find objects up to 200 mm away . echolocation is especially helpful to shrews when they inhabit abandoned burrows , as it allows them to sense if the burrow is empty . it is also used to aid in finding protective cover when being pursued by a predator .\nhave been found to beat 800 - 1200 beats per minute . due to a high metabolism , shrews must feed day and night to support their appetites .\n( choate , et al . , 1994 ; laerm , et al . , 2007 ; owen , 1984 ; sipe and browne , 2004 ; webster , et al . , 2004 ; whitaker jr . and hamilton jr . , 1998 )\n( choate , et al . , 1994 ; clark , 2002 ; hamilton jr . , 1941 ; laerm , et al . , 2007 ; merritt , 1987 ; owen , 1984 )\n( choate , et al . , 1994 ; laerm , et al . , 2007 ; merritt , 1987 ; owen , 1984 )\n( dent , 2000 ; fryxell , et al . , 2014 ; whitaker jr . and hamilton jr . , 1998 )\nmakayla beckner ( author ) , radford university , karen powers ( editor ) , radford university , alex atwood ( editor ) , radford university , marisa dameron ( editor ) , radford university , tanya dewey ( editor ) , university of michigan - ann arbor .\nliving in the nearctic biogeographic province , the northern part of the new world . this includes greenland , the canadian arctic islands , and all of the north american as far south as the highlands of central mexico .\nyoung are born in a relatively underdeveloped state ; they are unable to feed or care for themselves or locomote independently for a period of time after birth / hatching . in birds , naked and helpless after hatching .\nhaving body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror - image halves . animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides , as well as anterior and posterior ends . synapomorphy of the bilateria .\na wetland area rich in accumulated plant material and with acidic soils surrounding a body of open water . bogs have a flora dominated by sedges , heaths , and sphagnum .\nhaving markings , coloration , shapes , or other features that cause an animal to be camouflaged in its natural environment ; being difficult to see or otherwise detect .\nthe process by which an animal locates itself with respect to other animals and objects by emitting sound waves and sensing the pattern of the reflected sound waves .\nanimals that use metabolically generated heat to regulate body temperature independently of ambient temperature . endothermy is a synapomorphy of the mammalia , although it may have arisen in a ( now extinct ) synapsid ancestor ; the fossil record does not distinguish these possibilities . convergent in birds .\nforest biomes are dominated by trees , otherwise forest biomes can vary widely in amount of precipitation and seasonality .\nreferring to a burrowing life - style or behavior , specialized for digging or burrowing .\noffspring are produced in more than one group ( litters , clutches , etc . ) and across multiple seasons ( or other periods hospitable to reproduction ) . iteroparous animals must , by definition , survive over multiple seasons ( or periodic condition changes ) .\nthis terrestrial biome includes summits of high mountains , either without vegetation or covered by low , tundra - like vegetation .\nthe area in which the animal is naturally found , the region in which it is endemic .\na wetland area that may be permanently or intermittently covered in water , often dominated by woody vegetation .\nthat region of the earth between 23 . 5 degrees north and 60 degrees north ( between the tropic of cancer and the arctic circle ) and between 23 . 5 degrees south and 60 degrees south ( between the tropic of capricorn and the antarctic circle ) .\nreproduction in which fertilization and development take place within the female body and the developing embryo derives nourishment from the female .\ncassola , f . 2016 .\nsorex fumeus\n( on - line ) . iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t41396a22312838 . accessed september 12 , 2016 at urltoken .\nchoate , j . , k . jones jr , c . jones . 1994 .\nclark , r . 2002 . diet of the timber rattlesnake , crotalus horridus .\nhamed , k . , t . laughlin . 2015 . small - mammal mortality caused by discarded bottles and cans along a us national forest service road in the cherokee national forest .\nhamilton jr . , w . 1941 . the food of small forest mammals in eastern united states .\nmaier , t . , k . doyle . 2006 . aggregations of masked shrews ( sorex cinereus ) : density - related mating behavior ? .\nmerritt , j . , s . vessey . 2000 . shrews - small insectivores with polyphasic patterns . pp . 235 - 251 in s halle , n stenseth , eds .\n, vol . 141 . new york , new york : springer - verlag berlin heidelberg .\nto cite this page : beckner , m . 2017 .\nsorex fumeus\n( on - line ) , animal diversity web . accessed july 09 , 2018 at urltoken\ndisclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .\nthis material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .\nbiokids is sponsored in part by the interagency education research initiative . it is a partnership of the university of michigan school of education , university of michigan museum of zoology , and the detroit public schools . this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation under grant drl - 0628151 . copyright \u00a9 2002 - 2018 , the regents of the university of michigan . all rights reserved .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthey eat leaf litter , insects , earthworms , centipedes , millipedes , snails and salamanders . because they travel in tunnels and runways created by moles and voles\nsearch of their prey , they have a tendency to eat more worms than most shrews .\n: cosby ccc camp ( 2 , 050 feet ) ; near cosby ranger station ( 2 , 500 feet ) ; indian camp creek trail ( 3 , 000 feet ) ; low gap ( 3 , 400 feet , 4 , 242 feet ) ; inadu knob ( 5 , 700 feet ) ; old black mountain ( 6 , 300 feet ) .\n: foothills parkway ( 1 , 100 - 2 , 400 feet ) ; huskey gap trail ( 2 , 100 feet ) ; greenbrier ( 2 , 200 - 4 , 800 feet ) ; sugarland mountain ; newfound gap road ( 2 , 800 - 5 , 000 feet ) ; little river - elkmont ( 2 , 900 feet ) ; chimneys campground ; fort harry cliffs ( 3 , 200 feet ) ; eagle rocks creek ( 3 , 500 feet ) ; chapman prong ; grassy patch - alum cave parking areaa ( 4 , 000 feet ) ; west prong , little pigeon river ( 3 , 200 - 4 , 000 feet ) ; buck fork ( 4 , 200 - 5 , 000 feet ) ; walker prong ; rocky spring gap ; trillium gap trail ; indian gap ( 5 , 200 feet ) ; mt . guyot ( 6 , 300 feet ) .\n: appalachian trail between low gap and mt . cammerer ( 4 , 700 feet ) ; dry sluice gap ; mt . kephart ; clingman ' s dome ( 6 , 400 feet ) .\n: smokemont ; ekaneetlee creek ( 2 , 300 feet ) ; moore springs shelter ( 4 , 750 feet ) ; thomas ridge ( 4 , 800 feet ) ; newfound gap road ( 4 , 000 - 4 , 800 feet ) ; welch ridge ( 5 , 050 feet ) ; newfound gap ( 5 , 050 feet ) ; round bottom ( 5 , 400 feet ) ; hughes ridge ; forney ridge ( 6 , 000 feet , 6 , 400 feet ) .\nstreamsides , both in evergreen and deciduous forests , are favored . this species accouned for 12 . 6 % of all small mammals captured in a study in the spruce - fir forest (\ntwo or three litters of 3 to 7 young are produced during the female ' s second year of life . the young are born in a nest of shredded vegetation located in a stump or beneath a log or rock .\npregnant and / or nursing females have been recorded in the park from march 30 through october 12 .\nreproductively active\nindividuals were recorded for mid - august through september in the spruce - fir region (\nstomach analyses of three females taken at 2 , 400 feet in cosby ( cocke co . ) during june and july revealed millipedes and arachnids comprising 98 . 6 % of the total volume of food (\nthe home range of shrews probably covers an area of 1 / 4 to 1 acre .\npredators include snakes , owls , hawks , and carnivorous mammals such as opossums , foxes , bobcats , weasels , and skunks .\n. blacksburg , virginia : the mcdonald & ; woodward publishing company , inc .\n. mammalian species no . 215 : 1 - 8 . american society of mammalogists .\n, and are active throughout the year , even in the coldest temperatures . as with other shrews , they echolocate , emitting a constant twittering sound as they forage .\nmiller , g . s . , jr . , 1895 . the long - tailed shrews of the eastern united states , p . 50 . north american fauna , 10 : 35 - 36 .\nmammal species of the world ( opens in a new window ) . mammalian species , american society of mammalogists ' species account ( opens in a new window ) .\nchristian , d . p . , and j . m . daniels . 1985 . distributional records of rock voles , microtus chrotorrhinus , in northeastern minnesota . canadian field - naturalist 99 : 356 - 359 .\nde vos , a . 1964 . range changes of mammals in the great lakes region . american midland naturalist 71 : 210 - 231 .\nkuttner , b . g . , and j . r . malcom . 2001 . small mammal responses to clearcut logging in northeastern ontario . abstract of presentation given at symposium on old - growth forest in canada , october 2001 , sault ste . marie , ontario .\nmcshea , w . j . , j . p . pagels , j . orrock , e . harper , and k . koy . 2003 . mesic deciduous forest as patches of small - mammal richness within an appalachian mountain forest . journal of mammalogy 84 : 627 - 643 .\ntimm , r . m . 1975 . distribution , natural history , and parasites of mammals of cook county , minnesota . bell museum of natural history occasional papers 14 . university of minnesota , minneapolis . 56 pp .\nupdated 5 / 15 / 2018 . information is summarized from mnfi ' s database of rare species and community occurrences . data may not reflect true distribution since much of the state has not been thoroughly surveyed .\nthis species inhabits northern hardwood and boreal forests with thick leaf litter over loosely packed soils . in michigan , it has only been documented on sugar island along the st . mary ' s river between ontario and mainland chippewa county . there it was found in a mesic northern forest dominated by sugar maple . in ontario , it is also known to inhabit ( but doesn ' t necessarily prefer ) cedar swamps , bogs , and other mixed coniferous forests with saturated soils .\nfor each species , lists of natural communities were derived from review of the nearly 6 , 500 element occurrences in the mnfi database , in addition to herbarium label data for some taxa . in most cases , at least one specimen record exists for each listed natural community . for certain taxa , especially poorly collected or extirpated species of prairie and savanna habitats , natural community lists were derived from inferences from collection sites and habitat preferences in immediately adjacent states ( particularly indiana and illinois ) . natural communities are not listed for those species documented only from altered or ruderal habitats in michigan , especially for taxa that occur in a variety of habitats outside of the state .\nnatural communities are not listed in order of frequency of occurrence , but are rather derived from the full set of natural communities , organized by ecological group . in many cases , the general habitat descriptions should provide greater clarity and direction to the surveyor . in future versions of the rare species explorer , we hope to incorporate natural community fidelity ranks for each taxon .\nmaintaining forest canopy cover and thick leaf litter would be beneficial to this species .\nmichigan natural features inventory . 2007 . rare species explorer ( web application ) . available online at urltoken [ accessed jul 9 , 2018 ]\nbaker , r . h . 1983 . michigan mammals . michigan state university press , east lansing .\nkurta , a . 1995 . mammals of the great lakes region . the university of michigan press , ann arbor .\nwilson , d . e . , f . r . cole , j . d . 1996 . measuring and monitoring biological diversity - standard methods for mammals . smithsonian institution press , washington d . c .\nmsu extension programs and materials are open to all without regard to race , color , national origin , gender , religion , age , disability , political beliefs , sexual orientation , marital status or family status . .\na very small mammal with a cone - shaped nose , tiny eyes , cylindrical body , and short , slender legs . their short , dense fur is brownish in the summer and dark gray to blackish - gray in the winter ; belly is lighter in both coats . the long tail is distinctly bi - colored , grayish - brown above and yellowish or tan below .\nconsumes a wide variety of insects ; also eats spiders , earthworms , and centipedes .\nmating season begins in march and by the end of the breeding season in october they can have up to 3 litters . nests of leaf litter are constructed in hollow logs or under rocks prior to the birth of the blind and furless young . females deliver 2 - 8 ( average 6 ) young after a gestation period of less than 3 weeks . the pair mates again as soon as the first litter is born .\nbest places to see in tennessee : moist woods with deep leaf litter and moss - covered rocks in the appalachian mountains . for more information : sources : owens , j . g . 1984 . sorex fumeus . mammalian species , 215 : 1 - 8 . whitaker , jr . , j . o . 1980 . the audubon society field guide to north american mammals . alfred a . knopf , inc . , new york .\ncookie policy : we use cookies to ensure that we give you the best experience on our website . if you continue to use this site we will assume that you are happy with these terms .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vols . 1 & 2\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nin nc , it ranges throughout the mountains , but is absent farther to the east . unlike most northern shrews , it occurs only in the northeastern states and adjacent canada , south in the appalachians to northern ga .\ncommon to very common within its range in the state , and not seemingly local .\nfavors cool coniferous or mixed forests , at mid - to high elevations , such as spruce - fir , spruce - hardwoods , and hemlock - hardwoods . areas with moss , logs , and rocks are favored within the habitat .\nnc map map depicts all counties with a report ( transient or resident ) for the species .\nclick on county for list of all database records for species in that county .\nin : trani , margaret k . ; ford , w . mark ; chapman , brian r . , eds . the land manager ' s guide to mammals of the south . durham , nc : the nature conservancy ; atlanta , ga : u . s . forest service : 95 - 98 .\nnote : this article is part of a larger document . view the larger document\ncheck the northern research station web site to request a printed copy of this publication .\nplease contact sharon hobrla , shobrla @ urltoken if you notice any errors which make this publication unusable .\nwe recommend that you also print this page and attach it to the printout of the article , to retain the full citation information .\nthis article was written and prepared by u . s . government employees on official time , and is therefore in the public domain .\nfrom : saunders , d . a . 1988 . adirondack mammals . state university of new york , college of environmental science and forestry . 216pp .\nthis slender - bodied , slate gray insectivore named for its long tail or habitat , depending on which common name one chooses , holds center stage among some small mammal specialists . entire chapters of its basic life history remain unknown . the sketchy information that is available results from several hundred trapped specimens .\nsocial behavior : the behavioral ecology , social organization , mating system , and means of communication are unknown , but are likely to exhibit some unique specializations for a life among dark , damp stones ."]}
{"id": 1783, "summary": [{"text": "the sacramento perch ( archoplites interruptus ) is an endangered sunfish ( family centrarchidae ) native to the sacramento \u2013 san joaquin river delta , pajaro , and salinas river areas in california , but widely introduced throughout the western united states .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the sacramento perch 's native habitat is in sluggish , heavily vegetated , waters of sloughs and lakes .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "it can reach a maximum overall length of 61 cm ( 24 in ) and a maximum weight of 3.6 kg ( 7.9 lb ) , and it has been reported to live as long as six years .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "its adaptability to different habitats is high , and it can survive on a wide variety of food sources .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "as young perch , they consume mainly small crustaceans and eventually move on to insect larvae and then smaller fish as adults . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "sacramento perch", "paragraphs": ["sacramento perch | photo : ren\u00e9 reyes , u . s . bureau of reclamation /\nalthough called the sacramento perch , a . interruptus is not a perch strictly speaking ; the perches are members of the genus perca in family percidae .\nvanicek dc ( 1980 ) decline of the lake greenhaven sacramento perch population . california fish and game 66 : 178\u2013183\nsome of the ponds the perch lives in are within swimming distance of those islands . others live in maintained wetlands in the yolo bypass wildlife area , closer to sacramento . there are sacramento perch in ponds on the uc davis campus that occasionally escape into nearby putah creek , a delta tributary . the sacramento perch might just come back someday after all , given half a chance .\nat least one sunfish family member seems to get along okay with the perch . at point reyes national seashore , both sacramento perch and largemouth bass thrived for some time at abbott ' s lagoons .\nthat ' s borne out by studies of ponds to which the sacramento perch has been introduced , often as a mosquito control method . ( juvenile perch are voracious eaters of mosquito larvae . ) introduce bluegill or green sunfish into a pond in which the perch are doing well , and the perch start to decline . in a research project in yolo county , bluegill drove a pond full of perch to extinction in just two years .\nthe sacramento perch ( archoplites interruptus ) is a sunfish ( family centrarchidae ) native to the sacramento \u2013 san joaquin , pajaro , and salinas river areas in california , but widely introduced throughout the western united states .\nbut one problem that seems specific to the perch is competition for habitat from introduced members of the sunfish family , such as the bluegill and green sunfish . such introduced sunfish tend to be more aggressive than the sacramento perch , and they chase the perch away from favored habitat , including spawning sites .\nthe sacramento perch eats primarily benthic ( bottom - dwelling ) prey , such at insect larvae , snails , and fishes . the species spawns throughout the spring and summer , and eggs hatch in about four days . the sacramento perch is not very aggressive , which often makes it difficult to catch .\nsacramento perch ( archoplites interruptus ) are members of the sunfish family . they virtually disappeared from california ' s central valley rivers and delta , when their habitat was altered and non native sunfish were introduced . sacramento perch were unable to compete with the black bass , bluegill and crappie , which raided the perch ' s nest . they were first introduced into pyramid lake in 1877 . sacramento perch , unlike the introduced sunfish , do not protect their nests and were steadily replaced in the ecosystem by the bass , crappie and bluegill .\nthe sacramento perch ( archoplites interruptus ) , a sunfish ( centrarchidae ) native only to the central valley of california , has been eliminated from most of its native range . to examine the role of interspecific competition in this decline , a series of experiments were conducted to assess the growth , aggressive behavior , and habitat use of sacramento perch in the presence of bluegill ( lepomis macrochirus ) , an introduced centrarchid . the experiments indicate that ( 1 ) sacramento perch gain less weight and show reduced growth when placed with bluegill , but that this interaction only occurs with food limitation , and is not affected by overall fish density ; ( 2 ) sacramento perch demonstrate less aggressive behavior than bluegill , but become more aggressive when they are conspicuously larger than bluegill ; ( 3 ) sacramento perch shift their habitat use in the presence of bluegill . overall the results imply that sacramento perch and bluegill exhibit interspecific competition where the mechanism of interaction is aggressive dominance by bluegill . it is suggested that long term persistence of sacramento perch may require a habitat that is free of introduced centrarchid fishes , or one controlled by a naturally variable hydrological regime .\nand yet only a few sacramento perch remain in the native delta habitat , at best . widely planted in stockponds and reservoirs outside its native range , the perch is functionally extinct in the delta and throughout the rest of its limited original range .\ncompetition between the fry of the sacramento perch and several species of eastern centrarchids for food resources may be another factor in the decline of the species . studies have indicated that all young centrarchids have similar food preferences , but the eastern centrarchids have evolved more aggressive feeding techniques than the sacramento perch , and have been observed chasing the latter from feeding areas .\nthe sacramento perch ' s wide tolerance of water conditions includes temperature . the adults can survive in water far warmer than many other delta fish can tolerate : until the water reaches about 72\u00b0 fahrenheit , adult sacramento perch do just fine . warmer than that , and the adults will decline in fitness , leaving to cooler waters if they can . the perch ' s larvae can tolerate even warmer water . that ' s a good thing , because heavily vegetated , shallow , and turbid waters are where sacramento perch tend to spawn . vegetation slows water currents , and suspended silt and organic matter absorb sunlight , both process warming the water .\ntoday , native sacramento perch populations are waning in their natural habitats , but are paradoxically flourishing in habitats into which they have been introduced . despite the decline of the sacramento perch in its native range , it is not endangered , and is doing quite well in several locations outside its natural range . due to its ability to withstand high alkalinity , it has been introduced into several alkaline lakes in nevada , colorado , nebraska , and north and south dakota , and is flourishing where most other centrarchid species cannot survive and reproduce . it has also become established in several california reservoirs where it has been planted , or where young fish were transported through the california aqueduct system into holding reservoirs such as san luis reservoir and o ' neill forebay . in addition , the california department of fish & game has promoted the sacramento perch for introduction into central valley farm ponds . when other centrarchid species are introduced , they often reproductively out - compete the sacramento perch . when left alone in a pond , most centrarchids , sacramento perch included , will develop stunted populations due to overcrowding . these problems make it difficult to establish the sacramento perch in areas that also harbor other centrarchids , but with thriving populations of this fish in lakes outside california , the sacramento perch is far from lost .\neastern species are also more aggressive in their site - selection . with the increase in the population of eastern species in many habitats in california , the sacramento perch is most certainly losing preferred spawning areas to the more aggressive bluegill and other non - native centrarchids . in aquaria , it has been observed that eastern sunfish will actually chase sacramento perch away from preferred spawning areas .\nwebsite editor ' s note : the article below states that sacramento perch\ndon ' t bother to build a nest for the female to lay the eggs in nests .\nthat was true in the references listed for the paper . however , more recent evidence suggest that male sacramento perch can and do build nests for the female to lay eggs , similar to their eastern counterparts . observations were made in aquaria where repeated attempts to cover or bury the nest caused the male to re - build the nest after each attempt . successful spawning did occur . the male sacramento perch also showed some signs of nest guarding from the female . this is by no means to say all sacramento perch build and guard nests , but that the ability is there .\nneeds : see recovery plan for sacramento - san joaquin delta native fishes ( usfws 1995 ) .\nthere is no limit on the perch at crowley , but the population seems to be doing fine .\nsacramento perch , adult male . captured from sindicich lagoon , martinez , california in may 2001 . sl = 238 mm . photo by chris miller , contra costa mosquito & vector control district , california .\nthe effects on the perch have been dramatic . a survey in 1898 - 99 cited a commercial perch fishery in the delta , with more than 400 , 000 pounds of the fish sold some years in san francisco markets . by the 1960s , they were nearly gone from the delta . one adult sacramento perch was caught in a sacramento river survey in 1992 , but fisheries biologists think it unlikely that a self - sustaining population of the species exists anywhere in the central valley . the perch is likewise gone from the salinas and pajaro rivers , and adults are found now and then in clear lake - - possibly escapees from farm ponds .\nto catch the perch now , you have to go to one of three places - crowley lake near bishop , pyramid lake in nevada or lagoon valley lake between fairfield and vacaville . the largest recorded sacramento perch caught in pyramid lake weighed in at 4 lbs , 9 oz ( 1971 ) , which is the current state record .\nperch were historically abundant predators throughout the central valley of california , where they occupied sloughs , lakes , and slow moving rivers . today they are rare in their native waters , but still exist in clear lake and alameda creek / calaveras reservoir , as well as in some farm ponds and reservoirs . they have been introduced through the state including the upper klamath basin , upper pit river watershed , walker river watershed , mono lake watershed , and owens river watershed , and may exist in sonoma reservoir in the russian river watershed . sacramento perch are most often found in warm reservoirs and ponds where summer temperature range form 18 - 28\u00b0c . sacramento perch are capable of surviving high temperatures , high salinities ( up to 17 ppt ) , high turbidity , and low water clarity . though sacramento perch are often found in clear water among beds of aquatic vegetation , they achieve greater numbers in turbid lakes absent of plants . typically they are found along the bottom of inshore regions . young - of - year perch form shoals in these areas where aquatic and overhanging vegetation provide cover . sacramento perch are most abundant where other\nexamination of 510 stomachs of sacramento perch from five localities showed that they feed primarily by picking insect larvae and snails from the bottom and aquatic plants or by capturing zooplankton , fish , or emerging insects in midwater . the diet varies with season and size of fish but no daily feeding rhythms were found . similarity of their diet to that of bluegill indicates that sacramento perch may have been eliminated from their native habitat through competitive interactions with bluegill .\nintentional stocking for sportfishing . the earliest introduction of sacramento perch took place circa 1877 , into western nevada ( mccarraher and gregory 1970 ) . nebraska , north dakota , colorado , new mexico , texas , and arizona were all stocked in the 1960s ( mccarraher and gregory 1970 ) . sacramento perch were discovered in crowley lake , california in the late 1960s , but the exact date and reason for the introduction is not known ( mccarraher and gregory 1970 ) .\nthe perch are showing in 12 - 15 feet in leighton springs , sandy point , and hilton and whiskey bays .\nessentially extinct in its native range since before passage of the u . s . endangered species act in 1973 , the sacramento perch is neither listed nor protected under that law . the remaining perch in clear lake , if any , are considered a california species of special concern , a status that prompts the state to enact management measures to protect the species .\nsacramento perch , juvenile ( 170 days old ) . raised from wild brood fish from sindicich lagoon , concord , california . sl = 68 mm . photographed in january 2002 by chris miller , contra costa mosquito & vector control district , california .\nhabitat destruction has also contributed to the decline of the sacramento perch in its native habitat , the filling of sloughs in the california delta and the draining of lakes and general reduction of backwater areas have reduced the number of suitable spawning areas substantially .\nsacramento perch , juveniles ( 107 days old ) . raised from wild brood fish from sindicich lagoon , concord , ca . average sl = 32 mm . photographed in october 2002 by chris miller , contra costa mosquito & vector control district , ca .\nintroduced sacramento perch , along with many other introduced fishes , may have contributed to the decline of the lost river sucker deltistes luxatus and the shortnose sucker chasmistes brevirostris in the upper klamath drainage in oregon ( u . s . fish and wildlife service 1993 ) .\ndiscussion : the sacramento perch is the only sunfish native to the western united states . in its native range , it declined rapidly as exotic fishes were introduced and its habitat destroyed . it has been introduced into some western lakes that are too alkaline for other fishes .\nmore panfish : crappie fishing at irvine lake might not rival the perch at crowley , but it has been spectacular in its own right .\nsacramento perch ( probably a breeding male , based on dark color ) . captured from sindicich lagoon , martinez , ca in may 2001 . sl = 221 mm . weight = 260 g . photo by chris miller , contra costa mosquito & vector control district , ca .\nnorth america : sacramento - san joaquin , pajaro and salinas river drainages in california , usa . widely introduced elsewhere in western usa .\nthat seems to be part of the problem with the sacramento perch disappearing from the delta : introduced fish such as carp and catfish can chase the males off their nests to eat the eggs , and others move in to eat the larvae once the deadbeat dads leave home after hatching .\nkyle , k . and r . kelsey . 2011 . results of the 2011 tricolored blackbird statewide survey . sacramento : audubon california . close\nwhat can be done , if anything , to restore the perch to its native habitat ? a recovery plan for delta native fish species published nearly 20 years ago by the u . s . fish and wildlife service suggests that flooding islands in the delta to provide shallow water habitat might well be the answer , if it ' s done with careful attention paid to controlling the perch ' s competitors . while usfws admitted the sacramento perch has\nlow restoration potential ,\nit suggested that reclaiming diked islands might provide the perch with some of its preferred habitat for spawning and just generally hanging out . the two islands it mentioned , liberty and prospect islands north of rio vista , have since been restored as tidal wetland .\n. aquatic insect larvae and pupae become increasingly important as the fish grow . adult fish may begin to feed on other fish , including young - of - year perch . growth is variable and factors such as diet , overcrowding , and gender affect growth rates . females tend to be larger than males and adult fish grow more in weight than in length . sacramento perch reach sexual maturity in year 2 or 3 and generally spawn from march through early august when water temperatures range from 18 - 29\u00b0c . prior to spawning , perch gather in shallow areas abundant with filamentous algae and\nthe introduction of eastern sunfish species into california has exposed the sacramento perch to the complex world of centrarchid competition . eastern centrarchids generally build and vigorously guard a nest in a preferred spawning area . the female lays her eggs in the nest and is then chased away by the male , who guards the eggs from predators until they hatch and the fry are free - swimming . since the sacramento perch scatters its eggs on the substrate and may provide little or no protection for the eggs , they are left open to predation by introduced catfish , carp , or other centrarchids .\nare absent . they feed by stalking , and prey items vary with time , availability , and fish size . sacramento perch are opportunistic and feeding occurs all day with peaks at dawn and dusk . their diet is more diverse in summer than in winter . young - of - year fish feed primarily on small crustaceans found on plants and in the substrate . juvenile perch in clear lake were found to feed mostly on copepods and later\nthe sacramento perch fishery is undeveloped , but those anglers who have done their homework to find these fish during late spring and early summer are often rewarded with lots of fish . because these fish compete with the trout for available forage , the tribal council has recently approved dropping the bag limit .\n. these assembly areas may also have submerged roots , rock piles , and sticks . male fish begin defending territories along shore where they create shallow nests . they vehemently defend their space until the arrival of a female perch , at which time they begin courting . the male and female perch release eggs and milt simultaneously , and upon completion the female perch abandons the nest . females spawn with multiple males , producing a total of about 8 , 400 - 125 , 000 eggs . egg production varies with body size . male perch guard their nests and the embryos for several days . the emergent larvae are\nthe sacramento perch wasn ' t picky about that habitat . in addition to the streams of the delta and central valley , archoplites once thrived in the salinas and pajaro rivers in the monterey bay area , as well as in clear lake . though the perch did swim in clear , swift - flowing water , it seemed to prefer the other kind : stagnant pools and side - channels , sloughs viscid with algae , ponds choked with emergent vegetation .\nsacramento perch , juvenile ( 5 months old ) . crowley lake strain , reared at contra costa mosquito & vector control district , ca . fl = 131 mm . photographed on 11 / 19 / 09 by chris miller , ccmvcd . note : this fish is a cannibal and grew very fast .\nrange : sacramento , san joaquin , pajaro , and salinas rivers and clear lake , california . introduced in utah , nevada , oregon , and california .\nif any fish native to the delta seemed tailor - made to withstand the drought , it would have to be the sacramento perch . tolerant of a wide range of water quality , the perch can thrive in clear , cold water or warm water so stagnant and thick with algae it would choke a cow . it can survive in slightly brackish water , in water contaminated by runoff , and in muddy ponds only a few inches deep : perfect for the drought - era delta .\ncomments : opportunistic ; diet mainly benthic insect larvae , snails , mid - water insects , zooplankton , and fishes ( moyle et al . 1989 ) . young feed mainly on small crustaceans , but as they grow sacramento perch consume more aquatic insects larvae and pupae . large adults feed mainly on other fishes when available .\nand as with just about every other species of fish - - and species of not - fish - - native to the delta , our massive reengineering of the region ' s waterworks plays a role as well . there are fewer stagnant sloughs with fringing , seasonally flooded wetlands in which the sacramento perch can spawn and grow .\nthe sacramento perch ' s native habitat is in sluggish , vegetated waters of sloughs and lakes . it can reach a maximum overall length of 61 cm ( 24 in ) and a maximum weight of 3 . 6 kg ( 7 . 9 lb ) , and it has been reported to live as long as six years .\nschulz pd ( 1994 ) fish remains from yol - 182 : a prehistoric village in the lower sacramento valley . brienes , west and schulz , davis , ca\nsacramento perch can be considered reproductive deviants in the centrarchid world . they become sexually mature by their second or third year and spawn during late may and early june when water conditions needed for egg development are at their best . the deviant part comes when the males ignore the standard pattern for eastern sunfish ; they don ' t bother to build a nest for the female to lay the eggs in . instead , several males converge near heavily vegetated shallow areas near favorable spawning sites . then each male stakes out a chosen territory for a female to lay eggs in . during the spawning act , the females simply scatter eggs over the territory as the male fertilizes them . some researchers have observed the sacramento perch vigorously guarding the eggs from potential predators , while others have noted little or no post - spawning care of the eggs . in the evolutionary absence of other , competing centrarchid species in california , the sacramento perch probably had no need to develop the complex nest - guarding behavior that sunfishes perform .\nmale sacramento perch are negligent fathers , at least by sunfish family standards . perhaps because they went at least 5 . 3 million years without competition from other sunfishes for nest sites , male perch don ' t guard their nests after the eggs hatch , leaving their larvae vulnerable to predation . they ' re also pretty easy to chase off their nests before the eggs hatch . ( to be fair in this application of human standards to fish childrearing practices , the females leave the nests immediately after spawning . )\nsacramento - - san joaquin , pajaro , and salinas river drainages , and clear lake in lake county , california ( moyle 1976a ; page and burr 1991 ) .\nas is so often the case with common names , the sacramento perch isn ' t actually a true perch . known to science as archoplites interruptus , it ' s a member of the sunfish family , centrarchidae , along with bluegills and largemouth bass . in fact , it ' s the only member of that family native to north america west of the rocky mountains , and has evolved without having to compete with other members of the sunfish family for food or habitat , perhaps since the miocene epoch , which ended 5 . 3 million years ago .\nthe sacramento perch is the only member of the family centrarchidae that naturally occurs west of the rocky mountains . evolving in isolation from the sunfish of the eastern united states , it kept the more primitive body form that closely resembles its fossilized forbears ' body plans . in the california that existed before the europeans arrived , these fish inhabited the sloughs , slow - water rivers , and small lakes of the central valley , as well as clear lake in lake county and the paiaro and salinas rivers . the sacramento perch evolved as one of the top piscivores ( fish - eaters ) in fish communities rich with prey , and in the past could be found in abundance throughout central valley waterways . for native californians , it served as a staple food fish , and , before game fish from the eastern united states were introduced into the state ' s waters in the late 1800 ' s , the sacramento perch was a primary food fish for the early settlers . variable water quality due to alternating periods of flooding and drought in california habitats selected for the ability of this fish to withstand extreme salinities , temperatures , and alkalinities that exclude other fish , including introduced centrarchids .\nreasons : formerly widely distributed and common in much of california ; now restricted to just a couple remaining native populations in california , which are small but persistent ; native habitat is dominated by introduced species , which threaten sacramento perch through competition and predation ; reasonably secure in several watersheds outside native range . based on native populations , rank would be g1 ( g2g3 if introduced populations are considered ) .\nthe sacramento perch , archoplites interruptus , is the only sunfish native to the western united states , where it was historically found in northern and central california . only one native population of the species , located in clear lake , california , currently exists , however . the species is not native to utah , but it has been introduced to several reservoirs in the northern and western parts of the state , including pruess lake .\nusually , the perch don\u2019t come out to play until the summer months . but locals started catching them soon after trout season opened more than two weeks ago , and the bite has been as wide open as the trout .\nan explanatory series focusing on one of the most complex issues facing california : water sharing . and at its core is the sacramento - san joaquin bay delta . stay with urltoken for all the project ' s stories .\nthe sacramento perch is different in several ways from other centrarchids . it takes advantage of different food resources during its life cycle instead of specializing in one certain feeding niche . feeding takes place at any time of the day , with peaks in the dusk and dawn hours . the adults are piscivorous , stalking their prey until they are close enough to inhale it by rapidly expanding their buccal cavities . they are most successful in habitats were they can take on the role of top predator . when stocked in small lakes and ponds , adults continue to feed on aquatic insects when small fish and crustaceans are scarce . nevertheless , sacramento perch will feed opportunistically when presented with an abundance of any type of food such as waterboatmen , aquatic beetles , or small fish . young fish feed primarily on small bottom or plant - dwelling crustaceans and move to larger insect larvae as they grow . extensive beds of emergent aquatic vegetation are important in providing food and cover for the young .\nmanagement requirements : management needed : maintain remaining genetic diversity ( moyle 2002 ) . propagate these fishes in ponds near clear lake and restock the lake with juveniles and adults . see recovery plan for sacramento - san joaquin delta native fishes ( usfws 1995 ) .\nshore / boat fishermen can do well using light fly fishing gear , or 6 to 7 ft spinning tackle with 4 pound test line or less . the best lures include plastic minnows , tube baits , spinners , small jigs , and small streamers . the perch can be selective , so try different colored lures ( jigs ) until the bite is on . work lures in or around tufa rocks or off the bottom around submerged tufa rocks for best results . pyramid lake regulations : season is open year round for sacramento perch , from one hour before sunrise to one hour after sunset . there are no set possession limits for these non - native fish , which can compete with smaller native pyramid lake fish for the same food sources . only artificial lures with barbless hooks allowed when fishing in pyramid lake .\nfeeding can take place at any time of the day , with dusk and dawn hours being peak feeding periods . adult perch are mostly piscivorous ( fish eaters ) . however they are opportunistic , feeding on prey like amphipods , beetles , caddisflies , dragonfly / damselfly nymphs , or larger zooplankton ( daphnia , etc ) . during the day , they tend to hang in and around submerged tufa rocks off shore , or near shore tufa rocks ( or other structures ) . tufa rocks are ideal places for perch to set up where they can ambush tui chub minnows or other prey .\nsyntype ; paralectotype for archoplites interruptus catalog number : usnm 280 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of vertebrate zoology , division of fishes collector ( s ) : a . whipple locality : sacramento river san francisco , cal . , san francisco county , california , united states , north america\nmanagement needed : maintain remaining genetic diversity ( moyle 2002 ) . propagate these fishes in ponds near clear lake and restock the lake with juveniles and adults . see recovery plan for sacramento - san joaquin delta native fishes ( usfws 1995 ) . review distribution and status at least once every 10 years ( moyle 2002 ) .\nthe perch spawn in loose schools , likely due less to any innate gregariousness than to multiple fish finding a location favorable . unlike other sunfish family members , the males don ' t spend time preparing a nest . instead , females lay their eggs in a likely patch of submerged , vegetated silt and one or more males will fertilize the eggs .\nthe sacramento perch is only native centrarchid west of the rocky mountains . it was originally widely distributed throughout the sacramento - san joaquin drainage , in the pajaro and salinas rivers , and in clear lake ( lake county ) , california ( moyle 2002 ) . persisting native populations exist in clear lake ( small population ) and alameda creek ( in gravel pit ponds adjacent to the creek and in calaveras reservoir ) ( moyle 2002 ) . however , the species has been introduced in other locations within the native range ( often upstream of native habitats ) ( moyle 2002 ) , and in several areas outside the native range in california , including the upper klamath basin ( california and oregon ) , pit river watershed , walker river watershed , mono lake watershed , and owens river watershed ; it may also persist in sonoma reservoir ( moyle 2002 ) . the species has been introduced and currently is established in nevada ( several drainages ) and utah ( garrison reservoir ) ( moyle 2002 ) . introduced populations in several other states apparently no longer exist ( moyle 2002 ) .\nglobal range : ( 1000 - 5000 square km ( about 400 - 2000 square miles ) ) the sacramento perch is only native centrarchid west of the rocky mountains . it was originally widely distributed throughout the sacramento - san joaquin drainage , in the pajaro and salinas rivers , and in clear lake ( lake county ) , california ( moyle 2002 ) . persisting native populations exist in clear lake ( small population ) and alameda creek ( in gravel pit ponds adjacent to the creek and in calaveras reservoir ) ( moyle 2002 ) . however , the species has been introduced in other locations within the native range ( often upstream of native habitats ) ( moyle 2002 ) , and in several areas outside the native range in california , including the upper klamath basin ( california and oregon ) , pit river watershed , walker river watershed , mono lake watershed , and owens river watershed ; it may also persist in sonoma reservoir ( moyle 2002 ) . the species has been introduced and currently is established in nevada ( several drainages ) and utah ( garrison reservoir ) ( moyle 2002 ) . introduced populations in several other states apparently no longer exist ( moyle 2002 ) .\nafter reading ray katula ' s excellent article on the demise of some of california ' s native fishes (\neulogy for the san joaquin river ,\nwinter , 1993 ) , i thought i might try to continue the focus on california ' s finned fauna by highlighting one of the native species mentioned in that article , the sacramento perch . some of the information presented here was gleaned from an ichthyology class i took at cal state hayward under the guidance of one of my favorite professors , dr , sam mcginnes . the dearth of native california species inhabiting state waterways is a sad testament to the tremendous adaptive success of the many introduced non - native fish species in the state . after about nine weeks of seining a wide range of aquatic habitats in central california , our class ' nets brought up very few native species . ray katula isn ' t the only one with bad luck when it comes to fishing for california natives .\nthe conservation of the tricolored blackbird is a matter of increasing concern owing to population declines , and because the species ' habit of nesting in large colonies make it more vulnerable to nest failures that can affect thousands of nests at a single colony . studies in the 1970s reported that the overall population was greatly reduced from that observed during the 1930s . more recently , intensive population surveys in california identified a decline of 37 % between 1994 and 1997 , and a 63 % decline between 2008 and 2014 , followed by an increase of 22 % in 2017 . historically , this species was harvested as food for miners and residents of urban areas , and shooting by farmers attempting to reduce damage to rice and other grain crops in the sacramento valley has been documented since 2007 ( rjm , personal observation ) . the tricolored blackbird has experienced high annual breeding losses due to crop - harvesting activities ( except in 2016 ) and insufficient insect resources , and habitat loss resulting from conversion of rangeland to vineyards , nut orchards , other agricultural crops , and urban development .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nthe only living member of the genus ; the most\nprimitive\nliving member of the centrarchidae ( lee et al . 1980 ) .\njustification : this species is listed as endangered because remaining native extent of occurrence is less than 5 , 000 square kilometres , native area of occupancy is less than 500 square kilometres , only two native locations remain , distribution is severely fragmented , and habitat quality is likely to be declining .\nthis species is represented by only a couple of remaining native populations , plus several introduced populations . that may be reasonably secure ( moyle 2002 ) . most introduced pond and reservoir populations are not expected to persist over the long term because of changing conditions ( moyle 2002 ) . historically this fish was quite abundant . remaining native populations are small . no reliable population estimates are available . this species has been eliminated from more than 90 percent of the native range over the long term . only two native populations are maintaining themselves ( tenuously ) ; of the introduced populations , those in the upper klamath watershed , pyramid lake ( nevada ) , lower walker river , and owens river are reasonably secure ; most pond and reservoir populations will not persist indefinitely ( moyle 2002 ) .\nnative habitat included sloughs , sluggish rivers , and lakes with beds of rooted and emergent vegetation ; now this fish is found mostly in warm , turbid , moderately alkaline reservoirs or farm ponds , generally where other centrarchids are absent ( moyle 2002 ) . this fish is tolerant of a wide range in water turbity , temperature , salinity , and alkalinity , and large populations may occur in shallow , turbid reservoirs with no aquatic plants ( moyle 2002 ) . in moderately clear water , young stay in or close to submerged vegetation in shallow areas ( moyle 2002 ) . prior to spawning , males establish small territories in shallow areas ( 20 - 75 cm ) heavily vegetated with aquatic macrophytes , filamentous algae , or other cover ( moyle 2002 ) . eggs are deposited in shallow depressions constructed by males ( moyle 2002 ) .\nformerly this fish was widespread and abundant in california , but the population declined rapidly probably due to factors such as habitat destruction , egg predation by non - native fishes , and interspecific competition with introduced centrarchids , especially black crappie ; competition may be the most important cause of the decline ( moyle 1976 , 2002 ) . most introduced populations are isolated and vulnerable to genetic bottlenecks and extirpation .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\ndeep bodied ( depth up to 2 . 5 times sl ) , laterally compressed , max . 61 cm tl ( 3 . 6 kg )\nplease note , watersheds are at the usgs 8 - digit hydrologic unit code ( huc ) scale , so they often include a lot of sub - watersheds . if a species occurs in any sub - watershed within the huc , the species appears within the huc . link to an epa page that shows hucs .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nthe nonindigenous occurrences section of the nas species profiles has a new structure . the section is now dynamically updated from the nas database to ensure that it contains the most current and accurate information . occurrences are summarized in table 1 , alphabetically by state , with years of earliest and most recent observations , and the tally and names of drainages where the species was observed . the table contains hyperlinks to collections tables of specimens based on the states , years , and drainages selected . references to specimens that were not obtained through sighting reports and personal communications are found through the hyperlink in the table 1 caption or through the individual specimens linked in the collections tables .\nmoyle ( 1976a ) ; sigler and sigler ( 1987 ) ; page and burr ( 1991 ) .\ntable 1 . states with nonindigenous occurrences , the earliest and latest observations in each state , and the tally and names of hucs with observations\u2020 . names and dates are hyperlinked to their relevant specimen records . the list of references for all nonindigenous occurrences of archoplites interruptus are found here .\naccording to mccarraher and gregory ( 1970 ) , survival has been poor in most states . small numbers still persist in private lakes near fort collins , colorado ( walker 1993 ) . no longer present in walker lake , nevada ( sigler and sigler 1987 ) . probably extirpated in arizona . it was known to have reproduced at least once in that state after its introduction in 1968 ( minckley 1973 ) . extirpated in new mexico ( sublette et al . 1990 ) .\nthis is the only native centrarchid west of the rockies . it is declining in its native range due to competition with introduced species ( moore 1968 ; mccarraher and gregory 1970 ; minckley 1973 ) .\n' s warm water fishing with public access . [ online ] . url at urltoken\nrasmussen , j . l . 1998 . aquatic nuisance species of the mississippi river basin . 60th midwest fish and wildlife conference , aquatic nuisance species symposium , dec . 7 , 1998 , cincinnati , oh .\ntilmant , j . t . 1999 . management of nonindigenous aquatic fish in the u . s . national park system . national park service . 50 pp .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 1993 . lost river ( deltistes luxatus ) and shortnose ( chamistes brevirostris ) sucker recovery plan . u . s . fish and wildlife service , portland , oregon .\nfuller , p . , 2018 , archoplites interruptus ( girard , 1854 ) : u . s . geological survey , nonindigenous aquatic species database , gainesville , fl , urltoken revision date : 4 / 11 / 2006 , peer review date : 4 / 1 / 2016 , access date : 7 / 9 / 2018\nthis information is preliminary or provisional and is subject to revision . it is being provided to meet the need for timely best science . the information has not received final approval by the u . s . geological survey ( usgs ) and is provided on the condition that neither the usgs nor the u . s . government shall be held liable for any damages resulting from the authorized or unauthorized use of the information .\nthe data represented on this site vary in accuracy , scale , completeness , extent of coverage and origin . it is the user ' s responsibility to use these data consistent with their intended purpose and within stated limitations . we highly recommend reviewing metadata files prior to interpreting these data .\ncitation information : u . s . geological survey . [ 2018 ] . nonindigenous aquatic species database . gainesville , florida . accessed [ 7 / 9 / 2018 ] .\ncontact us if you are using data from this site for a publication to make sure the data are being used appropriately and for potential co - authorship if warranted . for queries involving fish , please contact pam fuller . for queries involving invertebrates , contact amy benson .\ngreek , archo = anus + greek , hoplites = long shield ( ref . 45335 )\nmaturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 73 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 5723 ) ; common length : 30 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 12193 ) ; max . published weight : 1 . 4 kg ( ref . 40637 ) ; max . reported age : 9 years ( ref . 72491 )\nadults occur in vegetated sloughs , pools of sluggish rivers and lakes ; now most common in ponds and impoundments ( ref . 5723 ) .\npage , l . m . and b . m . burr , 1991 . a field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico . houghton mifflin company , boston . 432 p . ( ref . 5723 )\nphylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 1 . 0000 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .\nbayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 01259 ( 0 . 00749 - 0 . 02115 ) , b = 3 . 05 ( 2 . 90 - 3 . 20 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this species & ( sub ) family - body ( ref . 93245 ) .\ntrophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 6 \u00b10 . 5 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives\nresilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( tmax = 6 ) .\nvulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : high vulnerability ( 60 of 100 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\npyramid lake fisheries , 603 sutcliffe dr . , sutcliffe , nevada 89510 ph : 775 - 476 - 0500 fax : 775 - 476 - 0558\nwhen a young man is found dead in a bookshop at the eastern market , phryne fisher is plunged into the diverse worlds of jewish politics , alchemy , and poison .\ndo\u00f1a teresa makes an offer to andr\u00e9s he can ' t refuse . alicia asks alaya for help with a mysterious package left for her by benjamin .\nthe entrepreneurial spirit is alive and well in california as huell visits the roton rocket , an unsuccessful yet imaginative attempt by a private company to create the first single stage to orbit space vehicle .\nhoping to determine the effect of volcanoes on climate change , george heads to the island nation of vanuatu where he rappels into the fiery crater of one of the world\u2019s most active volcanoes .\noff the coast of west africa , george heads to a remote volcanic island where a river of molten lava is engulfing a mountain village .\ndeep in the amazon , george is determined to retrace theodore roosevelt\u2019s legendary expedition and witness first - hand how deforestation and climate change are affecting one of the earth\u2019s most critical ecosystems .\nprofessional storm chaser george kourounis goes on a global adventure , travelling to some of the most dangerous places on earth .\nthe two - mile pelican bluffs trail has recently opened along the sandstone bluffs of mendocino county .\nin this episode , niklas travels by horse sleigh into the mountainous region of roros , where he enjoys the culinary treats and sites that this old mining town has to offer .\nwe have your guide to the thrills , chills , and spills of the five best county fairs that southern california has to offer .\nthis episode recounts president eisenhower ' s diplomatic confrontations against the soviet union during the early cold war years , crises prompted by aggressive kremlin - sponsored action around the world .\ndeportations , assassinations , and dictator nations : a timeline of u . s . intervention in latin america\na timeline of major events in history that have impacted the latino presence in the u . s .\nkerry kennedy talks about our current political climate , how one person can make a difference in the world every day and her new book about her father , robert f . kennedy .\nin a move that could transform the supreme court for decades , justice anthony kennedy has announced his retirement , giving president trump a chance to pick a second conservative on the high court .\non thursday , attorney general jeff sessions quoted the bible to justify his department\u2019s immigration policies .\nthe epa is facing a major new scandal after it worked with the white house to bury an alarming federal study detailing widespread chemical contamination of the nation\u2019s water supply .\nfrom the carefree beaches of san diego through the rugged , dramatic coastlines to the north , california has been building a trail , over 1 , 000 miles in length , within sight , sound , or smell of the ocean .\nvera is an experienced and brilliant murder investigator in the north east england county of northumberland .\nearth focus\nis an environmental news magazine that features investigative reports and in - depth stories about our changing environment and how it affects people around the world .\nscanning the region , providing seeds of engagement through articles , videos , projects and partners , who are narrating the cultural stories of our region .\nartbound\nexplores and illuminates the cultural issues of our times , providing critical in - depth analysis of how the arts and culture affects our society .\nto learn the truth about his sister ' s mysterious disappearance , a young man infiltrates a hotel in the guise of a footman and begins an investigation .\nthe detroit river , still one of the busiest rivers in the world and a witness to the glory times of american industrialization , today sees desolation and the occasional sunflower field in downtown detroit .\nthe building closed in 1989 , marking the end of william randolph hearst\u2019s empire in los angeles .\nchris clarke was kcet ' s environment editor until july 2017 . he is a veteran environmental journalist and natural history writer . he lives in joshua tree .\nbut that ' s scant good news . bluegill in particular have been a problem . introduced to california waters in the 19th century , bluegill have spread throughout most of the waters of the state .\nthe species isn ' t extinct . aside from those farm ponds up and down the length of california , planted populations still survive in several large reservoirs , including the san luis reservoir in merced county , and alkaline lakes such as pyramid lake north of reno , nevada .\nfor ongoing environmental coverage in march 2017 and afterward , please visit our show earth focus , or browse redefine for historic material . kcet ' s award - winning environment news project redefine ran from july 2012 through february 2017 .\nwe are dedicated to providing you with articles like this one . show your support with a tax - deductible contribution to kcet . after all , public media is meant for the public . it belongs to all of us .\nthe threatened delta smelt is famous , but there ' s another smelt in the bay delta whose decline is worrying wildlife partisans .\nthe splittail was once abundant . now its numbers are dwindling . but it isn ' t protected by either the state or feds .\nit used to be so common that trawlers caught it to send to markets . now , it will likely be extinct in a few years . . . if it isn ' t already .\na q & a will immediately follow with star elsie fisher and writer / director bo burnham .\nthe trump administration has been battling in the courts and on the streets against jurisdictions that call themselves\nsanctuaries ,\narguing that they threaten the rule of law and allow criminal immigrants to roam free .\na newspaperman from the 1950s dives into a legend from over 40 years prior , and identifies a manhunt . but history and legend battle each other and make this story a timeless mystery . did willie boy get away ? you decide .\ndon ' t miss out on urltoken ' s events , stories , breaking news , shows , and new recipes .\nkcetlink , formerly community television of southern california , is a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) nonprofit organization .\ntrout isn\u2019t the only fishing action making news at crowley lake in the eastern sierra these days .\n\u201cit\u2019s definitely at least a month early , and it\u2019s probably twice as good as it\u2019s been since i\u2019ve been here , \u201d said lane garrett , in his fourth year at crowley fish camp .\n\u201ca couple of employees went out this morning and caught 63 in two hours . \u201d\nmarlon meade , a mini - jig specialist from anaheim , has been among the locals finding excellent action on the silver slabs for three months .\ntravis bozman , 32 , of orange discovered the crappie bite in mid - february while trout fishing and has been into the popular panfish since .\nit was slower than usual saturday with he and his son scout , 4 , ending up with 12 . but most of the time , limits of 25 have been the norm , though he only keeps 10 ."]}
{"id": 1794, "summary": [{"text": "pyroderces wolschrijni is a moth in the family cosmopterigidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in spain , morocco and on malta .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it has also been recorded from crete , sicily and the united arab emirates .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the wingspan is 7 \u2013 11 millimetres ( 0.28 \u2013 0.43 in ) .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing from mid april to mid may and again from early july to mid october .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "there are probably two generations per year . ", "topic": 15}], "title": "pyroderces wolschrijni", "paragraphs": ["this is the place for wolschrijni definition . you find here wolschrijni meaning , synonyms of wolschrijni and images for wolschrijni copyright 2017 \u00a9 urltoken\nhere you will find one or more explanations in english for the word wolschrijni . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word wolschrijni and , of course , wolschrijni synonyms and on the right images related to the word wolschrijni .\npyroderces wolschrijni koster & sinev , 2003 ; microlep . europe 5 : 127 , 20 ; tl : espana - alicante , la marina\npyroderces wolschrijni ; koster & sammut , 2006 , nota lepid . 29 ( 1 / 2 ) : 55 ; [ afromoths ] ; [ fe ]\npyroderces wolschrijni is a moth in the cosmopterigidae family . it is found in spain , morocco and on malta . it has also been recorded from crete , sicily and the united arab emirates .\npyroderces caesaris gozm\u00e1ny , 1957 ; acta zool . hung . 3 ( 1 - 2 ) : 132\npyroderces eupogon turner , 1926 ; trans . r . soc . s . aust . 50 : 140\npyroderces amphisaris meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 18 ) : 572 ; tl : ceylon , maskeliya\npyroderces anthinopa meyrick , 1917 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 2 ) : 37 ; tl : ceylon , maskeliya\npyroderces euryspora meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 18 ) : 571 ; tl : fiji , nadi\npyroderces longalitella legrand , 1966 ; m\u00e9m . mus . hist . nat . paris ( a ) 37 : 62\npyroderces oxyptila meyrick , 1928 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 13 ) : 389 ; tl : new ireland\npyroderces argobalana meyrick , 1915 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 10 ) : 308 ; tl : queensland , cairns\npyroderces hapalodes turner , 1923 ; proc . r . soc . victoria ( n . s . ) 36 : 67\npyroderces paroditis meyrick , 1928 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 13 ) : 390 ; tl : fiji , lautoka\npyroderces pogonias turner , 1923 ; proc . r . soc . victoria ( n . s . ) 36 : 66\npyroderces rhizonympha meyrick , 1924 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 3 ) : 90 ; tl : bengal , pusa\npyroderces tenuilinea turner , 1923 ; proc . r . soc . victoria ( n . s . ) 36 : 67\npyroderces calefacta meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 18 ) : 571 ; tl : kanara , supa , ramanguli\npyroderces klimeschi rebel , 1938 ; zs . \u00f6st . entver . 23 : 5 , pl . 2 , f . 1\npyroderces is a genus of cosmet moths ( family cosmopterigidae ) . it belongs to subfamily cosmopteriginae . some authors include anatrachyntis here .\npyroderces strangalota meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 18 ) : 572 ; tl : s . india , nilgiris , 3500ft\npyroderces haemodryas meyrick , 1930 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 18 - 20 ) : 546 ; tl : malay states , kuala selangor\npyroderces syngalactis meyrick , 1928 ; exot . microlep . 3 ( 13 ) : 389 ; tl : new hebrides , efate , espiritu santo\npyroderces ocreella viette , 1955 ; ann . soc . ent . fr . 123 : 106 ; tl : ne . madagascar , maroantsetra , ambodivoangy\npyroderces tethysella koster & sinev , 2003 ; microlep . europe 5 : 126 , 20 ; tl : tadzhikistan , tigrovaya balka , env . dzhilikul\npyroderces jonesella legrand , 1966 ; m\u00e9m . mus . hist . nat . paris ( a ) 37 : 63 , pl . 4 , f . 9\npyroderces anaclastis meyrick , 1897 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 22 ( 2 ) : 348 ; tl : brisbane , queensland\npyroderces anoista bradley , 1956 ; bull . br . mus . ent . 4 ( 4 ) : 148 ; tl : lord howe is . , mt lidgbird\npyroderces mesoptila meyrick , 1897 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 22 ( 2 ) : 347 ; tl : brisbane , queensland\npyroderces pyrrhodes meyrick , 1897 ; proc . linn . soc . n . s . w . 22 ( 2 ) : 349 ; tl : geraldton , west australia\npyroderces phaeostigma bradley , 1961 ; bull . brit . mus . ( n . h . ) ent . 10 ( 4 ) : 146 ; tl : guadalcanal , honiara\npyroderces klimeschi ; [ nhm card ] ; [ me5 ] , 125 , 20 ; sumpich & skyva , 2012 , nota lepid . 35 ( 2 ) : 166 ; [ fe ]\npyroderces albistrigella ; hodges , 1978 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 1 : 48 , pl . 3 , f . 34 ; [ nacl ] , # 1514 ; [ sangmi lee & richard brown ]\npyroderces argyrogrammos ; [ nhm card ] ; [ me5 ] , 123 , 20 ; koster & sammut , 2006 , nota lepid . 29 ( 1 / 2 ) : 54 ; zhang & li , 2009 , zootaxa 2272 : ( 63 - 68 ) ; [ fe ]\npyroderces ( cosmopteriginae ) ; hodges , 1978 , moths amer . n of mexico 6 . 1 : 46 , 16 ; [ nacl ] , 18 ; [ aucl ] ; [ me5 ] , 123 , 20 ; [ richard brown ] ; [ afromoths ] ; [ fe ]\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nconstant a . 1885 . notes sur quelques l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res nouveaux , 3e et derni\u00e8re partie . - annales de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 entomologique de france ( 6 ) 5 ( 1 ) : 5\u201316 , pl . 1 .\nmeyrick e . 1909a . new south african microlepidoptera . - annals of the south african museum 5 : 349\u2013379 .\nthe wingspan is 7\u201311 millimetres ( 0 . 28\u20130 . 43 in ) . adults are on wing from mid april to mid may and again from early july to mid october . there are probably two generations per year .\nproterocosma aellotricha meyrick , 1889 ; trans . n . z . inst . 21 : 175 ; tl : hamilton\nbatrachedra albistrigella m\u00f6schler , 1890 ; abh . senckenb . nat . ges . 16 : 345 ; tl : puerto rico\ngelechia apparitella walker , 1864 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 30 : 1027 ; tl : new zealand\nceu , seu , n . africa , c . asia . see [ maps ]\nlarva on carlina spp . , centaurea spp . koster & sammut , 2006 , nota lepid . 29 ( 1 / 2 ) : 54 , carduus spp . , cnicus benedictus , scolymus hispanicus , carthamus lanatus , c . tinctorius , pycnomon acarna [ me5 ] , 124\nlarva on echinops ruthenicus , centaurea orientalis , c . salonitana , cirsium sublaniflorum [ me5 ] , 125\ncentropecta meyrick , 1931 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 2 - 4 ) : 52\nanatrachyntis centrophanes meyrick , 1915 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 11 ) : 325 ; tl : coorg , dibidi ; s . india , nilgiris ; assam , khasis\nsyntomactis ? cervinella walsingham , 1897 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1897 : 104 ; tl : west indies , st . croix ; st . thomas\nsyntomactis chalcoptila meyrick , 1922 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 19 ) : 577 ; tl : peru , jurimaguas\ndactyliota meyrick , 1931 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 2 - 4 ) : 52\ngelechia deamatella walker , 1864 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 29 : 654 ; tl : auckland , new zealand\ndiplecta meyrick , 1935 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 18 - 19 ) : 606\nanatrachyntis exagria meyrick , 1915 ; exot . microlep . 1 ( 11 ) : 326 ; tl : coorg , dibidi , 3500ft\nsyntomactis firma meyrick , 1911 ; trans . linn . soc . lond . ( 2 ) 14 : 284 ; tl : mah\u00e9\nanatrachyntis hemipelta meyrick , 1917 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 2 ) : 44 ; tl : coorg , dibidi , 3500ft\nhungary , poland , slovakia , italy , austria , romania , mallorca . see [ maps ]\nstagmatophora leptarga meyrick , 1914 ; suppl . ent . 3 : 54 ; tl : kankau\nmelanosarca meyrick , 1937 ; exotic microlep . 5 ( 4 - 5 ) : 148\nanatrachyntis mythologica meyrick , 1917 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 2 ) : 45 ; tl : ceylon , maskeliya and madulsima\nstagmatophora narcota meyrick , 1909 ; ann . transv . mus . 2 ( 1 ) : 19 , pl . 6 , f . 5 ; tl : albert mine , pretoria\nanatrachyntis nephelopyrrha meyrick , 1917 ; exotic microlep . 2 ( 2 ) : 45 ; tl : bengal , pusa\nsesamivora meyrick , 1933 ; exotic microlep . 4 ( 13 - 14 ) : 427\ngracilaria [ sic ] terminella walker , 1864 ; list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . 30 : 855 ; tl : sydney\nstagmatophora urantha meyrick , 1914 ; suppl . ent . 3 : 53 ; tl : suisharyo\nlacciferophaga yunnanea zagulajev , 1959 ; acta ent . sinica 9 ( 4 ) : 312 , f . 1 - 4\n[ afromoths ] de prins , j . & de prins , w . , 2013\nsangmi lee , richard brown & sibyl bucheli . gelechioidea - a global framework ;\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nmicrolepidoptera from the solomon islands . additional records and descriptions of microlepidoptera collected in the solomon islands by the rennell island expedition 1953 - 54\nsystematische bearbeitung der schmetterlinge von europa , zugleich als text , revision und supplement zu j . h\u00fcbner ' s sammlung europ\u00e4ischer schmetterlinge , die schaben und federmotten , ( 1847 - ) 1853 - 1855 )\nthe moths of america north of mexico including greenland . fascicle 6 . 2 . gelechioidea , cosmopterigidae\nin gardiner , no . xii . tortricina and tineina . results of the percy sladen trust expedition to the indian ocean in 1905\nh . sauter ' s formosa ausbeute . pterophoridae , tortricidae , eucosmidae , gelechiadae , oecophoridae , cosmopterygidae , hypomeutidae , sesiadae , glyphipterygidae , plutellidae , teneidae , adelidae ( lep . )\nmat\u00e9riaux pour la connaissance des momphidae pal\u00e9arctiques ( lepidoptera ) . 9 . revue des momphidae europ\u00e9ennes , y compris quelques esp\u00e8ces d ' afrique du nort et du proche - orient\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 4 / 4 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files ."]}
{"id": 1821, "summary": [{"text": "the gulf coast jaguarundi ( puma yagouaroundi cacomitli ) is one of four subspecies of jaguarundi .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "two of these subspecies \u2014 the gulf coast jaguarundi and the sinaloan jaguarundi \u2014 are considered endangered and were put on the endangered list on june 14 , 1976 .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "these cats are placed under the family felidae and the subfamily felinae because of their small size . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "gulf coast jaguarundi", "paragraphs": ["for more information the recovery plan of the gulf coast jaguarundi can be found here .\nus \u0096 h . y . cacomitli known as the gulf coast jaguarundi , h . y . tolteca called the sinaloan jaguarundi\nreduce the effects of human population growth and development on potential gulf coast jaguarundi habitat in the united states and on the jaguarundi ' s potential survival and mortality .\nwe listed the gulf coast jaguarundi as an endangered species under the act on june 14 , 1976 ( 41 fr 24062 ) . the listed cats of texas and arizona recovery plan ( with emphasis on the ocelot ) was completed in 1990 , and it briefly addressed the jaguar , jaguarundi , and margay , but focused on the ocelot , primarily in texas . the final gulf coast jaguarundi recovery plan only applies to the gulf coast subspecies of jaguarundi .\nassess , protect , and restore sufficient habitat and connectivity to support viable populations and genetic exchange of the gulf coast jaguarundi in southern texas and in mexico .\niucn red list status : not assessed as a subspecies . the gulf coast jaguarundi is listed as endangered under the u . s . endangered species act .\nit finally received a recovery plan from the department of fish and wildlife in the summer of 2014 . the gulf coast jaguarundi is set to recover by the year 2050 .\nsupport efforts to develop more effective survey techniques for jaguarundis and to ascertain the status , better understand ecological and conservation needs , and promote conservation of the gulf coast jaguarundi and its habitats .\nis it a weasel ? a cat ? a puma ? an otter ? the rare gulf coast jaguarundi is often confused for many different species due to its strange appearance resembles its cousins . the jaguarundi cat , ranging from southern texas to eastern mexico , is quite unknown due the small amount of research done on it . for this reason , people are unaware of the fact that the gulf coast jaguarundi is endangered .\ncommon name : jaguarundi kingdom : animalia phylum : chordata ( vertebrata ) class : mammalia order : carnivora family : felidae genus : felinae ( felis ) species : yaguarondi sub species : ( herpailurus yaguarondi fossata ) guatemalan jaguarundi ( h . y . cacomitli ) gulf coast jaguarundi ( h . y . panamensis ) panamanian jaguarundi ( h . y . toleteca ) sinaloan jaguarundi\nthe photo above ( top ) is a shaded region of texas where the jaguarundi is most commonly found . featured above ( bottom ) is a picture of the general area of the gulf coast jaguarundi population . this jaguarundi population is concentrated primarily in south america and mexico , a convenient climate for the jaguarundis .\nthis bobcat - sized feline , known to scientists as puma yagouaroundi cacomitli , has been on the federal endangered species list since 1976 . things haven ' t gotten much better for the jaguarundi since then . and a border wall might finish the gulf coast jaguarundi off allogether .\nfortunately , many people are aware of the critical situation of the gulf coast jaguarundi and some communities around the rio grande valley have begun to restore the cat\u2019s natural habitat , as a means of conservation . if these actions succeed , perhaps the jaguarundi will restore a stable population .\nthe primary known threats to the gulf coast jaguarundi are habitat destruction , degradation , and fragmentation associated with agriculture and urbanization , and , to some extent , border security activities . mortality from collisions with vehicles is also a threat .\nthe gulf coast jaguarundi are an extremely rare species of cat , found only in specific parts of northern america \u2013 in the western gulf coastal grasslands of southern united states and northwestern mexico . these highly endangered weasel - like wild cats are on the brink of extinction , as more and more of their natural habitat is destroyed .\nultimately , the goal of the recovery plan is to recover and delist the gulf coast jaguarundi . if that ' s not possible , an intermediate goal is to move the subspecies from endangered to threatened . the goal will be considered met when at least three or more populations are sustained in the southern texas region and when threats from habitat loss , fragmentation , and degradation have been reduced , as well as the gulf coast jaguarundi no longer being in danger of extinction .\nthe gulf coast jaguarundi , a cat native to mexico and the thornscrub habitat of southern texas , today received a long - overdue \u201crecovery plan , \u201d a document outlining necessary steps to bring the species back from the brink of extinction .\nthe main thing you can do to help the gulf coast jaguarundi is to get the word out there . right now , few people even know the animal exists and that is leading to the decrease in the jaguarundi populations . we are going to lose a species many did not even know existed . if you are in the southern texas area , you can help by reaching out and talking about the jaguarundi . you can reach out to the texas state government and try to express the importance of conserving the gulf coast jaguarundi . stay informed on the recovery of this wonderful animal !\nthe gulf coast jaguarundi eat fish they catch in rivers , as well as small mammals ( such as rabbits and armadillos ) or even jump and catch low flying birds . these wild cats have very advanced senses , making them a somewhat dangerous predator .\nthe gulf coast jaguarundi , a wild cat , looks more like a large weasel or an otter than a feline . it has a long body , short legs , a small head , small rounded ears , and is only a bit larger than your average housecat .\nthe sinaloan jaguarundi ( puma yagouaroundi tolteca ) was originally listed under the act at the same time as the gulf coast subspecies . because all of the current information indicates that the tolteca subspecies occurs entirely outside the united states and has never been confirmed within the united states , the sinaloan jaguarundi was exempted from recovery planning on june 7 , 2011 .\nthe range of the gulf coast jaguarundi is primarily from southern texas , all the way down through mexico , and through parts of south america . in the texas range , the jaguarundis are mainly found in the tamaulipan biotic province , . however , this province type has been declining throughout the twentieth century , therefore causing a decline of gulf coast jaguarundis in the united states . the last known jaguarundi died in the united states in 1986 , when a roadkill specimen was collected on the side of the road . since then , only unconfirmed sightings have been documented . now , gulf coast jaguarundis can only be found in mexico and brazil , where 40 % of them are documented to be found mainly in the tall dense grasses , and the other 60 % prefer the natural undisturbed forest . because of how little is known about the jaguarundi , the current population size is unknown .\nin january this year , the gulf coast jaguarundi at long last received a u . s . fish and wildlife service recovery plan , which is a document outlining the steps necessary to protect the species from extinction . if the plan is funded and implemented , the species could recover to \u201cunendangered\u201d levels by 2050 .\nas felines go , the little jaguarundi - - species name gulf coast jaguarundi ( puma yagouaroundi cacomitli ) - - is a bit unconventional . it actually looks more like an otter or large weasel than a cat , with its long body , short legs , small head , oddly shaped ears , and distinctive fur coat . and at around 11 pounds , it weighs less than many housecats .\nthe gulf coast jaguarundi is found in the tamaulipan biotic province of northeast mexico and south texas . within mexico it occurs in the eastern lowlands and has not been recorded in the central highlands . in southern texas , jaguarundis used dense thorny shrublands . jaguarundis will use bunchgrass pastures if dense brush or woody cover is nearby .\nalso called the otter cat . 4 ssp . endangered : panamanian j . ( herpailurus yagouaroundi panamensis ) , guatemalan j . ( herpailurus yagouaroundi fossata ) , gulf coast j . ( herpailurus yagouaroundi cacomitli ) , sinaloan j . ( herpailurus yagouaroundi tolteca )\nthe gulf coast jaguarundi hunts small rodents , birds , fish , reptiles , and amphibians . this creature is also known to jump into the air to catch low flying poultry like doves . predation often occurs in thornscrubs . recently though , due to habitat loss , they have been venturing on to agricultural properties and pursuing domestic poultry .\njaguarundis as a species seem to be doing okay . but habitat loss has pushed two of the cats ' four subspecies \u2014 the gulf coast and sinaloan jaguarundis \u2014 to the brink of extinction . when the george w . bush administration fortified border barriers in the rio grande valley in the mid - 2000s , biologists warned that the barrier to migration could doom gulf coast jaguarundis on both sides of the rio grande . a solid concrete wall , built with no heed to environmental laws , could only make things far worse .\nin 2008 , while jogging along the rio grande river in south texas , matthew webster spotted something moving . he made out the sleek , dark outline of a cat - like animal . matthew thought that he had caught a glimpse of the elusive gulf coast jaguarundi . the last confirmed sighting of this creature in the . . . full description\nclassified under the puma genus , the gulf coast jaguarundi is closely related to the cougar and the jaguar , however , only 10 % of their size . their long , slender , weasel - like bodies hold a small yet flat head as well as round ears . coming in at around 15 pounds , their bodies reach up to thirty inches while the tails themselves get up to twenty three ! a theory about how these small cats evolved from the puma lineage is that an isolated population of them began to feed on smaller prey to avoid competition with the large cats like saber - toothed tigers or lions . the diet of a carnivorous gulf coast jaguarundi now consists of small mammals , birds , frogs , and fish .\nthe primary threats to the jaguarundi are habitat fragmentation , degradation , and destruction . all of these factors are mainly associated with agriculture , urbanization , border security activities , and vehicle collisions . like previous competition hundreds of years ago , jaguarundis are now competing with bobcats in their northern range , limiting their supply of food . increased precipitation and decreased temperature from climate change is also affecting the gulf coast jaguarundi , causing them to change their habitats .\noff the coast of west africa , george heads to a remote volcanic island where a river of molten lava is engulfing a mountain village .\nthe gulf coast and sinaloan jaguarundi population is rapidly depleting from the destruction of their habitat . in the lower rio grande valley of texas , the jaguarundi habitat is being cleared for farming and from the increased human population . recently , the communities around the rio grande valley have begun to replant native shrubs in order to restore their habitat . this picture comes from a site called big cats on line , copyrighted by andrew garman which has some really nice photos at urltoken\nthe last known jaguarundi in the u . s . died on a roadway in 1986\nthe gulf coast jaguarundi is a subspecies of jaguarundi that historically ranged from the lower rio grande valley in southern texas into the eastern portion of mexico . the last confirmed sighting of this subspecies in the u . s . was in april of 1986 . most jaguarundi habitat in the u . s . is already lost to agriculture or urban development , including over 95 % of thornscrub habitat in the lower rio grande valley . jaguarundis need dense vegetation such as thornscrub to hunt prey , mainly small rodents , reptiles , and birds . preservation of remaining habitat will also help other rare species , including the imperiled ocelot , that share jaguarundi habitat .\nanother concern for environmentalists in relation to these wild cats is the proposed building of the 16 foot wall on the border of mexico and u . s . this project endangers the natural balance in the border area and the number of many animals , including the gulf coast jaguarundi might decrease drastically . even now , it is very rare to see a jaguarundi in the jungle and although there are no precise numbers of their population , it can be estimated as very low .\niucn lists the gulf coast jaguarundi as \u201cendangered\u201d which is mainly due to human actions , that have resulted in destroying most of the wild cat\u2019s natural habitat \u2013 many areas previously suited for them has been cleared and turned into farming zones . it\u2019s also hunted for it\u2019s fur , which has a very attractive natural reddish colour , though extra poacher control has reduced cases of these animals being hunted .\nconservation efforts for animals that are endangered are extremely important to the survival of the species . in the rio grande valley of texas , conservation efforts are being made by replanting the habitual plants in a jaguarundi ' s environments , such as shrubs and bushes . this is in response to the depletion of their habitat in hopes of restoring what the jaguarundi is typically used to . in december 2012 , the u . s . government wrote an article on the recovery plan of the jaguarundi in hopes to remove the jaguarundi from the \u201cact\u201d to not have to protect it any more . the government\u2019s plan basically revolved around the idea that conservation of the gulf coast region was necessary to the survival of the jaguarundi . click below to read the whole article :\nthe jaguarundi is a small wild feline located in the southern part of the american continent , including southern texas , mexico , central and south america . there is also rumored to be a small isolated population of jaguarondi in central florida . the jaguarundi is commonly called the\notter cat\ndue to its otter like appearance . the jaguarundi has an elongated body with relatively short legs and round ears . the jaguarundi also has a long tale much like a panthers . the jaguarundi ranges in colors from black to a light brown color . adult jaguarundi ' s have a solid color cote while younger jaguarundi ' s will have a small speckled or patterned coat . the jaguarundi is a carnivore and eats small animals such as fish and birds .\nwow , i feel flattered . but indeed , more people should know about the jaguarundi : )\nthe gulf coast jaguarundi is a subspecies of jaguarundi that historically ranged from the lower rio grande valley in southern texas into the eastern portion of mexico in the states of coahuila , nuevo leon , tamaulipas , san luis potosi , and veracruz . the last confirmed sighting of this subspecies in the u . s . was in april of 1986 . most jaguarundi habitat in the u . s . is already lost to agriculture or urban development , including over 95 % of thornscrub habitat in the lower rio grande valley . jaguarundis need dense vegetation such as thornscrub to hunt prey , mainly small rodents , reptiles , and birds . preservation of remaining habitat will also help other rare species , including the imperiled ocelot , that share jaguarundi habitat .\nupdating the distribution and population status of jaguarundi , puma yagouaroundi ( \u00e9 . geoffroy , 1803 ) . . .\nwe , the u . s . fish and wildlife service , announce the availability of our final recovery plan for the gulf coast jaguarundi under the endangered species act of 1973 , as amended ( act ) . we have developed this final recovery plan to comply with a september 16 , 2010 , stipulated settlement agreement between wildearth guardians and the secretary of the interior . this species historically occurred in southern texas in the united states , and is currently known to occur in eastern mexico as far south as veracruz .\nboca chica , a finger of mostly undeveloped land in south texas between the brownsville ship channel and a part of the rio grande forming the riverine u . s . - mexico border , is a haven for many endangered and threatened animals . the creatures include the leatherback , loggerhead , hawksbill , green and kemp\u2019s ridley sea turtles , as well as birds like the piping plover , red knot , and northern aplomado falcon . it is also the habitat of two rare cats , the gulf coast jaguarundi and ocelot .\nthe mainland west coast of mexico ( region 27 * ) contains several important areas for waterfowl . these habitats consist of tidal estuaries connected with brackish water marshes along the coast and inland fresh water wetlands and reservoirs . fresh water streams and irrigation water empty into tidal lagoons and create flats , tidal pools , mangrove swamps and emergent vegetation dominated by cattail , bulrush , wigeongrass , muskgrass and algae .\nthese jaguarundi have a reddish or a charcoal gray fur , short ears and short legs . their natural habitat is lowland brush areas , usually close to water . as a true predatory cat , the jaguarundi can both swim and climb very well .\nas with all members of felidae , the jaguarundi walks on four feet , in a digitigrade manner\u2014that is on its toes .\nglenn , c . r . 2006 .\nearth ' s endangered creatures - jaguarundi facts\n( online ) . accessed\nthe u . s . fish and wildlife service ( service ) published the plan late yesterday , the result of a settlement agreement with wildearth guardians . despite listing the gulf coast jaguarundi as \u201cendangered\u201d under the endangered species act in 1976 , the service failed to designate critical habitat or write a recovery plan for the critically imperiled cat . guardians challenged the service\u2019s failure to produce a recovery plan specific to the species in 2009 . if the recovery plan is funded and followed , the service predicts the species could be removed from the list of imperiled species in 2050 .\nin 2008 , while jogging along the rio grande river in south texas , matthew webster spotted something moving . he made out the sleek , dark outline of a cat - like animal . matthew thought that he had caught a glimpse of the elusive gulf coast jaguarundi . the last confirmed sighting of this creature in the united states was in 1986 , however . could this rare animal still be living in the u . s . ? in jaguarundi : otter cat , kids go on a real - life adventure with wildlife biologists linda laack and arturo caso as they track these endangered animals in the wild . along the way , children will discover the jaguarundi\u2019s life cycle , diet , behavior , and physical characteristics\u2014and find out what can be done to save this amazing animal . large , full - color photos and a dramatic narrative format will keep readers turning the pages . jaguarundi : otter cat is part of bearport\u2019s america\u2019s hidden animal treasures series .\nfemales produce litters of anywhere from one to four kittens after an approximately seventy to seventy five day gestation period . kittens are born with spots that later disappear , similar to cats such as cougars and lions . at around six weeks of age , kittens begin a diet of solid food , reaching sexual maturity at two to three years old . like any other animal , the gulf coast jaguarundi has a certain time of year in which mating occurs . for this fine creature , mating usually takes place as early as november and as late as the end of december .\njaguarundi .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . retrieved july 09 , 2018 from urltoken urltoken\nthe jaguarundi is mostly terrestrial , preferring to hunt on the ground , but it also is a good climber and is comfortable in trees .\na male will have a home range several times larger than that of the jaguar , who weighs over 10 times more than a jaguarundi .\nhas expressed concern that the presence of the jaguarundi in south texas may be imperiled due to loss of the cat ' s native habitat .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - jaguarundi ( puma yagouaroundi )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - jaguarundi ( puma yagouaroundi )\ntitle =\narkive species - jaguarundi ( puma yagouaroundi )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\njune 2009 - wildearth guardians files suit against the u . s . fish and wildlife service for failing to develop a recovery plan for the jaguarundi\nwikipedia article copyright notice : this article is licensed under the gnu free documentation license . it uses material from the wikipedia article\njaguarundi\n.\nin some spanish speaking countries , the jaguarundi is also called leoncillo , which means little lion . other spanish common names for the jaguarundi include :\ngato colorado ,\ngato moro ,\nle\u00f3n brenero ,\nonza ,\nand\ntigrillo\n( caso et al . 2008 ) .\njaguarundi .\nbeacham ' s guide to the endangered species of north america . . encyclopedia . com . ( july 9 , 2018 ) . urltoken\nhershkovitz , p . 1999 . jaguarundi . pp . 666 in encyclopedia americana , vol . 15 , year 1999 edition . danbury , connecticut : grolier .\nthe jaguarundi is an oddball among cat species \u2013 at first glance it looks more like a large weasel . its long body , small rounded ears , small head , honey - brown eyes , and uniform fur distinguish it from other neotropical cats , such as the spotted ocelot with which it shares its u . s . range . the jaguarundi , weighing around 11 pounds , is smaller than the ocelot and is sometimes killed by the larger cats . this may be part of the reason the jaguarundi is most active during the day , avoiding the nocturnal ocelot . but the jaguarundi may also emerge at night , especially when the moon is full .\nadjacent to the west coast lies 1 . 2 million ha of irrigated agriculture in the state of sinaloa ( including los mochis , guasave , guamuchil and the culiacan agricultural valleys ) and approximately 456 , 000 ha in the state of sonora ( including the yaqui and mayo valleys ) . these upland areas were converted to intensive agriculture during the last 30 to 40 years . as a result there have been major changes to west coast wetlands , as they have become less saline , more densely covered by cattails , and subjected to discharges of agricultural pesticides and fertilizers .\nassure the long - term viability of jaguarundi conservation through partnerships , the development and application of incentives for landowners , application of existing regulations , and public education and outreach .\nthe jaguarundi is classified as least concern ( lc ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix i and appendix ii of cites ( 5 ) .\nthe jaguarundi once ranged throughout southern texas and southeastern arizona , and along both coasts of mexico south into central america . it was especially prevalent in the native brushlands of the lower\n[ note : the jaguarundi species is classed as least concern by the iucn red list . they range from the southern usa down through central and south america to argentina . ]\nthe jaguarundi is listed as least concern on the iucn red list . however , it is believed to be much less abundant than commonly perceived and could even be in near threatened status except for the lack of information to access . the jaguarundi is protected in many nations , including brazil , argentina , uruguay , paraguay , bolivia , mexico , among others .\nthe jaguarundi has short legs and an appearance somewhat like an otter . early german zoologists called the species\nweasel cat\nbecause of its resemblance to members of the family mustelidae . the jaguarundi has short and rounded ears . it tends to be smaller , more elongated , and with sorter limbs than other small neotropical felids ( rick and lundrigan 2004 ) .\nupdating the distribution and population status of jaguarundi , puma yagouaroundi ( \u00e9 . geoffroy , 1803 ) ( mammalia : carnivora : felidae ) , in the southernmost part of its distribution range\n, months after the last american jaguarundi was killed . the jaguarundis were listed because of how fast their population was decreasing , especially in the united states , because of habitat loss .\njaguarundi is the common name for a small - to medium - sized new world wild cat , puma yagouaroundi , characterized by an elongated ,\nweasel\n- like body , short legs , rounded ears , long tail , and an unspotted fur that comes in a few different color morphs . the jaguarundi is found in mexico , central america , and south america .\nmanzani , p . , e . monteiro filho . 1989 . notes on the food habits of the jaguarundi , felis yagouaroundi . mammalia , 53 ( 4 ) : 659 - 660 .\nmccarthy , t . 1992 . notes concerning the jaguarundi cat ( herpailurus yagouaroundi ) in the caribbean lowlands of belize and guatemala . mammalia , 56 ( 2 ) : 302 - 306 .\naccording to the center for biological diversity , jaguarundis disappeared from south texas due to habitat loss to agriculture and residential development . the last known jaguarundi in the state died on a roadway in 1986 .\nthe jaguarundi\u2019s historic range stretched from southeastern arizona and southern texas , through mexico , to portions of south america . in the u . s . , they are found mainly in tamaulipan thornscrub , a habitat that is rapidly disappearing . the most important remaining u . s . stronghold for the jaguarundi is the laguna atascosa national wildlife refuge in texas . the refuge itself is increasingly an island amidst roads , agricultural crops , and development , due to a rapidly increasing human population in the lower rio grande valley . in addition to the threat of habitat loss , the jaguarundi faces greater risk of road mortality .\nthe jaguarundi may have ranged into southeastern north america as well . it\u2019s also known as the otter cat due to its cylindrical shape . it\u2019s closely related to the cougar but is about 10 % its size .\nthe jaguarundi has been recognized as an endangered species since 1976 , and the last known cat in the u . s . died on a roadway in 1986 . the major threat to jaguarundis is habitat loss and fragmentation .\nadult jaguarundis have quite a repertoire of vocalizations they use to greet friends , court lovers , and establish communication between mothers and their litters . scientists who have studied the jaguarundi believe it has at least 13 different calls .\nwith 75 percent of its historic u . s . habitat wiped out , a figure that rises to more than 90 along the coast , the quino checkerspot can ' t afford to lose any more habitat . and even if border wall construction activities don ' t take out the quino ' s habitat along the border , the wall itself may prove a serious blow to the butterfly .\nwhere found : eastern mexico and southern texas , making it the northernmost of eight jaguarundi subspecies . the cats haven ' t been confirmed in the u . s . in nearly three decades , although unconfirmed sightings continue to trickle in .\nbrown , d . e . , and gonzalez , c . a . ( 1999 ) .\njaguarundi ( felis yagouaroundi tolteca )\n. journal of the arizona - nevada academy of science ( 32 ) . pp . 155\u2013157 .\notay mesa mint ( pogogyne nudiuscula ) , a foot - tall , aromatic member of the mint family that sports bright purple flowers , used to be significantly more common , with recorded populations in vernal pools up and down the coast from san onofre into baja . it ' s now known from just seven spots right along the border in the vicinity of otay mesa and the tijuana international airport .\nthe natural habitat of the jaguarundi once ranged from southeastern arizona and southern texas , down though mexico , to areas of south america . in the u . s . , they are found primarily in tamaulipan thornscrub , a rapidly diminishing habitat .\nin january of this year , the u . s . fish and wildlife service finally developed a recovery plan for the species . if the plan is funded and implemented , jaguarundi populations will be returning to the rio grande valley in southern texas .\nnotable conservation programs : none , although the u . s . fish and wildlife service finally published a recovery plan ( pdf ) for the subspecies earlier this month following a lawsuit by wildearth guardians . the plan lists several actions that would be necessary to reestablish jaguarundi populations in texas , including assessing habitat and land connectivity for migration , developing survey techniques to count the animals , and developing partnerships to help promote jaguarundi conservation . fws will also explore the possibility of reintroducing the animals to texas from mexico .\nin addition to its unique appearance , the jaguarundi differs from other small new world cats in many aspects of its biology and behaviour . individuals may travel widely in unusually large home ranges and are more terrestrial than many other species , though are also agile climbers ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) . the jaguarundi is also much more diurnal than most cats ( 3 ) ( 11 ) ( 12 ) . the diet consists mainly of small mammals , birds and reptiles , as well as occasional amphibians , fish and larger mammals ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 6 ) . the jaguarundi has been observed to jump up to two metres off the ground to swat at birds in the air ( 6 ) .\nthe recovery plan emphasizes identifying , protecting , restoring , and connecting potential habitat in southern texas . the service also intends to study the feasibility of reintroducing jaguarundi in texas , as well as learn more about these elusive cats through population and habitat surveys .\n2003 . jaguarundi : herpailurus yaguaroundi . pp . 390 in m hutchins , d kleiman , v geist , m mcdade , eds . grzimek ' s animal life encyclopedia , vol . 14 , 2nd edition . farmington hills , mi : gale group .\nthe jaguarundi ( puma yagouaroundi ) is part of the felidae family , which belongs to the carnivora order within the mammals ( class mammalia ) . felidae usually is divided into two subfamilies , pantherinae ( which includes\nbig cats\nlike lions , jaguars , tigers , and leopards ) and felinae ( which includes the\nsmall cats ,\nalthough some can be large , like the cougar ) . the jaguarundi is part of the felinae subfamily and share the same genus , puma , as the cougar ( puma concolor ) .\nwe have black jaguarundi on our property in the mountains of costa rica\u2026 they ' re good at hiding so sightings are not common , but one of our workers saw one just two days ago . feel free to visit our website , if you ' re interested : urltoken\njaguarundis are carnivores and hunt a variety of small mammals , reptiles , birds , frogs , and fish . besides animal matter , jaguarundis stomach contents often contain a small amount of plant material and arthropods . birds are often the prey of choice and the jaguarundi diet usually includes\nthe jaguarundi is closely related to the much larger and heavier cougar , having a similar genetic structure and chromosome count . while both species are in the genus puma it is sometimes classified under the genus herpailurus , and until recently both cats were classified under the genus felis .\nthanks to decades of conservation work , the number of nesting ridleys increased 12 to 17 percent per year in the first decade of this century , but it decreased by 25 percent in 2013 and 45 percent in 2014 compared with 2009 . the decline may be partly due to the deepwater horizon oil spill\u2013data remain confidential as part of the damage assessment process until court cases are settled\u2013as well as shrimp trawling without protective devices , and unusually high and low freshwater inflows into the gulf of mexico .\ndespite the common name , the jaguarundi is much more closely related to mountain lions than it is to jaguars . mountain lions average about ten times the size of jaguarundis , leading scientists to conjecture that an isolated population of cougars may have been forced to subsist on small prey such as rodents and frogs for long enough to evolve a much smaller size . now , the jaguarundi species stretches from southern argentina through the amazon , the northern andes , and central america to mexico , with a minute sliver of south texas at the very northernmost end of the species ' territory .\nowing to its weasel - like appearance , the dark morph jaguarundi is often mistaken for the tayra ( eira barbara ) , a large mustelid , but can be distinguished by the absence of the tayra\u2019s yellowish throat spot ( 2 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) , and by having a very long , slender tail with very short hair ( 9 ) . the jaguarundi is quite a vocal cat , with at least 13 distinct calls recorded , including a purr , whistle , scream , chatter , yap , and a bird - like \u201cchirp\u201d ( 6 ) ( 7 ) .\nthe iucn recommend that the status of the jaguarundi is regularly reviewed , as it may be more threatened than currently believed ( 1 ) . the species is protected across most of its range , with hunting illegal in many countries ( 1 ) ( 8 ) , and international trade is monitored and controlled under the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) ( 5 ) . north and central american populations are particularly at risk , with the jaguarundi now very rare or possibly even extinct in the usa , and also in uruguay ( 8 ) . the tighter cites listing of the northern populations , on appendix i , reflects the more threatened status ( 5 ) . jaguarundi numbers are expected to be relatively low even in protected areas , and further study into the species\u2019 ecology , biology and conservation status has been recommended in order to help protect this unusual cat ( 1 ) .\nthe iucn recommend that the status of the jaguarundi is regularly reviewed , as it may be more threatened than currently believed ( 1 ) . the species is protected across most of its range , with hunting illegal in many countries ( 1 ) ( 8 ) , and international trade is monitored and controlled under the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) ( 5 ) . north and central american populations are particularly at risk , with the jaguarundi now very rare or possibly even extinct in the usa , and also in uruguay ( 8 ) . the tighter cites listing of the northern populations , on appendix i , reflects the more threatened status ( 5 ) . jaguarundi numbers are expected to be relatively low even in protected areas , and further study into the species ' ecology , biology and conservation status has been recommended in order to help protect this unusual cat ( 1 ) .\nthe jaguarundi inhabits a broad range of both open and closed habitats , including rainforest , swamp and savanna woodland , savanna , thickets , and semi - arid thorn scrub . it may also occur in secondary vegetation and disturbed areas , but is thought to prefer areas with at least some dense ground cover ( 2 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) ( 8 ) . a mainly lowland species , the jaguarundi can be found at elevations of up to 2 , 000 metres , though may occur at up to 3 , 200 metres in some areas ( 6 ) ( 7 ) ( 8 ) .\nthe jaguarundi inhabits a broad range of both open and closed habitats , including rainforest , swamp and savanna woodland , savanna , thickets , and semi - arid thorn scrub . it may also occur in secondary vegetation and disturbed areas , but is thought to prefer areas with at least some dense ground cover ( 2 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) ( 8 ) . a mainly lowland species , the jaguarundi can be found at elevations of up to 2 , 000 metres , though may occur at up to 3 , 200 metres in some areas ( 6 ) ( 7 ) ( 8 ) .\nthe coat of the jaguarundi is unspotted and uniform in color . there are several color morphs , and varying from blackish to brownish gray ( gray phase ) or from foxy red to chestnut ( red phase ) . the two main color phases\u2014dark grayish - black and reddish\u2014were once thought to represent two distinct species ; the gray one called jaguarundi , and the red one called eyra . however , these are the same species and both color phases may be found in the same litter ( caso et al . 2008 ; rick and lundrigan 2004 ) . its coat has no markings except for spots at birth .\nthe jaguarundi is found from central argentina ( at about 39\u00b0s ) , through uruguay , brazil , and paraguay , and north through the rest of south america and through central america to the eastern lowlands of chipinque national park in nuevo leon , mexico and the western lowlands of mexico ( caso et al . 2008 ) . there are reports of the jaguarundi being found as far north as southern texas and arizona in the united states , but such sightings are not well documented ( rick and lundrigan 2004 ) . caso et al . ( 2008 ) report that it is probably extinct in the united states .\n) is a weasel - like cat about twice the size of a large housecat . head and body length can reach up to 31 in ( 80 cm ) ; its tail may be up to 24 in ( 60 cm ) long . its body is slender , its head and ears are small , and its features are flattened . the jaguarundi has two color phases : brownish gray and chestnut . the two color phases were once thought to represent two distinct species ; the gray one called\njaguarundi ,\nand the red one called\neyra ;\nbut they are now recognized as the same species\nthe jaguarundi is considered to be mostly diurnal ( caso et al . 2008 ) , although it may exhibit crepuscular and nocturnal behavior depending on location . it can avoid direct competition with ocelots through diurnal behavior ( rick and lundrigan 2004 ) . they are good swimmers and climbers ( rick and lundrigan 2004 ) .\nthis cat is closely related to the much larger and heavier cougar as evident by its similar genetic structure and chromosome count ; both species are in the genus puma . however , the jaguarundi sometimes is classified under a separate genus , herpailurus and until recently , both cougars and jaguarundis were classified under the genus felis .\nmajor threat : habitat loss and fragmentation . the cats depend on dense vegetation to hunt their prey , which includes everything from birds to rodents to lizards . the jaguarundi is one of the species frequently mentioned as being at risk from the mexico - united states border fence , which would further fragment populations and prevent migration .\ntaxonomy is currently under review by the iucn ssc cat specialist group . johnson et al . ( 2006 ) and eizirik et al . ( 2008 ) placed yagouaroundi in the genus puma . however , agnarsson et al . ( 2010 ) noted that the jaguarundi is not a sister species to the puma . more recently segura et al . ( 2013 ) looked at cranial development within the puma clade and found that while this is similar in cheetah and puma , that of the jaguarundi is quite different . given these phylogenetic uncertainties , and these and other morphological and behavioural differences , the iucn ssc cat specialist group retains this species in herpailurus .\nthe u . s . fish and wildlife service ( fws ) estimated more than a 90 percent decline in lower rio grande valley brushland in texas and described the habitat as rapidly disappearing along the rio grande in mexico as well . from 1991 to 2000 alone , approximately 113 , 126 acres of suitable jaguarundi habitat were destroyed in south texas . precious thornscrub in the rio grande valley is disappearing at an alarming rate . that\u2019s a serious blow for both the jaguarundi and the ocelot , which both depend on this increasingly rare habitat type . and , like many other animals on the border between the u . s . and mexico , the jaguarundi is threatened by a myriad of human border activities including immigration , drug trafficking , police and military actions , border installations and fences , and artificial lighting . to create a safe haven for the jaguarundi and a host of other trans - border animals , scientists and land managers on both sides of the border are calling for international cooperation between the u . s . and mexico . this is in stark contrast to the current national u . s . drive to separate the people and ecosystems of the two countries . preservation of the biodiversity of both countries will require a consistent , dedicated effort from the u . s . and mexican governments working in collaboration . but such action has not been forthcoming .\n\u201cthis recovery plan is a long overdue and important step to safeguarding rapidly disappearing jaguarundi habitat , \u201d said taylor jones , endangered species advocate for wildearth guardians . \u201cthese beautiful and rare cats waited nearly forty years for a path to recovery . we call on the service to now fully and effectively implement the recovery plan and prevent this species\u2019 extinction . \u201d\nsketch of the jaw bone of a cat found at the ladds fossil site . click to enlarge . dr . clayton ray thought this specimen was most like the jaw bone of a jaguarundi , but other scientists have concluded it\u2019s from a cat that was more like a margay . this page is from the below referenced paper authored by dr . ray .\nthe jaguarundi are considered to be solitary animals , that hunt and live alone , except for breeding season which occurs from september to november . after a gestation period of 70 days , birth is given to one or two kittens . they remain dependent on the mother for as long a period as two years , which is quite unusual for predatory mammals .\nphoto of a jaw bone of a cat found at the isle of hope site near savannah , georgia . click to enlarge . every measurement of this specimen falls within the size range of both margay and jaguarundi . this means it can\u2019t be conclusively identified . it\u2019s slightly smaller than most specimens identified as leopardus amnicola . page from the below referenced study authored by dr . hulbert .\ndevelopment along the u . s . / mexico border also poses threats to the jaguarundi and many other border species . barriers along the border destroy and fragment habitat , reduce access to habitat and resources , including food and water , and isolate wildlife populations . approximately 70 miles of fence have been proposed in the lower rio grande valley , 56 miles of which are already constructed .\nmuch of the irrigated farmland supported rice production after it was developed . this crop is very beneficial to waterfowl . however , between 1981 and 1998 , rice production has decreased in the state of sinaloa from 65 , 900 to 2 , 400 ha . this was correlated with a drop in use of the region by northern pintail from 880 , 000 birds in 1989 , to 228 , 000 in 1990 and 310 , 000 for 1991 . about 5 , 000 ha of 21 . 2 million ha of agricultural land on the west coast is currently in rice production . these changes are due to production costs in comparison to other crops .\ncontrary to earlier characterizations of this species as relatively common and abundant ( nowell and jackson 1996 ) , research indicates that the jaguarundi is an uncommon , low density species . densities are very low everywhere it has been sampled , and jaguarundis are more commonly found at 0 . 01 - 0 . 05 / km\u00b2 or lower ( de oliveira et al . submitted ) , but reaching up to 0 . 2 / km\u00b2 in a few and restricted high density areas ( caso 2013 ) . the jaguarundi\u2019s density / numbers are negatively impacted by those of the larger sized ocelot ( the \u201cocelot effect\u201d ) ( de oliveira et al . 2010 , caso 2013 ) . considered near threatened in argentina ( diaz and ojeda 2000 ) and threatened in mexico ( semarnat 2010 ) .\njaguarundis plays an important role in terrestrial ecosystems through control of their prey species , which includes small mammals , birds , and other vertebrates . in controlling mice , rats , and rabbits , they also control the population of agricultural pests . the jaguarundi is is not particularly sought after for its fur , but it is suffering decline due to loss of habitat and habitat fragmentation . they also are killed as predators of poultry .\njohn petrey i live in lower alabama , specifically robertsdale , in a rural area . yesterday afternoon a cat crossed the road in front of me . it was light colored , not real big , maybe even about the same size as a domestic cat , but the really unique thing about it was its ' tail was extremely long . i ' ve been looking at photos and this jaguarundi is the closest thing i can find .\nthe recovery plan stresses identifying , protecting , restoring , and connecting potential habitat in southern texas in the rio grande valley . the u . s . fish and wildlife service also intends to evaluate the possibility of reintroducing jaguarundi in texas . scientists know very little about this shy little cat who quickly heads into the underbrush when disturbed . the recovery plan would include improving techniques for tracking the cats and learning more about them through population and habitat surveys .\nthe jaguarundi has a wide distribution across north , central and south america , from southern texas in the united states , south as far as northern argentina ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) . it has also been reported from arizona ( 4 ) ( 7 ) , but its status here remains unclear ( 7 ) ( 10 ) , and the species may in fact now be extinct in the united states ( 1 ) .\nthe jaguarundi has a wide distribution across north , central and south america , from southern texas in the united states , south as far as northern argentina ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) . it has also been reported from arizona ( 4 ) ( 7 ) , but its status here remains unclear ( 7 ) ( 9 ) , and the species may in fact now be extinct in the united states ( 1 ) .\nthe jaguarundi is a carnivore and preys upon fish , small mammals , reptiles , amphibians , and birds , including rabbits , mice , rats , junglefowl , and iguanas . some plant material and arthropods are also consumed , based on stomach contents ( rick and lundrigan 2004 ) . while the diet is mostly small animals with a mean prey mass of 380 grams , larger sized prey greater than 1 kilogram is not unusual ( caso et al . 2008 ) .\nthe largely diurnal behaviour and open habitats of the jaguarundi mean that it is often the most commonly seen cat within its range , leading to the mistaken belief that it is relatively abundant . now believed to be much less common that previously thought , the species is undergoing a decline , largely as a result of habitat loss and fragmentation as savannas are converted for large - scale agriculture and pasture ( 1 ) . although more flexible in its habitat requirements than many other small cat species , and not commercially exploited for its pelt , the jaguarundi is a notorious predator on domestic poultry , and killing of jaguarundis to protect poultry is considered to have a major impact on its population ( 1 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) ( 8 ) . it may also be caught in traps set for other , commercially valuable species ( 1 ) ( 8 ) , and is thought to suffer from competition with the larger ocelot ( leopardus pardalis ) ( 1 ) .\nthe largely diurnal behaviour and open habitats of the jaguarundi mean that it is often the most commonly seen cat within its range , leading to the mistaken belief that it is relatively abundant . now believed to be much less common that previously thought , the species is undergoing a decline , largely as a result of habitat loss and fragmentation as savannas are converted for large - scale agriculture and pasture ( 1 ) . although more flexible in its habitat requirements than many other small cat species , and not commercially exploited for its pelt , the jaguarundi is a notorious predator on domestic poultry , and killing of jaguarundis to protect poultry is considered to have a major impact on its population ( 1 ) ( 6 ) ( 7 ) ( 8 ) . it may also be caught in traps set for other , commercially valuable species ( 1 ) ( 8 ) , and is thought to suffer from competition with the larger ocelot ( leopardus pardalis ) ( 1 ) ."]}
{"id": 1865, "summary": [{"text": "the american carrion beetle ( necrophila americana , formerly silpha americana ) is a north american beetle of the family silphidae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it lays its eggs in , and its larvae consume , raw flesh ( particularly that of dead animals ) and fungi .", "topic": 4}, {"text": "the larvae and adults also consume fly larvae and the larvae of other carrion beetles that compete for the same food sources as its larvae . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "american carrion beetle", "paragraphs": ["the american carrion beetle should not be confused with the endangered american burying beetle . both insects are part of the same north american beetle family known as silphidae . the black larvae have an armored look to them .\ndetailing the physical features , habits , territorial reach and other identifying qualities of the american carrion beetle .\nnot to be confused with the non - endangered american carrion beetle ( necrophila americana ) in the same family .\nthe american carrion beetle helps to complete the circle of life , though their diet is usually something living things avoid .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 1991 . american burying beetle recovery plan\nfor more information about how to control the american carrion beetle , contact clegg\u2019s online or via phone at 888 - 672 - 5344 .\ncitation : ratcliffe , b . c . 1997 . endangered american burying beetle update . urltoken\nwe keep american carrion beetles at our zoo whenever possible . look for them at the insectarium .\nnicrophorus americanus , also known as the american burying beetle or giant carrion beetle , is a critically endangered species of beetle endemic to north america . it belongs to the order coleoptera and the family silphidae . the carrion beetle in north america is carnivorous , feeds on carrion and requires carrion to breed . it is also one of the few species of beetle to exhibit parental care . the decline of the american burying beetle has been attributed to habitat loss , alteration , and degradation , and they now occur over less than 10 % of their historic range .\namerican burying beetles are the largest carrion - feeding insects in north america , growing up to 35 mm in length . most carrion beetles of the genus\nunless you\u2019re in the habit of examining carcasses , you may never come across a carrion beetle .\nthe american burying beetle is endangered statewide and nationally . restoration efforts are under way . this brightly patterned beetle specializes in cleaning carrion from the landscape , burying dead mice , birds , and other creatures .\nthe mites get rid of maggots and their eggs so there is more food for the carrion beetle .\namerican burying beetles are scavengers , attracted to decaying vegetation and carrion . adults feed on a wide range of species as carrion . they also consume live insects .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service , division of endangered species . 1997 . the american burying beetle\nyour carrion beetle must not exceed a certain size , or must be placed beneath the seat in front of you .\nthe american burying beetle is a carrion - feeding beetle of the family silphidae . the species is distinct and there are no proposed subspecies or species forms . it is one of the most striking beetle species in canada due to its large size and the brilliant orange markings on its otherwise black body .\nhabitat : considering the broad geographic range formerly occupied by the american burying beetle , it is unlikely that vegetation or soil type were historically limiting . today , the american burying beetle seems to be largely restricted to areas most undisturbed by human influence .\nmanagement research needs : identification and management information on the optimum carrion - producing vertebrates for the american burying beetle is needed . research on optimum carrion availability will provide information that is necessary for sampling , management and reintroduction efforts . population modeling information is needed .\nstatus : the american burying beetle was listed as an endangered species in 1989 ( federal register 54 : 29652 - 29655 ) .\nmites are known to frequently attach themselves to the american carrion beetle as it moves from one dead carcass to another . at each stop along the way , the mites drop from the beetle to also feed on the dead flesh . therefore , from a pest control standpoint , this type of beetle poses a dual challenge .\nkozel , a . j . 1990 . suggested survey protocol for nicrophorus americanus , the american burying beetle . diss . boston university .\nthe american burying beetle is a carrion - feeding beetle of the family silphidae . the species is distinct and there are no proposed subspecies or species forms . it is one of the most striking beetle species in canada due to its large size and the brilliant orange markings on its otherwise black body . ( updated 2017 / 08 / 11 )\nwe captured it for later identification , and amanda ran it down . this is a carrion beetle . there are several species of carrion beetles , all in the family silphidae . there are over 20 , 000 species of beetle in north america . beetles are incredibly diverse . therefore , it did not surprise me to learn that there are several dozen species of carrion beetle in minnesota . this is probably in the genus\nin the 1980s , entomologists documented the decreasing abundance of the american burying beetle across its range . collecting records indicate that east of the appalachian mountains the american burying beetle declined in a generally north to south direction , and the decline was well underway , if not complete , by 1923 .\ncommon names : american carrion beetle - named for its primary carrion food source . american emphasizes that it is endemic to north america east of the rocky mountains . carrion comes from the latin word caro meaning flesh . burying beetle \u2013 a carrion - eating beetle so named because it buries the animal carcass for longer term consumption . scientific names : necrophila americana - the generic name if from the greek nekros , meaning\ndead body\nand philos , meaning\nloving\nin reference to its primary food source . the species name is a latinized form to reflect its american provenance . nicrophorus carolinus \u2013 the burying beetle genus is also a derivative of nekros as above with the addition of the greek phoros meaning \u2018to carry . \u2019 the species name is reference to its first identification in the carolinas .\ncarrion beetles and maggots eat they same thing , so they compete with each other for food . but carrion beetles have a secret weapon they use to get rid of some of the maggots and get more food for themselves . carrion beetles carry tiny little mites on their backs . the mites travel with the beetle to a dead carcass , where they eat the eggs of maggots and the smallest maggots , creating more space and food for carrion beetles . some scientists think that the mites take care of carrion beetles by cleaning off bacteria the the beetle picks up from living on dead animals . below is a picture of a carrion beetle with mites on its back .\nthe carrion beetle pays a huge cost carrying the mites around wherever it goes , because they are heavy and affect its ability to move and fly . but otherwise , the mites do nothing \u2026 . they just hang on for the ride , waiting for the beetle to locate a dead mouse . then , when the beetle does located a dead mouse , the mites do not eat it . rather , they eat the maggots , the fly eggs , and larva of anything that is not a carrion beetle . they clean the carcass of the potential competitors of the carrion beetle\u2019s larva .\nas scavengers , american burying beetles play an important role in recycling decaying materials .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - american burying beetle ( nicrophorus americanus )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - american burying beetle ( nicrophorus americanus )\ntitle =\narkive species - american burying beetle ( nicrophorus americanus )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 1991 . american burying beetle ( nicrophorus americanus ) recovery plan . newton corner , massachusetts . 80 pp .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 1991 . american burying beetle ( nicrophorus americanus ) recovery plan . newton corner , massachusetts . 80 pp .\nthe adults\u2019 voracious appetite for maggots certainly helps eliminate competition for their offspring . the carrion beetle larvae feed on the carcass , which would quickly be devoured by maggots without the intervention of the adult silphids . a few carrion beetle species feed on plants , or even more rarely , prey on snails or caterpillars .\nthe beetles themselves are black with a yellow shoulder area , although the coloring varies to a degree from northern to southern areas . the beetles can resemble bumble bees when they are in flight . by contrast , the larger american burying beetle features shiny black and orange - red coloration . also , the burying beetle is about 1 . 0 to 1 . 4 - in long , while the smaller american carrion beetle is 0 . 5 to 0 . 9 - in long .\npopulations of american burying beetles have been extirpated from 90 % of their original range .\nthe american burying beetle is the largest carrion beetle in north america ( 2 ) . it has extremely distinctive colouration , being shiny black with bright orange markings ; there are four orange bands on the wing cases ( known as ' elytra ' ) , but unusually the pronotum and face also have orange markings ( 2 ) .\nthe american burying beetle is the largest carrion beetle in north america ( 2 ) . it has extremely distinctive colouration , being shiny black with bright orange markings ; there are four orange bands on the wing cases ( known as ' elytra ' ) , but unusually the pronotum and face also have orange markings ( 2 ) .\noops \u2026 bad example i guess since the mites are useful to the beetle .\nan annotated checklist of the iranian carrion beetles ( coleoptera : staphylinoidea : silphidae ) .\nkozol , a . j . 1981 . ecology and population genetics of the endangered american burying beetle , nicrophorus americanus . dissertation , boston university , boston . 164 pp .\nkozol , a . j . , m . j . amaral & t . w . french . 1994 . the reintroduction of the american burying beetle on penikese island , massachusetts . american association of zoological parks and aquariums , annual conference proceedings 1994 : 112 .\nthe american burying beetle is the largest carrion - frequenting insect in north america ; it may reach a length of l l / 2 inches . like many other carrion beetles in the genus nicrophorus , it is shiny black and distinctively marked with two bright orange bands on each wing cover . unlike any other species , however , the pronotum ( the shield - like area just behind the head ) of the american burying beetle is also orange , and there is a small orange patch on the face between the eyes . while nebraska has 11 species of nicrophorus , only the american burying beetle has the orange pronotum , and it can be readily distinguished from the other , more common species .\nspecific habitat preference of american burying beetles is unknown . like many endangered species , this species seems largely confined to areas with the least human influence . american burying beetles thrive in areas with an abundance of carrion and have been found in grasslands , scrublands and forest edges .\nlarge ( 20 - 40 mm ) endangered burying beetle occurring in eastern north america .\n. a beetle provides mites with access to food and means of dispersal , and the mites clean the beetle of microbes and fly eggs that are carried up from carrions .\nzoo staff lay traps with the hope of locating american burying beetles in missouri . ( credit :\ncarrion beetles and individuals of some species of mites can have a symbiotic relationship . each derives a benefit from the other . the mites climb aboard the carrion beetle to be transported to new food supplies they could never reach by foot . the mites in turn eat the eggs and freshly hatched maggots of flies that compete with beetle larvae for the food source . therefore , a mite - laden beetle is more likely to have offspring that survive .\ncarrion beetles , like the american burying beetle , recycle carcasses , ultimately returning valuable nutrients to the soil . in addition , this beetle might be an\nindicator species ,\nor one that tells us whether or not its environment is healthy . understanding why its numbers have decreased so drastically may give us indications of problems with both its habitat and our environment .\nu . s . fish and wildlife service . 1991 . american burying beetle ( nicrophorus americanus ) recovery plan . [ by c . raithel ] newton corner , massachusetts . 80 pp .\nthe american burying beetle , ( nicrophorus americanus ) oliver is a member of the carrion beetle family silphidae . carrion beetles , as their name implies , are an important part of a vast host of scavengers that are responsible for recycling decaying materials back into the ecosystem . they are also referred to as burying beetles or sexton beetles . there are 570 species of silphids found worldwide , and 31 of them occur in north america . there are 18 species in nebraska .\ncarrion beetles visiting pig carcasses during early spring in urban , forest and agricultural biotope . . .\nhistorical records offer little insight into what type of habitat was preferred by the american burying beetle . current information suggests that this species is a habitat generalist , or one that lives in many types of habitat , with a slight preference for grasslands and open understory oak hickory forests . however , the beetles are carrion specialists in that they need carrion the size of a dove or a chipmunk in order to reproduce . carrion availability may be the greatest factor determining where the species can survive .\na scene from stephen king ' s latest novel ? not at all . the creatures are carrion beetles , also commonly known as burying beetles , and they are on of nature ' s most efficient and fascinating recyclers . but , like several other insect species , these beetles are nearing extinction . the american burying beetle , the largest of the north american carrion beetles , has so drastically declined in numbers and range that , in july 1989 , it was added to the federal endangered species list .\nbiologists have not unlocked the mystery why the american burying beetle has disappeared from so many areas . widespread use of pesticides may have caused local populations to disappear . the dramatic disappearance of this insect from many areas , however , took place before widespread use of ddt . lack of small carcasses to bury would prevent the species from reproducing , and changes in land use has reduced the quantity of small - to medium - sized birds and mammals preferred by the american burying beetle . even the extinction of the once ubiquitous passenger pigeon may have had a ripple effect on carrion feeders like this beetle .\nratcliffe , b . 2008 .\nthe american bury beetle : an endangered species\n( on - line ) . entomology : university of nebraska state museum . accessed october 13 , 2008 at urltoken .\nas i learnt just two days ago ( from a carrion beetle that was also crawling with mites ) , they don\u2019t just eat dead mice and such but are also very fond of cat food .\nthe american burying beetle has been recorded historically from at least 150 counties in 35 states in the eastern and central united states , as well as along the southern fringes of ontario , quebec and nova scotia in canada . collecting records indicate that east of the appalachian mountains the american burying beetle declined in a generally north to south direction , and the decline was well underway , if not complete . by 1923 .\ncarrion beetles come in many sizes . some are very small while others can get as big as 1 . 4 inches ( or about 35 mm ) . the average size of a carrion beetle is 1 / 2 inch . they have flat , flexible bodies that allow them to crawl under dead animals .\nthe earliest record for the american burying beetle in nebraska is 1921 , although it undoubtedly occurred here before that time . they were again collected in 1957 and have been sporadically recorded since that time . the westernmost north american record for the american burying beetle is near north platte , nebraska . the most recent sightings ( 1992 - 1997 ) are from lincoln , dawson and cherry counties . the available information suggests that this species occurs rarely and locally , primarily in undisturbed areas in the eastern two - thirds of the state .\nguarisco , h . 1997 . discovery of the federally endangered american burying beetle ( nicrophorus americanus ) in the chautauqua hills of southeastern kansas . transactions of the kansas academy of science 100 : 116 - 122 .\njust give that beetle a hunk of meat . put beetle & meat in a glass jar with a ventilated lid . hours of fun for the whole family ( until it starts to stink ) .\nas adults , most carrion beetles feed on maggots , as well as on the decomposing carcass they inhabit .\nbiologists return each year to penikese island to study the survival and growth of the beetle population . hopefully , their annual visits will provide clues about the environmental conditions american burying beetles must have to live and reproduce .\nthe american burying beetle is now found in only six states : nebraska , rhode island , oklahoma , south dakota , kansas , and arkansas . there are now ongoing attempts to reintroduce it into ohio and massachesetts .\nratcliffe , b . c . & m . l . jameson . 1992 . new nebraska occurrences of the endangered american burying beetle ( coleoptera : silphidae ) . coleopterists bulletin 46 ( 4 ) : 421 - 425\nabout an inch and a half long , the american burying beetle can be identified by its striking , distinctive coloring . the body is shiny black , and on its wing covers are four scalloped , orange - red markings . most distinctively , there is an orange - red marking on the beetle ' s pronotum , a large shield - like area just behind the head . the american burying beetle has orange facial markings and orange tips on the antennae . the beetles are strong fliers , moving as far as a kilometer in one night .\nthe american burying beetle is protected under the federal species at risk act ( sara ) . more information about sara , including how it protects individual species , is available in the species at risk act : a guide .\nduring the daylight hours of the spring , summer and fall months , american carrion beetles will arrive at the carcasses of dead animals several hours after the flies arrive . there , they mate and begin to lay their own eggs .\nthe carrion beetles ( coleoptera : silphidae ) of nebraska brett ratcliffe . 1996 . university of nebraska state museum .\na symbiotic relationship - carrion beetles and mites - bandelier national monument ( u . s . national park service )\nrhode island division of fish and wildlife . american burying beetle ( nicrophorus americanus ) recovery plan . newton corner , massachusetts : u . s . fish and wildlife service . 1991 . accessed december 12 , 2008 at urltoken .\nthe immediate goal of conservation efforts is to reduce the threat of extinction by creating captive and wild populations . biologists have attempted to establish a beetle population releasing laboratory - raised american burying beetles on penikese island and nantucket island in massachusetts . biologists return each year to both islands to study the survival and growth of the beetle population .\nelytron : one of two wing cases on a beetle that protects its wings ( plural : elytra ) .\nrange : the american burying beetle has been recorded historically from at least 150 counties in 35 states in the eastern and central united states , as well as along the southern fringes of ontario , quebec and nova scotia in canada . the american burying beetle has been found in nebraska , rhode island , oklahoma , arkansas , south dakota and kansas . reintroductions are ongoing on nantucket island , ma ; wah ' kon - tah prairie , mo ; and in ohio .\nthe american carrion beetle is also known by its scientific name , necrophilia americana . it gets its name from the prominent role that the flesh of dead animals plays in its existence . for example , it lays its eggs in or around carrion , and the larvae that emerge then feed on the animal remains . the beetles are also known to feed on fungi and rotting fruit . this article will discuss where these beetles live , what they look like and their life cycle .\nthe decline of the american burying beetle is probably the result of an interplay of several complex factors that include ( 1 ) artificial lighting that decreases populations of insects active at night , ( 2 ) changing sources of carrion because of habitat alteration , ( 3 ) isolation of preferred habitat because of land use changes , ( 4 ) increased edge effect harboring more vertebrate competitors for carrion and ( 5 ) the possibility of reduced reproduction because of some genetic characteristic of the species .\nconsidering the broad geographic range formerly occupied by the american burying beetle , it is unlikely that vegetation or soil type were historically limiting . today , the american burying beetle seems to be largely restricted to areas most undisturbed by human influence . in nebraska , the sandhills is just such an area , and it is there that the beetles have been recently rediscovered . gothenburg , brady , north platte and the valentine national wildlife refuge are all locales in which beetles are now found .\nunited states department of the interior , fish and wildlife service . endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; determination of the endangered status for the american burying beetle . federal register vol . 54 , no . 133 . july 13 , 1989 .\nthere are about 30 species in north america north of mexico , some more common than others . one , the american burying beetle ( nicrophorus americanus ) , is a federally endangered species . although some types of carrion beetles can be crop pests , most of them perform a vastly important service \u2014 transforming rotting corpses into the much less offensive form of their own bodies .\ndescription : the american burying beetle is a large black insect with two distinct orange bands on each elytra ( wing covers ) . the pronotum ( shield - like structure behind the head ) is orange with a black border . each antennae is tipped with orange and there is an orange patch on the head . this large beetle is about 1 . 5 inches long .\ni remember reading that one of the reasons for the demise of carrion beatles in na was the extinction of the passenger pigeon .\nthe larvae spend about a week feeding off the carcass then crawl into the soil to pupate , or develop . mature american burying beetles emerge from the soil 45 to 60 days after their parents initially bury the carcass . adult american burying beetles live for only 12 months .\nsome species will fly to porch lights on summer evenings , so you may get lucky and find one on your front door . while we might find the carrion beetle\u2019s diet rather distasteful , these scavengers provide a vital ecological service - disposing of carcasses .\namazing to think that something that feeds on rotting carcasses would be offended by the odor a beetle produces . go figure .\nbacklund , d . c . & g . m . marrone . 1997 . new records of the endangered american burying beetle , nicrophorus americanus olivier , ( coleoptera : silphidae ) in south dakota . coleopterists ' bulletin 51 ( 1 ) : 53 - 58 .\nin the ecological sense , carrion beetles don ' t like flies , mostly because fly maggots compete directly with beetle larvae . as a way to diminish competition , adult carrion beetles begin consuming maggots as soon as the fly larvae hatch . this allows a window of opportunity in which carrion beetles can mate and lay their own eggs before fly maggots have consumed the carcass completely . unfortunately for the beetles , flies just keep on coming and laying eggs , so it ' s almost impossible to eat all the maggots that result . it would be great for carrion beetles if they had assistance in keeping flies at bay and , in fact , they do !\ngodwin , w . b . & v . minich . 2005 . status of the american burying beetle , nicrophorus americanus olivier , ( coleoptera : silphidae ) at camp maxey , lamar county , texas . interagency final report to texas army national guard . 19 pp .\nbacklund , d . , m . marcuson , d . ashton . 2001 .\namerican burying beetle\n( on - line ) . the natural source : an educator ' s guide to south dakota ' s natural resources . accessed october 13 , 2008 at urltoken .\nkozol , a . j . , m . p . scott & j . f . a . traniello . 1989 [ 1988 ] . the american burying beetle , nicrophorus americanus : studies on the natural history of a declining species . psyche 95 : 167 - 176 .\ncarrion beetles face a special problem that we see here and there in the world of animals , and when it occurs there is often an interesting adaptive result . ( this is how we know adaptation is a real thing and the diversity we see in nature is often the result of adaptatoin . ) carrion beetles lay their eggs in or on the body of dead mammals or birds . but dead mammals and birds are somewhat rare , especially the relatively undisturbed ones , the ones that are not about to be digested by something . therefore , a carrion beetle that has a trait that maximizes the use of this rare resource will have a selective advantage over carrion beetles that don\u2019t .\namerican burying beetles have been lost from the majority of their former range ; populations in the east had largely disappeared by the 1920s , whilst the decline in the american midwest was well documented in the 1980s ( 2 ) . one of the major causes of this decline in abundance is the fragmentation of available habitat ; leading to changes in the availability of carrion , increased competition , and the isolation of remaining popualtions ( 2 ) .\namerican burying beetles have been lost from the majority of their former range ; populations in the east had largely disappeared by the 1920s , whilst the decline in the american midwest was well documented in the 1980s ( 2 ) . one of the major causes of this decline in abundance is the fragmentation of available habitat ; leading to changes in the availability of carrion , increased competition , and the isolation of remaining popualtions ( 2 ) .\ndetermining a single cause for the decline of the american burying beetle would simplify and facilitate its recovery . unfortunately , the decline is probably the result of an interplay of several complex factors that include ( 1 ) artificial lighting tha decreases populations of nocturnally active insects , ( 2 ) changing sources of carrion because of habitat alteration , ( 3 ) isolation of preferred habitat because of land use changes , ( 4 ) increased edge effect harboring more vertebrate competitors for carrion and ( 5 ) the possibility of reduced reproduction because of some genetic characteristic of the species .\nlomolino , m . , j . creighton , g . schnell , d . certain . 1995 . ecology and conservation of the endangered american burying beetle ( nicrophorus americanus ) . conservation of biology , 9 / 3 : 605 - 614 . accessed december 12 , 2008 at urltoken .\n. . . species in the subfamily silphinae ( e . g . oiceoptoma noveboracense , or the american carrion beetle , necrophila americana ) utilize large vertebrate carrion ( > 300 g ) as oviposition sites , and their offspring develop by feeding on the carrion or by preying on larvae of flies or other scavengers ( knox & scott 2006 ; dekeirsschieter et al . 2011 and references therein ) . by contrast , members of the genus nicrophorus ( ' burying beetles ' , subfamily nicrophorinae ) show a unique set of behaviours by monopolizing , burying and breeding on small vertebrate carcasses ( 2\u2013300 g ) , preferably of small rodents or birds ( pukowski 1933 ; eggert & m\u20ac uller 1997 ; scott 1998 ) . . . .\ncarrion beetles are a family of beetles that feed on the bodies of dead and decaying animals . when an animal dies in the woods , it immediately begins to decompose or rot . carrion beetles eat the rotting flesh of dead animals so they are a very important kind of beneficial bug called\ndecomposers\n. if you remember the meaning of two different words , you will remember why this beetle is a beneficial bug .\ncarrion beetles have many different weapons that they use to protect themselves against attack by other predators . their defense systems also allow them to live comfortably and grow in different kinds of environments . many carrion beetles blend into their environment and can not be seen easily because they are dark black and brown in color . however , there are other carrion beetles that have bright colors like orange , yellow or red . this bright coloring warns predators to keep away . animals with bright colors can be poisonous , so the bright colors of some carrion beetles make predators think they are poisonous .\na matter of taste \u2013 the natural history of carrion beetles , by brett c . ratcliffe , curator of insects , university of nebraska state museum\namerican carrion beetles are found in most areas of the united states that are east of the rocky mountains . they more commonly reside in moist environments , and they will be more active on warmer days . as the beetles fly about , their sense of smell alerts them to the presence of dead animals .\ncarrion beetles are found all over the world . there are 46 different kinds in north america , many of which are found in the united states .\npreserve selection and design considerations : preserves must contain a continued abundance of food sources for these beetles . carrion must be between 50 and 200 grams .\nin 1983 the american burying beetle was included as an endangered species in the invertebrate red book published by the intemational union for the conservation of nature . in the united states , it was proposed as an endangered species in 1988 and was placed on the state and federal endangered species lists in august 1989\nspecifically it is the largest native species , american burying beetle ( nicrophorus americanus ) , that is now extirpated throughout most of eastern north america . they prefer chipmunk - sized carcasses , and the elimination of passenger pigeons as an abundant food source is one of several hypotheses proposed to explain their decline .\namerican burying beetles were listed as an endangered species by u . s . fish and wildlife service in 1989 . they are currently considered critically endangered by the iucn and are likely extirpated from michigan . habitat fragmentation and habitat loss are largely held responsible for the decline of this species . habitat fragmentation and deforestation has reduced populations of species that become carrion in which this species broods . increased competition with other scavengers has also contributed to the population decline of american burying beetles .\namerican burying beetles are scavengers . adults hunt for decaying carcasses , which are either used as a source of food or are buried for future use by larvae .\nmuch has been done to understand the life history of the american burying beetle and promote its recovery . a recovery plan was prepared by the u . s . fish and wildlife service . the plight of the american burying beetle was publicized . factors responsible for the decline were investigated . information was solicited on all collection records . studies of reproductive ecology and population status were conducted . surveys of historical collection localities were carried out . captive breeding populations were established . captive - raised beetles were reintroduced to a historic site at penikese island , massachusetts . the population there is being monitored and added to as necessary .\nthe family silphidae is a fairly small beetle group , with just 175 species known worldwide . of these , about 30 species inhabit north america .\nmanagement requirements : because the american burying beetle has a highly vulnerable status in the wild , the two known natural populations ( block island , rhode island and eastern oklahoma ) should be protected and maintained . another requirement is maintaining captive populations for reintroducing the beetle to its historical habitat . maintaining proper habitat ( mature forests ) , and enhancing new habitat is very important . enhancing new habitat and open fields can be done by mowing , grazing and burning .\namerican burying beetles typical live 1 year . newly emerged adults remain in the soil during the winter season and mate in the summer . adults die after raising their offspring .\nthis larva was found in the grass behind the laundry ; the adult male was found in the powercut across rt . 613 . neither were apparently near any carrion .\nlook no further than your nearest road kill if you want to collect specimens in the family silphidae . carrion beetles inhabit the remains of dead vertebrates , munching on maggots and consuming the corpse . as gross as that sounds , it ' s an important job . carrion beetles also go by the common names burying beetles and sexton beetles .\neggs laid singly on / near carrion . larvae hatch in a few days , feed in or under carcass , and pupate in a nearby soil cell . adults overwinter .\nmilne , l . j . and m . milne . 1976 . the audubon society field guide to north american insects and spiders . a . a . knopf , new york .\ncarrion beetles are important in terrestrial ecosystems , consuming dead mammals and promoting the recycling of organic matter into ecosystems . most forensic studies are focused on succession of diptera while neglecting coleoptera . so far , little information is available on carrion beetles postmortem colonization and decomposition process in temperate biogeoclimatic countries . these beetles are . . . [ show full abstract ]\n. . . carrion beetles can be used in forensic entomology as bioindicators . silphids and principally burying beetles ( nicrophorus spp . ) are widely studied in various contexts including biology and ecology ( ratcliffe 1996 ; scott 1998 ; dekeirsschieter et al . 2011 ) . these studies are absent on iranian carrion beetles and can be valuable research programs . . . .\nramel , g . 2008 .\ngordon ' s burying beetle page\n( on - line ) . the earthlife web . accessed october 13 , 2008 at urltoken .\n, including american burying beetles , have shiny black wings with distinctively marked bright orange bands on each wing cover . unlike other species , however , american burying beetles also have a pronotum , a shield - like area just behind the head . they also have a small orange patch on their face between the eyes . in males this patch is square , while it is triangular in females\namerican burying beetles provide care for their young from the time of birth until adolescence . this type of behavior is typically not observed among invertebrates outside of social bees , wasps , and termites .\nsoon after death , carcasses release volatile chemicals that attract carrion insects including silphidae . nevertheless , it is not known which chemical cues are involved in the attractiveness of the carcass . so far , little information is available on the chemical ecology of carrion beetles , particularly concerning the subfamily of silphinae . the biological role of selected cadaveric volatile . . . [ show full abstract ]\nhistorically found throughout the eastern united states and into southern canada ( 2 ) , this burying beetle is today restricted to populations in a handful of central states ( 3 ) .\nhistorically found throughout the eastern united states and into southern canada ( 2 ) , this burying beetle is today restricted to populations in a handful of central states ( 3 ) .\nof principal importance to the beetles and their young is burial of the food resource , which effectively removes it from intense competition by maggots , other carrion - feeding insects and even mammal scavengers .\nof principal importance to the beetles and their young is burial of the food resource , which effectively removes it from the arena of intense competition by maggots , other carrion - feeding insects and even mammal scavengers . carrion is an ephemeral , unpredictably encountered food source , and its\nbonanza\nnature is so valuable to the prospective parents that they bury it to keep it from being stolen .\nother theories for the decline exist . ddt was unlikely responsible , for the decline had occurred 25 years before ddt was used . a species specific disease is unlikely , though not impossible . populations of other carrion beetle species have remained largely intact . american burying beetles appear to have broad habitat tolerances , so direct habitat loss was unlikely responsible initially . once populations of burying beetles become isolated , though , habitat loss can become an important factor . movements between habitats occurs less frequently . genetic variation suffers . interspecific competition at the genus level also comes into play once a species is geographically isolated .\nhistorical records show that this beetle once lived in 35 states , the district of columbia , and three canadian provinces . now , natural populations are known to occur in only four states : rhode island , oklahoma , arkansas , and nebraska . biologists are not sure what led to the disappearance of this insect from so many areas and are attempting to determine the reasons for its decline . as part of this ongoing research , and in an attempt to establish another beetle population , biologists have released laboratory - raised american burying beetles on penikese island in massachusetts , historical habitat of the animal .\nseveral groups of beetles eat carrion . those in the carrion beetle family are flattened , usually black , often with markings of red , orange , or yellow . the shell - like forewings ( elytra ) have a distinctive shape , wider toward the end of the body and narrower toward the front . in many species , the elytra are too short to cover the final 1 to 3 segments of the abdomen tip . the antennae are distinctively clubbed , often with minute hairs or colors at the very tip . these beetles often secrete or spray foul - smelling substances , or just plain smell bad themselves .\nthe bright bands of red or orange on the wings of many carrion beetles warn potential predators that they won\u2019t make a very delicious meal , so don\u2019t bother tasting them . there\u2019s something to be said for the old adage \u201cyou are what you eat . \u201d carrion beetles , after all , feed on rotting flesh , and all the bacteria that goes along with it . silphids apparently taste and smell like death .\nthe famous entomologist j . henri fabre wrote that carrion beetles make \u201ca clearance of death on behalf of life . \u201d when we overcome our revulsion , we , too , can appreciate these interesting little grave diggers .\nthe emerging beetle larvae will feed on both the raw flesh and the other larvae within it . the adult beetles will often consume other feeding insects to eliminate competition for food . this makes it easier for the beetle larvae to adequately feed and survive . the larvae eventually burrow into the surrounding soil where they spend the winter . they emerge from their pupal stage the next spring , and they mature into adult beetles .\nmy favorite spotting of one of these beetles was floating in a swimming pool . the beetle was not moving anymore and the mites were huddled away from the slowly encroaching water . it was \u201ctitanic\u201d in miniature .\nscott , m . p . & j . f . a . traniello . 1987 . behavioral cues trigger ovarian development in the burying beetle nicrophorus tomentosus . j . insect physiol . 33 : 693 - 696 .\nin addition to the known populations in rhode island and oklahoma , american burying beetles were collected in ontario , kentucky , arkansas , missouri and nebraska as late as 1970 . if the species still exists in these areas , it is very localized .\nthe specific habitat requirements of this species are not fully understood and it appears that the availability of carrion may be the limiting factor . in nebraska , beetles have been observed in grassland prairie , scrubland and forest edges ( 2 ) .\nthe specific habitat requirements of this species are not fully understood and it appears that the availability of carrion may be the limiting factor . in nebraska , beetles have been observed in grassland prairie , scrubland and forest edges ( 2 ) .\nlomolino , m . , j . creighton . 1996 . habitat selection , breeding success and conservation of endangered american burying beetle nicrophorus americanus . biological conservation , 77 / 2 - 3 : 235 - 241 . accessed december 12 , 2008 at urltoken ; = c & _ searchstrid = 1736308362 & _ rerunorigin = google & _ acct = c000050221 & _ version = 1 & _ urlversion = 0 & _ userid = 10 & md5 ; = ae8948e2d37cc281ab2230acd41e4ee0 & searchtype ; = a .\nfisher , richard m , and robert d tuckerman .\nmimicry of bumble bees and cuckoo bumble bees by carrion beetles ( coleoptera : silphidae ) .\njournal of the kansas entomological society 59 . 1 ( 1986 ) : 20 - 25 .\nthough carrion beetles as a family range in size from just a few millimeters to as long as 35 mm , most species we commonly encounter top 10 mm in length . silphids have clubbed antennae , and tarsi ( feet ) with 5 joints .\ncarrion beetles also have chemical defenses . they secrete a strong , smelly odor that irritates other bugs and small animals . they can even spray the odor at predators to keep them away . they move the end of their abdomen around and spray in all directions .\nthe larvae spend about a week feeding off the carcass then crawl into the soil to pupate , or develop . mature n . americanus beetles emerge from the soil 45 to 60 days after their parents initially bury the carcass . adult american burying beetles live for only 12 months .\nrotting vegetation and dead animals may not sound good to you , but this insect finds it all pretty tasty . nature ' s leftovers are its bread and butter ! this distinctive beetle is found on a variety of dead animals including mammals , fishes , snakes and frogs . breaking down all of this garbage into useful soil nutrients is a dirty job , but carrion beetles are good at it . their life cycle is so well known that forensic investigators use them to investigate the time of death of human remains .\npeck , s . b . & m . m . kaulbars . 1987 . a synopsis of the distribution and bionomics of the carrion beetles ( coleoptera : silphidae ) of the conterminous united states . proceedings of the entomological society of ontario 118 : 47 - 81 .\n. . . carrion is rather ephemeral and unpredictable food source therefore species have to be able to locate it quickly and at the right moment ( dekeirsschieter et al . , 2011 ) . this is crucial especially in severe competition of other necrophagous species . . . .\nafter burial , the beetles strip away fur or feathers and work the mass into a compact ball . they will then\ninoculate\nthe remains with secretions that preserve the carrion and modify the course of decomposition . the female constructs a short chamber above the carrion in which she lays from 10 to 30 eggs . returning to the carcass , she prepares a conical depression on top of it . both parents regurgitate droplets of partly digested food into the depression . the fluid accumulates as food for the larvae that hatch in a few days .\n. . . one domain is that of forensic entomology , applying the study of insects and other arthropods to criminal investigation . so far , only recently more extensive research on forensic application of beetle data has started ( dekeirsschieter et al . , 2011b ; matuszewski , 2012 , matuszewski et al . , 2008matuszewski & szafa\u0142owicz , 2013 ) . carrion ( whether human or animal ) is often referred to as a functional ecosystem ( barton et al . , 2013 ; villet , 2011 ; colijn , 2014 ) . . . .\ncarrion beetles and other decomposers are important because they get rid of dead matter by eating it and breaking it down into smaller pieces that can be placed back into the ecosystem . the small pieces of dead animals become nutrients that other animals and plants can feed on . some kinds of carrion beetles actually bury small animal carcasses so that they can lay their eggs on it ( the eggs will be safer under the ground ) . when carcasses are buried , they decompose faster and don ' t smell as much - helping to keep our environment cleaner .\nan impressive example of adaptive behaviour and the complexity of relationships between species . when i first saw the picture , i thought the mites were simply parasiting the beetle , but the truth turns out to be far less simple and more fascinating . thanks for sharing !\nthe mites on nicrophorus are not always beneficial : blackman , s . w . 1997 . experimental evidence that the mite poecilochirus davydovae ( mesostigmata : parasitidae ) eats the eggs of its beetle host . journal of zoology 242 ( 1 ) : 63 - 67 .\nanderson , r . s . & s . b . peck . 1985 . the insects and arachnids of canada . part 13 . the carrion beetles of canada and alaska ( coleoptera : silphidae and agyrtidae ) . publication 1778 , research branch agriculture canada , ottawa . 121 pp .\ndavis , l . r . , jr . 1980 . notes on beetle distributions , with a discussion of nicrophorus americanus olivier and its abundance in collections ( coleoptera : scarabaeidae , lampyridae , and silphidae ) . coleopterists bulletin 34 ( 2 ) : 245 - 251 .\nalthough this species historically ranged from southern maine to south dakota and south to texas and florida ( temperate eastern north america ) , and was widely distributed within its range , the american burying beetle is currently known to exist in only two locations . one population is on block island , rhode island . the other is a recently discovered population in eastern oklahoma . habitats occupied on block island include maritime shrub thickets and grazed fields ( coastal moraine grasslands ) . oklahoma sites are representative of the forest / pasture ecotone and open pastures in a ridge and valley area of that state .\nkozol , a . j . , j . f . a . traniello & s . m . williams . 1994 . genetic variation in the endangered burying beetle nicrophorus americanus ( coleoptera : silphidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america 87 : 928 - 935 .\nwhen a dead person is found , forensic scientists analyze the age and life cycle stages of carrion beetles present and thus can determine an approximate time of death \u2014 which helps solve crimes . also , by competing with fly maggots , burying beetles help control the numbers of flies that annoy people .\nthis is known as the life / lunch dichotomy . in the competition for the use of the meaty carcass of a dead mouse , if the fly loses out it gives up the equivalent of lunch \u2026 there are still other opportunities , in this case , poop , for it\u2019s young to eat . the carrion beetle , however , may be giving up its life ( or the life of its offspring , really ) because mouse carcasses are very rare , so if the one carcass it manages to locate is eaten up by fly maggots , it\u2019s offspring will not survive .\nn . americanus is between 25 and 45 mm long and can be identified by its striking , distinctive coloring . the body is shiny black , and on its wing covers are four scalloped , orange - red markings . most distinctively , there is an orange - red marking on the beetle ' s pronotum , a large shield - like area just behind the head . n . americanus has orange facial markings and orange tips on their large antennae . the beetle is nocturnal and is a strong flier , moving as far as a kilometer in one night .\nwhile the relationship between beetle and mites is not as black and white as described it is interesting to see evolutionary principles applied to this detail of nicrophorus behavior . of course , the beetle\u2019s efforts to secure the rare resource for its offspring go much further \u2013 when the pair prepares the carcass for burial they reshape it and may well get rid of or destroy other eggs / larvae . they also stay underground and feed their young larvae \u2013 overall a level of involvement that\u2019s rare in beetles and understandable under the premises that you describe in your third paragraph ."]}
{"id": 1875, "summary": [{"text": "the yellow-winged pytilia ( pytilia hypogrammica ) , also known as the red-faced pytilia , is an african estrildid finch .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it has an estimated global extent of occurrence of 250,000 km \u00b2 .", "topic": 19}, {"text": "it is commonly found in benin , burkina faso , cameroon , central african republic , chad , the democratic republic of the congo , c\u00f4te d'ivoire , ghana , guinea , liberia , nigeria , sierra leone and togo . ", "topic": 20}], "title": "yellow - winged pytilia", "paragraphs": ["scientific name : pytilia phoenicoptera = red winged . pytilia hypogrammica = yellow winged pytilia .\ncommon name / s : aurora finch , aurora waxbill , crimson winged pytilia , red faced pytilia , red winged pytilia , yellow winged pytilia .\nstatus in ( australian ) captivity : red winged = secure . red faced and yellow winged are harder to find .\na / a vol 59 no . 2 feb 2005 page 25 - 26 ( yellow winged pytilia - cover photo ) .\nthe yellow - winged pytilia ( pytilia hypogrammica ) , also known as the red - faced pytilia , is an african estrildid finch . it has an estimated global extent of occurrence of 250 , 000 km 2 .\nstrike three in formulating my tree of pytilia genetics was / is the continuing debate as to the notion of the \u2018split\u2019 red - winged pytilia . some say that if a red - winged pytilia has one yellow parent it must be a split \u2013 in other words even though it looks like a red - winged pytilia it carries the gene for yellow wing colour in its genetic make up and if two such splits are mated together then it is possible to obtain yellow winged offspring .\nthe basics : the yellow - winged pytilia is a dashing african waxbill that shares a very close relationship ( and sometimes the name aurora finch ) with the red - winged pytilia . the rather rare yellow - wing is found in mostly open country in western central africa .\ni have had no experience in keeping the yellow - winged pytilia , a colour variation of the red - faced pytilia , which is difficult to obtain and is kept by a few breeders , predominantly in victoria and tasmania . the red - faced pytilia is the dominant species , so let us hope that the dedicated few who are lucky enough to own the yellow - winged pytilia will have much success in keeping them .\ncost ( victoria ) per pair : - red faced ( approx . ) $ 250 . red winged approx . $ 100 . yellow winged approx . $ 500 .\ngreen - winged pytilia - pytilia melba - this common species of finch belongs to the family estrididae . it is found throughout most of sub - saharan af\u2026 | pinteres\u2026\nappearance : the adult male yellow - winged pytilia is much like the red - winged pytilia , a bird with a gray background color that possesses barred underparts and a red rump . however , his primary feathers are yellow instead of red , and he has a bright red face and a black tail . the female lacks the red face and is overall somewhat duller .\nin australia , the melba finch pytilia melba and the aurora finch pytilia phoenicoptera are extremely popular and have been kept with good breeding results , for decades . in recent years , there has been increased interest in the red - faced pytilia pytilia hypogrammica and its very close look - alike , the yellow - winged red - faced pytilia , which is a colour variation with the same scientific name . it is not a subspecies .\nbreeders can have a struggle setting up pairs . it ' s a tough call to distinguish the yellow - winged pytilia female from its cousin , the red - winged pytilia . the birds may agree about that , since the two species apparently hybridize where they overlap in the wild . in captivity , you might sometimes encounter a red - faced , red - winged pytilia which turns out to be a yellow - winged pytilia with a bit of red - wing in its background . the red wing color is dominant over the yellow . australian breeders in particular have noted that they may have trouble finding pure - bred examples of either of these two species . fortunately , the hybrid is beautiful and requires the same care .\nbehavior / temperament : the yellow - winged pytilia is held in high regard by serious aviculturists as a peaceful aviary bird but the pure form may have been somewhat forgotten in the rush to create the more colorful red - faced red - winged pytilia hybrid . the nickname red - faced aurora adds to the confusion as well . this species does not like humans disturbing or checking their nest .\nhousing : yellow - winged pytilias will show beautifully in a large planted aviary , but you must monitor the situation to make sure that there is enough cover and nest sites for all the birds to nest safely without conflict . you should not allow them to share quarters with melba finches or other pytilias , because they will hybridize . an additional issue is that the feisty male melba finch may attack other red - faced birds , including his cousin , the yellow - winged pytilia .\npayne , r . ( 2018 ) . yellow - winged pytilia ( pytilia hypogrammica ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nthe red - winged and yellow - winged pytilias are very similar in appearance with the males of both \u2018types\u2019 having the distinctive red head and , as the name suggests , with one having red wings and the other yellow . i once read somewhere that the husbandry for all three was very similar but it has been our experience that the aurora is the far easier species to propagate than either of the other \u2018types\u2019 .\nbasic seed mix should include canary seed , white french millet , japanese millet , and yellow and red panicum .\nthe family of finches called pytilia are a colourful and popular group of finches that are always in demand by australian and overseas aviculturists alike .\nthe red - faced pytilia ( pytilia hypogrammica ) is a beautiful species that has gained popularity in recent years . it is very similar in nature to the aurora finch , although the plumage is more colourful . as the cock becomes older , the colourful plumage intensifies . the hen is slightly darker in colour than the aurora finch hen .\nmaybe , just maybe , this all came about because of the infusion of aurora blood that went into both the red & yellow - winged forms throughout their journey in our aviaries . every honest pytilia keeper will cite an example of where they purchased a pair of red - wing pytilas only to find they had a red - wing cock and a\nhen\nnormal aurora male ! ! i even know of one person who used to cull these\ngrey headed hybrids\nuntil i assured him that they were normal auroras and not some new hybrid at all .\nfast forward a few months and he rang me back and said he had just had a \u2018hen\u2019 yellow - wing dna sexed and it confirmed that the bird was a cock \u2013 yes , a yellow - wing cock with no red head at all ! ! following that a few people i knew started to report similar \u2018occurrences\u2019 within their flocks . turned out that these startling throwback hens were in fact startling throwback cocks ! !\nsome breeders have enjoyed success in large cages that give the birds room to fly , court , and exercise , without coming into contact with competitors . a good size for each pair would be 36\u201d wide by 24\u201d deep by 18\u201d tall . have barriers between the cages so that the pairs can hear but not see each other . all pytilias are sensitive to cold and damp , so your aviary yellow - winged pytilias will need access to warm , dry winter quarters .\nhowever , you cannot ultimately expect much success with yellow - winged pytilias unless you provide a good supply of live insects . variety may be important , and you may wish to construct a home trap for collecting small moths , beetles , and so on , as well as providing the standard small commercial insects like mealworms and waxworms . in the wild , they prefer termites , and some australian breeders have experimented with supplying termites , but most homeowners won ' t be willing to risk it .\nnow when we first reached the top of a breeder\u2019s sale list and were able to obtain 2 pairs of both yellow & red - wings there were a few differences that appear to have disappeared from the present day birds available in australia .\nsome unscrupulous breeders may attempt to pass off an aurora finch hen for a red - faced pytilia hen , so be aware of this and buy only from reputable breeders . the husbandry of this species is identical to that of the aurora finch .\nsome say this is set in concrete other say it is not . unfortunately i cannot contribute to this debate suffice to say that when i once had a cock yellow - wing and a hen red - wing breed in a holding aviary all six youngsters had red wings .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : pytilia hypogrammica . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\ndiet : the pytilias have thinner beaks and larger bodies than the other waxbills , reflecting the fact that they crack fewer seeds and devour more insects . true , the backbone of the diet is a high quality small seed mix , fresh enough to sprout \u2013 and you should test it by sprouting regularly . the yellow - winged pytilias love the milky seeding heads of grasses , in addition to the sprouts . . you should also supply a finely chopped salad that includes greens , apple , carrot , and broccoli , as well as eggfood and / or a high quality finch pellet that the birds will eat .\nhow do i know ? well , i also received one of these birds - supposedly a hen pytilia but in reality a cock aurora \u2013 and when paired to a normal hen aurora produced me a couple of nests of normal healthy auroras . not a red head feather on any of them i hasten to add ! !\nhealth wise they have a reputation for suddenly \u2018fluffing up\u2019 with very few fully recovering . if you have them autopsied the usual cause of death comes back as liver damage but we have yet been able to pin - point the causes of this . droppings show the usual signs of malabsorption and tend to be a cheesy yellow colour and very large .\n[ home ] [ up ] [ aberdeen finch ] [ african silverbill ] [ aurora finch ] [ bamboo parrotfinch ] [ bengalese mannikin ] [ black headed nun ] [ black headed siskin ] [ black rumped waxbill ] [ canary ] [ chaffinch ] [ cordon bleu waxbill ] [ cuban finch ] [ dybowski ' s twinspot ] [ eurasian siskin ] [ european greenfinch ] [ european serin ] [ european siskin ] [ golden song sparrow ] [ goldfinch ] [ green backed twinspot ] [ green singing finch ] [ green strawberry finch ] [ grey headed silverbill ] [ grey singing finch ] [ himalayan greenfinch ] [ hooded red siskin ] [ hooded yellow siskin ] [ jacarini finch ] [ java finch ] [ javan munia ] [ lavender waxbill ] [ linnet ] [ melba finch ] [ mexican rose finch ] [ orange breasted waxbill ] [ orange cheeked waxbill ] [ oriental greenfinch ] [ peale ' s parrotfinch ] [ peter ' s twinspot ] [ pin tailed parrotfinch ] [ plain backed sparrow ] [ purple finch ] [ purple grenadier waxbill ] [ pytilia ] [ red billed firefinch ] [ red crested cardinal ] [ red crested finch ] [ red faced parrotfinch ] [ red headed parrotfinch ] [ redpoll finch ] [ red strawberry finch ] [ rufous backed mannikin ] [ st . helena seedeater ] [ st . helena waxbill ] [ saffron finch ] [ silver headed nun ] [ spice finch ] [ tri coloured nun ] [ tri coloured parrotfinch ] [ violet eared waxbill ] [ white bellied canary ] [ white rumped munia ] [ yellowhammer ] [ yellow rumped serin ] [ yellow rumped siskin ]\nthe melba finch ( pytilia melba ) is considered the most colourful of this group and as such is the most popular . this particular species always catches the eye of beginners and experienced breeders alike . in recent years there has been a very high demand for these finches . however , as the numbers available to meet this demand are low , there has been a fairly sharp increase in this bird\u2019s retail price .\nthe most obvious was the colour of the hens \u2013 these were vivid grey much akin to the cock aurora and nothing at all like the dour hen aurora . the hens also had fine stippling of black lines through the chest feathers and were striking in their own right . this is no longer the case with many hen red & yellow - wings resembling hen auroras and it is a rarity to see the dark coloured hens .\nthe pytilia species discussed have similar housing and feeding requirements . i feed a basic commercial finch mix during the non - breeding season . as the breeding season commences i add niger seed , maw , linseed and black and white lettuce seed . i also introduce a dry egg and biscuit mix along with plan madeira cake . the birds show more interest in grit , when they start nesting . during this period i substitute the basic small plain grit for a mix containing charcoal , canundra shell and baked crushed fowl eggshells .\ndue to their less colourful plumage the aurora finch ( pytilia phoenicoptera ) is not as popular as the melba finch . however , in my experience , this species is easier to breed and keep than the melba finch and is not as aggressive or as intimidating . their reliance on livefood is high but not as high as that of the melba finch . they tend not to be as tight sitters as melba finches so nest inspections or disturbance should be avoided . as these birds like thick , well - protected nest sites , plenty of tea - tree branches lining the aviary shelter is a definite asset .\nof the pytilia family , the melba finch is the most heavily reliant on livefood . they will abandon chicks if a good supply of livefood is not continuously supplied . this reliance on livefood has seen a geographical trend , as to where this bird is more popularly kept . in the past , larger inner city areas have not been recognised as a stronghold for this bird . this species was bred in areas with large population of termites . in new south wales the species has been bred in numbers in the hunter valley and the southern highlands , where there are plenty of termites . in recent years , breeders from non - traditional areas are having success by offering the birds bush fly maggots instead of termites .\nso if you are looking for the ultimate finch breeding challenge you could do worse than consider tackling the pytilia family . a large group of australian breeders worked tirelessly to ensure that we would have all three species remaining in our aviaries for years to come so the rest of us mere mortals owe it to them to preserve their\nlegacy\n! before purchasing these species try and gain as much information from breeders as possible and be prepared for some heartbreak along the way , but stick to it as these are one of the most stunning finches available to us . if after several attempts you have not managed to \u2018crack\u2019 this species you can always join us at finch keepers anonymous where you can announce yourself with\nhi , my name is\u2026\u2026 . . and i\u2019ve been keeping pytilis for too long ! ! !\nwe\u2019ll all understand ! ! !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ndepartamento de inmunologia , facultad de medicina , universidad complutense de madrid , avenida complutense s / n , 28040 madrid , spain .\nestrildid finches are distributed throughout africa , south asia , australia and neighbouring islands in the indian and pacific oceans . some specific phylogenetic and systematic debated questions have been clarified in the present study by mitochondrial cytochrome b dna sequencing of 61 species of estrildids and subsequent analyses of results by both bayesian inference and maximum likelihood methodologies . our results support that estrildids are a monophyletic group with polytomies that may have started evolving by middle miocene epoch ( about 16 , 5 million years ago ) . this proposed timing is coincidental with the fringillinae finches\u2019 radiation starting time and also with the biggest hymalayan and tibetan plateau uplift , triggered by the indian tectonic plate strongest collision ; this established present day southern asia monsoon regime and other drastic climatic changes , like a dryer weather in tibetan plateau and china deserts . the estrildid finches form a monophyletic group which includes several polytomies and comprises african , asian and australian birds . the most ancient evolutive group comprises african ( african silverbill ) , asian ( indian silverbill ) and australian ( diamond firetail ) ; this suggests that the whole estrildids radiation might have originated around india . more estrildid species will be studied in order to further establish this group phylogeography . in addition , monophyletic radiations include species from different continents . finally , ploceinae genus quelea finches is a group separate and basal from estrildini and viduini species in our dendrograms .\nopen access will revolutionize 21 st century knowledge work and accelerate the diffusion of ideas and evidence that support just in time learning and the evolution of thinking in a number of disciplines .\nit is important that students and researchers from all over the world can have easy access to relevant , high - standard and timely scientific information . this is exactly what open access journals provide and this is the reason why i support this endeavor .\npublishing research articles is the key for future scientific progress . open access publishing is therefore of utmost importance for wider dissemination of information , and will help serving the best interest of the scientific community .\nopen access journals are a novel concept in the medical literature . they offer accessible information to a wide variety of individuals , including physicians , medical students , clinical investigators , and the general public . they are an outstanding source of medical and scientific information .\nopen access journals are extremely useful for graduate students , investigators and all other interested persons to read important scientific articles and subscribe scientific journals . indeed , the research articles span a wide range of area and of high quality . this is specially a must for researchers belonging to institutions with limited library facility and funding to subscribe scientific journals .\nopen access journals represent a major break - through in publishing . they provide easy access to the latest research on a wide variety of issues . relevant and timely articles are made available in a fraction of the time taken by more conventional publishers . articles are of uniformly high quality and written by the world ' s leading authorities .\nopen access journals have transformed the way scientific data is published and disseminated : particularly , whilst ensuring a high quality standard and transparency in the editorial process , they have increased the access to the scientific literature by those researchers that have limited library support or that are working on small budgets .\nnot only do open access journals greatly improve the access to high quality information for scientists in the developing world , it also provides extra exposure for our papers .\nopen access ' chemistry ' journals allow the dissemination of knowledge at your finger tips without paying for the scientific content .\nin principle , all scientific journals should have open access , as should be science itself . open access journals are very helpful for students , researchers and the general public including people from institutions which do not have library or cannot afford to subscribe scientific journals . the articles are high standard and cover a wide area .\nthe widest possible diffusion of information is critical for the advancement of science . in this perspective , open access journals are instrumental in fostering researches and achievements .\nopen access journals are very useful for all scientists as they can have quick information in the different fields of science .\nthere are many scientists who can not afford the rather expensive subscriptions to scientific journals . open access journals offer a good alternative for free access to good quality scientific information .\nopen access journals have become a fundamental tool for students , researchers , patients and the general public . many people from institutions which do not have library or cannot afford to subscribe scientific journals benefit of them on a daily basis . the articles are among the best and cover most scientific areas .\nthese journals provide researchers with a platform for rapid , open access scientific communication . the articles are of high quality and broad scope .\nopen access journals are probably one of the most important contributions to promote and diffuse science worldwide .\nopen access journals make up a new and rather revolutionary way to scientific publication . this option opens several quite interesting possibilities to disseminate openly and freely new knowledge and even to facilitate interpersonal communication among scientists .\nopen access journals are freely available online throughout the world , for you to read , download , copy , distribute , and use . the articles published in the open access journals are high quality and cover a wide range of fields .\nopen access journals offer an innovative and efficient way of publication for academics and professionals in a wide range of disciplines . the papers published are of high quality after rigorous peer review and they are indexed in : major international databases . i read open access journals to keep abreast of the recent development in my field of study .\nit is a modern trend for publishers to establish open access journals . researchers , faculty members , and students will be greatly benefited by the new journals of bentham science publishers ltd . in this category .\nmale having red wings , as well as red face , described as p . lopezi ( type from near bunda , in central african republic ) , but considered a morph or , possibly , a race of present species ; further study required . monotypic .\nw guinea e to s chad and w central african republic ( on r shari ) , s to coastal ghana and togo .\n12\u00b75 cm ; 14\u00b73 - 15 g . male has face from forehead to ear - coverts and down to cheek and throat red , lores grey ; crown to back grey , rump and uppertail - coverts red . . .\nalarm call notes rise from 1 khz to 2\u00b74 khz ( most energy at 2\u00b76 khz and an overtone at 3\u00b74 khz ) , . . .\nmature s guinean woodland and derived bushland , edges of riverine forest , coastal thickets , woods . . .\nsmall grass seeds ; also insects , mainly termites ( isoptera ) and ants ( formicidae ) . in examination of contents of 19 stomachs , seeds found . . .\nseason oct\u2013jan in nigeria . courting male bows to female , tail angled toward her , and calls ; in another display , male holds feather in . . .\nnot globally threatened . uncommon to locally fairly common ; uncommon to rare in several parts of range . rare in liberia , and uncommon to rare in burkina faso and benin ; . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as scarce and little known ( clement 1999 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be stable in the absence of evidence for any declines or substantial threats .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\naverage size : 11 - 13 centimeters ( 4 . 5 - 5 in . )\nthese birds are beautiful and sweet , and while very friendly , unlike most finches they are not easily handled , but make for great viewing and companionship . their chirps are lovely . these birds prefer the company of many of their peers , so dont keep just one ! i love finches for their sweet quality . these birds will build their own nest in the brush or will use a finch nest box but do like a small plant pot with an open end attached to the wall , so make sure you give them a space to cuddle ! .\nto those with a scientific bent is a denizen of sierra leone , north - east guinea through to cameroon in africa .\nthe aurora or p . phoenicoptera is a common exotic finch species which is a free breeder and has a charming quiet disposition in the aviary .\nsimilar to the blue - cap i believe the frequency of live food delivery is a key factor with this species . they eat both smaller & mini mealworms and maggots with relish but , naturally , favour termites ( white ants ) when feeding young . in case you do not feed termites relax as we have bred them here in tasmania without them as have a number of english aviculturists that ian spoke to .\nthey seem ambivalent to green food and soaked / sprouted seed in my aviaries but a mate tells me his birds love the lowe - type blended vegetable mix he feeds \u2013 yet our initial stock came from the same source ! ! they also love the african waxbill mix we feed as outlined in an earlier edition of australian birdkeeper \u2013 in fact blue - caps . orange cheeks and pytilias seem to be drawn to this mix .\na general finch mix is fed \u2013 we use elenbee seeds clifton finch mix \u2013 supplemented with a little extra red panicum .\ni have also seen them build behind seed hoppers , bowls and small cages in their aviary \u2013 unfortunately eggs can be and regularly are lost if the nest is not supportive enough ! i favour the medium sized cane wicker baskets feely available in good pet outlets . white medium sized emu feathers are favoured to line the nest while swamp / november / blown grass is a firm favourite for the nest proper . if made solely from this grass the nest has a propensity to be brittle and non - supportive so watch that eggs do not fall through !\npairs are variable as to nest inspection so know your birds well before checking nests . young pairs seem to be infertile for their first few nests so it is not such a bad idea to inspect nests to avoid them spending days sitting on clear eggs or even laying fresh eggs amid old , rotten ones !\nin keeping with the aurora they are a placid species and we do not recommend keeping them in with the more boisterous finches as they tend to be dominated by such species . in my specialist flights i keep them with a pair of blue - capped waxbills in a 3x1m flight .\nchicks are black and easily identified if found jettisoned on the floor . i have had some success rearing difficult finches under the\nnew\njavan munias but they have baulked at rearing pytilias so far !\nas a general rule of\nfinchkeepers thumb\nwe recommend a 3 monthly worming regime supplemented with coccidian control medication at least 3 times a year or even concurrently with your worming program \u2013 depending upon your climatic conditions .\nthis species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be stable , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\n* small bird with generally green - grey plumage * the male has a prominent res ' mask ' . red upperside of the tail . * size : about 12 cm\nas an aviary species , the melba finch can be aggressive in mixed collections . one of my hens killed three cocks in succession until i caught her in the act . this species can be overzealous when protecting their nests .\nthese birds require an enclosed aviary where they can seek shelter from bad weather . long periods of wet weather are not good for this species and they will succumb if adequate shelter is not provided .\nin australia , the melba finch and the aurora finch are extremely popular and have been kept with good breeding results , for decades .\nduring the breeding season , livefood is increased and is essential . termites are excellent and have been the most widely used . as termites are becoming harder to obtain , i now supply bush fly maggots with great success . all my birds take these without hesitation . to provide dietary variety i also feed mealworms . some breeders have had success using fruit fly and crickets .\ngreenfoods in the form of summer grass , winter grass , chickweed and seeding millets are also consumed . these species are not as reliant on greenfood as our native finch species , however they will consume a reasonable amount .\nthese species will breed in very dense cover and show no preference for live shrubs over tea - tree branches . my birds have bred in both nest boxes , tins and gourds and sometimes build their own nests . nests are lined with feathers , coconut fibre and finer grasses such as november grass .\nnest disturbances or inspections must not be undertaken as the finches will toss young out easily . once they breed they can produce nests in quick succession . it is wise to house only compatible pairs in the breeding aviary , and previous young should be removed , as unmated adults or previous young are inquisitive and can cause disturbances to nesting pairs .\nthe clutch size is usually 4 - 6 eggs with a reasonably high fertility rate of 70 - 75 % . incubation lasts for approximately 13 days with fledglings leaving the nest three weeks later .\nas with many species , chicks will often leave the nest early and are difficult to return to the nest . in warm weather i place a good quantity of soft grass on the shelter floor , which in my set - up is separate from the flights and the chicks snuggle up in this for a few days until they fly . in cold weather i put them in a carry box overnight and return them to the aviary the next morning .\nif these birds are provided with good quality food and well - sheltered aviaries they will thrive and produce many healthy chicks . they are a long - lived and hardy species that deserve a place in your aviary .\n\u00a9 2018 hawkesbury finch club . all rights reserved . website by roy peake .\nthe hawkesbury finch club is a branch of the finch society of australia inc . and has been established since 1986 . we are located at the castlereagh community hall , on the corner of\nat the foot of the blue mountains . it will only take you approximately 13 minutes from the mulgoa road exit on the m4 . the club meets at 7 . 30pm on the fourth wednesday of each month , except december .\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 292 , 087 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nwe specialise in xxxxxxxx birds / product contact us on : ( 0x ) xxxx xxxx or e - mail us @ . . . . . . . . . . . . .\ntemperament : do well in a mixed finch collection with one pair of these birds per aviary . generally less aggressive than the melba finch .\nlength : approx . 115 - 120 mm ( or about 4 . 5 - 5 inches )\ncolour (\nnormal\ncolour ) : refer photo / s above if available .\nread notes on\nfinches - non australian\nweb page and use in conjunction with details outlined on this page .\nlevel of knowledge required : beginner / intermediate / advanced / specialist breeders only .\ngovernment regulations & by - laws : refer to\ngovernment laws\nweb page .\nhousing requirements : click on\nhousing birds\nweb page for general details on the housing of non australian finches or read on for specific details for this finch .\nthe aurora finch likes a planted aviary . the aurora finch likes to forage on the ground so care must be taken to ensure the floor of the aviary or cage is kept clean . mating and courtship may take place at ground level so it is preferable to have an open area on the floor of the aviary . the open area on the floor is often covered with a layer of dry sand .\nthey can be bred in a canary style breeder cage of about 900mm long x 400mm high x 400mm deep ( 36 x 16 x 16 inches ) . only one breeding pair per cage .\ndo not mix the different types of aurora finch as the birds will hybridize . the aurora is closely related to the melba finch and should not be housed with melba ' s so as to avoid hybridization .\ndiet / feeding : click on\nfeeding birds\nweb page for general details on the nutrition of non australian finches or read on for specific details for this finch .\nthe aurora finch requires a good quality finch seed mix , seeding grasses and some fruits ( e . g . apple ) and vegetables . leafy green vegetables can be offered , e . g . silverbeet , cos lettuce & endive . sprouted or soaked seed if available . live food is not essential during the non - breeding season but is beneficial . live food is essential during the breeding season . mealworms are commonly used . small crickets can be used .\nnesting months : spring to early autumn , but may breed year round if conditions are suitable .\nnesting receptacles : the aurora finch will build a dome shaped nest in a shrub or dry brush such as tea tree . equally it will build a nest in a wide variety of artificial nests .\nnest : the cock bird will make a dome shaped nest from grasses , coconut fibre , moss and soft materials . nest is lined by the hen with feathers and soft fine grasses .\nwho incubates the eggs : hen at night / cock / both share during the day .\nthe nest is usually built at mid height in the aviary . nest inspections are not recommended . young should be removed from the parent birds as soon as they are fully independent so as to avoid possible aggression from a parent . more details on finch nests and a selection of finch nest photos can be located on the\nnests\n,\nfinch nests\nand\nfinch nest photos\nweb pages . click on\nup\nthen\nnests\nthen\nfinch nests\nand\nfinch nests photos\nin the navigation bars .\nbreeding : egg colour white . clutch / s per year 3 . eggs per nest 3 - 5 . incubation approx . 12 - 13 days . fledge approx . 21 days . independent approx . another 3 - 4 weeks .\ndo not mix the different types of aurora finch as the birds will hybridize . live food is essential during the breeding season . nest inspections are generally not tolerated . adequate new nest material must be available for the hen to rebuild the old nest or build a new nest for the next clutch . the aurora finch is closely related to the melba finch and should not be housed with melba ' s so as to avoid hybridization . it is best to restrict the adult breeding pair to 3 clutches per breeding season .\nyoung birds ( when they become fully independent ) must be removed when bred in a cage . generally safe to remove the young from the parent birds about 4 weeks after they have left the nest .\nartificial incubation , hand rearing or fostering will not be covered on this web site . it is too complex and diverse in nature to be attempted here . refer\nspecific references\nas listed below and\ngeneral references\nlistings .\nhealth issues : refer\navian health issues\nweb page for information and references .\nworming and parasite control and quarantine requirements of new birds or sick birds are considered to require veterinary advice and therefore not covered on this web site . refer above option\navian health issues\nweb page .\navian medicine is advancing at a rapid pace . keep updating your knowledge and skills .\ngeneral references : refer to references listed on\nbook references\nweb page .\na / a vol 59 no . 11 nov 2005 page 255 - 259 ( background notes on some african waxbills ) .\na / a vol 25 no . 2 feb 1971 page 21 - 22 .\nabk vol 18 issue 11 . oct - nov 2005 page 676 - 681 ( what ' s genetically pure and what ' s not )\nabk vol 15 issue 3 . jun - jul 2002 page 157 - 158 .\nurltoken is one of the world ' s largest and most informative avian or bird web sites . copyright urltoken 2002 - 2008 inc . all rights reserved . disclaimer : this web site has been compiled from material provided from a large number of sources . personal experience and personal contacts have been used . results vary according to factors such as environmental factors , aviary design and the physical and genetic backgrounds of all living birds / animals . every endeavour has been made to ensure the accuracy of the material but no responsibility is accepted by urltoken for the accuracy of the material on this web site . the intent of this web site is to provide a\ncare sheet\nformat and provide general material only . readers should rely upon their own enquiries in making any decisions relating to their own interests .\nthis article will be permanently flagged as inappropriate and made unaccessible to everyone . are you certain this article is inappropriate ?\nit is commonly found in benin , burkina faso , cameroon , central african republic , chad , the democratic republic of the congo , c\u00f4te d ' ivoire , ghana , guinea , liberia , nigeria , sierra leone and togo .\norigin and phylogeny has been obtained by antonio arnaiz - villena et al . [ 2 ] estrildinae may have originated in india and dispersed thereafter ( towards africa and pacific ocean habitats ) .\n- - module : hatnote - - - - - - - - this module produces hatnote links and links to related articles . it - - - - implements the and meta - templates and includes - - - - helper functions for other lua hatnote modules . - -\nlocal libraryutil = require ( ' libraryutil ' ) local checktype = libraryutil . checktype local marguments - - lazily initialise module : arguments local yesno - - lazily initialise module : yesno\nlocal function getargs ( frame ) - - fetches the arguments from the parent frame . whitespace is trimmed and - - blanks are removed . marguments = require ( ' module : arguments ' ) return marguments . getargs ( frame , { parentonly = true } ) end\nlocal function removeinitialcolon ( s ) - - removes the initial colon from a string , if present . return s : match ( ' ^ : ? ( . * ) ' ) end\nfunction p . findnamespaceid ( link , removecolon ) - - finds the namespace id ( namespace number ) of a link or a pagename . this - - function will not work if the link is enclosed in double brackets . colons - - are trimmed from the start of the link by default . to skip colon - - trimming , set the removecolon parameter to true . checktype ( ' findnamespaceid ' , 1 , link , ' string ' ) checktype ( ' findnamespaceid ' , 2 , removecolon , ' boolean ' , true ) if removecolon ~ = false then link = removeinitialcolon ( link ) end local namespace = link : match ( ' ^ ( . - ) : ' ) if namespace then local nstable = mw . site . namespaces [ namespace ] if nstable then return urltoken end end return 0 end\nfunction p . formatpages ( . . . ) - - formats a list of pages using formatlink and returns it as an array . nil - - values are not allowed . local pages = { . . . } local ret = { } for i , page in ipairs ( pages ) do ret [ i ] = p . _ formatlink ( page ) end return ret end\nfunction p . formatpagetables ( . . . ) - - takes a list of page / display tables and returns it as a list of - - formatted links . nil values are not allowed . local pages = { . . . } local links = { } for i , t in ipairs ( pages ) do checktype ( ' formatpagetables ' , i , t , ' table ' ) local link = t [ 1 ] local display = t [ 2 ] links [ i ] = p . _ formatlink ( link , display ) end return links end\nfunction p . makewikitexterror ( msg , helplink , addtrackingcategory ) - - formats an error message to be returned to wikitext . if - - addtrackingcategory is not false after being returned from - - module : yesno , and if we are not on a talk page , a tracking category - - is added . checktype ( ' makewikitexterror ' , 1 , msg , ' string ' ) checktype ( ' makewikitexterror ' , 2 , helplink , ' string ' , true ) yesno = require ( ' module : yesno ' ) local title = mw . title . getcurrenttitle ( ) - - make the help link text . local helptext if helplink then helptext = ' ( help ) ' else helptext = end - - make the category text . local category if not title . istalkpage and yesno ( addtrackingcategory ) ~ = false then category = ' hatnote templates with errors ' category = string . format ( ' % s : % s ' , mw . site . namespaces [ 14 ] . name , category ) else category = end return string . format ( ' % s ' , msg , helptext , category ) end\n- - format link - - - - makes a wikilink from the given link and display values . links are escaped - - with colons if necessary , and links to sections are detected and displayed - - with\n\u00a7\nas a separator rather than the standard mediawiki\n#\n. used in - - the template .\nfunction p . formatlink ( frame ) local args = getargs ( frame ) local link = args [ 1 ] local display = args [ 2 ] if not link then return p . makewikitexterror ( ' no link specified ' , ' template : format hatnote link # errors ' , args . category ) end return p . _ formatlink ( link , display ) end\nfunction p . _ formatlink ( link , display ) - - find whether we need to use the colon trick or not . we need to use the - - colon trick for categories and files , as otherwise category links - - categorise the page and file links display the file . checktype ( ' _ formatlink ' , 1 , link , ' string ' ) checktype ( ' _ formatlink ' , 2 , display , ' string ' , true ) link = removeinitialcolon ( link ) local namespace = p . findnamespaceid ( link , false ) local colon if namespace = = 6 or namespace = = 14 then colon = ' : ' else colon = end - - find whether a faux display value has been added with the | magic - - word . if not display then local prepipe , postpipe = link : match ( ' ^ ( . - ) | ( . * ) $ ' ) link = prepipe or link display = postpipe end - - find the display value . if not display then local page , section = link : match ( ' ^ ( . - ) # ( . * ) $ ' ) if page then display = page . . ' \u00a7 ' . . section end end - - assemble the link . if display then return string . format ( ' % s ' , colon , link , display ) else return string . format ( ' % s % s ' , colon , link ) end end\n- - hatnote - - - - produces standard hatnote text . implements the template .\nfunction p . hatnote ( frame ) local args = getargs ( frame ) local s = args [ 1 ] local options = { } if not s then return p . makewikitexterror ( ' no text specified ' , ' template : hatnote # errors ' , args . category ) end options . extraclasses = args . extraclasses options . selfref = args . selfref return p . _ hatnote ( s , options ) end\nfunction p . _ hatnote ( s , options ) checktype ( ' _ hatnote ' , 1 , s , ' string ' ) checktype ( ' _ hatnote ' , 2 , options , ' table ' , true ) local classes = { ' hatnote ' } local extraclasses = options . extraclasses local selfref = options . selfref if type ( extraclasses ) = = ' string ' then classes [ # classes + 1 ] = extraclasses end if selfref then classes [ # classes + 1 ] = ' selfref ' end return string . format ( '"]}
{"id": 2025, "summary": [{"text": "the san benedicto rock wren ( salpinctes obsoletus exsul ) is a small extinct passerine which was endemic to san benedicto island in the revillagigedo islands off mexico .", "topic": 12}, {"text": "it was a subspecies of the rock wren . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "san benedicto rock wren", "paragraphs": ["san benedicto rock wren , a rock wren subspecies endemic to san benedicto island in the revillagigedo islands off mexico . this subspecies became ext\u2026 | pinteres\u2026\nin honor of the hoyas ' geological roots , our theme extinct animal for today is the only extinct animal with\nrock\nin its name : the san benedicto rock wren .\nsalpinctes obsoletus exsul : san benedicto i . ( revillagigedo islands off s baja california )\nridgway , 1903 \u2013 san benedicto i , in revillagigedo is ( off s baja california ) .\ntil that the extinction of the san benedicto rock wren , a previously unendangered species , can be traced almost to the minute on the morning of august 1st , 1952 , when a volcanic eruption covered their entire island .\nthis animal is unique , and applicable to the big east conference , for another reason : history knows the exact moment it went extinct . on august 1 , 1952 , the active san benedicto volcano erupted , burying the bird ' s habitat ten feet deep in ash and pyroclastic flow . the san benedicto rock wren was never seen again .\ntil the san benedicto rock wren became extinct around 9 am on august 1 1952 . the extinction was recorded with such precision because observers were offshore , documenting how the island was being blasted with ejecta from a volcanic eruption .\ntil that the extinction of the san benedicto rock wren , a previously unendangered species , can be traced almost to the minute on the morning of august 1st , 1952 , when a volcanic eruption covered their entire island . : todayilearned\ntil the san benedicto rock wren became extinct around 9 am on august 1 1952 . the extinction was recorded with such precision because observers were offshore , documenting how the island was being blasted with ejecta from a volcanic eruption . : todayilearned\nthe rock wren is well named . most descriptions of rock wren habitat mention \u201crock\u201d for this pale wren of arid , western north america . still , these wrens are also found in nonrocky habitats , as long as there exist areas \u201crich in crevices , interstices , passageways , recesses , and nooks and crannies of diverse shapes and sizes\u201d (\nkroodsma , d . e . 1975a . song patterning in the rock wren . condor no . 77 : 294 - 303 . close\nmerola , m . 1995 . observations on the nesting and breeding behavior of the rock wren . condor no . 97 : 585 - 587 . close\nthese wrens are more easily heard than seen . rock wren songs are unmistakable , but beauty lies in the ears of the listener . according to florence m . bailey (\n\u2013 w north america from s british columbia , s alberta and s saskatchewan s to coastal california ( including islands of san nicolas and san clemente ) , oklahoma and w texas , and w , n & c mexico from baja california ( including san mart\u00edn i ) s at higher elevations to oaxaca ; n populations migrate to s parts of range .\nis a very plain name for a bundle of fire known as the rock wren . it is heard , up on the bluffs , up in the rocks , but it is seen only by those who climb the bluffs regularly , and then it is seen only irregularly . . . . after reading even the most elementary writings of the rock wren i am shocked at society ' s ignorance of this bird\n: 290 ) , the rock wren ' s song \u201c . . . at first hearing seems the drollest , most unbird - like of machine - made tinklings , \u201d but william l . dawson (\ntwo proposed island races , pulverius ( from san nicolas i and san clemente i , off sw california ) and proximus ( from san mart\u00edn i , off nw baja california ) , both considered indistinguishable from nominate ; described races costaricensis ( nw costa rica ) and fasciatus ( nw nicaragua ) merged with guttatus , but one or both possibly merit recognition . race guttatus notably more heavily barred below , but voice seemingly very similar to other races . five extant subspecies recognized .\nmystery . rock wrens have been little studied and most information about the biology of this species is anecdotal . one curious aspect of this wren ' s biology has received much notice but virtually no study : rock wrens usually build a pavement or walkway of small , flat stones or pebbles that leads to the nest cavity . the nest is usually located in a rock crevice , occasionally far out of sight , but the pavement may give an external sign of the nest ' s location . the function of this pavement is open to speculation .\ndawson , w . l . 1923 . the birds of california : a complete , scientific and popular account of the 580 species and subspecies of birds found in the state . vol . 2 . san diego , ca : south moulton . close\n: 290 ) considered this wren ' s songs to be \u201cthe sprightliest , most musical , and resonant to be heard in the entire west . \u201d even to mrs . bailey , however , this wren redeems itself , as the song \u201c . . . comes to be greeted as the voice of a friend on the desert , and its quality to seem in harmony with the hard , gritty granites among which he lives\u201d (\nkroodsma , d . & brewer , d . ( 2018 ) . rock wren ( salpinctes obsoletus ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\nwolf , l . , r . m . lejnieks , c . r . brown and j . yarchin . 1985a . temperature fluctuations and nesting behavior of rock wrens in a high - altitude environment . wilson bull . no . 97 : 385 - 387 . close\nwhat i find interesting about this story is that\nhoya\nbecame the nickname rather than\nsaxa .\nrock or rocks is a somewhat reasonable name for a sports team . but by latching onto\nhoya\ninstead , their team name translates to georgetown whats .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 290 , 843 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\nkhalid - otw ( official video ) ft . 6lack , ty dolla $ ign\npress j to jump to the feed . press question mark to learn the rest of the keyboard shortcuts\nthis is why you shouldn ' t put all your wrens on one island .\nit ' s been a while since i ' ve seen this style of writing in wikipedia .\nyou learn something new every day ; what did you learn today ? submit interesting and specific facts about something that you just found out here .\nyou are using an outdated browser . please upgrade your browser to improve your reverbnation experience .\nreverbnation makes heavy use of javascript you should enable javascript on your browser to best experience this site .\nall third party trademarks are the property of the respective trademark owners . reverbnation is not affiliated with those trademark owners .\nvimeo gives control freaks the power to tweak every aspect of their embedded videos : colors , buttons , end screens , and more .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ndel hoyo , j . , collar , n . j . , christie , d . a . , elliott , a . , fishpool , l . d . c . , boesman , p . and kirwan , g . m . 2016 . hbw and birdlife international illustrated checklist of the birds of the world . volume 2 : passerines . lynx edicions and birdlife international , barcelona , spain and cambridge , uk .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\npeter e . lowther , donald e . kroodsma , and greg h . farley\nthe introduction article is just the first of 11 articles in each species account that provide life history information for the species . the remaining articles provide detailed information regarding distribution , migration , habitat , diet , sounds , behavior , breeding , current population status and conservation . each species account also includes a multimedia section that displays the latest photos , audio selections and videos from macaulay library\u2019s extensive galleries . written and continually updated by acknowledged experts on each species , birds of north america accounts include a comprehensive bibliography of published research on the species .\na subscription is needed to access the remaining account articles and multimedia content . rates start at $ 5 usd for 30 days of complete access .\nthis species breeds locally north of the distribution shown , and winters locally north distribution shown .\njanovy , jr . , j . 1978 . keith county journal . new york : st . martin ' s press . close\nryser , jr . , r . a . 1985 . birds of the great basin : a natural history . reno : univ . of nevada press . close\nbailey , f . m . 1904a . handbook of birds of the western united states including the great plains , great basin , pacific slope , and lower rio grande valley . 2nd ed . boston , ma : houghton , mifflin and co . close\nbent , a . c . 1948b . life histories of north american nuthatches , wrens , thrashers , and their allies . u . s . natl . mus . bull . no . 195 . close\npublished information on this species is meager . recent published work includes merola ' s (\n) observations of 6 color - marked nesting pairs in new mexico . wolf et al . (\nlowther , p . e . , d . e . kroodsma , and g . h . farley ( 2000 ) .\n) , version 2 . 0 . in the birds of north america ( a . f . poole and f . b . gill , editors ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa .\nnelson , 1897 \u2013 highlands from s mexico ( chiapas ) s to c honduras .\n14\u201316 cm ; 16\u00b75 g . nominate race has grey - buff supercilium , greyish - brown crown , nape and back with numerous dark streaks tipped white ; mid - back , shoulders and . . .\nmale repertoire of c . 100 different songs , each a series of identical , repeated syllables , . . .\nbarren rocky hillsides , screes and boulderfalls , also quarries and recently clear - cut areas in . . .\nmostly invertebrates ; small lizards also taken . forages among boulders and rocks ; very active . insular race\nseason from late may in n and at higher elevations ; earlier in s , e . g . from mid - jan in nw mexico ( baja california ) and from early feb in s . . .\ns populations and those on islands apparently sedentary . migratory in n ; withdraws in winter from . . .\nnot globally threatened ( least concern ) . common in suitable areas over much of its range . has bred in nc canada , at churchill ( n manitoba ) . race\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\ngenetic data indicate a close relationship to polioptilidae , followed by certhiidae and sittidae # r # r # r , and support monophyly of present family , once donacobius is removed ; traditional linear sequence of species and genera , with campylorhynchus listed first , now rearranged to reflect discovered phylogenetic relationships # r # r # r # r # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nnative to new zealand , kiwis face potential extinction from a range of introduced predators that are also killing many other native bird species .\nfrom the flightless dodo in mauritius to the passenger pigeon in north america , 279 bird species and subspecies have vanished in the last 500 years , researchers estimate . the rate of extinctions worldwide peaked in the early 1900s and then started to decline , but a new study found that bird die - outs have been on the rise since the middle of the 20th century .\nuntil this study it had been hoped the rate of extinction was slowing ,\nresearcher judit szabo , of charles darwin university in australia , said in a statement .\nhistorically most extinctions have occurred on islands , particularly those in the pacific , but most of the really susceptible species are long gone .\nbird extinctions mainly occurred on islands in previous centuries as humans expanded in the pacific and colonized the americas , disrupting fragile ecosystems . but as island extinction rates have been declining over the past century , more and more species have disappeared on the continents , szabo and her team said .\ntheir study , published online monday ( oct . 8 ) in the journal plos one , shows that habitat destruction for agriculture development is the main cause of recent extinctions on continents and poses the greatest current threat to endangered birds . unsustainable hunting and the introduction of invasive species , such as cats and rats , have been the greatest drivers of extinctions in past centuries , according to the study .\nthe researchers warn that a combination of invasive species and habitat loss can pose a particularly high threat to birds . for examples , pigs were introduced to the hawaiian islands several centuries ago - - first by polynesians , then again by europeans . the animals ' foraging changes the native landscape in a way that promotes the spread of invasive mosquitoes , which in turn carry bird diseases like avian malaria and avian pox .\nthe researchers said conservation interventions have helped prevent at least 31 bird extinctions , but now there are many species that only survive because of constant conservation efforts .\nthis list would have been much longer were it not for the work being done around the world to stop extinctions ,\nstudy researcher stuart butchart , of birdlife international , said in a statement .\nbut we need to scale up our efforts substantially to avoid further human - induced extinctions .\nfollow livescience on twitter @ livescience . we ' re also on facebook & google + .\ncopyright 2012 livescience , a techmedianetwork company . all rights reserved . this material may not be published , broadcast , rewritten or redistributed .\nchina only makes $ 8 . 46 from an iphone . that ' s why trump ' s trade war is futile\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nyou know that phenomenon where you look at your watch , and then you don ' t know what time it is ? i get that every year when usf plays georgetown . every year , i look up the answer to the\nwhat ' s a hoya ?\nquestion , and by next year i ' ve forgotten it and i have to look it up again .\nno one seems to know exactly when or how the term\nhoya saxa\nwas first used at georgetown . many years ago , there was a team at georgetown called the\nstonewalls ,\nand it is suggested that a student applied the greek and latin terms and dubbed them\nhoya saxa ,\nmeaning\nwhat rocks !\nhoya has since become a nickname for georgetown\u2019s athletic teams and students . hoia is from the greek word hoios , meaning\nsuch a\nor\nwhat a .\nthe neuter plural of this word is hoia , which agrees with the neuter plural of the latin word saxa , meaning rocks ; thus we have hoya\u2014 substituting the letter\ny\nfor\ni .\nbefore 1900 , every georgetown student studied both greek and latin , so there was no need to explain what the expression meant .\non november 27 , 2012 , tulane university was invited to the big east conference . georgetown and six other big east schools announced that they would never be seen again either .\nthe three - star qb is the second atlanta mays prospect in two years to commit to usf .\nthe bulls picked up their second verbal in two days in the form of a 6\u20193\n, 240 pound athlete out of polk county .\nthis article has a component height of 11 . the sidebar size is medium ."]}
{"id": 2121, "summary": [{"text": "stenodus nelma , known alternatively as the nelma , sheefish , inconnu or connie , is a commercial species of freshwater whitefish in the family salmonidae .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "it is widespread in the arctic rivers from the kola peninsula ( white sea basin ) eastward across siberia to the anadyr river and also in the north american basins of the yukon river and mackenzie river . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "nelma", "paragraphs": ["key words : inconnu , stenodus leucichthys , nelma , stenodus nelma , fish eggs , straminipilous organisms , eutrophication .\nshaposhnikova , g . k . 1967 . comparative characteristics of nelma stenodus leucichthys nelma ( pallas ) and belorybitsa stenodus leucichthys leucichthys ( guldenstadt ) .\n- spagnolo - salmon blanco . francese - st\u00e9node blanc . inglese - connie , conny , sheefish . danimarca - hvidlaks . norvegia - nelma . svezia - siklax , vitlax . finlandia - nelma . polacco - nelma . russo - nel ' ma .\nnelma\u2019s expert staff conducts frequent on - site inspections at each mill to ensure consistent quality .\nnelma section 17 accompanying stats reveal\u2026what we already knew , but the las persist in denying .\n\u201cnelma section 17 accompanying stats reveal\u2026what we already knew , but the las persist in denying . \u201d\non nelma section 17 accompanying stats reveal\u2026what we already knew , but the las persist in denying .\nof course @ commonshomeaffs does not yet literally = nelma but one more push might do it .\nstenodus leucichthys nelma illustration of the sister species by n . n . kondrakov . noaa photo library .\nnelma is a leading agency in certifying facilities to produce ippc ispm15 compliant wood packaging for use in exports .\nnelma \u2013 campaigning to defend the rights of all migrants \u2013 campaigning to defend the rights of all migrants .\npetrova , n . a . 1976 . biology of stenodus leucichthys nelma ( pallas ) from the irtysh basin .\nalternatively , the name stenodus leucichtys has been used in a broader sense , referring to a widespread species composed of two subspecies . [ 2 ] in addition to the landlocked subspecies stenodus leucichthys leucichthys , it comprises the nelma , stenodus leucichthys nelma ( pallas , 1773 ) which lives in eurasian and north american rivers of the arctic basin . nelma , also known as the sheefish or inconnu , is currently often considered as a distinct species stenodus nelma . [ 1 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ]\nchereshnev , i . a . , a . v . shestakov , r . r . yusupov , y . v . shtundyuk and i . v . slugin 2000 biology of nelma stenodus leucichthys nelma ( coregonidae ) from the anadyr basin ( the northeast of russia ) .\nnelma actively funds research vital to the northeastern lumber industry , currently collaborating with the university of maine on producing weevil - resistant eastern white pine .\nopen the doors to nelma ' s latest visual marketing tool to showcase northeastern softwood interior products\u2026 . . the virtual home tour ! now online at urltoken\nwe\u2019ve been crunching the numbers from the 50 or so destitute migrant families nelma has accompanied to london local authorities since our accompanying scheme began in the spring of 2016 .\na delicately crafted display font with a lot of character , nelma is perfect for setting beautiful type with an impact . this font is distributed as a . eps file .\nin 1948 , nelma produced a documentary on the lumber industry . this 25 - minute film shows some of the early processes , markets , and technologies in the lumber industry at that time .\nthe northeastern lumber manufacturers association ( nelma ) is the rules writing agency for eastern white pine lumber and the grading authority for eastern spruce , balsam fir , spruce - pine - fir ( spfs ) grouping , and other commercially important eastern softwood lumber species . in addition , nelma is a leading agency for export wood packaging certification and the marketing voice for the wood products industry in the northeast .\nnelma runs an accompanying scheme for destitute migrant families with no recourse to public funds . nelma volunteers accompany parents who are requesting support from social services due to homelessness and / or destitution . unlawful local authority \u2018gatekeeping\u2019 of support for families with no recourse to public funds is systemic . families seeking support often encounter intimidation , aggression , racism , and misinformation . they are regularly told they cannot be helped .\nhi ! i am nelma carmelo . a good - looking single mom . i have 4 kids . i ' m willing to have a long - distance relationship . and willing to relocate in other country\nsince mid - 2016 nelma and others have been trying to hold haringey council to account for the local authority\u2019s systematic poor treatment of destitute migrant families seeking social services support under s17 of the children act 1989 .\nthe authors investigated the growth of straminipilous organisms on the eggs of inconnu ( stenodus leucichthys ) and nelma ( stenodus nelma ) in water from three different eutrophication levels . thirty ( 30 ) straminipilous species were found growing on the investigated eggs ( of both fish species ) used as baits . the majority of species has been found on the eggs of inconnu ( 20 ) in comparison with those found on the eggs of nelma ( 15 ) . the highest number of infected eggs of both investigated species has been observed also in the water from bia\u0142a river ( 27 . 3 % of the inconnu and 21 . 6 % of the nelma ; the most eutrophication ) , the smallest in water from supra\u015bl river ( 6 . 3 and 8 . 8 % respectively ; the less eutrophication ) . these differences for both species were statistically significant . amino acid , carbohydrate and urease tests were used .\nnelma accompanying is about solidarity , and providing emotional and practical support . local authorities often behave aggressively and disrespectfully towards families in need . often the intent is to wear people down . it can really help to have another person there .\n\u201c144 , 000 undocumented children is a problem the government must solve . there is no benefit to society in people being in this position . the government needs to reduce the barriers to them regularising their status . ' ' @ commonshomeaffs basically = nelma\nnelma brings together activists from across london to campaign on issues faced by migrants in vulnerable positions in our communities . we challenge injustices towards families with no recourse to public funds ( nrpf ) and we coordinated a campaign against the home office\u2019s former policy of detaining and deporting eea national rough sleepers .\nwelcome to the nelma grader academy , a comprehensive on - line training resource for individuals that seek to learn more about the intricacies of lumber grading or for those within the lumber industry that want to increase their proficiency level . the academy enlists the following tools to enhance the lumber grading education experience :\nconstruction of dams led to the loss of all spawning grounds for the species ( the volga , ural and terek drainages ) . increasing illegal fishing in the volga and in the caspian sea is now a very critical concern . stenodus nelma was introduced in the northern volga drainage and is now expanding and might threaten surviving populations and cultivated stocks through hybridization .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nskopets , m . ( iucn ssc salmon specialist group ) , & smith , k . ( iucn freshwater biodiversity unit )\njustification : a widespread species , however stocks in european and siberian rivers are declining due to overfishing and pollution , however not at a rate to qualify the species for a threatened or near threatened category .\narctic ocean basin , from ponoi ( kola peninsula , white sea basin ) eastward to anadyr ( siberia ) , yukon ( alaska ) and mackenzie ( canada ) drainages .\nthere are special fishing regulations in some territories , and in places it is illegal to catch for consumption ( m . skopets , pers . comm . ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nskopets , m . ( iucn ssc salmon specialist group ) , bogutskaya , n . , & smith , k . ( iucn freshwater biodiversity unit )\ncaspian sea ( commonly central and southern caspian in summer ) , volga , ural and terek drainages .\nnative stocks are reportedly extinct and survival depends exclusively on stocking . in the volga all spawning grounds were above volgograd dam . in 1959 only a few spawners remained . up to 33 million ( 1988 ) juveniles were stocked during soviet times . between 1996 - 99 only 600 , 000 juveniles were stocked and the spawning population is in a drastic decline again . in 2004 , only about 100 spawners were caught below volgograd dam . in the 1960s , it was already extremely rare in the ural , where it has not been recorded since .\nnorway spruce is the first major , new wood species grown in the u . s . to be tested for strength values since the 1920s . approved october 20 , 2016 !\nas many as 23 different wood characteristics and machining imperfections determine the grade of an eastern white pine board .\nthe spfs ( spruce - pine - fir south ) species grouping includes the species of red , white , and black spruce , balsam fir , red pine , and jack pine .\nwhile human graders are still the heart of the industry , many mills rely on scanners , lasers , and optical optimizers to ensure product quality .\nnew england\u2019s forests continue to provide consumers with the most sustainable building product available .\ndesigning with ewp is character building . a photo reference guide to specific characteristic ranges .\nlearn about these two species in a side by side comparison . who will be victorious ?\n, which exposes the active collaboration of london\u2019s mayor , local councils and homelessness charities delivering street outreach services \u2013 st mungo\u2019s , thames reach and change , grow , live ( cgl ) .\nhomeless people on the streets of london have become prime targets for immigration raids , in which some of the city\u2019s most vulnerable people are detained and deported . several nights a week , immigration patrols are out targeting rough sleepers in london .\nwhilst arrests are carried out by home office \u201cimmigration compliance and enforcement\u201d ( ice ) teams , they rely on joint patrols and other intelligence provided by street outreach services . they may also see their role increase in deciding whether or not it is \u2018proportional\u2019 to remove people , effectively giving them the power to decide who is worthy of remaining in the uk and who can be disposed of .\noutreach teams from charities st mungo\u2019s , thames reach , and cgl conduct regular joint \u201cvisits\u201d with immigration enforcement officers , as often as fortnightly in central boroughs . freedom of information ( foi ) responses show 141 such patrols organised by the gla and 12 london boroughs last year . this figure does not include westminster or the city of london , the biggest concentration of london homelessness , where patrols are likely to be even more frequent .\n127 people were deported as a result of a a two - month pilot operation in westminster alone .\ncharity outreach teams routinely pass on locations of non - uk rough sleepers to ice through the london - wide chain database and through local data co - operation agreements . this intelligence may lead to many more arrests .\nas opposed to workplace raids which largely hit south asian migrants , eu and other european economic area ( eea ) nationals are the main targets here , as they made up nearly half of london rough sleepers last year . migrants from romania , poland , and other east european countries are particularly affected .\nunder new home office rules introduced in may 2016 , european rough sleepers can be arrested for deportation on their first night sleeping rough , as this is considered a \u201cmisuse\u201d of their european \u201ctreaty rights\u201d . outreach workers may be called on to guide immigration officers in deciding whether detention is \u201cproportional\u201d .\ntough policy on migrant rough sleepers was \u201cintensely lobbied\u201d for by westminster council , and actively pushed by the gla and other members of the \u201cmayor\u2019s rough sleeping group\u201d , including senior managers from st mungo\u2019s , thames reach and other charities .\nthe rough sleeper deportation system is at the cutting edge of theresa may\u2019s \u201chostile environment\u201d approach rolling out across schools , hospitals , housing , and other areas of everyday life . this approach relies on turning teachers , doctors and nurses , charity workers , and other citizens into home office informers .\nthe \u201chostile environment\u201d is based on collaboration . it can be broken by solidarity and resistance . examples of refusal by some homelessness workers and campaigners may start to show the way .\nif you are a homelessness worker , rough sleeper , or have any information that you\u2019d like to share with corporate watch , email us at contact [ at ] urltoken or call 020 7426 0005 . we will respect your confidentiality .\nif you have any immediate information about ice raids , we suggest you contact anti raids network : urltoken email : antiraids @ urltoken twitter : @ antiraids .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\nwe maintain a pool of trained volunteer accompaniers . we send call - outs to when we receive requests to accompany a family . we normally ask volunteers to be prepared to accompany at least once a month on a weekday during working hours .\nplease complete this form if you\u2019d like to get involved in our accompanying scheme .\nat the moment we accept accompanying referrals from project 17 , hackney migrant centre , haringey migrant support centre , greenwich migrant hub , coram children\u2019s legal centre , matthew gold & co . , afril , migrant family action and the british red cross . if you\u2019d like to start referring to us , please get in touch .\nlewisham a \u2018borough of sanctuary\u2019 ? rofl , say destitute migrant families and our volunteer accompaniers .\n\u201clewisham a \u2018borough of sanctuary\u2019 ? rofl , say destitute migrant families and our volunteer accompaniers . \u201d\ntwo years of skimped - on promises , but some light as well . let\u2019s keep up the pressure for change over haringey\u2019s treatment of destitute migrant families !\n\u201ctwo years of skimped - on promises , but some light as well . let\u2019s keep up the pressure for change over haringey\u2019s treatment of destitute migrant families ! \u201d\non december 14th 2017 the high court ruled the home office\u2019s policy of detaining and removing eea rough sleepers unlawful .\non 21st - 23rd november , a judicial review is taking place against a home office policy detaining and deporting hundreds of european rough sleepers , simply for being homeless . this policy is sinister , feeding into the government\u2019s \u2018hostile environment\u2019 agenda .\n\u201ctwo new short films highlight the cruelty and violence of the hostile environment . \u201d\n. ( we haven\u2019t joined the labour party . we were invited to give the perspective of grassroots migrants\u2019 rights activists . )\nwe ' ve detected that javascript is disabled in your browser . would you like to proceed to legacy twitter ?\nnorth east london migrant action campaigning to defend the rights of all migrants . get involved : nelondonmigrantaction @ urltoken\nthere is an emergency protest today outside the home office in london , at 5 : 30pm , demanding justice for the young sudanese man who died being chased by immigration enforcement in wales . organised by\news / sudan - man - died - immigration - raid - home - office - wales - newport - a8433636 . html\nsouth east sisters ad hacks protesting the state using limited funds to put immigration officers into local services . this leaves survivors with insecure immigration status forced to make the choice between abuse in the home , or abuse from the home office . # supportednotdeported urltoken\n@ nelmacampaigns redbridge have just refused emergency support to a woman with a 2yr & 4yr old . she ' ll be homeless tonight . threat to take kids into care .\nit doesn\u2019t matter what you\u2019ve done , or whether you\u2019re an illegal immigrant or not . he was just going to work , and didn\u2019t deserve to die . no one deserves that . it\u2019s just needless , the car wash wasn\u2019t even closed down . \u201d\nwe are looking for an albanian speaker to help with follow up on an immigration raid . please get in touch if you can help\nfor the first time in a decade , the number of people sleeping rough on london\u2019s streets has fallen . any progress is good , but even one person sleeping rough is one too many . that\u2019s why i\u2019ve got a plan for what needs to be done .\nthis is why it ' s so important to focus on the uk ' s own racist border regime , and not just the us or hungary etc . this is preventable . literally the only thing allowing this is that there aren ' t physically enough of us currently to stop it .\nmajor raid with multiple van loads of police and immigration enforcement currently near turnpike lane ( falkland rd / green lanes corner ) .\nwe provide long - term support and solidarity on housing and poverty problems for each other . to do this , we need long - term sustainable funding ! if you can , please consider setting up a standing order to support us ! this is the best way to help us fund our activities .\nevery sunday , around 40 migrant children & young people come to akwaaba to have fun . we\u2019re looking for more volunteers to help us look after them . check out\nwe ' ve had to provide a lot of emergency accommodation lately as local authorities continue to fail destitute migrants , and our funds are running low . does anyone want to put on a party for us ?\ntwitter may be over capacity or experiencing a momentary hiccup . try again or visit twitter status for more information .\nyou can add location information to your tweets , such as your city or precise location , from the web and via third - party applications . you always have the option to delete your tweet location history . learn more\nhere ' s the url for this tweet . copy it to easily share with friends .\nby embedding twitter content in your website or app , you are agreeing to the twitter developer agreement and developer policy .\nnot on twitter ? sign up , tune into the things you care about , and get updates as they happen .\nthis timeline is where you\u2019ll spend most of your time , getting instant updates about what matters to you .\nhover over the profile pic and click the following button to unfollow any account .\nwhen you see a tweet you love , tap the heart \u2014 it lets the person who wrote it know you shared the love .\nthe fastest way to share someone else\u2019s tweet with your followers is with a retweet . tap the icon to send it instantly .\nadd your thoughts about any tweet with a reply . find a topic you\u2019re passionate about , and jump right in .\nmissy is a designer based out of minneapolis . she graduated in december 2010 and currently works at zeus jones . she appreciates simplicity as long as it ' s compelling and values attention to detail as highly as she does efficiency .\nyou can pay - what - you - want for a personal use license .\na 1 - 5 user commercial license is available for $ 30 . 00 usd . additional licensing for up to 100 users is also available .\n- we believe in a world without borders . - we stand in solidarity with all migrants regardless of status . - we believe everybody who is here has the right to be here , work here and be decently housed . - we believe that immigration detention is unjustifiable in principle and unworkable in practice . - we believe all children deserve the same opportunities\u2014regardless of where they or their parents were born . - we reject the distinctions drawn by politicians and the mainstream media between \u2018deserving\u2019 and \u2018undeserving\u2019 migrants . - we reject the racist immigration controls that are creeping into almost every area of life in the uk . - we believe that nrpf\u2014no recourse to public funds\u2014is state violence because it implies that some people are more worthy of help , support and the right to a decent life than others . - being unable to get support from the state leaves people destitute . - it is a root cause of exploitation . - it makes it harder for women to flee domestic violence .\n- we support migrants with no recourse to public funds to stand up for their rights . - we do this through activism , advocacy , solidarity and mutual support . - we accompany destitute migrant families approaching social services for support under section 17 of the children act 1989 . - we resist unfair policies and practices , including local authority gatekeeping of section 17 support . - we hold local authorities to account for bullying and intimidating destitute migrant families who turn to them for support .\n- an end to local authority gatekeeping of support for destitute migrant - the home office to be kept out of local authority children\u2019s services - all migrants to have access to secure housing , adequate financial support and free school meals .\ndamien egan , the new mayor of lewisham council , calls lewisham a ' sanctuary borough ' . but when destitute migrant families go to social services for support that they are entitled to they report experiences like this :\ni\u2019m telling you , i was scared . that time that woman almost killed me . i wouldn\u2019t have gone back on my own . when i got home , all my body was shaking and i fell down the stairs . she said if she had her way she would call immigration to take me to my country immedi\nwhen budget cuts come at the cost of leaving children unfed or unhoused , local authorities need to be pushing back against the dismal logics of austerity . we call on mayor egan , vicky foxcroft mp and whoever succeeds heidi alexander mp to start an urgent independent review of the policies and practices of lewisham\u2019s no recourse to public funds team and an end to the violence being perpetrated against destitute migrant families in the borough ! please share widely .\nan interactive game that simulates real - time lumber grading at a mill setting and includes variable lug speeds from beginner level to more advanced settings . your profile will track your high scores and achievement levels earned after multiple game plays . a fun way to apply your knowledge !\nto gain full access to the grader training and above board , please register via the login tab to set up your username and password or login if you already have an account .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nadd a photo to your profile and get access to all full sized photos .\ni want to have a single partner for a lifetime loving , caring and honest person .\ncupid media , the cupid media logo and urltoken are registered trademarks of ecom holdings pty ltd and used with permission by cupid media pty ltd .\nim a single mom with 1 kid . . im a simple woman . . .\ncupid media , the cupid media logo and urltoken are registered trademarks of ecom holdings pty ltd and used with permission by cupid media pty ltd .\ncupid media , the cupid media logo and urltoken are registered trademarks of ecom holdings pty ltd and used with permission by cupid media pty ltd .\nsou uma mulher d harmonia e paz . . mae d 2 filhos ; sou licenciada em gestao ambiental e trabalho como tecnica dr higiene , saude , seguranca e meio ambiente numa empresa mineira localizada na provincia d tete\ni am a woman d harmony and peace . . mae d 2 sons ; i am licensed in environmental management and work as a technician dr hygiene , health , safety and environment in a mining company located in the provincia d tete\nim looking a man who is honest responsible and caring . . . 50 to 80 years old\ncupid media , the cupid media logo and urltoken are registered trademarks of ecom holdings pty ltd and used with permission by cupid media pty ltd .\nbusco um homem sincero , inteligente e que saiba o que quer na vida .\ni ' m a sincere man , intelligent and who knows what he wants in life .\nstenodus leucichthys is a species of freshwater whitefish in the family salmonidae . in the strict sense its natural distribution is restricted to the caspian sea basin , and it is known as beloribitsa . [ 1 ] the beloribitsa is now considered extinct in the wild , but survives in cultured stocks . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]\nat a higher level , the genus stenodus is not phylogenetically distinct from the broader lake whitefish genus coregonus , although it is phenotypically characterized by a specialized predator morphology . [ 7 ]\n. it is generally silver in color with a green , blue or brown back . the meat is white , flaky and somewhat oily . an adult fish weighs from 14 to 25 kilograms ( 31 to 55 lb ) . the fish eat\nbeloribitsa used to inhabit particularly the volga , ural and terek rivers , and migrate up to 3 , 000 kilometres ( 1 , 900 mi ) upstream from the caspian to their spawning grounds in the spring . following the construction of dams and hydropower reservoirs , the migration and natural reproduction has been impeded , and the taxon is now considered as extinct in the wild by the iucn . [ 1 ] [ 8 ] the stock however survives in hatcheries and some populations are maintained by stocking . [ 3 ]\nfroese , rainer , and daniel pauly , eds . ( 2013 ) . species of stenodus in fishbase . february 2013 version .\neschmeyer f . catalog of fishes ( search : stenodus ( species ) ) california academy of scieces . ( 15 march 2012 version )\nbernatchez l , colombani f , dodson jj ( 1991 ) phylogenetic relationships among the subfamily coregoninae as revealed by mitochondrial dna restriction analysis journal of fish biology 39 ( suppl a ) : 283 - 290 .\npoursaeid , f . & falahatkar , b . ( 2012 ) threatened fishes of the world : stenodus leucichthys leucichthys g\u00fcldenst\u00e4dt , 1772 ( salmonidae ) . aqua 18 : 31 - 34 .\nthis page was last modified on 24 february 2014 , at 14 : 05 .\nthis article ' s content derived from wikipedia , the free encyclopedia ( see original source ) .\n( pallas , 1776 ) . reise durch verschiedene provinzen des russischen reiches . st . petersburg . 3 vol . sinonimo senior , nuova combinazione , nomenclatura iczn non ancora convalidata .\npallas , 1773 . reise durch verschiedene provinzen des russischen reiches . st . petersburg . 3 vol . [ vol . 1 , 1771 : 12 non numerato . index , + pls . a - z , aa - nn ] . sinonimo senior , combinazione originale , nomenclatura iczn non valida . opinioni - sinonimo di\n2001 : 69 , bogutskaya & naseka 2004 : 145 , scharpf 2006 : 34 . nomenclatura valida come\n( pallas 1773 ) , vedere kottelat & freyhof 2007 : 394 . localit\u00e0 tipo - grandi fiumi della siberia , russia . tipo - nessun esemplare noto .\n( pallas , 1776 ) . reise durch verschiedene provinzen des russischen reiches . st . petersburg . 3 vol . sinonimo senior , nuova combinazione , nomenclatura iczn non valida .\nnilsson , 1855 . skandinavisk fauna . fjerde delen : fiskarna . f\u00f6rsta h\u00e4ftet . lund . skandinavisk fauna . : i - xxxiv + 1 - 768 . sinonimo junior , combinazione originale , nomenclatura iczn non valida . opinioni - sinonimo di\n( g\u00fcldenst\u00e4dt 1772 ) , vedere berg 1948 : 303 , svetovidov 1973 : 151 , reshetnikov 1998 : 47 . sinonimo di\n( pallas 1773 ) , in base alla localit\u00e0 tipo e se la specie sar\u00e0 riconosciuta ufficialmente , vedere porcellotti 2010 ( presente lavoro ) . localit\u00e0 tipo - arkhangelsk , russia . tipo - nessun esemplare noto .\nrichardson , 1823 . notice of the fishes . no . 6 , in john franklin . narrative of a journey to the shores of the polar sea in 1819 - 22 . . . with an appendix on various subjects relating to science and natural history . london . narrative of a journey to the shores of the polar sea in 1819 - 22 . . . : 705 - 728 , pls . 25 - 26 . a p . 3 dell ' inserto . il nome specifico \u00e8 scritto\n( pallas 1773 ) , in base alla localit\u00e0 tipo e se la specie sar\u00e0 riconosciuta ufficialmente , vedere porcellotti 2010 ( presente lavoro ) . localit\u00e0 tipo - bacino del fiume mackenzie , incluso il salt river , canada . tipo - nessun esemplare noto .\n- kottelat m . and j . freyhof 2007 . handbook of european freshwater fishes . kottelat , cornol , switzerland and freyof , berlin , germany . pagina 394 .\nbacini afferenti all ' oceano artico , dal fiume ponoi ( penisola di kola , bacino del mar bianco ) ad est fino ai bacini dei fiumi anadyr ( siberia ) , yukon ( alasca ) e mackenzie ( canada ) . specie introdotta in vari bacini della federazione russa ed in lettonia ( senza acclimatazione ) .\nandriyashev , a . p . and n . v . chernova 1995 . annotated list of fishlike vertebrates and fish of the arctic seas and adjacent waters .\nanonymous 1996 . fish collection database of the university of british columbia fish museum .\nanonymous 1999 . fish collection database of the natural history museum , london ( formerly british museum of natural history ( bmnh ) ) .\nanonymous 2001 . fish collection database of the national museum of natural history ( smithsonian institution ) .\nbailey , r . m . , j . e . fitch , e . s . herald , e . a . lachner , c . c . lindsey , c . r . robins and w . b . scott 1970 . a list of common and scientific names of fishes from the united states and canada . third edition\nbaillie , j . and b . groombridge ( eds . ) 1996 . 1996 iucn red list of threatened animals .\nberg , l . s . 1962 . freshwater fishes of the u . s . s . r . and adjacent countries . volume 1 , 4th edition .\nbogutskaya , n . g . 2005 . compilation of 70 ecoregion in russia with about 700 species .\nbogutskaya , n . g . and a . m . naseka 2002 . an overview of nonindigenous fishes in inland waters of russia .\nbogutskaya , n . g . 2002 . common names of russian freshwater fishes .\nbooke , h . e . 1975 . cytotaxonomy of the salmonid fish stenodon leucichthys .\ncarl , g . c . and w . a . clemens 1948 . the fresh - water fishes of british columbia .\ncarl , g . c . , w . a . clemens and c . c . lindsey 1959 . the freshwater fishes of british columbia ( 3rd revision ) .\ncoad , b . w . and j . d . reist 2004 . annotated list of the arctic marine fishes of canada .\ncoker , g . a . , c . b . portt and c . k . minns 2001 . morphological and ecological characteristics of canadian freshwater fishes .\ncraig , p . c . 1984 . fish use of coastal waters of the alaskan beaufort sea : a review .\n2001 . red data book of russian federation animals . ast - astrel , moskva .\ndymond , j . r . 1943 . the coregonine fishes of northwestern canada .\nevermann , b . w . and e . l . goldsborough 1907 . the fishes of alaska .\nfao - fies 2008 . aquatic sciences and fisheries information system ( asfis ) species list .\nfrolov , s . v . 1992 . some aspects of karyotype evolution in the coregoninae .\ngold , j . r . , w . j . karel and m . r . strand 1980 . chromosome formulae of north american fishes .\ngrabda , e . and t . heese 1991 . polskie nazewnictwo popularne kraglouste i ryby . cyclostomata et pisces .\nhilton - taylor , c . 2000 . 2000 iucn red list of threatened species .\nholc\u00edk , j . 1991 . fish introductions in europe with particular reference to its central and eastern part .\nhugg , d . o . 1996 . mapfish georeferenced mapping database . freshwater and estuarine fishes of north america .\ninternational union for conservation of nature and natural resources ( iucn ) 1990 . 1990 iucn red list of threatened animals .\ninternational union for conservation of nature and natural resources ( iucn ) 1994 . 1994 iucn red list of threatened animals .\niucn . 2008 . 2008 iucn red list of threatened species . available at : urltoken\njordan , d . s . and b . w . evermann 1896 . the fishes of north and middle america : a descriptive catalogue of the species of fish - like vertebrates found in the waters of north america , north of the isthmus of panama . part i .\nkirillov , f . n . 1972 . ryby yakutii ( fishes of yakutia ) .\nklinkhardt , m , m . tesche and h . greven 1995 . database of fish chromosomes .\nkottelat , m . and freyhof , j . 2007 . handbook of european freshwater fishes . publications kottelat , cornol , switzerland .\nmachacek , h . ( ed . ) 2006 . world records freshwater fishing .\nmakoedov , a . n . 1992 relationships of coregonid fishes : karyological aspect .\nmcallister , d . e . , v . legendre and j . g . hunter 1987 . liste de noms inuktitut ( esquimaux ) , fran\u00e7ais , anglais et scientifiques des poissons marins du canada arctique .\nmcdowall , r . m . 1988 . diadromy in fishes : migrations between freshwater and marine environments .\nmcphail , j . d . and c . c . lindsey 1970 . freshwater fishes of northwestern canada and alaska .\nmcphail , j . d . and r . carveth 1993 . field key to the freshwater fishes of british columbia .\nnelson , j . s . , e . j . crossman , h . espinosa - p\u00e9rez , l . t . findley , c . r . gilbert , r . n . lea and j . d . williams 2004 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states , canada , and mexico .\nnikol ' skii , g . v . 1954 . special ichthyology . ( rev . 1961 ) .\norganisation for economic co - operation and development 1990 . multilingual dictionary of fish and fish products .\npage , l . m . and b . m . burr 1991 . a field guide to freshwater fishes of north america north of mexico .\npallas , p . s . 1776 . reise durch verschiedene provinzen des russischen reichs ( 1768 - 74 ) .\npodlesnyi , a . v . 1958 . fishes of enisey , their environments and use .\nquast , j . c . and e . l . hall 1972 . list of fishes of alaska and adjacent waters with a guide to some of their literature .\nrab , p . and m . jankun 1992 . chromosome studies of coregonine fishes : a review .\nreshetnikov , y . s . , n . g . bogutskaya , e . d . vasil ' eva , e . a . dorofeeva , a . m . naseka , o . a . popova , k . a . savvaitova , v . g . sideleva and l . i . sokolov 1997 . an annotated check - list of the freshwater fishes of russia .\nreshetnikov , y . s . 1980 . ecology and systematics of the coregonid fishes . nauka , moskva .\nriede , k . 2004 . global register of migratory species - from global to regional scales .\nrobins , c . r . , r . m . bailey , c . e . bond , j . r . brooker , e . a . lachner , r . n . lea and w . b . scott 1980 . a list of common and scientific names of fishes from the united states and canada .\nrobins , c . r . , r . m . bailey , c . e . bond , j . r . brooker , e . a . lachner , r . n . lea and w . b . scott 1991 . common and scientific names of fishes from the united states and canada .\nscott , w . b . and e . j . crossman 1973 . freshwater fishes of canada .\nunderwood , t . j . 2000 . abundance , length composition and migration of spawning inconnu in the selawik river , alaska .\nvasil ' ev , v . p . 1980 . chromosome numbers in fish - like vertebrates and fish .\nwalker , k . f . and h . z . yang 1999 . fish and fisheries in western china .\nwang , s . ( ed . ) 1998 . china red data book of endangered animals . pisces .\nwelcomme , r . l . 1988 . international introductions of inland aquatic species .\nwigutoff , n . b . and c . j . carlson 1950 a survey of the commercial fishing possibilites of seward peninsula area , kotzebue sound , and certain inland rivers and lakes in alaska .\nwynne - edwards , v . c . 1952 fishes of the arctic and subarctic .\ndepartament of general biology , medical university , mickiewicza 2c , 15 - 222 bia\u0142ystok , poland .\ncopyright \u00a9 2018 author ( s ) retain the copyright of this article . this article is published under the terms of the creative commons attribution license 4 . 0 .\nthis article is published under the terms of the creative commons attribution license 4 . 0\nsearch their arrest records , driving records , contact information , photos and more . . .\ncopyright 2018 peekyou . com . a patent pending people search process . all rights reserved ."]}
{"id": 2143, "summary": [{"text": "the sharp-nosed chameleon ( kinyongia oxyrhina ) is a chameleon native to the uluguru and uzungwe mountains of tanzania .", "topic": 3}, {"text": "its length averages 16 cm ( 6.5 in ) .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "females are smaller than males , and have smaller helmet protrusions .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "they are usually coloured white , gray , brown and ochre .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "males have bluish horns .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the sharp-nosed chameleon was scientifically described in 1988 . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "sharp - nosed chameleon", "paragraphs": ["bradypodion oxyrhinum or the sharp - nosed chameleon is also a large size dwarf chameleon native to the uluguru and uzungwe mountains of tanzania , africa . it\u2019s also known as the rednose dwarf chameleon (\nthe image\nsharp - nosed chameleon ( kinyongia oxyrhina )\nfrom mgkuijpers is available on fotolia under a royalty - free license from 1 credit ( credit from $ 0 . 74 ) .\ndisclaimer please note , the\nviews , recommendations and answers\noffered on this website are simply our own and our readers opinions . every case must be treated on an individual basis . as always , my chameleon online encourages all chameleon owners to seek professional veterinary care . privacy policy terms & conditions\nmenegon m , tolley ka , jones t , rovero f , marshall ar , tilbury cr 2009 . a new species of chameleon ( sauria : chamaeleonidae : kinyongia ) from the magombera forest and the udzungwa mountains national park , tanzania . african journal of herpetology 58 ( 2 ) : 59 - 70 - get paper here\nmenegon , michele ; simon p . loader , tim r . b . davenport , kim m . howell , colin r . tilbury , sophy machaga , krystal a . tolley 2015 . a new species of chameleon ( sauria : chamaeleonidae : kinyongia ) highlights the biological affinities between the southern highlands and eastern arc mountains of tanzania . acta herpetologica 10 ( 2 ) : 111 - 120 - get paper here\nplease note that the content of this book primarily consists of articles available from wikipedia or other free sources online . hephaestus books represents a new publishing paradigm , allowing disparate content sources to be curated into cohesive , relevant , and informative books . to date , this content has been curated from wikipedia articles and images under creative commons licensing , although as hephaestus books continues to increase in scope and dimension , more licensed and public domain content is being added . we believe books such as this represent a new and exciting lexicon in the sharing of human knowledge . this particular book is a collaboration focused on chameleons . more info : chameleons ( family chamaeleonidae ) are a distinctive and highly specialized clade of lizards . they are distinguished by their parrot - like zygodactylous feet , their separately mobile and stereoscopic eyes , their very long , highly modified , and rapidly extrudable tongues , their swaying gait , the possession by many of a prehensile tail , crests or horns on their distinctively shaped heads , and the ability of some to change colour . uniquely adapted for climbing and visual hunting , the approximately 160 species of chameleon range from africa , madagascar , spain and portugal , across south asia , to sri lanka , have been introduced to hawaii , california and florida , and are found in warm habitats that vary from rain forest to desert conditions .\nbradypodion oxyrhinum klaver & b\u00f6hme 1988 bradypodion oxyrhinum \u2014 necas 1999 : 195 kinyongia oxyrhina \u2014 tilbury et al . 2006 kinyongia oxyrhina \u2014 tilbury 2010 : 389 kinyongia oxyrhina \u2014 spawls et al . 2018 : 272\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nglaw , f . 2015 . taxonomic checklist of chameleons ( squamata : chamaeleonidae ) . vertebrate zoology 65 ( 2 ) : 167\u2013246 - get paper here\nklaver , c . & w . b\u00f6hme 1988 . systematics of bradypodion tenue ( matschie , 1892 ) ( sauria : chamaeleonidae ) with a description of a new species from the uluguru and uzungwe mountains , tanzania . bonner zoologische beitr\u00e4ge 39 ( 4 ) : 381 - 393 . - get paper here\nmann , gunter 2009 . zur zucht von kinyongia oxyrhina klaver & bo\u0308hme 1988 . chamaeleo 19 ( 1 ) : 32 - 36 - get paper here\nmenegon , michele ; nike doggart , nisha owen 2008 . the nguru mountains of tanzania , an outstanding hotspot of herpetofaunal diversity . acta herpetologica 3 ( 2 ) : 107 - 127\nnecas , petr 1999 . chameleons - nature ' s hidden jewels . edition chimaira , frankfurt ; 348 pp . ; isbn 3 - 930612 - 04 - 6 ( europe ) < br / > isbn 1 - 57524 - 137 - 4 ( usa , canada )\nrovero , f . , menegon , m . , fjelds\u00e5 , j . , collett , l . , doggart , n . , leonard , c . , norton , g . , owen , n . , perkin , a . , spitale , d . , ahrends , a . , burgess , n . d . 2014 . targeted vertebrate surveys enhance the faunal importance and improve explanatory models within the eastern arc mountains of kenya and tanzania . diversity and distributions . doi : 10 . 1111 / ddi . 12246 - get paper here\nspawls , steve ; kim howell , harald hinkel , michele menegon 2018 . field guide to east african reptiles . bloomsbury , 624 pp . - get paper here\ntilbury c . r . , tolley k . a . & branch w . r . 2006 . a review of the systematics of the genus bradypodion ( sauria : chamaeleonidae ) , with the description of two new genera . zootaxa 1363 , 23\u201338 ( correction in zootaxa 1426 : 68 ) - get paper here\ntilbury , c . 2010 . chameleons of africa : an atlas , including the chameleons of europe , the middle east and asia . edition chimaira , frankfurt m . , 831 pp .\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nphylogenetic analysis of the genus kinyongia , including individuals assigned to k . oxyrhina from several localities , suggests that this is a species complex ( tolley et al . 2011 ) .\njustification : although it has a moderately large eoo ( > 22 , 000km 2 ) , the area of suitable habitat within this range is not large ( ca . 1 , 500 km 2 ) , is fragmented and is subject to some disturbance . this species is therefore listed as near threatened . the majority of the forest fragments are under protection , but should pressures from agriculture and logging intensify , its status will require re - evaluation and it is likely to qualify for a threatened category applying criterion b . furthermore , expected taxonomic changes in the future will probably result in splitting taxa , each with reduced ranges sizes , and re - evaluation of this species , and any new species would be necessary .\nthis species is endemic to tanzania ' s eastern arc mountains , where it is found in afrotemperate forest fragments in the uluguru , udzungwa , nguru and rubeho mountains ( tilbury 2010 ) . kinyongia oxyrhina is most likely to be a complex of species , and additional taxonomic work would result in the information on its distribution being modified .\nthere is no information on the abundance of this species . this species occurs in forest fragments that are reasonably well protected and is probably not undergoing any population declines .\nthis species is found in afrotemperate forest , and has also been observed at the forest edge ( tilbury 2010 ) .\nannual cites export quotas for k . oxyrhina between 2000 and 2013 ranged from 20 - 78 ( 32 average ) captive born individuals per year from tanzania ( cites 2013 ) . between 1977 and 2011 ( 2012 and 2013 trade data are incomplete or unavailable ) a total of 59 live individuals were exported from tanzania for the pet trade ( total of all personal and commercial exports ) , of which 13 were reported as wild collected ( unep - wcmc 2013 ) . all exports occurred between 1993 and 2011 , with all but 9 individuals having been exported between 2003 and 2011 , during which time no more than 8 individuals were exported per year ( unep - wcmc 2013 ) . no other trade is reported , although imported specimens of this species are suspected of being present in the captive market in numbers that exceed documented exports , suggesting illegal trade and / or harvest may occur on a limited basis .\nongoing threats from subsistence agriculture and timber extraction exist to forest in this region of tanzania , however these are not of immediate concern for this species because the majority of the habitat is reasonably well protected .\nno conservation actions recommended at this time . however , urgent research into the taxonomy of this species is needed , followed by re - assessments based on any taxonomic changes . this species occurs mainly within forest reserves which are protected officially , but these lack any enforcement whatsoever . so in theory the species occurs in protected habitat , but in practice the habitat is unprotected . the species occurs in uzungwa scarp forest reserve , lulanda forest ( is not a fr ) , ndundulu forest reserve ( now within the kilombero nature reserve ) , uluguru north forest reserve ( now nature reserve ) , nguru south fr ( now part of the mkingu nr ) nguu north forest reserve\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nall content on this website , including dictionary , thesaurus , literature , geography , and other reference data is for informational purposes only . this information should not be considered complete , up to date , and is not intended to be used in place of a visit , consultation , or advice of a legal , medical , or any other professional .\n) . it\u2019s distinguishable via its low dorsally pointed casque and forward pointing canthus rostralis for males . females are smaller than males with lower casques and duller colors (\n) . these reptiles are often colored whte , gray , brown and ocher . this species was first described quite recently in 1988 .\nmy little python and irwin quagmire wart wrote a kid ' s guide to snakes . all profits benefit asp .\nenter your email address to subscribe to this website and receive notifications of new posts by email .\ncontinent : africa distribution : tanzania ( uluguru mts . , uzungwe mts . ) type locality : mkoya in ukami , uluguru mts . , tanzania\nits length averages 16 cm ( 6 . 5 in ) . females are smaller than males , and have smaller helmet protrusions . they are usually coloured white , gray , brown and ochre . males have bluish horns .\nthis article is an orphan , as few or no other articles link to it . please introduce links to this page from related articles ; suggestions are available . 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{"id": 2195, "summary": [{"text": "calliostoma arx is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family calliostomatidae .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "some authors place this taxon in the subgenus calliostoma ( benthastelena )", "topic": 26}], "title": "calliostoma arx", "paragraphs": ["how can i put and write and define calliostoma arx in a sentence and how is the word calliostoma arx used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528calliostoma arx\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528calliostoma arx\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528calliostoma arx\u9020\u53e5 , calliostoma arx meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\n\n' calliostoma arx\n' is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family calliostomatidae .\ncalliostoma ( calliostoma ) swainson , w . a . , 1840 type species : calliostoma ( calliostoma ) conulus linnaeus , c . , 1758\ncalliostoma adamsi brazier , 1895 : synonym of calliostoma comptum a . adams , 1855\ncalliostoma purpureocinctum hedley , 1894 : synonym of calliostoma comptum a . adams , 1855\ncalliostoma swainson , w . a . , 1840 type species : calliostoma ( calliostoma ) conulus linnaeus , c . , 1758\nspecies calliostoma convexum w . h . turton , 1932 accepted as calliostoma africanum bartsch , 1915\nspecies calliostoma capense thiele , 1925 accepted as calliostoma perfragile g . b . sowerby iii , 1903\nspecies calliostoma albolineatum w . h . turton , 1932 accepted as calliostoma ornatum ( lamarck , 1822 )\ncalliostoma formosensis e . a . smith , 1907 synonym of calliostoma formosense e . a . smith , 1907\ncalliostoma poupineli ( montrouzier in souverbie & montrouzier , 1875 ) synonym of calliostoma comptum a . adams , 1855\ncalliostoma formosensis e . a . smith , 1907 : synonym of calliostoma formosense e . a . smith , 1907\ncalliostoma poupineli ( montrouzier in souverbie & montrouzier , 1875 ) : synonym of calliostoma comptum a . adams , 1855\nnew records of calliostoma and bathyfautor from vanuatu , fiji and tonga are listed . calliostoma ( fautor ) strobilos n . sp . , c . ( f . ) chlorum n . sp . , c . ( f . ) metabolicum n . sp . , c . ( ampullotrochus ) xylocinnamomum n . sp . and c . ( benthastelena ) arx n . sp . are described and compared with several similar calliostoma species from the indo - pacific of which most are illustrated .\nspecies calliostoma formosensis [ sic ] accepted as calliostoma formosense e . a . smith , 1907 ( incorrect original spelling )\nspecies calliostoma fernandesi boyer , 2006 accepted as calliostoma angolense boyer , 2007 ( invalid : junior homonym of calliostoma fernandesi rol\u00e1n & monteiro , 2006 ; c . angolense is a replacement name )\ncalliostoma ( fautor ) iredale , t . , 1924 type species : calliostoma ( fautor ) comptum adams , a . , 1855\ncalliostoma formosum ( mcandrew & forbes , 1847 ) synonym of calliostoma occidentale ( mighels & c . b . adams , 1842 )\ncalliostoma ( tristichotrochus ) ikeba , 1942 type species : calliostoma ( tristichotrochus ) aculeatum aculeatum sowerby , g . b . iii , 1912\ncalliostoma formosum ( mcandrew & forbes , 1847 ) : synonym of calliostoma occidentale ( mighels & c . b . adams , 1842 )\nspecies calliostoma adamsi brazier , 1895 accepted as calliostoma comptum ( a . adams , 1855 ) accepted as fautor comptus ( a . adams , 1855 ) ( invalid : junior homonym of calliostoma adamsi pilsbry , 1889 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( calliostoma ) burnupi e . a . smith , 1899 accepted as dactylastele burnupi ( e . a . smith , 1899 )\nspecies calliostoma echinatum dall , 1881 accepted as calliostoma caribbechinatum landau , van dingenen & ceulemans , 2017 ( invalid : junior secondary homonym of calliostoma echinatum ( millet , 1865 ) ; c . caribbechinatum is a replacement name )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( ampullotrochus ) alisi b . a . marshall , 1995 represented as calliostoma alisi b . a . marshall , 1995 ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( ampullotrochus ) heros b . a . marshall , 1995 represented as calliostoma xanthos b . a . marshall , 1995 ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( ampullotrochus ) peregrinum b . a . marshall , 1995 represented as calliostoma peregrinum b . a . marshall , 1995 ( original combination )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( ampullotrochus ) xanthos b . a . marshall , 1995 represented as calliostoma xanthos b . a . marshall , 1995 ( original combination )\nspecies calliostoma formosum ( mcandrew & forbes , 1847 ) accepted as calliostoma occidentale ( mighels & c . b . adams , 1842 ) ( junior synonym )\ncalliostoma expansum schepman , 1908 : synonym of enida japonica a . adams , 1860\nspecies calliostoma expansum schepman , 1908 accepted as enida japonica a . adams , 1860\ncalliostoma ( ampullotrochus ) monterosato , t . a . de m . di , 1890 type species : calliostoma ( ampullotrochus ) granulatum born , i . von , 1778\ncalliostoma bisculptum e . a . smith synonym of cantharidus bisculptus e . a . smith\ncalliostoma limatulum marshall , 1995 synonym of selastele limatulum b . a . marshall , 1995\ncalliostoma onustum odhner , 1924 synonym of selastele onustum b . a . marshall , 1995\nspecies calliostoma rubroscalptum y . c . lee & w . l . wu , 1998\nsubgenus calliostoma ( kombologion ) clench & r . d . turner , 1960 represented as kombologion clench & r . d . turner , 1960 accepted as calliostoma swainson , 1840\nsubgenus calliostoma ( eutrochus ) a . adams , 1864 accepted as astele swainson , 1855\ncalliostoma bisculptum e . a . smith : synonym of cantharidus bisculptus e . a . smith\ncalliostoma limatulum marshall , 1995 : synonym of selastele limatulum b . a . marshall , 1995\ncalliostoma onustum odhner , 1924 : synonym of selastele onustum b . a . marshall , 1995\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( calliotropis ) waikanae w . r . b . oliver , 1926 accepted as calliostoma waikanae oliver , 1926 accepted as maurea waikanae ( oliver , 1926 ) ( basionym )\nlaetifautor iredale , t . , 1929 type species : calliostoma trepidum hedley , c . , 1907\ncalliostoma trepidum hedley , 1907 synonym of laetifautor deceptus ( e . a . smith , 1899 )\ncalliostoma ( kombologion ) clench & r . d . turner , 1960 \u00b7 accepted , alternate representation\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( calliotropis ) pagoda w . r . b . oliver , 1926 accepted as calliostoma ( maurea ) selectum ( dillwyn , 1817 ) accepted as maurea selecta ( dillwyn , 1817 )\ncalliostoma trepidum hedley , 1907 : synonym of laetifautor deceptus ( e . a . smith , 1899 )\ncalliostoma rubropunctatum ( a . adams , 1851 ) synonym of laetifautor rubropunctatus ( a . adams , 1851 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( mauriella ) wanganuicum w . r . b . oliver , 1926 accepted as calliostoma ( maurea ) punctulatum ( martyn , 1784 ) accepted as maurea punctulata ( martyn , 1784 ) ( synonym )\ncalliostoma polychroma ( a . adams , 1851 ) : synonym of cantharidus polychroma ( a . adams , 1851 )\ncalliostoma rubropunctatum ( a . adams , 1851 ) : synonym of laetifautor rubropunctatus ( a . adams , 1851 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( tristichotrochus ) gendalli b . a . marshall , 1979 represented as calliostoma gendalli b . a . marshall , 1979 accepted as tristichotrochus gendalli ( b . a . marshall , 1979 ) ( original combination )\nspecies calliostoma bisculptum e . a . smith , 1906 accepted as jujubinus suarezensis ( p . fischer , 1878 )\nspecies calliostoma comptum ( a . adams , 1855 ) accepted as fautor comptus ( a . adams , 1855 )\ncalliostoma ( kombologion ) clench , w . j . & r . d . turner , 1960 type species : unknowngenustype\ncalliostoma burnupi e . a . smith , 1899 synonym of dactylastele burnupi ( e . a . smith , 1899 )\ncalliostoma deceptum e . a . smith , 1899 synonym of laetifautor deceptus ( e . a . smith , 1899 )\ncalliostoma regalis ( verrill & s . smith , 1880 ) synonym of calliotropis regalis ( verrill & smith , 1880 )\nspecies calliostoma aucklandicum e . a . smith , 1902 accepted as coelotrochus chathamensis ( hutton , 1873 ) ( synonym )\nspecies calliostoma farquhari g . b . sowerby iii , 1892 accepted as jujubinus suarezensis ( p . fischer , 1878 )\nspecies calliostoma coronatum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as calliostoma kanakorum b . a . marshall , 2001 accepted as benthastelena coronata ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) accepted as benthastelena kanakorum ( b . a . marshall , 2001 ) ( invalid : junior homonym of calliostoma coronatum quinn , 1992 ; c . kanakorum is a replacement name )\ncalliostoma is a genus of small to medium - sized sea snails with gills and an operculum , marine gastropod molluscs within the family calliostomatidae , the calliostoma top snails ( according to the taxonomy of taxonomy of gastropoda by bouchet & rocroi ( 2005 ) ) . previously this genus was placed within the family trochidae . calliostoma is the type genus of the family calliostomatidae .\ncalliostoma burnupi e . a . smith , 1899 : synonym of dactylastele burnupi ( e . a . smith , 1899 )\ncalliostoma deceptum e . a . smith , 1899 : synonym of laetifautor deceptus ( e . a . smith , 1899 )\ncalliostoma regalis ( verrill & s . smith , 1880 ) : synonym of calliotropis regalis ( verrill & smith , 1880 )\nsubgenus calliostoma ( mauriella ) w . r . b . oliver , 1926 accepted as maurea oliver , 1926 ( synonym )\nspecies calliostoma antipodense b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea antipodensis ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\nspecies calliostoma aupourianum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea aupouriana ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\nspecies calliostoma boucheti b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor boucheti ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\nspecies calliostoma chesterfieldense b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor chesterfieldensis ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\nspecies calliostoma cristatum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as benthastelena cristata ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\nspecies calliostoma crossleyae e . a . smith , 1910 accepted as tristichotrochus crossleyae ( e . a . smith , 1910 )\nspecies calliostoma diadematum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as benthastelena diademata ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\nspecies calliostoma eminens b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea eminens ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\nspecies calliostoma gendalli b . a . marshall , 1979 accepted as tristichotrochus gendalli ( b . a . marshall , 1979 )\nspecies calliostoma gibbsorum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea gibbsorum ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\nspecies calliostoma alertae b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea ( alertalex ) alertae ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( replacement name for calliostoma blacki ( dell , 1956 ) not c . blacki ( powell , 1950 ) )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) comptum ( a . adams , 1855 ) accepted as fautor comptus ( a . adams , 1855 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) gracile p . marshall , 1918 \u2020 accepted as maurea gracilis ( p . marshall , 1918 ) \u2020\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) spectabile ( a . adams , 1855 ) accepted as maurea spectabilis ( a . adams , 1855 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) waikanae w . r . b . oliver , 1926 accepted as maurea waikanae ( oliver , 1926 )\nspecies calliostoma aculeatum g . b . sowerby iii , 1912 accepted as tristichotrochus aculeatus ( g . b . sowerby iii , 1912 )\nspecies calliostoma correlatum ( c . a . fleming , 1943 ) \u2020 accepted as maurea correlata c . a . fleming , 1943 \u2020\nspecies calliostoma dnopherum ( r . b . watson , 1879 ) accepted as margarites dnopherus ( r . b . watson , 1879 )\nspecies calliostoma deceptum e . a . smith , 1899 accepted as laetifautor deceptus ( e . a . smith , 1899 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( benthastelena ) coronatum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as benthastelena kanakorum ( b . a . marshall , 2001 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( benthastelena ) kanakorum b . a . marshall , 2001 accepted as benthastelena kanakorum ( b . a . marshall , 2001 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) antipodense b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea antipodensis ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) aupourianum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea aupouriana ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) eminens b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea eminens ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) gibbsorum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea gibbsorum ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) jamiesoni b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea jamiesoni ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) maui b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea maui ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) penniketi b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea penniketi ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) regale b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as maurea regalis ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) simulans b . a . marshall , 1994 accepted as maurea simulans ( b . a . marshall , 1994 )\nspecies calliostoma arruense r . b . watson , 1880 accepted as calthalotia arruensis ( r . b . watson , 1880 ) ( original combination )\nspecies calliostoma burnupi e . a . smith , 1899 accepted as dactylastele burnupi ( e . a . smith , 1899 ) ( original combination )\nperron , f . e . ( 1975 ) .\ncarnivorous calliostoma ( prosobranchia : trochidae ) from the northeastern pacific\n. veliger 18 : 52\u201354 .\nmarshall , b . a . ( 1995 ) .\na revision of the recent calliostoma species of new zealand\n. the nautilus 108 : 83\u2013127 .\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( maurea ) correlatum ( c . a . fleming , 1943 ) \u2020 accepted as maurea correlata c . a . fleming , 1943 \u2020\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) boucheti b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor boucheti ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) chesterfieldense b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor chesterfieldensis ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) houbricki b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor houbricki ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) metivieri b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor metivieri ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) necopinatum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor necopinatus ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) paradigmatum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor paradigmatus ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) periglyptum b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor periglyptus ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) richeri b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor richeri ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( fautor ) vaubani b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as fautor vaubani ( b . a . marshall , 1995 ) ( basionym )\nclench w . & turner r . ( 1960 ) .\nthe genus calliostoma in the western atlantic\n. johnsonia 4 ( 40 ) : 1 - 80 .\nremarks . calliostoma delli tends to be broader than high ; one of the figured paratypes ( fig . 14 ) is unusually narrow , compared to most specimens on the type lot .\nquinn , j . f . jr . ( 1992 ) .\nnew species of calliostoma and notes on some poorly known species from the western atlantic\n. the nautilus 106 : 77\u2013114 .\nmarshall , b . a . 1995 . a revision of the recent calliostoma species of new zealand ( mollusca : gastropoda : trochoidea ) . the nautilus 108 : 83 - 127 . [ details ]\n\u00bb species calliostoma ( otukaia ) alertae b . a . marshall , 1995 accepted as otukaia blacki ( dell , 1956 ) accepted as maurea ( alertalex ) alertae ( b . a . marshall , 1995 )\ncontrary to what is the case in most other top shells , calliostoma deposits its eggs in gelatinous ribbons that are only fertilized after being deposited . the young emerge as small snails ( lebour , 1936 ) without passing through a free - living planktonic stage as a veliger larva .\n( of trochus ( calliostoma ) swainson , 1840 ) swainson w . ( 1840 ) a treatise on malacology or shells and shell - fish . london , longman . viii + 419 pp . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 218 , 351 [ details ]\ncurrently , calliostoma is being treated in worms as a broad genus . it is expected to be broken up and ( some ) subgenera will be elevated to the status of genus . at this moment ( 2013 ) , information is too fragmentary to assign all species in a revised genus .\nholotype for calliostoma atlantoides quinn , 1992 catalog number : usnm 860261 collection : smithsonian institution , national museum of natural history , department of invertebrate zoology preparation : dry locality : st . lucia , caribbean sea , north atlantic ocean depth ( m ) : 417 to 589 vessel : pillsbury r / v\nnew records of live known calliostomatidae species from eastern and central tropical pacifie are listed , extending the distribution area of some of them . four new species are described and compared with similar species : calliostoma haapaiensis n . sp . , c . vaubanoides n . sp . , c . mesemorinon n . sp . and c . polysarkon n . sp .\nafter more than 2 years of preparations , the diatombase portal is now officially launched . . . .\nlast week - on may 30 and 31st \u2013 8 thematic experts on talitridae came together for the first time during a lifewatch - worms sponsored workshop . the workshop took place at the hellenic centre for marine research in crete , where it was organized back - to - back with the 8th international sandy beaches symposium ( isbs ) . the group focused on identifying relevant traits for the talitridae , and adding this data through the amphipoda species database . . . .\non 23 april 2018 , a number of editors of the world register of introduced species ( wrims ) started a three day workshop in the flanders marine institute ( vliz ) . these three days were used to evaluate , complete and improve the content of this worms thematic register ( tsd ) . . . .\nthe 2nd worms early career researchers and 3rd worms achievement award were granted respectively to fran\u00e7ois le coze and geoff read . congratulations ! . . .\nin 2018 , to celebrate a decade of worms ' existence , it was decided to compile a list of our top marine species , both for 2017 and for the previous decade . . . .\nthe scleractinian corals are now accessible though their own list portal . this world list contains over 1 500 accepted names of extant species and is one of the most complete existing resources for scleractinian taxa . . .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nselastele marshall , b . a . , 1995 type species : selastele onustum odhner , n . h . j . , 1924\nphotinastoma powell , a . w . b . , 1951 type species : photinastoma taeniatum sowerby , g . b . i , 1825\nphotinula adams , h . g . & a . adams , 1854 type species : unknowngenustype\nvenustatrochus powell , a . w . b . , 1951 type species : venustatrochus georgianus powell , a . w . b . , 1951\nakoya habe , t . , 1961 type species : akoya akoya kuroda , t . in ikeba , 1942\ncoralastele iredale , t . , 1930 type species : coralastele allanae iredale , t . , 1930\nmaurea oliver , w . r . b . , 1926 type species : maurea tigris gmelin , j . f . , 1791\nastele swainson , w . a . , 1855 type species : astele subcarinata swainson , w . a . , 1855\nastelena iredale , t . , 1924 type species : astelena scitulum adams , a . in adams , h . g . & a . adams , 1854\nbenthastelena iredale , t . , 1936 type species : benthastelena katherina iredale , t . , 1936\nfalsimargarita powell , a . w . b . , 1951 type species : falsimargarita gemma smith , e . a . , 1915\nbathyfautor marshall , b . a . , 1995 type species : bathyfautor rapuhia marshall , b . a . , 1995\ndactylastele marshall , b . a . , 1995 type species : dactylastele poupineli montrouzier , r . p . , 1875\nfautrix marshall , b . a . , 1995 type species : fautrix candida marshall , b . a . , 1995\nphenacomargarites marshall , b . a . , 2016 type species : phenacomargarites williamsae marshall , b . a . , 2016\nmargarella thiele , j . in troschel , f . h . & j . thiele , 1893 type species : margarella expansa sowerby , g . b . i , 1838\nthysanodonta marshall , b . a . , 1988 type species : thysanodonta aucklandica marshall , b . a . , 1988\nbruceina \u00f6zdikmen , h . , 2013 type species : bruceina eos marshall , b . a . , 1988\ncarinastele marshall , b . a . , 1988 type species : carinastele kristelleae marshall , b . a . , 1988\ndimensions : height 29 . 6 mm . diameter 30 . 9 min ( holotype , fig . 13 ) : height 24 . 3 mm , diameter 23 . 2 mm ( paratype , fig . 14 ) ; height 29 . 0 mm , diameter 26 . 0 ( paratype . fig . 15 ) .\nmaterial . chile : los vilos ( lacm , type lot , figs . 13 - 15 ) , papudo , zapallar , algarrobo , punta penablanca ( lacm ) , pichilemu , constituci\u00f3n . specimens examined : 114 .\ntype material . thirty - three specimens from the type lo\u00adcality , collected 29 may 1977 , by andrade , shrimp trawler goden wind , holotype , lacm 1980 ; paratypes , lacm 1981 ; paratypes , mnhn 200489 ; paratypes , mzicb 15 . 528 ; paratypes , usnm 784738 .\ntype locality . 400 m off los vilos , chile ( 31\u00b056 ' s : 71\u00b054 ' w ) .\ndistribution . los vilos ( 31\u00b056 ' s ) to constituci\u00f3n , chile ( 35\u00b020 ' s ) . depth range 200 - 450 m .\ndiagnosis . a species of the subgenus otukaia characterized by having three spiral cords prominent at all growth stages . it differs from the similarly sculptured c . blacki ( dell , 1956 ) from new zealand ( see dell , 1956 : 46 , pl . 7 , fig . 6 ) in being lower spired , and in having a weaker subsutural ( first ) cord and a stronger second cord .\netymology . we are pleased to name this species in honor of dr . richard k . dell of the national museum of new zealand , wellington . \u201d\nmclean , j . h . and h . andrade . 1982 . large archibenthal gastropods of central chile : collections from an expedition of the r / v anton bruun and the chilean shrimp industry . los angeles county museum , contributions in sciences , 342 : 1 - 20 . urltoken ; = 2316\nunconfirmed _ type : mclean , j . & andrade , h . 1982 . contributions in science ( natural history museum of los angeles county ) . 342 : 1 - 20 , figs . 1 - 56 .\nholotype : quinn , j . f . 1992 . the nautilus . 106 ( 3 ) : 102 .\nunconfirmed type : mclean , j . & andrade , h . 1982 . contributions in science ( natural history museum of los angeles county ) . 342 : 1 - 20 , figs . 1 - 56 .\ndepth range based on 1 specimen in 1 taxon . water temperature and chemistry ranges based on 1 sample . environmental ranges depth range ( m ) : 274 - 274 temperature range ( \u00b0c ) : 12 . 462 - 12 . 462 nitrate ( umol / l ) : 16 . 704 - 16 . 704 salinity ( pps ) : 35 . 456 - 35 . 456 oxygen ( ml / l ) : 3 . 043 - 3 . 043 phosphate ( umol / l ) : 1 . 235 - 1 . 235 silicate ( umol / l ) : 5 . 700 - 5 . 700 note : this information has not been validated . check this * note * . your feedback is most welcome .\nstocks , k . 2009 . seamounts online : an online information system for seamount biology . version 2009 - 1 . world wide web electronic publication .\nthe distribution of this genus is worldwide , found mainly on hard substrata , although japanese species have been found on sandy bottoms . these snails occur from shallow waters to bathyal depths .\nthe rather thin , acute , coeloconoid ( = approaching conical shape but with concave sides ) shell is imperforate or rarely umbilicate . the whorls are smooth , often polished and spirally ridged or granular . the\nperron , frank e . ; turner r . d . ( 1978 ) .\ndall w . h . 1889 . reports on the results of dredging , under the supervision of alexander agassiz , in the gulf of mexico ( 1877 - 78 ) and in the caribbean sea ( 1879 - 80 ) , by the u . s . coast survey steamer\nblake\n, lieut . - commander c . d . sigsbee , u . s . n . , and commander j . r . bartlett , u . s . n . , commanding . xxix . report on the mollusca . part 2 , gastropoda and scaphopoda . bulletin of the museum of comparative zo\u00f6logy at harvard college 18 : 1 - 492 , pls . 10 - 40\nvilvens c . ( 2012 ) new species and new records of seguenzioidea and trochoidea ( gastropoda ) from french polynesia . novapex 13 ( 1 ) : 1 - 23 . [ 10 march 2012 ] page ( s ) : 18\nwilliams , s . t . ; k . m . donald , h . g . spencer and t . nakano ( march 2010 ) .\nvilvens c . ( 2009 ) . new species and new records of calliostomatidae ( gastropoda : trochoidea ) from new caledonia and solomon islands . novapex 10 ( 4 ) : 125 - 163\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\norganic farming - externalities - biodiversity . . . nearly all non - crop , naturally occurring species observed in comparative farm land practice studies show a preference for organic farming both by . . . an average of 30 % more species inhabit organic farms . . . many weed species attract beneficial insects that improve soil qualities and forage on weed pests . . .\nnemertea - taxonomy . . . comprises 100 marine species . . . comprises about 400 species . . . includes seven species , of which six live as commensals in the mantle of large clams and one in that of a freshwater snail . . .\nnemertea - description - nervous system and senses . . . most nemertean species have just one pair of nerve cords , many species have additional paired cords , and some species also have a dorsal cord . . . in some species the cords lie within the skin , but in most they are deeper , inside the muscle layers . . . some species have paired cerebral organs , sacs whose only openings are to the outside . . .\northoptera - life cycle . . . orthopteroid species have a paurometabolous life cycle or incomplete metamorphosis . . . the use of sound is generally crucial in courtship , and most species have distinct songs . . . the number of moults varies between species growth is also very variable and may take a few weeks to some months depending on food availability and weather conditions . . .\nnemertea . . . all species have a proboscis which lies in the rhynchocoel when inactive but everts ( turns inside - out ) to emerge just above the mouth and capture the animal ' s prey with venom . . . a few species with stubby bodies filter feed and have suckers at the front and back ends , with which they attach to a host . . . most nemerteans have various chemoreceptors , and on their heads some species have a number of pigment - cup ocelli , which can detect light but not form an image . . .\nto survive in a world full of stimuli ; but it prevents the survival of the aristocracy .\nthe question that will decide our destiny is not whether we shall expand into space . it is : shall we be one\nsorry , preview is currently unavailable . you can download the paper by clicking the button above .\nenter the email address you signed up with and we ' ll email you a reset link .\nuntil you submit the order , another stampworld user may purchase this item . buy more from the same seller and save shipping costs .\nnow showing : turkey - postage stamps ( 1863 - 2016 ) - 4420 stamps .\nnow showing : afghanistan - postage stamps ( 1990 - 1999 ) - 269 stamps .\n, a revision of the recent species of exilia , formerly benthovoluta ( gastropoda : turbinellidae ) .\n, protoconchs , dispersal and tectonic plates biogeography : new pacific species of morum ( gastropoda : harpidae ) .\nmorum clatratum n . sp . and morum roseum n . sp . are described from depths of 100 - 200 m in the marquesas islands . mode of development inferred from protoconch morphology and comparison with the protoconchs of harpa with teleplanic larvae suggests that the new species have planktotrophic larval development , and that they are expected to range widely outside the marquesas . in addition , morum kurzi , m . macdonaldi , and m . teramachii , with inferred planktotrophic development , and m . watanabei , with inferred non - planktotrophic development , are newly recorded from south pacific localities . the distribution of individual species of morum appears to reflect dispersal during the planktonic phase , rather than movement of the lithospheric plates on the geological scale . the caribbean morum oniscus and m . lamarckii , respectively with inferred non - planktotrophic and planktotrophic development , are treated as separate valid species .\n, new worldwide cowries . descriptions of new taxa and revisions of selected groups of living cypraeidae ( mollusca : gastropoda )\n, a new pleurotomariid ( gastropoda : pleurotomariidae ) from tonga islands , south pacific , bayerotrochus poppei sp . nov .\nbayerotrochus poppei sp . nov . is hereby described and compared with other species of bayerotrochus from the south pacific .\ncastro , peter , williams , austin b . , cooper , lara l . , 2003 , revision of the family latreilliidae stimpson , 1858 ( crustacea , decapoda , brachyura ) , zoosystema , 25 , 4 , 601 - 634\nphos alabastrum sp . nov . and p . boucheti sp . nov . are characterized by a striking bicarinate protoconch , a character they h\u00e2ve in common with the carribean species o\u00ef antillophos woodring , 1928 . the colour of the protoconch and the absence of strong sculpture on the teleoconch distinguish both species from the australian p . sciilptilis watson , 1886 . p . deforgesi sp . nov . differs from the preceding species and from some species of h inia ( nassariidae ) in having a siphonal notch .\n, the deep - water indo - pacific radiation of fusinus ( chryseofusus subgen . nov . ) ( gastropoda : fasciolariidae )\nofwegen , l . p . van , hartog , koos den , fautin , daphne g . , den hartog , j . c .\nthe sea anemone species isactinernus quadrilobatus carlgren , 1918 , and synactinernus fiavus carlgren , 1918 , which were described in new monotypic genera from few specimens collected in southern japan , are synonymized , based on many more specimens from the south pacific . as well as the geographic range , the depth range of this species has been extended to 110 - 700 m . the species had been distinguished primarily on whether the oral dise had four lobes ( i quadrilobatus ) or eight ( synactinernus flavus ) - we conclude their number is largely related to size of the animal . other features that carlgren had used to differentiate the genera ( and species ) are inconsistently present and do not correlate with lobe number .\nbail , patrice , poppe , guido t . , groh , klaus , 2004 , the tribe lyriini . a revision of the recent species of the genera . lyria , callipara , harpulina , enaeta and leptoscapha , a conchological iconography , ix , 5 - 72\nbail p . , poppe g . , 2004 , a conchological iconography . the tribe lyriini : a revision of the recent species of the genera lyria , callipara , harpulina , enaeta and leptoscapha . in conchbooks , 1 - 93\nbamber , roger norman , marshall , bruce a . , richer de forges , bertrand\nchan , tin\u2010yam , marshall , bruce a . , richer de forges , bertrand\n, the \u2018\u2018plesionika rostricrescentis ( bate , 1888 ) \u2019\u2019 and \u2018\u2018p . lophotes chace , 1985\u2019\u2019 species groups of plesionika bate , 1888 , with descriptions of five new species ( crustacea : decapoda : pandalidae )\nhymenopenaeus obliquirostris ( bate , 1881 ) , a relatively poorly known species , is redescribed , figured and compared with h . halli bruce , 1966 . two other species of hymenopenaeus , h . methalli from the southwest pacific and h . fallax from hawaii , are described as new . all these species are closely related to one another . they are distinguished essentially by the presence or absence of a postrostral carina , the presence or absence of a fixed spine on the merus of the first pereopods , and the shape of parts of the thelycum and petasma .\ngalil , bella s . , 2004 , a new genus and species of leucosiid crabs ( crustacea , decapoda , brachyura ) from the indo - pacific ocean , zoosystema , 26 , 3 , 495 - 502\n, on the genus cycloscala dall , 1889 ( gastropoda : epitoniidae ) in the indo - pacific , with comments on the type species , new records of known species , and the description of three new species .\nall described indo - pacific taxa referable to the epitoniid genus cycloscala dall , 1889 are listed and evaluated . the type species , cycloscala echinaticosta ( d ' orbugny , 1842 ) is discussed . four described inod - pacific cycloscala species , considered valid herewith , are treated : cycloscala crenulata pease , 1867 ; c . gazae kilburn , 1985 ; c . hyalina sowerby ii , 1844 ; and c . revoluta hedley , 1899 . three new species are described : cycloscala armata , c . sardella , and c . montrouzieri .\nhayashi , ken - ichi , marshall , bruce a . , richer de forges , bertrand\n, revision of the pasiphaea cristata bate , 1888 species group of pasiphaea savigny , 1816 , with descriptions of four new species , and referral of p . australis hanamura , 1989 to alainopasiphaea hayashi , 1999 ( crustacea : decapoda : pasiphaeidae )\na new cratigonid genus and species , pseudopontophilus serratus n . gen . , n . sp . , is established from the southwestern pacific . the new genus is closely related to pontophilus leach , 18 17 and parapontophilus christoffersen , 1988 in having at least one pair of lateral teeth oil the rostrum and a postorbital suture on the carapace . it is distinguished from both pontophilus and parapontophilus in the completely loss of exopod on the first pereopod and the less reduced second pereopod . considerable variation in the number of median spines oil the carapace , which not appear to be correlated with either size or sex , is found in this new species .\nkomai , tomoyuki , marshall , bruce a . , richer de forges , bertrand\n, a review of the indo - west pacific species of the genus glyphocrangon a . milne - edwards , 1881 ( excluding the g . caeca species group ) ( crustacea : decapoda : caridea : glyphocrangonidae )\n, nassarius boucheti spec . nov . , a deep water species from the western pacific ( gastropoda , prosobranchia , nassariidae )\na new nassarius deep water species is described from the western pacific . the material was collected during several expeditions of the museum national d ' histoire nature lie , paris .\nlemaitre , rafael , marshall , bruce a . , richer de forges , bertrand\nmacpherson , enrique , marshall , bruce a . , richer de forges , bertrand , 2004 , species of the genus munida leach , 1820 and related genera from fiji and tonga ( crustacea : decapoda : galatheidae ) , tropical deep - sea benthos , m\u00e9moires du mus\u00e9um national d ' histoire naturelle , 23 , 191 , 231 - 292\nmclaughlin , patsy a . , 2004 , redescription of tomopaguroides valdiviae ( balss , 1911 ) ( crustacea , decapoda , anomura , paguroidea , paguridae ) with notes on variation and female morphology , zoosystema , 26 , 3 , 469\u2013482\nnorman , mark d . , boucher - rodoni , renata , hochberg , f . g .\n, two new western pacific deep water species of nassarius ( gastropoda : prosobranchia : nassariidae ) : nassarius herosae sp . nov . and nassarius vanpeli sp . nov .\nduring several expeditions by the museum national d ' histoire naturel , paris , two hereby described deep water species of nassarius were collected .\n, new species and new records of danilia ( gastropoda : chilodontidae ) from the western pacific .\nnew records of danilia species from the west - pacific are listed . danilia angulosa n . sp . , d . galeata n . sp . and d ; discordata n . sp . are described and compared with similar danilia species . a key to wetern pacific danilia species , including the new species , is proposed . the recent worldwide species of danilia , the number of which reach now therefore 11 , are listed with their main distinctive features in an appendix .\nahyong , shane t . , galil , bella s . , 2006 , polychelidae from the southern and western pacific ( decapoda , polychelida ) , zoosystema , 28 , 3 , 757 - 767\na new species of a turrid gastropod is described and compared with similar species . the new species has been collected in japan from okinawa prefecture and from wakayama prefecture , central honshu . it has also been taken off aliguay island in northern mindanao province , philippine islands , and from several localities in the western pacific . the nes species has a brown maculate pattern with numerous dark brown spots , a brownfish purple siphonal process and a rather deep , with anal sinus .\n, penaeopsis bate , 1881 ( crustacea , decapoda , penaeidae ) r\u00e9colt\u00e9es dans le pacifique sud - ouest par les campagnes fran\u00e7aises depuis 1976 . description d ' une esp\u00e8ce nouvelle\nthe pasiphaea alcocki species group is treated herewith , as the third group of the genus pasiphaea savigny , 1816 . the group is primarily characterized by a deeply concave posterior margin of the telson and the distinctly carinate dorsal margin of the carapace and abdomen . the meri of the first and second pereopods are always armed with many spines , and the ischium and / or basis of the second pereopods are sometimes armed with spines . the group comprises 17 species including two new species both from musorstom material , pasiphaea ledoyeri n . sp . and pasiphaea major n . sp . , which are large size species . p . berentsae kensley , tranter & griffin , 1987 is proved to be a junior synonym of p . barnardi yaldwyn , 1971 . p . balssi burukovsky & romensky ; , 1987 is probably a junior synonym of p . rathbunae ( stebbing 1914a ) . a key to the species of p . alcocki group is presented . each species is diagnosed and most species are redescribed and / or figured .\na new genus and species , choneteuthis tongaensis gen . et sp . nov . , is described from the waters around tonga in the central south pacific ocean . the new genus does not clearly fit in any of the currently recognized subfamilies of the family sepiolidae , justifying a reconsideration of the subfamilial subdivision of the family .\n, annotated catalogue of brachyuran type specimens ( crustacea , decapoda , brachyura ) deposited in the mus\u00e9um national d\u2019histoire naturelle , paris . part i . podotremata\no\u2019hara , timothy d . , 2007 , seamounts : centres of endemism or species richness for ophiuroids ? , global ecology and biogeography , 16 , 6 , 720 - 732 doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1466 - 8238 . 2007 . 00329 . x\n, new species and new records of calliotropis ( gastropoda : chilodontidae : calliotropinae ) from indo - pacific .\nnew records of 25 calliotropis species from the indo - pacific area are listed , extending the distribution area of some of them . 30 new species and 1 new subspecies are described and compared with similar calliotropis species : c . conoeides n . sp . ; c . helix n . sp . ; c . cynee n . sp . ; c . chalkeie n . sp . ; c . ptykte n . sp . ; c . solomonensis n . sp . ; c . pistis n . sp . ; c . echidnoides n . sp . ; c . cycloeides n . sp . ; c . pyramoeides n . sp . ; c . coopertorium n . sp . ; c . asphales n . sp . ; c . nux n . sp . ; c . oros n . sp . ; c . oros marquisensis n . ssp . ; c . zone n . sp . ; c . hysterea n . sp . ; c . stegos n . sp . ; c . oregmene n . sp . ; c . cooperculum n . sp . ; c . keras n . sp . ; c . denticulus n . sp . ; c . dicrous n . sp . ; c . rostrum n . sp . ; c . pheidole n . sp . ; c . siphaios n . sp . ; c . nomisma n . sp . ; c . nomismasimilis n . sp . ; c . elephas n . sp . ; c . ostrideslithos n . sp . ; c . trieres n . sp .\nbaba , keiji , macpherson , enrique , poore , gary c . b . , ahyong , shane t . , bermudez , adriana , cabezas , patricia , lin , chia - wei , nizinski , martha , rodrigues , celso , schnabel , kareen e .\nbeu , alan g . , h\u00e9ros , virginie , cowie , robert h . , bouchet , philippe\n, recent deep - water cassidae of the world . a revision of galeodea , oocorys , sconsia , echinophoria and relatedtaxa , with new genera and species ( mollusca , gastropoda )\ndijkstra , henk h . , maestrati , philippe , h\u00e9ros , virginie , cowie , robert h . , bouchet , philippe\nfifty - two deep - water species of pectinoidea ( 37 propeamussiidae , 1 entoliidae , 14 pectinidae ) are listed from norfolk ridge ( 11 species ) , loyalty islands ( 4 species ) , fiji islands ( 30 species ) , tonga ( 26 species ) , solomon islands ( 26 species ) and the marquesas archipelago ( 8 species ) . all species from fiji , tonga and the marquesas are new records and six species of propeamussiidae are new to science : propeamussium boucheti ( fiji and tonga ) , parvamussium biformatum ( solomons ) , parvamussium lozoueti ( fiji and tonga ) , parvamussium marquesanum ( marquesas ) , parvamussium polynesianum ( marquesas ) and similipecten herosae ( tonga ) . two new combinations ( hyalopecten tydemani , talochlamys gladysiae ) are introduced .\nhouart , roland , h\u00e9ros , virginie , cowie , robert h . , bouchet , philippe\nlozouet , pierre , maestrati , philippe , h\u00e9ros , virginie , cowie , robert h . , bouchet , philippe\na little less than 100 species of cones are known in the literature from waters around the fiji islands , all intertidal to subtidal . we report here on the species taken by recent offshore and deep - water benthic sampling expeditions . samples were taken to depths of 1300 m , although cones were taken not deeper than 680 m . leaving aside two taxa of uncertain identity , the material contains 22 species from depths deeper than 100 m , all of which are new records for fiji , including four new species ( conus cakobaui spec . nov . , alive in 414 - 567 m ; c . joliveti spec . nov . , alive in 150 - 353 m ; c . fijisulcatus spec . nov . , alive in 150 - 188 m ; and c . gigasulcatus spec . nov . , alive in 290 - 300 m ) . a further 19 species are from depths shallower than 100 m , and these include six new records for fiji , including two new species ( c . fijiensis spec . nov . , alive in 80 - 120 m ; and c . sutanorcum spec . nov . , alive in 32 - 50 m ) .\noliverio , marco , h\u00e9ros , virginie , cowie , robert h . , bouchet , philippe\nricher de forges , bertrand , ng , peter k . l . , 2008 , new records of deep - sea spider crabs of the genus cyrtomaia miers , 1886 , from the pacific ocean , with description of a new species ( crustacea : decapoda : brachyura : majidae ) , zootaxa , 1861 , 17 - 28\nscarabino , victor , h\u00e9ros , virginie , cowie , robert h . , bouchet , philippe\na supplementary list of material examined is provided , completing the list given in a recently published paper revising the genus spinosipella worldwide ( simone & cunha , 2008 ) . most of the material belongs to the mus\u00e9um national d\u2019histoire naturelle , paris , france .\nvald\u00e9s , \u00e1ngel , h\u00e9ros , virginie , cowie , robert h . , bouchet , philippe\nahyong , shane t . , ng , peter k . l . , 2009 , the cymonomidae of the philippines ( crustacea : decapoda : brachyura ) , with descriptions of four new species , the raffles bulletin of zoology , suppl . 20 , 233 - 246\nlorenz f . , fehse d . , 2009 , the living ovulidae : a manual of the families of allied cowries : ovulidae , pediculariidae and eocypraeidae . , conchbooks\nthree new genera and five new species of epialtid majoid crabs are described from deep water in the western pacific . two new species of oxypleurodon miers , 1886 : o . sanctaeclausi n . sp . and o . annulatum n . sp . are described from the philippines . new specimens of the rare oxypleurodon carbunculum ( rathbun , 1906 ) from the hawaiian islands are also recorded . three new genera are established : garthinia n . gen . for g . disica n . sp . from the solomon islands ; guinotinia n . gen . for g . cordis n . sp . from new caledonia and g . lehouarnoi n . sp . from fiji and tonga ; and laubierinia n . gen . for sphenocarcinus nodosus rathbun , 1916 , and rochinia carinata griffin & tranter , 1986 .\n, taxonomic revision of the genus paramunida baba , 1988 ( crustacea : decapoda : galatheidae ) : a morphological and molecular approach .\ncastro p . , 2010 , a new species and new records of palicoid crabs ( crustacea , decapoda , brachyura , palicoidea , palicidae , crossotonotidae ) from the indo - west pacific region , zoosystema , 32 , 1 , 73 - 86 doi : 10 . 5252 / z2010n1a3\no\u2019hara , timothy d . , tittensor , derek p . , 2010 , environmental drivers of ophiuroid species richness on seamounts : ophiuroid seamount species richness , marine ecology , 31 , suppl . 1 , 26 - 38 doi : 10 . 1111 / j . 1439 - 0485 . 2010 . 00373 . x\nrowden , ashley a . , schnabel , kareen e . , schlacher , thomas a . , macpherson , enrique , ahyong , shane t . , richer de forges , bertrand\nbouchet , philippe , kantor , yuri i . , sysoev , alexander v . , puillandre , nicolas\no ' hara , timothy d . , rowden , ashley a . , bax , nicholas j .\ngeiger , daniel l . , 2012 , monograph of the little slit shells . volume 1 . introduction , scissurellidae , santa barbara museum of natural history monographs , santa barbara museum of natural history , 1 , 7\ngeiger , daniel l . , 2012 , monograph of the little slit shells . volume 2 . anatomidae , larocheidae , depressizonidae , sutilizonidae , temnocinclidae , santa barbara museum of natural history monographs , santa barbara museum of natural history , 2 , 7\nfourteen species of muricidae referable to the ( sub ) genera promurex ponder & vokes , 1988 , pygmaepterys vokes , 1978 , murexsul lredale , 1915 , pazinotus vokes , 1970 , prototyphis ponder , 1972 , ponderia houart , 1986 , gemixystus iredale , 1929 , leptotrophon houart , 1995 and scabrotrophon mclean , 1996 are reported from new caledonia , the solomon islands and taiwan , to depths down to 1750 m . five new species are described : favartia ( pygmaepterys ) lifouensis n . sp . from new caledonia with range extension to the solomon islands , pazinotus chionodes n . sp . and gemixystus calcareus n . sp . from new caledonia , leptotrophon wareni n . sp . from the solomon islands and favartia ( pygmaepterys ) circinata n . sp . from taiwan .\ntwo new species of timbellus are described from the coral sea and the new caledonia region with extension to fiji , tonga and the kermadec islands for one species . both species are compared to t . richeri ( houart , 1987 ) and t . vespertilio ( kuroda , 1959 ) . nine species of the genus timbellus are recorded from the coral sea and the new caledonia region . ouly one , t . bilobatus n . sp . is known from other localities in the indo - west pacific province .\nkantor , yuri i . , puillandre , nicolas , rivasseau , audrey , bouchet , philippe\n, neither a buccinid nor a turrid : a new family of deep - sea snails for belomitra p . fischer , 1883 ( mollusca , neogastropoda ) with a review of recent indo - pacific species\nkilburn , richard n . , fedesov , alexander e . , olivera , baldomero m .\nahyong , shane t . , chan , tin\u2010yam , corbari , laure , ng , peter k . l .\nlemaitre , rafael , ahyong , shane t . , chan , tin - yam , corbari , laure , ng , peter k . l .\nma , ka yan , chu , ka hou , ahyong , shane t . , chan , tin\u2010yam , corbari , laure , ng , peter k . l .\nrouse , greg w . , jermiin , lars s . , wilson , nerida g . , eeckhaut , igor , lanterbecq , deborah , oji , tatsuo , young , craig m . , browning , teena , cisternas , paula , helgen , lauren e . , stuckey , michelle , messing , charles g .\nroux , michel , el\u00e9aume , marc , hemery , lena\u00efg g . , am\u00e9ziane , nadia\nsix new species of the genus nassarius dum\u00e9ril , 1805 are described , based on material collected from the coral triangle and the south pacific . we combine traditional morphology - based descriptions with the molecular ( cytochrome c oxidase i - coi ) signature of the new species . new species are : nassarius ocellatus sp . nov . ( philippines to vanuatu ) , nassarius houbricki sp . nov . ( solomon islands to queensland and tonga ) , nassarius radians sp . nov . ( philippines to vanuatu ) , nassarius vanuatuensis sp . nov . ( vanuatu ) , nassarius velvetosus sp . nov . ( western australia to fiji ) and nassarius martinezi sp . nov . ( solomon islands to tonga ) .\nvilvens , claude , williams , suzanne t . , herbert , david g .\na new genus , arxellia , is described in the family solariellidae . nine species are referred to this taxon , eight of which are new and are described in this paper ( arxellia trochos n . sp . , arxellia boucheti n . sp . , arxellia herosae n . sp . , arxellia helicoides n . sp . , arxellia tracheia n . sp . , arxellia thaumasta n . sp . , arxellia maestratii n . sp . and arxellia erythrea n . sp . ) . the previously described species bathymophila tenorioi poppe , tagaro & dekker , 2006 is reassigned to arxellia .\nmorassi , mauro , bonfitto , antonio , 2015 , new indo - pacific species of the genus teretia norman , 1888 ( gastropoda : raphitomidae ) , zootaxa , 3911 , 4 , 560 - 570 doi : 10 . 11646 / zootaxa . 3911 . 4 . 5\nter poorten , jan johan , 2015 , fragum vanuatuense spec . nov . , a small new fragum from the central indo - west pacific ( bivalvia , cardiidae ) , basteria , 79 , 4 - 6 , 114 - 120\nchan , tin - yam , cleva , r\u00e9gis , chu , ka hou , 2016 , on the genus trachysalambria burkenroad , 1934 ( crustacea , decapoda , penaeidae ) , with descriptions of three new species , zootaxa , 4150 , 3 , 201 - 254 doi : 10 . 11646 / zootaxa . 4150 . 3 . 1\nchen , chien - lin , goy , joseph w . , bracken - grissom , heather d . , felder , darryl l . , tsang , ling ming , chan , tin - yam , 2016 , phylogeny of stenopodidea ( crustacea : decapoda ) shrimps inferred from nuclear and mitochondrial genes reveals non - monophyly of the families spongicolidae and stenopididae and most of their composite genera , invertebrate systematics , 30 , 5 , 479 - 490 doi : 10 . 1071 / is16024\nfraussen , koen , stahlschmidt , peter , h\u00e9ros , virginie , strong , ellen e . , bouchet , philippe\n, the extensive indo - pacific deep - water radiation of manaria e . a . smith , 1906 ( gastropoda : buccinidae ) and related genera , with descriptions of 21 new species\nfehse , dirk , 2017 , contributions to the knowledge of the triviidae , xxix - b . new triviidae from the fiji , visaya , suppl . viii , 31 - 48\nfehse , dirk , 2017 , contributions to the knowledge of the triviidae , xxix - g . new triviidae from tonga islands , visaya , suppl . viii , 5 - 30\nfehse , dirk , 2017 , contributions to the knowledge of the triviidae , xxix - k . new triviidae from the vanuatu , visaya , suppl . viii , 95 - 124\ngalindo , lee ann , kool , hugo h . , dekker , henk , 2017 , review of the nassarius pauperus ( gould , 1850 ) complex ( nassariidae ) : part 3 , reinstatement of the genus reticunassa , with the description of six new species , european journal of taxonomy , 275 , 1 - 43 doi : 10 . 5852 / ejt . 2017 . 275\nmah , christopher l . , 2017 , overview of the ferdina - like goniasteridae ( echinodermata : asteroidea ) including a new subfamily , three new genera and fourteen new species , zootaxa , 4271 , 1 , 1 - 72 doi : 10 . 11646 / zootaxa . 4271 . 1 . 1\ncitation : mus\u00e3\u00a9um national d ' histoire naturelle [ ed ] . 2018 . r\u00e9f\u00e9rentiel des campagnes de collectes , site web : urltoken . - v 2 . 18 . 2\n( of fluxina dall , 1881 ) dall w . h . 1881 . reports on the results of dredging , under the supervision of alexander agassiz , in the gulf of mexico and in the caribbean sea ( 1877 - 78 ) , by the united states coast survey steamer\nblake\n, lieutenant - commander c . d . sigsbee , u . s . n . , and commander j . r . bartlett , u . s . n . , commanding . xv . preliminary report on the mollusca . bulletin of the museum of comparative zo\u00f6logy at harvard college , 9 ( 2 ) : 33 - 144 . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 51 [ details ]\nvilvens c . ( 2009 ) . new species and new records of calliostomatidae ( gastropoda : trochoidea ) from new caledonia and solomon islands . novapex 10 ( 4 ) : 125 - 163 [ details ]\nwilliams s . t . , donald k . m . , spencer h . g . & nakano t . ( 2010 ) molecular systematics of the marine gastropod families trochidae and calliostomatidae ( mollusca : superfamily trochoidea ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 54 : 783 - 809 . [ details ]"]}
{"id": 2245, "summary": [{"text": "the new caledonia blossom bat ( notopteris neocaledonica ) is an uncommon species of megabat in the family pteropodidae .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "the species lives in caves in northern new caledonia , and forms colonies of up to 300 . ", "topic": 13}], "title": "new caledonia blossom bat", "paragraphs": ["information on the new caledonia blossom bat is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nnew caledonia blossom bat is known from only a few caves in the northern part of the island of new caledonia ( brescia and borel 2004 ; boissenin and brescia 2007 ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - new caledonia blossom bat\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - new caledonia blossom bat\ntitle =\narkive photo - new caledonia blossom bat\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\ni visited new caledonia for work in july 2010 and of course spent a day looking for some of the very few mammals on new caledonia .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive photo - new caledonia blossom bat at roost\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive photo - new caledonia blossom bat at roost\ntitle =\narkive photo - new caledonia blossom bat at roost\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - new caledonia blossom bat ( notopteris neocaledonica )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - new caledonia blossom bat ( notopteris neocaledonica )\ntitle =\narkive species - new caledonia blossom bat ( notopteris neocaledonica )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nwinkelmann jr , bonaccorso fj , strickler tl . home range of the southern blossom bat ,\nwinkelmann jr . , bonaccorso fj , goedeke ee , ballock lj . home range and territoriality in the least blossom bat ,\nthe new caledonia wattled bat is a species of vesper bat in the family vespertilionidae , endemic to new caledonia , and has an iucn classification of endangered . interestingly , the roosts of these bats are only found in three towns : hiengh\u00e8ne ( north province ) , pa\u00efta and sarram\u00e9a ( south province ) ( flannery 1995 ; simmons 2005 ) . not much information about the natural history of these species is known and therefore , unfortunately , no conservation legislation or declaration of protected areas for their habitats can be made .\npettersson s , ervik f , knudsen jt . floral scent of bat - pollinated species : west africa vs . the new world .\nchalinolobus tuberculatus forster , the long - tailed bat , is one of six species of the australasian genus chalinolobus . this group of lobe - lipped bats is most nearly related to south africa ' s glauconycteris and is included in the cosmopolitan family vespertilionidae . the new zealand chalinolobus is closely similar to c . neocaledonicus of new caledonia and c . picatus of northern and eastern australia .\n) in north - eastern new south wales \u2013 flexibility in response to seasonal variation .\nnew caledonia and french polynesia are thought to be the islands most at risk of disappearing under water , with islands in the caribbean and mediterranean and those in close proximity to guyana and madagascar also under threat . the study found that , after a predicted sea rise of between 0 . 5 and 2 . 3 metres , more than 30 percent of the totally submerged islands would be in new caledonia , 30 percent in french polynesia and 10 percent in the mediterranean , with the rest occurring in other regions .\nenter your email address to subscribe to this site and receive notifications of new posts by email .\ncladogram showing the evolutionary relationships of orders of angiosperms and the distribution of families containing bat - pollinated taxa among them . five types of bat pollination are highlighted : pollination only by new world phyllostomids , pollination only by old world pteropodids , pollination by both bat families , and single species pollinated either by new world or old world bats . cladogram based on soltis et al . ( 2005 ) .\nbonaccorso , f ( 1998 ) . bats of papua new guinea . conservation international tropical field guide series .\none adult female bulmer ' s fruit bat weighed 600 g ( 1 . 3\nsocial organization : bulmer ' s fruit bat occurs in cave - dwelling colonies .\nherrera lg , mart\u00ednez del r\u00edo c . pollen digestion by new world bats : effects of processing time and feeding habits .\nthe bats move roost depending on where the fruit are , but fred will probably know if they are around . you can contact mme mediara through the la foa tourist office tel : 41 . 69 . 11 . fred also recognised pictures of the pacific flying fox and new caledonia flying fox though he did not know of any current camps .\nmuchhala n , potts md . character displacement among bat - pollinated flowers of the genus\nwinter y , lopez j , von helversen o . ultraviolet vision in a bat .\nand the musaceae ) contain genera or species that are primarily bat - pollinated . all four of these families contain species exclusively pollinated by specialized bats in addition to others visited by both specialized and opportunistic nectar - feeders . another eight families contain either subfamilies or tribes whose species rely heavily on bats for pollination . of these families , bat pollination is especially common in agavaceae and cactaceae in the new world and pandanaceae in the old world . among the pantropical families , bat pollination is more common in the new world than in the old world in terms of number of bat - pollinated genera in bombacaceae\nthe evolution of bat pollination has made a modest contribution to the overall species and generic diversity of angiosperms . what contribution has bat pollination made at higher taxonomic levels ? how many tribes , subfamilies and families are exclusively bat - pollinated , or nearly so ? table\nsix species of chalinolobus are currently recognised and these fall neatly into four groups . c . tuberculatus , c . neocaledonicus from new caledonia , and c . picatus from northern and eastern australia and new guinea form a single group readily distinguished from the three remaining species by the absence of fur on the wing membranes . in their colour pattern and in the form of their skulls members of this group are remarkably alike . some doubt exists as to the validity of their specific standing .\nweight : one adult female bulmer ' s fruit bat weighed 600 g ( 1 . 3\ngeiselman ck , mori sa , blanchard f . database of neotropical bat / plant interactions .\nvon helversen d , von helversen o . acoustic guide in a bat - pollinated flower .\nbulmer ' s fruit bat ( aproteles bulmerae ) is a megabat endemic to new guinea . it is listed as a critically endangered species due to habitat loss and hunting . it is the only member of the genus aproteles .\nhad originated and diversified . only the new world agavaceae appears to be approximately coeval with the radiation of glossophagines . particularly striking are differences in the ages of the four families that are most strongly associated with bat pollination today ( bombacaceae\nprovince , papua new guinea , as recently as 1984 . the only other populations reported from recent times are from the vicinity of herowana in\nof the 180 , 000 islands on earth , all low - lying islands are particularly at risk and it is thought that over 10 , 000 of them could disappear , along with the species that live on them , if the sea level rise predictions are correct . islands are home to a much higher proportion of endemic species than mainland areas , with the entire population of the alaotran gentle lemur , new caledonia blossom bat , seychelles frog and thousands of other species being found on just one island , or a small group of islands . the submersion of numerous islands will not just impact fauna and flora , with human populations living in coastal areas also being forced to move inland or relocate completely in response to the rising sea levels , and coastal industries being lost .\nfinally , species richness of bat - pollinated plants within new and old world communities is generally similar , averaging 11\u00b79 ( range 4\u201333 species ) in the new world and 16\u00b78 ( range 4\u201328 ) in the old world ( fleming , 2005 ) . the species richness values of nectar - feeding birds and their food plants are generally higher than those of bats except for old world flowers in which , on average , bat plants slightly outnumber bird plants at the community level ( fleming , 2005 ) .\nelangovan v , priya eys , marimuthu g . olfactory discrinimation ability in the short - nosed fruit bat\nare equivocal ( i . e . the immediate ancestor of bat - pollinated taxa is not clear ) , there is strong evidence of the evolution of bat flowers from bee , moth and hummingbird flowers in the other six families . it is likely that bat - pollinated taxa have evolved frequently from hummingbird - pollinated taxa in certain new world families of epiphytes ( e . g . bromeliaceae , gesneriaceae ) , but strong evidence for this awaits phylogenetic studies , as is the case in the agavaceae and cactaceae , in which hummingbird pollination is not likely to be ancestral to bat pollination .\nweight : one adult female bulmer ' s fruit bat weighed 600 g ( 1 . 3 lb ) .\nelangovan v , marimuthu g , kunz th . nectar - feeding behavior in the short - nosed fruit bat\nhorner ma , fleming th , sahley ct . foraging behaviour and energetics of a nectar - feeding bat ,\n) . as expected given their wider distribution among islands , island - dwelling pteropodids interact as pollinators with a greater number of plant families than phyllostomids . pteropodids on islands visit flowers in 21 of 41 ( 53 % ) old world bat - pollinated families whereas phyllostomids on islands visit flowers in only eight of 44 ( 18 % ) new world bat - pollinated families ( table\nknowledge of new zealand bats dates from cook ' s second voyage to this country during the late eighteenth century when forster captured a long - tailed bat in queen charlotte sound . considerable confusion resulted from dr . gray ' s subsequent identification of short - tailed bats with forster ' s animal . the new zealand chalinolobus was later synonymised with an australian species , c . morio gray . past accounts of these animals are therefore difficult to correlate with the species as now known . this is particularly true of c . tuberculatus . tomes ' description , which alone is based with certainty upon new zealand material , does not mention the characteristic lip - lobule and misses several other notable features . because of these omissions from his description , the specific status of this new zealand bat was not recognised . the structures themselves would have been indistinguishable in poorly preserved specimens .\nin south - east asian islands , cactaceae in the west indies ) . exceptions include bat - pollinated species of\nsantos m , arita ht . priority areas for the conservation of new world nectar - feeding bats . in : fleming th , valiente - banuet a , editors .\n) . together , flower placement away from foliage and nocturnal anthesis are the unifying features of the bat pollination syndrome while all other characteristics discussed above , which provide cues and incentives to entice visitation , vary among bat - pollinated species .\nwe dedicate this review to the memory of otto von helversen for his substantial contributions to our knowledge of bat pollination .\n) . the number of independent origins of bat pollination in each group at the ordinal and family levels was analysed with the character analysis by parsimony module . by \u2018independent origin\u2019 we mean that the sister - taxon of a bat - pollinated family contained no bat - pollinated species . the converse of \u2018independent origin\u2019 ( i . e . non - independent origin ) reflects phylogenetic clustering , or the tendency of related groups to contain bat - pollinated taxa . at the ordinal level , bat pollination has originated independently in about half of the orders in which it occurs ( 14 of 28 orders ; table\ngenetically welsh , spiritually australian , currently in new york city . i ' ve lived and worked in london , canberra , paris and lusaka , and visited about 100 countries .\nfleming th , muchhala n , ornelas jf . new world nectar - feeding vertebrates : community patterns and processes . in : s\u00e1nchez - cordero v , medell\u00edn ra , editors .\nabout 85 % of the cases of bat pollination appear to have evolved independently at the level of angiosperm family . a particularly striking example of this pattern is the occurrence of bat - pollinated flowers in only one hemisphere or the other in many pantropically distributed plant families . an exception to this pattern occurs in the monocot order zingiberales in which bat pollination is widespread among related families . the common occurrence of bat pollination in the monocots , and especially the zingiberales , may be due to the concentration of many of these taxa in the tropics , particularly the large succulent and / or arborescent species in which bat pollination almost exclusively occurs . of the seven families of monocots in which more than a single species is bat - pollinated ( table\nthe distribution of bat - pollinated taxa visited by phyllostomids and pteropodids differs at both the ordinal and the family level . of the 28 orders containing bat families , only eight ( 29 % ) contain taxa pollinated by both groups of bats ( table\nbestmann hj , winkler l , von helversen o . headspace analysis of volatile flower scent constituents of bat - pollinated plants .\nare greatly elongated , being half the length of the skull , while those of the short - tailed bat are much reduced .\n( 4 ) information gathered from the database of neotropical bat / plant interactions ( geiselman et al . , 2004 onwards ) .\nfleming th , muchhala n . nectar - feeding bird and bat niches in two worlds : pantropical comparisons of vertebrate pollination systems .\nolfactory and visual cues and rewards are responsible for attracting bats to flowers , but it is the flower ' s size , shape and durability , its placement on the plant , and time of anthesis that determine whether a bat has access to it and can affect pollination . compared with many insect - or bird - pollinated flowers ( but not hawkmoth flowers ) , bat - pollinated flowers are often relatively large and robust . the original bat pollination syndrome was based on plants pollinated by large , non - hovering pteropodids and applies less widely to new world plants pollinated by hovering phyllostomids (\ni would like to express my appreciation to the directors of the dominion museum and the auckland institute and museum who have made study material available . the new zealand deer stalkers ' association has actively co - operated in obtaining many recent records and observations from members throughout new zealand . the new zealand speleological society has located useful skeletal material and miss p . lewis has made available the details of four years\u2019 regular observation . i am indebted to numerous other persons for their assistance in collecting data and to professor l . r . richardson for his supervision and instructive criticism throughout this study .\ndunphy bk , hamrick jl , schwager j . a comparison of direct and indirect measures of gene flow in the bat - pollinated tree\ngiannini np , simmons nb . conflict and congruence in a combined dna\u2013morphology analysis of megachiropteran bat relationships ( mammalia : chiroptera : pteropodidae )\nbat - pollinated p . trisecta is nested within a lowland clade of bee - pollinated species , not within an andean hummingbird - pollinated clade\nbonaccorso f , winkelmann jr , byrnes dgp . home range , territoriality , and flight time budgets in the black - bellied fruit bat ,\nsimmons nb , seymour kl , habersetzer j , gunnell gf . primitive early eocene bat from wyoming and the evolution of flight and echolocation .\nit is important to note that analyses conducted at the ordinal and family levels are very \u2018coarse\u2019 and should not be interpreted to imply that bat pollination is ancestral in any order or family of angiosperms . as discussed below , the most insightful level of independence in the evolution of bat pollination is at the generic or species level . bat pollination has seldom evolved at the tribal , subfamily or family level . phylogenetic clustering ( non - independence ) at the ordinal and family levels simply indicates that bat pollination shows a tendency to occur in related higher - level taxa . the fact that bat pollination has rarely evolved at higher taxonomic levels ( see below ) emphasizes the relative recency of this mode of pollination .\nearly development : a newborn bulmer ' s fruit bat is carried for the first few weeks of its life by its mother while she forages .\nbat pollination is clearly a derived condition in most angiosperm lineages . what has been the most common evolutionary route to bat pollination : from insect - , bird - or non - volant mammal - pollinated taxa ? based on the preponderance of insect pollination in angiosperms , it is reasonable to hypothesize that bat pollination evolved most often from insect pollination . if this is true , did bat - pollinated taxa evolve most frequently from diurnally or nocturnally pollinated taxa ( e . g . from bee or moth flowers , respectively ) ? alternatively , the most common evolutionary route may have been from diurnal bird - pollinated species ( e . g . from hummingbird flowers in the new world or from sunbird or honeyeater flowers in the old world ) . finally , as suggested by sussman and raven ( 1978 ) , bat - pollinated flowers may have evolved from flowers pollinated by non - volant mammals such as primates , at least in the old world .\nstruwe l , kadereit jw , klackenburg j , et al . systematics , character evolution , and biogeography of gentianaceae , including a new tribe and subtribal classification . in : struwe l , albert va , editors .\ndiet : based on dental structures and its close relationship to other fruit - eating bats , bulmer ' s fruit bat is probably an obligate frugivore .\nanother reason for the higher diversity of bat - pollinated plants in the neotropics than in the paleotropics probably reflects the small size and hovering ability of glossophagines . large , non - hovering pteropodids and their new world counterparts , non - glossophagine phyllostomid bats , often visit large , sturdily built flowers many of which are exserted well away from foliage on erect stalks or long pendants ( figs\nage to maturity : bulmer ' s fruit bat is not sexually active by the beginning of its second year and probably does not breed until its third year .\nand others have noted , bat pollination is most common in advanced lineages of angiosperms , i . e . in advanced monocots and in the rosids ( fig .\nmarten - rodriguez s , almarales - castro a , fenster cb . evaluation of pollination syndromes in antillean gesneriaceae : evidence for bat , hummingbird and generalized flowers .\n) . seven of the remaining 14 families are endemic to the neotropics and three are endemic to the paleotropics . of the 26 \u2018exclusive\u2019 phyllostomid families , 19 ( 73 % ) have pantropical or cosmopolitan distributions , and the other seven are new world endemics . similarly , 17 of 23 \u2018exclusive\u2019 pteropodid families ( 74 % ) have pantropical or cosmopolitan distributions , and the other six are old world endemics . thus , 36 of the 53 broadly distributed plant families that contain bat - pollinated plants ( 68 % ) are pollinated by bats in only one hemisphere whereas only about one - third of them have bat - pollinated species in both hemispheres . this again emphasizes the phylogenetically independent nature of the evolution of bat pollination .\nbulmer ' s fruit bat was first described from 12 , 000 year - old fossils found in the central highlands in chimbu province , papua new guinea . it may have become extinct there about 9000 years ago . in 1975 , it was discovered in the hindenburg wall area of western province , papua new guinea , in a cave known as luplupwintem . at that time , local inhabitants described the bat as being abundant , perhaps numbering thousands of bats . however , two years later , the colony had been decimated , apparently by hunters who entered the cave with shotguns and store - bought ropes . during the 1980s , no bats were seen and it was feared that the species may have become extinct . however , by 1993 a colony of about 160 bats was known to be living in the same cave .\nis a small bat the total length from the snout to the tip of the tail being two and a half to three and a quarter inches . in contrast to\nbulmer ' s fruit bat was first described from 12 , 000 - year - old fossils found in the central highlands in chimbu province , papua new guinea . it may have become extinct there about 9000 years ago . in 1975 , it was discovered in the hindenburg wall area of western province , papua new guinea , in a cave known as luplupwintem . at that time , local inhabitants described the bat as being abundant , perhaps numbering thousands of bats . however , two years later , the colony had been decimated , apparently by hunters who entered the cave with shotguns and store - bought ropes . during the 1980s , no bats were seen and it was feared that the species may have become extinct . however , by 1993 a colony of about 160 bats was known to be living in the same cave .\n) . overall , pteropodid and phyllostomid bats basically interact with different orders and families of plants . rather than being constrained at deep phylogenetic levels such as orders , these interactions have evolved independently many times in different old and new world plant lineages .\nof the five flower characteristics limiting or allowing bat access to flowers , only two appear to be universal or nearly so for all bat flowers . the first is flower / inflorescence placement away from foliage , such as projecting above or below the canopy , emerging from branches or trunk , or borne on deciduous trees after they have dropped their leaves (\none adult female bulmer ' s fruit bat weighed 600 g ( 1 . 3 lb ) . bulmer ' s fruit bat is a cave - dweller that occurs in mid - montane forests . its altitudinal range is at least 1800 to 2400 m ( 5800\u20137900 ft ) . it is probably an obligate frugivore . it occurs in cave - dwelling colonies .\n, but not all of these represent unequivocal results because of the absence of species - level phylogenies . all three potential ancestral pollination modes ( insects , birds and non - volant mammals ) are included in these examples , and generalizations about evolutionary trends are not yet possible . we suspect that bat pollination has evolved most commonly from insect pollination in the old world [ e . g . in the fabaceae ( mimosoideae ) and myrtaceae ] . flowers pollinated by hawkmoths and beetles also appear to be ancestral to bat flowers in certain old world taxa . although we judge that five of the 11 new world examples in table\nthe new world flower - visiting counterparts of pteropodids are members of a monophyletic clade of phyllostomidae containing the subfamilies glossophaginae , phyllonycterinae and brachyphyllinae . we will call this clade \u2018glossophagines\u2019 . in contrast to pteropodids , phyllostomids are echolocating bats whose ancestral feeding mode was insectivory (\nbat flowers / inflorescences can be roughly divided into three categories based on their shape : ( 1 ) \u2018shaving - brush\u2019 or \u2018stamen ball\u2019 with many projecting stamens ( e . g .\n) . at the family level , bat pollination has originated independently in about 77 % of the families in which it occurs ( i . e . 51 of 66 families ; table\nhabitat : bulmer ' s fruit bat is a cave - dweller that occurs in mid - montane forests . it has been found living in a cave at 2300 m ( 7500 ' ) . its altitudinal range is at least 1800 \u2013 2400 m ( 5800 - 7900 ' ) . given its montane distribution , this large bat seems well adapted to cool environmental temperatures .\ntwo small bats , of the size of a mouse , are new zealand ' s only known native land mammals . the few reports of the existence of a third species have not yet been confirmed . there are , however , instances of australian bats being found here , but these are considered to be accidental wind - blown migrants . both new zealand bats are bush - dwelling animals usually seen only during twilight as they pursue insects over clearings or rivers and lakes . fine summer and autumn evenings are favourable for observing these secretive animals .\nthe body is compact , tapering somewhat in front of the shoulders but not conspicuously behind . in both species of bat the short pendent penis in the male makes distinction between the sexes readily apparent .\nto take into account any phylogenetic bias in these analyses , we mapped the occurrence of bat pollination by order and family within each of the five major groups using mesquite ( version 2 . 0 ;\nc . morio , which at one time was confused with the new zealand c . tuberculatus , is certainly more distinct from this animal than is any other member of the genus . it is a small chocolate brown bat occurring in tasmania and south - eastern australia , and differs markedly from others of the genus in the absence of the basal ear lobe , in the pointed ear tip and tragus , and in the larger postcalcareal lobe which is supported internally by a minute arm of the calcar .\npollination biologists have long recognized a set of plant characteristics ( syndromes ) that are associated with different kinds of pollinators . the classic characteristics of bat - pollinated flowers ( the \u2018chiropterophilous syndrome\u2019 ) , as described by\n) . bats , like many other kinds of pollinators , can be opportunistic flower visitors and sometimes visit flowers that do not conform to the classic \u2018bat pollination syndrome\u2019 ( e . g . bee flowers such as\n= 0\u00b7061 ) . families with the highest number of bat - pollinated genera include fabaceae ( 30 genera , rosids ) , cactaceae ( 24 , basal eudicots ) , malvaceae ( 25 , rosids ) and bignoniaceae ( 15 , asterids ) . the number of bat - pollinated genera in two of the three largest groups of angiosperms is correlated with the number of genera per family . significant positive correlations occur in rosids (\n) . these orders include arecales and zingiberales ( monocots ) ; santalales ( basal eudicots ) ; fabales , malvales and myrtales ( rosids ) ; and ericales and gentianales ( asterids ) . similarly , as indicated above , only 18 of 67 families ( 27 % ) with bat - pollinated taxa have representatives in both hemispheres . we estimate that bat pollination has evolved independently in about 85 % of these families ( table\n, six are either exclusively bat - pollinated or biased toward bat pollination in certain subfamilies or tribes in both hemispheres . within certain families , therefore , pteropodid and phyllostomid bats appear to have had similar effects on angiosperm diversification . at lower phylogenetic levels ( e . g . genera and species ) , however , phyllostomid - pollinated genera and species outnumber pteropodid - pollinated taxa by factors of 1\u00b76 and 2\u00b71 , respectively ( table\nthe roosting habits permit ready transfer of ectoparasites between individuals and the fur of bats is usually infested . a relatively large bat flea is known from both our species . mystacina is frequently host to numerous small mites .\ntheir rapid erratic flight makes observation on the wing difficult and identification to species virtually impossible . if captured , the species may be immediately distinguished by the length of the tail . in one , the long - tailed bat , the tail is almost as long as the head and the body , and is contained for its entire length in an interfemoral membrane stretched between the legs . the other bat has a short free tail above , but not\nbut gerald was undeterred and with the help of his colleague gladys he discovered that madame mediara from the ouipoint tribe had a guide who knew the forest and could probably find a fruit bat camp . so off i went .\n> 0\u00b750 ) . regression coefficients ( slopes ) were similar in rosids and monocots ( about 0\u00b7040 ) , and their reciprocal values indicate that about one in every 25 genera in those groups contains a bat - pollinated species .\n) . of these families , 26 are exclusively visited by phyllostomids and 23 are exclusively visited by pteropodids ; 18 families are visited by both families of bats . lists of known bat - pollinated species , by family , in the new and old world are provided in appendices 2 and 3 . in compiling these lists we have attempted to include only those taxa known or strongly suspected to be pollinated by bats . as is the case in much of the pollination literature , however , actual proof of effective pollination by bats is available for only a subset of these taxa .\nspeaking about the new strategy for lemur conservation , dr christoph schwitzer , head of research at bristol zoo gardens , said , \u201c the fact is that if we don\u2019t act now we risk losing a species of lemur for the first time in two centuries . the importance of the projects we\u2019ve outlined in this document simply cannot be overstated . \u201d\n) . nocturnal anthesis , the opening of flower buds in the late afternoon or at night , is the second characteristic . the flowers of many bat - pollinated plants open early in the evening and are viable for only one night (\nboth species were formerly present over a greater part of new zealand than now . even at the beginning of the century they were still to be seen on occasion in some of the main urban areas . they were particularly recorded as roosting in large numbers under the bridges of the river avon in christchurch , but they have apparently failed to urbanise .\nthe colony at luplupwintem cave had traditionally been protected by the native people of the area , but an inflow of outside cash in the mid - 1970s led to the purchase of caving equipment and guns and to the decimation of the bat colony .\n) , all adaptations for visitation by large pollinators . bat pollination is rare or absent in the \u2018ginger families\u2019 with more restrictive floral morphology , reduced stamen numbers and smaller nectaries ( i . e . zingiberaceae , costaceae , marantaceae , and cannaceae ;\n) . in summary , new world specialized nectar bats are smaller in size with longer tongues and hover whereas their old world counterparts are larger with shorter tongues and do not hover . because of these differences , we might expect plants visited by specialized nectar - feeding phyllostomids to produce smaller flowers with smaller nectar volumes per flower than those visited by their pteropodid counterparts (\n( 1 ) this list excludes species reported to be visited by bats in the new world that are introduced from the old world ( bombax , durio , kigelia , mahduca , musa , thespesia , thunbergia , zingiber ) ; visited by bats for fruit , not nectar / pollen ( anacardium , brosimum , carica , chrysophyllum , eugenia , manilkara , muntingia , solanum , symphonia , syzygium ) ; known to be pollinated by wind ( acalypha , alnus , celtis , pinus , quercus ) or small insects ( aristolochia , berberis , bursera , theobroma ) ; or where bat - pollination seems very doubtful ( clusia , vanilla ) .\na ) . each of these families appears to have evolved in the late cretaceous or early cenozoic , well before the evolution of specialized nectar - feeding bats . this temporal mismatch suggests that stem members of these families were not likely to be bat - pollinated .\nhypothesized that hummingbird pollination evolved independently numerous times from bee - or moth - pollination in 11 plant families in western north america . compared with those for birds , the evolutionary transitions to bat pollination are less well known . the best documented cases are summarized in table\n) . similarly , flower shape shows different trends associated with bat visitors . flowers visited by specialized nectar - feeding phyllostomids are more likely to be tubular in shape and produced by epiphytes and shrubs while flowers visited by pteropodids tend to be produced by trees and of the \u2018shaving brush\u2019 type (\n) reported that bat pollination occurs in 58 families of plants in about 24 orders ; 43 families contain flowers visited by phyllostomids and 28 by pteropodids . thirteen of the 58 plant families ( 28 % ) are visited by both families of bats . a more complete update of this earlier report (\n, and onwards ) indicates that phyllostomids visit 360 species of plants in 159 genera from 44 families ; our literature review indicates that pteropodids visit 168 species of plants in 100 genera from 41 families . in total , bat - pollinated plants are found in 67 families in 28 orders of angiosperms ( table\nboth new zealand bats congregate in some numbers during the day although occasionally one or a pair of bats may be found beneath the bark of trees such as that of kahikatea . the roosts occur in the hollow branches and trunks of large forest trees or in caves if these are near bush . a single roost may be inhabited for long periods and great accumulations of droppings are sometimes found . such roosts are characterised by a strong musty smell .\nmystacina is represented in new zealand by two distinct forms . one occurs throughout the north island and is present in at least northern areas of the south island , but the other is known only from stewart island and a few neighbouring islets . skeletal differences other than those of size are not apparent between these two groups , but in their external appearance they are clearly distinct . in the absence of a full range of specimens the groups are here considered as subspecies .\nbehavior : bulmer ' s fruit bat roosts in caves . the surviving bats at luplupwintem cave are extremely cautious . if undisturbed , they leave the cave at dusk ; in the presence of people , they leave after dark . all of the bats return to the roost at around 6 : 00 am , before light .\nalso indicated are the estimated number of independent origins of bat pollination within these lineages by order and family . the phylogenetic hypothesis upon which this summary is based comes from t . h . fleming and w . j . kress ( unpubl . res . ) . the number of families recognized in this hypothesis and in table\n) . plant families pollinated by island pteropodids are concentrated in the rosids ; those pollinated by phyllostomids are evenly distributed among monocots , rosids and asterids . about 90 % of these families have pantropical or cosmopolitan distributions . families with restricted geographical distributions include cactaceae in the new world and musaceae and pandanaceae in the old world . most of the flowers visited by bats of both families on islands are produced by trees or tree - like herbs or succulents ( e . g .\nalmost the entire length is formed by the body , the tail being barely half an inch in extent . nostrils and ears are prominent , and the rough , frosted appearance of the fur contrasts well with the sleek fur of the long - tailed bat . with the exception of the bones of the palm and hand , all\nfed up of the lack of sun ? in need of a holiday ? let arkive transport you off to the wonderful islands of the indian ocean with our new topic page . from the coral reefs of the maldives to the unique wildlife of madagascar , the islands of the indian ocean boast a wide range of beautiful habitats and fascinating species . to get you started , here is a taster of a few of the unusual endemic species which call the islands of the indian ocean home .\nof the islands adjacent to new zealand , little barrier and kapiti in the north and stewart island and its subsidiary islets in the south still support numbers of bats . of these the southern islands have a considerable population of mystacina but chalinolobus has not been positively reported from them . the southern mystacina are remarkably robust and differ in several other respects from their more delicate northern relations sufficiently to suggest a distinct subspecies . data are as yet insufficient to determine the northern limit of this larger subspecies .\n) . we assume that it is cheaper for plants to produce small flowers than large flowers . if this is true , then it should be easier for selection to modify insect - pollinated flowers to attract small hovering glossophagines than to attract larger non - hovering phyllostomids or pteropodids . the presence of small hovering bats ( and birds ) in the new world has thus expanded the range of possible pollinator niches for neotropical plants . the absence of such vertebrate pollinators in the old world has probably constrained the range of vertebrate pollination niches in angiosperms there .\n< 0\u00b7001 ) : basal angiosperms , 1\u00b74 % ( median 1\u00b74 % , 1 s . d . 0\u00b78 % ) ; monocots , 44\u00b71 % ( 25\u00b70 % , 40\u00b76 % ) ; basal eudicots , 9\u00b74 % ( 5\u00b79 % , 8\u00b72 % ) ; rosids , 9\u00b71 % ( 4\u00b77 % , 11\u00b70 % ) and asterids , 6\u00b74 % ( 4\u00b76 % , 7\u00b77 % ) . ten of the 67 plant families had at least 25 % of their genera with one or more bat - pollinated species . these families were concentrated in the monocots , in which seven of 13 families ( 54 % ) contained relatively high proportions of bat - pollinated genera . all of these families are small and contain a total of seven or fewer genera ( table\nin bats the forelimbs greatly exceed the hind - limbs in size . these latter generally play but little part in movement and are usually short and reduced . most bats can only crawl or scramble on the ground . these animals usually furl the wing against the body when roosting , or at the most fold it in some simple manner . however , the molossidae and the new zealand mystacinidae differ from other bats in that peculiar folding processes of the wing enable the forelimb to function fully in walking . these bats crawl of run quite actively by using their wrists .\nmystacina pursues insects on the wing , flying at times close to the ground . it may come into the vicinity of lights and has sometimes stunned itself against torches and lanterns . in captivity mystacina readily accepts food from the floor of the cage , and this together with its ability to run quite rapidly and its adeptness when climbing suggest that it may capture much of its food on the branches and leaves of trees . food includes fairly large insects ; spiders , crickets and moths being quickly accepted . strong transverse ridges on the tongue of this bat are suitable for scraping flesh from animal carcasses and mystacina has at times caused considerable damage to the bodies of mutton birds when these were hung to dry . it has not yet been determined whether this bat behaves as a natural scavenger .\nsummarizes the higher order plant taxa that are associated primarily with bats for pollination . this information is presented at two taxonomic levels , at the family level and within families ( i . e . subfamilies or tribes ) . among families that are strongly associated with bat pollination , we include two families that have recently been reclassified into larger related families by angiosperm phylogeny group ( apg ) ii : bombacaceae\n) , all are exclusively tropical in distribution . in addition , many of these same taxa have large flowers ( strelitziaceae ) and / or large floral displays ( agavaceae , arecaceae , pandanaceae ) in closely related taxa that are bird - or insect - pollinated . in the zingiberales , bat pollination is concentrated in the tropical genera with large , accessible flowers that produce copious amounts of nectar and pollen ( i . e .\nnectar - feeding bats visiting flowers . ( a ) glossophaga soricina at flowers of mabea occidentalis ( euphorbiaceae ) ; ( b ) artibeus jamaicensis on a flower of ochroma pyramidale ( bombacaceae s . s . ) ; ( c ) eonycteris spelaea on flowers of durio zibethinus ( bombacaceae s . s . ) ; ( d ) pteropus conspicillatus at flowers of castanospermum australe ( fabaceae ) . photo credits : merlin d . tuttle , bat conservation international .\nthis is a large bat that has been severely hunted for meat at the known sites . the population at luplupwintem was apparently decimated by groups of hunters with shotguns in the late 1970s . the species also appears to be very sensitive to disturbance of its cave roosts . the elevational range of this species overlaps with areas of high human population density . a large bushfire had swept just north of the luplupwintem area just prior to 2001 ( t . flannery pers . comm . ) , and these alpine grasslands are very vulnerable to fire impacts ( l . seri pers . comm . ) . the population has a restricted range .\nportraits of flower - visiting bats . approximate body masses are in parentheses . ( a ) glossophaga soricina ( 10 g ) , a basal glossophagine ; ( b ) choeronycteris mexicana ( 16 g ) , a derived glossophagine ; ( c ) artibeus jamaicensis ( 45 g ) and ( d ) phyllostomus elongatus ( 60 g ) , two opportunistic flower - visiting phyllostomids ; ( e ) syconycteris australis ( 20 g ) and ( f ) eonycteris spelaea ( 70 g ) , two specialized nectarivorous pteropodids ; ( g ) pteropus poliocephalus ( 750 g ) and ( h ) epomophorus gambianus ( 100 g ) , two opportunistic flower - visiting pteropodids . photo credits : merlin d . tuttle , bat conservation international .\nthere has been a decrease in the distribution of native bats which is correlated with the restriction of forest . over the hundred years for which we have information there does not seem to be any suggestion that the density of bats has decreased in unmodified forest . food does not seem to be scarce . it has been suggested that increased predation is a major factor in limiting numbers but there is no good evidence supporting this view . therefore it is suggested that the low numbers are not to be interpreted in terms of changes during the period of current knowledge , but rather as a result of long - standing factors . the possibility that low fertility or high mortality occur should be investigated , and accordingly studies of bat roosts are most desirable .\nskeletal material of bats is occasionally found in caves . this may be used for the identification of the two species . the very short ( about 1 . 3 cm . ) broad skull of c . tuberculatus is readily distinguished from the longer ( about 2 . 0 cm . ) and narrow skull of mystacina . immediate differences are apparent if the dentition is examined , for although c . tuberculatus has four upper incisors and six small lower incisors between the large canine teeth , mystacina has only two relatively large upper incisors and a single pair of lower incisor teeth closely crowded between the canines . two premolars and three molars are present in the upper and lower jaws of each bat but in chalinolobus the first of the upper premolars is minute and easily overlooked .\nbesides its evolutionary implications , long - distance pollination by bats also has important conservation implications . human disturbance in the tropics and elsewhere often fragments plant populations and increases the distance between conspecifics . without long - distance pollinators , plants with self - compatible or mixed mating systems are likely to experience higher rates of self - fertilization within habitat fragments than plants in continuous forests . isolated self - incompatible plants ( the most common mating system in tropical plants ; bawa , 1992 ) will fare even worse because they require pollen from another plant to set any fruit and seeds at all . studies of canopy trees in continuous and fragmented forests in brazil , costa rica , mexico and puerto rico provide support for these generalizations ( gribel et al . , 1999 ; collevatti et al . , 2001 ; fuchs et al . , 2003 ; quesada et al . , 2003 ; dunphy et al . , 2004 ) . thus , bat pollination , along with pollination by other kinds of long - distance pollinators , can serve to \u2018rescue\u2019 plants from some of the adverse effects of habitat fragmentation .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nlamoreux , j . ( global mammal assessment team ) , racey , p . a . , medell\u00edn , r . & hutson , a . m . ( chiroptera red list authority )\njustification : listed as vulnerable because its extent of occurrence is less than 20 , 000 km 2 , its habitat is severely fragmented , and there is a continuing decline in : extent of occurrence , area of occupancy , and the extent and quality of its habitat .\nit forms colonies of up to 300 animals , and is an uncommon species .\nit is a cave roosting species . it is usually observed close to their roosting area , foraging near areas of human habitation on coconut flowers ( f . brescia pers . comm . ) . presumably it also forages in tropical moist forest .\nthreats to this species include disturbance at roosting caves ( mickleburgh et al . 1992 ; brescia and borel 2004 ) , and , to a much lesser extent , hunting ( boissenin and brescia 2007 ) .\nthe hunting of this species is regulated under wildlife laws ( mickleburgh et al . 1992 ) . it has only been recorded once from rivi\u00e9re bleu national park ( flannery 1995 ) . field surveys of population numbers , range , utilization , and ecology studies are ongoing by iac ( institut agronomique n\u00e9o - cal\u00e9donien ) ( brescia and borel 2004 ; boissenin and brescia 2007 ) .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nterms of use - the displayed portlet may be used as a link from your website to arkive ' s online content for private , scientific , conservation or educational purposes only . it may not be used within apps .\nmyarkive offers the scrapbook feature to signed - up members , allowing you to organize your favourite arkive images and videos and share them with friends .\nteam wild , an elite squadron of science superheroes , needs your help ! your mission : protect and conserve the planet\u2019s species and habitats from destruction .\nwildscreen is a registered charity in england and wales no . 299450 wildscreen usa is a registered 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non - profit organisation in the usa\nlamoreux , j . ( global mammal assessment team ) , racey , p . a . , medelln , r . & hutson , a . m . ( chiroptera red list authority )\nlisted as vulnerable because its extent of occurrence is less than 20 , 000 km 2 , its habitat is severely fragmented , and there is a continuing decline in : extent of occurrence , area of occupancy , and the extent and quality of its habitat .\nthe hunting of this species is regulated under wildlife laws ( mickleburgh et al . 1992 ) . it has only been recorded once from rivire bleu national park ( flannery 1995 ) . field surveys of population numbers , range , utilization , and ecology studies are ongoing by iac ( institut agronomique no - caldonien ) ( brescia and borel 2004 ; boissenin and brescia 2007 ) .\np . caniceps species group : ashy - headed flying fox ( p . caniceps )\np . mariannus species group : okinawa flying - fox ( p . loochoensis )\np . melanotus species group : black - eared flying fox ( p . melanotus )\np . personatus species group : bismark masked flying fox ( p . capistratus )\np . poliocephalus species group : big - eared flying fox ( p . macrotis )\np . scapulatus species group : gilliard ' s flying fox ( p . gilliardorum )\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\ni was working in noumea , which is a strange mixture of the south of france and north queensland , though the driving is better than the former , and the croissants are better than the latter . it is a lovely place but it hardly feels like the pacific .\nthe ouipoint community is about 2 hours from noumea ( or 30 minutes ne of la foa ) . it\u2019s a nice place to stay . they have a traditional long house sort of thing where you can sleep , complete with flushing toilet and shower ."]}
{"id": 2264, "summary": [{"text": "turbinaria is a genus of colonial stony corals in the family dendrophylliidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "common names for this genus include disc coral , scroll coral , cup coral , vase coral , pagoda coral and ruffled ridge coral .", "topic": 22}, {"text": "these corals are native to the red sea , indian ocean , japan and the south central pacific ocean . ", "topic": 22}], "title": "turbinaria ( coral )", "paragraphs": ["yellow turbinaria ? ? ? ? yellow turbinaria help with turbinaria peltata ! doomed turbinaria turbinaria coral question . turbinaria peltata\nturbinaria coral is also commonly known as pagoda cup coral , cup coral , bowl coral , scroll coral , octopus coral , vase coral and lettuce coral .\nbowl coral , cup coral , folded lettuce coral , scroll coral , vase coral .\ngenus are known for are turban coral , cup coral , scroll coral , yellow scroll coral , yellow cup coral , pagoda coral , vase coral , and chalice coral .\nshapes are reflected in the turban coral ' s other common names including cup coral , pagoda cup coral , green cup coral , chalice coral , column coral , bowl coral , octopus coral , plate coral , vase coral , disk coral , platter coral , and saucer coral .\nwas described by bernard in 1896 . other common names they are known for are vase coral , scrolling turbinaria coral , turban coral , yellow scroll coral , yellow lettuce coral , yellow turbinaria , and bowl coral .\nturbinaria coral belongs to the kingdom animalia , phylum cnidaria , class anthozoa , family dendrophylliidae and genus turbinaria .\nshapes are reflected in some of the scroll coral ' s other common names like vase coral , turban coral , scrolling turbinaria coral , and yellow lettuce coral .\nwas described by dana in 1846 . other common names they are known for are cup coral , pagoda cup coral , green cup coral , chalice coral , column coral , bowl coral , octopus coral , plate coral , vase coral , disk coral , platter coral , and saucer coral .\nthe turbinaria peltata ( commonly known as a pagoda cup coral ) is yet another aptly nicknamed coral .\nturbinaria mesenterina and turbinaria peltata on the iucn red list of threatened species website : technical fact sheet .\nthe base of turbinaria coral is generally yellow with short and round yellow polyps .\nplace turbinaria coral anywhere between the bottom and the middle of your marine aquarium .\nflowery disk coral turbinaria peltata colony flat plate often ruffled so it resembles a cabbage .\nthe turbinaria species is easy to maintain however , the variety of turbinaria coral with thin plates on its body is the most difficult to maintain .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - turbinaria coral ( turbinaria bifrons )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - turbinaria coral ( turbinaria bifrons )\ntitle =\narkive species - turbinaria coral ( turbinaria bifrons )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - turbinaria coral ( turbinaria stellulata )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - turbinaria coral ( turbinaria stellulata )\ntitle =\narkive species - turbinaria coral ( turbinaria stellulata )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - turbinaria coral ( turbinaria heronensis )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - turbinaria coral ( turbinaria heronensis )\ntitle =\narkive species - turbinaria coral ( turbinaria heronensis )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nthe turbinaria species may have detritus and mucus deposited on the coral\u00eds body which may adversely affect it . therefore , regularly clean the surface of turbinaria coral .\nturbinaria mesenterina and turbinaria peltata on corals of the world online on the australian institute of marine science website : technical fact sheet .\nthe main source of nutrition in turbinaria coral is photosynthesis which is performed by zooxanthellae , a photosynthetic alga living symbiotically within the coral .\nwater flow in the aquarium : turbinaria coral needs medium water flow in the marine aquarium hosting it .\nthe coloration of the turbinaria species may vary with the intensity of light the coral is exposed to .\nturbinaria coral has a hard skeleton shaped like a cup , a plate , a vase or a cone .\nthe hard skeleton of the turbinaria species is covered with a thin velvety skin .\ninformation on turbinaria stellulata is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\ninformation on turbinaria heronensis is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .\nthe turbinaria species requires moderate to high intensity lighting in the reef aquarium it inhabits .\ngive ample space to the turbinaria species to grow and spread itself fully without obstruction .\nis a popular coral among all the levels of aquarists . owing to its hardy nature , varied colors and patterns , turbinaria coral is an attractive proposition for a marine aquarium .\nspawning of female ( a ) and male ( b ) turbinaria reniformis colonies observed at the eilat coral nature reserve in july 2016 .\nturbinaria coral feeds upon acellualr marine invertebrates , the meaty bits of raw shrimp , silver side and mysis shrimp , phytoplankton and zooplankton .\nthe nemenzophyllia turbida ( commonly known as a fox coral ) is a spectacular display coral .\nsex ratio of turbinaria mesenterina populations in eilat ( iui ) and aqaba ( mss ) .\nspecies can be grouped as small polyp stony ( sps ) corals or as large polyp stony ( lps ) corals . the scrolling turbinaria coral\nthe fungia repanda ( commonly known as a short tentacle plate coral ) is an unusual coral .\ntemporal changes in oocyte and spermary development in turbinaria reniformis from eilat ( gulf of aqaba ) .\nembed this arkive thumbnail link (\nportlet\n) by copying and pasting the code below . < a href =\nurltoken\ntitle =\narkive species - pagoda coral ( turbinaria mesenterina )\n> < img src =\nurltoken\nalt =\narkive species - pagoda coral ( turbinaria mesenterina )\ntitle =\narkive species - pagoda coral ( turbinaria mesenterina )\nborder =\n0\n/ > < / a >\nshows how coral - macroalgal frequency of contact varied across sites as a function of coral - macroalga identity .\nturbinaria coral originates from the indo - pacific region including the islands of fiji , tonga , solomon and the great barrier reef , the red sea and polynesia .\nthe turbinaria species occurs in brown , tan , purple , green , yellow , grey and cream colors .\nthe turbinaria species is carnivorous in feeding habit and filter feeds a few times per week , when open .\nphotos of representative coral fragments from ( a ) acropora millepora , ( b ) pocillopora damicornis , ( c ) montipora monasteriata , and ( d ) turbinaria reniformis .\nturbinaria on reef corals of the indo - malayan seas , the marine species identification portal : technical fact sheet .\nfigure 3 : temporal changes in oocyte and spermary development in turbinaria reniformis from eilat ( gulf of aqaba ) .\n, but did not differ significantly for the other 5 coral species . pooling across coral species to evaluate each macrophyte ' s association with corals in general , coral associations with\nthe turbinaria species forms large , laminar colonies which develop convoluted shape in shallow waters to straight or upright in depth .\ngreat if you can keep the turbinaria species in an aquarium populated more with small polyp stony ( sps ) corals .\nthe turban coral is a great beginner ' s coral that delivers a high satisfaction rating . it is one of the easiest\na large , well - developed colony of turbinaria bifrons pictured here from the great barrier reef . photo by len zell .\nturbinaria mesenterina is similar in appearance to turbinaria reniformis , but can be recognised by its slightly different colour , more horizontal than vertical fronds , and smoother appearance ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . turbinaria peltata also occurs in similar conditions to this species , but can be distinguished by its thicker plates and larger polyps , whose tentacles are often extended during the day ( 5 ) .\nturbinaria stellulata , commonly known as disc coral , is a species of colonial stony coral in the family dendrophylliidae . it is native to the indo - pacific region . the international union for conservation of nature has rated its conservation status as being\nvulnerable\n.\nturbinaria bifrons is one of only two species in the genus to display this clear - cut distinction of having corallites on both sides of its upright plates . the other species being turbinaria conspicua , which was once synonymized with t . bifrons , making it all the more confusing in terms of taxonomy , but you don\u2019t need to be a coral taxonomist to appreciate this coral\u2019s incredibly unique growing shape .\nlike all coral species , turbinaria bifrons is listed on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) , which means that all international trade is strictly controlled by the use of permits and annual quotas ( 2 ) . in addition , turbinaria bifrons falls within several marine protected areas across its range ( 1 ) .\nthe larger the polyps on the coral are , the easier it is for the coral to feed appropriately . this is because the polyps on the coral contain the incredibly tiny organism known as zooxanthellae , within their tissue .\nthe plerogyra sp ( commonly known as a bubble coral ) is a very unique coral . it looks like a pink cluster of grapes upon first inspection .\ncloser inspection of the unusual coral revealed that the corallites were recognizable as being those of a turbinaria and seeing them on both sides confirmed that this was indeed a colony of the t . bifrons we sought after for so many years . luckily since the coral was devoid of color and its true potential was unknown to coral collectors besides ourselves and julian sprung , carolina aquatics put a fair price on this colony so that the coral could go to a good home .\nturbinaria bifrons is quite simply unlike any coral anyone has ever seen , and it is perhaps one of the rarest stony coral species in the aquarium hobby . when we say t . bifrons is rare we don\u2019t mean rare as in a strain of a particular highly desired echniophyllia , a genus that is practically overrepresented in aquaria .\na study of the sea most curious creature , this stunning sculpture recreates the nuanced beauty of ocean coral . this resin replica is molded from real pieces of coral and set on a clear crystal pedestal . coral cast from resin clear . . .\na study of the seas most curious creature , this stunning sculpture recreates the nuanced beauty of ocean coral . the resin replica is molded from real pieces of coral and set on a clear crystal pedestal . coral cast from resin . . . .\nmarshall at , clode p ( 2004 ) calcification rate and the effect of temperature in a zooxanthellate and an azooxanthellate scleractinian reef coral . coral reefs 23 : 218\u2013224 .\nhoegh - guldberg o ( 1999 ) climate change , coral bleaching and the future of the world ' s coral reefs . marine and freshwater research 50 : 839\u2013866 .\npercent coral and macroalgal cover ( mean + se ) in marine protected areas ( mpas ) and adjacent non - mpas associated with three sites along the coral coast .\nturbinaria bifrons is found in the indo - west pacific , from southern japan , through the south china sea and indonesia , south to tropical australia ( 1 ) .\nthis coral is common in shallow , turbid reef habitats , where it may be a dominant species ( 1 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 5 ) . turbinaria mesenterina has been recorded at depths of up to 20 metres ( 1 ) .\nturbinaria is one of just four hermatypic ( reef - building ) coral genera within the dendrophylliidae family ( 3 ) . like other hermatypic corals , turbinaria mesenterina obtains most of its nutrients from microscopic algae , known as zooxanthellae , which live within its tissues and produce energy - rich nutrients through photosynthesis . the diet may also be supplemented with zooplankton , caught using stinging cells on the tentacles ( 3 ) ( 9 ) .\nfrom upwelling and non - upwelling environments in panama . coral reefs 23 : 473\u2013483 .\nour experience with the easy bleaching potential of turbinaria heronensis imparted on us a very cautious approach to lighting up this coral and we took several weeks to move it into more or less direct lighting . now more than three months since acquiring the coral , it has settled into captive aquarium life and its relative beauty is much easier to appreciate .\nlike many coral species , turbinaria bifrons is zooxanthellate , which means that its tissues contain large numbers of single - celled algae called zooxanthellae . the coral and the algae have a symbiotic relationship , in which the algae gain a stable environment within the coral ' s tissues , while the coral receives nutrients produced by the algae through photosynthesis . by harnessing the sun ' s energy in this way , corals are able to grow rapidly and form vast reef structures , but are constrained to live near the water surface ( 3 ) .\nturbinaria mesenterina is a species of hard coral of the family dendrophylliidae . this specimen was found at poruma island reef in the torres strait as part of a biodiversity survey in january 2014 . the taxonomic classification for this photo was performed by paul muir from the museum of tropical queensland . for more information see the aims coral fact sheet for this species .\nturbinaria radicalis is a species of hard coral of the family dendrophylliidae . this specimen was found at aureed island reef in the torres strait as part of a biodiversity survey in january 2014 . the taxonomic classification for this photo was performed by paul muir from the museum of tropical queensland . for more information see the aims coral fact sheet for this species .\nhow to cite this article : rapuano , h . et al . reproductive strategies of the coral turbinaria reniformis in the northern gulf of aqaba ( red sea ) . sci . rep . 7 , 42670 ; doi : 10 . 1038 / srep42670 ( 2017 ) .\nfrequencies of coral - macroalgal contacts were assessed with 30 additional 30 m transects per study area , in which each coral colony was visually examined to verify the presence or absence of contact with upright macroalgae . all coral - macroalgal contacts within 2 m of each transect were recorded , interacting corals and macroalgae were identified , frequencies of each coral - macroalgal contact were computed , and each contacted coral was examined for bleaching or death in the area of contact .\nit is a small , round coral with variegating shades of red , purple and blue .\nsofonia , j . j . and anthony , k . r . n . ( 2008 ) high - sediment tolerance in the reef coral turbinaria mesenterina from the inner great barrier reef lagoon ( australia ) . estuarine , coastal and shelf science , 78 : 748 - 752 .\nattached is a pretty recent picture of my tank before i picked up the new coral . i got another birdsnest frag , the cup coral , cactus coral and an orange digi frag . maybe the bottom left where there ' s a frag plug with a single zoa on it ? i can move the zoa somewhere else and leave that space open for the cup coral .\nfitt wk , brown be , warner me , dunne rp ( 2001 ) coral bleaching : interpretation of thermal tolerance limits and thermal thresholds in tropical corals . coral reefs 20 : 51\u201365 .\nglm with repeated measures for damage size of coral colonies upon contact with macroalga in two experiments : ( 1 ) experimental addition of chlorodesmis fastigiata and galaxaura filamentosa to five coral species , with two between - subject fixed factors ( coral species , algal species ) and ( 2 ) removal of macroalgal contacts with two between - subject fixed factors ( coral species , treatment ) .\nthe main defining differences between an lps coral and an sps coral are ( obviously ) the difference in the size of their polyps , and the difference in their light and food requirements .\nencrusting disk coral colony plate - like thick ( 1cm ) encrusting , edges against the surface .\neffects of eutrophication on reef - building corals . iii : reproduction of the reef - building coral\npartial pressure controls the calcification rate of a coral community . global change biology 6 : 329\u2013334 .\nwilkinson , c . ( 2008 ) status of coral reefs of the world : 2008 . global coral reef monitoring network and reef and rainforest research center , townsville , australia . available at : urltoken\nmarubini f , ferrier - pages c , furla p , allemand d ( 2008 ) coral calcification responds to seawater acidification : a working hypothesis towards a physiological mechanism . coral reefs 27 : 491\u2013499 .\nveal cj , carmi m , fine m , hoegh - guldberg o ( 2010 ) increasing the accuracy of surface area estimation using single wax dipping of coral fragments . coral reefs 29 : 893\u2013897 .\ndid not vary with coral colony size . correlations of colony size versus extent of final damage were non - significant ( p\u22650 . 31 ) for each of the 10 coral - algal species pairings (\nturbinaria bifrons occurs in shallow reefs in tropical waters between depths of 2 and 25 metres , as well as in rocky areas within the intertidal zone in subtropical locations ( 1 ) ( 3 ) .\naverage lipid , protein , carbohydrate concentrations , and tissue biomass of ( a\u2013d ) acropora millepora , ( e\u2013h ) pocillopora damicornis , ( i\u2013l ) montipora monasteriata , and ( m\u2013p ) turbinaria reniformis .\nruffled disk coral colony plate - like thin ( 0 . 5cm ) edges often folded into ruffles .\nnever caused visible damage ( bleaching or mortality ) to any of the 6 coral species they contacted .\nthey are far more likely to breed or successfully fragment in captivity than small polyp stony coral are .\nturbinaria mesenterina occurs across the indian ocean , red sea , gulf of aden , arabian gulf , and the western and central pacific ocean ( 1 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 ) ( 8 ) .\nmorphological variation in the reef corals turbinaria mesenterina and pavona cactus : synthesis of transplant , histocompatibility , electrophoresis , growth , and reproduction studies phd thesis , james cook university of north queensland ( 1987 ) .\nfrequency of corals with macroalgal contact causing no damage , bleaching , mortality , or mortality with algal overgrowth in three study sites along coral coast , fiji ( n\u226515 for each coral - macroalga species pair ) .\nhaving once acquired a piece of t . bifrons so long ago , this species is one that has been on our rare - coral radar for years but in an interesting turn of events , it was the coral that found us ! while perusing the many coral tanks at macna earlier this year in denver , orlando salazar of aqua medic live brought us over to the display of carolina aquatics to test our coral knowledge .\nthis species occurs in shallow reefs and rocky foreshores of subtropical locations . the maximum size is approximately 1 m . this species is found from 2 - 25 m . turbinaria is the only reef - building ( hermatypic ) coral in the family dendrophylliidae and sometimes contributes significantly toward coral cover . it is especially common on reef slopes , and colonies may be large and come in a variety of forms ( wood 1983 ) .\neffects of eutrophication on reef - building corals . iii : reproduction of the reef - building coral porites porites\nthe reproduction of the red sea coral stylophora pistillata . ii . synchronization in breeding and seasonality of planulae shedding\npartial pressure and temperature on photosynthesis and calcification in a scleractinian coral . global change biology 9 : 1660\u20131668 .\njokiel pl , maragos je , franzisket l ( 1978 ) coral growth : buoyant weight technique . in : stoddart dr , johannes re , editors . coral reefs : resesarch methods . paris : unesco . 529\u2013541 .\nbiomass of herbivorous fishes in mpas and non - mpas at three sites along the coral coast , fiji .\nthe trachyphyllia sp . ( commonly known as a brain coral ) is a bright , relatively small species .\nno we mean this coral is rare as in we\u2019ve only seen it twice , the first time being more than seven years ago and only one other time more recently at macna . furthermore there exists scantly no more images of the unusual \u201ctwo - face\u201d turbinaria than what is included in the veron\u2019s corals of the world .\n) . these contrasts were not confounded by coral colony size ; colony size did not differ among any of the five treatments used for each coral - algal pairing ( p > 0 . 05 for all species ) .\naverage chlorophyll a concentrations and symbiont density for ( a , b ) acropora millepora , ( c , d ) pocillopora damicornis , ( e , f ) montipora monasteriata , and ( g , h ) turbinaria reniformis .\nour colony of turbinaria bifrons has settled into a nice but not flashy forest green color with pinkish polyps that have a whitish oral disc . the edges of the bifacial plates are light brown bordering on pink and where the edges face the predominant flow , you can easily see two rows of corallites where the coral is growing fastest .\nscroll corals do well in a mixed reef , a small polyp stony ( sps ) coral tank , or a large polyp stony ( lps ) coral tank . they do need to be kept away from contact with polyps of\nyellow cup corals do well in a mixed reef , a small polyp stony ( sps ) coral tank , or a large polyp stony ( lps ) coral tank . they do need to be kept away from contact with polyps of\nwillis b . l . morphological variation in the reef corals turbinaria mesenterina and pavona cactus : synthesis of transplant , histocompatibility , electrophoresis , growth , and reproduction studies phd thesis , james cook university of north queensland ( 1987 ) .\nit may form conspicuous dome - shaped colonies on upper reef slopes . unlike other turbinaria , this species is seldom found in turbid waters . the maximum size is 50 cm . this species is found from 2 - 15 m .\nthe present study highlights growing evidence for the potential importance of detrimental interactions between macroalgae and corals to reef dynamics . greater susceptibility of some coral species to macroalgal contacts may result in a cascading effect throughout the community and could reduce coral resilience in areas dominated by macroalgae . as macroalgae increase on tropical reefs , macroalgal competition and allelopathy could produce feedbacks that suppress coral resilience , prevent coral recovery , and promote the stability of algal beds in habitats previously available to corals .\n. ft . lauderdale , florida , 7\u201311 july 2008 : proceedings of the 11th international coral reef symposium . 57\u201361p .\nfine m , tchernov d ( 2007 ) scleractinian coral species survive and recover from decalcification . science 315 : 1811 .\nthe caulastrea curvata ( commonly known as a trumpet coral ) is aptly named ; shaped like a small yellow trumpet .\nfong p , paul v ( 2011 ) coral reef algae . in : dubinsky z , noga s , editors . coral reefs : an ecosystem in transition . netherlands : springer science + business media b . v . pp . 241\u2013272 .\nin general , the greatest threat to coral species is believed to be global climate change , which is likely to lead to an increase in severe storms , and to increased ocean acidification , which can reduce the ability of a coral to produce its hard skeleton . rising sea temperatures can also lead to coral bleaching , in which the coral expels it zooxanthellae , often resulting in death . in addition , coral reefs are under pressure from a range of localised threats including human development , destructive fishing practices , pollution , sedimentation , disease and invasive species ( 1 ) ( 9 ) ( 10 ) ( 11 ) .\nreef coral reproduction in the eastern pacific : costa rica , panam\u00e1 , and gal\u00e1pagos islands ( ecuador ) . ii . poritidae\nthe cynarina sp ( commonly known as a button coral ) species is known to be peaceful towards other invertebrates and fish .\nis fairly easy through fragmenting . coral farmers may use sexual reproduction to propagate in the future , as it has been successful .\nerez j , reynaud s , silverman j , schneider k , allemand d ( 2011 ) coral calcification under ocean acidification and global change . in : stambler n , dubinsky z , editors . coral reefs : an ecosystem in transition : springer . 552p .\nstudy sites at votua , vatu - o - lailai , and namada villages along the coral coast of viti levu , fiji .\naverage daily calcification rate during the first and the second half of the experiment for ( a , b ) acropora millepora , ( c , d ) pocillopora damicornis , ( e , f ) montipora monasteriata , and ( g , h ) turbinaria reniformis .\n385 to 425 ppm . if a large poly stony ( lps ) coral does not have enough calcium , it will not grow .\nthin disk coral colony plate - like thin ( 0 . 2 - 0 . 5cm ) shaped into a cup or inverted cone .\nthis zooxanthellae ; or photosynthetic algae ; provides the coral with food ; but only if there is enough light absorbed through the polyps .\nlike other colony - forming corals , turbinaria bifrons colonies are composed of numerous small polyps , which are soft - bodied animals , related to anemones . each polyp bears numerous tentacles that direct food into a central mouth , where it is digested in a sac - like body cavity . one of the most remarkable and ecologically important features of corals is that the polyps secrete a hard skeleton , called a \u201ccorallite\u201d , which over successive generations contributes to the formation of a coral reef . the coral skeleton forms the bulk of the colony , with the living polyp tissue comprising a thin , often colourful , veneer . in turbinaria bifrons , colonies initially form flat , solid plates , but as the coral develops , many sheet - like , wavy fronds grow upwards from this foundation . the polyps , which are found on both sides of these fronds , form small conical projections , which may be coloured grey , green or brown ( 3 ) .\n( a ) percentage of individual corals in contact with macroalgae ( letters indicate significant groupings ) and ( b ) the proportion of coral colony perimeter ( for 5 common coral species pooled ) in contact with macroalgae . numbers provide sample sizes for pooled samples at each location ( data by coral type available in fig . s1 ) . letters indicate significant groupings ( p < 0 . 001 for all contrasts ) .\nchou , l . m . , 1998 . a guide to the coral reef life of singapore . singapore science centre . 128 pages .\njohannes re , wiebe wj ( 1970 ) a method for determination of coral tissue biomass and composition . limnology and oceanography 21 : 540\u2013547 .\ndonner sd ( 2009 ) coping with commitment : projected thermal stress on coral reefs under different future scenarios . plos one 4 : e5712 .\nfrequency of coral - macroalgal contacts were 5\u201315 times greater in non - mpas versus mpas ( p < 0 . 001 for all comparisons ,\nthe favities spp ( another species that is commonly known as a brain coral ) is one of the few aggressive species recommended for beginners .\nthe proportion of the perimeter of coral colonies in contact with macroalgae inside and outside mpas was compared for each of the three sites with two - way anova ( with site and protection status as fixed factors ) . for each site , two comparisons were done : 1 ) considering each coral species separately , and 2 ) pooling all coral species within the same study site . data were arcsine transformed to meet normality assumptions .\nnumber of contacts ( % ) of 7 scleractinian coral species with 5 macroalgal species inside ( mpa ) and outside ( non - mpa ) marine protected areas in three study sites in fiji . n = number of colonies surveyed in each study location as a function of coral species .\nsexual reproduction of the solitary sunset cup coral leptopsammia pruvoti ( scleractinia : dendrophylliidae ) in the mediterranean . 1 . morphological aspects of gametogenesis and ontogenesis\nmarubini f , atkinson mj ( 1999 ) effects of lowered ph and elevated nitrate on coral calcification . marine ecology progress series 188 : 117\u2013121 .\nrodrigues lj , grottoli ag ( 2007 ) energy reserves and metabolism as indicators of coral recovery from bleaching . limnology and oceanography 52 : 1874\u20131882 .\none of many from the turbinaria genus , the peltata species is also known as the pagoda cup coral . they are big eaters ! this video shows a well fed specimen as shown by it ' s many polyps . the better fed , the more polyps appear . fragging is best done with a band or electric saw for an even cut . this is one of the best beginner corals , yet it is cherished by intermediate and advanced aquarists alike .\nthe pagoda coral is classified as vulnerable ( vu ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) and listed on appendix ii of cites ( 2 ) .\ncolonies were observed spawning , no other scleractinian coral species were seen spawning at the same time . only two species were observed spawning on the same nights as\nhas not been monitored but as a shallow water coral it is affected by these factors . it has a wide range but is an uncommon species and the\ncoral calcification has been predicted to decrease dramatically by the end of this century , thus threatening the existence of coral reefs in the future . although the response of coral calcification is not uniform across species , most studies have found that calcification decreases with increasing seawater p co 2 [ 75 ] \u2013 [ 77 ] . here , we show that only one of the four pacific coral species studied here decreased calcification in response to average ocean acidification levels expected by the second half of this century ( 741 \u00b5atm ) , even when combined with elevated temperature ( + 2 . 5\u00b0c ) . further , we investigated for the first time the effects of oa on coral energy reserves and show that they were largely not metabolized in order to sustain calcification under elevated p co 2 and temperature .\nwhile , on average , zooxanthellate coral can obtain around 70 percent of its nutrient requirements from zooxanthellae photosynthesis , the coral may also feed on zooplankton ( 4 ) . the polyps ' tentacles , which in this species are mostly extended at night , contain stinging cells called \u201cnematocysts\u201d that trap the drifting zooplankton , directing it into the central mouth , which also acts as an anus to excrete waste products after digestion ( 3 ) ( 4 ) . neighbouring polyps within a turbinaria bifrons colony are linked by small tubes that distribute water and nutrients evenly , creating a similar rate of growth , and preventing competition for space ( 3 ) .\ncorals also have variations in their polyps . one side of any plate or column generally has polyps or at least tissue coverage . the color of the scrolling coral\npandolfi jm , connolly sr , marshall dj , cohen al ( 2011 ) projecting coral reef futures under global warming and ocean acidification . science 333 : 418\u2013422 .\nthe lobophyllia sp ( another species that is commonly known as a brain coral ) is a magnificent , bright orange species that is semi - aggressive as well .\nmuscatine l , mccloskey lr , marian re ( 1981 ) estimating the daily contribution of carbon from zooxanthellae to coral animal respiration . limnology and oceanography 26 : 601\u2013611 .\ndove s , ortiz j - c , enriquez s , fine m , fisher p , et al . ( 2006 ) response of holosymbiont pigments from the scleractinian coral\nlesser mp ( 2013 ) using energetic budgets to assess the effects of environmental stress on corals : are we measuring the right things ? coral reefs 32 : 25\u201333 .\ntrotter j , montagna p , mcculloch mt , silenzi s , reynaud s , et al . ( 2011 ) quantifying the ph \u2018vital effect\u2019 in the temperate zooxanthellate coral\nspecific conservation measures recommended for this species include carrying out extensive studies of its population , biology , and ecology , along with more research into existing and potential threats . in response to the threat of climate change , artificial propagation and preservation of sperm and eggs may become necessary to safeguard turbinaria bifrons against complete extinction ( 1 ) .\nhas calices ( opening of the corallite ) that are 3 to 5 mm in diameter , so they are most often grouped as an lps coral . others , such as the\nwe thank e . zebrowski , m . berzelis , m . ringwald , s . levas , and the staff at reef systems coral farm for their field and laboratory support .\ncantin ne , cohen al , karnauskas kb , tarrant am , mccorkle dc ( 2010 ) ocean warming slows coral growth in the central red sea . science 329 : 322\u2013325 .\nturbinaria bifrons is capable of both asexual reproduction , whereby the polyps proliferate through the production of clones , and by sexual reproduction , in which the polyps spawn large numbers of sperm and eggs . the fertilised eggs develop into planktonic larvae , which travel through the water column , before settling and metamorphosing into a sessile polyp ( 3 ) ( 5 ) .\nthe second experiment assessed coral recovery after removal of allelopathic macroalgae . thirty colonies of pocillopora damicornis and 30 of porites lobata showing damage due to contact with galaxaura filamentosa were located , and 15 of each species assigned to : ( 1 ) macroalgal removal or ( 2 ) macroalgal retention ( control ) . each coral was photographed periodically over 42 days to determine coral condition . change in area damaged was assessed using image j . living corals in contact with c hlorodesmis fastigiata were rare at this site , preventing an experiment with this species .\na live rock / reef environment with a sandy substrate is what is needed for your scroll coral , along with some fish for organic matter production . a mature tank is recommended .\na live rock / reef environment with a sandy substrate is what is needed for your turban coral , along with some fish for organic matter production . a mature tank is recommended .\nchan ncs , connolly sr ( 2012 ) sensitivity of coral calcification to ocean acidification : a meta - analysis . global change biology : doi : 10 . 1111 / gcb . 12011\nwe used a range of coral colony sizes in our experiments . to assess whether we might be confounding treatments with colony size effects , we ran a one way anova for each of the five coral species using treatments ( chlorodesmis fastigiata , galaxaura filamentosa , control alga 1 , control alga 2 , no alga ) as fixed factors and colony size as the variable .\ncoral cay conservation l ( 2005 ) fisheries resource assessment report for the korolevu - i - wai - qoliqoli , viti levu . suva : university of south pacific . 68 p .\nmiththapala , s . ( 2008 ) coral reefs . coastal ecosystems series ( volume 1 ) . ecosystems and livelihoods group asia , iucn , colombo , sri lanka . available at : urltoken\nnakamura m , ohki s , suzuki a , sakai k ( 2011 ) coral larvae under ocean acidification : survival , metabolism , and metamorphosis . public library of science one 6 : e14521\nthere are a few sps corals ( small polyp stony corals ) that are also recommended for beginning enthusiasts , but these require a lot more care than their large polyp stony coral relatives .\ncaulastrea furcata is a pretty peace - loving coral ; i haven\u2019t seen it battle with other species for nutrients and space , but it does need to be fed frequently to grow well .\nsix parent colonies of acropora millepora , pocillopora damicornis , montipora monasteriata , and turbinaria reniformis were purchased from reef systems coral farm ( new albany , ohio , usa ) which is a cites permit holder . the parent colonies were specifically collected for this experiment from 3\u201310 m in northwest fiji ( 17\u00b029\u203219\u2033s , 177\u00b023\u203239\u2033e ) in april 2011 . colonies of the same species were collected at least 10 m apart to increase the probability that different genotypes of the same species were selected . all colonies were shipped to reef systems coral farm and maintained in recirculating indoor aquaria with natural light ( greenhouse , 700\u20131000 \u00b5mol quanta m \u22122 s \u22121 ) and commercially available artificial seawater ( instant ocean reef crystals ) for 2 . 5 months until the start of the experiment .\nhowever , maintaining energy reserves and tissue biomass under ocean acidification does have crucial implications for other aspects of coral health and resistance to stressors such as coral bleaching . for example , maintenance of lipid concentrations may enable corals to maintain their reproductive output [ 98 ] , even under future oa and warming . this may be critical considering that many other processes involved in coral reproduction such as fertilization , settlement success , and metamorphosis are compromised under oa [ 99 ] , [ 100 ] . furthermore , maintenance of energy reserves has been shown to be associated with higher resistance to coral bleaching and to promote recovery from bleaching [ 46 ] , [ 49 ] , which could prove critical as bleaching events will increase in frequency over the coming decades [ 101 ] .\nloya y , sakai k , yamazato k , nakan y , sambali h , et al . ( 2001 ) coral bleaching : the winners and the losers . ecology letters 4 : 122\u2013131 .\nthe polyps of the turban coral are big and frilly , covering the underlying skeleton so well that the coral almost looks furry . they use their polyps to capture and eat larger foods . a coral you may see at the stores may not have as many polyps , due to lack of feeding , yet they are still quite large as far as the polyp is concerned and easy to identify . the polyps also use mucus secretions to both capture food and get rid of waste . their colors can be brown , yellow , gray , and greenish gray blue with some cream . .\nare found in the indo - pacific ocean , indian ocean , eastern africa and around australia in the great barrier reef , coral sea , lord howe island , solitary islands , and cape naturaliste .\nnr indicates the eilat coral nature reserve , iui the interuniversity institute of marine sciences in eilat , and mss the marine science station in aqaba . the map was drawn using adobe illustrator cs 6 .\nhuge thanks to carolina aquatics for parting with this coral for a reasonable price , and as an intact colony showing all the species\u2019 characteristics . the two - face t . bifrons is not likely to win any beauty contests against \u201cdesigner corals\u201d but we will do our best to ensure that this strain lives on in the aquarium hobby so that the diehard stony coral junkies can partake of it in the future .\nhoegh - guldberg o , mumby pj , hooten aj , steneck r , greenfield p , et al . ( 2007 ) coral reefs under rapid climate change and ocean acidification . science 318 : 1737\u20131742 .\njokiel pl , rodgers ks , kuffner ib , andersson aj , cox ef , et al . ( 2008 ) ocean acidification and calcifying reef organisms : a mesocosm investigation . coral reefs 27 : 473\u2013483 .\nrelationship between colony size , as projected surface area ( cm 2 ) , vs . damage size ( cm 2 ) of five coral species after 49 days of contact with chlorodesmis fastigiata or galaxaura filamentosa .\nthe caulastrea furcata ( commonly known as a candy cane coral ) is a little less flashy than some of the other corals , ranging from tan to pale orange in color , and being rather small .\nmini reef aquarium guide . reef aquarium setup for large reef tanks , nano reef tanks , pico reef or micro reef aquariums with reef tank lighting , filtration , choosing coral reef animals , and problem solving !\nkleypas j , buddemeier rw , archer d , gattuso j - p , langdon c , et al . ( 1999 ) geochemical consequences of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide on coral reefs . science 284 : 118\u2013120 .\nmcculloch mt , falter j , trotter j , montagna p ( 2012 ) coral resilience to ocean acidification and global warming through ph up - regulation . nature climate change : doi : 10 . 1038 / nclimate1473\ngodinot c , houlbreque f , grover r , ferrier - pages c ( 2011 ) coral uptake of inorganic phosphorus and nitrogen negatively affected by simultaneous changes in temperature and ph . plos one 6 : e25024 .\nfitt wk , mcfarland fk , warner me , chilcoat gc ( 2000 ) seasonal patterns of tissue biomass and densities of symbiotic dinoflagellates in reef corals and relation to coral bleaching . limnology and oceanography 45 : 677\u2013685 .\nanthony krn , hoogenboom mo , maynard jf , grottoli ag , middlebrook r ( 2009 ) energetics approach to predicting mortality risk from environmental stress : a case study of coral bleaching . functional ecology 23 : 539\u2013550 .\nalthough still widespread and common throughout its range ( 1 ) , turbinaria mesenterina is likely to face similar threats to other reef - building corals , around a third of which are now threatened with extinction ( 10 ) . in addition , this species is collected for the aquarium trade ( 1 ) , and has recently been affected by an infectious disease known as australian subtropical white syndrome in waters around australia ( 12 ) . however , it has been shown to be relatively tolerant of sedimentation , suggesting that increased sedimentation , associated with erosion and increased storm activity , is less likely to pose a threat than in many other coral species ( 13 ) .\nmadsen a . , madin j . s . , tan c . - h . & baird a . h . the reproductive biology of the scleractinian coral plesiastrea versipora in sydney harbour , australia . ( 2014 ) .\nhumann , p . , 1993 . reef coral identification - florida caribbean bahamas , ( ed . n . deloach ) . new world publications , inc . , paramount miller graphics , inc . , jacksonville , florida .\nfabricius ke , langdon c , uthicke s , humphrey c , noonan s , et al . ( 2011 ) losers and winners on coral reefs acclimatized to elevated carbon dioxide concentrations . nature climate change 1 : 165\u2013169 .\nthis is the first comprehensive study of the reproductive biology of turbinaria reniformis , a gonochoric ( dioecious ) broadcast spawner in the northern red sea . data collected throughout the study ( 2003\u20132009 and 2014\u20132015 ) indicate a clear periodic pattern of annual reproduction , with a cycle lasting 11\u201312 months . however , evidence of the first recognizable stages as early as may and june of 2014 ( although negligible in numbers ) may suggest an even longer cycle .\nrodolfo - metalpa r , houlbreque f , tambutte e , boisson f , baggini c , et al . ( 2011 ) coral and mollusc resistance to ocean acidification adversely affected by warming . nature climate change 1 : 308\u2013312 .\nturbinaria reniformis reproduces annually with spermatogenesis succeeding oogenesis . the earliest conspicuously discernible female gametes ( stage i ) appeared in september 2014 ( fig . 3a ) , indicating the onset of gametogenesis , and in 2015 were first seen in august . thus , the oogenic cycle is presumed to last between 11\u201312 months . however , stage i was also observed as early as may and june 2014 and may 2015 in negligible numbers ( only one or two oocytes ) .\neffects of transplanting algae against corals were evaluated with repeated measures anova , with two between - subject fixed factors ( coral species , algal species ) . because all control colonies exhibited no damage , controls were excluded from this analysis . data were square root transformed to meet assumptions of normality and homoscedasticity . to evaluate relationships between coral colony size and size of damage from algal contact , we used spearman ' s rank correlation because data did not meet normality assumptions .\nlangdon c , takahashi t , sweeney c , chipman d , goddard j , et al . ( 2000 ) effect of calcium carbonate saturation state on the calcification rate of an experimental coral reef . global biogeochemical cycles 14 : 639\u2013654 .\nalthough parts of this species\u2019 range fall within marine protected areas ( 1 ) , including the great barrier reef , off the coast of australia ( 14 ) , many of these areas do not receive adequate enforcement ( 9 ) , and currently less than half a percent of all marine habitats are protected ( 15 ) . international trade in turbinaria mesenterina should be regulated by its listing on appendix ii of the convention on international trade in endangered species ( cites ) ( 2 ) .\nthere is a lot of research involved in putting together a well balanced , healthy salt water coral aquarium . this list is just a helpful starting point for those who have enough knowledge that they\u2019re prepared to just jump right in and get started .\ncommon reproductive traits often span genera and even families 1 , 14 , with the dendrophylliidae family being predominately gonochoric 23 , 36 . all available reports within the genera show turbinaria to be uniform in both reproductive mode and sexuality : t . frondens , t . mesenterina , t . stellulata and t . reniformis are gonochoric spawners and t . bifrons , t . peltata , and t . radicalis are broadcast spawners , with sexuality ( hermaphroditism or gonochorism ) unknown 5 , 10 , 14 , 30 .\nanthony krn , kline di , diaz - pulido g , dove s , hoegh - guldberg o ( 2008 ) ocean acidification causes bleaching and productivity loss in coral reef builders . proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the usa 105 : 17442\u201317446 .\nby some second nature we instinctively knew we were looking at a nice spread of corals hailing from darwin in west australia \u2013 this ecoregion is home to such coral hits as wild acropora solitaryensis , tricolor micromussa and the jaw - dropping branching favites complanata . even the chalice corals from darwin look really distinctive and carolina aquatics had a boat load of them , but the real treasure in the bunch was a dark brown semi - erect growing stony coral that at first glanced resembled a medium branched species of pavona .\nanthony , k . r . n . , hoogenboom , m . o . and connolly , s . r . ( 2005 ) adaptive variation in coral geometry and the optimization of internal colony light climates . functional ecology , 19 : 17 - 26 .\nalthough tissue biomass and energy reserves are important indicators of coral health [ 46 ] , [ 47 ] and play a significant role in promoting resilience to bleaching [ 49 ] , no studies to date have measured all three energy reserve pools ( i . e . , lipid , protein , and carbohydrate ) under oa conditions at elevated temperature . while protein concentrations were either unaffected [ 30 ] , [ 31 ] or increased in response to elevated p co 2 alone [ 13 ] , [ 50 ] , the effects of oa , or oa plus elevated temperature , on coral lipids and carbohydrates are unknown . studies specifically addressing all three energy reserve pools are needed to get a better understanding of how oa affects coral energetics and their overall resistance to future climate change .\nin contrast , calcification rates of turbinaria reniformis during both first and second half of the experiment ( fig . 2g\u2013h , table s1 ) did not respond to changes in seawater temperature ( p = 0 . 45 and 0 . 17 ) or p co 2 ( p = 0 . 36 and 0 . 09 ) . notably , the two plating species ( m . monasteriata and t . reniformis ) calcified more than twice as fast as the two branching species ( a . millepora and p . damicornis ) .\nhas smaller polyps with calices ( opening of the corallite ) that are only 1 . 5 to 2 mm diameter . yet they are most often grouped as an lps corals , though you can find it occasionally listed as an sps coral . either way , the\nconservation measures recommended for corals include further research , expansion of marine protected areas , disease and parasite management , artificial propagation techniques , and fisheries management ( 1 ) ( 9 ) ( 11 ) . it will also be important to monitor the effect of collection of turbinaria mesenterina for the aquarium trade , particularly in indonesia , the largest exporter ( 1 ) , while mechanical removal of diseased colony margins may provide a method for minimising the effects of disease on the species , albeit on a fairly local scale ( 12 ) .\ngenus . the corallites of its skeletal structure are knobby as opposed to an ' ant hill ' tubular type , and they are close together . its polyps are big and frilly , covering the underlying skeleton so well that the coral almost looks furry . a coral you may see at the stores may not have as many polyps , due to lack of feeding , yet they are still quite large making it easy to identify . after feeding as needed , the polyp numbers will exploded , making it one of your favorite corals .\nwillis b . , babcock r . , harrison p . , oliver j . & wallace c . patterns in the mass spawning of corals on the great barrier reef from 1981 to 1984 in proc . 5th int . coral reef symp . 343\u2013348 ( 1985 ) ."]}
{"id": 2266, "summary": [{"text": "the javan tiger ( panthera tigris sondaica ) is an extinct tiger population that inhabited the indonesian island of java until the mid-1970s .", "topic": 15}, {"text": "it was one of the three recognized subspecies limited to the sunda islands .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "the scientific name panthera tigris sondaica is now used for both extinct and living tiger populations in indonesia . ", "topic": 17}], "title": "javan tiger", "paragraphs": ["\u201cits markings are like the javan tiger , but its posture less so . the posture of the javan tiger is bigger , more muscular , and shorter than the sumatran tiger . \u201d\nbelow is a clear photo of a javan tiger at london zoo in 1942 .\ni really hop the tigers will survive . but i think the javan tiger is extinct\ntoo bad , i find that the javan tiger is the most handsome of tiger subspecie : little and dark coloured .\noccasionally , unofficial reports of javan tigers surface from enthusiasts who believe the tiger still exists in java .\n2 . the javan tiger was quite similar in appearance to the still existing sumatran tiger , but had darker and more numerous black stripes .\nin 1995 , a group of villagers claimed to have seen an adult javan tiger with cubs in east java .\njavan tigers\u2019 tracks\u2019 diameter used to be bigger than that of the bengal tiger found in india , nepal and bangladesh .\nlocating specimens of extinct tiger ( panthera tigris ) subspecies : javan tiger ( p . t . sondaica ) , bali tiger ( p . t . balica ) , and caspian tiger ( p . t . virgata ) , including previously unpublished specimens\nthe world bank\u2019s tiger recovery program aims to double tiger populations in the wild by 2022 .\nthe javan tiger likely became extinct in the mid - 1970s ( seidensticker 1987 ) . on the basis of morphology mazak and groves ( 2006 ) classified the javan tiger as a distinct species , panthera sondaica . classically it is considered to be a subspecies of tiger panthera tigris ( nowell and jackson 1996 ) .\nnonetheless , the world wildlife fund is now supporting an expedition to track down whether the javan tiger could still exist , emont reports .\nb abbreviations for subspecies : alt , amur tiger p . t . altaica ; vir , caspian tiger p . t . virgata ; amo , south china tiger p . t . amoyensis ; cor , indochinese tiger p . t . corbetti ; jax , malayan tiger p . t . jacksoni ; sum , sumatran tiger p . t . sumatrae ; son , javan tiger p . t . sondaica ; bal , bali tiger p . t . balica ; tig , bengal tiger p . t . tigris .\nthe tiger panthera tigris consists of nine subspecies , including four that have gone extinct from their natural range . the sumatran tiger is the closest relative to the extinct javan and bali tigers .\nin the following decades , the remaining javan tiger population was restricted to only three reserves on the island that lacked adequate protection for them and their prey species . confirmed sightings became increasingly infrequent and in 1984 the last confirmed javan tiger was killed outside halimun reserve in west java .\njavan rhinos are the most threatened of the five rhino species , with only 58 - 68 individuals that live only in ujung kulon national park in java , indonesia . javan rhinos once lived throughout northeast india and southeast asia . vietnam\u2019s last javan rhino was poached in 2010 .\ncompared to other panthera tigris sub - species , which still populates the asian mainland , javan tigers were slight smaller . however , male javan tigers could grow bigger than the sumatran tigers .\nthe javan tiger used to prey on wild boar , rusa deer and banteng . at times , they also fed upon water fowls and reptiles .\nby 1940s , javan tigers were pushed into remote forest ranges . until the second world war , the javan tigers were kept in zoos in indonesia , but they were all shut down during the war . after the second world war , the natural forests were fragmented for the plantation of coffee , rubber and teak , threatening javan tiger\u2019s natural habitat .\n) existed in java or bali . no mtdna haplotype is shared among voucher sumatran , javan and bali tigers . all 9 voucher javan tigers carry haplotype son and both voucher bali tigers carry bal .\n, the javan tiger was once a dominant predator on the tropical island of java . in the 18th century , they were so numerous on the island that\n1972 and the javan tiger count was down to a maximum of seven in the then newly - formed meru betiri forest reserve , and perhaps five elsewhere .\nstill , \u201cthis used to be a javan tiger habitat\u201d , the head of conservation at ujung kulon national park said . \u201cwe hope that they\u2019re still there\u201d .\nthe javan tiger was last recorded in the 1970s , the caspian tiger was lost in the 1950s , and the bali tiger became extinct in the 1930s , according to panthera , a wild cat conservation organization . [ gallery : iconic cats : all 9 subspecies of tigers ]\njavan tiger is an extinct tiger subspecies that used to dwell in java islands in indonesia . hunting and deforestation are two of the primary reasons believed to have completely wiped it out by mid - 70s or early 80s .\n1 . javan tigers were slightly smaller than their mainland cousins but were renowned for their especially long whiskers .\nno one wants to be the first to say , \u201cyeah , that\u2019s definitely a javan tiger . \u201d mamat rahmat , head of ujung kulon park , was hopeful :\njavan tigers were so abundant in the early 19th century that in some regions , they were considered as pests .\n\u201cmy fellow ranger saw a large cat , but with stripes a bit different from the leopards usually found in ujung kulon . finally , he photographed it , and we suspect it is either a type of javan leopard or another one of the large cats , such as the javan tiger . \u201d\njavan tigers were thought to have been hunted into extinction , with the last confirmed sighting in 1979 . the footage from the ujung kulon national park has spurred the world wildlife fund into supporting an expedition to search for traces that the javan tiger might still lurk in the indonesian jungles . jeva lange\nfrom 1993 to march 1994 , believing that this subspecies is still alive , a survey was conducted in the meru betiri national park , with the help of wwf indonesia . however , it failed to discover any concrete evidence that could argue for the javan tiger\u2019s existence . as the final report of the survey came out , the javan tiger was pronounced extinct .\nwith similar features but slightly bigger than the bali tiger , the javan tiger has dark skin and small stripes with an average weight of 110 - 140 kg . this small - sized tiger previously lived in java island , indonesia . the latest record was found in 1972 and they went extinct in 1976 .\n\u201cthis used to be javan tiger habitat , \u201d mamat rahmat , the head of conservation at the park , told the local news media . \u201cwe hope that they\u2019re still there . \u201d\nstill ,\nthis used to be javan tiger habitat ,\nthe head of conservation at ujung kulon national park said .\nwe hope that they ' re still there .\n) . j . h . maz\u00e1k and groves also supported separation of the sumatran tiger from the javan and bali tigers based on craniometrical data collected by the late v . maz\u00e1k (\na rare big cat was photographed in ujung kulon national park , indonesia , last month . park rangers believe the animal may be a javan tiger , which are thought to be extinct .\njakarta , indonesia \u2014 park rangers in indonesia may have spotted an animal thought to live only in folklore and history books : a javan tiger , declared extinct more than 40 years ago .\ntaken in 1938 , this image captures one of the once abundant javan tigers . hunting drove the big cats to extinction .\nwe can save wild tigers . in 2010 , the 13 tiger range countries committed to tx2\u2014to double wild tiger numbers by 2022 , the next year of the tiger . wwf is driving tx2 forward .\nworld conversation society tiger expert wulan pusparini cautioned that\nwhen the video is frozen , the effect is that it looks like a tiger\nbut when the cat moves , it looks far more like a javan leopard , which is endangered but not extinct .\nwulan pusparini , wildlife conservation society tiger expert , suggested that \u201cwhen the video is frozen , the effect is that it looks like a tiger\u201d but when the cat moves , it looks far more like a javan leopard , which is endangered but not extinct .\nthe javan tiger ( panthera tigris sondaica ) was exclusively found in java indonesia and went extinct in the early 1980 ' s they had thin black stripes that were usually double - looped . the javan and bali tigers were very similar in their small size weighing only 90 to 90 kg ( 200 to 220 lb )\nthe javan tiger had been pushed into remote mountain ranges and forests . at this stage some small reserves were set up , but these were not large enough and prey species were too low .\nthe last known confirmed javan tiger spotting occurred around 40 years ago . since then , preservationists assumed the tiger was extinct \u2013 until a mysterious cat was filmed by rangers at the ujung kulon national park in west java last month , the new york times reports .\ndespite the rangers\u2019 excitement , some conservationists were skeptical that the cat really was a javan tiger . \u201cwhen the video is frozen the effect is that it looks like a tiger , \u201d said wulan pusparini , a tiger expert at the wildlife conservation society , who viewed video footage of the animal . however , when the animal was seen moving , she said , it more closely resembled a leopard . javan leopards are an endangered species , and are rarely seen .\ntri prasetyo , who heads a national park near the crater , said many animals naturally would flee volcanic activity . but a javan tiger was unlikely , as it ' s believed to be extinct .\n\u201cthis used to be javan tiger habitat , \u201d mamat rahmat , the head of conservation at the park , told the local news media , according to emont . \u201cwe hope that they\u2019re still there . \u201d\njavan tigers had thin and long stripes . their occipital plane was narrow , carnassials comparatively long and they also had long and narrow nose .\nbut until concrete evidence can be produced ( expert sightings , pug marks , photographic evidence , attacks on people and animals ) , the javan tiger must be considered yet another subspecies which is probably lost to mankind .\nas habitat for javan tigers dwindled , the tigers and their prey were hunted and poisoned during intensified human - wildlife conflicts . tropical forests were converted to rice fields or teak and rubber plantations , further fragmenting tiger habitat .\nmore than 40 years ago , the last known javan tiger was seen by human eyes . in the intervening years , preservationists assumed the tiger was extinct \u2014 until a mysterious big cat was filmed by rangers at the ujung kulon national park in west java last month , the new york times reports .\nin the rainforests of sumatra live the last of the sunda or \u201cisland tigers\u201d \u2013 a distinct group of tiger subspecies once found across indonesia\u2019s sunda island chain . until only a few decades ago , tigers roamed the islands of bali and java . today , the bali and javan tiger subspecies are extinct .\neffective protection of the world\u2019s only remaining javan rhino population is critical to ensuring the species\u2019 survival . wwf will continue our support for rhino protection patrols in ujung kulon national park and work with communities who live in the park\u2019s buffer zone to eliminate human encroachment into the javan rhino\u2019s limited habitat and poaching .\npoints out that consumers say they want wild tiger parts , not farmed ones .\nis this a live tasmanian tiger ? man claims to have captured . . .\nin the early 19th century javan tigers ( panthera tigris sondaica ) were so common over java that in some areas the were considered nothing more than pests .\nonly a few national parks in west java contain what is left of the island\u2019s large fauna , which include just 60 rhinos and a small population of leopards . of the three subspecies of indonesian tigers , two \u2014 the bali tiger and the javan tiger \u2014 have been declared extinct . the sumatran tiger still exists on sumatra , but it is considered critically endangered , the result of hunting and rapid deforestation .\nclearance of java\u2019s rainforests for agricultural expansion led to the extirpation of the javan tiger and intensified other factors that led to what biologists refer to as an \u201cextinction vortex\u201d : a series of mutually reinforcing feedbacks that drives a population downward to extinction .\nwe can\u2019t bring back the bali and javan tigers , but we can save the sumatran tiger and pull it out from the vortex of extinction . learn how you can help rainforest trust and its partners to save sumatran tigers and their habitat .\ndespite the continuing claims of sightings it is far more likely that , even with full protection and in reserve areas , the javan tiger was unable to be saved . the ' tigers ' are quite likely to be leopards seen from a distance .\nrenowned tiger biologist k . ullas karanth , who works with the new york - based\nshould we be hopeful that the javan tiger has escaped extinction ? it may not be a great life \u2026 java is small , the parks are smaller and the population of deer , cattle , boars and other natural tiger foods are quite scarce , while the food these creatures turn to when desperately hungry are building more homes , barns and doghouses .\n\u201cthat\u2019s the javan leopard , \u201d she said of the mysterious cat . \u201cthat\u2019s the last large carnivore on java . you would hope people would get excited about it . \u201d\ntill the mid - 60s , javan tigers survived in protected areas \u2013 such as ujung kulon , leuwen sancang and baluran which were set up in 1920s and 1930s . however , no confirmed tiger sightings were reported in those areas following the civil unrest in 1965 .\n) , and differ from most similar sumatran tiger haplotypes by only 1 or 2 nucleotides .\nthe bengal tiger has reddish - orange colored fur with dark brown - black vertical stripes .\nare one of the largest predators in the world . each tiger has their own large territory in which males have a larger home range size than females . according to tiger research (\noccasional reports of tigers still surface from enthusiasts who believe the tiger still exists in java .\ntiger is occasionally served in restaurants in hanoi and beijing , where rare dishes denote status .\nthe balinese tiger ( panthera tigris balica ) was exclusively found in bali in indonesia and went extinct in the early 1930 ' s . the javan and bali tigers were very similar in their small size weighing only 90 to 90 kg ( 200 to 220 lb ) .\njavan tigers\u2019 small body size was imputed to bergmann\u2019s rule as well as the size of the available prey that are relatively smaller when compared to the ones found in mainland asia .\nthe small size of the javan rhino population is a cause for concern . low genetic diversity and inbreeding could make it difficult for the long - term survival of the species .\nconservation biologist firoz ahmed caught a tiger resting in the water in kaziranga national park in india .\ntheir study ' s first results appeared in 2004 that showed malayan tigers splitting from its indochinese counterpart as a distinct , new fifth - living tiger subspecies . the latest results show that extinct javan ( 1980s ) and bali ( 1940s ) tigers were nearly indistinguishable from a molecular standpoint from sumatran tigers just as the extinct caspian tigers are nearly identical to surviving amur tiger subspecies .\nthe sumatran tiger ( panthera tigris sumatrae ) is the smallest living tiger subspecies , weighing up to 120 kg ( 265 lb ) and is about 2 . 4 m ( 8 ft ) in length . they are found in sumatra , part of indonesia . the sumatran tiger ' s fur is darker in coloration than other tiger species with a deep orange to reddish coat and black stripes .\neffective tiger survey methods ; population count on sighting , detecting signs , etc . , influence the effective result of tiger abundance . at the same time , the high abundance of tiger population can be an effective , reliable site study on the relation between tigers and their prey species as well .\nhowever , some big cat experts point out that the stripes seem to look like spots as the cat walks and there aren\u2019t many of the nearly - extinct javan leopard available for comparison .\nsettling this aspect of tiger evolution clearly requires genetic studies of museum and private specimens of bali and javan tigers . here , based on gathering and validation of museum samples ( yamaguchi et al . 2013 ) we analyzed the phylogeographic history of javan and bali tigers to determine historical genetic diversity and genetic relationships between extinct tigers and extant relatives . genetic patterns were analyzed jointly with published data from the 6 extant and 1 extinct ( caspian ) tiger subspecies ( luo et al . 2004 , 2008 ; driscoll et al . 2009 ; luo et al . 2010b ) . the results highlight a clearer picture of the evolutionary history and phylogeographic partitioning that have formed modern tiger population structures .\nthe smaller body size of javan tigers is attributed to bergmann\u2019s rule and the size of the available prey species in java , which are smaller than the cervid and bovid species distributed on the asian mainland . however , the diameter of their tracks are larger than of bengal tiger in bangladesh , india and nepal .\nfossil evidences suggest that around 12000 years ago , javan tigers also existed in borneo island and palawan in philippines . still , some experts say that the borneo specimens survived as recently as 200 years ago .\nwwf works with governments across the 13 tiger range countries to maintain momentum around the conservation of tigers , which is a valuable asset that can enhance their development agendas . by linking tiger conservation with forest preservation and carbon sequestration efforts , tiger range nations and their partners can demonstrate their commitment to promoting a healthy environmental and economic future .\njavan rhinos were killed by trophy hunters during colonial times . they were also killed as agricultural pests and for their horn , a highly prized commodity in traditional asian medicine . poaching remains an ever - present threat .\nlike the tasmanian tiger , there are many who believe a few javan tigers are hiding in the deep wilderness areas of the island . some tracks have been found that may been javans but were not confirmed and the body a female mountain hiker found in mount merbabu national park in central java in 2008 appears to have been the result of a tiger attack by a creature that locals claimed to have seen but , again , could not confirm .\n) , may help further elucidate the issue . nevertheless , the similarity among the sunda tiger mtdna haplotypes ( 1\u20132 nucleotide difference among sumatran , javan and bali tigers ) suggests common origin and rapid divergence of island subspecies , and may reflect that the somewhat distinctive morphological features in each subspecies have evolved rapidly after each island was colonized .\ntrade in tiger parts and products is a major threat to wild tiger survival . together with traffic , the global wildlife trade monitoring network , we implement strategies to stop wildlife criminal networks , help governments shut down black markets , and change consumer behavior . we conduct investigations to document the tiger trade , catalyze action against it , and train enforcement agencies . we continue to champion transnational wildlife enforcement networks and build strategies to reduce demand for tiger parts and products .\n) . no haplotype is shared among voucher sumatran , javan and bali tigers . the size of a circle corresponds to the number of specimens from the island and sectors of the pie chart are proportional to haplotype frequencies .\nhumankind played no role in most of these extinctions . however , we are responsible for many hundreds of the most recent ones . the passenger pigeon is gone because of us ; so is the wild dromedary camel , the dodo bird , the javan tiger , the dusky seaside sparrow . . . the list could go on and on .\nto follow up on alleged sightings , a survey was conducted with the help of wwf between 1993 and 1994 using camera traps in east java\u2019s meru betiri national park . no tiger tracks or other signs were found in the survey . the cameras revealed no tigers , few prey and many poachers . after the final report of this survey , the javan tiger was declared extinct . unofficial \u201cghost sightings\u201d occasionally occur , but they are likely just that \u2013 ghosts .\n, a system of dedicated national reserves supported by teams of rangers . tiger numbers doubled over the next 15 years .\na subsequent survey was planned in the meru betiri national park in autumn 1992 with the support of wwf indonesia , deploying camera traps for the first time . from march 1993 to march 1994 , cameras were positioned at 19 sites , which did not yield a single picture of a tiger . during this period , no tracks indicating the presence of tigers were discovered . after the final report of this survey had been published , the javan tiger was declared extinct .\nput a bounty on the head of the animals to encourage their killing . though javan locals refrained from killing the creatures unless they did harm , as human populations swelled many big cat encounters resulted in human deaths , according to\nin november 2008 , an unidentified body of a female mountain hiker was found in mount merbabu national park , central java , who allegedly died from tiger attack . villagers who discovered the body have also claimed some tiger sightings in the vicinity .\nmales of the largest subspecies , the amur ( siberian ) tiger , may weigh up to 660 pounds . for males of the smallest subspecies\u2014the sumatran tiger\u2014upper range is at around 310 pounds . within each subspecies , males are heavier than females .\nthis male sumatran tiger cub was born at the sacramento zoo on march 3 , 2013 . its species is critically endangered .\nartist zio ziegler ' s exclusive tiger t - shirt helps raise awareness and support for wwf ' s global conservation efforts .\nfossil evidence and genetic information has determined that the lion , leopard and jaguar have more in common with each other than with the tiger . thus it is estimated that the tiger diverged earlier from the common panthera ancestor than other members of its genus .\n\u201cjavan tigers have been extinct for three generations , \u201d ms . wulan said . she said she wished the indonesian public would get as excited about saving endangered animals as they have been this week about the potential for discovering an extinct species .\nonline ) presents a plausible solution to longstanding uncertainty regarding the tiger radiation throughout mainland asia and the sunda islands . the position of\nthe photograph , which circulated across social media , prompted the world wildlife fund to support an expedition in search of the supposed tiger .\nmuch of the hunting was carried out by natives , a surprising thing since they considered the tiger a reincarnation of their dead relatives .\nin 1995 , a group of villagers from resapombo sighted a tiger with its cubs , high up the mountains of purworejo blitar in east java . cubs of these tiger were sold on the market in malang , where today is a market for all kinds of animals .\na few years ago i read an article that forest officials would set up camera traps in hopes of finding this cat . haven ' t read of any follow up since , so i ' m guessing the findings were bleak . java forests are diminishing fast , thus unfortunately there is a good chance the javan tiger is for sure gone and many other species may meet the same fate .\nthe caspian tiger ( panthera tigris virgata ) was native from turkey through central and west asia and went extinct around the 1950 ' s . they had a distinctive style for hunting in that they stalked migrating prey over long distances rather than holding territories like other tiger subspecies .\nthe tiger\u2019s situation has grown desperate in a mere century . a hundred years ago , there were over 100 , 000 in the wild , with more than 40 , 000 in india alone . currently , the total number of tigers worldwide is calculated at fewer than 3 , 500 . three subspecies \u2014 javan , bali , and caspian tigers \u2014 vanished during the 20th century . a fourth , the south china tiger , has not been seen in the wild for more than 25 years and is assumed to have gone extinct during the 1990s .\nnine subspecies of tiger are recognized ; however , three of them are extinct , according to the integrated taxonomic information system ( itis ) .\ntigers lucky enough to escape the poachers face being shot or poisoned by villagers angered by livestock losses . starvation in the wild presents another peril : prey depletion and habitat degradation are eroding the species\u2019 future . a breeding female bengal tiger needs two deer a week , an amur tiger more than 20 pounds of meat a day to make it through the winter . because of these threats and the tiger\u2019s rapid decline , the\nthere have been thousands of reported sightings of the tasmanian tiger , or scientifically known as thylacine , but many of them are quickly dismissed .\nthis sounds like the usual wishful thinking and remorseful hoping \u2026 until august 25 , 2017 . that\u2019s when a ranger at the ujung kulon national park on the west end of the island of java spotted a big cat feeding on a dead banteng ( wild javan cattle ) . that would not be an unusual sight \u2013 the park has a population of javan leopards \u2013 except this cat had stripes , not spots . fortunately , the ranger was able to record the beast walking away from the banteng towards some peacocks \u2026 the next course ?\n6 . rusa deer , the tiger ' s most important prey species , were lost to disease in several reserves and forests during the 1960s .\ntotal tiger habitat in the world today ( 2013 ) is about staggering 11 lakh ( 1 . 1 million ) urltoken dispersed among asia\u2019s 13 countries\ncarpal whiskers are located on the back of the tiger\u2019s front legs . with their help cat can feel its prey and detect any escape attempts .\nfans of the search for the tasmanian tiger / thylacine may want to pay attention to this one . media outlets on the island of java are reporting a sighting of what appears to be a javan tiger . if it\u2019s true , this would move the beast off of the extinct animals list where it has resided since 1979 when the last confirmed sighting occurred . is the video legit ? if it is , is this good news or bad news for yet another species that was thought to have been hunted to extinction . will humans get let off hook again ?\nthe first people to embrace the tiger as an important symbol in their culture were the indus valley civilization of harappa and mohenjo daro ( area known today as pakistan ) around 5 , 000 years ago . tiger symbols were engraved on seals and worn as amulets as a representation of property ownership .\nfrom the hunting behavior study found that tigers mostly grab and bite their prey on neck until it die . to bite on neck keeps them safe from the prey\u2019s antlers and hooves ( karanth , 1995 ) . after the prey died , the tiger will drag to eat at a safe place . normally , tiger hunts large prey . the experienced adult tiger hunts carefully and in the case may cause the least injury ( schaller , 1976 ) .\nexperts are skeptical , however , noting that the video of the spotting appears to show a cat moving more like a leopard than a tiger . the\ngeographic distribution of mtdna haplotypes among tigers from the islands of sumatra , java , and bali . only tiger specimens with confirmed geographic origins from java (\namazing fresh footage has emerged of what ' s believed to be a tasmanian tiger walking through a field , despite having been declared extinct in 1936 .\nin the past century , populations of wild tigers have plummeted from 100 , 000 to 3 , 500 . now the world bank and conservationists have launched an eleventh - hour effort to save this great predator , focusing on reining in the black market for tiger parts and ending the destruction of tiger habitat .\n\u201ctigress t - 26 with three cubs lives in the close vicinity of t - 20 , an aged tiger . t - 31 with two cubs is frequently visited by tiger t - 23 . t - 11 with three cubs is protected by t - 33 . t - 30 with a litter of three cubs is protected by t - 3 and t - 9 with two cubs is protected by t - 33 , a male tiger , \u201d he noted .\ntigers need landscapes to thrive , and our work to protect and connect their fragile habitat is based on rigorous scientific analysis . wwf has chosen places to focus its resources based on the best available science . these areas are where densities of prey and tigers are at their highest . the locations encompass tiger corridors that link tiger sites within landscapes . our work includes building local capacity to manage protected areas and coordinating with partners to manage core tiger areas and corridors .\nthe first evidence for the past presence of the tiger panthera tigris ( l . ) on the island of palawan , philippines : extinction in an island population\nmonitoring tigers and their prey is essential to achieving our goal of doubling wild tiger populations . by employing camera traps , tracking technologies and dna collected from scat ( droppings ) , we scrutinize the progress of tiger populations in order to adapt our strategies and make conservation decisions based on strong science and field experience .\ntheir numbers alarmingly decreased when one of its natural preys\u2019 \u2013 the rusa deer\u2019s number went down in many regions triggering food scarcity . by mid - 50s , just 20 \u2013 25 tigers remained in the island . in 1965 , during civil unrest , armed groups backed away and took shelter in forests and reserves reducing the natural tiger habitat . in the midst of a human - dominated landscape , the deracination of javan tigers got intensified in the 1970s .\nmeru betiri was rugged and considered this tiger ' s last chance for survival . however , even as it was declared a reserve , the area was under attack by agricultural development . a 1979 census located the tracks of only three tigers . substantiated evidence that this tiger is still alive has not been forthcoming since then .\n) is an extinct tiger subspecies that inhabited the indonesian island of java until the mid - 1970s . it was one of the three subspecies limited to islands .\n\u201cwhat is now happening in ranthambore will denote the sheer complexity of tiger behaviour . the trend of tigers preferring solitude is gradually changing at the park . in fact , we have witnessed a peculiar , astonishing and amazing breakthrough in the behaviour of male tigers , \u201d said rajesh kumar gupta , field director , ranthambhore tiger reserve .\nfrom their pharmacopeia in 1993 , skins still sell for up to $ 35 , 000 , and organs and body parts \u2014 bones , whiskers , eyeballs , penises , paws , claws \u2014 are snapped up as souvenirs or ingredients of traditional asian medicine . tiger is occasionally served at restaurants in hanoi and beijing , where rare dishes denote high status . in russia , the uber - wealthy have acquired a taste for tiger pelts as home d\u00e3\u00a9cor ; in sumatra , magic spells require tiger parts .\nthe first people to embrace the tiger as an important symbol in their culture were the indus valley civilization of harappa and mohenjo daro around 5 , 000 years ago .\nfollowing the october 2010 eruption of mount merapi , two indonesian villagers have claimed sightings of a big cat paw print in the residual ash , which sparked rumours a tiger or leopard was roaming abandoned farms in search for food . personnel of the nearby national park did not think it likely this paw print was a tiger ' s .\nwaters , who runs the thylacine awareness group of australia , says there are a few reasons why he believes the creature in the video is definitely a tasmanian tiger .\nthe south china tiger ( panthera tigris amoyensis ) are native to south central china . they may weigh up to 150 kg ( 330 lb ) and are about 2 . 5 m ( 8 ft ) in length . south china tigers are the most critically endangered of all tiger subspecies with a population estimate between 30 to 80 individuals .\nthe javan tiger ( panthera tigris sundaica ) , which is more similar to the sumatran , held on longer into the 20th century . between 1900 and 1975 , the population on java almost tripled from 28 million to 85 million people . during this time , the annual production of rice was unable to keep up with population demands , resulting in the clearing of forests for rice cultivation . in 1938 , tropical forests covered 23 % of the island ; by 1975 , only 8 % remained .\nsightings of giant cat pawprints in the thick grey ash blanketing mount merapi ' s slopes on tuesday sparked rumours a tiger or leopard was roaming abandoned farms searching for food .\n) are extinct . the specific threats to tigers vary regionally , but human persecution , hunting , and human - induced habitat destruction are universal factors in threatening tiger populations .\nshow your love of the tiger with the wwf bankamericard cash rewards visa credit card . bank of america will contribute $ 100 to wwf for each account opened and activated .\njustification : tigers were last positively recorded from java ' s meru betiri national park in 1976 , and likely disappeared from much of the rest of the island by the 1940s . the causes of extinction include hunting , and loss of forest habitat and prey base . there are no javan tigers in captivity ( seidensticker 1987 ) .\nin 2009 . the bank possesses \u201cconvening power\u201d among its 187 member countries and began organizing international workshops that culminated in an unprecedented plan to gather together world leaders of all tiger range countries . the tiger summit will be held on nov . 21 , during the waning days of this year of the tiger , in st . petersburg , russia . such political capital expended on a conservation issue is unprecedented . for the first time in history , one of the world\u2019s top financiers has galvanized worldwide support in defense of an endangered species .\nthe bali tiger ( panthera tigris balica ) was the smallest of the tiger subspecies and was last positively recorded in the late 1930\u2019s in bali barat national park . pushed to the edge by growing human populations , hunted for sport , and persecuted by villagers as a pest , it was declared extinct not long after the end of the second world war .\nthe tiger is the largest member of the felid ( cat ) family . they sport long , thick reddish coats with white bellies and white and black tails . their heads , bodies , tails and limbs have narrow black , brown or gray stripes . there were once nine subspecies of tigers : bengal , siberian , indochinese , south chinese , sumatran , malayan , caspian , javan and bali . of these , the last three are extinct , one is extinct in the wild , and the rest are endangered .\nthe indo - chinese tiger ( panthera tigris corbetti ) is one of the smallest tiger subspecies , weighing up to 182 kg ( 400 lb ) and is about 2 . 8 m ( 9ft ) in length . they have a large range encompassing continental southeast asia region ( southern china , laos , vietnam , cambodia , malaysia , thailand and eastern burma ) .\ntigers are facing major threats - - including poaching and habitat destruction - - that have put them on the path to extinction . you can help save them . adopt a tiger .\nin the west of java lies the halimun reserve , today integrated into the mount halimun salak national park . in 1984 , a tiger was killed there ; and in 1989 , pugmarks were found that were the size of a tiger\u2019s . however , an expedition of six biologists conducted in 1990 did not yield any definite , direct evidence for the existence of tigers .\npoaching continues to pose a seemingly insurmountable problem . losses of 2 percent a year threaten the tiger with immediate extinction , according to john scanlon , secretary - general of cites , the\nthis big cat is both admired and feared by people around the world . if forests are emptied of every last tiger , all that will remain are distant legends and zoo sightings .\nfrom basic principles of animals energetic that tiger ' s prey must be over 20 kg . density of prey species influence tiger densities in several ways . as prey density declines , breeding female ranges become larger , dramatically reducing the number of such females that an area can support . high prey densities appear to permit the area to support higher number of transient animals ( karanth and nichols 1998 , 2000 ) . because cub and juvenile survival rates are higher when prey availability is higher , the numbers of tiger in these two demographic stages are also higher . while other habitat - related or managerial factors also influence tiger density at a given site , prey abundance appears to be the primary ecological determinant in most places ( karanth and nichols 2002 ) .\n) indicates modest and recent population expansion throughout the last glacial period ( c . 110 000\u201312 000 years ago ) in the region . inference with the pair - wise sequentially markovian coalescent ( psmc ) model of tiger demographic history based on genome - wide data from an amur tiger also indicates a holocene population expansion as ice sheets retreated and suitable habitats containing ungulate prey returned (\nin india ; the prey concentrations are high and male tigers have territories that range in size from 5 to 150 sq km . in siberia the prey concentrations are much lower and male tiger territories range in size from 800 to 1200 sq km . seasonality in terms of prey migrations , food availability and weather may also affect prey populations and therefore the size of tiger territories .\nprincipal prey species indicates dynamic tiger abundance . in india , a study about feeding ecology of tigers reveals that , in one year , a tiger requires prey weighing an average of 3 , 000 kg which is approximately 50 adult spotted deer . this implies that to expect the reproduction of 50 chital , we have to reserve the existing amount of at least 500 spotted deer .\nthis species is a dusky grey color and has a single horn of up to about 10 inches . its skin has a number of loose folds , giving the appearance of armor plating . the javan rhino is very similar in appearance to the closely - related greater one - horned rhinoceros , but has a much smaller head and less apparent skin folds .\njavan rhinos are found in only one protected area in the world . the biology of the species is poorly understood , but we are starting to learn more about the species ecology and behavior thanks to very intensive monitoring of the population . they are extremely vulnerable to extinction due to natural catastrophes , habitat loss , diseases , poaching , and potential inbreeding .\nthe sumatran tiger ( p . t . sumatrae ) is found only on sumatra island . the other two subspecies only found on indonesian islands have already gone completely extinct . this tiger was found to be a distinct subspecies in 1998 through genetic testing . there are between 400 and 500 left in the wild , mostly in national parks . the sumatran tiger is the smallest subspecies due to thick forests and small prey . it has dark fur , with closely spaced stripes and a longer mane . one male needs 100 square kilometers ( 39 square miles ) of space .\nso countries and conservation organizations are urgently rallying to save the tiger , but their efforts are shadowed by the fact that the species has been \u201csaved\u201d before . early in the 1970s , the tiger population in india fell to a similarly alarming level , below 2 , 000 . president indira gandhi backed what may have been the most comprehensive single - species conservation plan of its time :\nthe siberian tiger ( p . t . altaica ) is also called the amur tiger . it lives in eastern siberia , with a small population in northeastern china and north korea . it calls the taiga and eastern russian birch forest its home . about 500 siberian tigers exist in the wild . they are adapted to live in the cold siberian landscape . they are the largest tigers and have thicker fur to survive the cold . the tigers are also paler and have fewer stripes , which are dark brown instead of black . one thing going for them is that they live in the largest unfragmented tiger habitat with the fewest humans . they need the most space of any of the other tiger subspecies , one male needs 1000 square km ( 386 square miles ) .\nthe tigris river is said to flow straight like an arrow . this river is thought to be the origin of the tiger ' s species name , tigris , which is greek for arrow .\nthe smallest tiger subspecies with a weight of around 90 - 120 kg . they have dark , reddish - brown coats with broad black stripes . and are only found in sumatra , indonesia .\nat the beginning of the 20th century , 28 million people lived on the island of java . the annual production of rice was insufficient to adequately supply the growing human population , so within 15 years , 150 % more land was cleared for cultivating rice . in 1938 , natural forest covered 23 % of the island . by 1975 , only 8 % forest stand remained ; the human population had increased to 85 million people . in this human - dominated landscape , the extirpation of the javan tiger was intensified by the conjunction of several circumstances and events :\nlive tigers are of economic importance in zoos where they are displayed to the public and in wildlife areas where they may bring in tourism . tigers are illegally killed for their fur to make rugs and wall hangings . in addition , for more than 3000 years traditional chinese medicine has used tiger parts to treat sickness and injury . the humerus ( upper leg bone ) , for example , has been prescribed to treat rheumatism even though there is no evidence that it has any affect on the disease . some believe that tiger bones will help them become as strong and ferocious as the tiger .\n) with missing data ( due to sequence omission in several samples ) coded as \u201cn . \u201d these haplotypes were analyzed jointly with 25 voucher tiger haplotypes of 4078bp each from all 6 living subspecies (\n- 13173 - a variant shared by bal and son distinguishes them from all sumatran tiger haplotypes ( sum1 - 8 and sumx ) . bal is common in our collection and shared by 6 individuals (\nwe are now able to construct , for the first time , the intraspecific phylogeny for the tiger based on all the 9 recognized subspecies . interpreting the layered cladogenic effects of variance and dispersal illustrated in\none of the world\u2019s largest , and most uniquely - adapted , tiger populations is found in the sundarbans\u2014a large mangrove forest area shared by india and bangladesh on the northern coast of the indian ocean . these mangrove forests harbor a variety of species , including tigers , and protect coastal regions from storm surges and wind damage . however , rising sea levels caused by climate change threaten to wipe out these forests and the last remaining habitat of this tiger population . according to a wwf study , without mitigation efforts , projected sea level rise\u2014about a foot by 2070\u2014could destroy nearly the entire sundarbans tiger habitat .\nthe population in ujung kulon national park represents the only hope for the survival of a species that is on the brink of extinction . until the late 19th century and early 20th century , javan rhinos existed from northeast india and the sunderbans , throughout mainland southeast asia , and on the island of sumatra . if we lose the population in java , the entire species will disappear .\njavan tigers were very small compared to other subspecies of the asian mainland , but larger in size than bali tigers . males weighed between 100 and 140 kg ( 220 and 310 lb ) on average with a body length of 200 to 245 cm ( 79 to 96 in ) . females were smaller than males and weighed between 75 and 115 kg ( 170 and 250 lb ) on average . their nose was long and narrow , occipital plane remarkably narrow and carnassials relatively long . they usually had long and thin stripes , which were slightly more numerous than of the sumatran tiger .\neducational campaigns ; and develop long - term financing schemes to pay for it all . the draft document outlining the program is a manifesto for a new paradigm of conservation , seeking to counter the notion that this might be another single - species conservation project . the program seeks to protect the tiger as the apex predator in its ecosystem and as an emblem of all biodiversity in that system . protection of the tiger , it states , entails protection of tiger landscapes , which also function as critically important watersheds serving 832 million people . conservation , the program\u2019s author\u2019s insist , \u201cis no longer a fringe concern . \u201d\nopportunities in india and china while \u201csimultaneously green - washing its warty environmental visage . \u201d at the nagarahole tiger reserve , karanth said that consultants made away with much of the money as 12 , 000 timber trees were smuggled from the reserve and tiger and elephant poaching rose . \u201cdespite huge investments , \u201d he concluded , the bank\u2019s project \u201cdamage [ d ] wildlife and habitats without increasing local community support . \u201d\nthe international union for the conservation of nature ' s ( iucn ' s ) red list of threatened species categorizes all remaining tiger species as endangered . most live on wildlife refuges to protect them from poachers .\nhistoric tiger range ran from turkey through south and southeast asia to the far eastern shores of the continent . today , they are only found in south and southeast asia , china and the russian far east ."]}
{"id": 2280, "summary": [{"text": "the chestnut-throated seedeater ( sporophila telasco ) is neotropical songbird in the family thraupidae .", "topic": 27}, {"text": "it is found in along the western seaboard of south america , from southwestern colombia to far northern chile .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the natural habitats of the chestnut-throated seedeater are subtropical or tropical dry shrubland , subtropical or tropical moist shrubland , swamps , sandy shores , and heavily degraded former forest along the pacific coast and montane uplands of western south america , primarily ecuador , peru and chile .", "topic": 24}, {"text": "the species serves as an indicator of declining forest health , as their populations appear to increase following deforestation and land use change .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "males possess a rich chestnut patch on the throat in breeding season , while females share a similar color pattern , but lack the throat patch , with a lighter bill , but moult into drab plumage outside of the breeding season .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "this occurs because the cost of predator attracting , colorful plumage is no longer worth taking when breeding activities are completed .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "these songbirds are among the smallest members of the tanager family at approximately 4.0 inches in length , and possess powerful bills to harvest grass seeds . ", "topic": 0}], "title": "chestnut - throated seedeater", "paragraphs": ["click the button below to add the chestnut throated seedeater to your wish list .\ntemperament : no information founds but in watching the chestnut - throated seedeater , it appears to be a sweet and docile bird .\nthe chestnut - throated seedeater ( sporophila telasco ) is neotropical songbird in the family thraupidae . one local name in chile is \u201ccorbatita\u201d meaning little tie , as if it wears a little chestnut tie on a white shirt .\nthe chestnut - throated seedeater is common along the coastal lowland and also the mara\u00f1on drainage where it is known to range up to 700 m along the foothill of the andes . it also occurs in\nthe natural habitats of the chestnut - throated seedeater are subtropical or tropical dry shrubland , subtropical or tropical moist shrubland , swamps , sandy shores , and heavily degraded former forest along the pacific coast and montane uplands of western south america , primarily ecuador , peru and chile .\nbut is distinguished by a smaller size , chestnut throat , no white wing bars and no white wing speculum . also , see\njaramillo , a . ( 2018 ) . chestnut - throated seedeater ( sporophila telasco ) . in : del hoyo , j . , elliott , a . , sargatal , j . , christie , d . a . & de juana , e . ( eds . ) . handbook of the birds of the world alive . lynx edicions , barcelona . ( retrieved from urltoken on 9 july 2018 ) .\n. the breeding male chestnut - throated seedeater has bluish gray upperparts . the throat is chestnut with white on the rest of the underparts . the bill is black . the female has brown upperparts streaked and mottled with dusky . the underparts are brownish with faint brown streaking on the breast . the non - breeding male has a dull plumage with little chestnut on the throat and brown bill . the juvenile and the female in fresh plumage have warm brown to buff shades on the breast and back . both sexes show a white wing speculum . it forages in open areas with scattered shrubs as well in grasslands , fallow agricultural fields , and river edges . it is similar to the\nthis seedeater is a relatively unusual looking for a seedeater , and one that is restricted to the arid pacific slope from southernmost colombia to northernmost chile . this is not a species of the desert , but it does well in arid areas where there is shrubbery or a moister riparian area or irrigated farmland . likely its distribution and abundance has increased through the aid of humans , as it does well in agricultural landscapes that are taking over from desert habitats . the male has a few oddities in plumage for a seedeater , it is streaked above which is unusual , it also has a very dark chestnut throat patch , restricted to a small area of the chin and throat . one local name in chile is \u201ccorbatita\u201d meaning little tie , as if it wears a little chestnut tie on a white shirt . the rest of the underparts are white . otherwise above it is grayish , including the face , and it has a big bold white wing stripe . females are more distinctive than that of typical seedeaters as they show a trace of the wing stripe , and some may look moderately streaked above . this seedeater has a relatively large and rounded bill , although it is clearly smaller billed than the parrot - billed seedeater . that rather different species may in fact be the chestnut - throated\u2019s closest relative . this seedeater breeds in the rainy season , where there is one , taking advantage of new grass and its seeds as a food source for the young .\nother synonyms catalan : menjagr\u00e0 gola - roig czech : kn\u011b\u017e\u00edk malink\u00fd danish : brunstrubet klerkefinke german : braunkehlpf\u00e4ffchen , braunkehlspelzer english : chestnut - throated or tumaco seedeater , chestnut - throated seedeater spanish : corbatita , corbatita del norte , espiguero corbat\u00f3n , espiguero pechiblanco , semillero gorjicasta\u00f1o spanish ( chile ) : corbatita , corbatita del norte spanish ( colombia ) : espiguero pechiblanco spanish ( spain ) : semillero gorjicasta\u00f1o spanish ( peru ) : espiguero de garganta casta\u00f1a finnish : ruskokurkkusirkkunen french : sporophile t\u00e9lasco , sporophile t\u00e9lasco ou s . de tumaco hungarian : tumako - t\u00f6rpepinty italian : beccasemi golacastana japanese : kurinodohimeuso japanese : \u30af\u30ea\u30ce\u30c9\u30d2\u30e1\u30a6\u30bd latin : pyrrhula telasco , sporophila [ telasco or insulata ] , sporophila telasco lithuanian : rudagurkl\u0117 kikilin\u0117 starta dutch : grijsneksaffraangors , roodkindikbekje , roodkin - dikbekje norwegian : brunhakefr\u00f8eter polish : ziarnojadek rudobrody russian : \u043a\u0430\u0448\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0433\u043e\u0440\u043b\u0430\u044f \u0432\u044c\u044e\u0440\u043a\u043e\u0432\u0430\u044f \u043e\u0432\u0441\u044f\u043d\u043a\u0430 slovak : kna\u017e\u00edk hnedohrdl\u00fd , k\u0148a\u017e\u00edk hnedohrdl\u00fd swedish : brunhakad fr\u00f6sparv , brunstrupig fr\u00f6fink chinese : \u6817\u5589\u98df\u7c7d\u96c0 chinese ( traditional ) : \u6817\u5589\u98df\u7c7d\u96c0\nbreeding : this seedeater breeds in the rainy season , where there is one , taking advantage of new grass and its seeds as a food source for the young .\n10\u201310\u00b75 cm ; two males 8\u00b74 g and 10\u00b79 g . typical seedeater , tiny and with thick bill approximately as long as it is deep , with distinct rounded . . .\nmales possess a rich chestnut patch on the throat in breeding season , while females share a similar color pattern , but lack the throat patch , with a lighter bill , but moult into drab plumage outside of the breeding season . this occurs because the cost of predator attracting , colorful plumage is no longer worth taking when breeding activities are completed . these songbirds are among the smallest members of the tanager family at approximately 4 . 0 inches in length , and possess powerful bills to harvest grass seeds .\ncombined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nrecommended citation birdlife international ( 2018 ) species factsheet : sporophila telasco . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 . recommended citation for factsheets for more than one species : birdlife international ( 2018 ) iucn red list for birds . downloaded from urltoken on 09 / 07 / 2018 .\n3 males . desert all green with herbs owing to\nel ni\u00f1o\n. reference : clxxia 293 - 310 marantz counter ( spotel2 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\ndesert all green with herbs owing to\nel ni\u00f1o\n. reference : clxxb 365 - 384 ( spotel1 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\ndesert all green with herbs owing to\nel ni\u00f1o\n. reference : b : 435 - 450 ( spotelx4 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\ndesert all green with herbs owing to\nel ni\u00f1o\n. reference : b : 424 - 427 ( spotelx3 ) . krabbe & nilsson ( 2003 ) ( isbn 90 - 75838 - 06 - 9 ) .\nid certainty 100 % . ( archiv . tape 522 side a track 112 seq . a )\nseveral birds singing from roadside grasses before we made the turn towards the mountains .\nmale singing about 7 m away from mic . in grassy and high herbal vegetation with scattered bushes . the bird was sitting in some dry sticks and preened while singing .\nsonogram images \u00a9 xeno - canto foundation . sonogram images share the same license terms as the recording they depict .\nhbw alive contains information on descriptive notes , voice , habitat , food and feeding , breeding , movements , status and conservation plus a list of bibliographical references for this species account .\nno flash player has been set up . please select a player to play flash videos .\nyo\u00ebl jimenez , josep del hoyo , greg baker , desmond allen , dani\u00eal jimenez .\nluis r figueroa , c castellani , carlos gussoni , paul van giersbergen , wromero77 , delareina , pfmack , lars petersson , ken havard , david weaver , dusan m . brinkhuizen .\ntaxonomic status of \u201c s . insulata \u201d ( known only from tumaco i , off nari\u00f1o , in sw colombia ) , with rufous rump and underparts , is uncertain , but most likely to be a race or morph of present species # r . monotypic .\npacific coast and coastal slope from s colombia ( sw cauca ) s through coastal lowlands of ecuador ( inland as far as s loja ) and peru ( where also in upper mara\u00f1\u00f3n valley ) to n chile ( desert valleys of arica\u2013parinacota ) .\nsong a short and staccato musical warble , sometimes with sputter towards end , quality sharp and . . .\nshrubby and open areas , including edge of dry grassland , agricultural areas , desert oasis valleys , . . .\ndiet largely of grass seeds ; feeds nestlings with grass seeds . forages both on ground and , more usually , while perched on grass stalks or . . .\nnot globally threatened . common to abundant throughout its range . has a large range from n to s . agriculture in desert areas is likely increasing the amount of suitable . . .\nonly subscribers are able to see the bibliography . login or subscribe to get access to a lot of extra features !\nonly members are able to post public comments . to make the most of all of hbw ' s features , discover our subscriptions now !\nin past , included in a much broader emberizidae . probably sister to cardinalidae , with these two perhaps sister to mitrospingidae # r # r # r # r . family limits and internal structure extensively revised in recent years on basis of numerous genetic studies # r # r # r # r # r # r . these have led to subdivision into 15 subfamilies , as well as numerous other notable changes ( as compared to hbw ) including : relocation herein of parkerthraustes and saltator from cardinalidae , and of charitospiza , coryphaspiza , embernagra , emberizoides , incaspiza , porphyrospiza , tiaris , euneornis , loxipasser , loxigilla , melanospiza , certhidea , platyspiza , pinaroloxias , geospiza , volatinia , coryphospingus , rhodospingus , sporophila , piezorina , xenospingus , poospiza , donacospiza , sicalis , phrygilus , nesospiza , rowettia , melanodera , haplospiza , acanthidops , idiopsar , catamenia , lophospingus , diuca , gubernatrix and paroaria from emberizidae ( = passerellidae ) ; and also removal of chlorophonia and euphonia to fringillidae , of rhodinocichla to rhodinocichlidae , of chlorospingus to passerellidae , of phaenicophilus to phaenicophilidae , of spindalis to spindalidae , of nesospingus to nesospingidae , of calyptophilus to calyptophilidae , of lamprospiza , mitrospingus and orthogonys to mitrospingidae , and of habia , chlorothraupis and piranga to cardinalidae . generic limits within family also extensively revised , and associated sequence of species followed herein # r .\nsmall - bodied , conical - billed , seed - eating birds with melanin - based plumages ; until recently assumed to belong in emberizidae # r .\ngenera oryzoborus and dolospingus found to be embedded in present genus and are therefore subsumed herein # r .\nget access to the contents of the hbw including all species accounts , family texts , plates , audiovisual links , updates and related resources .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 55 . 90 \u20ac ( instead of 59 . 90 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 82 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 85 \u20ac )\nsupporting members help us to develop and update the project more quickly and to reach more people by keeping prices down .\nview more information , tracking references to their source ( when available on the internet ) .\nalso available : 2 - year subscription package : 82 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 89 . 9 \u20ac ) 3 - year subscription package : 122 . 5 \u20ac ( instead of 134 . 85 \u20ac )\nthere is a registration fee of 20\u20ac . this is a one - time only fee when you become a subscriber of hbw alive . you won\u2019t pay it again as long as you renew your subscription before it expires .\nif you represent an organization or institution , click here for more information on institutional subscriptions .\nthis map displays aggregated data from ibc and my birding ( anonymously ) ; markers do not indicate precise localities .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\nsacc . 2005 and updates . a classification of the bird species of south america . available at : urltoken .\njustification : this species has a very large range , and hence does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the range size criterion ( extent of occurrence < 20 , 000 km 2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size , habitat extent / quality , or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation ) . the population trend appears to be increasing , and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population trend criterion ( > 30 % decline over ten years or three generations ) . the population size has not been quantified , but it is not believed to approach the thresholds for vulnerable under the population size criterion ( < 10 , 000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be > 10 % in ten years or three generations , or with a specified population structure ) . for these reasons the species is evaluated as least concern .\nthe global population size has not been quantified , but the species is described as fairly common ( restall 2006 ) . trend justification : the population is suspected to be increasing as ongoing habitat degradation is creating new areas of suitable habitat .\nto make use of this information , please check the < terms of use > .\nthere are many ways to contribute\u2014we need species information , photographs , audio , video , translations , maps , distribution data , and bird sightings . there ' s a role for everyone !\n) , in neotropical birds online ( t . s . schulenberg , editor ) . cornell lab of ornithology , ithaca , ny , usa . retrieved from neotropical birds online :\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nmyavibase allows you to create and manage your own lifelists , and produce useful reports to help you plan your next birding excursion .\nthere are more than 12 , 000 regional checklists in avibase , offered in 9 different taxonomies , including synonyms more than 175 languages . each checklist can be viewed with photos shared by the birding community , and also printed as pdf checklists for field use .\nthere are a few ways by which you can help the development of this page , such as joining the flickr group for photos or providing translations of the site in addition languages .\nhoward and moore 4th edition ( incl . corrigenda vol . 1 - 2 ) :\nyou must be logged in to view your sighting details . to register to myavibase click here .\navibase has been visited 263 , 297 , 238 times since 24 june 2003 . \u00a9 denis lepage | privacy policy\n: telasco , an inca warrior in jean fran\u00e7ois marmontel\u2019s novel \u2018les incas , ou la destruction de l\u2019empire du p\u00e9rou\u2019 .\nschulenberg , t . s . , d . f . stotz , and l . rico . 2006 . distribution maps of the birds of peru , version 1 . 0 . environment , culture & conservation ( ecco ) . the field museum .\nmaterial published in urltoken belongs to the author ( s ) and is protected by copyright laws . contributor ( s )\ncontribute to the knowledge and undertanding of bird distribution in peru . report your rare and unusual sightings :\ncorbidi is a peruvian non - profit organization , whose goal is to develop foundations that support biodiversity conservation .\nsexing : easy to sex when in breeding plumage but difficult when not when the males and females look similar .\nwe promise to never spam you , and just use your email address to identify you as a valid customer .\nthis product hasn ' t received any reviews yet . be the first to review this product !"]}
{"id": 2329, "summary": [{"text": "marpesia eleuchea , the antillean daggerwing , is a species of butterfly of the nymphalidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in the west indies .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "occasional strays can be found in the florida keys .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 67 \u2013 83 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults feed on the nectar of various flowers , including tournefortia , cordia , lantana , and eupatorium species .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae feed on ficus species . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "marpesia eleuchea", "paragraphs": ["no one has contributed data records for marpesia eleuchea dospassosi yet . learn how to contribute .\nmarpesia eleuchea h\u00fcbner , 1818 ; zutr\u00e4ge samml . exot . schmett . 1 : 32 , pl . [ 35 ] , f . 197 - 198 ; tl : cuba\nmarpesia eleuchea , the antillean daggerwing , is a species of butterfly of the family nymphalidae . it is found in the west indies . occasional strays can be found in the florida keys .\nmarpesia eleuchea , the antillean daggerwing , is a species of butterfly of the nymphalidae family . it is found in the west indies . occasional strays can be found in the florida keys .\nmarpesia livius ; [ bow ] : pl . 39 , f . 2 ; tl : 2\nmarpesia berania ; [ bcr ] : 150 , pl . 23 ; [ nl4a ] , # 1718\nmarpesia zerynthia h\u00fcbner , [ 1823 ] ; samml . exot . schmett . 2 : pl . 51\nmarpesia crethon ; [ bow ] : pl . 39 , f . 6 ; [ nl4a ] , # 1722\n= marpesia elechea ; dyar , 1903 , bull . u . s . nat . mus . 52 : 25\nmarpesia marcella ; [ bcr ] : 149 , pl . 23 ; [ bow ] : pl . 39 , f . 3 - 4 ; [ nl4a ] , # 1728\nmarpesia merops ; [ bcr ] : 149 , pl . 23 ; [ bow ] : pl . 39 , f . 5 ; [ ecul ] ; [ nl4a ] , # 1729\nmarpesia petreus petreus ; brown & mielke , 1967 , j . lep . soc . 21 ( 2 ) ( 2 ) : 99 ; [ ecul ] ; [ nl4a ] , # 1731a\nwingspan 50 - 78mm . sexes similar though males slightly smaller and with forewing tips black rather than brown . upperwings are bright orange rather than brown as in many - banded daggerwing marpesia chiron . the underwings are more silvery than that species .\nmarpesia petreus ; [ nacl ] , # 4550 ; [ ebw ] ; [ bcr ] : 146 , pl . 23 ; [ bow ] : pl . 14 , f . 11 ; [ opler ] ; [ nl4a ] , # 1731\nmarpesia chiron ; brown & mielke , 1967 , j . lep . soc . 21 ( 2 ) ( 2 ) : 99 ; [ nacl ] , # 4549 ; [ bcr ] : 146 , pl . 23 ; [ bow ] : pl . 38 , f . 16 ; [ opler ] ; [ nl4a ] , # 1719\nhindwing with a long dagger - like tail . forewing with an elongated tip . upperside brownish orange with 3 black lines ; middle line on the forewing is sharply bent .\nthe west indies . strays very occasionally to the florida keys , probably from cuba .\ntimetes berania hewitson , 1852 ; ill . exot . butts [ 3 ] ( timetes ) : [ 9 ] , pl . [ 5 ] , f . 1 - 2 ; tl : ecuador , quito ; river amazon [ = river amazon ]\npapilio chiron fabricius , 1775 ; syst . ent . : 452 ; tl :\nindia\n[ haiti ]\ntimetes phiale godman & salvin , 1878 ; proc . zool . soc . lond . 1878 ( 1 ) : 270 ; tl : guatemala , volcan de atitlan\nsurinam , peru ? , ecuador ? , colombia , venezuela . see [ maps ]\npapilio furcula fabricius , 1793 ; ( repl . name ) ; tl :\njamaica , india\n[ error ]\nnymphalis harmonia klug , 1836 ; neue schmett . ( 1 ) : 3 , pl . 2 , f . 3 - 4 ; tl : mexico , veracruz\ntymetes berania ; hewitson , 1852 , pl . 1 , f . 2 ( f . )\nmegalura alcibiades staudinger , 1876 ; verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien , 25 ( 1 ) : 104 ; tl : panama\nmegalura valetta butler & druce , 1872 ; cistula ent . 1 ( 5 ) : 101 ; tl : costa rica\n? tymetes merops boisduval , [ 1846 ] ; in cuvier , r\u00e8gne anim . ( disciples ' ed . ) 6 ( vol . 4 ) : explic . pl . 139\npapilio petreus cramer , [ 1776 ] ; uitl . kapellen 1 ( 8 ) : 138 , pl . 87 , f . d , e ; tl : surinam\ntimetes norica hewitson , 1852 ; ill . exot . butts [ 3 ] ( timetes ) : [ 9 ] , pl . [ 5 ] , f . 3 - 4 ; tl : [ brazil , amazonas ]\ntimetes tutelina hewitson , 1852 ; ill . exot . butts [ 3 ] ( timetes ) : [ 10 ] , pl . [ 5 ] , f . 5 ; tl : brazil , amazonas\ntimetes psophus westwood , 1850 ; ( nom . nud . ) ; tl : mexico , oaxaca\nbutterflies of north america . 2 . scientific names list for butterfly species of north america , north of mexico .\n[ maps ] warning ! the maps are automatically generated from the textual information , and the process does not always produce acceptable result ; see about maps for more info .\nnew species of butterflies from guatemala and panama , collected by osbert salvin and f . du cane godman , esqs .\nthe genera of diurnal lepidoptera , comprising their generic characters , a notice of their habitats and transformations , and a catalogue of the species of each genus ; illustrated with 86 plates by w . c . hewitson\ngenera insectorum eorumque characters naturales secundum numerum , figuram , situm et proportionem . . .\nverzeichniss der von herrn dr . theodor koch - gr\u00fcnberg am oberen waupes 1903 - 1905 gesammelten rhopaloceren mit besprechung verwandter arten\nbiologia centrali - americana . rhopalocera . vol . 1 . ( 1879 - 1886 )\nillustrations of new species of exotic butterflies selected chiefly from the collections of w . wilson saunders and william c . hewitson\nsammlung exotischer schmetterlinge , vol . 2 ( [ 1819 ] - [ 1827 ] )\nneue schmetterlinge der insenkten - sammlung des k\u00f6nigl . zoologischen musei der universit\u00e4t zu berlin\nzoological illustrations , or original figures and descriptions of new , rare or interesting animals , selected chiefly from the classes of ornithology , entomology , and conchology , and arranged according to their apparent affinities . second series\nif you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .\nregionally endemic and found only in bahamas , cuba , jamaica and hispaniola . has also been seen as a stray in florida .\nwidespread and thinly distributed in cuba in gardens , open areas and woodland wherever the foodplant grows .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nscientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nnote : you should have a urltoken account to upload new topics and comments . please , create an account or log in to add comments\n* our website is multilingual . some comments have been translated from other languages .\ncurators : konstantin efetov , vasiliy feoktistov , svyatoslav knyazev , evgeny komarov , stan korb , alexander zhakov .\nspecies catalog enables to sort by characteristics such as expansion , flight time , etc . .\nthis translation tool is powered by google . fao is not responsible for the accuracy of translations .\nthe source code for the wiki 2 extension is being checked by specialists of the mozilla foundation , google , and apple . you could also do it yourself at any point in time .\nwould you like wikipedia to always look as professional and up - to - date ? we have created a browser extension .\nit will enhance any encyclopedic page you visit with the magic of the wiki 2 technology .\ni use wiki 2 every day and almost forgot how the original wikipedia looks like .\nof perfecting techniques ; in live mode . quite the same wikipedia . just better .\nthe wingspan is 67\u201383 mm . adults feed on the nectar of various flowers , including tournefortia , cordia , lantana , and eupatorium species . [ 2 ]\nbasis of this page is in wikipedia . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 unported license . non - text media are available under their specified licenses . wikipedia\u00ae is a registered trademark of the wikimedia foundation , inc . wiki 2 is an independent company and has no affiliation with wikimedia foundation .\nthe wingspan is 67\u201383 mm . adults feed on the nectar of various flowers , including tournefortia , cordia , lantana , and eupatorium species .\nprivacy & cookies : this site uses cookies . by continuing to use this website , you agree to their use . to find out more , including how to control cookies , see here : cookie policy\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken"]}
{"id": 2388, "summary": [{"text": "the dwarf manatee ( trichechus pygmaeus , or mistakenly trichechus bernhardi ) is a possible species of manatee found in the freshwater habitats of the amazon , though restricted to one tributary of the aripuan\u00e3 river .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "according to marc van roosmalen , the scientist who proposed it as a new species , it lives in shallow , fast-running water , and feeds on different species of aquatic plants from the amazonian manatee , which prefers deeper , slower-moving waters and the plants found there .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "the dwarf manatee reportedly migrates upriver during the rainy season when the river floods to the headwaters and shallow ponds .", "topic": 13}, {"text": "based on its small range , the dwarf manatee is suggested to be considered critically endangered , but at present it is not recognized by the iucn .", "topic": 17}, {"text": "the dwarf manatee is typically about 130 cm ( 4.3 ft ) long , and weighs about 60 kg ( 130 lb ) , making it the smallest extant sirenians .", "topic": 0}, {"text": "it is overall very dark , almost black , with a white patch on the abdomen .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it may actually represent an immature amazonian manatee , but it is reported to differ in proportions and colour .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "it is , however , at least very closely related , as mtdna has failed to reveal any difference between the two .", "topic": 10}, {"text": "mutation rates in manatees \u2013 if the dwarf manatee is distinct \u2013 suggests a divergence time of less than 485,000 years .", "topic": 14}, {"text": "daryl domning , a smithsonian institution research associate and one of the world 's foremost experts on manatee evolution , has stated that the dna evidence actually proves that these merely are immature amazonian manatees . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "dwarf manatee", "paragraphs": ["however , the validity of the dwarf manatee as a species is the subject of debate , with some believing it to be an immature amazonian manatee .\ndwarf sperm whales are usually solitary , but have occasionally been seen in small pods .\nthe dwarf sperm whale is the smallest species commonly known as a whale . it grows up to\npicture info : picture 1 : marc van roosmalen with juv . female dwarf marmoset callibella humilis picture 2 : dwarf manatee , trichechus pygmaeus picture 3 : marc van roosmalen with dwarf manatee , trichechus pygmaeus picture 4 : callicebus ( hoffmansi ) sp . nov . rio mamuru titi monkey picture 5 : agouti - colored agouti dasyprocta sp . nov . picture 6 : cacajao ( calvus ) sp . nov . rio pauini bald - headed uakary\nthe amazonian manatee are the smallest ones out there . they are only found in freshwater locations . this is where the debate for the dwarf manatee comes in . they too are only seen in freshwater . they are extremely small so they are termed dwarf to identify them . many researchers feel that they are genetically mutated from the amazonian though and not a distinctly different species .\nthe manatee has been protected by peruvian law since 1973 , via supreme decree 934 - 73 - ag , prohibiting hunting and commercial use of the manatee .\nthe manatee consumes approximately 8 % of its body weight in food per day .\nthere are no national management plans for the amazonian manatee , except in colombia .\nthere is a debate about there being three or four species of manatees . since it isn\u2019t known for sure , i think it is only right to touch on all four of them here . the manatee species that have been identified are the florida manatee , the west african manatee , and the amazonian manatee . the one that is debated over is the dwarf manatee . some feel they are a separate species while others view them as a smaller version of others out there . only time will tell what the verdict is on that one .\naccording to van roosmalen\u2019s scientific description of the dwarf manatee , it lives in one of the tributaries of rio aripuan\u00e3 where it inhabits shallow , fast running water . this distinguishes it from the amazonian manatee which is known to prefer deep and slow moving waters and is found throughout a much larger part of south america . there is also a difference in diet ; both animals feed on aquatic plants but on different species . in addition to this , there is a significant disparity in both proportions and colour . the dwarf manatee weighs about 60 kg as an adult and has a dark , almost black , body adorned with a white patch on the abdomen . the amazonian manatee is much larger than the dwarf manatee and can weigh over 500 kg . this difference has been used by both sides ; those who believe that it is a separate species and those who believe it to be an immature amazonian manatee .\nthe dwarf manatee ( trichechus \u201cpygmaeus\u201d , or mistakenly trichechus \u201cbernhardi\u201d ) is a possible species of manatee that lives in the freshwater habitats of the amazon , though restricted to one tributary of the aripuan\u00e3 river . according to marc van roosmalen , the scientist who proposes it as a new species , it lives in shallow , fast running water and feeds on different species of aquatic plants than the amazonian manatee , which prefers deeper slower moving waters and the plants found there . based on its tiny range , it has been suggested that the dwarf manatee is critically endangered , but at present it is not recognized by the iucn .\nthe amazonian manatee lacks nails on its flippers , setting it apart from other manatees .\nthey are occasionally found overlapping with the west indian manatee along the coasts of brazil .\nall three species of manatee\u2014the amazonian manatee , west indian manatee , and west african manatee\u2014and the related dugong are considered vulnerable ( defined as facing a high risk of extinction in the wild ) by the iucn red list of threatened species . this is due to a variety of threats including boat collisions , hunting , habitat destruction , and toxic red tides .\ninternational trade of the amazonian manatee and any of its products is prohibited under appendix i of cites . other local projects and organizations helping to conserve the manatee include projeto peixe - boi / centre for aquatic mammals , mamiraua project and the friends of the manatee association . amazonian manatee hunting has been prohibited since 1973 ; however , its population trend is still decreasing .\nthe manatee does not have incisors or canine teeth , only cheek teeth ( molars ) .\nthe dwarf sperm whale was actively hunted by commercial whalers . occasional harpoon kills are still made by indonesian and japanese fishermen . since the dwarf is more coastal than the pygmy , it may be more vulnerable to human activities such as fishing and pollution . insufficient data exist as to whether such activities threaten the species survival .\nas the story goes , marc came across the skull of a dwarf manatee and , suspecting it was a new species , searched for it for two years before finding a living specimen . upon locating a couple , he fenced in a portion of the river and studied them in their natural habitat for four months . like its saltwater brethren , the dwarf river manatee lives mostly off aquatic plants but hopes someday to land a lucrative career as a pet in japan . much more info can be found on marc\u2019s site .\n5 . the amazonian manatee ( trichechus inunguis ) lives entirely in freshwater rivers throughout south america in the amazon basin . it is hard to estimate their numbers due to their secretive nature and the murky water where they often live . a fourth dwarf manatee species was described in the mid - 2000s , but this claim was called into question and it is believed to actually be a juvenile amazonian manatee . the main threat to this species is illegal harpoon hunting for subsistence .\nsee the supplementary material for table 1 : summary of reported data by country for extant manatee populations .\n, comes from latin meaning\nhair\n, referencing the whiskers around the manatee ' s mouth .\nthe manatee ' s upper lip is modified into a large bristly surface , which is deeply divided .\nas of 1977 the population count of the amazonian manatee was estimated to be around 10 , 000 .\ni met marc two years ago on a school trip to the amazon rain forest and we traveled down the aripuana tributary where he found the dwarf manatee . unfortunately we didn\u2019t see one , but we did see its teethmarks left behind on the aquatic grass it feeds from = )\nthe manatee has thick stubby bristles on this mouth . this helps it to uproot foot on the river bed .\nmaintaining an herbivorous diet , the manatee has a similar post - gastric digestive process to that of the horse .\nthe amazonian manatee occurs exclusively in freshwater and is the only manatee to do so . it prefers blackwater lakes , oxbows and lagoons . they seem to live most successfully in temperatures of 22 - 30\u2019c ( 72 - 86\u2019f ) .\nthe manatee has muscular lips which it uses with its front flippers to grab food and pull it into its mouth .\ndwarf manatees are typically about 130 cm long , and weigh about 60 kg , making them the smallest extant sirenians . it is overall very dark , almost black , with a white patch on the abdomen . it has been suggested that it actually represents an immature amazonian manatee , but they are reported to differ in proportions and colour . they are , however , at least very closely related , as mtdna has failed to reveal any difference between the two . based on mutation rates in manatees \u2013 if the dwarf manatee is distinct \u2013 this suggests a divergence time of less than 485 , 000 years . daryl domning , a smithsonian institution research associate and the world\u2019s foremost experts on manatee evolution , has stated that the dna evidence actually proves that these merely are immature amazonian manatees .\nmgmvr : my website designer mistakenly named the dwarf manatee after the late prince bernhard of the netherlands like i had done with the new titi monkey callicebus bernhardi in my 2002 review of the genus callicebus . it took a while before i noticed it on my website . i then changed the name into trichechus pygmaeus as in the paper i submitted earlier to nature .\nthe dwarf sperm whale ( kogia sima , formerly kogia simus ) is one of three extant species in the sperm whale family . they are not often sighted at sea , and most extant information comes from the study of stranded carcasses .\nl marino , k sudheimer , da pabst , wa mclellan , and ji johnson ( 2003 ) . magnetic resonance images of the brain of a dwarf sperm whale ( kogia simus ) . journal of anatomy , 203 ( 1 ) : 57\u201376\nstill , splitting hairs can only go so far . if the pictured animal is adult , that\u2019s a different manatee , whatever science calls it .\nyeah there is a dvd out about this guy and his search for the pygmy manatee . it is real interesting . it is called the species hunter\nfor more information on the efforts underway to defend the manatee\u2019s discoverer marc roosmalen against the allegedly fictional charges he is facing in brazil , visit urltoken .\nthe amazonian manatee has the smallest degree of rostral deflection ( 25\u00b0 to 41\u00b0 ) among sirenians , an adaptation to feed closer to the water surface .\nthe amazonian manatee has a large paddle like tail which helps propel it through the water . it moves at 5mph but can reach speeds of up to 15mph .\nregardless of whether this is truly is new species or merely an immature version of the amazonian manatee , i certainly agree with christopher collinson\u2019s comments on the tetrapod zoology blog : \u201c on a side note , why the heck are those dwarf manatees so friggen adorable ? they have way more cutesy factor than any one animal should be allowed to posess , its at least like a million times more than regular old plain jane manatees . \u201d\ni give the chinese about two weeks to discover the incredible , magical , aphrodisiac powers from dried , ground pygmy manatee testicles . these things are f - ed .\nthe amazon ox manatee is gray and bears a white patch on its chest or several white markings on its chest and abdomen . its body is covered with fine hairs and its upper and lower lips are covered with thick bristles . it has two axillary mammae . the largest manatee recorded was a male 2 . 8m in length .\nmgmvr : claims that the holotype skull and mandible of the dwarf manatee that i collected simply represent a juvenile common amazonian manatee trichechus inunguis come from daryl domning , who was the referee for the article on the dwarf manatee . it was therefore rejected for publication by the editors of nature . since then i have seen several solitary ranging specimens of the \u2018pretinho\u2019 \u2013 as the animal is called in the area of the rio arauazinho , the only clearwater - river in which it seems to occur \u2013 that were all adults of about 1 . 3 m long . we even kept alive an adult male my field assistant had captured before . after four months it managed to escape from the coral we had constructed in a bend of the rio arauazinho . this specimen also measured 1 . 3 m and weighed only 60 kg . we fed him with the species\u2019 prime food eleocharis minima , an amphibious grass belonging to the cyperaceae . he only took it in if we had fixed the grass on the sandy bottom of his pan . a specimen of the common amazonian manatee of this size and weight would still have been nursed by its mother and would not have fed on any plant material at all . it soon would have starved to death .\nthe amazonian manatees of peru have experienced much of their decline due to hunting by human populations for meat , blubber , skin and other materials that can be collected from the manatee .\nthe discovery of a valid species of pygmy sea cow calls for a review of the latest on the amazonian dwarf manatee debate . in regard to this alleged new species , wikipedia has a good , new ( december 23 , 2009 ) overview of what has occurred since the announced \u201cdiscovery\u201d of this new species , written possibly by an unknown british or canadian author ( rn1970 ? ) , ( given in plain text below to retain the italicized names , which are critical to the passage ) :\nat this time manatees made their first appearance in caribbean and in north america . they evolved in rivers of sa and only at this time spread north to caribbean . at this time they evolved renewable teeth to withstand wear of griding sea grasses . perhaps disappearance of dugongs , manatees filled the vacuum ( domning , sa ;\nwest indian tuskers\n) there are three living species of manatee ( family trichechidae ) and one species of dugong ( family dugongidae ) ( fig . 1 ) ) . the florida manatee ( trechcus manatus latirostris ) is one subspecies of the west indian manatee . the antilian manatee ( trichechus manatus manatus ) is the other west indian subspecies . west indian manatees occupy coastal and estuarine waters throughout the caribbean .\nthis might not be news for some of you , but for those of you that has missed it : a new species of manatee might have been encountered by dr marc van roosmalen in the brazilian amazon ! not only is this believed to be an entirely new species of manatee ; it is also the smallest living member of the order sirenia , measuring no more than 130 cm as an adult .\nprobably the most well known group of manatee is the florida species . people come from all over to watch them during the year . this is also the place where many manatees migrate in the winter months as they have to move to warmer bodies of water . it is important to understand that the term florida manatee pertains to those that are there all year as well as many that migrate there .\ndwarf sperm whales and pygmy sperm whales are unique among cetaceans in using a form of\nink\nto evade predation in a manner similar to squid . both species have a sac in the lower portion of their intestinal tract that contains up to 12 l of dark reddish - brown fluid , which can be ejected to confuse or discourage potential predators .\nthe dwarf sperm whale is similar in appearance and behavior to its relative , the pygmy sperm whale . identification may be close to impossible at sea ; however , the dwarf is slightly smaller and has a larger dorsal fin . the body is mainly bluish gray with a lighter underside with possible yellowish vein - like streaks . a white false gill is behind each eye . the flippers are very short and broad . the top of the snout overhangs the lower jaw , which is small . dwarves have long , curved , sharp teeth ( none to six in the upper jaw and between 14 and 26 in the lower ) . these teeth led to the species being described as the\nrat porpoise\nin the lower antilles .\ngallican g . j . , r . c . best , and j . w . kanwisher . 1982 . temperature regulation in the amazonian manatee trichechus inunguis . physiological zoology the university of chicago press 255 - 262 .\ntoday , the dwarf sperm whale is generally classified as one of two species , along with the pygmy sperm whale , in the family kogiidae and genus kogia . the two species were not regarded as separate until 1966 . most taxonomists regard the family kogiidae as belonging to the superfamily physeteroidea , though some consider this taxon to be a subfamily ( kogiinae ) of the family physeteridae .\npazin - guterres , michelle ( 2014 ) .\nfeeding ecology of the amazonian manatee ( trichechus inunguis ) in the mamirau\u00e1 and aman\u00e3 sustainable development reserves , brazil .\n. aquatic mammals 40 ( 2 ) : 139\u2013149 .\n- manatees are closely related to elephants , - another name for the amazonian manatee is yara , which is a brazilian indian word meaning \u2018lady of the water\u2019 . - manatees are believed to be the origin of the mermaid myths .\nthe similarity in dna as analysed by my geneticist in the netherlands could be explained for as follows . either some gene flow has taken place between the inunguis population of the rio aripuan\u00e3 and the ancient pygmaeus population that was allopatrically confined to the rio arauazinho during the last glacials of the late - pleistocene and holocene when ocean levels dropped over 100 - 120 m . but during the interglacials males of inunguis theoretically could have mated once - in - a - while with pygmaeus females while foraging during the annual flood in the clearwater floodplain forest ( igap\u00f3 ) of the lower rio arauazinho . or , during one of the last glacials a population of inunguis got trapped in the rio arauazinho basin and had to drastically change its feeding and foraging habits and dwarf in a time scale of some tens of thousand years at the most . we know that this is possible from a number of other creatures that dwarfed in relatively short periods of time , such as the now extinct homo floresiensis from the isle of flores and the dwarf elephant elephas cretensis from the isle of crete . nobody objects if palaeontologists give extinct creatures species status but many question the validity of new extant species if not backed up by dna genome analysis . this is bad news for nature conservationists with a species protection approach like me . if the dwarf manatee would have been accepted by the scientific community as a full and valid species , announced as such in nature , no doubt the whole rio arauazinho would have been declared a rigidly protected nature reserve . it is sad to witness that because of scientific squabbling over taxonomy , a unique population of maybe not more than one hundred dwarf manatees is going extinct soon after the lower rio aripuan\u00e3 basin has been declared a \u2018sustainable development reserve\u2019 . in nowadays brazil that means a \u2018carte blanche\u2019 to destruction .\n) are found only in the united states , although a few vagrants have been known to reach the bahamas . their year - round distribution is restricted to peninsular florida because they need warm water to survive the winter . during the non - winter months ( march to november ) , some manatees disperse to adjoining states . along the atlantic coast these states include georgia ( highest manatee use outside of florida ) , south carolina , north carolina , and virginia ; one satellite - tagged manatee traveled as far north as rhode island ( deutsch\nthe amazonian manatee is a seasonal breeder with a gestational period of 12\u201314 months and a prolonged calving period . most births take place between december and july , with about 63 % between february and may , during a time of rising river levels in their native region .\n13 . if you are a mammal\u2014whether that\u2019s a human , giraffe , whale or rat\u2014then you typically have seven neck vertebrae . only tree sloths and manatees have an irregular number of vertebrae\u2014just six for the manatee . scientists think this may have to do with their slow metabolism .\nthe gestation period of an amazonian manatee is one year . breeding has been reported to occur throughout the year but reproduction in the central amazon basin is seasonal as nearly all births take place from december \u2013 july ( mainly from february \u2013 may when the water level rises ) . a female manatee will give birth to one calf every two years . the calf will measure about 30 inches ( 80 cm ) at birth . it will begin to nurse after a few hours by suckling from a teat under the pectoral flippers and will do so underwater .\ninternational trade of this species is prohibited due to its listing on appendix i of cites ( 4 ) . this species has suffered huge losses but is locally abundant in the more remote regions of the amazonian river basin . however , it is very difficult to control hunting in these economically depressed areas and they are still killed for meat ( 3 ) . while numerous federal , state , and local conservation measures are in place to protect the florida manatee ( t . manatus latirostris ) , south america has limited resources for funding comprehensive conservation projects . several effective programs in brazil include surveys by projeto peixe - boi / center for aquatic mammals ( 14 ) , sustainable use research by mamirau\u00e1 project ( 15 ) , and education / outreach efforts by the friends of the manatee association ( 16 ) . the harbour branch division of marine mammal research and conservation conducts manatee conservation outreach programs in brazil and plays an important role in rehabilitating injured , sick or orphaned individuals ( 12 ) . it is hoped that these measures combined with stronger hunting laws will allow the ancient and wonderful amazonian manatee to recover ( 12 ) ( 13 ) .\n3 . warm water is a must for the west indian and west african manatee species . with low metabolic rates and minimal fat protection from cold water , they stick to water that is 60 degrees or warmer . they may look fat and insulated , but the large body of the manatee is mostly made up of their stomach and intestines ! in colder months , they find their way to warm river tributaries or warm water outputs from power plants . in 2010 at least 246 manatees died in florida due to cold stress from the colder - than - normal winter .\nseasonal breeding in the amazonian manatee , trichechus inunguis ( mammalia : sirenia ) robin c . best biotropica , vol . 14 , no . 1 ( mar . , 1982 ) , pp . 76 - 78 published by : the association for tropical biology and conservation article stable url : urltoken\nonce known to occur in large herds and have healthy populations ( 2 ) , the amazonian manatee has suffered from extensive hunting by subsistence and commercial hunters . it has been sought for meat , oil and fat , and at one time for its hide , which was in demand for use as water hoses and machine belts ( 7 ) . threats now include hunting and accidental drowning in commercial fishing nets . the deforestation of large areas of the forests surrounding this manatee ' s river habitats has also caused soil erosion , degradation of food supplies and the reduction of vegetation in the waterways ( 7 ) .\nclassified as vulnerable ( vu a1cd ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) , listed on appendix i of cites ( 4 ) , and listed as endangered by the us endangered species act . ( 5 ) . the amazonian manatee also has a global heritage status rank of g2 ( 5 ) .\nthe west african manatee continues to decrease in numbers . they are found along africa in the tropical and sub tropical waters . they tend to be losing their natural habitat due to global warming as well as human interactions . conservation efforts there aren\u2019t as great as in the usa though and that is a concern .\nregardless of which species a manatee belongs to , they all have certain things in common . they are very gentle creatures as well as very intelligent . they are herbivores and live their entire lives in the water . they must find water that is at least 60 degrees fahrenheit or warmer in order to survive .\nthe amazonian manatee is a most bizarre - looking aquatic mammal , and was first described as a curious combination of a hippopotamus and a seal ( 6 ) . its body is large , dark grey to black and smooth - skinned , and its forelimbs are modified into flippers like a seal ' s ( 17 ) . it has no hind limbs , and the rear of the body forms a flat , rounded horizontal paddle ( 7 ) . the head is rounded , with nostrils on the upper surface of the snout ( 8 ) . the amazonian manatee is smaller and more slender than the other two manatee species ( west indian manatees trichechus manatus and west african manatees t . senegalensis ) ( 7 ) . it can also be identified by the lack of nails on its flippers , a characteristic referred to in its scientific name , t . inunguis , which literally means ' no nails ' ( 9 ) . a unique feature ( amongst mammals ) of the manatee is the constant replacement of molar teeth ; new teeth enter at the back of the jaw and replace old and worn teeth at the front ( 10 ) . recent evidence suggests that manatees may possess a unique 6th sense that enables them to detect pressure changes through sensory hairs ( 11 ) .\nmetabolism and respiration of the amazonian manatee ( trichechus inunguis ) . g . j . gallivan and r . c . best . physiological zoology , vol . 53 , no . 3 ( jul . , 1980 ) , pp . 245 - 253 . published by : the university of chicago press . article stable url : urltoken\nother highly memorable discoveries were those of some large terrestrial mammals whose existence i did not know of until i had close encounters with them while hiking alone through the forest . first spotting of a giant peccary ( pecari maximus ) family silently crossing my trail while i was watching a group of gray sakis in the canopy , or a group of dwarf peccaries ( pecari ? ) bumping literally into my feet while chasing one another through the undergrowth . and , back in camp , asking the locals what the hell the creature was that i had come upon that day\u2026\neventually , however , van roosmalen ' s iconoclastic style bred resentment . in a country where foreigners\u2014especially foreign scientists\u2014are often regarded with suspicion , his pale complexion and heavily accented portuguese marked him as an outsider , even after he became a naturalized brazilian citizen in 1997 . colleagues were irked by van roosmalen ' s habit of failing to fill out the cumbersome paperwork required by the institute before venturing into the field . they also questioned his methodology . for example , says mario cohn - haft , an american ornithologist at inpa , he often based his findings of a new species on a single live , orphaned monkey , whose provenance could not be proved and whose fur color and other traits might have been altered in captivity . louise emmons , an adjunct zoologist at the smithsonian institution , characterizes van roosmalen ' s discovery of a new species of peccary as\nnot convincing scientifically ,\nand smithsonian research associate daryl domning questions his\ndiscovery\nof a dwarf manatee on an amazon tributary .\nthere ' s no doubt at all in my mind that his ' new species ' is nothing but immature individuals of the common amazonian manatee ,\nsays domning .\nthis is even confirmed by the dna evidence he himself cites .\nevoked brain potentials demonstrate hearing in a manatee ( trichechus inunguis ) . theodore h . bullock , daryl p . domning and robin c . best , journal of mammalogy , vol . 61 , no . 1 ( feb . , 1980 ) , pp . 130 - 133 published by : american society of mammalogists article stable url : urltoken\nthe manatee is a large , cylinder shaped animal where the general coloration is grey , although most amazonian manatees have a distinct white or bright pink patch on the chest . the forelimbs have been modified into flippers and have a flat , rounded , horizontal paddle at the rear . the upper lip has evolved into a large , bristly surface .\n11 . manatee brains are smooth ( compared to our own that have the familiar ins and outs of cortical folds ) and the ratio of their brain to their body size is the lowest of any mammal . they may not be as clever as dolphins , but manatees can learn basic tasks , are extremely sensitive to touch and can differentiate colors .\necology , distribution , harvest , and conservation of the amazonian manatee trichechus inunguis in ecuador robert m . timm , luis albuja v . and barbara l . clauson biotropica , vol . 18 , no . 2 ( jun . , 1986 ) , pp . 150 - 156 published by : the association for tropical biology and conservation article stable url : urltoken\ni once read a claim that in this day and age , there cannot be anymore large animals out there to be discovered , besides the stuff lurking around in the deep oceans . and lo and behold , they go and find a manatee , which , if it\u2019s like its larger cousin , is not prone to evading detection . so what else is out there ?\nthe amazonian manatee\u2019s main threat is hunting by subsistence and commercial hunters . they have been sought for their meat , oil and fat , and in the past , its hide , which could be used for water hoses and belts . other threats to this creature include accidental drowning in commercial fishing nets and degradation of food supplies by soil erosion , which is caused by deforestation .\necology , distribution , harvest , and conservation of the amazonian manatee trichechus inunguis in ecuador . robert m . timm , luis albuja v . and barbara l . clauson . biotropica , vol . 18 , no . 2 ( jun . , 1986 ) , pp . 150 - 156 . published by : the association for tropical biology and conservation . article stable url : urltoken\nthe dwarf sperm whale prefers deep water , but is more coastal than the pygmy sperm . its favorite habitat appears to be just off the continental shelf . in the atlantic , strandings have been observed in virginia , united states in the west and spain and the united kingdom in the east , and as far south as southern brazil and the tip of africa . in the indian ocean , specimens have been found on the south coast of australia and on many places along the indian ocean ' s northern coast - from south africa to indonesia . in the pacific , the known range includes the japanese coast and british columbia . no global population estimates have been made . one survey estimated a population of about 11 , 000 in the eastern pacific .\nwe are not sure what the bigger story here is : the discovery of a new species of tiny adorable river manatee or the fact that this happened in july and we just learned about it last week ! anyway , these critters were discovered by a pioneering amazonian biologist by the name of marc van roosmalen and covered by darren naish of tetrapod zoology a few months back . tetrapod is kind of the better researched , actually informative , articulate and all around nerdier version of zooillogix .\nthe amazonian manatee ( trichechus ininguis ) lives entirely in the amazon river and its tributaries . a third species of manatee , the west african , ( trichechus senagalensis ) occupies the coastal waterways of the west african continent . dugongs ( dugong dugon ) occupy the marine coasts of east africa , the indian subcontinent , malaysia , indonesia and northern australia . a fifth , and largest sirenian of recent times , the stellars sea cow ( hydrodamalis gigas ) , was also a member of the family dugongidae . these enormous sirenians had evolved further to occupy the colder waters along the shores of the eastern pacific ocean . these animals survived off the aleutian islands until 1872 , when the last animal of this species was killed for food , 28 years after being first sighted . although there is only one living species of dugong , ancestors resembling them were diverse and widely distributed in the fossil record . sirenians were most diverse in the miocene ( 5 - 25 mya ) when tropical conditions were widespread .\n14 . manatees have no natural predators in the wild but humans have played a large part in making all three species at risk of extinction . about half of west indian manatee deaths are caused by humans , and most are due to boat collisions . manatees are quite buoyant and use their horizontally placed diaphragm and breathing to control their buoyancy . this and their average speed of 3 to 5 miles per hour means that manatees are way too slow to escape from the path of a speeding boat .\nin september 2002 , wildlife - researcher dr marc van roosmalen collected a complete skull from a recently killed specimen , but it would take an additional two years before he could finally photograph , film and examine a live specimen in its natural environment . as per usual when a new mammal is \u201cdiscovered\u201d , the species is only new to the scientific community , not to the locals of the area , and the skull of the specimen collected by van roosmalen came from a manatee that had been killed and eaten by the locals .\n. 2003 ) , and another manatee was observed in new york ( long island ) . along the gulf coast west of florida , manatees are occasionally sighted in alabama , mississippi , louisiana , and texas . the source ( florida or mexico ) of the texas manatees is not always clear , but the weight of recent genetic and other evidence suggests most are from the florida subspecies . major freshwater bodies utilized by manatees in florida include lake okeechobee , st . johns river , suwannee river , caloosahatchee river , among others .\ndespite their size and stubbly snout , manatees seem cute and cuddly to many ocean visitors . these large , slow - moving marine mammals hang out in coastal areas and rivers where florida spring - breakers can easily see them and think that it is a good idea to hop on for a ride . not only is this and other forms of harassment such as hugging the sea creatures illegal ( the west indian manatee is listed as endangered in the united states ) , but it can also impact manatees\u2019 natural behavior , changing the way they interact with humans .\njustification : listed as vulnerable because the number of mature individuals is currently estimated to number less than 10 , 000 ( based on combined population estimates for the florida and antillean subspecies ) and is expected to decline at a rate of at least 10 % over the course of three generations ( given a generation time of ~ 20 years ) as a result of both habitat loss and anthropogenic factors . trichechus manatus latirostris : en c1 : the florida manatee subspecies is listed as endangered on the basis of a population size of less than 2 , 500 mature individuals and the population is estimated to decline by at least 20 % over the next two generations ( estimated at ~ 40 years ) due to anticipated future changes in warm - water habitat and threats from increasing watercraft traffic over the next several decades . trichechus manatus manatus : en c1 : the antillean manatee subspecies is listed as endangered because the current population is estimated at less than 2 , 500 mature individuals and is predicted to undergo a decline of more than 20 % over the next two generations ( estimated at ~ 40 years for an unexploited population , based on t . m . latirostris data ) without effective conservation actions , due to current and projected future anthropogenic threats ( habitat degradation and loss , hunting , accidental fishing - related mortality , pollution , and human disturbance ) .\nthe west indian manatee is currently divided into the florida ( t . m . latirostris ) and antillean ( t . m . manatus ) subspecies ( hatt 1934 , domning and hayek 1986 ) . recent mtdna data ( garc\u00eda - rodr\u00edguez et al . 1998 , vianna et al . 2006 ) indicate three distinctive lineages corresponding geographically with : ( 1 ) florida and the greater antilles ; ( 2 ) western and southern gulf of mexico , central america , and nw south america west of the lesser antilles ; and ( 3 ) ne south america east of the lesser antilles . evidence exists for viable hybridization with t . inunguis near the mouth of the amazon , in guyana , french guiana , and possibly suriname .\nmarc g . m . van roosmalen ( mgmvr ) : most fun but also most time and energy consuming for me was finding the \u2018land of dermis\u2019 , where the relatives of dermis occur \u2013 the baby black - capped dwarf marmoset that was delivered on my manaus doorstep april 1996 . with decades of experience in keeping all kinds of primates in halfway houses i knew right away that dermis represented a new species of monkey and , undoubtedly , also a new primate genus . that event instantly took away the scepsis in me as a primatologist that nowadays it would be impossible to find new species of primates hitherto unknown to science . the quest that followed to find the monkey\u2019s distribution somewhere in the huge rio madeira basin had me stumbling into a conan doyle type of \u2018lost world\u2019 \u2013 the rio aripuan\u00e3 basin \u2013 a hotspot of biodiversity that i soon recognized to be a totally new ecosystem within amazonia , whose fauna and flora had never before been inventoried by naturalists , animal collectors , botanists and ornithologists alike . it took me a number of boat surveys to find callibella humilis , a needle in a haystack as big as france . during innumerable surveys of the local rainforest and through interviews with the locals showing pictures of dermis i happened to identify at least five other hitherto undescribed primates in the area .\nduring the warm season ( march or april through october or november , depending on latitude and year ) , manatees disperse throughout the coastal waters , estuaries , and major rivers of florida and some migrate to neighboring states , particularly south - eastern georgia . their range constricts dramatically in the winter season ( december to february ) when manatees seek shelter from the cold at a limited number of warm - water sites or areas in the southern two - thirds of florida . these sites include 10 principal power plant thermal outfalls ( seven on the atlantic coast , three on the gulf coast ) and four major artesian springs ( blue spring , springs at the head of crystal river , homosassa spring , and warm mineral spring ) that are frequented by a large proportion of the manatee population during winter .\nthe next morning , our last on the rio negro , the crew anchored the boat at the base of a cliff , and van roosmalen , vivi and i climbed a steep wooden staircase to a nature camp at the edge of the jungle . with a local guide and his two mangy dogs leading the way , we followed a sinuous trail through terre firma vegetation : primary rain forest that , unlike the igap\u00f3 we ' d been exploring , sits high enough above the river to avoid submersion during the rainy season . van roosmalen pointed out lianas as thick as large anacondas , and explained how these and other epiphytes ( flora , in this setting , that live on other plants in the forest canopy ) function as giant vessels for capturing carbon dioxide , and thus play a vital role in reducing global warming .\nthe total surface of leaves in a rain forest is a thousand , maybe even a million times bigger than the monoculture they want to convert the amazon into ,\nhe told me . farther down the jungle trail , he showed me a dwarf species of palm tree that captures falling leaves in its basketlike fronds ; the decomposing material scatters around the base of the tree and fortifies the nutrient - poor soil , allowing the palm to thrive .\nevery creature in the rain forest develops its survival strategy ,\nhe said .\nfor van roosmalen , the journey into the depths of the brazilian prison system marked the low point of a terrible fall from grace . at the height of his career , just five years earlier , the scientist had been hailed as one of the world ' s most intrepid field naturalists and a passionate voice for rain forest preservation . in his native holland , where he is a household name , he received the country ' s highest environmental honor , the order of the golden ark , from the netherlands ' prince bernhard , consort to queen juliana , in 1997 ; the national geographic documentary species hunter , filmed in 2003 , celebrated his adventurous spirit as he trekked up remote amazonian tributaries in search of rare flora and fauna . van roosmalen claimed to have identified seven never - before - seen species of primates\u2014including a dwarf marmoset and a rare orange - bearded titi monkey\u2014along with a collarless , piglike peccary and a variety of plant and tree species . he had used these discoveries to promote his bold ideas about the amazon ' s unique evolutionary patterns and to give momentum to his quest to carve these genetically distinct zones into protected reserves , where only research and ecotourism would be allowed .\ntime after time after time , [ van roosmalen has contributed to ] this sense that we ' re still learning about life on earth ,\nsays tom lovejoy , who conceived the public television series nature and today is president of the h . john heinz iii center for science , economics and the environment in washington , d . c .\nlisted on appendix i of cites . presently there are no national management plans specific for the species , except in colombia . management plans exist for two protected areas ( pacaya samiria in peru and mamiraua reserve in brazil ) , and two communities in colombia ( puerto narino and mocagua ) have informal local management agreements ( ministerio de ambiente , vivienda y desarrollo territorial and fundacin omacha 2005 ) . amazonian manatees have been recorded from two protected areas in ecuador , two in colombia , four in peru and 23 in brazil . unfortunately , hunting continues even within protected areas . presently , inpa ( instituto nacional de pesquisas da amaznia ) cares for 34 captive manatees including eight calves , 18 juveniles and eight adults ( da silva et al . 2006 ) . cppma currently maintains 31 manatees , mostly orphans . so far , the centro mamiferos marinhos - conselho nacional de seringueiros facility in alter - do - cho ( pa , brazil ) has rescued six orphans ( two of which died ) and a sick adult manatee ( luna 2005 pers . comm . ) .\namazonian manatees are aquatic mammals and live almost entirely underwater . indeed the three manatee species and the closely related dugong are unique in that they are the only plant - eating marine mammals ( 7 ) . they feed entirely on aquatic vegetation near lake edges , such as emergent grasses , water lettuce and floating vegetation . shy and secretive , only their nostrils protrude from the surface of the water to breathe as they search for lush vegetation ( 7 ) . despite being slow grazers they are able to consume up to eight percent of their body weight in one day ( 2 ) ( 7 ) . most feeding occurs during the wet season , when they graze upon new plant growth in seasonally flooded water . during the dry season , individuals return to the main water courses , or to deep flooded backwaters where herds congregate ( 7 ) . here they may not eat for weeks or months due to the lack of food . however , manatees have large fat reserves and slow metabolic rates ; at one third of the usual rate for a mammal of its size . this enables them to survive until the water levels rise again and food becomes more abundant ( 2 ) ( 7 ) . these mammals are active by day and night . they are found individually or in small groups of between four and eight animals ( 7 ) . mothers nurse their calves from a teat behind the flipper , and it is the mothers and calves that form the closest bonds ( 7 ) ( 8 ) . a single calf is born after a gestation period of approximately 13 months . it is dependant on its mother for a considerable time , so interbirth intervals may be as long as three and a half years or more . individuals mature at five or six years of age and members maintain group contact by underwater vocalisations ( 8 ) . the lifespan of this animal is unknown , but individuals have lived past twelve and a half years in captivity ( 7 ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nthank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .\ngland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) \u2013 australia\u2019s unique reptiles \u2013 including lizards and snakes \u2013 face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .\nthe value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .\na recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .\nvan roosmalen was let out of jail this past august .\nin the best light he was naive ,\nsays a colleague .\nin 2000 , time designated van roosmalen a\nhero for the planet .\nhe began his fieldwork in suriname in 1976 . there , amid jaguars , toucans and macaws , he says , you could\nfeel the breeze of evolution on your neck .\nvan roosmalen ( in a rio negro village last year ) says he won ' t go back to jail .\nbefore his arrest , van roosmalen ( with vivi last november ) championed rain forest preserves .\nyou have to see the amazon basin as an archipelago with islandlike areas ,\nhe argues .\nit ' s like the galapagos . each island has its own ecological evolution .\nvan roosmalen had high hopes that a captive saki monkey he ' d heard of would turn out to be a new species .\nat seven o ' clock in the morning on june 15 , 2007 , the bell rang at the front gate of marc van roosmalen ' s modest house on the outskirts of manaus , brazil . for van roosmalen , a dutch - born primatologist and amazon adventurer who had been chosen one of time magazine ' s\nheroes for the planet\nin 2000 , that was a somewhat unusual event : visitors had lately become scarce . the 60 - year - old scientist was dwelling in semi - isolation , having separated from his wife , become estranged from his two sons , lost his job at a brazilian research institute and been charged with a raft of offenses , including misusing government property and violating brazil ' s biopiracy laws . but things had begun to turn around for van roosmalen : he had been exonerated in three successive trials and had even begun to talk optimistically about getting his old job back . in july , he was planning to travel on a research vessel up the rio negro , the amazon ' s main tributary , with a group of biology students from the united states , his first such trip in years .\nvan roosmalen buzzed open the compound gate , he told me recently . moments later , he said , five heavily armed federal police officers burst into the garden , bearing a warrant for his arrest . then , as his 27 - year - old brazilian girlfriend , vivi , looked on in horror , van roosmalen says , police cuffed his hands behind his back and placed him in the back seat of a black mitsubishi pajero . van roosmalen asked where they were heading . it was only then , he says , that he learned that he had just been found guilty , in a criminal procedure conducted in his absence , of crimes ranging from keeping rare animals without a permit to illegal trafficking in brazil ' s national patrimony , to the theft of government property . the sentence : 14 years and 3 months in prison ."]}
{"id": 2402, "summary": [{"text": "pyropteron affine is a moth of the sesiidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in most of europe , except ireland , great britain , the netherlands , denmark , fennoscandia , the baltic region , poland and bulgaria .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "it is also found in asia minor , georgia , the middle east and north africa ( tunisia , algeria and morocco ) .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 15 \u2013 18 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "adults are on wing from may to july .", "topic": 8}, {"text": "the larvae of ssp. affine feed on helianthemum chamaecistus , helianthemum vulgare , helianthemum nummularium and fumana procumbens , while the larvae of ssp. erodiiphagum have been recorded on erodium arborescens . ", "topic": 8}], "title": "pyropteron affine", "paragraphs": ["valter jacinto marked\nborboleta - vespa / / clearwing moth ( pyropteron affine )\nas trusted on the\npyropteron affine\npage .\nno one has contributed data records for pyropteron affine yet . learn how to contribute .\nbartsch , d . , bettag , e . , bl\u00e4sius , r . & lingenh\u00f6le , a . ( 2006 ) : zur kenntnis von pyropteron doryliforme ( ochsenheimer , 1808 ) , pyropteron biedermanni le cerf , 1925 und pyropteron ceriaeforme ( lucas , 1849 ) stat . rev . ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 116 ( 1 ) , 3 - 10 .\npyropteron affine is a moth of the sesiidae family . it is found in most of europe , except ireland , great britain , the netherlands , denmark , fennoscandia , the baltic region , poland and bulgaria . it is also found in asia minor , georgia , the middle east and north africa ( tunisia , algeria and morocco ) .\nthe larvae of ssp . affine feed on helianthemum chamaecistus , helianthemum vulgare , helianthemum nummularium and fumana procumbens , while the larvae of ssp . erodiiphagum have been recorded on erodium arborescens .\nlastuvka , z . ( 1990 [ 1988 ] ) : zur taxonomie und verbreitung der europ\u00e4ischen arten der gattung pyropteron newman ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) . \u2013 acta universitatis agriculturae , facultas agronomica 36 ( 1 ) , 105 - 111 .\np\u00fchringer , f . & kallies , a . ( 2004 ) : provisional checklist of the sesiidae of the world ( lepidoptera : ditrysia ) . \u2013 mitteilungen der entomologischen arbeitsgemeinschaft salzkammergut 4 , 1 - 85 ; updated by f . p\u00fchringer .\n, a - 4817 st . konrad , austria ; \u00a9 dr . axel kallies , the walter and eliza hall institute , 1g royal parade , parkville , victoria 3050 , australia )\neuthrenini fischer 2006b : 219 [ afrokona fischer 2006 ] ; unavailable ( art . 29 . 1 iczn )\n( felder & felder 1874 : 9 , pl . 82 ) , trochilina 14\n( boisduval in guerin - meneville [ 1832 ] : pl . 84 : fig . 3 ) ,\n( esper 1800 : 29 ) , sphinx ; rejected name ( opinion nr . 1287 iczn )\n( linnaeus 1758 : 493 ) , sphinx ; rejected name ( opinion nr . 1288 iczn )\n( snellen 1900 : 34 ) , sesia ; junior primary homonym of sesia thysbe f . uniformis grote & robinson 1868\n[ as trichocerata myrmosaeformis var . lucida ( lederer 1853 ) , nomen nudum ]\ntaxa originally described as sesia spp . ( never assigned to sesiidae , but available for homonymy )\n( cramer [ 1776 ] : 95 , 152 ( index ) , pl . 61 , fig . c ) ,\nagassiz , j . l . r . ( [ 1847 ] ) : nomenclatoris zoologici index universalis . \u2013 nomenclator zoologicus 2 ( 12 ) ( 1846 ) , 393 pp . ( 319 )\nalpheraky , s . n . ( 1882 ) : l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res du district de kouldj\u00e0 et des montagnes environnantes . ii\u00e8me partie . heterocera . \u2013 horae societatis entomologicae rossicae 17 , 15 - 103 , pls 1 - 3 . ( 18 - 22 , pl . 1 )\namsel , h . - g . ( 1933 ) : die lepidopteren pal\u00e4stinas . eine zoogeographisch - \u00f6kologisch - faunistische studie . \u2013 zoogeographica 2 , 1 - 146 . ( 25 )\namsel , h . - g . ( 1935 ) : neue pal\u00e4stinensische lepidopteren . \u2013 mitteilungen aus dem zoologischen museum in berlin 20 , 271 - 319 . ( 277 - 278 )\narita , y . ( 1989 ) : two new and an unrecorded clearwing moths ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) from thailand . \u2013 microlepidoptera of thailand 2 , 9 - 14 .\n( moore ) ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from japan . \u2013 tyo to ga 43 ( 3 ) , 221 - 224 .\ndehne ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) of japan . \u2013 japanese journal of entomology 60 ( 2 ) , 449 - 462 .\n( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from yakushima island , japan . \u2013 tyo to ga 44 ( 2 ) , 77 - 80 .\narita , y . & gorbunov , o . ( 1995a ) : sesiidae of nepal . in haruta , t . ( ed . ) : moths of nepal . \u2013 tinea 14 ( suppl . 2 ) , 194 - 206 , pls 108 + 128 .\nhampson , [ 1893 ] ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) of the oriental region . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 46 ( 2 ) , 103 - 111 .\ntypes ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) kept in the hope entomological collections , oxford university , uk . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 46 ( 4 ) , 185 - 205 .\narita , y . & gorbunov , o . ( 1995d ) : a revision of the genus heterosphecia le cerf , 1916 ( lepidoptera : sesiidae , osminiini ) . \u2013 tinea 14 ( 2 ) , 131 - 141 .\nh\u00fcbner , [ 1819 ] ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from thailand . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 47 ( 3 ) , 157 - 173 .\narita , y . & gorbunov , o . , ( 1996b ) : a revision of ferdinand le cerf ' s clearwing moth types ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) , kept at the paris museum . i . the genus\nh\u00fcbner , [ 1819 ] in the oriental and australian regions . \u2013 japanese journal of systematic entomology 2 ( 2 ) , 137 - 187 .\nclearwing moth ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from kyushu , japan . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 48 ( 1 ) , 33 - 38 .\narita , y . & gorbunov , o . ( 1998a ) : a revision of ferdinand le cerf ' s clearwing moth types ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) , kept at the paris museum . iii . the genus\nle cerf , 1916 in the oriental region . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 49 ( 1 ) , 19 - 29 .\narita , y . & gorbunov , o . ( 1998b ) : a revision of embrik strand ' s clearwing moth types ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) from taiwan . \u2013 chinese journal of entomology 18 ( 3 ) , 141 - 165 .\narita , y . & gorbunov , o . ( 2000a ) : on the tribe melittiini ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) of vietnam . \u2013 tinea 16 ( 4 ) , 252 - 291 .\narita , y . & gorbunov , o . ( 2000b ) : notes on the tribe osminiini ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from vietnam , with descriptions of new taxa . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 51 ( 1 ) , 49 - 74 .\nle cerf , 1916 ( lepidoptera , sesiidae , osminiini ) of vietnam and adjacent countries . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 51 ( 3 ) , 205 - 214 .\narita , y . & gorbunov , o . ( 2001 ) : sesiidae of taiwan . i . the tribes tinthiini , similipepsini , paraglosseciini , pennisetiini , paranthrenini and cissuvorini . \u2013 japanese journal of systematic entomology 7 ( 2 ) , 131 - 188 .\nhampson ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from taiwan . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 53 ( 4 ) , 241 - 244 .\narita , y . & gorbunov , o . g . ( 2002b ) : sesiidae of taiwan . ii . the tribes osminiini , melittiini and sesiini . \u2013 japanese journal of systematic entomology 8 ( 2 ) , 199 - 241 .\narita , y . & gorbunov , o . g . ( 2003a ) : new taxa of wasp - waisted clearwing moths ( lepidoptera , sesiidae , similipepsini ) from vietnam . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 54 ( 1 ) , 11 - 19 .\narita , y . & gorbunov , o . g . ( 2003b ) : in arita , y . , gorbunov , o . g . & mohamed , m . : on the knowledge of the clearwing moth ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) of the maliau basin , sabah , borneo . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 54 ( 2 ) , 131 - 142 .\n( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from north vietnam . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 52 ( 1 ) , 51 - 57 .\narita , y . & kallies , a . ( 2003 ) : a new species of the genus trilochana moore , 1879 ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from sulawesi . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 54 ( 4 ) , 229 - 232 . arita , y . & kallies , a . ( 2005 ) : see kallies , a . & arita , y . ( 2005 ) .\narita , y . & kimura , m . ( 2016 ) : see arita , y . , kimura , m . , yata , n . & nagase , m . ( 2016 ) .\narita , y . , kallies , a . , hsu , y . - f . , liang , j . - y . , lai , b . - c . , yang , m . - m . & yata , n . ( 2016 ) : polymorphism of nokona pilamicola ( strand , [ 1916 ] ) ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) in taiwan .\narita , y . , kimura , m . & owada , m . ( 2009 ) : two new species of the clearwing moth ( sesiidae ) from okinawa - jima , the ryukyus . \u2013\ntransactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 60 ( 3 ) , 189 - 192 .\narita , y . , kimura , m . , yata , n . & nagase , m . ( 2016 ) : vicariance in the macroscelesia japona species - group ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) in the ryukyus , japan . \u2013 tinea 23 ( 4 ) , 184 - 198 . arita , y . & nagase , m . ( 2016 ) : see arita , y . , kimura , m . , yata , n . & nagase , m . ( 2016 ) .\nkallies & arita , 1998 ( lepidoptera : sesiidae , paranthrenini ) from south - east asia , with list of literature on oriental sesiidae published since 1988 . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 114 ( 3 ) , 116 - 120 .\n( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from japan . \u2013 japanese journal of entomology 57 ( 1 ) , 61 - 66 .\narita , y . & tosevski , i . ( 1992 ) : in tosevski , i . & arita , y . : a new species of the clearwing moth genus\n( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from the ryukyus . \u2013 japanese journal of entomology 60 ( 3 ) , 619 - 623 .\n( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) of japan . \u2013 tinea 12 ( suppl . ) , 158 - 167 .\narita , y . & yata , n . ( 2016 ) : see arita , y . , kimura , m . , yata , n . & nagase , m . ( 2016 ) .\narita , y . & xu , z . ( 1994a ) : in arita , y . , xu , z . & liu , x . : a new\n( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) , clearwing borer on pecan from nanjing , china . \u2013 tinea 14 ( 1 ) , 61 - 64 .\narita , y . & xu , z . ( 1994b ) : in arita , y . , xu , z . & liu , x . : description of a new\nclearwing moth injuring poplar street trees in lhasa , tibet ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) . \u2013 tyo to ga 45 ( 3 ) , 193 - 199 .\nassmann , a . ( 1845 ) : schw\u00e4rmer oder d\u00e4mmerungsschmetterlinge ( sphinges ) . \u2013 abbildung und beschreibung der schmetterlinge schlesiens 2 , 48 pp , 26 pls . ( 17 - 26 , 45 - 47 , pls 5 - 7 , 24 )\naurivillius , p . o . c . ( 1879 ) : lepidoptera damarensia . f\u00f6rteckning pa fj\u00e4rilar insamlade i damaralandet af g . de vylder aren 1873 och 1874 jemte beskrifning \u00f6fver f\u00f6rut ok\u00e4nda arter . \u2013 \u00f6fversigt af kongliga vetenskaps - akademiens f\u00f6rhandlingar 36 ( 7 ) , 39 - 69 . ( 47 - 48 )\naurivillius , p . o . c . ( 1905 ) : lieutnant a . schultzes sammlung von lepidopteren aus west - afrika . \u2013 arkiv f\u00f6r zoologi 2 ( 12 ) , 1 - 47 , 5 pls . ( 43 - 46 )\naurivillius , p . o . c . ( 1909 ) : lepidoptera , rhopalocera und heterocera ( pars i ) von madagaskar , den comoren und den inseln ostafrikas . in voeltzkow , a . : reise in ostafrika in den jahren 1903 - 1905 , wissenschaftliche ergebnisse 2 , [ 309 ] - 348 , 19 pls . ( 342 , pl . 19 )\nbakowski , m . , bartsch , d . & kallies , a . ( 2008 ) : a review of the similipepsini of the afrotropical region ( lepidoptera : sesiidae : tinthiini ) . \u2013 annales zoologici 58 ( 4 ) , 785 - 797 .\nbarnes , w . & benjamin , f . h . ( 1925 ) : change of a preoccupied name ( lepidoptera : aegeriidae ) . \u2013 proceedings of the entomological society of washington 27 ( 1 ) , 14 .\nbarnes , w . & lindsey , a . w . ( 1922 ) : descriptions of two new species of aegeriidae ( lep . ) . \u2013 bulletin of the brooklyn entomological society ( n . s . ) 18 ( 4 ) , 122 - 123 .\nbarnes , w . & mcdunnough , j . h . ( 1918 ) : notes and new species . \u2013 contributions to the natural history of the lepidoptera of north america 4 ( 2 ) , 61 - 208 . ( 178 )\nbartel , m . ( 1902 ) : die palaearktischen grossschmetterlinge und ihre naturgeschichte . zweiter band : nachtfalter . i . abteilung , 239 - 384 . \u2013 leipzig .\n- art aus der schweiz . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift ( guben ) 19 , 190 - 191 .\nbartel , m . ( 1912 ) : 24 . familie : aegeriidae ( sesiidae ) . \u2013 in seitz , a . ( ed . ) : die gro\u00dfschmetterlinge der erde 2 , 375 - 416 , pls 51 - 52 .\nbartsch , d . ( 2003 ) : beitrag zur glasfl\u00fcglerfauna von nepal ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 113 ( 5 ) , 145 , 149 - 151 .\nbartsch , d . ( 2004 ) : die sesienfauna zyperns - eine kommentierte \u00fcbersicht ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 114 ( 2 ) , 80 - 86 .\nbettag , 1997 aus marokko ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 116 ( 5 ) , 211 - 215 .\nbartsch , d . ( 2008 ) : redescription and systematic position of the afrotropical clearwing moth genus grypopalpia hampson , 1919 ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 118 ( 5 ) , 221 - 224 .\nbartsch , d . ( 2008 ) : a review of the paranthrenini of the afrotropical region ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 118 ( 6 ) , 265 - 280 .\nbartsch , d . ( 2009 ) : melittosesia , a new genus of clearwing moths with a review of the sesiini boisduval , 1828 in madagascar ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 119 ( 1 ) , 9 - 16 .\nbartsch , d . ( 2010 ) : taxonomic revision of the clearwing moth genus crinipus hampson , 1896 ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 zootaxa 2618 , 36 - 46 .\nbartsch , d . ( 2012 ) : revision of types of several species of bembecia h\u00fcbner , 1819 from northern africa and southwestern europe ( sesiidae ) . \u2013 nota lepidopterologica 35 ( 2 ) , 125 - 133 .\nbartsch , d . ( 2013 ) : revisionary checklist of the southern african sesiini ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) with description of new species .\nbartsch , d . ( 2015 ) : new taxa of southern african sesiini ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) .\nbartsch , d . ( 2016a ) : revisionary checklist of the southern african osminiini ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) .\nbartsch , d . ( 2016b ) : melittia fiebigi spec . nov . and afromelittia caerulea spec . nov . , two new melittiini from southern africa ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) .\nannals of the ditsong national museum of natural history 6 , 109 - 115 .\nbartsch , d . & berg , j . ( 2012 ) : new species and review of the afrotropical clearwing moth genus camaegeria strand , 1914 ( lepidoptera : sesiidae : synanthedonini ) . \u2013 zootaxa 3181 , 28 - 46 .\nspec . nov . ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 nachrichten des entomologischen vereins apollo , n . f . 18 ( 1 ) , 29 - 40 .\nbartsch , d . & kallies , a . ( 2008 ) : zur kenntnis einiger arten von chamaesphecia spuler , 1910 in marokko ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 118 ( 2 ) , 85 - 93 .\nbartsch , d . & lingenh\u00f6le , a . ( 2011 ) : chamaesphecia cilicia sp . nov . aus dem taurus gebirge , t\u00fcrkei ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 121 ( 2 ) , 89 - 91 .\nbartsch , d . & p\u00fchringer , f . ( 2005 ) : die glasfl\u00fcgler kretas ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 115 ( 3 ) , 131 - 139 .\nsp . nov . aus der s\u00fcdt\u00fcrkei ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 112 ( 3 ) , 78 - 80 .\n, zwei neue glasfl\u00fcgler arten aus afghanistan ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 120 ( 6 ) , 243 - 248 .\nbecker , v . o . ( 1984 ) : 29 . gelechiidae . \u2013 in heppner , j . ( ed . ) : atlas of neotropical lepidoptera . checklist : part 1 . micropterigoidea - immoidea 1 , 1 - 112 . ( 44 - 53 )\nbehrens , j . ( 1889 ) : in french , g . h . : some texas , arizona and california moths . \u2013 the canadian entomologist 21 ( 9 ) , 161 - 163 . ( 163 )\nbellier de la chavignerie , j . b . e . ( 1860 ) : observations sur la faune entomologique de la sicile . \u2013 annales de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 entomologique de france ( troisi\u00e8me s\u00e9rie ) 8 ( 3 ) , 667 - 713 , pl . 12 . ( 681 - 684 )\nbertaccini , e . & fiumi , g . ( 2002 ) : bombici e sfingi d ' italia ( lepidoptera sesioidea ) 4 , 181 pp , 8 pls . ( 32 - 181 , pls 1 - 8 )\nsp . n . , ein neuer glasfl\u00fcgler aus marokko ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 nachrichten des entomologischen vereins apollo , n . f . 18 ( 1 ) , 23 - 27 .\nbettag , e & bl\u00e4sius , r . ( 1998 ) : eine neue glasfl\u00fcglerart aus marokko ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 phegea 26 ( 2 ) , 71 - 75 .\nbettag , e . & bl\u00e4sius , r . ( 1999 ) : \u00fcber den status von dipsosphecia megillaeformis var . tunetana ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 phegea 27 ( 3 ) , 93 - 101 .\n- art aus s\u00fcdspanien . une nouvelle esp\u00e8ce de synanthedon du sud de l ' espagne ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) . \u2013 revue de l ' association roussillonnaise d ' entomologie 11 ( 1 ) , 4 - 16 .\nbeutelspacher , b . c . r . ( 1983 ) : redefinicion taxonomica de montezumia cardinalis dampf ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 ciencia forestal 8 ( 43 ) , 24 - 32 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1893 ) : notes on some north american moths , with descriptions of new species . \u2013 bulletin of the american museum of natural history 5 , 19 - 26 . ( 22 - 26 )\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1894a ) : studies of some species of north american aegeriidae . \u2013 bulletin of the american museum of natural history 6 , 87 - 98 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1894b ) : on north american moths , with the description of a new species of triprocris . \u2013 bulletin of the american museum of natural history 6 , 365 - 368 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1896 ) : critical review of the sesiidae found in america , north of mexico . \u2013 bulletin of the american museum of natural history 8 , 111 - 148 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1897 ) : notes on north american sesiidae , with descriptions of new species . \u2013 bulletin of the american museum of natural history 9 , 213 - 216 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1898 ) : three new species of sesiidae . \u2013 journal of the new york entomological society 6 ( 4 ) , 240 - 241 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1899a ) : new african sesiidae . \u2013 journal of the new york entomological society 7 , 170 - 172 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1899b ) : descriptions of and notes on some north american lepidoptera . \u2013 journal of the new york entomological society 7 ( 4 ) , 254 - 256 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1900a ) : synopsis of the species of melittia of america , north of mexico , with description of a new species . \u2013 bulletin of the american museum of natural history 12 ( 1899 ) , 149 - 151 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1900b ) : on some species of north american lepidoptera . \u2013 bulletin of the american museum of natural history 12 ( 1899 ) , 157 - 160 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1900d ) : two new sesiidae . \u2013 journal of the new york entomological society 8 , 254 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1901 ) : monograph of the sesiidae of america , north of mexico . \u2013 memoirs of the american museum of natural history 1 ( 6 ) , 217 - 352 , pl . 29 - 36 .\n. \u2013 journal of the new york entomological society 10 ( 2 ) , 126 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1909 ) : descriptions of three new sesiidae . \u2013 entomological news 20 , 82 - 84 .\nbeutenm\u00fcller , w . ( 1916 ) : description of a new sesiid . \u2013 the canadian entomologist 48 ( 11 ) , 372 .\nboisduval , j . a . ( 1828 ) : europaeorum lepidopterorum index methodicus 1 , 103 pp . \u2013 paris . ( 29 - 31 )\nboisduval , j . a . ( 1829 - 1844 ) : dixi\u00e8me ordre : l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res . in gu\u00e9rin - m\u00e9n\u00e9ville , f . e . : iconographie du r\u00e8gne animal de g . cuvier , ou repr\u00e9sentation d ' apres nature de l ' une des esp\u00e8ces les plus remarquables , et souvent non encore figur\u00e9es , de chaque genre d ' animaux , vol . 2 and 3 , 576 pp , 104 pls . \u2013 paris . ( pl . 84 , [ 1832 ] ;\n( 1870 [ 1867 ] ) : lepidoptera eversmanniana . \u2013 horae societatis entomologicae rossicae 4 , 6 .\nbrethes , j . ( 1920 ) : insectos \u00fatiles y daninos de rio grande do sul y de la plata . \u2013 anales de la sociedad rural argentina 54 , 281 - 290 , 307 - 308 . ( 284 )\n( sesiidae ) , from florida . \u2013 journal of the lepidopterists ' society 39 ( 4 ) , 262 - 265 .\nedwards ( lepidoptera aegeriidae ) . \u2013 notas del museo de la plata 6 ( 48 ) , 157 - 163 , pls i - ii .\nbryk , f . ( 1947 ) : neue ostasiatische aegeriiden ( lep . ) . \u2013 opuscula entomologica 12 , 96 - 109 .\nbryk , f . ( 1953 ) : lepidoptera aus dem amazonasgebiete und aus peru gesammelt von dr . douglas melin und dr . abraham roman . \u2013 arkiv f\u00f6r zoologi 5 ( 1 - 3 ) , 1 - 268 . ( 262 - 266 )\nburmeister , h . ( 1878 ) : l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res . \u2013 description physique de la r\u00e9publique argentine , d ' apres des observations personelles et \u00e9trang\u00e8res 5 ( 1 ) , vi + 526 pp , 24 pls . ( 359 - 362 )\nbusck , a . ( 1909 ) : notes on the family aegeriidae ( sesiidae ) , with a synoptic table of the north american genera . \u2013 proceedings of the entomological society of washington 11 ( 3 ) , 115 - 118 .\nbusck , a . ( 1910 ) : list of trinidad microlepidoptera , with descriptions of new forms . \u2013 bulletin of the department of agriculture 9 , 241 - 245 . ( 242 - 243 )\nbusck , a . ( 1913a ) : new microlepidoptera from british guiana . \u2013 insecutor inscitiae menstruus 1 , 88 - 92 .\nbusck , a . ( 1913b ) : two microlepidoptera injurious to chestnut . \u2013 proceedings of the entomological society of washington 15 ( 3 ) , 102 - 104 .\nbusck , a . ( 1914 ) : descriptions of new microlepidoptera of forest trees . \u2013 proceedings of the entomological society of washington 16 ( 4 ) , 143 - 150 , pls vii - viii . ( 143 - 144 )\nbusck , a . ( 1915a ) : descriptions of new north american microlepidoptera . \u2013 proceedings of the entomological society of washington 17 ( 2 ) , 79 - 94 . ( 80 - 81 )\nbusck , a . ( 1915b ) : new genera and species of microlepidoptera from panama . \u2013 proceedings of the united states national museum 47 ( 2043 ) ( 1914 ) , 1 - 67 . ( 61 )\nbusck , a . ( 1920 ) : descriptions of new central american microlepidoptera . \u2013 insecutor inscitiae menstruus 8 ( 4 - 6 ) , 83 - 95 . ( 83 )\nbusck , a . ( 1929 ) : a new aegeriid on cowpea from brazil ( lepidoptera : aegeriidae ) . \u2013 proceedings of the entomological society of washington 31 ( 7 ) , 134 - 137 .\nbutler , a . g . ( 1874 ) : notes on the aegeriidae , with descriptions of new genera and species . \u2013 the annals and magazine of natural history ( fourth series ) 14 , 407 - 411 .\nbutler , a . g . ( 1876 ) : descriptions of lepidoptera from the collection of lieut . howland roberts . \u2013 proceedings of the zoological society of london , 308 - 310 . ( 309 , pl . xxii )\nbutler , a . g . ( 1878 ) : illustrations of typical specimens of lepidoptera heterocera in the collection of the british museum 2 , 62 pp , pls 21 - 40 - london . ( 59 - 61 , pl . 40 )\nbutler , a . g . ( 1881 ) : descriptions of new genera and species of heterocerous lepidoptera from japan . \u2013 the transactions of the entomological society of london ( 4\nbutler , a . g . ( 1882 ) : descriptions of new species of lepidoptera , chiefly from duke - of - york island and new britain . \u2013 the annals and magazine of natural history ( fifth series ) 10 , 36 - 43 , 149 - 160 , 226 - 238 . ( 237 - 238 )\nbutler , a . g . ( 1883 ) : heterocerous lepidoptera collected in chili by thomas edmonds , esq . part iv . \u2013 pyrales and micros . \u2013 the transactions of the entomological society of london ( 4\n, n . g . in pryer , h . j . s . : on two remarkable cases of mimicry from elopura , british north borneo . \u2013 the transactions of the entomological society of london ( 4\nbutler , a . g . ( 1896 ) : on a collection of butterflies obtained by mr . richard crawshay in nyasa - land , between the months of january and april 1895 . \u2013 proceedings of the zoological society of london , 108 - 136 . ( 134 , pl . vi )\nbutler , a . g . ( 1902 ) : on two collections of lepidoptera made by sir harry johnston , k . c . b . , in the uganda protectorate during the year 1900 . \u2013 proceedings of the zoological society of london ( 1 ) , 44 - 51 . ( 50 , pl . 1 )\nbytinski - salz , h . ( [ 1937 ] ) : secondo contributo alla conoscenza della lepidotterofauna della sardegna . \u2013 memorie della societa entomologica italiana 15 ( 2 ) ( 1936 ) , 194 - 212 . ( 198 )\ncl . \u2013 deutsche entomologische zeitschrift iris 2 ( 1889 ) , 268 - 269 .\ncapuse , i . ( 1973a ) : 236 . aegeriidae . ergebnisse der zoologischen forschungen von dr . z . kaszab in der mongolei ( lepidoptera ) . \u2013 reichenbachia ( zeitschrift f\u00fcr entomologische taxonomie ) 14 ( 15 ) , 109 - 124 .\ncapuse , i . ( 1973b ) : zur systematik und morphologie der typen der sesiidae ( lepidoptera ) in der r . p\u00fcngeler - sammlung des zoologischen museums zu berlin . \u2013 mitteilungen der m\u00fcnchner entomologischen gesellschaft 63 , 134 - 171 .\nclarke , j . f . g . ( 1962 ) : neotropical microlepidoptera . ii . a new genus and species of clear - wing moth injurious to fig in colombia ( lepidoptera : aegeriidae ) . \u2013 proceedings of the united states national museum 113 , 383 - 388 .\nclemens , b . ( 1860 ) : contributions to american lepidopterology . \u2013 no . 3 . \u2013 proceedings of the academy of natural sciences of philadelphia 12 , 4 - 15 . ( 14 - 15 )\nclerck , c . a . ( 1759 - [ 1764 ] ) : icones insectorum rariorum cum nominibus eorum trivialibus , locisque e c . linnaei . . . syst . nat . allegatis 1 , 21 pp , 55 pls . \u2013 stockholm . { 1759 : pls 1 - 16 ; 1764 : pls 17 - 55 } ( pl . 9 , 1759 )\ncloss , a . ( 1916 ) : einige neue sphingidenformen ( lep . ) . \u2013 entomologische mitteilungen 5 ( 5 / 8 ) , 199 - 200 . ( 200 )\ncloss , a . g . ( 1920 ) : [ contribution ] . in : berliner entomologen - bund : sitzung am 20 . m\u00e4rz 1919 . \u2013 internationale entomologische zeitschrift 14 , 13 .\n, spec . nov . ( lep . het . , sphingidae ) . \u2013 internationale entomologische zeitschrift 16 ( 14 ) , 118 .\ncockayne , e . a . ( 1955 ) : aberrations of british lepidoptera . \u2013 entomologist ' s gazette 6 , 3 - 6 , pl . 1 . ( 3 )\ncockerell , t . d . a . ( 1908 ) : new sesiid moths . \u2013 the canadian entomologist 40 ( 9 ) , 329 - 331 .\ncosta , o . g . ( 1832 - 1836 ) : fauna del regno di napoli . . . a . lepidotteri 1 , 20 - 21 .\ncramer , p . ( 1775 - 1779 ) : de uitlandsche kapellen voorkomende in de drie waereld - deelen asia , africa en america ( papillons exotiques des trois parties du monde , l ' asie , l ' afrique et l ' amerique ) 1 , 155 pp , 96 pls . \u2013 amsterdam . { 1775 : issues 1 - 7 , 1776 : issue 8 } ( 83 , pl . 52 , 1775 )\ncramer , p . ( 1775 - 1779 ) : de uitlandsche kapellen voorkomende in de drie waereld - deelen asia , africa en america ( papillons exotiques des trois parties du monde , l ' asie , l ' afrique et l ' amerique ) 2 , 151 pp , pls 97 - 192 . \u2013 amsterdam . ( 73 , 80 , 151 ( index ) , pls 142 , 146 , 1777 )\ncyrillus , d . ( 1787 ) : entomologiae neapolitanae specimen primum , 8 p . , 12 pls . \u2013 neapoli . ( pl . 4 )\ndalla torre , k . w . & strand , e . ( 1925 ) : aegeriidae . \u2013 lepidopterorum catalogus 31 , 202 pp .\ndalman , j . w . ( 1816 ) : f\u00f6rs\u00f6k till systematisk uppst\u00e4llning af sveriges fj\u00e4rilar . \u2013 kongliga svenska vetenskaps - akademiens handlingar 37 , 48 - 101 , 129 , 199 - 225 .\ndampf , a . ( 1930 ) : dos plagas de los bosques de mexico nuevas para la ciencia . \u2013 mexico forestal 8 ( 8 ) , 179 - 181 .\nde freina , j . j . : see freina , j . j . de\n[ denis , m . & schifferm\u00fcller , i . ] ( 1775 ) : ank\u00fcndung eines systematischen werkes von den schmetterlingen der wienergegend [ sic ] , 323 pp . \u2013 wien . ( 30 , 44 , 305 - 306 )\ndiakonoff , a . n . ( 1954 ) : microlepidoptera of new guinea . results of the third archibold expedition ( american - netherlands indian expedition 1938 - 1939 ) . part iv . \u2013 verhandelingen / koninklijke nederlandse akademie van wetenschappen , afdeeling natuurkunde . reeks 2 50 ( 1 ) ( 1952 - 1955 ) , 1 - 191 . ( 180 - 190 )\ndiakonoff , a . n . ( [ 1968 ] ) : microlepidoptera of the philippine islands . \u2013 united states national museum bulletin 257 ( 1967 ) , 1 - 484 . ( 218 - 235 )\ndonovan , e . ( 1795 ) : the natural history of british insects : explainig them in their several states , the periods of their transformations , their food , oeconomy & c . , together with the history of such minute insects as require investigation by the microscope 4 , 96 + 6 pp , pls 109 - 144 . ( 21 )\ndonovan , e . ( 1797 ) : the natural history of british insects : explainig them in their several states . . . 6 , 86 + 6 pp , pls 181 - 216 . ( 35 , pl . 195 )\ndruce , h . ( 1881 - 1900 ) : lepidoptera - heterocera . \u2013 in godman , f . d . & salvin , o . ( eds . ) : biologia 39 / 1 , 490 pp ; 40 / 2 , 622 pp ; 41 / 3 , pls 1 - 101 . \u2013 london . { vol . 39 / 1 : 1 - 24 ( 1881 ) , 25 - 32 ( 1883 ) , 33 - 112 ( 1884 ) ; vol . 2 : 273 - 336 ( 1896 ) , 337 - 440 ( 1897 ) , 441 - 536 ( 1898 ) , 537 - 592 ( 1899 ) , 593 - 622 ( 1900 ) } ( 39 / 1 : 28 - 34 , 1883 - 1884 ; 40 / 2 : 321 - 326 , 1896 ; 41 / 3 : pls 5 , 68 - 69 )\ndruce , h . ( 1882 ) : descriptions of new species of aegeriidae and sphingidae . \u2013 the entomologist ' s monthly magazine 19 , 15 - 18 . ( 15 )\ndruce , h . ( 1889 ) : descriptions of new species of lepidoptera , chiefly from central america . \u2013 the annals and magazine of natural history ( sixth series ) 4 , 77 - 94 . ( 78 - 82 )\ndruce , h . ( 1892 ) : description of a new genus and some new species of heterocera from central america . \u2013 the annals and magazine of natural history ( sixth series ) 9 , 275 - 279 . ( 275 - 276 )\ndruce , h . ( 1893 ) : descriptions of new species of lepidoptera heterocera from central and south america . \u2013 proceedings of the zoological society of london , 280 - 311 , [ pls xix - xxi ] . ( 280 )\ndruce , h . ( 1898 ) : descriptions of some new species of heterocera . \u2013 the annals and magazine of natural history ( seventh series ) 1 , 207 - 215 . ( 207 )\ndruce , h . ( 1899 ) : descriptions of some new species of heterocera . \u2013 the annals and magazine of natural history ( seventh series ) 4 , 200 - 205 . ( 201 - 205 )\ndruce , h . ( 1910a ) : descriptions of some new species of heterocera from tropical africa . \u2013 the annals and magazine of natural history ( eighth series ) 5 , 393 - 402 . ( 401 )\ndruce , h . ( 1910b ) : descriptions of some new species of heterocera from east and west africa and tropical south america . \u2013 the annals and magazine of natural history ( eighth series ) 6 , 168 - 183 ( 180 - 181 ) .\ndruce , h . ( 1911 ) : descriptions of some new species of heterocera from tropical south america , and two new species of geometridae from west africa . \u2013 the annals and magazine of natural history ( eighth series ) 7 , 287 - 294 . ( 292 )\ndrury , d . ( 1773 ) : illustrations of natural history , wherein are exhibited upwards of two hundred and forty figures of exotic insects , according to their different genera . . . 2 , 9 + 90 pp , 50 pls . \u2013 london . ( 49 )\ndrury , d . ( 1782 ) : illustrations of natural history . . . exotic insects . . . 3 , 15 + 76 pp , 50 pls . \u2013 london . ( 3 , pl . 2 ) .\nduckworth , w . d . ( 1969 ) : a new species of aegeriidae from venezuela predaceous on scale insects ( lepidoptera : yponomeutoidea ) . \u2013 proceedings of the entomological society of washington 71 ( 4 ) , 487 - 490 .\nduckworth , w . d . & eichlin , t . d . ( 1973a ) : the type - material of north american clearwing moths ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 smithsonian contributions to zoology 148 , 1 - 34 .\nduckworth , w . d . & eichlin , t . d . ( 1973b ) : new species of clearwing moths ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) from north america . \u2013 proceedings of the entomological society of washington 75 ( 2 ) , 150 - 159 .\nduckworth , w . d . & eichlin , t . d . ( 1974 ) : clearwing moths of australia and new zealand ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 smithsonian contributions to zoology 180 , 1 - 45 .\nduckworth , w . d . & eichlin , t . d . ( 1976 ) : a new species of clearwing moth ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) from northern mexico and southeastern arizona . \u2013 proceedings of the entomological society of washington 78 ( 3 ) , 304 - 308 .\nduckworth , w . d . & eichlin , t . d . ( 1977a ) : two new species of clearwing moths ( sesiidae ) from eastern north america clarified by sex pheromones . \u2013 journal of the lepidopterists ' society 31 ( 3 ) , 191 - 196 .\nduckworth , w . d . & eichlin , t . d . ( 1977b ) : a new species of clearwing moth from southcentral texas ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 the pan - pacific entomologist 53 ( 3 ) , 175 - 178 .\nduckworth , w . d . & eichlin , t . d . ( 1977c ) : a classification of the sesiidae of america north of mexico ( lepidoptera , sesioidea ) . \u2013 occasional papers in entomology 26 , 1 - 54 .\nduckworth , w . d . & eichlin , t . d . ( 1978 ) : the type - material of central and south american clearwing moths ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 smithsonian contributions to zoology 261 , 1 - 28 .\nduckworth , w . d . & eichlin , t . d . ( 1983 ) : revision of the clearwing moth genus osminia ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 smithsonian contributions to zoology 361 , 1 - 15 .\ndumont , c . ( 1922 ) : diagnoses de l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res nouveaux du nord de l ' afrique . \u2013 bulletin de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 entomologique de france ( 15 ) , 215 - 220 . ( 215 - 217 )\nduponchel , p . a . j . ( 1835 ) : cr\u00e9pusculaires . \u2013 supplement a l ' histoire naturelle 2 , 197 pp , 12 pls . ( 108 , 112 - 116 , 129 , 167 , pl . 9 )\ndurrant , j . h . ( 1914 ) : descriptions of two new tineina ( lep . ) from the lagos district . \u2013 the transactions of the entomological society of london ( 4\ndurrant , j . h . ( 1915 ) : microlepidoptera ( pterophorina and tineina ) collected by the british ornithologists ' union and wollaston expeditions in the snow mountains , southern dutch new guinea . \u2013 lepidoptera of the british ornithologists ' union and wollaston expeditions in the snow mountains , southern dutch new guinea 2 ( 15 ) , 149 - 168 . ( 166 )\ndurrant , j . h . ( 1919 ) : three new genera of tineina resembling aegeriadae [ sic ] . \u2013 novitates zoologicae 26 ( 1 ) , 120 - 122 .\ndurrant , j . h . ( 1924 ) : in : examples of the mimicry of hymenoptera by other insects . \u2013 proceedings of the entomological society of london ( 1923 - 1924 ) , lxxv - lxxvi .\ndyar , h . g . ( [ 1903 ] ) : a list of north american lepidoptera and key to the literature of this order of insects . \u2013 bulletin of the united states national museum 52 ( 1902 ) , 1 - 723 . ( 364 - 371 )\ndyar , h . g . ( 1904 ) : additions to the list of north american lepidoptera , no . 2 . \u2013 proceedings of the entomological society of washington 6 ( 2 ) , 103 - 119 . ( 106 )\neda , k . , arita , y . , kallies , a . & wang , m . ( 2015 ) : a new long - legged clearwing moth species of the genus teinotarsina felder & felder , 1874 ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from guangdong , china . \u2013 tinea 23 ( 3 ) , 128 - 130 . eda , k . & arita , y . ( 2015 ) : see eda , k . , arita , y . , kallies , a . & wang , m . ( 2015 ) .\nedwards , h . ( 1880 ) : descriptions of some new forms of aegeriidae . \u2013 bulletin of the brooklyn entomological society 3 ( 8 ) , 71 - 72 .\nedwards , h . ( 1881 ) : new genera and species of the family aegeridae . \u2013 papilio 1 ( 10 ) , 179 - 208 , pl . 4 .\nedwards , h . ( 1882a ) : notes on n . american aegeridae , with descriptions of new forms . \u2013 papilio 2 ( 4 ) , 52 - 57 .\nedwards , h . ( 1882b ) : further notes and descriptions of north american aegeriadae . \u2013 papilio 2 ( 6 ) , 96 - 99 .\nedwards , h . ( 1882c ) : descriptions of new species of n . am . heterocera . \u2013 papilio 2 ( 8 ) , 123 - 130 . ( 123 - 124 )\nedwards , h . ( 1883 ) : new species of aegeriadae . \u2013 papilio 3 ( 7 - 10 ) , 155 - 157 .\nedwards , h . ( 1885 ) : new species of californian moths . \u2013 entomologica americana 1 ( 3 ) , 49 - 50 . ( 49 )\nedwards , h . ( 1887 ) : descriptions of new species of north american heterocera , with notes . \u2013 the canadian entomologist 19 ( 8 ) , 145 - 147 .\nedwards , h . ( 1888 ) : catalogue of species of the higher families of the north american heterocera , described since grote ' s\nnew check list\n( 1872 ) , with those omitted from that publication . \u2013 entomologica americana 3 ( 12 ) , 221 - 232 . ( 223 - 224 )\nedwards , h . ( 1891 ) : [ contribution ] . in lugger , o . : two new lepidopterous borers . \u2013 psyche 6 , 108 - 109 .\neichlin , t . d . ( 1986 ) : western hemisphere clearwing moths of the subfamily tinthiinae ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomography 4 , 315 - 378 .\neichlin , t . d . ( 1987 ) : three new western hemisphere clearwing moths ( lepidoptera : sesiidae : sesiinae ) . \u2013 entomography 5 , 531 - 540 .\neichlin , t . d . ( 1989 ) : western hemisphere clear wing moths of the subfamily paranthreninae ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomography 6 , 159 - 212 .\neichlin , t . d . ( 1992 ) : clearwing moths of baja california , mexico ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) . \u2013 tropical lepidoptera 3 ( 2 ) , 135 - 150 .\neichlin , t . d . ( [ 1993 ] ) : a new texas clearwing moth ( sesiidae : sesiinae ) . \u2013 journal of the lepidopterists ' society 46 ( 4 ) ( 1992 ) , 265 - 268 .\neichlin , t . d . ( 1995a ) : a new panamanian clearwing moth ( sesiidae : sesiinae ) . \u2013 journal of the lepidopterists ' society 49 ( 1 ) , 39 - 42 .\na new north american clearwing moth and notes on a rare species ( sesiidae ) . \u2013 journal of the lepidopterists ' society 49 ( 2 ) , 114 - 118 .\neichlin , t . d . ( 1995c ) : 65 . sesiidae . in heppner , j . ( ed . ) : atlas of neotropical lepidoptera . checklist : part 2 . hyblaeoidea - pyraloidea - tortricoidea 3 , 17 - 18 , 109 - 113 . eichlin , t . d . ( 1998 ) : western hemisphere clearwing moths of the tribe osminiini ( lepidoptera : sesiidae : sesiinae ) . \u2013 holarctic lepidoptera 5 ( 1 ) , 23 - 33 . eichlin , t . d . ( 2002 ) : in eichlin , t . d . & kinnee , s . a . : brazilian sesiidae in the collection of the universit\u00e4t des saarlandes , saarbr\u00fccken , germany ( lepidoptera ) . \u2013 zootaxa 108 , 1 - 15 . eichlin , t . d . ( 2003a ) : carmenta munroei , a new clearwing moth from costa rica ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 tropical lepidoptera 11 ( 1 - 2 ) , 42 - 43 . eichlin , t . d . ( 2003b ) : carmenta guayaba , a new clearwing moth from peru ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 tropical lepidoptera 11 ( 1 - 2 ) , 44 - 45 .\neichlin , t . d . , delgado , o . s . , strathie , l . w . , zachariades , c . & clavijo , j . ( 2009 ) : carmenta chromolaenae eichlin , a new species ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) for the biological control of chromolaena odorata ( l . ) king & robinson ( asteraceae ) . \u2013 zootaxa 2288 , 42 - 50 .\neichlin , t . d . & duckworth , w . d . ( 1988 ) : the moths of america north of mexico . fascicle 5 . 1 . sesioidea , sesiidae , 176 pp . \u2013 washington .\n. \u2013 journal of the lepidopterists ' society 37 ( 3 ) ( 1983 ) , 193 - 206 .\nclearwing moth from michigan ( sesiidae ) . \u2013 journal of the lepidopterists ' society 42 ( 3 ) , 231 - 235 .\nemich von em\u00f6ke , g . ( 1872 ) : descriptions de l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res de transcaucasie . \u2013 revue et magasin de zoologie pure et appliqu\u00e9e , series 2 , 23 ( 2 ) ( 1871 - 1872 ) , 63 - 64 .\nengelhardt , g . p . ( 1925a ) : studies in north american aegeriidae ( lepidoptera ) . i . descriptions and corrections of species from long island , new york . ii . descriptions of two new western species . \u2013 bulletin of the brooklyn entomological society ( n . s . ) 20 ( 2 ) , 61 - 69 .\nengelhardt , g . p . ( 1925b ) : studies of north american aegeriidae ( lepidoptera ) . iii .\nroot borers of america north of mexico . \u2013 bulletin of the brooklyn entomological society ( n . s . ) 20 ( 4 ) , 153 - 158 .\nengelhardt , g . p . ( 1946 ) : the north american clear - wing moths of the family aegeriidae . \u2013 bulletin of the united states national museum 190 , iv + 222 pp .\nerschoff , n . g . ( 1874 ) : cheshuyekriliya ( lepidoptera ) . \u2013 travels in turkestan ( fedtchenko ) 2 ( 5 ) , 128 pp . ( 26 - 27 , pl . 5 ) [ in russian ]\nerschoff , n . g . ( 1874 ) : lepidopteren von turkestan . \u2013 stettiner entomologische zeitung 35 ( 10 - 12 ) , 386 - 417 . ( 393 )\nesper , e . j . c . ( 1778 - 1786 ) : die schmetterlinge in abbildungen nach der natur mit beschreibungen 2 , 234 pp , pls 1 - 36 . \u2013 erlangen . { title page : 1779 ; 1778 : pls 1 - 6 ; 1779 : 1 - 80 , pls 7 - 18 ; 1780 : 81 - 196 , pls 19 - 25 ; 1782 : 197 - 212 , pls 26 - 31 ; 1783 : 213 - 228 , pls 32 - 35 ; 1786 : 229 - 234 , pl . 36 } ( 122 , 131 - 135 , 205 - 217 , 230 - 232 , 234 , pls 14 - 15 , 23 , 29 - 32 , 36 )\nesper , e . j . c . ( 1789 - [ 1804 ] ) : fortsetzung der europ\u00e4ischen schmetterlinge . \u2013 die schmetterlinge in abbildungen nach der natur mit beschreibungen 2 ( suppl . ) , 52 pp , pls 37 - 47 . \u2013 erlangen . { [ 1789 ] : 5 - 12 , pls [ 38 - 40 ] ; 1800 : 21 - 40 , pls 42 - 46 ; [ 1803 - 1804 ] : 41 - 52 , pl . 47 } ( 5 , 9 , 25 , 29 - 30 , 44 - 47 , pls 37 - 38 , 42 , 44 , 47 )\neversmann , e . ( 1844 ) : fauna lepidoperologica volgo - uralensis exhibens lepidopterorum species quas per viginti quinque annos in provinciis volgam fluvium inter et montes uralenses sitis observavit et descripsit , 633 pp . \u2013 casan . ( 100 - 105 )\nfabricius , j . c . ( 1775 ) : systema entomologiae , sistens insectorum classes , ordines , genera , species , adiectis synonymis , locis , descriptionibus , observationibus , 30 + 832 pp . \u2013 flensburg u . leipzig . ( 547 - 549 )\nfabricius , j . c . ( 1787 ) : mantissa insectorum sistens species nuper detectas adiectis synonymis , observationibus , descriptionibus , emendationibus 2 , 382 pp . \u2013 hafniae . ( 98 - 101 )\nfabricius , j . c . ( 1793 ) : entomologica systematica emendata et aucta : secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , adiectis synonymis , locis , observationibus , descriptionibus 3 ( 1 ) , 4 + 487 pp . \u2013 hafniae . ( 379 - 385 , 404 )\n[ fabricius , j . c . ] ( 1807 ) : in illiger , j . c . : die neueste gattungs - eintheilung der schmetterlinge aus den linn\u00e9ischen gattungen\n. \u2013 magazin f\u00fcr insektenkunde ( illiger ) 6 , 277 - 295 . ( 288 , 294 )\nfailla - tedaldi , l . ( 1883 ) : caccia di lepidotteri rari . \u2013 il naturalista siciliano 2 ( 11 ) , 249 - 250 .\nfailla - tedaldi , l . ( 1890 ) : contribuzione alla fauna lepidotterologica della sicilia . descrizione di alcune nuove specie . \u2013 il naturalista siciliano 10 ( 2 - 3 ) , 25 - 31 , pl i .\nfawcett , j . m . ( 1916 ) : notes on a collection of heterocera made by mr . w . feather in british east africa , 1911 - 13 . \u2013 proceedings of the zoological society of london ( 2 ) , 707 - 737 . ( 736 - 737 , pl . i )\nfelder , c . ( 1861 ) : lepidopterorum amboinensium a dre . l . doleschall annis 1856 - 58 collectorum species novae diagnosibus collustratae a dre . c . felder , ii heterocera . \u2013 sitzungsberichte der kaiserlichen akademie der wissenschaften , abt . 1 , 43 ( i ) , 25 - 44 .\nfelder , r . ( 1874 ) : lepidoptera : atlas . in felder , c . , felder , r . & rogenhofer , a . f . : reise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den befehlen des commodore b . von w\u00fcllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . zweiter band . zweite abtheilung ( fasc . 4 ) , 10 pp , pls 75 - 107 . ( 2 - 9 , pls 75 , 82 )\nfelder , r . & rogenhofer , a . f . ( 1875 ) : lepidoptera : atlas . in felder , c . , felder , r . & rogenhofer , a . f . : reise der \u00f6sterreichischen fregatte novara um die erde in den jahren 1857 , 1858 , 1859 unter den befehlen des commodore b . von w\u00fcllerstorf - urbair . zoologischer theil . zweiter band . zweite abtheilung ( fasc . 5 ) , 20 pp , pls 108 - 140 . ( 9 )\nfilipjev , n . ( 1931 ) : lepidoptera . \u2013 trudy pamirskoj expedicii 1928 ( abhandlungen der pamir - expedition 1928 ) 8 , 143 - 174 . ( 161 - 163 )\nsp . nov . , eine neue glasfl\u00fcglerart aus den cameron highlands in malaysia ( lepidoptera : sesiidae , sesiinae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 112 ( 5 ) , 141 - 143 .\nsp . nov . , eine neue glasfl\u00fcglerart aus den cameron highlands in malaysia ( lepidoptera : sesiidae , sesiinae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 113 ( 5 ) , 139 - 141 .\nsp . nov . , eine neue glasfl\u00fcglerart aus sumatra ( lepidoptera : sesiidae , sesiinae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 115 ( 2 ) , 91 - 93 .\nsp . n . , a new clearwing moth species from the cameron highlands in west malaysia ( lepidoptera : sesiidae , sesiinae ) . \u2013 nachrichten des entomologischen vereins apollo , n . f . 27 ( 1 / 2 ) , 53 - 54 .\nfischer , h . ( 2006b ) : a new tribe , genus and species of clearwing moths from the afrotropical region ( lepidoptera , sesiidae , sesiinae ) . \u2013 atalanta 37 ( 1 / 2 ) , 219 - 224 .\nfischer , h . ( 2006c ) : corrigendum zur publikation\na new tribe , genus and species of clearwing moths from the afrotropical region\nin atalanta 37 . band , heft 1 / 2 ( lepidoptera , sesiidae , sesiinae ) . \u2013 atalanta 37 ( 3 / 4 ) , 328 .\n, h . ( 2007 ) : eine neue gattung mit einer neuen art , rubukona svetlanae gen . et spec . nov . , in der tribus paranthrenin\n, 1964 aus der afrotropischen region ( lepidoptera , sesiidae , paranthrenini ) . \u2013 atalanta 38 ( 3 / 4 ) , 361 - 364 .\nfischer , h . ( 2011 ) : adixoa pyromacula sp . n . , eine neue sesiide aus thailand ( lepidoptera : sesiidae , paranthrenini ) . \u2013 nachrichten des entomologischen vereins apollo , n . f . 31 ( 4 ) , 207 - 209 . fitzsimons , v . , codd , l . e . , janse , a . j . t . , munro , h . k . , pringle , j . a . & vari , l . ( 1958 ) : a list of zoological and botanical types preserved in collections in southern and east africa . volume i \u2013 zoology 1 ( 1 ) , 147 pp .\nfixsen , c . ( 1887 ) : lepidoptera aus korea . \u2013 in romanoff , n . m . ( ed . ) : m\u00e9moires sur les l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res 3 , 233 - 356 , pl . 15 . ( 323 - 324 )\nist ein femininum , kein neutrum ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 nachrichten des entomologischen vereins apollo , n . f . 17 ( 2 ) , 190 .\nfletcher , t . b . ( 1929 ) : a list of the generic names used for microlepidoptera . \u2013 memoirs of the department of agriculture in india , entomological series 11 , 1 - 244 .\nfletcher , t . b . ( 1940 ) : new generic names for microlepidoptera . \u2013 the entomologist ' s record and journal of variation 52 ( 1 ) , 17 - 19 . ( 18 )\nfletcher , d . s . ( 1982 ) : in fletcher , d . s . & nye , i . w . b . : the generic names of moths of the world . volume 4 . bombycoidea , castnioidea , cossoidea , mimallonoidea . sesioidea , sphingoidea , zygaenoidea . \u2013 british museum ( natural history ) publication no . 848 , 192 pp . \u2013 london .\nfreina , j . j . de ( 1983 ) : 4 . beitrag zur systematischen erfassung der bombyces - und sphinges - fauna kleinasiens . neue kenntnisse \u00fcber artenspektrum , systematik und nomenklatur sowie beschreibung neuer taxa . \u2013 mitteilungen der m\u00fcnchner entomologischen gesellschaft 72 ( 1982 ) , 57 - 127 . ( 72 - 76 )\nfreina , j . j . de ( 2007 ) : eine neue art der gattung melittia h\u00fcbner , 1819 aus dem dhofar , s\u00fcdoman ( sesiidae : sesiinae : melittiini ) . \u2013 nota lepidopterologica 30 ( 1 ) , 51 - 57 .\nfreina , j . j . de ( 2008 ) : beschreibung von cabomina gen . n . , cabomina monicae sp . n . und cabomina dracomontana sp . n . aus s\u00fcdafrika ( lepidoptera : sesiidae , sesiinae , osminiini ) . \u2013 nachrichten des entomologischen vereins apollo , n . f . 29 ( 3 ) , 163 - 169 .\n( 2011a ) : vier neue sesiiden und eine unbestimmte homogyna - art aus dem s\u00fcdlichen afrika ( lepidoptera , sesiidae : osminiini , sesiini ) . \u2013 nachrichten des entomologischen vereins apollo , n . f . 31 ( 4 ) , 211 - 218 . freina , j . j .\n( 2011b ) : noctusphecia puchneri gen . et sp . n . , eine neue gattung und nachtaktive glasfl\u00fcglerart aus tansania ( lepidoptera : sesiidae , sesiinae , osminiini ) . \u2013 nachrichten des entomologischen vereins apollo , n . f . 32 ( 1 / 2 ) , 48 - 50 . freina , j . j .\n( 2011c ) : neue arten der gattung thyranthrene hampson , 1919 aus s\u00fcdafrika ( lepidoptera : sesiidae , paranthrenini ) . \u2013 nachrichten des entomologischen vereins apollo , n . f . 32 ( 1 / 2 ) , 51 - 56 .\n( 2013 ) : synanthedon angolana sp . n . , eine neue glasfl\u00fcglerart aus angola ( lepidoptera : sesiidae : sesiinae , synanthedonini ) . - nachrichten des entomologischen vereins apollo , n . f . 34 ( 3 ) , 125 - 126 .\nfreina , j . j . de & lingenh\u00f6le , a . ( 2000 ) : beitrag zur sesiidae - fauna israels und pal\u00e4stinas ( insecta , lepidoptera , sesiidae ) . \u2013 mitteilungen der m\u00fcnchner entomologischen gesellschaft 90 , 75 - 84 .\nfreyer , c . f . ( 1836 ) : neuere beitr\u00e4ge zur schmetterlingskunde mit abbildungen nach der natur 2 , 162 pp , pls 97 - 192 . \u2013 augsburg . ( 140 - 142 , pl . 182 )\nfreyer , c . f . ( 1842 ) : neuere beitr\u00e4ge zur schmetterlingskunde mit abbildungen nach der natur 4 , 167 pp , pls 289 - 384 . \u2013 augsburg . ( 129 - 131 , pl . 362 )\nfreyer , c . f . ( 1843 ) : neuere beitr\u00e4ge zur schmetterlingskunde mit abbildungen nach der natur 5 , 166 pp , pls 385 - 480 . \u2013 augsburg . ( 35 - 36 , pl . 404 )\nfriedlander , t . p . ( 1986 ) : a new squash borer from mexico ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 the journal of research on the lepidoptera 24 ( 4 ) ( 1985 ) , 277 - 288 .\nnov . spec . \u2013 internationale entomologische zeitschrift 2 ( 5 ) , 33 .\ngaede , m . ( 1929 ) : aegeriidae . \u2013 in seitz , a . ( ed . ) : die gro\u00dfschmetterlinge der erde 14 , 515 - 538 , pl . 77 .\ngaede , m . ( 1933 ) : aegeriidae . \u2013 in seitz , a . ( ed . ) : die gro\u00dfschmetterlinge der erde , suppl . 2 , 229 - 240 , pl . 16 .\ngarrevoet , t . , bartsch , d . & lingenh\u00f6le , a . ( 2013 ) : on the knowledge of bembecia rushana gorbunov , 1992 and some related species ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . - nota lepidopterologica 36 ( 2 ) , 95 - 108 .\ngarrevoet , t . & garrevoet , w . ( 2011 ) : bembecia lingenhoelei , a new clearwing moth from tajikistan ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 phegea 39 ( 2 ) , 73 - 79 .\ngarrevoet , t . & garrevoet , w . ( 2016 ) : on the status of bembecia zebo \u0161patenka & gorbunov , 1992 ; bembecia pamira \u0161patenka , 1992 ; bembecia kreuzbergi \u0161patenka & bartsch , 2010 and bembecia martensi gorbunov , 1994 ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) .\ngarrevoet , t . & lingenh\u00f6le , a . ( 2011 ) : bembecia bartschi , a new clearwing moth from tajikistan ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) . \u2013 entomologische zeitschrift 121 ( 4 ) , 157 - 161 .\ngarrevoet , t . , garrevoet , w . & \u00f6zbek , h . ( 2007 ) : data on the geographic distribution of sesiidae ( lepidoptera ) in turkey . \u2013 linzer biologische beitr\u00e4ge 39 ( 2 ) , 929 - 953 .\ngeoffroy , e . l . ( 1785 ) : [ contribution ] . in fourcroy , a . f . : entomologia parisiensis ; sive catalogus insectorum quae in agro parisiensi reperiuntur . . . cui addita sunt nomina trivialia & fere trecentae novae species 2 , 544 pp . ( 252 )\ngermadius , p . ( 1874 ) : a new aegerian maple borer . \u2013 the american naturalist 8 , 57 - 58 .\nghiliani , v . ( 1852 ) : materiali per servire alla compilazione della fauna entomologica italiana ossia elenco delle specie di lepidotteri riconosciuti esistenti negli stati sardi . \u2013 memorie della reale accademia della scienze di torino ( serie 2 ) 14 , 20 , 85 , 131 - 247 . ( 216 )\ngiacomelli , e . ( 1911 ) : lepid\u00f3pteros riojanos nuevos \u00f3 poco conocidos . \u2013 anales de la sociedad cientifica argentina 72 , 19 - 40 . ( 29 - 30 )\ngmelin , j . f . ( 1790 ) : caroli a linn\u00e9 systema naturae . per regna tria naturae secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis 1 ( 5 ) ( ed . 13 ) . \u2013 leipzig . ( 2388 - 2390 )\ngodart , m . j . - b . ( 1822 ) : cr\u00e9pusculaires . \u2013 histoire naturelle des l\u00e9pidopt\u00e8res ou papillons de france 3 . ( 6 , 74 - 121 , pl . xxi )\n( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from azerbaijan . \u2013 zoologichesky zhurnal 65 ( 6 ) , 938 - 940 . [ in russian ]\n( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from talysh . \u2013 vestnik zoologii 1987 ( 3 ) , 12 - 18 . [ in russian ]\n( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from talysh . \u2013 vestnik zoologii 1987 ( 2 ) , 14 - 20 . [ in russian ]\ngorbunov , o . ( 1988a ) : a new contribution to the knowledge of clearwing moths ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) of vietnam . \u2013 in medvedev , l . n . & striganova , b . r . ( eds ) : fauna i ekologiya nasekomykh vetnama [ the fauna and ecology of insects of vietnam ] , 192 - 198 . [ in russian ]\ngorbunov , o . ( 1988b ) : a new species and genus of the clearwing moths ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) of the subfamily tinthiinae from the primorsky kray ( far east ) . \u2013 biologiyeckie nauki 7 , 45 - 47 . [ in russian with english summary ]\ngorbunov , o . ( 1989 ) : two new species of lepidoptera ( sesiidae ) from the kopet - dag . \u2013 zoologichesky zhurnal 68 ( 10 ) , 141 - 145 . [ in russian with english summary ]\nh\u00fcbner , 1819 from the caucasus , usssr ( lep . , sesiidae ) . \u2013 atalanta 20 ( 1 / 4 ) ( 1989 ) , 119 - 123 .\ngorbunov , o . ( 1991a ) : six new species of the clearwing moths from the caucasus , ussr ( lep . , sesiidae ) . \u2013 atalanta 22 ( 2 / 4 ) , 125 - 143 , 378 - 379 .\nh\u00fcbner , 1819 from middle asia ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) . \u2013 atalanta 23 ( 1 / 2 ) , 249 - 253 .\ngorbunov , o . ( 1992b ) : revision of the types of the sesiidae ( lepidoptera ) , preserved in the collection of the zoological museum of kiev state university . \u2013 entomologitscheskoje obozrenie 71 ( 1 ) , 121 - 133 . [ in russian ] ( english translation in entomological review )\ncapuse , 1973 ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from central asia . \u2013 tinea 14 ( 1 ) , 27 - 32 .\ngorbunov , o . ( 1994b ) : new and little - known clearwing moths from central asia ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) . \u2013 tyo to ga 45 ( 3 ) , 157 - 168 .\nh\u00fcbner , [ 1819 ] from the european part of russia ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) . \u2013 atalanta 25 ( 3 / 4 ) ( 1995 ) , 563 - 566 , 622 - 623 .\ngorbunov , o . ( 1994d ) : in gorbunov , o . , buda , v . , mozuraitis , r . & miatleuski , j . : a new species of clearwing moth from the far east of russia and its sex attractant ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) . \u2013 atalanta 25 ( 1 / 2 ) , 307 - 311 , 442 - 443 .\ngorbunov , o . ( 1995 ) : review of the clearwing moth fauna ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) of turkmenistan , central asia . \u2013 tinea 14 ( 2 ) , 93 - 115 .\nspuler ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from central asia . \u2013 melittia , a lepidopterological almanac 1 , 93 - 114 .\nspuler ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from turkey . \u2013 melittia , a lepidopterological almanac 1 , 117 - 123 .\nh\u00fcbner ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from tadzhikistan and turkmenistan . \u2013 melittia , a lepidopterological almanac 1 , 125 - 134 .\ngorbunov , o . ( 2001d ) : a new genus of tinthiini ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from the western palaearctic . \u2013 melittia , a lepidopterological almanac 1 , 137 - 143 .\ngorbunov , o . g . ( 2014 ) : a new species of the genus melittia h\u00fcbner , 1819 ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from the island of lombok , indonesia .\ngorbunov , o . g . ( 2015a ) : contributions to the study of the ethiopian lepidoptera . i . the genus melittia h\u00fcbner , 1819 [ \u201c1816\u201d ] ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) with description of a new species .\ngorbunov , o . g . ( 2015b ) : a new species of the genus anthedonella o . gorbunov et arita , 1999 ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from the island of siberut , mentawai , indonesia .\ngorbunov , o . g . ( 2016 ) : nokona mahawu sp . n . , a new clearwing moth species ( lepidoptera : sesiidae ) from north sulawesi , indonesia .\ngorbunov , o . & arita , y . ( 1995a ) : new taxa of the tribe melittiini ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from the oriental region . \u2013 tinea 14 ( 3 ) , 149 - 156 .\nle cerf , 1911 , with establishment of a new genus from east asia ( lepidoptera : sesiidae : tinthiinae ) . \u2013 annales de la soci\u00e9t\u00e9 entomologique de france ( n . s . ) 31 ( 4 ) , 377 - 384 .\ncapuse , 1973 ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) from the far east of russia . \u2013 tyo to ga 45 ( 4 ) , 255 - 262 .\ngorbunov , o . & arita , y . ( 1995d ) : a new genus and species of the clearwing moth tribe osminiini from the oriental region ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 46 ( 1 ) , 17 - 22 .\ngorbunov , o . & arita , y . ( 1995e ) : new and poorly known clearwing moth taxa from vietnam ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) . \u2013 transactions of the lepidopterological society of japan 46 ( 2 ) , 69 - 90 .\ngorbunov , o . & arita , y . ( 1995 ) : a revision of frederic moore ' s clearwing moth types ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) , at humboldt university , berlin . - tinea 14 ( 3 ) , 204 - 224 .\nh\u00fcbner ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) , from the collection of mus\u00e9um d ' histoire naturelle , gen\u00e8ve . \u2013 revue suisse de zoologie 103 ( 2 ) , 323 - 338 .\ngorbunov , o . & arita , y . ( 1997a ) : a revision of ferdinand le cerf ' s clearwing moth types ( lepidoptera , sesiidae ) , kept at the paris museum . ii . melittiini in the afrotropical region . \u2013 japanese journal of systematic entomology 3 ( 2 ) , 289 - 323 ."]}
{"id": 2415, "summary": [{"text": "protostrioconus is a synonym of conus ( gastridium ) modeer , 1793 represented as conus linnaeus , 1758 .", "topic": 21}, {"text": "these are sea snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family conidae , the cone snails and their allies . ", "topic": 2}], "title": "protostrioconus", "paragraphs": ["this is the place for protostrioconus definition . you find here protostrioconus meaning , synonyms of protostrioconus and images for protostrioconus copyright 2017 \u00a9 urltoken\nhere you will find one or more explanations in english for the word protostrioconus . also in the bottom left of the page several parts of wikipedia pages related to the word protostrioconus and , of course , protostrioconus synonyms and on the right images related to the word protostrioconus .\nworms - world register of marine species - protostrioconus obscurus ( g . b . sowerby i , 1833 )\nprotostrioconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : protostrioconus obscurus\nhumphrey , g . ms\nsowerby , g . b . i in sowerby , g . b . ii , 1833\n( of protostrioconus obscurus ( g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ) ) severns , m . ( 2011 ) . shells of the hawaiian islands - the sea shells . conchbooks , hackenheim . 564 pp . [ details ]\n( of protostrioconus obscurus ( g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ) ) tucker j . k . & tenorio m . j . ( 2009 ) systematic classification of recent and fossil conoidean gastropods . hackenheim : conchbooks . 296 pp . [ details ]\n[ synonyms : rollus montfort , 1810 ; type species : conus geographus linnaeus , 1758 ; od . utriculus schumacher , 1817 ; type species : conus geographus linnaeus , 1758 ; m . tuliparia swainson , 1840 ; type species : coronaxis nebulosa swainson , 1840 [ synonym of conus tulipa ] ; m . protostrioconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus obscurus g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ; od ; n . syn . ]\nafter more than 2 years of preparations , the diatombase portal is now officially launched . . . .\nlast week - on may 30 and 31st \u2013 8 thematic experts on talitridae came together for the first time during a lifewatch - worms sponsored workshop . the workshop took place at the hellenic centre for marine research in crete , where it was organized back - to - back with the 8th international sandy beaches symposium ( isbs ) . the group focused on identifying relevant traits for the talitridae , and adding this data through the amphipoda species database . . . .\non 23 april 2018 , a number of editors of the world register of introduced species ( wrims ) started a three day workshop in the flanders marine institute ( vliz ) . these three days were used to evaluate , complete and improve the content of this worms thematic register ( tsd ) . . . .\nthe 2nd worms early career researchers and 3rd worms achievement award were granted respectively to fran\u00e7ois le coze and geoff read . congratulations ! . . .\nin 2018 , to celebrate a decade of worms ' existence , it was decided to compile a list of our top marine species , both for 2017 and for the previous decade . . . .\nthe scleractinian corals are now accessible though their own list portal . this world list contains over 1 500 accepted names of extant species and is one of the most complete existing resources for scleractinian taxa . . .\ntucker j . k . & tenorio m . j . ( 2009 ) systematic classification of recent and fossil conoidean gastropods . hackenheim : conchbooks . 296 pp . [ details ]\nseverns , m . ( 2011 ) . shells of the hawaiian islands - the sea shells . conchbooks , hackenheim . 564 pp . [ details ]\nworms - world register of marine species - conus obscurus g . b . sowerby i , 1833\nconus ( gastridium ) obscurus g . b . sowerby i , 1833 \u00b7 accepted , alternate representation\npetit , r . e . ( 2009 ) . george brettingham sowerby , i , ii & iii : their conchological publications and molluscan taxa . zootaxa . 2189 : 1\u2013218 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\nspencer , h . g . , marshall , b . a . & willan , r . c . ( 2009 ) . checklist of new zealand living mollusca . pp 196 - 219 . in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) new zealand inventory of biodiversity . volume one . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . canterbury university press , christchurch . [ details ]\nfilmer r . m . ( 2001 ) . a catalogue of nomenclature and taxonomy in the living conidae 1758 - 1998 . backhuys publishers , leiden . 388pp . [ details ]\nliu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]\n( of conus halitropus bartsch & rehder , 1943 ) filmer r . m . ( 2001 ) . a catalogue of nomenclature and taxonomy in the living conidae 1758 - 1998 . backhuys publishers , leiden . 388pp . [ details ]\n( of conus halitropus bartsch & rehder , 1943 ) tucker j . k . & tenorio m . j . ( 2013 ) illustrated catalog of the living cone shells . 517 pp . wellington , florida : mdm publishing . [ details ]\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , cities , . . . more\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhumphrey , g . ms\nsowerby , g . b . i in sowerby , g . b . ii , 1833\nconus halitropus bartsch , p . & h . a . rehder , 1943 : hawaii\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nconus linnaeus , c . , 1758 type species : conus marmoreus linnaeus , c . , 1758\nconus ( fusiconus ) motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : fusiconus longurionis kiener , l . c . , 1845\ngraphiconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : graphiconus inscriptus inscriptus reeve , l . a . , 1843\nmagelliconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : magelliconus magellanicus hwass , c . h . in brugui\u00e8re , j . g . , 1792\ncylinder montfort , p . d . de , 1810 type species : cylinder textile textile linnaeus , c . , 1758\ngastridium modeer , 1793 type species : gastridium geographus linnaeus , c . , 1758\nsplinoconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : splinoconus biliosus r\u00f6ding , p . f . , 1798\nleptoconus swainson , w . a . , 1840 type species : leptoconus amadis amadis gmelin , j . f . , 1791\ndarioconus iredale , t . , 1930 type species : darioconus omaria hwass , c . h . in brugui\u00e8re , j . g . , 1792\nnataliconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : nataliconus natalis sowerby , g . b . ii , 1858\ncalibanus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : calibanus furvus reeve , l . a . , 1843\nphasmoconus m\u00f6rch , o . a . l . , 1852 type species : phasmoconus radiatus gmelin , j . f . , 1791\nfulgiconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : fulgiconus moluccensis moluccensis k\u00fcster , h . c . , 1838\neugeniconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : eugeniconus nobilis nobilis linnaeus , c . , 1758\npseudolilliconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : pseudolilliconus boschorum moolenbeek , r . g . & h . e . coomans , 1993\nendemoconus iredale , t . , 1931 type species : endemoconus howelli iredale , t . , 1929\ntextilia swainson , w . a . , 1840 type species : textilia bullata linnaeus , c . , 1758\npionoconus m\u00f6rch , o . a . l . , 1852 type species : pionoconus magus linnaeus , c . , 1758\nchelyconus m\u00f6rch , o . a . l . , 1852 type species : chelyconus ermineus born , i . von , 1778\nafonsoconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2013 type species : afonsoconus kinoshitai kuroda , t . , 1956\nmalagasyconus monnier , e . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2015 type species : malagasyconus lozeti richard , g . , 1980\npuncticulis swainson , w . a . , 1840 type species : conus arenatus r\u00f6ding , p . f . , 1798\nasprella schaufuss , l . w . , 1869 type species : asprella sulcata hwass , c . h . in brugui\u00e8re , j . g . , 1792\ndauciconus cotton , b . c . , 1945 type species : dauciconus daucus daucus hwass , c . h . in brugui\u00e8re , j . g . , 1792\nsandericonus petuch , e . j . , 2013 type species : sandericonus sanderi carioca ( var . ) petuch , e . j . , 1986\nattenuiconus petuch , e . j . , 2013 type species : attenuiconus attenuatus reeve , l . a . , 1844\nlividoconus wils , e . , 1970 type species : lividoconus lividus hwass , c . h . in brugui\u00e8re , j . g . , 1792\nharmoniconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : harmoniconus musicus hwass , c . h . in brugui\u00e8re , j . g . , 1792\nkioconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : kioconus recluzianus bernardi , m . , 1853\nlithoconus m\u00f6rch , o . a . l . , 1852 type species : lithoconus leopardus r\u00f6ding , p . f . , 1798\nmiliariconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : virroconus miliaris miliaris hwass , c . h . in brugui\u00e8re , j . g . , 1792\nrhizoconus m\u00f6rch , o . a . l . , 1852 type species : rhizoconus miles linnaeus , c . , 1758\nrhombiconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : rhombiconus imperialis imperialis linnaeus , c . , 1758\nstellaconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : stellaconus malacanus hwass , c . h . in brugui\u00e8re , j . g . , 1792\nstephanoconus m\u00f6rch , o . a . l . , 1852 type species : stephanoconus regius gmelin , j . f . , 1791\nstrategoconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : strategoconus generalis linnaeus , c . , 1767\nvirgiconus cotton , b . c . , 1945 type species : virgiconus virgo linnaeus , c . , 1758\nvirroconus iredale , t . , 1930 type species : virroconus ebraeus linnaeus , c . , 1758\nvituliconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : vituliconus planorbis born , i . von , 1778\nconasprelloides tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : conasprelloides cancellatus hwass , c . h . in brugui\u00e8re , j . g . , 1792\narubaconus petuch , e . j . , 2013 type species : arubaconus hieroglyphus duclos , p . l . , 1833\nbermudaconus petuch , e . j . , 2013 type species : bermudaconus lightbourni petuch , e . j . , 1986\ngladioconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : gladioconus gladiator broderip , w . j . , 1833\nkellyconus petuch , e . j . , 2013 type species : kellyconus patae abbott , r . t . , 1971\nporemskiconus petuch , e . j . , 2013 type species : poremskiconus archetypus archetypus crosse , h . , 1865\natlanticonus petuch , e . j . & d . m . sargent , 2012 type species : atlanticonus granulatus linnaeus , c . , 1758\nfloraconus iredale , t . , 1930 type species : floraconus anemone anemone lamarck , j . b . p . a . de , 1810\ngradiconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : gradiconus gradatus wood , w . , 1828\nlamniconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : lamniconus clerii reeve , l . a . , 1844\nseminoleconus petuch , e . j . , 2004 type species : seminoleconus violetae petuch , e . j . , 1988\nbrasiliconus petuch , e . j . , 2013 type species : brasiliconus scopulorum mol , j . g . van , b . tursch & m . kempf , 1971\ntenorioconus petuch , e . j . & m . drolshagen , 2011 type species : tenorioconus cedonulli cedonulli linnaeus , c . , 1767\nductoconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : ductoconus princeps linnaeus , c . , 1758\ngenuanoconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : genuanoconus genuanus linnaeus , c . , 1758\ncalamiconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : calamiconus lischkeanus lischkeanus weinkauff , h . c . , 1875\nleporiconus iredale , t . , 1930 type species : leporiconus glans hwass , c . h . in brugui\u00e8re , j . g . , 1792\nhermes montfort , p . d . de , 1810 type species : hermes nussatellus linnaeus , c . , 1758\nturriconus shikama , t . & t . habe , 1968 type species : turriconus excelsus sowerby , g . b . iii , 1908\nkurodaconus shikama , t . & t . habe , 1968 type species : kurodaconus stupa kuroda , t . , 1956\naustroconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : austroconus cyanostoma adams , a . in adams , h . g . & a . adams , 1853\nrolaniconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : rolaniconus varius linnaeus , c . , 1758\npseudonoduloconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : pseudonoduloconus carnalis sowerby , g . b . iii , 1879\nmonteiroconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : monteiroconus ambiguus reeve , l . a . , 1844\npurpuriconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : purpuriconus cardinalis hwass , c . h . in brugui\u00e8re , j . g . , 1792\ndendroconus swainson , w . a . , 1840 type species : dendroconus betulinus linnaeus , c . , 1758\nafriconus petuch , e . j . , 1975 type species : africonus cuneolus reeve , l . a . , 1843\ntrovaoconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : trovaoconus venulatus hwass , c . h . in brugui\u00e8re , j . g . , 1792\nkalloconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : kalloconus pulcher pulcher [ lightfoot , j . ] , 1786\nvarioconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : varioconus bulbus reeve , l . a . , 1843\nlautoconus monterosato , t . a . de m . di , 1923 type species : lautoconus ventricosus gmelin , j . f . , 1791\nplicaustraconus moolenbeek , r . g . , 2008 type species : plicaustraconus advertex garrard , t . a . , 1961\nsciteconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : sciteconus algoensis algoensis sowerby , g . b . i , 1834\neremiconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : eremiconus minnamurra garrard , t . a . , 1961\nlindaconus petuch , e . j . , 2002 type species : lindaconus lindae petuch , e . j . , 1987\npyruconus olsson , a . a . , 1967 type species : pyruconus patricius hinds , r . b . , 1843\ntesselliconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : tesselliconus tessulatus tessulatus born , i . von , 1778\nximeniconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : ximeniconus ximenes gray , j . e . , 1839\nperplexiconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : perplexiconus perplexus sowerby , g . b . ii , 1857\nquasiconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : quasiconus melvilli sowerby , g . b . iii , 1879\njaspidiconus petuch , e . j . , 2003 type species : jaspidiconus jaspideus gmelin , j . f . , 1791\nglobiconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : globiconus tornatus\nbroderip , w . j .\nsowerby , g . b . i in sowerby , g . b . ii , 1833\nkohniconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : kohniconus emarginatus reeve , l . a . , 1844\nprofundiconus motta , a . j . da , 1991 type species : profundiconus profundorum kuroda , t . , 1956\nyeddoconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : yeddoconus sieboldii reeve , l . a . , 1848\ndalliconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : dalliconus mcgintyi pilsbry , h . a . , 1955\nlilliconus raybaudi massilia , g . , 1994 type species : lilliconus biraghii biraghii raybaudi massilia , g . , 1993\nparviconus cotton , b . c . & f . k . godfrey , 1932 type species : parviconus rutilus menke , k . t . , 1843\npseudoconorbis tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : pseudoconorbis coromandelicus smith , e . a . , 1894\nbathyconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : bathyconus orbignyi audouin , j . - v . , 1831\nviminiconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : viminiconus vimineus reeve , l . a . , 1849\nfusiconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : fusiconus longurionis kiener , l . c . , 1845\nconasprella thiele , j . , 1929 type species : conasprella pagoda\nchenu , j . c .\nkiener , l . c . , 1847\ncaliforniconus tucker , j . k . & m . j . ten\u00f3rio , 2009 type species : californiconus californicus\nhinds , r . b .\nreeve , l . a . , 1844\ntaranteconus azuma , m . , 1972 type species : taranteconus chiangi azuma , m . , 1972\nkenyonia brazier , j . , 1896 type species : conus pulcherrimus brazier , j . , 1894\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwarning : the ncbi web site requires javascript to function . more . . .\nn . puillandre , 1 t . f . duda , 2 c . meyer , 3 b . m . olivera , 4 and p . bouchet 5\ncorrespondence : n . puillandre ; e - mail : rf . nhnm @ erdnalliup\ncopyright \u00a9 the author 2014 . published by oxford university press on behalf of the malacological society of london , all rights reserved\nafter more than two centuries of naming and overnaming , the species - level systematics of cones is undergoing a reappraisal based , among others , on molecular characters , and this is leading to a more stable taxonomy . conversely , the supraspecific classification of the cone snails has in the last 20 years become more unstable than ever . a plethora of nominal ( sub ) genera reflect subtle differences in shell form and radular morphology , but these are obscuring phylogenetic relationships between terminal taxa . while toxinologists are longing for a predictive classification that can be used as a roadmap for bioprospecting ( olivera , 2006 ; puillandre & holford , 2010 ) , the two genus - level classifications of cones proposed in the last 25 years ( da motta , 1991 ; tucker & tenorio , 2009 , 2013 ) have remained ignored outside the world of cone - shell collectors .\nrecently published a phylogeny of the cone snails based on 330 species and sequences of three mitochondrial gene regions . in the present paper we utilized this molecular phylogeny as a foundation to establish a new genus - and subgenus - level classification of the conidae , with four genera (\n) . we also tentatively allocate all cone snail species currently considered as valid in worms , but not represented in the molecular phylogeny , to genera and subgenera based on their morphological characters .\nsimplified version of the bayesian tree based on the concatenation of sequences of three mitochondrial gene regions ( coi , 16s , 12s ) and published by puillandre et al . ( 2014 : fig . 2 ) showing the proposed classification . genera and subgenera with multiple species are reduced to triangles , whose lengths are proportional to the branch lenghts . posterior probabilities ( > 0 . 95 ) are shown for each node . only ( sub ) genera with at least one sequenced representative are figured .\nproposing a classification based on a phylogeny mainly consists of ( 1 ) identifying the groups that will be named ; ( 2 ) attributing available names and , if necessary , establishing new ones , for the groups identified in ( 1 ) ; and ( 3 ) ranking these names .\nas far as possible , only well supported ( bootstrap probability > 90 % ; bayesian posterior probability > 0 . 95 ) clades ( and single - species lineages ) were linked to names . when several alternatives were possible ( e . g . one supported clade that includes two supported clades , both with available names attributable to them ) , other characters and properties , such as shell morphology , type of prey , bathymetric and / or geographical distribution , were considered in order to identify the most appropriate grouping to minimize within - group variability . overall , a conservative approach was adopted , to minimize the number of supraspecific taxa , both named and unnamed . in two cases ( pyruconus and cylinder ) we attributed a name to a group we recognized to be non - monophyletic ( although this non - monophyly is not supported ) , in order to avoid having to establish new names for many small clades . such polyphyletic , but morphologically consistent , genera may correspond to grades and in future each of the included clades may be shown to deserve its own name .\nas far as possible , a genus - group name ( i . e . a genus or subgenus ) was applied based on the position of its type species in the tree . if the type species of a nominal genus or subgenus had not been sequenced , application of the name was determined by reference to the morphologically most similar species used in the molecular analysis . if more than one name was applicable for a clade , the valid name was determined by the rule of priority . in the classification below , od refers to the fixation of type species by original designation , sd by subsequent designation and m by monotypy ( as defined by iczn , 1999 : art . 68 , 69 , respectively ) .\nall the 803 species of conidae listed as valid in worms ( 2014 ) were allocated to genera and subgenera , with two levels of confidence . those printed in bold font were placed in the classification based on the dna sequences of puillandre et al . ( 2014 ) . the others were classified based on their shell and / or radula characters , following tucker & tenorio ( 2013 ) and , for species not included or considered as synonyms by tucker & tenorio ( 2013 ) , following petuch ( 2013 ) or the advice of m . tenorio ( personal communication ) .\nspecies sometimes referred to as \u2018cone snails\u2019 but allocated to artemidiconus ( conorbidae ; tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; bouchet et al . , 2011 ) , benthofascis ( conorbidae ; tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; bouchet et al . , 2011 ) , genota ( cryptoconidae in tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; or borsoniidae in bouchet et al . , 2011 ) and genotina ( cryptoconidae in tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; or mangeliidae in bouchet et al . , 2011 ) were excluded . within conorbidae , only benthofascis lozoueti has been sequenced and molecular analysis indicates that the family is separate from conidae ( puillandre et al . , 2011 ) . however , b . lozoueti is the only conorbid species that does not resorb the inner shell walls ( tucker , tenorio & stahlschmidt , 2011 ) . it thus cannot be excluded that the other conorbidae species\u2014which resorb them\u2014may in fact not be confamilial . likewise , as indicated above , molecular data place genota in the borsoniidae ( puillandre et al . , 2011 ) and this clade is not further discussed here . fossil taxa ( hemiconus cossmann , 1889 ; cryptoconus koenen , 1867 ; conorbis swainson , 1840 ; conilithes swainson , 1840 ; eoconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 and plagioconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ) are not discussed either . consequently , only the conidae , conilithidae and taranteconidae ( sensu tucker & tenorio , 2009 ) are discussed below , i . e . the cone snails as defined by bouchet et al . ( 2011 ) .\n[ synonyms : conilithidae tucker & tenorio , 2009 , n . syn . taranteconidae tucker & tenorio , 2009 , n . syn . puncticuliinae tucker & tenorio , 2009 , n . syn . ]\nremarks : conus californicus has always been considered a unique species within cone snails , because of its molecular ( including toxicological : biggs et al . , 2010 ; elliger et al . , 2011 ) and morphological singularities and also because of its diet , since it is able to prey indifferently on fish , molluscs and worms ( kohn , 1966 ) .\nremarks : puillandre et al . ( 2014 ) did not sequence the type species of profundiconus ; their sequenced material was identified as p . aff . profundorum . however , tucker & tenorio ( 2009 , 2013 ) found profundiconus to be a morphologically well supported group and we are thus confident in applying this name to the clade containing p . aff . profundorum .\ntype species : conus pagoda kiener , 1847 ; sd , tucker & tenorio ( 2009 : 140 ) ( under iczn , 1999 : art . 70 . 3 . 2 ) .\n[ synonym : duodenticonus tucker & tenorio 2013 ; type species : asprella memiae habe & kosuge , 1970 ; od ; n . syn . ]\nremarks : the species c . kimioi was placed in the subgenus boucheticonus ( following tucker & tenorio 2013 ) , even if the corresponding clade was not highly supported .\nhenriquei ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .\n[ synonyms : kermasprella powell , 1958 ; type species : conus raoulensis powell , 1958 ; od . yeddoconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus sieboldii reeve , 1848 ; od ]\n[ synonyms : bathyconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus orbignyi audouin , 1831 ; od ; n . syn . fumiconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus traversianus e . a . smith , 1875 , od ; n . syn . viminiconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus vimineus reeve , 1849 ; od ; n . syn . ]\nelegans ( g . b . sowerby iii , 1895 ) n . comb .\narcuata ( broderip & g . b . sowerby i , 1829 ) n . comb .\nremarks : tucker & tenorio ( 2009 ) included both conasprella delesserti and conasprella arcuata in kohniconus . in our analysis , the two species do not cluster together . the name kohniconus could have been applied to the lineage that includes the species c . delessertii , but because of the closer morphological resemblance of conus emarginatus with c . arcuata , we have applied kohniconus to the lineage that includes c . arcuata .\nsagei ( korn & g . raybaudi massilia , 1993 ) n . comb .\n[ synonyms : globiconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus tornatus g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ; od ; n . syn . jaspidiconus petuch , 2003 ; type species : conus jaspideus gmelin , 1791 ; od ; n . syn . perplexiconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus perplexus g . b . sowerby ii , 1857 ; od ; n . syn . ]\narawak ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .\nbaccata ( g . b . sowerby iii , 1877 ) n . comb .\nberschaueri ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .\nericmonnieri ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .\nherndli ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .\nogum ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .\nperplexa ( g . b . sowerby ii , 1857 ) n . comb .\nporemskii ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .\nsimonei ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .\ntornata ( g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ) n . comb .\n[ synonyms : cucullus r\u00f6ding , 1798 ; type species : conus marmoreus linnaeus , 1758 ; sd , winckworth ( 1945 : 139 ) . coronaxis swainson , 1840 ; type species : conus bandanus hwass , 1792 ; m ]\ntype species : conus asper lamarck , 1810 , by typification of replaced name . asprella was established as a substitute name for cylindrella swainson , 1840 ( see below ) . conus asper was not among the 11 species included in asprella by schaufuss ( 1869 : 43\u201344 ) , and wenz ( 1940 ) cited conus sulcatus brugui\u00e8re , 1792 ( a species originally included by schaufuss ) as the type species ; conus sulcatus and c . asper are subjective synonyms .\n[ synonyms : cylindrella swainson , 1840 ; type species : conus asper lamarck , 1810 ; subjective synonym of conus sulcatus hwass , 1792 ; m . cylindrella swainson , 1840 ( conidae ) , is a homonym of cylindrella swainson , 1840 ( urocoptidae ) and has been placed on the official index of rejected and invalid names by iczn , 1999 : opinion 1030 . sulciconus bielz , 1869 ; type species ( here designated ) : conus sulcatus hwass in brugui\u00e8re , 1792 , n . syn . the names asprella and sulciconus were both published in 1869 and their exact dates of publication are not known in order to establish priority . under iczn ( 1999 ) : art . 24 . 2 , we act here as first revisers and give precedence to the name asprella over sulciconus . ]\n[ possible senior synonym : mamiconus cotton & godfrey , 1932 ; type species : conus superstes hedley , 1911 ; od . the identity of c . superstes is uncertain ; it is listed as a nomen dubium by tucker & tenorio ( 2013 ) ]\n[ synonym : thalassiconus tucker & tenorio , 2013 ; type species : conus thalassiarchus g . b . sowerby i , 1834 , n . syn . ; od ]\ntype species : conus textile linnaeus , 1758 ; od . dubois & bour ( 2010 ) revived the name cylindrus as from batsch , 1789 and designated conus textile as its type species . this has the consequence of destabilizing the pulmonate genus name cylindrus fitzinger , 1833 , which is in current use . the iczn will be petitioned to maintain usage of cylinder montfort , 1810 , and cylindrus fitzinger , 1833 , in their accustomed sense . ]\nremarks : tucker & tenorio ( 2009 ) described two \u2018body plans\u2019 in their genus cylinder , citing conus textile and c . gloriamaris as examples of each group ; they may correspond to the two groups found in the molecular phylogeny . tucker & tenorio ( 2009 ) relied on their similar radulae and diets to maintain them in a single genus : we have followed them and place all the species in a single subgenus . among the sequenced species , c . ammiralis , c . canonicus and c . dalli cluster with the type species c . textile ; the other species constitute a separate clade .\n[ synonyms : regiconus iredale , 1930 ; type species : conus aulicus linnaeus , 1758 ; od ; the simultaneously published darioconus was given precedence over regiconus by first reviser kira ( 1954 : 75 ) . erythroconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus crocatus lamarck , 1810 ; od ]\nremarks : the species c . thomae was placed in the subgenus darioconus ( following tucker & tenorio 2013 ) , even though the corresponding clade was not highly supported .\n[ synonyms : gradiconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus gradatus w . wood , 1828 ; od ; n . syn . ; magelliconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus magellanicus hwass in brugui\u00e8re , 1792 ; od ; n . syn . ; purpuriconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus cardinalis hwass in brugui\u00e8re , 1792 ; od ; n . syn . ; cariboconus petuch , 2003 ; type species : conus amphiurgus dall , 1889 ; od ; conasprelloides tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus cancellatus hwass in brugui\u00e8re , 1792 ; od ; n . syn . ; poremskiconus petuch , 2013 ; type species : conus ziczac m\u00fchlfeld , 1816 ; od ; n . syn . ; tuckericonus petuch 2013 ; type species : conus flavescens g . b . sowerby i , 1834 ; od ; n . syn . ]\nhonkerorum ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .\ncoltrorum ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .\nremarks : the species c . medoci was placed in the subgenus dendroconus ( following tucker and tenorio 2013 ) , even if the corresponding clade was not highly supported\n[ synonym : arubaconus petuch , 2013 ; type species : conus hieroglyphus duclos , 1833 ; od ; n . syn . ]\n[ synonym : ketyconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus tinianus hwass in brugui\u00e8re , 1792 ; od ; n . syn . ]\n[ synonyms : genuanoconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus genuanus linnaeus , 1758 ; od ; n . syn . trovaoconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus venulatus hwass in brugui\u00e8re , 1792 ; od ; n . syn . ]\n[ synonym : continuconus tucker & tenorio , 2013 ; type species : conus plinthis richard & moolenbeek , 1988 ; od ; n . syn . ]\npatriceae ( petuch & r . f . myers , 2014 ) n . comb .\n[ synonyms : africonus petuch , 1975 ; type species : conus cuneolus reeve , 1843 ; od ; n . syn . varioconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus variegatus kiener , 1848 od ; n . syn . ]\nfiadeiroi ( tenorio , afonso , cunha & rol\u00e1n , 2014 ) n . comb .\nswinneni ( tenorio , afonso , cunha & rol\u00e1n , 2014 ) n . comb .\n[ synonym : nataliconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus natalis g . b . sowerby ii , 1858 ; od ; n . syn . ]\n[ synonym : calamiconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus lischkeanus weinkauff , 1875 ; od ; n . syn . ]\n[ synonym : gladioconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus gladiator broderip , 1833 ; od ; n . syn . ]\n[ synonyms : fulgiconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus moluccensis k\u00fcster , 1838 ; od ; n . syn . ; graphiconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus inscriptus reeve , 1843 ; od ; n . syn . ; thoraconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus exiguus lamarck , 1810 ; od ; n . syn . nimboconus tucker & tenorio , 2013 ; type species : conus nimbosus hwass in brugui\u00e8re , 1792 ; od ; n . syn . ]\n[ synonyms : heroconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus poehlianus g . b . sowerby iii , 1887 [ synonym of conus consors g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ] ; od . strioconus thiele , 1929 ; type species : conus striatus linnaeus , 1758 ; od . socioconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus consors g . b . sowerby i , 1833 ; od ]\ntype species : conus carnalis g . b . sowerby iii , 1879 ; od\nremarks : even though the two species are not in the same group in the molecular phylogeny , and to avoid the creation of a new subgeneric name , we have followed tucker & tenorio ( 2009 ) , who placed c . fergusoni and c . patricius in the same genus , pyruconus ( here ranked as subgenus ) , based on radula and shell characters .\ntype species : conus melvilli g . b . sowerby iii , 1879 ; od\ntype species : conus algoensis g . b . sowerby i , 1834 ; od\n[ synonyms : kioconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus recluzianus bernardi , 1853 ; od ; n . syn . ongoconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus voluminalis reeve , 1843 ; od ; precedence of splinoconus ( established at the rank of genus ) over simultaneously established kioconus and ongoconus ( established at the rank of subgenus ) determined by iczn ( 1999 ) art . 24 . 1 . stellaconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus malacanus hwass in brugui\u00e8re , 1792 ; od ; n . syn . isoconus tucker & tenorio , 2013 ; type species : conus corallinus kiener , 1847 ; od ; n . syn . nitidoconus tucker & tenorio , 2013 ; type species : conus boeticus reeve , 1844 ; od ; n . syn . ]\n[ synonyms : rhombus montfort , 1810 ( invalid ; junior homonym of rhombus walbaum , 1792 ) ; type species : conus imperialis linnaeus , 1758 ; od . cornutoconus suzuki , 1972 ; type species : cornutoconus lamellatus suzuki , 1972 ( = conus chiangi ( azuma , 1972 ) ) ; od . taranteconus azuma , 1972 ; type species : conus chiangi ( azuma , 1972 ) ; od ; n . syn . protoconus da motta , 1991 ( invalid ; junior homonym of protoconus yu , 1979 and protoconus stinchcomb , 1986 ) ; type species : conus cedonulli linnaeus , 1767 ; od . seminoleconus petuch , 2003 ; type species : \u2020 conus violetae petuch 1988 ( pliocene ) ; od . rhombiconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus imperialis linnaeus , 1758 ; od ; n . syn . tenorioconus petuch & drohlshagen , 2011 ; type species : conus cedonulli linnaeus , 1767 ; od ; n . syn . ]\n[ synonyms : vituliconus da motta , 1991 ; type species : conus vitulinus hwass in brugui\u00e8re , 1792 ( = conus planorbis born , 1778 ) ; od ; n . syn . rolaniconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus varius linnaeus , 1758 ; od ; n . syn . ]\ntype species : turriconus nakayasui shikama & habe , 1968 [ synonym of conus excelsus g . b . sowerby iii , 1908 ] ; od\n[ synonyms : kurodaconus shikama & habe , 1968 ; type species : embrikena stupa kuroda , 1956 ; od ; n . syn . mitraconus tucker & tenorio , 2013 ; type species : conus mitratus hwass in brugui\u00e8re , 1792 ; od ; n . syn . ]\n[ synonym : pseudohermes tucker & tenorio 2013 ; type species : conus austroviola r\u00f6ckel & korn , 1992 ; od ; n . syn . ]\n[ synonyms : dyraspis iredale , 1949 ; type species : conus dorreensis p\u00e9ron , 1807 ; od , n . syn . miliariconus tucker & tenorio , 2009 ; type species : conus miliaris hwass in brugui\u00e8re , 1792 ; od , n . syn . ]\nthe authors thank manuel j . tenorio for helpful comments . some of the specimens analysed by bmo for this work were obtained using grant support provided by the national institutes of health (\n) . this work was partly supported by the conotax project , funded by the french \u2018agence nationale de la recherche\u2019 ( grant number anr - 13 - jsv7 - 0013 - 01 ) .\nnominal genus - group names of recent conidae and their current status in the present classification .\navise j . c . , liu j . - x . on the temporal inconsistencies of linnean taxonomic ranks .\nbiggs j . s . , watkins m . , puillandre n . , ownby j . p . , lopez - vera e . , christensen s . , moreno k . j . , bernaldez j . , licea - navarro a . , showers corneli p . , olivera b . m . evolution of\ncastelin m . , lorion j . , brisset j . , cruaud c . , maestrati p . , utge j . , samadi s . speciation patterns in gastropods with long - lived larvae from deep - sea seamounts .\nclaremont m . , vermeij g . j . , williams s . t . , reid d . g . global phylogeny and new classification of the rapaninae ( gastropoda : muricidae ) , dominant molluscan predators on tropical rocky seashores .\ncotton b . c . a catalogue of the cone snails ( conidae ) in the south australian museum .\nde queiroz k . the general lineage concept of species , species criteria , and the process of speciation : a conceptual unification and terminological recommendations . in : howard d . j . , berlocher s . h . , editors .\ndubois a . , bour r . the distinction between family - series and class - series nomina in zoological nomenclature , with emphasis on the nomina created by batsch ( 1788 , 1789 ) and on the higher nomenclature of turtles .\nespiritu d . j . d . , watkins m . , dia - monje v . , cartier g . e . , cruz l . e . , olivera b . m . venomous cone snails : molecular phylogeny and the generation of toxin diversity .\njimenez e . c . , olivera b . m . , teichert r . w . \u03b1c - conotoxin prxa : a new family of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonists .\nkantor y . i . , puillandre n . evolution of the radular apparatus in conoidea ( gastropoda : neogastropoda ) as inferred from a molecular phylogeny .\nkraus n . j . , showers corneli p . , watkins m . , bandyopadhyay p . k . , seger j . , olivera b . m . against expectation : a short sequence with high signal elucidates cone snail phylogeny .\nkraus n . j . , watkins m . , bandyopadhyay p . k . , seger j . , olivera b . m . , showers corneli p . a very short , functionally constrained sequence diagnoses cone snails in several\npuillandre n . , holford m . the terebridae and teretoxins : combining phylogeny and anatomy for concerted discovery of bioactive compounds .\nsamadi s . , barberousse a . the tree , the network , and the species .\nwenz w . teil 1 : allgemeiner teil und prosobranchia . in : schindewolf o . h . , editor .\nconus vidua\ncuyoensis\n( linnaeus , 1758 )\nnice pattern\n( 52 . 0mm )\na beautiful\nvariant\nof conus marmoreus . grade : f3 / gem .\nlindaconus spurius atlanticus clench , w . j . , 1942 . off key biscayne , florida . rick californiashells . \u2022 images are for condition of shell only \u2013 colors may vary depending on your monitor \u2013 i will describe any unusual color forms above .\ndarioconus leviteni elisae tucker , j . k . , m . j . tenorio & h . w . chaney , 2011 . kekaha , kauai , hi . rick californiashells .\ntextilia stercusmuscarum linnaeus , c . , 1758 . marau sound , guadalcanal , solomons . rick californiashells .\nvery nice double banded pattern , one dark and one light . neat shell . collected in the 90 ' s . location : mozombique , africa . no personal checks or mo ' s accepted , no exceptions !\noff moorea , french polynesia . rick californiashells . cylinder textile linnaeus , c . , 1758 . 61 . 30mm f .\nthe cypraea and conus collections are nearly complete ! i will include what data i have on each shell . i literally have 1000 ' s of shells .\ndarioconus episcopatus motta , a . j . da , 1982 . rick californiashells .\nconus janus hwass , 1792\nbright - orange\n( 63 . 1mm )\nconus litoglyphus : unusual hawaiian cone w / no mid banding @ 31 . 64mm !\nthis item is from my personal hawaiiana collection of exceptional hawaiian shells ! notes : lacking most of the mid body white pattern . from the mcdowall collection of kauai . good luck !\nconus leviteni ( tucker , tenorio & chaney , 2011\nswollen - variant !\n( 38 . 3mm )\nconus miles linnaeus , 1758\nnice colors !\n( 78 . 3mm )\nrust , brown , white and black\ncolors . grade : f3 ( f ) .\nconus muriculatus f . sugillatus ( reeve , 1844 )\nvariant\n( 38 . 5mm )\na color variant\n. grade : f3 ( f ) . size : 38 . 5mm .\nthe lipped is naturally filed by the sand from dredging and the tip is worn . shell has a naturally healed reef break / growth line on one side and one on the bottom . still a nice shell . this is the typical condition of this species .\nconus ratus : mated pair from the e . r . cross coll @ 37 & 39mm !\nnotes : from the er cross collection of hawaii . found in 1970 ' s . mated pair from cross collection . this item is from my personal hawaiiana collection ( shells from the ellis r cross collection ) ! good luck !\nnotes : self - collected endemic . the one on the right is free .\nconus lividus : hawaiian form @ 63 . 08mm - huge size rarely seen !\nthis item is from my personal hawaiiana collection of exceptional hawaiian shells ! notes : from 1974 off honolulu . huge size . good luck ! grade : fine / fine .\ngood luck ! grade : gem . notes : from my last asian trip . great pattern & size .\nconus pohlianus : very rare white albino form @ 41 . 7mm - currently only one on ebay !\nnotes : from my last asian trip . has a few worn areas . good luck ! grade : fine .\nconus thalassiarchus depriesteri ( wils , 1972 )\nvariant\n( 37 . 5mm )\ndark - coffee\ntones . grade : f3 . size : 37 . 5mm .\ngood luck ! notes : from my last asian trip . lip was lightly smoothed . great size & pattern .\nis a venomous species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the conidae family . like all species within the genus conus , these snails are predatory & venomous . they are capable of stinging humans , therefore , live ones should be handled carefully or not at all .\nconus ferrugineus ( hwass , 1792 )\nan exceptional representative !\n( 44 . 4mm )\nan exceptional representative !\n. grade : f3 / gem . size : 44 . 4mm .\nlindaconus spurius atlanticus clench , w . j . , 1942 . off marathon , florida keys . rick californiashells .\nsciteconus algoensis simplex sowerby , g . b . ii , 1858 . rick californiashells . south africa .\nvery nice pink coloring and pattern . collected in the 80 ' s . no personal checks or mo ' s accepted , no exceptions !\nconus textile linnaeus , 1758\na classic collectable !\n( 62 . 4mm )\na classic collectable !\n. size : 62 . 4mm . grade : good .\njaspidiconus mindanus hwass , c . h . in brugui\u00e8re , j . g . , 1792 . off pompano bech , florida . rick californiashells . dredged at 10 fathoms .\nconus varius ( linnaeus , 1758 )\na classic collectable !\n( 37 . 0mm )\ngradiconus garciai motta , a . j . da , 1982 . north coast of honduras 1999 . rick californiashells . \u2022 images are for condition of shell only \u2013 colors may vary depending on your monitor \u2013 i will describe any unusual color forms above .\nvery nice dark orange coloring and pattern . shell is from my personal collection . collected in the 70 ' s . no personal checks or mo ' s accepted , no exceptions !\ngolden cone conus betulinus shell seashell 3 . 25\n82 mm see what you will get ! # 3\nconus betulinus . 1 natural seashell for your collection . we do our best to pick out the best shells to send to you . each seashell and starfish is unique ! 1 golden cone . \u00a9the shell hut 2018 . any duplication of the shell hut designs without written permission is prohibited .\nconus pulicarius hwass , 1792\na hawaiian waters representative !\n( 25 . 9mm )\ngrade : freak . ( from my personal collection ) . notes : from my last asian trip . good luck !\npresented above\nvariant\nfrom mozambique . grade : f3 ( f ) . size : 67 . 4mm .\nspecies : c . inscriptus . conus inscriptus . dredged at 30 fathoms . kingdom : animalia . superfamily : conoidea . reeve , 1843 . clade : caenogastropoda .\nnice color and pattern . what a cutie ! collected in the 80 ' s . no personal checks or mo ' s accepted , no exceptions !\nconus betulinus ( linne , 1758 ) : 68mm no specific collection information east africa . any major delays will be communicated . gem = perfect . no grading : poor quality as described ( beach worn , large holes , spire missing ) .\ncopyright \u00a9 1995 - 2018 ebay inc . all rights reserved . accessibility , user agreement , privacy , cookies and adchoice\nconus is a genus of predatory sea snails , or cone snails , marine gastropod mollusks in the family conidae . [ 1 ] prior to 2009 , cone snail species had all traditionally been grouped into the single genus conus . however , conus is now more precisely defined , and there are several other accepted genera of cone snails . for a list of the currently accepted genera , see conidae .\nfor a list of the currently accepted species within the genus conus , based on the information in the world register of marine species ( worms ) list , see : list of conus species .\nspecies in the genus conus sensu stricto can be found in the tropical and subtropical seas of the world , at depths ranging from the sublittoral to 1 , 000 m . they are very variable in some of their characters , such as the tuberculation of the spire and body whorl , striae , colors and the pattern of coloring . many fossil species have been described ; they are extensively distributed , and first appear in cretaceous strata .\nthe thick shell of species in the genus conus sensu stricto , is obconic , with the whorls enrolled upon themselves . the spire is short , smooth or tuberculated . the narrow aperture is elongated with parallel margins parallel and is truncated at the base . the operculum is very small relative to the size of the shell . it is corneous , narrowly elongated , with an apical nucleus , and the impression of the muscular attachment varies from one - half to two - thirds of the inner surface . the outer lip shows a slight sutural sinus . [ 2 ]\nas this list shows , many genera that were formerly recognized within the family conidae , have become subgenera of conus , and they can also be represented by that subgeneric name as an\nalternate representation\n.\ng . w . tryon ( 1884 ) manual of conchology , structural and systematic , with illustrations of the species , vol . vi ; philadelphia , academy of natural sciences\nr\u00f6ckel , d . , korn , w . & kohn , a . j . 1995 . manual of the living conidae . volume 1 : indo - pacific region . wiesbaden : hemmen 517 pp .\nfilmer r . m . ( 2001 ) . a catalogue of nomenclature and taxonomy in the living conidae 1758 - 1998 . backhuys publishers , leiden . 388pp .\ntucker j . k . ( 2009 ) . recent cone species database . september 4 , 2009 edition\ntucker j . k . & tenorio m . j . ( 2009 ) systematic classification of recent and fossil conoidean gastropods . hackenheim : conchbooks . 296 pp\npuillandre n . , duda t . f . , meyer c . , olivera b . m . & bouchet p . ( 2015 ) . one , four or 100 genera ? a new classification of the cone snails . journal of molluscan studies . 81 : 1 - 23\nkohn a . a . ( 1992 ) . chronological taxonomy of conus , 1758 - 1840 . smithsonian institution press , washington and london .\nthis page was last modified on 4 may 2016 , at 12 : 10 .\nthis article ' s content derived from wikipedia , the free encyclopedia ( see original source ) ."]}
{"id": 2428, "summary": [{"text": "the eugeneodontida are an extinct and poorly known order of bizarre cartilaginous fishes .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they possessed a unique \" tooth-whorl \" on the symphysis of the lower jaw and pectoral fins supported by long radials .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the palatoquadrate was either fused to the skull or reduced .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "now determined to be within the holocephali , their closest living relatives are ratfish .", "topic": 6}, {"text": "the meaning of the name eugeneodont correlates to \" true origin teeth \" , and comes from the greek eu ( good/true ) , geneos ( race , kind , origin ) , and odon ( tooth ) .", "topic": 25}, {"text": "members of the eugeneodontida are further classified into different families , the most well-preserved members that have been discovered are commonly placed within the families helicoprionidae ( \" spiral saws \" ) , and edestidae ( \" those which devour \" ) , the former containing the genera helicoprion , sarcoprion , and parahelicoprion , and the latter containing the genera edestus , listracanthus , and metaxyacanthus .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "all eugeneodonts are thought to be obligate carnivores , with each genus having specialized feeding behaviors , territory ranges , and specific prey . ", "topic": 4}], "title": "eugeneodontida", "paragraphs": ["no one has contributed data records for eugeneodontida yet . learn how to contribute .\nbefore we talk about eugeneodontida as a whole , let\u2019s talk about their most famous member .\nhelicoprion belonged to an order of cartilaginous fish called eugeneodontida . while originally thought of as sharks , more recent anatomical discoveries place them closer to chimeridae , commonly known as chimeras , rabbitfish , or ratfish , a more obscure family of cartilaginous fish .\neugeneodontida is an extinct and poorly known order of bizarre sharks . they possessed a unique\ntooth - whorl\non the symphysis of the lower jaw as well as pectoral fins supported by long radials . the palatoquadrate was either fused to the skull or reduced . it is possible that they may belong to holocephali .\neugeneodontida is an extinct and poorly known order of bizarre sharks . they possessed a unique\ntooth - worl\non the symphysis of the lower jaw as well as pectoral fins supported by long radials . the palatoquadrate was either fused to the skull or reduced . it is possible that they may belong to holocephali .\nmembers of eugeneodontida are further classified into different families , the most well - preserved members that have been discovered are commonly placed within the families helicoprionidae (\nspiral saws\n) , and edestidae (\nthose which devour\n) , the former containing the genera helicoprion , sarcoprion and parahelicoprion , and the latter containing the genera edestus , listracanthus and metaxyacanthus . all eugeneodonts are thought to be obligate carnivores , with each genera having specialized feeding behaviors , territory ranges and specific prey .\nthe chondrichthyes are characterized by a special type of hard tissue lining the cartilages of the endoskeleton : the prismatic calcified cartilage . another chondrichthyan characteristic is the pelvic clasper , as special copulatory organ derived from the metapterygium , i . e . the posterior part of the pelvic fin . a pelvic clasper may , however , be present in the fossil placodermi . chondrichthyans include two major extant clades , the elasmobranchii and the holocephali , and a number of fossil clades ( cladoselachidae , symmoriida , xenacanthiformes , iniopterygia , eugeneodontida ) which may fall outside these two clades .\neugeneodontida is an extinct and poorly known order of bizarre cartilaginous fishes . they possessed a unique\ntooth - whorl\non the symphysis of the lower jaw as well as pectoral fins supported by long radials . the palatoquadrate was either fused to the skull or reduced . now determined to be within holocephali , their closest living relatives are ratfish . the meaning of the name eugeneodont correlates to\ntrue origin teeth\n, and comes from the greek words eu ( good / true ) , geneos ( race , kind , origin ) and odon ( tooth . )\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\njavascript is required to use this web site . please turn it on before proceeding .\nfull reference : r . zangerl . 1981 . chondrichthyes i : paleozoic elasmobranchii . handbook of paleoichthyology 3a\nsee also cappetta 1987 , ginter et al . 2010 , goto and okura 2004 , nelson 2006 , sepkoski 2002 and zangerl 1981\ncatherine sutera added the english common name\nshark\nto\nhelicoprion karpinsky 1899\n.\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nof the lower jaw as well as pectoral fins supported by long radials . the\nwere discovered . the first specimen suggests an animal that reached 10 meters in length , while the second specimen , nicknamed\nbois\n, suggests an animal that exceed 12 meters . this suggests that this species of\ntapanila l . ; pruitt j . ; pradel a . ; wilga c . ; ramsay j . ; schlader r . ; didier d . ( 2013 ) .\njaws for a spiral - tooth whorl : ct images reveal novel adaptation and phylogeny in fossil helicoprion\n.\njstor : journal of paleontology vol . 70 , no . 1 ( jan . , 1996 ) , pp . 162 - 165\nthis article is issued from wikipedia - version of the 11 / 29 / 2016 . the text is available under the creative commons attribution / share alike but additional terms may apply for the media files .\njstor : journal of paleontologyvol . 70 , no . 1 ( jan . , 1996 ) , pp . 162 - 165\nthis page uses creative commons licensed content from wikipedia ( view authors ) . please help by writing it in the style of all birds wiki !\ncan ' t find a community you love ? create your own and start something epic .\nthe tooth system of the eugeneodontids varies widely , however , most have a parasymphysial tooth whorl . the upper maxillary teeth are displaced to the lower surface of the jaw . the body is spindle - shaped , with the sufficiently long tail section .\nlateral teeth usually pressing , polyconic , in the form transverse numbers , different size for the elongation of jaw ( for example , caseodus and fadenia have the largest according to the sizes teeth they are located approximately in the middle the branch of lower jaw ) . sometimes , apparently , lateral teeth can be lost , as evidenced by the presence of individual fossil teeth being recovered .\nthe position of the spiral tooth - whorl on symphysis is disputed by some scientists ( there is , for example , the opinion that the spiral was fastened by some means in the region of throat , being the derivative of throaty teeth - it is more accurate , the kinks of the mucous membrane of throat , similar structures exist in bony fishes and primitive sharks ) . at the same time , fossilized skulls are known with the symphysial teeth clearly preserved in the same position that they would be when the creature was still alive . in some forms , probably , there are large symphysial arcs in both jaws .\ngill arcs are located behind the cerebral box , as in sharks , but their number is relatively small , five . probably , in life , there were separate gill slots , however the presence of gill covers is not proven .\nthe postcranial skeleton is known mostly by fossilized remains of fadenia ( permian of greenland ) , the exterior view of other representatives of group could be different . the free part of the metapterigiya goes all the way back to the limits of fin ( structure as in many paleozoic sharks ) .\nthere is one dorsal fin , located directly above the shoulder girdle . there are no abdominal and anal fins . the skeleton of caseodus , a more poorly understood genus , is very similar in structure .\ncaseodontoidea : caseodontoidea includes the families of eugeneodontidae and caseodontidae . they are characterized by the transverse - comb - like or inflated symphyseal teeth . a well - preserved fossil specimen , fadenia from the carboniferous and permian of greenland and north america , was a relatively middle - sized ( about 1 . 5 meters in length ) fish .\nthis article is a stub . you can help fossil wiki by expanding it .\nif you know the book but cannot find it on abebooks , we can automatically search for it on your behalf as new inventory is added . if it is added to abebooks by one of our member booksellers , we will notify you !\nby using the web site , you confirm that you have read , understood , and agreed to be bound by the terms and conditions . copyright \u00a9 1996 - 2018 abebooks inc . & abebooks europe gmbh . all rights reserved .\n\u2026a species of eugenodontid holocephalid cartilaginous fish that lived in what would be greenland during the permian period . like other agassizodontids sarcoprion had a unique \u201ctooth - whorl\u201d on its lower jaw , the function of this whorl is still largely unknown .\nhas there been any\ndiscourse\non the identification of eugenodonts ? because , i mean - they just look so impractical .\nin 1899 , the above fossil was discovered in the ural mountains of russia , depicting a spiral - shaped whorl of teeth resembling a circular saw . the teeth resembled those of a shark , but paleontologists were uncertain of how this tooth - whorl would operate , or how it would fit into the animal\u2019s anatomy . they named it helicoprion ( \u201dspiral saw\u201d ) , and began working on a century - long puzzle as to its true shape .\nthe animal had an extended lower jaw shaped like a pizza cutter , used to \u201csaw\u201d flesh off of much larger prey .\nthe animal\u2019s lower jaw was a coiled - up tentacle - like structure , capable of lashing out at prey like a whip .\nthe animal was actually more ray - like than shark - like , with a spiral - shaped tooth - lined throat used to grind up small prey .\nit wasn\u2019t until the discovery of a more completely preserved specimen of one of helicoprion \u2019s relatives that the true nature of the animal was revealed . the \u201ctooth - whorl\u201d was actually a preserved growth ring ; the large , exterior teeth would gradually be worn down and replaced by the smaller , still - growing inner teeth . the top of this ring protruded at the front of the lower jaw .\nthe purpose of the \u201ctooth - whorl\u201d is still not entirely known . it\u2019s possible that it was used to snag soft - bodied animals , like jellyfish or cephalopods . it might also have been used to slice small bits of flesh off of larger , slow - moving prey .\nthe eugeneodonts had a near - global distribution from the early carboniferous to the late triassic periods , with fossils known from russia , greenland , china , and the americas . they were united by the presence of \u201ctooth - whorls\u201d , but these whorls looked quite different from species to species .\nparahelicoprion had sharp - edged , protruding teeth that may have been used to wound fast - moving prey .\nsarcoprion had a row of teeth on its snout running parallel to its tooth - whorl , said to have been used to snatch up small prey and grind them to death - something that strikes me as needlessly sensationalist . i personally believe that it \u201cratcheted\u201d small animals into its mouth with a series of rapid jaw movements , like the modern nemichthydae .\none of the largest eugeneodonts was the late carboniferous species edestus , which grew to the same size as a modern great white shark . it lacked a tooth - whorl , instead possessing twin rows of teeth that have drawn frequent comparisons to pinking shears . like helicoprion , only its teeth have been found , so much of its appearance is unknown ; the shark - like reconstruction above is highly speculative .\nthe eugeneodonts are believed to have been the dominant marine predators during the early triassic , until the rise and diversification of the ichthyosaurs drove them to extinction . their living relatives have a worldwide distribution , including the deep - sea abyss , but have never been as well - known or popular as the other members of the class chondrichthyes - the sharks , rays , skates , and sawfish .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\njavascript is turned off in your web browser . please turn it on to take full advantage of arctos , or try our html specimensearch option .\ntaxon name is the\nnamestring\nor\nscientific name ,\nthe\ndata\nthat is used to form identifications and the core of every taxonomy record .\ntaxon term is the data value of either a classification term (\nanimalia\n) or classification metadata ( such as name authors ) .\nterm type is the rank (\nkingdom\n) for classification terms , in which role it may be null , and the label for classification metadata (\nauthor text\n) .\nsource indicates the source of a classification ( not a taxon name ) . some classifications are local ; most come from globalnames .\ncommon names are vernacular term associated with taxon names , and are not necessarily english , correct , or common .\nthe gnathostomata , or gnathostomes , are the majority of the middle devonian ( - 380 million years ago ) to recent vertebrates . they differ from all other craniates or vertebrates in having a vertically biting device , the jaws , which consist of an endoskeletal mandibular arch and a variety of exoskeletal grasping , crushing , or shearing organs , i . e . the teeth , and jaw bones . among recent vertebrates , the gnathostomes include sharks , rays , chimaeras , ray - finned fishes , lobe - finned fishes and land vertebrates .\nextant gnathostomes fall into two major clades , the chondrichthyes and osteichthyes . in addition , there are two extinct major gnathostome clades , the placodermi ( early silurian - late devonian ) and the acanthodii ( latest ordovician or earliest silurian - early permian ) . there may be other fossil gnathostome taxa which fall outside of these four taxa . this could be the case for the mongolepida , only known from isolated scales from the early silurian , and which are provisionally assigned to the chondrichthyans , yet with great reservations .\nthe osteichthyes are characterized by endochondral (\nspongy\n) bone in the endoskeleton , dermal fin rays made up by lepidotrichiae ( modified , tile - shaped scales ) , and three pairs of tooth - bearing dermal bones lining the jaws ( dentary , premaxillary and maxillary ) . the osteichthyes include two major clades , the actinopterygii and the sarcopterygii .\nthe placodermi are characterized by a dermal armor consisting of a head armor and a thoracic armor . in the thoracic armor , the foremost dermal plates form a complete\nring\naround the body and always include at least one median dorsal plate .\nthe acanthodii are characterized by dermal spines inserted in front of all fins but the caudal one . they also possess minute , growing scales which have a special onion - like structure , i . e . the crown consists of overlying layers of dentine or mesodentine .\nsuperclass agnatha ( the jawless fish that excludes the gnathostomata ) class hyperoartia : a group of vertebrates that comprises modern lampreys and close fossil relatives .\n( cartilaginous fishes ) , actinopterygii ( ray - finned fishes ) , and sarcopterygii ( lobe - finned fishes ) .\n( the jawed cartilaginous fishes including subclass elasmobranchii ( sharks , rays and skates ) and subclass holocephali ( chimaeras , sometimes called ghost sharks ) .\nsuperclass osteichthyes : the group of fishes that includes both ray - finned fish ( actinopterygii ) and lobe - finned fish ( sarcopterygii ) .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nhi , i ' m andrew and i\u2019m just a simple zoology student and crustacean researcher from ohio . this blog centers around animal ids so feel free to send me any unknown species ( and its location ) that you have and i will take my best shot at iding it ! i also occasionally post random zoology / animal factoid things . disclamer : none of the pictures are mine unless stated\nideally this will one day go up to order / suborder / superfamily and encompass extinct and extant taxa\u2026 . hopefully\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nand right click on the image that opens in a new window and save to your computer .\nhow helicoprion used its whorl has also been another matter of debate with a variety of theories ranging from the whorl being used as a lash against fish , \u202d \u202cto a rasp that cut its way through the shells of ammonites with a sawing motion . \u202d \u202chowever even a casual look at the fossil tooth whorls reveals that the teeth have a surprising little amount of wear , \u202d \u202cand since helicoprion and relative genera are not thought to have had such a fast replacement of teeth modern day sharks , \u202d \u202cthere is now new speculation that helicoprion were predators of soft bodied organisms such as molluscs , \u202d \u202cespecially cephalopods such as octopuses . it may now only be a matter of time before more cartilaginous remains of helicoprion are discovered , as other creatures with cartilaginous remains from genera such as cladoselache , fadenia and stethacanthus amongst a growing number of many others are being found .\nfurther reading - ueber die reste von edestiden und die neue gattung helicoprion . - verhandlungen der kaiserlichen russischen mineralogischen gesellschaft zu st . petersburg , zweite series 36 : 1 - 111 - a . karpinsky - 1899 . - a new genus and species of fossil shark related to edestus leidy . - science 26 ( 653 ) : 22 - 24 - o . p . hay - 1907 . - helicoprion ivanovi , n . sp . bulletin de l ' academie des sciences de russie 16 : 369 - 378 - a . karpinsky - 1922 . - helicoprion in the anthracolithic ( late paleozoic ) of nevada and california , and its stratigraphic significance . - journal of paleontology 13 ( 1 ) : 103 - 114 - harry e . wheeler - 1939 . - helicoprion from elko county , nevada . - journal of paleontology 29 ( 5 ) : 918\u2013919 . - e . r . larson & j . b . scott - 1955 . - new investigations on helicoprion from the phosphoria formation of south - east idaho , usa . - kongelige danske videnskabernes selskab , biologiske skrifter 14 ( 5 ) : 1 - 54 - s . e . bendix - almgreen - 1966 . - the first record of helicoprion karpinsky ( helicoprionidae ) from china . - chinese science bulletin 52 ( 16 ) : 2246\u20132251 . - xiao - hong chen , long cheng , kai - guo yin - 2007 . - the orthodonty of helicoprion . - national museum of natural history . smithsonian institution . p . 1 . - robert w . purdy - 2008 . - a new specimen of helicoprion karpinsky , 1899 from kazakhstanian cisurals and a new reconstruction of its tooth whorl position and function . - acta zoologica 90 : 171\u2013182 . - o . a . lebedev - 2009 . - jaws for a spiral - tooth whorl : ct images reveal novel adaptation and phylogeny in fossil helicoprion . - biology letters 9 ( 2 ) : 20130057 - l . tapanila , j . pruitt , a . pradel , c . d . wilga , j . b . ramsay , r . schlader & d . a . didier - 2013 .\ncontent copyright www . prehistoric - wildlife . com . the information here is completely free for your own study and research purposes , but please dont copy the articles word for word and claim them as your own work . the world of prehistory is constantly changing with the advent of new discoveries , and its best if you use this information as a jumping off point for your own research . privacy & cookies policy"]}
{"id": 2511, "summary": [{"text": "naja nigricincta is a species of spitting cobra in the genus naja belonging to the family elapidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "this species had long been considered to be a subspecies of the black-necked spitting cobra ( naja nigricollis ) , but morphological and genetic differences have led to its recognition as a separate species . ", "topic": 5}], "title": "naja nigricincta", "paragraphs": ["naja nigricincta is in the family elapidae and the genus naja . it has two subspecies , naja nigricincta woodi and naja nigricincta nigricincta . both naja nigricincta nigricincta and naja nigricincta woodi were thought to be subspecies of naja nigricollis . w\u00fcster et al . ( 2007 ) revealed that naja nigricollis is polyphyletic , so naja nigricincta was recognized as its own species , with two subspecies . naja nigricincta is most closely related to naja ashei and naja mossambica .\nnaja nigricollis belongs to the cobra genus naja under the family elapidae . it previously included two subspecies that have been moved to the species naja nigricincta - the zebra spitting cobra ( naja nigricincta nigricincta ) and the black spitting cobra ( naja nigricincta woodi ) .\nnaja nigricollis nigricincta bogert 1940 naja nigricollis var . fasciata bocage 1895 : 136 ( fide broadley 1974 ) naja nigricollis nigricinctus bogert 1940 naja mossambica nirgicincta \u2014 broadley 1968 naja nigricollis nigricincta \u2014 welch 1994 : 93 naja nigricollis nigricincta \u2014 auerbach 1987 : 199 naja nigricollis nigricincta \u2014 bauer et al . 1993 naja nigricincta \u2014 cimatti 2007 naja nigricincta \u2014 w\u00fcster et al . 2007 naja ( afronaja ) nigricincta \u2014 wallach et al . 2009 afronaja nigricincta \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 10 naja nigricincta \u2014 schleicher 2015 : 209 naja nigricincta woodi pringle 1955 naja nigra smith 1838 : 92 ( fide branch & bauer 2005 ) naja nigricollis woodi pringle 1955 naja mossambica woodi \u2014 broadley 1968 naja nigricollis woodi \u2014 broadley 1974 : 158 naja nigricollis woodi \u2014 welch 1994 : 93 naja nigricollis woodi \u2014 auerbach 1987 : 198 naja woodi \u2014 bauer & branch 2003 naja nigricincta woodi \u2014 w\u00fcster et al . 2007 naja nigricincta woodi \u2014 bates et al . 2014 : 405 naja nigricincta woodi \u2014 schleicher 2015 : 207\nnaja nigricincta is a species of spitting cobra in the genus naja belonging to the family elapidae .\nthe black - necked spitting cobra ' belongs to the cobra genus naja under the family elapidae . it previously included two subspecies that have been moved to the species naja nigricincta - the zebra spitting cobra ( naja nigricincta nigricincta ) and the black spitting cobra ( naja nigricincta woodi ) .\nnaja nigricollis previously included two subspecies - naja nigricollis nigricincta and naja nigricollis woodi . but genetic studies in 2007 by wolfgang w\u00fcster et al . have concluded that these subspecies should be treated under a separate species , naja nigricincta . [ 4 ]\ncunningham , p . & van der waal , c . 2010 . naja nigricincta nigricincta ( bogert , 1940 ) diet . african herp news ( 51 ) : 9 - 11\nnaja nigricollis reinhardt 1843 : 369 naja nigricollis var . crawshayi g\u00fcnther 1893 naja nigricillis var . occidentalis bocage 1895 naja nigricollis \u2014 schmidt 1923 : 128 ( fide broadley 1968 ) naja nigricollis atriceps laurent 1955 : 135 naja nigricollis crawshayi \u2014 laurent 1956 : 298 naja nigricollis occidentalis \u2014 laurent 1973 naja nigricollis nigricollis \u2014 broadley & howell 1991 : 24 naja nigricollis nigricollis \u2014 welch 1994 : 93 naja crawshayi \u2014 broadley & cotterill 2004 naja nigricollis \u2014 chirio & ineich 2006 naja crawshayi \u2014 branch 2008 naja nigricollis \u2014 wallach et al . 2009 afronaja nigricollis \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 10 afronaja crawshayi \u2014 wallach et al . 2014 : 9 naja ( afronaja ) nigricollis \u2014 conradie et al . 2016 naja nigricollis \u2014 spawls et al . 2018 : 555\nbarts , mirko . 2014 . naja nigricincta nigricincta bogert , 1940 zebraschlange , namibia speikobra , western barred cobra , zebra cobra . sauria 36 ( 1 ) : 1 - 2 - get paper here\none easy way to distinguish the two species is by their geographic ranges . naja nigricollis has a much larger and slightly more northern range than that of naja nigricincta . naja nigricollis can be found all the way from southern mauritania across to somalia , down to mozambique and across to northern namibia . naja nigricincta is only found in namibia , angola , and south africa .\ncommon names ( subsp . nigricincta ) western barred spitting cobra , zebra spitting cobra\nvenomous ! boycott & haacke ( 1979 ) noted intergradation between nigricincta and woodi in southern namibia .\nnaja nigricincta can grow to lengths of up to 1 . 5 meters ( 4 . 9 feet ) . they are short compared to many other species of cobra .\nnaja nigricollis reinhardt , 1843 at the reptile database . accessed 10 may 2012 .\nnaja nigricincta is an african species , found in the southwestern tip of the continent . it is known to exist in namibia , south africa , and angola , especially in northern namibia and southwestern angola .\nnaja nigricincta is a venomous spitting cobra found in southwestern africa . it was originally thought to be a subspecies of naja nigricollis , but recent morphological data has shown that it is a separate species . for this reason , not a lot of information is known that is specific to this particular species .\nnaja nigricincta will raise the anterior portion of its body and flatten its head and neck to form a hood when threatened . if further provoked it will\nspit\nor squirt venom into the eyes of its attacker .\nnaja nigricollis ( tsn 700633 ) at integrated taxonomic information system . accessed 10 may 2012 .\nnaja nigricincta feeds primarily on rodents . it will defend itself if threatened by spitting venom in its enemy ' s eyes . there are accounts each year of humans being bitten by this snake , but with only about a 5 - 10 % fatality rate .\nn . ashei , n . katiensis , n . mossambica , n . nigricincta , n . nigricollis , n . nubiae and n . pallida : spitting cobras , speikobras\nabraham , g . 1981 . interessante jugendf\u00e4rbung bei naja nigricollis . sauria 3 ( 2 ) : 21 - 21 - get paper here\nnaja nigricincta has an unusual venom compared to other elapids . while it retains the neurotoxic properties found in most elapid venom , it is made up primarily of cytotoxins ( fry et al . 2003 ) . the combination of these toxins can cause massive hemorrhaging , necrosis around the bite wound , and paralysis of the diaphragm in bite victims .\nnaja nigricincta is a member of the family elapidae . it is a venomous cobra . like other elapids , it injects venom into its prey with short front fangs . it is a spitting cobra , and can spit venom at its enemies . it uses a venom that is primarily cytotoxic , but still retains neurotoxic properties found in most elapid venoms .\nnaja nigricincta is an oviparous venomous spitting cobra with dark brown to black body and zebra - like vertical whitish or light yellow stripes along the dorsal side . these stripes are generally evenly spaced and can be complete or fragmented . the ventral scales range from white to orange in color . in juvenile snakes the overall coloration is lighter than in the adults ,\nkraits cobras sea snakes and relatives : elapidae - black - necked spitting cobra ( naja nigricollis ) : species accounts . retrieved on 10 may 2012 .\nabriol , sabrina . spitting cobra ( naja nigricollis ) . herpetology - dr . dever . university of san francisco , california . retrieved on 10 may 2012 .\nbroadley , d . g . 1958 . the races of naja nigricollis occurring in rhodesia . j . herp . assoc . rhodesia 2 : 5\u20136 - get paper here\npringle , ja . 1955 . a new species of the spitting cobra naja nigricollis reinhardt from the cape province . ann . natal mus . 13 : 253 - 254 .\nsolid black , or grey body with black hood and head , in some cases it is outwardly identical to naja nigricollis and can only be distinguished by size and range .\nhughes , d . f . , et al . 2017 . geographic distribution : naja nigricollis ( black - necked spitting cobra ) . herpetological review 48 ( 2 ) : 392\npringle , j ( 1955 ) .\na new subspecies of the spitting cobra naja nigricollis from the cape province\n13 ( 2 ) . natal museum . pp . 253\u2013254 .\nnaja nigricincta can also spit or squirt this venom at enemies . it has specialized hollow fangs that allow it to spit its venom perpendicular to the axis of the fang . the snakes are able to determine where the face and eyes of its attacker are , and can hit their targets with surprising accuracy , making it very dangerous . venom in the eyes can cause temporary or permanent blindness . venom on the skin can cause mild to severe irritation .\nnaja nigricollis - general details , taxonomy and biology , venom , clinical effects , treatment , first aid , antivenoms . wch clinical toxinology resource . university of adelaide . retrieved on 10 may 2012 .\nbroadley , d . g . 1968 . a review of the african cobras of the genus naja ( serpentes : elapinae ) . arnoldia ( rhodesia ) ( ser . 3 ) 29 : 1 - 14\nbroadley , d . g . 1974 . a review of the cobras of the naja nigricollis complex in southwestern africa ( serpentes : elapidae ) . cimbebasia ( ser . a ) 2 : 155 - 162 .\nhoser , r . 2009 . a reclassification of the true cobras ; species formerly referred to the genera naja , boulengerina and paranaja . australasian j . herpetol . 7 : 1 - 15 - get paper here\nhaagner , g . v . ; branch , w . r . 1993 . geographical distribution - naja nigricollis woodi . j . herp . assoc . africa ( 42 ) : 43 - 43 - get paper here\nwallach , v . ; w\u00fcster , w . & broadley , d . g . 2009 . in praise of subgenera : taxonomic status of cobras of the genus naja laurenti ( serpentes : elapidae ) . zootaxa 2236 : 26\u201336 - get paper here\nw\u00fcster , w . & broadley , d . g . 2007 . get an eyeful of this : a new species of giant spitting cobra from eastern and north - eastern africa ( squamata : serpentes : elapidae : naja ) . zootaxa 1532 : 51\u201368 - get paper here\nfryklund , linda ; eaker , david ( july 1975 ) .\ncomplete covalent structure of a cardiotoxin from the venom of naja nigricollis ( african black - necked spitting cobra )\n. biochemistry 14 ( 13 ) : 2865\u20132871 . pmid 1148181 . retrieved on 10 may 2012 .\nall animals pictured on this page are in our collection , and owned by us . the photos were taken by us , unless otherwise labeled . we are still looking specimens of naja philippinensis , and extra specimens of species we already have . if you have something for sale , please contact us , at the link above .\nboycott , r . c . , and w . d . haacke 1979 . note on the type - locality , distribution and juvenile coloration of naja nigricollis woodi ( serpentes : elapidae ) and an account of the colour - pattern variation in intergrade populations . annals of the cape provincial museum ( nat . hist . ) 13 : 31 - 36\nw\u00fcster , wolfgang ; steven crookes , ivan ineich , youssouph man\u00e9 , catharine e . pook , jean - francois trape , donald g . broadley 2007 . the phylogeny of cobras inferred from mitochondrial dna sequences : evolution of venom spitting and the phylogeography of the african spitting cobras ( serpentes : elapidae : naja nigricollis complex ) . molecular phylogenetics and evolution 45 : 437\u2013453 - get paper here\nn . ashei , n . nigricollis , n . nigricincta , n . mossambica , n . katiensis , n . nubiae and n . pallida can\nspit\nvenom a distance of over 2 m . through pressure on the venom glands , the venom is ejected through the fangs . unlike the fangs of ordinary cobras , these snakes have fangs in which the venom channel is forward - facing in the final section leading to the orifice through which the venom is released . the ejected venom spreads out as a fine spray , and thus has a fairly good chance of reaching the sensitive eyes of the victim .\nw\u00fcster , w . , s . crookes , i . ineich , y . mane , c . e . pook , j . - f . trape & d . g . broadley ( 2007 )\nthe phylogeny of cobras inferred from mitochondrial dna sequences : evolution of venom spitting and the phylogeography of the african spitting cobras ( serpentes : elapidae : naja nigricollis complex )\n. molecular phylogenetics and evolution , 45 : 437 - 453 .\nunlike other snakes , naja nigricollis can be either nocturnal or diurnal depending on the time of year , geographic location , and average daytime temperature . this adaptability allows the snake to better regulate its body temperature and to gain access to the most abundant food sources of a particular area . it feeds primarily on small rodents , such as small rats and mice , birds , and fishes , but will also eat lizards , eggs , and other snakes . [ 13 ]\nthe range of naja nigricollis is currently expanding from the southeastern regions of nigeria to the more desert and arid conditions in the central part of the nation . [ 9 ] they also live in coastal scrubs and dry grasslands . like other cobra species , they may find abandoned termite mounds or rodent holes to hide or cool off . however , tree trunks seem to be their favourite hiding places . they are excellent tree climbers , thus can be arboreal at times . because they are so common across africa , they are encountered in villages or small towns where they may come in direct contact with people . [ 9 ]\nn namibia , sw angola ; type locality : munhino , s . w . angola .\nwoodi : republic of south africa , w lesotho , s namibia , s botswana ; type locality : citrusdal , cape province .\nnote : tdwg regions are generated automatically from the text in the distribution field and not in every cases it works well . we are working on it .\nauerbach , r . d . 1987 . the amphibians and reptiles of botswana . mokwepa consultants , botswana , 295 pp .\nbates , m . f . ; branch , w . r . , bauer , a . m . ; burger , m . , marais , j . ; alexander , g . j . & de villliers , m . s . ( eds . ) 2014 . atlas and red list of the reptiles of south africa , lesotho , and swaziland . suricata 1 . south african national biodiversity institute , pretoria , 512 pp .\nbauer , aaron m . ; branch , william r . & haacke , wulf d . 1993 . the herpetofauna of the kamanjab area and adjacent damaraland , namibia . madoqua ( windhoek ) 18 ( 2 ) : 117 - 145 .\nbogert , c . m . 1940 . herpetological results of the vernay angola expedition . i . snakes , including an arrangement of the african colubridae . bull . amer . mus . nat . hist . 77 : 1 - 107\nbranch , william r . 1993 . a photographic guide to snakes and other reptiles of southern africa . cape town : struik publishers , 144 s .\nbranch , william r . & bauer , aaron m . 2005 . the herpetological contributions of sir andrew smith . ssar , 80 pp .\ncimatti , e . 2007 . namibia - introduction to a vast territory . reptilia ( gb ) ( 50 ) : 58 - 67 - get paper here\ndobiey , m . & vogel , g . 2007 . venomous snakes of africa / giftschlangen afrikas . edition chimaira , terralog 15 , 150 pp . - get paper here\nherrmann , h . - w . ; w . r . branch 2013 . fifty years of herpetological research in the namib desert and namibia with an updated and annotated species checklist . journal of arid environments 93 : 94\u2013115 - get paper here\nschleicher , alfred 2015 . reptilien namibias . namibia scientific society , 276 pp .\nsmith , a . 1838 . contributions to the natural history of southern africa . art . viii . mag . nat . hist . , london , 2 ( 14 ) : 92 - 94\nwallach , van ; kenneth l . williams , jeff boundy 2014 . snakes of the world : a catalogue of living and extinct species . taylor and francis , crc press , 1237 pp .\nthis database is maintained by peter uetz ( database content ) and jakob hallermann , zoological museum hamburg ( new species and updates ) .\nin juvenile snakes , the overall coloration of the snake is lighter than that of the adult morph . juveniles are predominantly white , gray , or yellow with light gray to black bars . as they age , the darker coloration fills in . the hoods and heads of juveniles are distinctly different from those of adults . the heads and hoods of juveniles are not uniform in color like their adult morphs . juveniles have a patch of very dark coloration on their throats , similar to that of the hoods of adults , but this coloration only exists on the ventral side of the neck and hood . this dark patch is separated from the head by a region of white , yellow , or gray scales . while the heads of juveniles are still darker in coloration compared to the rest of their body , they are still only light brown or gray in color . the head does , however , maintain a distinctly darker color than the rest of the body , aside from the very dark throat patch . as the snakes age , the gray , white or yellow region that separates the throat patch from the head will become darker , and the head and throat patch will become more uniform in color to produce the very dark hoods seen in adults .\ncontinent : africa distribution : n namibia , sw angola ; type locality : munhino , s . w . angola . woodi : republic of south africa , w lesotho , s namibia , s botswana ; type locality : citrusdal , cape province .\n) , but morphological and genetic differences have led to its recognition as a separate species .\n, is given its name because of the dark crossbars that run the length of the snake ' s body . the subspecies\n, is solid black and is found only in the desert areas of southern africa . both subspecies are smaller than\n; with average adult lengths of less than 1 . 5 metres ( 4 . 9 ft ) .\nthese snakes can flatten head and neck into a hood , similarly to many species of cobra . the heads and hoods are uniformly dark brown or black .\ncan cause massive hemorrhaging , necrosis and paralysis in bite victims . these snakes can also spit its venom , hitting their enemies with great accuracy and causing temporary or permanent blindness .\nthis species is native to parts of southern africa ( namibia , southern angola and south africa ) .\nbogert , cm ( 1940 ) .\nherptologie d ' angola et du congo\n. lisbon : impromerie nationale .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nthe number of species increased from 10 , 711 to 10 , 793 , i . e . an increase of 82 species . 66 new species have been described , 9 species have been revalidated from synonymy and 16 subspecies were elevated to full species . . .\nover the past 4 months , the number of species increased from 10 , 639 to 10 , 711 .\nthe number of species has grown from 10 , 544 in the may release to now 10 , 639 ( + 95 species ) .\noverall , 212 new taxa have been added or changed their status or name .\nthe reptile database is a taxonomic database that provides basic information about all living reptile species , such as turtles , snakes , lizards , and crocodiles , as well as tuataras and amphisbaenians , but does not include dinosaurs .\ncurrently there are more than 10 , 000 species and an additional 2 , 700 subspecies . this is making reptiles the largest vertebrate group after fish ( ~ 25 , 000 species ) and birds ( ~ 10 , 000 species ) , and significantly larger than mammals ( ~ 5 , 000 species ) or amphibians ( ~ 6 , 000 species ) .\nthe reptile database provides taxonomic information for the catalogue of life and the encyclopedia of life . our taxonomic information has also been used by genbank and many other resources and is the only comprehensive reptile database on the web .\nthe reptile database can be used to find all species within a certain geographic area ( e . g . all snakes of egypt ) . its collection of more than 2 , 500 images allow users to identify a species or at least get an idea how the species or genus may look like . more than 30 , 000 references provide a guide to further information .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 strict / / en\nurltoken\nphysical characteristics : the black - necked spitting cobra may be solid black or brown , or it may be striped with black and white . it has two sharp , thin fangs that it uses to spray its venom . these snakes can reach a length of 79 inches ( 2 meters ) .\ngeographic range : this snake lives in western , central , and southern africa .\nhabitat : the black - necked spitting cobra usually lives in grasslands , but it sometimes enters villages and cities , where it can cause quite an uproar among human residents , who worry about being poisoned with its venom .\nalthough it spends much of its time on the ground , the black - necked spitting cobra can easily climb into bushes and trees . ( illustration by dan erickson . reproduced by permission . )\ndiet : the black - necked spitting cobra eats almost anything it finds , including frogs and toads , birds and their eggs , and other reptiles .\nbehavior and reproduction : although it spends much of its time on the ground , this cobra can easily climb into bushes and trees . it is most active at night , but it sometimes moves about during the day . females lay eight to twenty eggs at a time .\nblack - necked spitting cobras and people : local people fear this snake , which can spray venom almost 10 feet ( 3 meters ) . the snake aims for the eyes , and the venom can be very painful and can even cause blindness if the person is not treated immediately . a bite from the snake can kill a person .\nconservation status : the black - necked spitting cobra is not endangered or threatened . \u220e\nplease include a link to this page if you have found this material useful for research or writing a related article . content on this website is from high - quality , licensed material originally published in print form . you can always be sure you ' re reading unbiased , factual , and accurate information .\nhighlight the text below , right - click , and select \u201ccopy\u201d . paste the link into your website , email , or any other html document .\nyour email address will be altered so spam harvesting bots can ' t read it easily . hide my email completely instead ?\ngeneral shape medium to large , slightly depressed , tapered and moderately slender bodied snake with a medium length tail . body compressed dorsoventrally and sub - cylindrical posteriorly . has long cervical ribs capable of expansion to form a hood when threatened . can grow to a maximum of about 1 . 5 metres . head broad , flattened and slightly distinct from neck . canthus is distinct . snout is rounded . dorsal scales are smooth and strongly oblique . eyes medium in size with round pupils . dorsal scale count often 23 - 21 - 15 .\nhabits spitting cobra . nocturnal , although juveniles often forage during the day . if confronted , it will raise its forebody , spread its hood and readily spit ( squirts ) venom at the eyes of an intruder or aggressor . seldom bites .\nprey feeds on a wide variety of small vertebrates , with lizards and rodents being the most common prey .\ngeneral : other these snakes can spit their venom , causing venom spit ophthalmia .\ndescription : first aid for bites by elapid snakes which are likely to cause significant local damage at the bite site as their major clinical effect ( see listing in comments section ) . this includes venom spat into eyes by spitting cobras .\ntreatment summary potentially severe bites , with both local tissue damage and paralysis . admit all cases . support impaired respiration . good wound care essential . avoid unnecessary surgery . for cases with paralytic features or major local effects , iv antivenom is appropriate .\ngeneral approach to management all cases should be treated as urgent & potentially lethal . rapid assessment & commencement of treatment including appropriate antivenom ( if indicated & available ) is mandatory . admit all cases .\nantivenom therapy antivenom is the key treatment for systemic envenoming . multiple doses may be required .\naddress : calzada de tlalpan no . 4687 toriello guerra c . p . 14050 mexico , d . f . ,\naddress : contiguo a la plaza de deportes , dulce nombre de coronado . san jos\u00e9 costa rica\n( cc by - sa 3 . 0 ) , or the attribution - noncommerical - sharealike\n( cc by - nc - sa 3 . 0 ) , or the attribution - share alike\n( gpl3 . 0 ) , or in the public domain ( pd ) , as shown in the caption to the image displayed on www . toxinology . com .\ncopyright 2001 - 2018 toxinology , wch . all rights reserved . best viewed in 800x600 resolution or higher .\nplease do not steal my photos for the purpose of advertising your own animals .\nlight or dark brown to black , with vertical white or light yellow bars . the bars have flecks of brown or black and are generally evenly spaced along the length of the snake . the bars can either be straight and complete across the entire dorsal side of the snake , or they can be broken up into fragments , sometimes ending in an upside - down\ny\nformation . this barred pattern can sometimes carry over to the ventral side of the snake . the ventral scales range from white to orange in color , and are often colored with patches of brown .\njuveniles are predominantly white , gray , or yellow with light gray to black bars .\n. most easily distinguished by virtue of having lower ventral and sub caudal scale counts , particular when sex is taken into account .\nupdate 1st june , 2018 : we just set up snake _ id , a cool new page that simplifies snake identification . be sure to check it out !\nimages provided by flickr - / inaturalist - api . sporadic false assignments may occur .\nthe bite of most elapids is not painful . you can be bitten and envenomated without noticing it .\n? ? ? to ? ? ? meter above sea level ( a . s . l . )\n. they are moderately sized snakes that can grow to a length of 1 . 2 to 2 . 2 m ( 3 . 9 to 7 . 2 ft ) in length . their coloration and markings can vary considerably . they prey primarily on small\n5\u201310 % , in endemic regions under 1 % ) . like other spitting cobras , they can eject venom from their fangs when threatened ( one drop over 7 metres ( 23 ft ) and more in perfect accuracy ) . the\nvenom irritates the skin , causing blisters and inflammation , and can cause permanent blindness if the venom makes contact with the eyes and is not washed off .\n. it is absent from the rainforests of the congo basin . it has been recorded from\n, niger , nigeria , senegal , sierra leone , gambia , mauritania , sudan , tanzania , somalia , togo , uganda , zambia .\nin moist savanna and cleared former forest regions , particularly near rivers and streams .\noccurs in southeastern nigeria where their habitat has been transformed from rainforest to man - made farmlands , plantations , suburban areas , and a few fragmented forests . this species of cobra has found advantages in the drastic changes which have taken place in nigeria ' s rainforests . a study by herpetologist luca luiselli suggests this snake now forages in much drier microhabitats .\nlike other snakes , it may fall prey to raptors , especially different species of snake eagles that migrate to africa when it is winter in the northern hemisphere . the short - toed snake eagle ( circaetus gallicus ) may be a particular threat , as it is almost strictly an ophiophagus raptor . [ 14 ] other snakes also prey on this species . [ 15 ]\nat a potential threat . the venom is an irritant to the skin and eyes . if it enters the eyes , symptoms include extreme burning pain , loss of coordination , partial loss of vision , and permanent blindness .\nis known for its tendency to liberally spit venom and bite with only the slightest provocation .\nthis species is sometimes found in captivity , and wild - caught individuals are generally nervous and prone to spitting . captive - bred animals tend to be much more docile and calm when compared to their wild - caught counterparts . [ 7 ]\nlike other cobra species , this snake is oviparous . [ 16 ] the mating season of this species can vary from the end of winter ( september ) to the beginning of summer ( december ) . usually , the mating season is the same whether in captivity or in the wild . females will commonly lay 10 to 15 eggs but can lay anywhere between eight and 22 eggs at a time . [ 15 ] the gestation period lasts about 90\u2013100 days , but once the eggs are laid , they hatch in 60\u201370 days , and need to be in a temperature of 28\u201330 \u00b0c ( 82\u201386 \u00b0f ) . at birth , the young are about 20 to 25 centimeters ( 7 . 9 to 9 . 8 in ) in length and are completely independent .\naround the bite area and difficulty breathing . although the mortality rate in untreated cases is low ( ~\n. the average venom yield per bite of this species is 200 to 350 mg ( dry weight ) according to minton ( 1974 ) .\n; andreas johann wagner ; franz hermann troschel ; wilhelm ferdinand erichson ; carl ernst siebold ( 1847 ) .\nherpetology\n. in george busk , alfred tulk , alexander henry haliday .\nluiselli , luca ( 2001 ) .\nthe ghost of a recent invasion in the reduced feeding rates of spitting cobras during the dry season in a rainforest region of tropical africa\n.\n. new york , usa : sterling ; illustrated edition . p . 176 .\n. leipzig ; english version ny , usa : leipzig publishing ; english version published by exeter books ( 1982 ) . p . 71 .\nchaim - matyas , adina ; ovadia , michael ( 20 april 1987 ) .\ncytotoxic activity of various snake venoms on melanoma , b16f10 and chondrosarcoma\n.\n* * * if you are unsure of the identification of a snake you have observed , you can ask an expert by uploading a photo to the snakes of namibia facebook page . * * *\n* * * the facebook page also has contact details for snake catchers - people who are experienced in catching and removing snakes - throughout the country . * * *\n. namibia ' s snakebite expert - dr buys - will respond immediately . * * *\nthe species is very common and is widespread throughout sub - saharan africa and is found in western , eastern , central , and southern africa . it can be found all along eastern africa south of the sahara desert in kenya , uganda , tanzania , rwanda , and southern somalia . it is found in nigeria , liberia , senegal , and benin in western africa . it is common in zambia , central african republic , angola , and cameroon in central africa . in southern africa , it is found in the northern parts of zimbabwe , botswana , namibia and mozambique . [ 5 ]\nunlike other snakes , the black - necked spitting cobra can be either nocturnal or diurnal depending on the time of year , geographic location , and average daytime temperature . this adaptability allows the snake to better regulate its body temperature and to gain access to the most abundant food sources of a particular area . it feeds primarily on small rodents , such as small rats and mice , but will eat lizards , eggs and other snakes . [ 10 ]\nlike other snakes , it may fall prey to different birds of prey , especially different species of snake eagles which migrate to africa when it is winter in the northern hemisphere . the short - toed snake eagle ( circaetus gallicus ) may be a particular threat , as it is almost strictly an ophiophagus raptor . [ 11 ] other snakes also prey on this species . [ 12 ]\nlike other spitting cobras , this species is known for its ability to project venom at a potential threat . the venom is an irritant to the skin and eyes . if it enters the eyes , symptoms include extreme burning pain , loss of coordination , partial loss of vision and permanent blindness . this species is known for its tendency to liberally spit venom with only the slightest provocation . however , this aggressiveness is counterbalanced by it being less prone to bite than other related species . [ 8 ] [ 10 ]\nthis species is sometimes found in captivity , and wild - caught individuals are generally nervous and prone to spitting . captive - bred animals tend to be much more docile and calm when compared to their wild - caught counterparts . [ 5 ]\nlike other cobra species , this snake is oviparous . [ 13 ] the mating season of this species can vary from the end of winter ( september ) to the beginning of summer ( december ) . usually , the mating season is the same whether in captivity or in the wild . females will usually lay 10 to 15 eggs , but they can lay anywhere between eight and 22 eggs at a time . [ 12 ] the gestation period lasts about 90\u2013100 days , but once the eggs are laid , they hatch in 60\u201370 days , and need to be in a temperature of 28 - 30\u00b0c ( 82 . 4 - 86\u00b0f ) . at birth , the young are about 20 to 25 cm ( 7 . 9 to 9 . 8 in ) in length and are completely independent .\n; andreas johann wagner , franz hermann troschel , wilhelm ferdinand erichson , carl ernst siebold ( 1847 ) . \u201cherpetology\u201d ,\nmastenbroek , richard . black - neck spitting cobra . devenomized . www . devenomized . com . retrieved on 10 may 2012 .\nluiselli , luca ( 2001 ) .\nthe ghost of a recent invasion in the reduced feeding rates of spitting cobras during the dry season in a rainforest region of tropical africa\n. acta oecologica 22 ( 5 ) : 311\u2013314 . doi : 10 . 1016 / s1146 - 609x ( 01 ) 01113 - 4 . research blogging .\n. leipzig ; english version ny , usa : leipzig publishing ; english version published by exeter books ( 1982 ) , 71 .\nchaim - matyas , adina ; ovadia , michael ( 20 ) .\ncytotoxic activity of various snake venoms on melanoma , b16f10 and chondrosarcoma\n. life sciences 40 ( 16 ) : 1601\u20131607 . pmid 3561167 .\nwarrell , david a . . snake bite . seminar . lancet 2010 ( volume 375 , issue 1 ) . retrieved on 10 may 2012 .\nfry , dr . bryan grieg . ld50 for various snakes . australian venom and toxin database . venom doc . retrieved on 10 may 2012 .\ncz is free . all written content is available under the creative commons - attribution - sharealike 3 . 0 unported license or any later . written content that originated in part from wikipedia is also available under gnu free documentation license 1 . 2 . dedicated server hosting generously provided by steadfast networks help \u2022 financial report \u2022 statistics \u2022 blog follow citizendium on twitter \u2022 facebook \u2022 google +\nnigricollis : savannas from senegal east to kenya and south to angola , zambia , and tanzania ; type locality : guinea = coast of ghana .\nbarnett , linda k . 2001 . the herpetofauna of abuko nature reserve , the gambia . herpetological bulletin ( 77 ) : 5 - 1 - get paper here\nbarnett , linda k . & emms , craig 2005 . common reptiles of the gambia . rare repro , hailsham , east sussex , 24 pp .\nbauer , a . m . , and branch , w . r . 2003 . the herpetofauna of the richtersveld national park , northern cape province , republic of south africa . herpetological natural history 8 : 111 - 160 [ 2001 ]\nbocage , j . v . du b . 1866 . lista dos reptis das possess\u00f5es portuguezas d ' africa occidental que existem no museu lisboa . jorn . sci . math . phys . nat . lisboa 1 : 37 - 56\nb\u00f6hme , wolfgang , mark - oliver r\u00f6del , christian brede & philipp wagner 2011 . the reptiles ( testudines , squamata , crocodylia ) of the forested southeast of the republic guinea ( guin\u00e9e foresti\u00e8re ) , with a country - wide checklist . bonn zoological bulletin 60 ( 1 ) : 35 - 61 - get paper here\nboulenger , g . a . 1895 . on the reptiles and batrachians obtained by mr . e . lort - phillips in somaliland . ann . mag . nat . hist . ( 6 ) 16 : 165 - 169 - get paper here\nbranch , w . r . 2008 . proposed kalukundi mine ( democratic republic of the congo ) - terrestrial fauna . environmental impact assessment report ( final report ) . a specialist report for envirolution consulting ( pty ) ltd . , 83 pp .\nbroadley , d . g . & howell , k . m . 1991 . a check list of the reptiles of tanzania , with synoptic keys . syntarsus 1 : 1\u201470\nbroadley , d . g . 1991 . the herpetofauna of northern mwinilunga distr . , northw . zambia . arnoldia zimbabwe 9 ( 37 ) : 519 - 538\nbroadley , d . g . ; doria , c . t . & wigge , j . 2003 . snakes of zambia . an atlas and field guide . edition chimaira , frankfurt , 280 pp . [ review in sauria 26 ( 3 ) : 21 ]\nbroadley , donald g . and f . p . d . cotterill . 2004 . the reptiles of southeast katanga , an overlooked ' hot spot ' . [ congo ] . african journal of herpetology 53 ( 1 ) : 35 - 61 . - get paper here\nchifundera , k . 1990 . snakes of zaire and their bites . afr . stud . monogr . ( kyoto ) 10 ( 3 ) : 137 - 157 .\nchirio , l . 2009 . inventaire des reptiles de la r\u00e9gion de la r\u00e9serve de biosph\u00e8re transfrontali\u00e8re du w ( niger / b\u00e9nin / burkina faso : afrique de l\u2019ouest ) . [ herpetological survey of the w transfrontier biosphere reserve area ( niger / benin / burkina faso : west africa ] . bull . soc . herp . france ( 132 ) : 13 - 41 - get paper here\nchirio , l . & lebreton , m . 2007 . atlas des reptiles du cameroun . mnhn , ird , paris 688 pp .\nchirio , laurent and ivan ineich 2006 . biogeography of the reptiles of the central african republic . african journal of herpetology 55 ( 1 ) : 23 - 59 . - get paper here\nconradie w , bills r , and branch wr . 2016 . the herpetofauna of the cubango , cuito , and lower cuando river catchments of south - eastern angola . amphibian & reptile conservation 10 ( 2 ) [ special section ] : 6\u201336 - get paper here\nhaagner , g . v . ; branch , w . r . & haagner , a . j . f . 2000 . notes on a collection of reptiles from zambia and adjacent areas of the democratic republic of the congo . annals of the eastern cape museum 1 : 1 \u2013 25\nherrmann , hans - werner ; schmitz , andreas ; herrmann , patricia a . & b\u00f6hme , wolfgang 2007 . amphibians and reptiles of the tchabal mbabo mountains , adamaoua plateau , cameroon . bonner zoologische beitr\u00e4ge 55 ( 1 / 2 ) : 27 - 35 - get paper here\nhoser , r . t . 2013 . case 3601 spracklandus hoser , 2009 ( reptilia , serpentes , elapidae ) : request for confirmation of the availability of the generic name and for the nomenclatural validation of the journal in which it was published . bull . zool . nomenclature 70 ( 4 ) : 234 - 237 - get paper here\nhughes , b . 2013 . snakes of be\u0301nin , west africa . bull . soc . herp . france 144 : 101 - 159\nkaiser , h . ; crother , b . i . ; kelly , c . m . r . ; luiselli , l . ; o\u2019shea , m . ; ota , h . ; passos , p . ; schleip , w . d . & w\u00fcster , w . 2013 . best practices : in the 21st century , taxonomic decisions in herpetology are acceptable only when supported by a body of evidence and published via peer - review . herpetological review 44 ( 1 ) : 8 - 23\nlanza , b . 1990 . amphibians and reptiles of the somali democratic republic : check list and biogeography . biogeographia , 14 : 407 - 465 [ 1988 ]\nlanza , b . 1983 . a list of the somali amphibians and reptiles . monitore zoologico italiano , new ser . , suppl . 18 ( 8 ) : 193 - 247\nlargen , m . j . ; spawls , s . 2010 . amphibians and reptiles of ethiopia and eritrea . edition chimaira , frankfurt , 694 pp .\nlargen , m . j . & rasmussen , j . b . 1993 . catalogue of the snakes of ethiopia ( reptilia serpentes ) , including identification keys . tropical zoology 6 : 313 - 434 - get paper here\nlaurent , r . f . 1955 . diagnoses preliminaires des quelques serpents venimeux . rev . zool . bot . afr . , 51 : 127 - 139\nloveridge , a . 1936 . african reptiles and amphibians in the field museum of natural history . zool . ser . field mus . nat . hist . , chicago , 22 ( 1 ) : 1 - 122 - get paper here\nloveridge , a . 1956 . on snakes collected in the anglo - egyptian sudan by j . s . owen , esq . sudan notes rec . 36 : 37 - 56 [ 1955 ]\nloveridge , arthur 1929 . east african reptiles and amphibians in the united states national museum . bull . us natl . mus . ( 151 ) : 1 - 135 - get paper here\nloveridge , a . 1957 . on a third collection of reptiles taken in tanganyika by c . j . p . ionides , esq . tanganyika notes and records 43 : 1 - 19\nmenzies , j . i . 1966 . the snakes of sierra leone . copeia 1966 ( 2 ) : 169 - 179 . - get paper here\nmitchell , b . l . 1950 . some reptiles and amphibians of nyasaland . the nyasaland journal 3 ( 2 ) : 46 - 57 - get paper here\nmonasterio , camila 2016 . the herpetofauna of the dindefelo natural community reserve , senegal . herpetology notes 9 : 1 - 6 - get paper here\npadial , j . m . 2006 . commented distributional list of the reptiles of mauritania ( west africa ) . graellsia , 62 ( 2 ) : 159 - 178\npauwels , o . s . g . & vande weghe , j . p . 2008 . les reptiles du gabon . smithsonian institution , washington : 272 pp . - get paper here\npietersen dw , pietersen ew , conradie w . 2017 . preliminary herpetological survey of ngonye falls and surrounding regions in south - western zambia . amphibian & reptile conservation 11 ( 1 ) [ special section ] : 24\u201343 ( e148 - get paper here\npitman , c . r . s . 1974 . a guide to the snakes of uganda . codicote , wheldon & wesley , l . , 290 pp .\nrasmussen , j . b . & b . hughes 1996 . description of some new snake species . i . [ english translation of the original danish text of t . reinhardt 1843 ] . steenstrupia 22 : 13 - 39\nreinhardt , j . t . 1843 . beskrivelse af nogle nye slangearter . danske vidensk . selsk . afhandl . 10 : 233 - 279 . - get paper here\nrhodin , a . g . j . , h . kaiser , p . p . van dijk , w . w\u00fcster , m . o\u2019shea , m . archer , m . auliya , l . boitani , r . bour , v . clausnitzer , t . contreras - macbeath , b . i . crother , j . m . daza , c . a . driscoll , o . flores - villela , j . frazier , u . fritz , a . gardner , c . gascon , 2015 . comment on spracklandus hoser , 2009 ( reptilia , serpentes , elapidae ) : request for confirmation of the availability of the generic name and for the nomenclatural validation of the journal in which it was published ( case 3601 ; see bzn 70 : 234\u2013237 ; 71 : 3 bull . zool . nomenclature 72 ( 1 ) : 65 - 78\nrobertson , i . a . d . , b . m . chapman and n . f . chapman 1963 . notes on some reptiles collected in the rukwa valley , s . w . tanganyika . ann . mag . nat . hist . ser . 13 , 5 ( 55 ) : 421\u2011432 - get paper here\nr\u00f6del , m . o . ; kouadio , k , & mahsberg , d . 1999 . die schlangenfauna des como\u00e9 - nationalparks , elfenbeink\u00fcste : erg\u00e4nzungen und ausblick . salamandra 35 ( 3 ) : 165 - 180 - get paper here\nschmidt , k . p . 1923 . contributions to the herpetology of the belgian congo based on the collection of the american museum congo expedition , 1909 - 1915 . part ii . snakes , with field notes by herbert lang and james p . chapin . bull . amer . mus . nat . hist . 49 ( 1 ) : 1 - 146\nsegniagbeto glazcano . h . , trape j . f . , david p . , ohler a . , dubois a . & glitho i . a . 2011 . the snake fauna of togo : systematics , distribution and biogeography , with remarks on selected taxonomic problems . zoosystema 33 ( 3 ) : 325 - 360 . doi : 10 . 5252 / z2011n3a4 - get paper here\nsow , andack saad ; duarte vasconcelos gonc\u0327alves , fa\u0301bio vieira sousa , fernando marti\u0301nez - freiri\u0301a , frederico santare\u0301m , guillermo velo - anto\u0301n , hamidou dieng , joa\u0303o carlos campos , saer khayar diagne , zbyszek boratyn\u0301ski , jose\u0301 carlos brito 2017 . atlas of the distribution of amphibians and reptiles in the diawling national park , mauritania basic and applied herpetology - get paper here\nspawls , s . , branch , b . 1995 . the dangerous snakes of africa . blandford , london , 192 pp .\nspawls , s . ; howell , k . ; drewes , r . c . & ashe , j . 2002 . a field guide to the reptiles of east africa . academic press , 543 pp . [ reviews in hr 34 : 396 and afr . j . herp . 51 ; 147 ] - get paper here\nspawls , steve ; kim howell , harald hinkel , michele menegon 2018 . field guide to east african reptiles . bloomsbury , 624 pp . - get paper here\nsternfeld , r . 1910 . zur schlangenfauna deutsch - s\u00fcdwestafrikas . mehrere f\u00e4lle von mimikry bei afrikanischen schlangen . mitt . zool . mus . berlin , 5 : 51 - 60 - get paper here\ntrape j - f and mane\u0301 y . 2015 . the snakes of niger . amphibian & reptile conservation 9 ( 2 ) [ special section ] : 39\u201355 ( e110 ) - get paper here\ntrape , j . - f . & man\u00e9 , y . 2004 . les serpents des environs de bandafassi ( s\u00e9n\u00e9gal oriental ) . bull . soc . herp . france 109 : 5 - 34 - get paper here\ntrape , j . - f . & man\u00e9 , y . 2006 . guide des serpents d\u2019afrique occidentale . savane et d\u00e9sert . [ senegal , gambia , mauritania , mali , burkina faso , niger ] . ird editions , paris , 226 pp . - get paper here\ntrape , j . f . & r . roux - est\u00e8ve 1995 . les serpents du congo : liste comment\u00e9e et cl\u00e9 de d\u00e9termination . journal of african zoology 109 ( 1 ) : 31 - 50\ntrape , jean - fran\u00e7ois & cellou bald\u00e9 2014 . a checklist of the snake fauna of guinea , with taxonomic changes in the genera philothamnus and dipsadoboa ( colubridae ) and a comparison with the snake fauna of some other west african countries . zootaxa 3900 ( 3 ) : 301\u2013338\ntrape , jean - fran\u00e7ois ; man\u00e9 , youssouph 2000 . les serpents des environs de dielmo ( sine - saloum , s\u00e9n\u00e9gal ) . bull . soc . herp . france 95 : 19 - 35 - get paper here\nullenbruch , k . ; grell , o . ; b\u00f6hme , w . 2010 . reptiles from southern benin , west africa , with the description of a new hemidactylus ( gekkonidae ) , and a country - wide checklist . bonn zool . bull . 57 ( 1 ) : 31 - 54 - get paper here\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nafrica and the arabian peninsula . see link\ndistribution\nat the top of the page for detailed information .\nthe most distinctive characteristic of the cobras is the flat hood ( fig . 4 . 57 ) that is erected by the extension of ribs in the neck while the snake ' s upper body is raised . this peculiarity is only observed during warning behaviour ; at other times cobras resemble ordinary snakes . several other african elapids also demonstrate this defensive behaviour ( boulengerina sp . , pseudohaje sp . , hemachatus haemachatus ) .\nwidely distributed , except for sandy desert areas , where they are rarely seen ; also found at altitudes of up to 2 , 500 m above sea level . particularly prevalent in open habitats such as grasslands and scrub , but also found in plantations and forested areas . n . melanoleuca lives in forested areas . n . nigricollis , n . nivea and n . mossambica often seen close to human settlements or on the outskirts of cities , where they sometimes enter houses in search of water or prey .\npredominantly nocturnal . very agile snakes that show typical defensive behaviour when threatened ( see above ) , while producing hissing sounds . however , a strike is not always preceded by a threat display ! when cobras bite , they usually do not release immediately , but rather use chewing motions for several seconds to inject the venom .\nif venom from spitting cobras enters the eyes , there is a risk of blindness if the eyes are not treated promptly and appropriately ( warrell and oremond 1976 ) . over half of the 40 spitting cobra ( n . nigricollis ) victims cited by pugh et al . ( 1980 ) in the malumfashi area of northern nigeria were injuredt in or near houses . the authors number an incidence of venom ophthalmia of 6 - 8 / 100 , 000 population per year . in their review on ophtalmia caused by spitting cobras and rinkhals ( hemachatus haemachatus ) chu et al . ( 2010 ) give an overview on the epidemiology in africa and asia .\nbroadley 1983 , broadley and cock 1989 , broadley and w\u00fcster 2004 , freyvogel and honegger 1965 , golay 1985 , pitman 1974 , roman 1980 , sweeny 1971 , villiers 1975 , visser and chapman 1978 , o ' shea 2005 , w\u00fcster and broadley 2003 and 2007 , w\u00fcster et al . 2007 , trape et al . 2009 , wallach et al . 2009"]}
{"id": 2513, "summary": [{"text": "the new guinean long-nosed bandicoots ( genus peroryctes ) are members of the order peramelemorphia .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "they are small to medium-sized marsupial omnivores native to new guinea .", "topic": 29}, {"text": "fossil members of this genus have been found in australia , including p. tedfordi and an unnamed species . ", "topic": 26}], "title": "new guinean long - nosed bandicoot", "paragraphs": ["the new guinean long - nosed bandicoots ( genus peroryctes ) are members of the order peramelemorphia . they are small to medium - sized marsupial omnivores native to new guinea .\nthe new guinean long - nosed bandicoots ( genus peroryctes ) are members of the order peramelemorphia . they are small to medium - sized marsupial omnivores native to new guinea .\nthe long - nosed bandicoot ( perameles , or thylacis , nasuta ) , a vaguely ratlike brown animal whose rump may be black - barred , is the common form in eastern australia . the three species of short - nosed bandicoots , isoodon ( incorrectly thylacis ) , are found in new guinea , australia , and tasmania . rabbit - eared bandicoots , or bilbies , are\u2026\nyour list has reached the maximum number of items . please create a new list with a new name ; move some items to a new or existing list ; or delete some items .\nbulletin of the american museum of natural history . / american museum of natural history . ; ; new york [ american museum of natural history ] 1881 -\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : bulletin of the american museum of natural history . publisher : new york [ american museum of natural history ] 1881 - isbn / issn : 0003 - 0090 oclc : 1287364\nkenny j . travouillon ; julien louys ; gilbert j . price ; michael archer ; suzanne j . hand ; jeanette muirhead ( 2017 ) .\na review of the pliocene bandicoots of australia , and descriptions of new genus and species\n. journal of vertebrate paleontology . 37 ( 5 ) : e1360894 . doi : 10 . 1080 / 02724634 . 2017 . 1360894 .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nbulletin of the american museum of natural history . ( journal , magazine , 1881 ) [ worldcat . org ]\nyour web browser is not enabled for javascript . some features of worldcat will not be available .\nnote : citations are based on reference standards . however , formatting rules can vary widely between applications and fields of interest or study . the specific requirements or preferences of your reviewing publisher , classroom teacher , institution or organization should be applied .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) field is required . please enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\nthe e - mail address ( es ) you entered is ( are ) not in a valid format . please re - enter recipient e - mail address ( es ) .\ncomprises articles on geology , paleontology , mammalogy , ornithology , entomology and anthropology .\naddress for accessing the journal using authorization number and password through oclc firstsearch electronic collections online . subscription to online journal required for access to abstracts and full text\naddress for accessing the journal from an authorized ip address through oclc firstsearch electronic collections online . subscription to online journal required for access to abstracts and full text\nplease choose whether or not you want other users to be able to see on your profile that this library is a favorite of yours .\nbulletin of the american museum of natural history anthropological papers of the american museum of natural history .\nadd tags for\nbulletin of the american museum of natural history .\n.\nyou may have already requested this item . please select ok if you would like to proceed with this request anyway .\nworldcat is the world ' s largest library catalog , helping you find library materials online . learn more \u203a\u203a\ndon ' t have an account ? you can easily create a free account .\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]\ni thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , \u00a92005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of\ninformation indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nthis indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\na uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all\nadd tags for\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference\n.\nwilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .\n- - publisher ' s website .\nsorry , the species or group that you asked for is not on the onezoom tree .\nthe open tree contains additional species not on the onezoom tree ( particularly subspecies and fossils ) . to check if this is why we cannot find your species or group , you can\n, then chances are you have entered a wrong number or a misspelt name .\ncarnivorous bilbies . in recent years , however , it has become clear that the situation is more complex . first , the bandicoots of the\nthis reference article is mainly selected from the english wikipedia with only minor checks and changes ( see urltoken for details of authors and sources ) and is available under the gnu free documentation license . see also our disclaimer .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\nwalker ' s mammals of the world , vol . 1 , 5th ed .\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 2nd ed . , 3rd printing\nmammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference , 3rd ed . , vols . 1 & 2\ndisclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .\nfossil members of this genus have been found in australia , including p . tedfordi and an unnamed species .\nthis is a directory page . britannica does not currently have an article on this topic .\nhorse , ( equus caballus ) , a hoofed , herbivorous mammal of the family equidae . it comprises a single species , \u2026\nanimal , ( kingdom animalia ) , any of a group of multicellular eukaryotic organisms ( i . e . , as distinct from\u2026\ngithub is home to over 28 million developers working together to host and review code , manage projects , and build software together .\nyou signed in with another tab or window . reload to refresh your session .\nyou signed out in another tab or window . reload to refresh your session .\ntwo fossil taxa from australia , peroryctes tedfordi and then - unnamed silvicultor hamiltonensis , were originally assigned to this genus , [ 2 ] but they were subsequently transferred to the separate genus silvicultor . [ 3 ]\ngroves , c . p . ( 2005 ) . wilson , d . e . ; reeder , d . m . , eds . mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( 3rd ed . ) . baltimore : johns hopkins university press . p . 40 . isbn 0 - 801 - 88221 - 4 . oclc 62265494 .\nturnbull , w . d . ; et al . ( 2003 ) .\ndasyurids , perameloids , phalangeroids and vomabatoids from the early pliocene hamilton fauna , victoria , australia\n. bulletin of the american museum of natural history . 279 : 513\u2013540 . doi : 10 . 1206 / 0003 - 0090 ( 2003 ) 279 < 0513 : c > 2 . 0 . co ; 2 . issn 0003 - 0090 .\nthis page is based on a wikipedia article written by authors ( here ) . text is available under the cc by - sa 3 . 0 license ; additional terms may apply . images , videos and audio are available under their respective licenses ."]}
{"id": 2649, "summary": [{"text": "isodemis is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily tortricinae of the family tortricidae .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "the genus was erected by alexey diakonoff in 1952 for the type species batodes serpentinana .", "topic": 26}, {"text": "diakonoff ( 1976 , 1983 ) transferred tortrix illiberalis to isodemis and described isodemis stenotera from sumatra .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "j\u00f3zef razowski ( 2000 , 2009 ) described isodemis proxima from taiwan , and isodemis brevicera , isodemis longicera and isodemis ngoclinha from vietnam .", "topic": 5}, {"text": "currently , isodemis consists of twelve species , mainly distributed in south-east asia . ", "topic": 6}], "title": "isodemis", "paragraphs": ["the genus isodemis diakonoff , 1952 in china is reviewed , with seven species recognized . three new species are described : isodemis quadratasp . n . , isodemis guangxiensissp . n . and isodemis hainanensissp . n . the female of isodemis stenotera diakonoff , 1983 is described for the first time . variation within isodemis illiberalis ( meyrick , 1918 ) and isodemis stenotera is briefly discussed . images of the adults and genitalia are provided , along with a key to the described species .\nisodemis is a genus of moths belonging to the subfamily tortricinae of the family tortricidae . the genus was erected by diakonoff in 1952 for the type species batodes serpentinana . diakonoff ( 1976 , 1983 ) transferred tortrix illiberalis to isodemis and described isodemis stenotera from sumatra . razowski ( 2000 , 2009 ) described isodemis proxima from . . .\nhow can i put and write and define isodemis in a sentence and how is the word isodemis used in a sentence and examples ? \u7528isodemis\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528isodemis\u9020\u53e5 , \u7528isodemis\u9020\u53e5 , isodemis meaning , definition , pronunciation , synonyms and example sentences are provided by ichacha . net .\ngenus : isodemis diakonoff , 1952 . verh . naturf . ges . basel 63 : 147 .\ncurrently ,\nisodemis\nconsists of twelve species , mainly distributed in south - east asia .\nrecord of a lepidopteran pest isodemis serpentinana ( walker ) ( tortricidae : lepidoptera ) on vateria indica l . in karnataka\nrecord of a lepidopteran pest isodemis serpentinana ( walker ) ( tortricidae : lepidoptera ) on vateria indica l . in karnataka | mangala | indian forester\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\nby t . m . gilligan 1 , j . baixeras 2 , j . w . brown 3 , and k . r . tuck 4\nurltoken is pleased to offer the complete world catalogue of the tortricidae ( t @ rts ) ! this is a complete list of all world species , utilizing the world catalogue published in 2005 as the foundation for the database . version 3 . 0 of the online catalogue contains 15 , 099 records representing 10 , 883 species . more than 1 , 600 records have been updated from ver 2 . 0 ( jul , 2012 ) , and more than 3 , 000 records have been updated from the original catalogue . the database is completely searchable and contains photos of over 1 , 200 type specimens .\nt @ rts will be updated regularly both with corrections from the original world catalogue and with additions since its publication . as such , these pages will serve as the most up to date information on current tortricid nomenclature . if you find any errors in the data presented here or have any questions / comments , please use the contact form to send the authors an email .\nwe are indebted to all of the original authors of the world catalogue ( j . w . brown , j . baixeras , r . brown , m . horak , f . komai , e . metzler , j . razowski , and k . tuck ) for providing the basis for this project . we would also like to thank the dozens of individuals who have provided corrections or updates to the database since it was first placed online in 2007 .\ngilligan , t . m . , j . baixeras , j . w . brown & k . r . tuck . 2014 . t @ rts : online world catalogue of the tortricidae ( ver . 3 . 0 ) . urltoken\n1 colorado state university , bioagricultural sciences and pest management , 1177 campus delivery , fort collins , co 80523 , usa 2 institut cavanilles de biodiversitat i biologia evolutiva , universitat de valencia , apartat oficial 2085 , 46071 valencia , spain 3 systematic entomology laboratory - usda [ retired ] , smithsonian institution , p . o . box 37012 , national museum of natural history , washington , dc 20013 , usa 4 curator - microlepidoptera [ retired ] , entomology department ( dc2 - 2n ) , natural history museum , cromwell road , london sw7 5bd , uk\nunless noted , all images on these pages are copyright \u00a9 2003 - 14 by todd gilligan . please do not download , copy , print , or otherwise distribute any images from these pages without the permission of the author . contact form .\nif you have images for this taxon that you would like to share with atlas of living australia , please upload using the upload tools .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : c18766fe - cf59 - 4235 - af5a - ea20704130f1\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 249748\nexplore species occurrence records in the context of their environment . find records and model species distributions . export reports , maps and data .\nfind out how you can contribute to a citizen science project in your area , or explore one of the many citizen science projects supported by the ala .\ndid you see something ? photograph something ? contribute your sighting to the atlas of living australia .\nthe atlas of living australia acknowledges australia ' s traditional owners and pays respect to the past and present elders of the nation ' s aboriginal and torres strait islander communities . we honour and celebrate the spiritual , cultural and customary connections of traditional owners to country and the biodiversity that forms part of that country .\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 9f77da94 - c9c6 - 4043 - 9844 - b36b90953bf3\nurn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . name : 380948\nfor full functionality of researchgate it is necessary to enable javascript . here are the instructions how to enable javascript in your web browser .\ntortricidae from vietnam in the collection of the berlin museum . 5 . archipini and sparganothini ( lepidoptera : tortricidae )\ntortricidae from vietnam in the collection of the berlin museum . 6 . olethreutinae ( lepidoptera : tortricidae )\ndiakonoff a ( 1941 ) new asiatic and papuan tortricidae with records of other species ( 3rd communication on indo - malayan and papuan microlepidoptera ) . treubia 18 : 29\u201344 .\nwissenschaftliche ergebnisse der sumba - expedition des museums f\u00fcr v\u00f6lkerkunde und des naturhistorischen museums in basel , 1949 . microlepidoptera . part 1\ndiakonoff a ( 1952 ) wissenschaftliche ergebnisse der sumba - expedition des museums f\u00fcr v\u00f6lkerkunde und des naturhistorischen museums in basel , 1949 . microlepidoptera . part 1 . verhandlungen der naturforschenden gesellschaft in basel 63 : 137\u2013152 .\ndocumenting the circa 2 , 400 ( and rising ) moth species of hong kong , their distributions , relative abundance , phenology , habitat associations and general ecology . a combination of citizen science ef\u2026\n[ more ]\nreview of the genus hieromantis meyrick from china , with descriptions of three new species ( lepidopt . . .\nsix species of the genus hieromantis occurring in china are reviewed . hieromantis rectangula sp . n . , h . arcuata sp . n . and h . puerensis sp . n . are described as new , and h . phaeodora meyrick , 1929 is newly recorded in china . photographs of adults and illustrations of genitalia are provided , along with an identification key and a distribution map .\nthe genus calicotis meyrick , 1889 is recorded from china for the first time . calicotis cuspidata sp . nov . , c . dilatata sp . nov . and c . uncinata sp . nov . are described as new , and c . crucifera meyrick , 1889 is newly recorded for china . photographs of adults and illustrations of the genitalia are provided , along with a key to the identification of the described chinese species and a map to show . . . [ show full abstract ]\ncochylis treitschke in china : one new species and five new records ( lepidoptera , tortricidae , cochyl . . .\nsix species of cochylis treitschke , 1829 are recorded for china . among them , cochylis triangula sp . n . is described as new ; cochylis atricapitana ( stephens , 1852 ) , cochylis discerta razowski , 1970 , cochylis dubitana ( h\u00fcbner , [ 1799 ] ) , cochylis faustana ( kennel , 1919 ) and cochylis posterana hyrcana ( toll , 1948 ) are recorded for the first time for china . the female of cochylis discerta razowski , . . . [ show full abstract ]\none new species and two new species records of the genus endotricha zeller , 1847 from china ( lepidop . . .\nendotricha minutiptera li , sp . n . is described from hainan , china . endotricha loricata moore and e . ragonoti christoph are reported for the first time in china . images of the adults and the genitalia of the three species are provided .\nthe chinese species of phalonidia le marchand , 1933 are reviewed . sixteen species and one subspecies are treated , including three new species ( p . brevifasciaria , sp . nov . , p . rotundiventralis , sp . nov . , and p . tenuispinifornis , sp . nov . ) and three newly recorded species or subspecies ( p . affinitana tauriana ( kennel , 1899 ) , p . aliena kuznetzov , 1966 , and p . coreana byun & li , 2006 ) . the female . . . [ show full abstract ]\nencyclo . co . uk , online since 2007 , is a search engine for english meanings and definitions . the website aims to publish all wordlists , big and small , on the internet , making it much easier to find the word you need . follow us on facebook\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 01 transitional / / en\nurltoken\ntype - species : batodes serpentinana walker , 1863 . list spec . lepid . insects colln br . mus . : 317 . [ bhl ]\nt @ rts : online world catalogue of the tortricidae ( ver . 2 . 0 )\nby gilligan , t . m . , j . baixeras , j . w . brown & k . r . tuck . 2012 .\nwe use cookies to optimise your experience when using this site . view our cookie policy and our new privacy notice .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd xhtml 1 . 0 transitional / / en\nurltoken\n\u00bb anthology of oxalis corniculata l . by scanning electron microscope in indroda nature park , gujarat , india 39734 views since : 2017 - 12 - 01\ntortricidae from vietnam in the collection of the berlin museum . 5 . . . .\nthis paper is a continuation of the study on the tribe archipini from vietnam . it includes the data on 15 genera\nkey words : lepidoptera , tortricidae , archipini , sparganothini , new species , vietnam .\ntortricidae de vietnam en la colecci\u00f3n del museo de berl\u00edn . 5 . archipini y sparganothini\neste trabajo es una continuaci\u00f3n del estudio sobre la tribu archipini de vietnam . incluye los datos sobre 15\npalabras clave : lepidoptera , tortricidae , archipini , sparganothini , nuevas especies , vietnam .\ncollectors : afonin , w . mey , simonov , and v . siniaev .\n1995 , siniaev ; sa pa , fan si pan , 1600 m , vii - 1995 ; mt . ngoclinh , 900 - 1400 m , 10 - 25 - viii - 1996 ,\nm , 8 - xiii - 1996 , siniaev & afonin ; tuan glao , 1200 m , 5 - 10 - xi - 1994 , siniaev ; bach - ma n . p . , 1200\nm , 26 - vii / 6 - viii - 1996 , siniaev & afonin .\nsiniaev ; mt . ngoclinh , 900 - 1400 m , 10 - 25 - viii - 1996 , siniaev & afonin .\ndistribution : until now known from india : assam , sikkim ; nepal ; china : yunnan .\nholotype female from mt . fan si pan , 2400 m , v - 1993 , siniaev & simonov ; gs 75 wien .\ndescription : wing span 15 , 5 mm . head ferruginous brown ; labial palpus 1 , 5 pale rust ; median\npart of thorax brownish grey , tegula brown , cream posteriorly . forewing not expanding posteriorly ;\nfemale genitalia ( fig . 19 ) : anteostial sterigma large , tapering proximad , membranous at\nthis species was described from kashmir . the examined material shows an external and genital\nsiniaev & afonin ; mt ngoclinh , 900 - 1400 m , 10 - 25 - viii - 1995 , same collectors .\ndescription : male . wing span 23 mm . head and thorax pale brownish ; labial palpus ca 1 , 5\nreaching about middle ; apex fairly long ; termen sinuate beneath apex , convex postmedially . ground\ncolour ( worn ) brownish ferruginous , in tornal area ochreous , tinged and sprinkled rust brown .\ndots . cilia rust brown , more cream towards tornus . hindwing brownish with orange apical area ; cilia\nfemale : wing span 30 mm . costa sinuate ; apex fairly long , protruding ; termen sinuate beneath\napex , convex postmedially . head and thorax cinnamon brownish ; labial palpus ca 2 , more rust\nsubapical blotch diffuse with refractive shine . cilia rust brown . hindwing pale orange with pale\nminute terminal thorn ; aedeagus rather slender , with dorsoposterior thorn ; cornuti and caulis long .\ntortricidae from vietnam in the collection of the berlin museum . 5 . archipini and sparganothini\nfemale genitalia ( fig . 20 ) : posterior edge of antreostial sterigma concave medially , cup - shaped\npart broad ; sclerite of antrum weak ; ductus bursae very long ; blade of signum long .\n1995 ; mt ngoclingh , 1400 m , 10 - 25 - viii - 1996 , siniaev ; bach - ma n . p . , 1200 m , 26 - vii - 1996 , all\ndescribed from assam , india ; widely distributed in s . asia ( pakistan , nepal , cjina , india ,\nburma , thailand , vietnam , malaysia , indonesia : sumatra , java ) . for synonymies see tuck ( 1990 ) .\nholotype male from kon tum , dac glei , 700 m , 6 - viii - 1996 , siniaev & afonin ; gs 118 wiet .\ndescription : wing span 15 mm . head and thorax brownish , labial palpus ( 1 . 3 ) except for\nterminal part and base of tegula blackish . forewing weakly expanding posteriorly , costal fold to 1 / 3 ,\ncosta concave postmedially ; termen beyond sinuate part convexly rounded . termen cream ochreous ,\nin basal 3 / 4 suffused pinkish brown , in costal area tinged brown - black . markings and costal fold\nblackish brown , typical of the genus ; subapical fascia and apical spot brownish . cilia brown\nholotype female from sa pa , fan si pan mts , 25 - 30 - iii - 1995 , w . mey ; gs 115 wiet . paratype\nfemale , not dissected , from bach ma np , 1200 m , 26 - vii / 8 - viii - 1996 , siniaev & afonin .\ndescription : wing span 23 mm . head rust brown , median part of thorax browner ; labial palpus\nbeneath apex , weakly convex towards m3 . forewing almost unicolorous ochreous rust , paler\nbrown , this last with some refractive dots . cilia rust brown , paler in dorsal third . hindwing orange ,\nin anal half brownish ; cilia pale orange ; subapical group of scent scales absent .\nfemale genitalia ( fig . 21 ) : proximal half of sterigma tapering proximally ; postostial sterigma\nlong ; cestum to beyond middle of this last ; blade of signum slender .\nholotype female from sa pa , fan si pan , 1600 m , june 1994 , v . siniaev ; gs 39 wiet .\nparatypes 7 females from same locality , 2400 m , 28 - x - 1994 , v . siniaev ; gs 39 wiet . paratypes 9\ndescription : female . wing span 20 mm . head and thorax cinnamon brown ; labial palpus 1 , 3 .\nforewing costa weakly sinuate before apex ; termen similarly so . ground colour brownish cinnamon ;\nsuffusions and strigulation brownish ; subtornal area and apex more brown . cilia rust brown , blackish\nvariation : paler and darker specimens , two with costal traces of brownish markings .\nfemale genitalia ( fig . 22 ) : sterigma rather small with cup - shaped proximal part ; sclerite of\ninner sclerite and without cestum ; basal half of forewing without rust suffusion and strigulation .\nholotype female : mt . ngoclinh , 900 - 1400 m , 10 - 25 - viii - 1996 , siniaev & afonin ; gs 111\ndescription : wing span 20 mm . head and thorax brownish , labial palpus ca 1 , 3 . costa of\nweak , pinkish violet . marking reduced to slender rust brown blotch extending from mid - costa to\nfemale genitalia ( fig . 23 ) : sterigma proportionally small ; cup - shaped part less than half length\nwith short cup - shaped part of sterigma , distinctly tapering proximally and long cestum .\nterminal plate of gnathos and narrow transverse brachiola . signum , ductus bursae ( with cestum ) and\n3 - xi - 1994 , siniaev ; mt . fan si pan , v - 1993 , 2400 m , siniaev & simonov .\nfemale ( not known until now ) : wing span 30 - 32 mm . forewing not expanding terminad ; costa\nmarkings pale rust with much darker , linear edges . cilia rust or brownish rust . hindwing cream\nand my own drawings . in the two sources some characters are lacking , thus this comparison may\ntwo lateral thorns at the end of aedeagus . female genitalia ( unknown until now , fig . 24 ) . sterigma\nbursae long with cestum reaching before its end ; basal plate of signum small , blade slender .\njudging on the shape of aedeagus our specimens my represent another , close species .\naedeagus which tapers terminad and has a single ventroterminal process . this species is known from\nsiniaev & afonin ; mt . ngoclinh , 900 - 1400 m , 10 - 25 - viii - 1996 , siniaev & afonin ; kon tum , dac\nsacculus is variable ; the ventroterminal projection is either short or pronounced . known from nepal ,\nsikkim , n . india , thailand , w . malaysia , vietnam , sumatra and borneo .\nholotype female : mt . fan si pan , 2400 m , v - 1993 , siniaev & simonov , g . s 43 wiet .\ndescription : wing span 32 mm . head and thorax brownish yellow ; labial palpus ca 2 , browner\nterminally ; tegula with slender brownish line . forewing costa convex basally , termen weakly\nsuffusions and rows of dots in posterior third of wing brown . markings brown , partially diffuse ,\nmedian fascia slightly tinged rust medially . cilia concolorous with groud colour of distal third of\nfemale genitalia ( fig . 25 ) : anteostial sterigma broad with transverse more strongly sclerotized\nmaterial examined : 13 females from tam dao , 950 m , 17 - x - 1995 , siniaev ; mt . ngoclinh ,\nremarks : widely distributed in se asia : bhutan , thailand , w . malaysia ( tuck , 1990 ) ,\nmaterial examined : eight specimens from fan si pan , 2400 m , v - 1993 , siniaev & simonov .\ntheir figure is superficial . judging from the setose end of sacculus liu & li ( 2002 ) examined a\nmaterial examined : one male found in sa pa , oku - ho 1100 m , 31 - iii - 1995 , mey .\nthis species was described from nepal ; it also is known from china : likiang .\nholotype male : kon tum , dac glei , 700 m , 8 - viii - 1996 , siniaev & afonin ; gs 30 wiet .\ndescription : wing span 15 mm . head and thorax brownish ; labial palpus ca 2 . forewing\nuniformly broad , costa except for basal third straight , termen weakly oblique , gently sinuate . ground\ncolour creamish brown ; dots and suffusions brownish . markings brown with blackish brown dots\napodeme ; aedeagus tapering terminad , with terminal process ( broken ) ; cornuti group of large spines .\nmaterial examined : over 20 specimens from tam dao , 950 m , 17 - x - 1995 , siniaev ; mt . fan si\nremarks : already recorded from vietnam ( kuznetzov 2000 ) . very similar to east\n( christoph , 1881 ) in which basal part of uncus is rather slender .\nholotype male : tam dao , 17 - x - 1995 , 950 m , siniaev ; gs 31 wiet . paratype male : mai - chau ,\ndescription : wing span 10 , 5 mm . head brownish , thorax cream , labial palpus ca 2 , brownish .\nforewing rather uniformly broad , termen slightly oblique , rather straight . ground colour creamish ;\ndots sparse , brownish ; dorsum slightly suffused brownish . markings pale grey - brown with darker\nblotch extending almost to tornus . cilia concolorous with wing . hindwing brownish cream ,\nholotype male : sa pa , okui - ho , 1100 m , 31 - iii - 1995 , mey ; gs 71 wiet .\ndescription : wing span 12 , 5 mm . head and thorax brownish scales cream ochreous ; labial\npalpus ca 1 , 5 , brownish ochreous . forewing not expanding in posterior half ; costal fold broad ;\ntermen fairly oblique , straight . ground colour pale brownish grey , in costal and terminal areas more\ncreamish ; in dorsal third of wing brownish ; strigulation brownish grey . markings : median fascia\nbrown spots ; terminal suffusion weak marked by brown median veins . cilia cream , brown at tornus .\nhindwing brownish grey , cream towards base , with brownish venation ; cilia paler than wing .\nbroad uncus and dorsal process of labis , and long , curved terminal process of aedeagus .\nholotype female : mai chau , 1400 m , 7 - 15 - v - 1995 , siniaev ; gs 78 wiet . paratypes , 2 females ,\none labelled as above , one from sa pa , 1600 m , primary forest , 28 - x / 3 - xi - 1994 , siniaev .\ndescription : wing span 16 mm . head brown ; labial palpus ca 2 ; thorax brownish grey . forewing\ntowards base of wing ; dots brownish ; suffusion at mid - dorsum paler , spotted brown . markings grey -\nbrown consisting of costal spots and large subapical triangle reaching apex , tornus and termen . cilia\nfemale genitalia ( fig . 26 ) : sterigma subsquare with short , rounded proximal corners ; antrum\nmaterial examined : two males : sa pa , fan si pang mts , 25 - 30 - iii - 1995 , w . mey ; mt . fan si\nwiet . paratypes , 2 females , same labels , one with gs 170 wiet .\ndescription : wing span 16 mm . head and thorax brownish ferruginous ; labial palpus ca 1 , 3 .\nbeneath apex , convex postmedially . wing brownish ferruginous , more cream along costa , with sparse\ndarker fine strigulae . subapical blotch slender , much darker than ground colour ; apex brown . cilia\nfemale genitalia ( fig . 27 ) : papilla analis broad ; cup - shaped part of sterigma large , expanding\nsclerite ; ductus bursae long , slender , broadening postmedially ; signum with large blade .\nfrom primorsk , east russia but this species with very long ductus bursae and large signum .\ndescription : wing span 20 mm . head and thorax ferruginous , labial palpus ca 1 , 3 ferruginous\nsubapical blotch slender , brown and subterminal fascia preserved near termen brown rust . cilia\nfemale genitalia ( fig . 28 ) : cup - shaped part of sterigma expanding posteriorly ; lateral parts of\nholotype male : mt ngoclinh , 900 - 1400 m , 10 - 25 - viii - 1996 , siniaev & afonin ; gs 28 wiet .\nparatypes two males from tam dao , 17 - x - 1995 , 950 m , siniaev , one with gs 162 wiet .\ndescription : wing span 15 mm . head and thorax pale orange cream , labial palpus ca 1 , 5 more\nstraight , rather not oblique , then bent . ground colour pale yellowish cream with dense orange\nspot ; subterminal fascia connected with costal blotch . cilia brownish ( worn ) with brown tornal third .\nbroad basally ; aedeagus broad , convex in middle ventrally ; cornuti large bunch of long spines .\netymology : this specie is dedicated to mr . afonin the collector of this and several other\nmaterial examined : one male from mt . ngoclinh , 900 - 1400 m , 10 - 25 - viii - 1996 , siniaev &\nremarks : this species was described from andamans . the male genitalia of this specimen\n( figs 17 , 18 ) differ from those in clarke ( 1958 ) . his lectotype has longer aedeagus whilst\nsimonov ; sa pa , fan si pan mts , 25 - 30 - iii - 1995 , w . mey ; sa pa , mt fan si pan , 28 - x / 3 - xi - 1994 ,\nexposition , primary forest , 1600 m , 28 - x - 1994 , siniaev .\nsame locality , 950 m , 17 - x - 1965 , siniaev . ; two males from mai chau , 1400 m , primary forest , 7 - 15 -\nexamined material : kon tum , dac glei , 700 m , 8 - viii - 1996 , siniaev & afonin . there is a\ngreat deal of specimens from various localities which could represent this species . the females are\nmentions that it is distributed in eastern and southern asia to korea and japan in the north .\n41 wiet . paratypes , two females ( one with abdomen missing ) with identical labels .\ndescription : wing span 22 mm . head pale brownish cream ; labial palpus 1 , 3 ; thorax slightly\ndeeply concave beneath apex , strongly convex at vein m3 . ground colour brownish cream densely\nsuffused and sprinkled brown ; strigulae along costa brownish . markings brown , diffuse , ill - defined\nconcolorous to m3 , then brownish cream . hindwing cream tinged brownish ; cilia slightly paler .\nfemale genitalia ( fig . 29 ) : sterigma small , subsquare , with well expressed proximal corners ;\nsiniaev & afonin ; sa pa , okui - ho , 1100 m , 31 - iii - 1995 , w . mey ; sa pa , 1600 m . 26 - x / 3 - xi . , v .\n1994 , v . siniaev ; mai chau , 1400 m , primary forest , 7 - 15 - iv - 1995 , siniaev .\ndiakonoff , 1976 . most probably the two are conspecific . range : nepal , india , thailand , vietnam ,\nmaterial examined : one male from mai chau , 1400 m , 7 - 15 - iv - 1995 , siniaev .\n( india to new guinea ) but distinct by slender basal part of uncus . this species is described from\nholotype female : mt . ngoclinh , 900 - 1400 m , 10 - 25 - viii - 1996 , siniaev & afonin ; gs 171 .\nparatype female from fan si pan , 1600 m , primary forest , 1 - 7 - xi - 1995 , siniaev & afonin .\ndescription : wing span 23 mm . head cream grey , labial palpus ca 2 , white apically ; thorax\nconcolorous with head , tegula marked brownish grey . forewing uniformly broad throughout , costa\nexcept for basal third straight ; termen not oblique , hardly concave submedially . ground colour cream\nscaled pinkish rust , in dorsal area more grey , in mid - terminal portion markedly brownish . markings\nand forming white mark at disc ; line along anal vein to beyond mid - length of wing . cilia worn .\nfemale genitalia ( fig . 30 ) : papilla analis large with rounded posterior part ; sterigma short ,\nmaterial examined : twenty - two specimens : sa pa , okui - ho , 1100 m , 31 - iii - 1995 , w . mey ; mt .\nfan si pan , 2400 m , v - 1993 , siniaev ; fan si pan , primary forest , 1 - 7 - xi - 1995 . siniaev & afonin ;\ntam dao , 950 m , 17 - x - 1995 , siniaev ; mai - chau , 1400 m , 7 - 15 - iv - 1995 , siniaev ; mt . ngoclinh ,\nthe author thanks dr . wolfram mey ( mnhu ) for providing the vietnam material for study and\ndonation of some spare specimens for isez . thanks are also due to dr . l . przybylowicz , cracow\nwho photographed the specimens and slides and mr . k . fiolek , cracow who arranged the plates .\nkuznetzov , v . i . , 2000 . \u2013 annotated list of tortricidae recorded from vietnam ( lepidoptera ) . \u2013\nrazowski , j . , 1979 . \u2013 some tortricinae ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) . \u2013\nrazowski , j . , 2003 . \u2013 tortricidae ( lepidoptera ) from vietnam in the collection of the berlin museum . 1 .\nrazowski , j . , 2008a . \u2013 tortricidae ( lepidoptera ) from vietnam in the collection of the berlin museum . 2 .\nrazowski , j . , 2008b . \u2013 tortricidae ( lepidoptera ) from vietnam in the collection of the berlin museum . 3 .\nrazowski , j . , 2008c . \u2013 tortricidae ( lepidoptera ) from vietnam in the collection of the berlin museum .\nlike most websites we use cookies . this is to ensure that we give you the best experience possible .\ncontinuing to use urltoken means you agree to our use of cookies . if you would like to , you can learn more about the cookies we use .\ncab direct is the most thorough and extensive source of reference in the applied life sciences , incorporating the leading bibliographic databases cab abstracts and global health . cab direct provides a convenient , single point of access to all of your cabi database subscriptions .\nwe do not evaluate or guarantee the accuracy of any content in this site . click here for the full disclaimer .\na novel splice variant in the n - propeptide of col5a1 causes an eds . . .\nthe ehlers - danlos syndrome ( eds ) is a heritable connective tissue disorder characterized by hyperextensible skin , joint hypermobility and soft tissue fragility . the classic subtype of eds is caused by mutations in one of the type v collagen genes ( col5a1 and col5a2 ) . most mutations affect the type v collagen helical domain and . . .\ncytogenetic study on microtus guentheri ( danford and alston , 1880 ) ( mammalia : rodentia ) from . . .\nconventionally stained , c - and ag - nor banded karyotypes of guenther ' s vole , microtus guentheri were studied from turkey . the species possesses a karyotype of 2n = 54 , nfa = 52 and nf = 54 in specimens from kahramanmara\u015f and gaziantep provinces , whereas nf = 56 in females and nf = 55 in . . .\neffect of pitx2 knockdown on transcriptome of primary human trabecular meshwork cell . . .\nto identify genes whose expressions in primary human trabecular meshwork ( tm ) cell cultures are affected by the transcription factor pituitary homeobox 2 ( pitx2 ) and to identify genes that may have roles in glaucoma . known glaucoma causing genes account for disease in a small fraction of patients , and we aimed at . . .\nsurface export of gapdh / sdh , a glycolytic enzyme , is essential for streptococcus pyogenes . . .\nstreptococcal surface dehydrogenase ( sdh ) ( glyceraldehyde - 3 - phosphate dehydrogenase [ gapdh ] ) is an anchorless major multifunctional surface protein in group a streptococcus ( gas ) with the ability to bind important mammalian proteins , including plasmin ( ogen ) . although several biological properties of sdh are suggestive of its possible role in gas virulence , its direct role in gas pathogenesis . . .\nplantar fasciitis - to jab or to support ? a systematic review of . . .\nplantar fasciitis is a common condition routinely managed by podiatrists in the community and is widely treated conservatively . two commonly used treatments for plantar fasciitis are customized functional foot orthoses and corticosteroid injections . while common to clinical practice , the evidence base underpinning these treatment strategies is unknown . therefore , the aim . . .\n4d super - resolution microscopy with conventional fluorophores and single wavelength excitation in optically . . .\noptical super - resolution imaging of fluorescently stained biological samples is rapidly becoming an important tool to investigate protein distribution at the molecular scale . it is therefore important to develop practical super - resolution methods that allow capturing the full three - dimensional nature of biological systems and also can visualize multiple protein species in the . . .\nnicotinic acid receptor abnormalities in human skin cancer : implications for a role . . .\nchronic uv skin exposure leads to epidermal differentiation defects in humans that can be largely restored by pharmacological doses of nicotinic acid . nicotinic acid has been identified as a ligand for the human g - protein - coupled receptors gpr109a and gpr109b that signal through g ( i ) - mediated inhibition of adenylyl cyclase . we have examined the . . .\nforebrain nr2b overexpression facilitating the prefrontal cortex long - term potentiation and enhancing working . . .\nprefrontal cortex plays an important role in working memory , attention regulation and behavioral inhibition . its functions are associated with nmda receptors . however , there is little information regarding the roles of nmda receptor nr2b subunit in prefrontal cortical synaptic plasticity and prefrontal cortex - related working memory . whether the up - regulation of nr2b subunit . . .\nintracisternal administration of nr2 subunit antagonists attenuates the nociceptive behavior and p - p38 . . .\nwe investigated the role of the central nmda receptor nr2 subunits in the modulation of nociceptive behavior and p - p38 mapk expression in a rat model with compression of the trigeminal nerve root . to address this possibility , changes in air - puff thresholds and pin - prick scores were determined following an intracisternal administration of . . .\nshifting responsibly : the importance of striatal modularity to reinforcement learning in uncertain . . .\nwe propose here that the modular organization of the striatum reflects a context - sensitive modular learning architecture in which clustered striosome - matrisome domains participate in modular reinforcement learning ( rl ) . based on anatomical and physiological evidence , it has been suggested that the modular organization of the striatum could represent a learning architecture . there . . .\nin more than 60 years of research on molecular excitons , there has been extensive theoretical work but few experimental investigations have rigorously tested the predictions of exciton coupling theories . in centrosymmetric doubly h - bonded molecular dimers with identical chromophores , the s0 - - > s1 electronic transition dipole moments of the monomers combine in a . . .\npulmonary interstitial emphysema presenting in a woman on the intensive care unit : . . .\npulmonary interstitial emphysema is a life - threatening form of ventilator - induced lung injury . we present one of the few reported adult cases of pulmonary interstitial emphysema in a woman with respiratory failure admitted to our intensive care unit . an 87 - year - old caucasian woman with a diagnosis of community - acquired pneumonia was admitted to our . . .\nstudy on the visible - light - induced photokilling effect of nitrogen - doped tio2 nanoparticles on cancer . . .\nnitrogen - doped tio2 ( n - tio2 ) nanoparticles were prepared by calcining the anatase tio2 nanoparticles under ammonia atmosphere . the n - tio2 showed higher absorbance in the visible region than the pure tio2 . the cytotoxicity and visible - light - induced phototoxicity of the pure - and n - tio2 were examined for three types of cancer cell lines . no significant cytotoxicity . . .\nsalinity stress is an important environmental constraint limiting the productivity of many crops worldwide . in this report , experiments were conducted to investigate the effects of seed presoaking by bovine hemoglobin , an inducer of heme oxygenase - 1 ( ho - 1 ) , on salinity tolerance in rice ( oryza sativa ) plants . the results showed that different concentrations . . .\ncancer risk associated with insulin glargine among adult type 2 diabetes patients - - a . . .\npreclinical and observational studies raise the concern about the safety of insulin glargine in terms of cancer initiation and promotion . this study is designed to examine cancer incidence associated with use of insulin glargine vs . intermediate / long - acting human insulin ( hi ) . a retrospective cohort study using the taiwan national health insurance claims . . .\ntakhtsabzy bashaer k bk technical university of denmark electrical engineering , \u00f8rstedsplads , building 349 , dk - 2800 kgs lyngby . - - 2011\nthe purpose of this study is to assess the sleep quality ( sq ) in powernapping . the contributed factors for sq assessment are time of sleep onset ( so ) , sleep length ( sl ) , sleep depth ( sd ) , and detection of sleep events ( k - complex ( kc ) and sleep spindle ( ss ) ) . data from daytime nap for 10 subjects , . . .\npodocyte injury is associated with progression of many renal diseases , including diabetic nephropathy . in this study we examined whether aldose reductase ( ar ) , the enzyme implicated in diabetic complications in different tissues , is modulated by high glucose and osmolarity in podocyte cells . ar mrna , protein expression , and activity were measured in . . .\nguti\u00e9rrez d d center of research and advanced studies , cinvestav , monterrey , 66600 apodaca , mexico . - - 2011\nthe performance of eeg signal classification methods based on common spatial patterns ( csp ) depends on the operational frequency bands of the events to be discriminated . this problem has been recently addressed by using a sub - band decomposition of the eeg signals through filter banks . even though this approach has proven effective , . . .\na comparison of the variation in indian populations of pigeonpea cyst nematode , . . .\nthe cyst nematode heterodera cajani is one of the major endemic diseases of pigeonpea , an important legume for food security and protein nutrition in india . it occurs in several pulse crops grown over a range of indian agro climatic conditions but the extent of its intraspecific variation is inadequately defined . . . .\nreview of anhoplocampa wei ( hymenoptera , tenthredinidae ) , with description of a new species . . .\nanhoplocampa is redescribed based on new material . anhoplocampa bicoloricornissp . n . from china is described . anhoplocampa yunanensis ( haris & roller , 1999 ) , comb . n . is transferred from trichiocampus . a key to species of anhoplocampa is provided . the differences between anhoplocampa and trichiocampus hartig , 1837 , priophorus dahlbom , 1835 , hoplocampa hartig , 1837 and renonerva . . .\ngaba not only a neurotransmitter : osmotic regulation by gaba ( a ) r signaling .\nmature macroglia and almost all neural progenitor types express \u03b3 - aminobutyric ( gaba ) a receptors ( gaba ( a ) rs ) , whose activation by ambient or synaptic gaba , leads to influx or efflux of chloride ( cl ( - ) ) depending on its electro - chemical gradient ( e ( cl ) ) . since the flux of cl ( - ) is indissolubly associated to that of osmotically obliged water , gaba ( a ) rs . . .\ngene cloning and mrna expression of glutamate dehydrogenase in the liver , brain , . . .\nthe swamp eel , monopterus albus , is an obligatory air - breathing teleost which can undergo long period of emersion , has high environmental and tissue ammonia tolerance , and can survive in brackish water . we obtained a cdna sequence of glutamate dehydrogenase ( gdh ) , which consisted of a 133 - bp 5 ' utr , a complete coding sequence . . .\na rare cause of proximal intestinal obstruction in adults - annular pancreas : . . .\nannular pancreas is a rare congenital anomaly characterized by the presence of ectopic pancreatic tissue surrounding the descending part of the duodenum . it is one of the few congenital anomalies of the gastrointestinal tract which can produce symptoms late in life . in adults , the factors initiating symptoms are recurrent pancreatitis , . . .\nnew spectrophotometric method for determining nitrogen dioxide in air using 2 , 2 - azino - bis ( 3 - ethyl benzothiazoline ) - 6 - sulfonic . . .\na new simple and highly sensitive spectrophotometric method for determining nitrogen dioxide in air was developed . the method is based on converting atmospheric nitrogen dioxide to nitrite ions within the ivl passive samplers used for samples collection . acidifying nitrite ions with concentrated hcl produced the peroxynitrous acid oxidizing agent which . . .\nthe effect of antivascular endothelial growth factor on the development of adhesion . . .\naims . this study determined the effects of a single dose of bevacizumab , an antiangiogenic recombinant monoclonal antibody that specifically targets vascular endothelial growth factor ( vegf ) , on adhesion formation in the rat cecal abrasion model . methodology . thirty female wistar albino rats ( 200 - 224 g ) were divided into three groups . all rats underwent laparotomy . . .\nthis report describes a technique for the generation of transgenic mice by in vivo manipulation of spermatogonial stem cells with a high rate of success . spermatogonial stem cells ( sscs ) in pre - pubescent animals were infected in vivo with recombinant lentiviruses expressing egfp - f and mated with normal females . all male pre - founder mice . . .\nsteady - state visual evoked potential ( ssvep ) is a visual cortical response evoked by repetitive stimuli with a light source flickering at frequencies above 4 hz and could be classified into three ranges : low ( up to 12 hz ) , medium ( 12 - 30 ) and high frequency ( > 30 hz ) . ssvep - based brain - computer interfaces ( bci ) are principally . . .\nreduced camp , akt activation and p65 - c - rel dimerization : mechanisms involved in the protective . . .\nin recent decades , astrocytes have emerged as key pieces in the maintenance of normal functioning of the central nervous system . any impairment in astroglial function can ultimately lead to generalized disturbance in the brain , thus pharmacological targets associated with prevention of astrocyte death are actually promising . subtype 3 of metabotropic . . .\nthe prognostic impact of k - ras mutations in adult acute myeloid leukemia patients . . .\nactivating point mutation of the ras gene has been generally accepted as an oncogenic event in a variety of malignancies . it represents one of the most common genetic alterations in acute myeloid leukemia ( aml ) . however , little is known about its clinical relevance in the treatment outcome for this leukemia . this . . .\nsequencing of a qtl - rich region of the theobroma cacao genome using pooled . . .\nbac - based physical maps provide for sequencing across an entire genome or a selected sub - genomic region of biological interest . such a region can be approached with next - generation whole - genome sequencing and assembly as if it were an independent small genome . using the minimum tiling path as a guide , specific bac clones representing . . .\nthe database of sugarcane expressed sequence tags ( est ) offers a great opportunity for developing molecular markers that are directly associated with important agronomic traits . the development of new est - ssr markers represents an important tool for genetic analysis . in sugarcane breeding programs , functional markers can be used to accelerate the process . . .\nnewborn genetic screening for hearing impairment : a preliminary study at a tertiary . . .\nuniversal newborn hearing screening ( unhs ) is of paramount importance for early identification and management of hearing impairment in children . however , infants with slight / mild , progressive , or late - onset hearing impairment might be missed in conventional unhs . to investigate whether genetic screening for common deafness - associated mutations could assist in identifying these infants , 1017 . . .\nneurophysiological correlates of laboratory - induced aggression in young men with and without a . . .\nin order to further understand the mechanisms involved in planning an aggressive act , we conducted an event - related potential ( erp ) study of young men with and without a history of violence . participants completed a competitive reaction time task ( based on the taylor aggression paradigm ) against a virtual opponent . in\npassive\nblocks , . . .\nhippocampal - dependent spatial memory in the water maze is preserved in an experimental . . .\ncognitive impairment is a major concern in temporal lobe epilepsy ( tle ) . while different experimental models have been used to characterize tle - related cognitive deficits , little is known on whether a particular deficit is more associated with the underlying brain injuries than with the epileptic condition per se . here , we look at . . .\nthe development of dendrochronological time series in order to analyze climate - growth relationships usually involves first a rigorous selection of trees and then the computation of the mean tree - growth measurement series . this study suggests a change in the perspective , passing from an analysis of climate - growth relationships that typically focuses on the . . .\ncdk5 is essential for soluble amyloid \u03b2 - induced degradation of gkap and remodeling . . .\nthe early stages of alzheimer ' s disease are marked by synaptic dysfunction and loss . this process results from the disassembly and degradation of synaptic components , in particular of scaffolding proteins that compose the post - synaptic density ( psd ) , namely psd95 , homer and shank . here we investigated in rat frontal cortex dissociated culture the . . .\np53 interacts with rna polymerase ii through its core domain and impairs . . .\nthe tumor suppressor p53 principally functions as a gene - specific transcription factor . p53 triggers a variety of anti - proliferative programs by activating or repressing the transcription of effector genes in response to genotoxic stress . to date , much effort has been placed on understanding p53 ' s ability to affect transcription in the context of . . .\nlegionella pneumophila is a gram - negative bacterial species that is ubiquitous in almost any aqueous environment . it is the agent of legionnaires ' disease , an acute and often under - reported form of pneumonia . in mammals , l . pneumophila replicates inside macrophages within a modified vacuole . many protein regulators have been identified that control virulence - related . . .\nthe k - cl cotransporter kcc2 plays a crucial role in the functional development of gaba ( a ) - mediated responses rendering gaba hyperpolarizing in adult neurons . we have previously shown that bdnf upregulates kcc2 in immature neurons through the transcription factor egr4 . the effect of bdnf on egr4 and kcc2 was shown to be dependent . . .\northoretroviral - like prototype foamy virus gag - pol expression is compatible with viral replication .\nfoamy viruses ( fvs ) unlike orthoretroviruses express pol as a separate precursor protein and not as a gag - pol fusion protein . a unique packaging strategy , involving recognition of briding viral rna by both pol precursor and gag as well as potential gag - pol protein interactions , ensures pol particle encapsidation . several prototype fv ( pfv ) . . .\ngene network inference and biochemical assessment delineates gpcr pathways and creb targets . . .\nsmall intestinal ( si ) neuroendocrine tumors ( net ) are increasing in incidence , however little is known about their biology . high throughput techniques such as inference of gene regulatory networks from microarray experiments can objectively define signaling machinery in this disease . genome - wide co - expression analysis was used to infer gene relevance network in si - nets . . . .\naffinity - based enrichment strategies to assay methyl - cpg binding activity and dna methylation in . . .\ndna methylation is a widespread epigenetic modification in vertebrate genomes . genomic sites of dna methylation can be bound by methyl - cpg - binding domain proteins ( mbds ) and specific zinc finger proteins , which can recruit co - repressor complexes to silence transcription on targeted loci . the binding to methylated dna may be regulated by post - translational mbd . . .\nwhile histopathology of excised tissue remains the gold standard for diagnosis , several new , non - invasive diagnostic techniques are being developed . they rely on physical and biochemical changes that precede and mirror malignant change within tissue . the basic principle involves simple optical techniques of tissue interrogation . their accuracy , expressed as sensitivity and . . .\ncentral venous catheter - related bacteremia caused by kocuria kristinae : case report and review . . .\nkocuria species are unusual human pathogens isolated most commonly from immunocompromised hosts , such as transplant recipients and cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy , or from patients with chronic medical conditions . a case of catheter - related bacteremia with pulmonary septic emboli in a pregnant adult female without chronic medical conditions is described . a review . . .\nwidespread brain areas engaged during a classical auditory streaming task revealed by . . .\nthe auditory system must constantly decompose the complex mixture of sound arriving at the ear into perceptually independent streams constituting accurate representations of individual sources in the acoustic environment . how the brain accomplishes this task is not well understood . the present study combined a classic behavioral paradigm with direct cortical . . .\nexpression and cellular localization of microrna - 29b and rax , an activator of the . . .\nthe apoptosis of retinal neurons plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy ( dr ) , but the molecular mechanisms underlying this phenomenon remain unclear . the purpose of this study was to investigate the cellular localization and the expression of microrna - 29b ( mir - 29b ) and its potential target pkr associated protein x . . .\nprohibitin is overexpressed in huh - 7 - hcv and huh - 7 . 5 - hcv cells harboring in vitro transcribed . . .\ncurrently , up - regulated proteins and apoptosis in hepatitis c is a hot topic in exploring the pathogenic mechanism of heptitis c virus ( hcv ) . some recent studies shows that prohibitin is overexpressed in cells expressing hcv core proteins , and up - regulated prohibitin is also found in human hepatoma cell line hcc - m , lung cancer , prostate . . .\nserpina3n attenuates granzyme b - mediated decorin cleavage and rupture in a murine model . . .\ngranzyme b ( gzmb ) is a proapoptotic serine protease that is released by cytotoxic lymphocytes . however , gzmb can also be produced by other cell types and is capable of cleaving extracellular matrix ( ecm ) proteins . gzmb contributes to abdominal aortic aneurysm ( aaa ) through an extracellular , perforin - independent mechanism involving ecm cleavage . the murine . . .\nwith the successful development of organic / polymeric light emitting diodes , many organic and polymeric fluorophores with high quantum efficiencies and optical stability were synthesized . however , most of these materials which have excellent optical properties are insoluble in water , limiting their applications in biological fields . herein , we used micelles formed from an . . .\nmacroevolutionary patterns in the aphidini aphids ( hemiptera : aphididae ) : diversification , host association , and . . .\ndue to its biogeographic origins and rapid diversification , understanding the tribe aphidini is key to understanding aphid evolution . major questions about aphid evolution include origins of host alternation as well as age and patterns of diversification in relation to host plants . to address these questions , we reconstructed the phylogeny of . . .\nvalence - band structure of tio2 along the gamma - delta - x and gamma . . .\neffect of hydrostatic pressure on the band - gap luminescence of strain - adjusted simgen superlattices .\nelectronic structure of the lead monoxides : band - structure calculations and photoelectron spectra .\nsubpicosecond hot - hole relaxation in germanium studied by time - resolved inter - valence - band raman scattering .\nelectronic structure and fermi surface of the two - dimensional three - band hubbard model in . . .\narchipini are the most species - rich tribe in tortricinae with approximately 1 , 623 described species in 160 genera .\nthe tribe occurs worldwide , with its greatest species richness in the australasian region ( i . e . , 7 % of the species are nearctic in origin , 10 % neotropical , 11 % oceanic , 14 % afrotropical , 16 % indomalayan , 17 % palearctic , and 26 % australasian ) .\nthe archipini are a tribe of tortrix moths . since many genera of these are not yet assigned to tribes , the genus list presented here is provisional .\narchipini is the largest tribe in the tortricinae subfamily , containing over 1 , 600 described species in about 150 genera .\narchipini are found in all ecoregions , although there are only few species in the neotropical ecozone .\nh\u00fcbner with descriptions of new species and two new genera ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) .\n, 2012 : five tortricines from malaysia and new caledonia ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) .\n, 2013 : leaf - rollers from new caledonia ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) .\n, 2000 : description of nine neotropical genera of archipini ( lepidoptera , tortricidae ) and their species .\n, 2010 : systematic and distributional data on neotropical archipini ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) .\nfrom the afrotropical region , with descriptions of new taxa ( lepidoptera : tortricidae ) .\n2010 : an annotated catalogue of the types of tortricidae ( lepidoptera ) in the collection of the royal museum for central africa ( tervuren , belgium ) with descriptions of new genera and new species .\n, 2008 : tortricidae ( lepidoptera ) from the mountains of ecuador . part 1 : southern highlands .\neol content is automatically assembled from many different content providers . as a result , from time to time you may find pages on eol that are confusing .\nto request an improvement , please leave a comment on the page . thank you !\nmeyrick , e . 1910 ,\nrevision of australian tortricina\n, proceedings of the linnean society of new south wales , vol . 35 , pp . 139 - 294\nstrand , e . 1924 ,\nlepidoptera aus sudwest - australien\n, deutsche entomologische zeitschrift iris , vol . 38 , pp . 135 - 148"]}
{"id": 2651, "summary": [{"text": "phalonidia albicaput is a species of moth of the tortricidae family .", "topic": 2}, {"text": "it is found in ecuador .", "topic": 20}, {"text": "the wingspan is 11 \u2013 12 mm .", "topic": 9}, {"text": "the ground colour of the forewings is whitish creamy , glossy along the edges of the markings with pale ochreous-olive suffusions .", "topic": 1}, {"text": "the markings are ochreous olive .", "topic": 23}, {"text": "the hindwings are brownish , paler basally than on the periphery .", "topic": 1}], "title": "phalonidia albicaput", "paragraphs": ["phalonidia albicaput is a species of moth of the tortricidae family . it is found in ecuador .\nalbicaput razowski & becker , 2002 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 289 tl : ecuador , tungurahua province , ro verde . holotype : vbc . male .\nlidiae kuznetzov , 1966 ( phalonidia ) , trud . zool . inst . leningrad 37 : 198 . no type\nhaplobursa razowski , in heppner , 1995 ( phalonidia ) , atlas neotropical lepid . checklist 2 : 141 . no type\nvorticana razowski , in heppner , 1995 ( phalonidia ) , atlas neotropical lepid . checklist 2 : 141 . no type\nlyidae byun & park , 1995 ( phalonidia ) , korean j . appl . ent . 34 : 385 . no type\nwalkerana razowski , 1967 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 12 : 166 tl : peru , callao . holotype : bmnh . male .\nalassosaccula razowski , 1997 ( phalonidia ) , genus 8 : 178 . tl : peru , dept . juni , huacapistana . holotype : amnh . male .\nassensus razowski , 1967 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 12 : 178 tl : brazil , so paulo . holotype : bmnh . male .\nnicotiana liu & ge , 1991 ( phalonidia ) , sinozoologia 8 : 355 . tl : china , heilongjiang , jingpohu . holotype : izas . male .\nmemoranda razowski , 1997 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 40 : 116 tl : canada , ontario , ottawa . holotype : cnc . male .\nmesotypa razowski , 1970 ( phalonidia ) , microlepid . palaearctica 3 : 229 . tl : china , kiangsu province , shanghai . holotype : zfmk . female .\nontariana razowski , 1997 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 40 : 116 tl : canada , ontario , inverhuron . holotype : cnc . male .\nparvana kawabe , 1980 ( phalonidia ) , tinea 11 : 29 . tl : japan , honshu , yamanashi prefecture , kiyosato . holotype : usnm . male .\nbassii razowski , 1999 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 42 : 322 tl : ecuador , napo province , baeza . holotype : mrsn . male .\ndroserantha razowski , 1970 ( phalonidia ) , microlepid . palaearctica 3 : 219 . tl : china , north yunnan province , likiang . holotype : zfmk . female .\necuadorensis razowski , 1967 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 12 : 167 tl : ecuador , chimborazo province , huigra . holotype : bmnh . male .\njulianiensis liu & ge , 1991 ( phalonidia ) , sinozoologia 8 : 356 . tl : china , jiangxi , jiulian mt . . holotype : izas . female .\ntolli razowski , 1960 ( ? phalonidia ) , polskie pismo ent . 30 : 397 . tl : china . manchuria , djalantum . holotype : isez . male .\nochracea razowski , 1967 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 12 : 164 tl : ecuador , chimborazo province , huigra . holotype : bmnh . male .\nscabra liu & ge , 1991 ( phalonidia ) , sinozoologia 8 : 355 . tl : china , jiangxi , mt . lu . holotype : izas . male .\nzygota razowski , 1964 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 9 : 338 tl : russia , khabarovsky krai , radd . holotype : mgab . male .\naetheria razowski , 1967 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 12 : 169 tl : brazil , so paulo , so paulo . holotype : bmnh . male .\njequieta razowski & becker , 2002 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 292 tl : brazil , bahia , junquie . holotype : vbc . male .\nmultispinea razowski & becker , 2010 ( phalonidia ) , polskie pismo entomol . 79 : 437 . tl : ecuador , pastaza , mera . holotype : vbc . male .\ntenuispiniformis sun & li , 2013 ( phalonidia ) , zootaxa 3641 : 551 . tl : china , mentougou beijing , xiaolongmen forest farm . holotype : nkum . male .\ntornomaculana razowski & becker , 2010 ( phalonidia ) , polskie pismo entomol . 79 : 435 . tl : ecuador , loja , loja . holotype : vbc . male .\ncermatia razowski & becker , 2002 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 291 tl : brazil , distrito federal , planaltina . holotype : vbc . male .\nchlaenites razowski & becker , 2002 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 289 tl : brazil , minas gerais , corumba . holotype : vbc . male .\ndotica razowski , 1993 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 36 : 163 tl : peru , dept . hunuco , tingo maria . holotype : zmuc . female .\nelectra razowski & becker , 2002 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 291 tl : ecuador , carchi province , maldonado . holotype : vbc . male .\nlacistovalva razowski & becker , 2002 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 292 tl : ecuador , loja province , loja . holotype : vbc . male .\nlojana razowski & becker , 2002 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 291 tl : ecuador , loja province , loja . holotype : vbc . male .\nmayarina razowski & becker , 2007 ( phalonidia ) , shilap revta . lepid . 35 : 69 . tl : cuba , holguin , mayari . holotype : vbc . male .\nochrochraon razowski & becker , 2002 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 290 tl : brazil , par , capito poco . holotype : vbc . female .\nparapellax razowski , 1999 ( phalonidia ) , polskie pismo ent . 68 : 62 . tl : mexico , sinaloa , 2 mi sw potrerillos . holotype : eme . male .\nphlebotoma razowski & becker , 1994 ( phalonidia ) , shilap revta . lepid . 22 : 24 . tl : brazil , par , belm . holotype : mnrj . male .\ncerina razowski & becker , 2007 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 50b : 99 . tl : brazil , espiritu santo , linhares . holotype : vbc . female .\nchloridia razowski & becker , 1994 ( phalonidia ) , shilap revta . lepid . 22 : 26 . tl : brazil , distrito federal , planaltina . holotype : vbc . female .\nfariasana razowski & becker , 2007 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 50b : 97 . tl : mexico , tamaulipas , gomez farias . holotype : vbc . male .\nfraterna razowski , 1970 ( phalonidia ) , microlepid . palaearctica 3 : 216 . tl : russia , far east , primorsky krai , askold island . holotype : zmas . male .\nhaesitans razowski & becker , 1994 ( phalonidia ) , shilap revta . lepid . 22 : 23 . tl : brazil , minas gerais , una . holotype : mnrj . female .\nhapalobursa razowski & becker , 1986 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 459 tl : costa rica , cartago province , turrialba . holotype : vbc . female .\nlinharesa razowski & becker , 2007 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 50b : 96 . tl : brazil , espiritu santo , linhares . holotype : vbc . male .\nmeizobursa razowski & becker , 1994 ( phalonidia ) , shilap revta . lepid . 22 : 26 . tl : brazil , minas gerais , una . holotype : mnrj . female .\nmelletes razowski & becker , 1994 ( phalonidia ) , shilap revta . lepid . 22 : 23 . tl : brazil , distrito federal , planaltina . holotype : mnrj . female .\nmonospina razowski & becker , 2010 ( phalonidia ) , polskie pismo entomol . 79 : 438 . tl : ecuador , morona - santiago , indanza . holotype : vbc . male .\nmoronaephila razowski & becker , 2010 ( phalonidia ) , polskie pismo entomol . 79 : 439 . tl : ecuador , morona - santiago , indanza . holotype : vbc . male .\npurpurascens razowski & becker , 2010 ( phalonidia ) , polskie pismo entomol . 79 : 438 . tl : ecuador , morona - santiago , indanza . holotype : vbc . male .\nsynucha razowski & becker , 1986 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 458 tl : costa rica , cartago province , turrialba . holotype : mnrj . male .\ntrabalea razowski & becker , 1994 ( phalonidia ) , shilap revta . lepid . 22 : 25 . tl : brazil , par , igarape acu . holotype : mnrj . male .\nbrevifasciaria sun & li , 2013 ( phalonidia ) , zootaxa 3641 : 541 . tl : china , guizhou province , suiyang county , kuankuoshui nature reserves . holotype : nkum . male .\ndiaphona razowski & becker , 1986 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 459 tl : mexico , veracruz , las tuxtlas biological station . holotype : vbc . male .\ngeraisana razowski & becker , 2010 ( phalonidia ) , polskie pismo entomol . 79 : 436 . tl : brazil , minas gerais , serra do cipo . holotype : vbc . male .\nhypagosocia razowski , 1993 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 36 : 167 tl : bolivia , dept . cochabamba , 25 km nw mizque . holotype : zmuc . male .\nintrorsa razowski , 1993 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 36 : 166 tl : bolivia , dept . cochabamba , 10 km sw aiquile . holotype : lnk . male .\nkarsholti razowski , 1993 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 36 : 163 tl : peru , dept . ayacucho , 50 km e nazca . holotype : zmuc . female .\nkathetospina razowski , 1993 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 36 : 164 tl : peru , dept . puno , 5 km e limbani . holotype : zmuc . male .\nlatifasciana razowski , 1970 ( phalonidia ) , microlepid . palaearctica 3 : 206 . tl : central asia , central asia ( kemerowsk district , waganowo ) . holotype : zmas . female .\nloipa razowski , 1994 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 179 tl : ecuador , napo province , cerro mirador , santa barbara . holotype : eme . male .\nmonocera razowski & becker , 2007 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 50b : 98 . tl : brazil , santa catarina , sao joaquim . holotype : vbc . male .\npraemorsa razowski , 1993 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 36 : 167 tl : peru , dept . puno , 5 km e limbani . holotype : zmuc . male .\nrotundiventralis sun & li , 2013 ( phalonidia ) , zootaxa 3641 : 549 . tl : china , sichuan province , wenchuan county , wolong nature reserves . holotype : nkum . male .\nrufoatra razowski , 1992 ( phalonidia ) , misc . zool . 14 ( 1990 ) : 97 . tl : costa rica , puntarenas province , monteverde . holotype : eme . male .\nthryptica razowski , 1994 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 181 tl : costa rica , guanacaste province , santa rosa national park . holotype : vbc . female .\nmesomerista razowski , 1994 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 180 tl : ecuador , napo province , via santa barbara - la bonita . holotype : eme . female .\nnonaxyra razowski , 1994 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 37 : 180 tl : ecuador , napo province , via santa barbara - la bonita . holotype : eme . male .\naliena kuznetzov , 1966 ( phalonidia ) , trud . zool . inst . leningrad 37 : 200 . tl : russia . primorsky krai , vladivostok , okeanskaya biological station . holotype : zmas . male .\nclaudia razowski & wojtusiak , 2006 ( phalonidia ) , shilap revta . lepid . 34 : 41 . tl : venezuela , cordillera de merida , merida , monte zerpa . holotype : mzuj . male .\nsarovalva razowski , 1993 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 36 : 166 tl : peru , dept . apurimac , 7 km e chalhuianca , ro chalhuianca . holotype : zmuc . male .\ntarijana razowski & wojtusiak , 2013 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 56 : 10 . tl : bolivia , province tarija , res . tariquia , salinas . holotype : mzuj . male .\nacrota razowski , 1993 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 36 : 162 tl : peru , dept . ancash , 30 km e huarez , chvin de huantar . holotype : zmuc . male .\nsilvestris kuznetzov , 1966 ( phalonidia ) , trud . zool . inst . leningrad 37 : 198 . tl : russia , amur region , klimoutsy , 40 km w svobodnyy . holotype : zmas . male .\ncoreana byun & li , 2006 ( phalonidia ) , j . nat . hist . 40 : 804 . tl : korea , mt . juwang - san , gyeongsangbuk - do . holotype : kna . male .\nlochites razowski , 1993 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 36 : 165 tl : peru , dept . apurimac , 25 km s chalhuianca , ro lacaruse , lacaia . holotype : zmuc . male .\nbaccatana razowski & wojtusiak , 2010 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 77 . tl : peru , dept . huanuco , via huanuco - tingo maria , carpish . holotype : mzuj . male .\ncharagmophora razowski , 1999 ( phalonidia ) , polskie pismo ent . 68 : 64 . tl : costa rica , estacin biologica las cruces , 6 km se san vito , ro jaba . holotype : eme . male .\nolivogrisea razowski & wojtusiak , 2010 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 53b : 77 . tl : peru , dept . huanuco , via huanuco - tingo maria , carpish . holotype : mzuj . female .\nscolopis razowski , 1993 ( phalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 36 : 165 tl : peru , dept . cuzco , 40 km nw sicuani , 5 km e laguna pomacanchi . holotype : zmuc . male .\ncholovalva razowski & wojtusiak , 2006 ( phalonidia ) , shilap revta . lepid . 34 : 41 . tl : venezuela , stan tachira , p . n . batalln , pramo el rosal , san jos de bolvar . holotype : mzuj . male .\nhtml public\n- / / w3c / / dtd html 4 . 0 transitional / / en\naffinitana douglas , 1846 ( cochylis ) , zoologist 4 : 1269 . tl : united kingdom , england ( st . osyth , essex ) [ united kingdom ] . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\ncancellana zeller , 1847 ( cochylis ) , isis von oken ( leipzig ) 1847 ( 10 ) : 739 . tl : italy . sicily . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\ninulana constant , 1884 ( cochylis ) , annls soc . ent . fr . ( 6 ) 4 : 212 . tl : france . lectotype : mnhn . female .\nlittorana galvagni , 1906 ( conchylis ) , verh . zool . - bot . ges . wien 56 : 83 . tl : italy . is . grado , kstenland . syntypes : nhmv . 12 males , 3 females .\nmoravica zimmerman , 1926 ( conchylis affinitana ab . ) , naturwiss . z . lotos 74 : 22 . tl : hawaiian islands . syntypes : bpbm . unknown .\ntauriana kennel , 1899 ( cochylis ) , dt . ent . z . iris 12 : 20 . tl : ukraine . ukraine ( halbinsel krim ) . holotype : mnhu . female .\nalbertae razowski , 1997 ( platphalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 40 : 118 tl : canada , alberta , nordegg . holotype : cnc . male .\nalbipalpana zeller , 1847 ( tortrix ) , isis von oken ( leipzig ) 1847 ( 10 ) : 662 . tl : italy , sicily . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nalibpalpana caradja , 1916 ( conchylis ) , dt . ent . z . iris 30 : 50 . no type\namasiana ragonot , 1894 ( conchylis ) , annls soc . ent . fr . 63 : 189 . tl : turkey , amasia . holotype : mnhn . female .\nargyraspis razowski , 1984 ( saphenista ) , ann . zool . 38 : 278 . tl : venezuela , distrito federal , 14 km ne tovar . holotype : usnm . female .\nassector razowski , 1967 ( cochylis ) , acta zool . cracov . 12 : 206 tl : argentina , tucumn , los vasquez . holotype : bmnh . male .\nbasiochreana kearfott , 1907 ( phalonia ) , trans . am . ent . soc . 33 : 78 . tl : usa , california , los angeles . holotype : amnh . female .\nbrilhanteana razowski & becker , 1983 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 26 : 429 tl : brazil , mato grosso , rio brilhante . holotype : mnrj . female .\ncalifornica razowski , 1986 ( platphalonidia ) , ann . zool . 40 : 381 . tl : mexico , baja california norte , miller ' s landing . holotype : eme . male .\ncampicolana walsingham , 1879 ( cochylis ) , illust . typical specimens lepid . heterocera colln . br . mus 4 : 29 . tl : usa , california , mendocino co . , head of noyo river . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nchlorolitha meyrick , 1931 ( phalonia ) , exotic microlepid . 4 : 157 . tl : japan , hokkaido , sapporo . holotype : bmnh . male .\nazyga meyrick , in caradja & meyrick , 1935 ( phalonia ) , mat . microlepid . fauna chin . prov . : 47 . tl : china . chekiang . lectotype : mgab . male .\ncontractana zeller , 1847 ( cochylis ) , isis von oken ( leipzig ) 1847 ( 10 ) : 744 . tl : ? , narni . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\nexaequata meyrick , 1923 ( phalonia ) , exotic microlepid . 3 : 52 . tl : palestine . haifa . holotype : bmnh . male .\nmanifestana kennel , 1901 ( conchylis ) , dt . ent . z . iris 13 ( 1900 ) : 232 . tl : italy . sicily . syntype ( s ) : mnhu . unknown .\nthermoconis meyrick , 1925 ( phalonia ) , exotic microlepid . 3 : 139 . tl : india . kashmir , srinagar . lectotype : bmnh . male .\ncurvistrigana stainton , 1859 ( eupoecilia ) , man . br . butterflies moths 2 : 272 . tl : united kingdom , england [ united kingdom ] . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\ndangi razowski , 1997 ( platphalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 40 : 118 tl : canada , alberta , nordegg . holotype : cnc . male .\ndecrepita razowski & becker , 2002 ( platphalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 300 tl : brazil , goais , alto paraso . holotype : vbc . male .\ndiamphidia clarke , 1968 ( lasiothyris ) , proc . u . s . natn . mus . 125 : 49 . tl : peru , cuzco , machu picchu . holotype : usnm . male .\ndocilis razowski & becker , 2002 ( lasiothyris ) , acta zool . cracov . 45 : 293 tl : brazil , rio de janeiro , teresopolis . holotype : vbc . male .\ndubia razowski & becker , 1983 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 26 : 431 tl : brazil , mato grosso , rio brilhante . holotype : mnrj . female .\ndyas razowski & becker , 1983 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 26 : 427 tl : brazil , santa catarina , brusque . holotype : vbc . male .\ndysmorphia clarke , 1968 ( lasiothyris ) , proc . u . s . natn . mus . 125 : 47 . tl : bolivia , cochabamba , incachaca , tropical cloud area . holotype : usnm . male .\ndysodona caradja , 1916 ( cochylis ) , dt . ent . z . iris 30 : 52 . tl : russia , khabarovsky krai , radd . lectotype : mgab . male .\nelderana kearfott , 1907 ( phalonia ) , trans . am . ent . soc . 33 : 84 . tl : usa , new jersey . holotype : amnh . female .\nhelonoma meyrick , 1912 ( phalonia ) , ent . mon . mag . 48 : 35 no type\nembaphion razowski , 1984 ( saphenista ) , ann . zool . 38 : 276 . tl : venezuela , merida , 8 km se apartaderos . holotype : usnm . male .\nfatua razowski & becker , 1983 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 26 : 428 tl : brazil , santa catarina , rio vermelho . holotype : mnrj . female .\nfelix walsingham , 1895 ( phalonia ) , trans . ent . soc . lond . 1895 : 499 . tl : usa , colorado , loveland . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nfulvimixta filipjev , 1940 ( piercea ) , trav . inst . zool . acad . sci . u . r . s . s . 6 : 181 . tl : russia , jakowlewka . holotype : zmas . male .\nfusifera meyrick , 1912 ( phtheochroa ) , trans . ent . soc . lond . 1911 : 674 . tl : brazil , so paulo . holotype : bmnh . male .\ngalbanea meyrick , 1917 ( phalonia ) , trans . ent . soc . lond . 1917 : 2 . tl : guyana , british guiana [ guyana ] ( bartica ) . lectotype : bmnh . female .\ngilvicomana zeller , 1847 ( cochylis ) , isis von oken ( leipzig ) 1847 ( 10 ) : 742 . tl : germany , lectotype : bmnh . female .\nflaviscapulana herrich - schaffer , 1847 ( uninomial ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 4 : pl . 14 , fig . 97 . no type\nflaviscapulana herrich - schaffer , 1851 ( tortrix ( coccyx ) ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 4 : 224 . tl : czech republic . bohemia [ czech republic ] ( neustrelitz and reichstadt ) . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nflavoscapulana herrich - schaffer , 1856 ( coccyx ) , syst . bearbeitung schmett . eur . 6 : 160 . no type\nhaplidia razowski , 1986 ( phtheochroa ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 375 tl : mexico , durango , 3 mi w el salto . holotype : eme . male .\nholgina razowski & becker , 2007 ( platphalonidia ) , shilap revta . lepid . 35 : 72 . tl : cuba , holguin , mayari . holotype : vbc . male .\nhorrens razowski & becker , 1983 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 26 : 428 tl : brazil , santa catarina , rio vemelho . holotype : mnrj . female .\nimitabilis razowski , 1997 ( platphalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 40 : 119 tl : canada , alberta , waterton lakes . holotype : cnc . male .\nlaetitia clarke , 1968 ( cochylis ) , proc . u . s . natn . mus . 125 : 25 . tl : argentina , tucumn , ciudad universitaria . holotype : usnm . male .\nlatipunctana walsingham , 1879 ( cochylis ) , illust . typical specimens lepid . heterocera colln . br . mus 4 : 29 . tl : usa , california , mendocino co . , mouth of albion river . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nlavana busck , 1907 ( phalonia ) , j . new york ent . soc . 15 : 27 . tl : usa , maryland , montgom - ery co . , hyattsville . holotype : usnm . male .\nlepidana clemens , 1860 ( argyrolepia ) , proc . acad . nat . sci . philad . 12 : 355 . tl : north america , holotype : ansp . unknown .\nplummeriana busck , 1907 ( phalonia ) , j . new york ent . soc . 15 : 24 . tl : usa . maryland , plummers island . holotype : usnm . male .\nschwarziana busck , 1907 ( phalonia ) , j . new york ent . soc . 15 : 24 . tl : usa . maryland , plummers island . holotype : usnm . female .\nstraminoides grote , 1873 ( conchylis ) , bull . buffalo soc . nat . sci 1 : 16 . tl : usa . new york , buffalo . syntype : usnm . male .\nzaracana kearfott , 1907 ( phalonia ) , trans . am . ent . soc . 33 : 74 . tl : usa . illinois . lectotype : amnh . male .\nluxata razowski & becker , 1986 ( platphalonidia ) , acta zool . cracov . 29 : 464 tl : mexico , distrito federal , mexico city . holotype : mnrj . male .\nlydiae filipjev , 1940 ( piercea ) , trav . inst . zool . acad . sci . u . r . s . s . 6 : 180 . tl : russia , voroshilov - ussurijsk . holotype : zmas . male .\nmanniana fischer von roslerstamm , 1839 ( cochylis ) , abbild . berich . ergnz schmett . - kunde 1 : 134 tl : czech republic - slovakia , czechoslovakia . syntype ( s ) : unknown . unknown .\nnotulana zeller , 1847 ( cochylis ) , isis von oken ( leipzig ) 1847 ( 10 ) : 745 . tl : italy . sicily , syracuse . syntype ( s ) : bmnh . unknown .\nudana guenee , 1845 ( cochylis ) , annls soc . ent . fr . 2 ( 3 ) : 299 . tl : france . central france ( chteaudun ) . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nmelanothicta meyrick , 1927 ( phalonia ) , exotic microlepid . 3 : 367 . tl : china , shanghai . holotype : mgab . male .\nhygrodes meyrick , 1936 ( phalonia ) , exotic microlepid . 5 : 22 . tl : japan . honshu , osaka prefecture . holotype : bmnh . male .\nmelanoticta caradja , 1926 ( phalonia ) , dt . ent . z . iris 40 : 158 . no type\nmendora clarke , 1968 ( cochylis ) , proc . u . s . natn . mus . 125 : 24 . tl : chile , santiago province , cajon de maypo , cordillero , el canelo . holotype : usnm . male .\nmimohospes razowski & becker , 1983 ( cochylis ) , acta zool . cracov . 26 : 433 tl : brazil , paran , banhado , quatro barras . holotype : vbc . female .\nochraceana razowski , 1967 ( cochylis ) , acta zool . cracov . 12 : 207 tl : argentina , tucumn , los vasquez . holotype : bmnh . female .\nochrimixtana zeller , 1877 ( conchylis ) , horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 134 . tl : colombia , bogot . holotype : bmnh . male .\nolivana razowski , 1967 ( cochylis ) , acta zool . cracov . 12 : 209 tl : brazil , paran , castro . holotype : bmnh . female .\npaliki razowski & becker , 1983 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 26 : 430 tl : brazil , paran , banhado , quatro barras . holotype : vbc . female .\nparanae razowski & becker , 1983 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 26 : 430 tl : brazil , paran , mandurituba . holotype : mnrj . male .\npellax razowski & becker , 1983 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 26 : 425 tl : brazil , paran , banhado , quatro barras . holotype : mnrj . male .\nplicana walsingham , 1884 ( conchylis ) , trans . ent . soc . lond . 1884 : 131 . tl : mexico , sonora . lectotype : bmnh . male .\nremissa razowski & becker , 2007 ( platphalonidia ) , shilap revta . lepid . 35 : 72 . tl : cuba , holguin , mayari . holotype : vbc . male .\nremota razowski & becker , 1983 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 26 : 429 tl : brazil , mato grosso , cambu . holotype : mnrj . male .\nsqualida razowski & becker , 1983 ( saphenista ) , acta zool . cracov . 26 : 424 tl : brazil , paran , banhado , quatro barras . holotype : mnrj . male .\nsublimis meyrick , 1917 ( phalonia ) , trans . ent . soc . lond . 1917 : 2 . tl : peru , huancayo . holotype : bmnh . female .\nsubmissana zeller , 1877 ( conchylis ) , horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 131 . tl : colombia , bogot . holotype : bmnh . male .\nsubolivacea walsingham , 1897 ( phalonia ) , proc . zool . soc . london 1897 : 137 . tl : virgin islands , danish west indies ( virgin islands , st . thomas ) . holotype : bmnh . male .\nswammerdamiana zeller , 1877 ( conchylis ) , horae soc . ent . ross . 13 : 133 . tl : colombia , bogot . holotype : bmnh . male .\ntehuacana razowski , 1986 ( platphalonidia ) , ann . zool . 40 : 384 . tl : mexico , puebla , 2 mi sw tehuacan . holotype : eme . male .\nunguifera razowski , 1976 ( cochylis ) , acta zool . cracov . 12 : 203 tl : brazil , paran , castro . holotype : bmnh . male .\nvorticata meyrick , 1912 ( phalonia ) , trans . ent . soc . lond . 1911 : 673 . tl : argentina , paran . holotype : bmnh . female .\nunless noted , all images on these pages are copyright \u00a9 2003 - 14 by todd gilligan . please do not download , copy , print , or otherwise distribute any images from these pages without the permission of the author . contact form .\npopular : trivia , history , america , television , tv , usa , geography , world , . . . more\nthe wingspan is 11\u201312 mm . the ground colour of the forewings is whitish creamy , glossy along the edges of the markings with pale ochreous olive suffusions . the markins are ochreous olive . the hindwings are brownish 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