abalistes stellatus is a member of the triggerfish family that occurs along the coasts of the indian ocean , the red sea , the persian gulf , and along the western edge of the pacific ocean .

abalistes stellatus

abalistes stellatus <EOT> citation : - abalistes stellatus . malaysia biodiversity information system ( mybis ) . urltoken downloaded on 10 july 2018 .

there are no known species - specific conservation measures in place for abalistes stellatus . however , there are several marine protected areas within its distribution , including the jubail marine wildlife sanctuary , where abalistes stellatus has been recorded ( krupp and müller 1994 ) .

a starry triggerfish , abalistes stellatus , at lizard island , great barrier reef , queensland . source : anne hoggett / lizard island filed guide , urltoken license : cc by attribution

abalistes stellatus is rather common in the persian gulf and often observed in markets ( kuronuma and abe 1972 ) . oceanographic data suggests that a rescue effect through the strait of hormuz is negligible .

synonymy trated as a synonym of abalistes stellaris in fishbase , not by eschmeyer . [ details ]

abalistes stellatus is taken incidentally by bottom trawls and utilized for human consumption ( hutchins 1984 ) , however , this is not thought to be a major threat at this time ( k . matsuura pers . comm . 2014 ) .

balistes stellatus anonymous 1798 , allgemeine literatur - zeitung , berlin 3 ( 287 ) : 682 . type locality : mauritius .

( of balistes stellatus anonymous , 1798 ) froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]

matsuura , keiichi , and tetsuo yoshino , 2004 : a new triggerfish of the genus abalistes ( tetraodontiformes : balistidae ) from the western pacific . records of the australian museum , vol . 56 . 189 - 194 .

the similar hairfin triggerfish , abalistes filamentosus has filamentous upper and lower caudal - fin rays , 3–4 longitudinal grooves on the cheek , and lacks the yellow or pale blue spots and yellow reticulations on the body of the starry triggerfish .

a greyish to greenish - brown triggerfish becoming whitish below , with four large white blotches along the back ( the last on the caudal peduncle ) , pale yellowish - brown spots on the body , and sometimes a white streak on the upper midside . video of starry triggerfish ( abalistes stellatus ) , coral trout ( plectropomus leopardus ) , and yellowtail fusiliers ( caesio cuning ) at a baited remote underwater video camera ( bruv ) in the blue zone , at karamea bank , queensland .

. two similar specific names , stellaris and stellatus , have been used for this triggerfish by many authors . based on reviews of the descriptions made by lacepède in 1798 by anonymous in an article in the allgemeine literatur - zeitung ( general literature newspaper ) , matsuura and yoshino ( 2004 ) conclude that

pufferfishes found in a fish landing place 60 km north of nha trang in southern vietnam ( a ) and a fish market in sabah , malaysia ( b ) : a many small pufferfishes of lagocephalus and a large specimen of l . inermis in the center ; b large specimens of arothron hispidus , a . reticularis , and a . stellatus

representatives of the 10 extant families of tetraodontiformes . a triacanthodidae , triacanthodes anomalus ; b triacanthidae , triacanthus biaculeatus ; c balistidae , abalistes filamentosus ; d monacanthidae , thamnaconus hypargyreus ; e aracanidae , kentrocapros aculeatus ; f ostraciidae , ostracion immaculatus ; g triodontidae triodon macropterus ; h tetraodonitidae , arothron mappa ; i diodontidae , diodon liturosus ; j molidae , masturus lanceolatus . photographs of a and e provided by bsku ; b , d , f , h , and i by kaum ; c and g by nsmt ; j by hideki sugiyama

greek , a = without + greek , ballo = to throw ( ref . 45335 )

marine ; reef - associated ; depth range 7 - 350 m ( ref . 58488 ) . tropical ; 30°n - 38°s , 32°e - 179°w ( ref . 56007 )

indo - west pacific : red sea and persian gulf to south africa ( also reported from west africa ) , east to the western pacific .

maturity : l m ? range ? - ? cm max length : 60 . 0 cm tl male / unsexed ; ( ref . 11441 )

dorsal spines ( total ) : 3 ; dorsal soft rays ( total ) : 25 - 27 ; anal soft rays : 24 - 25 . body grey brown to olivaceous dorsally with very small pale spots , becoming whitish ventrally with brownish yellow spots many of which anastomose into a reticulum ; 3 large oval white spots along the back and a small one dorsally on caudal peduncle ; a broad white streak often on side of body posterior to upper end of gill opening . an oblique groove before the eye . behind gill opening are large osseous scales . greatest body depth 2 - 2 . 5 sl . first dorsal spine 1 . 6 - 1 . 9 hl ; 3rd dorsal spine about 1 / 3 length of first spine . front of soft dorsal and anal fins not elevated ; caudal fin double emarginate , lobes longer with growth . depressed caudal peduncle , width greater than least depth , very slender and tapering , much longer than deep ( ref . 11441 ) .

inhabits mud and silt sand bottoms ( ref . 11441 , 48637 ) . adults on deep coastal slopes and usually seen swimming high above the bottom , sometimes found in estuaries . juveniles in sheltered coastal bays and estuaries with outcrops of rubble or debris on open substrates ( ref . 48637 ) .

randall , j . e . , 1995 . coastal fishes of oman . university of hawaii press , honolulu , hawaii . 439 p . ( ref . 11441 )

phylogenetic diversity index ( ref . 82805 ) : pd 50 = 0 . 6250 [ uniqueness , from 0 . 5 = low to 2 . 0 = high ] .

bayesian length - weight : a = 0 . 02570 ( 0 . 01243 - 0 . 05316 ) , b = 2 . 94 ( 2 . 77 - 3 . 11 ) , in cm total length , based on lwr estimates for this ( sub ) family - body shape ( ref . 93245 ) .

trophic level ( ref . 69278 ) : 3 . 4 ±0 . 4 se ; based on size and trophs of closest relatives

resilience ( ref . 69278 ) : medium , minimum population doubling time 1 . 4 - 4 . 4 years ( preliminary k or fecundity . ) .

vulnerability ( ref . 59153 ) : moderate vulnerability ( 45 of 100 ) .

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inhabits coastal areas , usually found on sand , sponge , and weed bottoms to depths of 100 m ( hutchins 1984 ) . juveniles are found in estuarine areas ( kuiter and tonozuka 2001 ) .

1997 ) . the recorded maximum total length ( tl ) is 60 cm ( hutchins 1984 ) .

is taken incidentally by bottom trawls and marketed fresh and dried salted ( hutchins 1984 ) . often observed in persian gulf markets ( kuronuma and abe 1972 ) .

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dorsal fin iii + 25 - 27 ; anal fin 24 - 25 . an oblique groove before the eye ; large bony scales behind gill opening ; greatest body depth 2 - 2 . 5 sl . caudal peduncle depressed , width greater than least depth , very slender and tapering , much longer than deep first dorsal spine 1 . 6 - 1 . 9 hl ; 3rd dorsal spine about 1 / 3 length of first spine . front of soft dorsal and anal fins not elevated ; caudal fin double emarginate , lobes longer with growth .

the marine fishes of north - western australia . a field guide for anglers and divers

. perth , wa : western australian museum vi 201 pp . , 70 pls .

anonymous 1798 . review of tome i of ` histoire naturelle des poissons ' by lacépède ( 1798 ) .

hutchins , b . 2004 . fishes of the dampier archipelago , western australia .

johnson , j . w . 1999 . annotated checklist of the fishes of moreton bay , queensland , australia .

johnson , j . w . 2010 . fishes of the moreton bay marine park and adjacent continental shelf waters , queensland , australia . pp . 299 - 353 in davie , p . j . f . & phillips , j . a . proceedings of the thirteenth international marine biological workshop , the marine fauna and flora of moreton bay .

jordan , d . s . & seale , a . 1906 . the fishes of samoa . description of the species found in the archipelago , with a provisional checklist of the fishes of oceania . b

. sydney , nsw , australia : new holland publishers xvii , 434 pp .

larson , h . k . , williams , r . s . & hammer , m . p . 2013 . an annotated checklist of the fishes of the northern territory , australia .

matsuura , k . 1980 . a revision of the japanese balistoid fishes . i . family balistidae .

matsuura , k . 2014 . taxonomy and systematics of tetraodontiform fishes : a review focusing primarily on progress in the period 1980 to 2014 . review for ipfc9 special issue .

. the iucn red list of threatened species 2015 : e . t193587a56996805 . downloaded on 09 march 2018 .

reef and shore fishes of the south pacific . new caledonia to tahiti and the pitcairn islands .

richardson , j . 1846 . description of six fish taken by the officers of the beagle on the coasts of australia . 484 - 497 pls 1 - 4 in stokes , j . l . ( ed . )

russell , b . c . 1983 . annotated checklist of the coral reef fishes in the capricorn - bunker group , great barrier reef , australia .

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eschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version . , available online at urltoken [ details ]

froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication . , available online at urltoken [ details ]

liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . china science press . 1267 pp . ( look up in imis ) [ details ] available for editors [ request ]

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eschmeyer , w . n . ( ed ) . catalog of fishes . urltoken electronic version accessed 03 - nov - 2014

disclaimer : itis taxonomy is based on the latest scientific consensus available , and is provided as a general reference source for interested parties . however , it is not a legal authority for statutory or regulatory purposes . while every effort has been made to provide the most reliable and up - to - date information available , ultimate legal requirements with respect to species are contained in provisions of treaties to which the united states is a party , wildlife statutes , regulations , and any applicable notices that have been published in the federal register . for further information on u . s . legal requirements with respect to protected taxa , please contact the u . s . fish and wildlife service .

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mcculloch , a . r . 1929 , " a check - list of the fishes recorded from australia . part iii " , records of the australian museum , vol . 5 , pp . 329–436

richardson , j . 1846 , " description of six fish taken by the officers of the beagle on the coasts of australia " , ed . stokes , j . l . ( ed . ) , discoveries in australia , vol . 1 , pp . 484 - 497 pls 1 - 4 , t . & w . boone , london

urn : lsid : biodiversity . org . au : afd . taxon : 994a75d7 - e293 - 42fb - be3f - 7895efc3a056

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a starry triggerfish ( ams i . 44703 - 004 ) collected at palfrey island , queensland , 5 sep 2008 .

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scales of starry triggerfish enlarged above pectoral - fin base and just behind gill opening to form a flexible tympanum ; terminal mouth and depressed and wider caudal peduncle . it has grayish brown to olivaceous on back with small pale blue or yellow spots dorsally and large yellow spots ventrally and 3 large white blotches on back . this species occurring in sand , sponge and weed bottoms . it feeds on marine invertebrates .

yoshida , t , motomura , h , musikasinthorn , p & matsuura , , k ( 2013 ) . fishes of northern gulf of thailand , volume 8 . national museum of nature and science , tsukuba . research institute for humanity and nature , kyoto . kagoshima university museum , kagoshima . , japan . pp . 239 .

matsunuma , m . , motomura , h . , matsuura , k . , shazili , n . a . m . & ambak , m . a . ( 2011 ) . fishes of terengganu : east coast of malay peninsula , malaysia . national museum of nature and science , universiti malaysia terengganu and kagoshima universiti museum , malaysia . pp . ix + 251 .

acknowledgements : - ms . aida salihah binti abu bakar , ms . nurfadzilah bt azmi , ms . nurfarhana hizan binti hijas , nursyafiqa madzlen , siti zubaidah binti abdul latif & mr . yasser mohamed arifin

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chinese academy of fishery sciences ( 2003 ) chinese aquatic germplasm resources database . : urltoken

eschmeyer , w . n . ; fricke , r . ; van der laan , r . ( eds ) . ( 2017 ) . catalog of fishes : genera , species , references . electronic version .

froese , r . & d . pauly ( editors ) . ( 2018 ) . fishbase . world wide web electronic publication .

khalaf , m . a . and a . m . disi ( 1997 ) fishes of the gulf of aqaba . : marine science station , aqaba , jordan . 252 p .

kinch , j . ( 1999 ) economics and environment in island melanesia : a general overview of resource use and livelihoods on brooker island in the calvados chain of the louisiade archipelago , milne bay province , papua new guinea . : a report prepared for conservation international , port moresby , national capital district , papua new guinea .

kuiter , r . h . and t . tonozuka ( 2001 ) pictorial guide to indonesian reef fishes . part 3 . jawfishes - sunfishes , opistognathidae - molidae . : zoonetics , australia . p . 623 - 893 .

liu j . y . [ ruiyu ] ( ed . ) . ( 2008 ) . checklist of marine biota of china seas . < em > china science press . < / em > 1267 pp .

myers , r . f . ( 1999 ) micronesian reef fishes : a comprehensive guide to the coral reef fishes of micronesia , 3rd revised and expanded edition . : coral graphics , barrigada , guam . 330 p .

oceana philippines international ( 2016 ) atong tañon , atong ampingan : fisheries challenges in the tañon strait protected seascape . : manila : oceana philippines , 48 p . urltoken [ accessed 27 / 09 / 16 ] .

randall , j . e . ( 1995 ) coastal fishes of oman . : university of hawaii press , honolulu , hawaii . 439 p .

randall , j . e . , g . r . allen and r . c . steene ( 1990 ) fishes of the great barrier reef and coral sea . : university of hawaii press , honolulu , hawaii . 506 p .

stobbs , r . e . ( 1990 ) comorian fish names with a preliminary list of malagasy common names . : investigational report no . 35

thaman , r . r . , t . fong and a . balawa ( 2008 ) ilava ni navakavu : finfishes of vanua navakavu , viti levu , fiji islands . : sprh - fio biodiversity and ethnobiodiversity report no . 4 , the university of the south pacific , suva , fiji islands .

wu , h . l . , k . - t . shao and c . f . lai ( eds . ) ( 1999 ) latin - chinese dictionary of fishes names . : the sueichan press , taiwan . 1028 p .

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this article was published as an online first article on the online publication date shown on this page . the article should be cited by using the doi number .

tetraodontiform fishes are distributed in tropical to temperate seas and freshwaters of the world . they show a remarkable diversity in shape , size , and way of life ( fig .

) . because of their peculiar morphological characters , tetraodontiforms have long attracted the attention of ichthyologists and biologists .

) provided their interpretations of the phylogenetic relationships of tetraodontiforms based on myology and osteology , respectively .

) published an excellent monograph on the superfamily triacanthoidea including the triacanthodidae and triacanthidae . he recognized 19 triacanthodid species in 11 genera ( table

) , their taxonomic features are not repeated here , except for new information that provides a better understanding of taxa .

many species of the triacanthodidae are known from the tropical and warm regions of the indo - pacific . however , five species are distributed in the western atlantic :

with a color photograph based on specimens collected from off surinam . mceachran and fechhelm (

from the gulf of mexico and off greater new england , respectively . tyler et al . (

to the northeast coast of the usa off massachusetts , whereas this species had previously only been known from the florida keys , bahamas , bermuda , gulf of mexico , caribbean , and south to brazil , with the new northern occurence perhaps associated with warming currents along the east coast of north america .

in contrast to the atlantic spikefishes , many papers on indo - pacific spikefishes were published after 1980 . matsuura (

based on 13 specimens collected from the western indian ocean . this species is characterized by relatively large nasal organs compared to other species of

based on 25 specimens collected from the marquesas islands . in addition to these contributions , papers and books on taxonomic and zoogeographical studies of spikefishes were published by authors from various countries including australia , china , japan , korea , russia , taiwan , ukraine , and the usa .

with detailed descriptions and color photographs of fresh specimens collected from the kyushu - palau ridge . matsuura (

, these are the first records for the species from new caledonia . chen et al . (

) were based on specimens deposited at museums and institutions in taiwan and the usa . larson et al . (

has a narrower pelvis , a shorter postorbital length , a less distinctly supraterminal mouth , and a more concave snout profile . because the holotype of

) concluded that the most reliable character separating the two species is the degree of concavity of the snout . the depth of the snout in the middle of its length is 10 . 8−13 . 4 % sl ( average 12 . 0 ) in

) confirmed this difference in three specimens ( 86 . 2−93 . 0 mm sl ) of

) provided keys to the genera and species of spikefishes known from south and east africa . he recognized 11 species in this region :

) studied coastal fishes of the arabian sea based on specimens collected by research vessels of russia and ukraine from 1967 to 1991 . they also examined specimens collected by the german

, which are deposited at the zoological museum of hamburg university . the two authors recorded

( previously known only from the holotype , 52 . 2 mm sl from the andaman sea and a non - type specimen , 66 . 0 mm sl from off somalia in the western indian ocean ) , but did not provide descriptions of the two species . the specimens they studied are deposited at the national museum of natural history , national academy of sciences , ukraine , the zoological museum of the russian academy of sciences , and the zoological museum of moscow state university . in addition to these , venkataramanujam et al . (

this brief historical review clearly shows that there are many collection lacunae with respect to the distribution and diversity of spikefishes in the world oceans . new caledonia is one example of how collection efforts could provide us with better understanding of spikefish diversity . when matsuura and fourmanoir (

from new caledonia , only two type specimens were available for their study . long - term deep - water surveys by orstom around new caledonia added six species of spikefishes including 16 specimens of

) . many regions of the world oceans need to be surveyed , but the most promising areas would be waters in french polynesia and the indian ocean coast of sumatra and java in indonesia . japanese and indonesian fisheries agencies have recently implemented a joint survey along the indian ocean coast of sumatra and java . their surveys have resulted in many interesting spikefishes , including two undescribed species and several rarely collected species , which will be published elsewhere ( matsuura and kawai in preparation ) .

) reported that four specimens from the gulf of thailand near paknam have differences in eye size and the width of the interorbital space . two of these specimens ( 111 . 5 mm sl and 113 . 9 mm sl ) have exceptionally large eyes ( 10 . 4 % sl ) and the other two ( 105 . 6 mm sl and 107 . 9 mm sl ) have a normal eye size ( 7 . 8 and 8 . 5 % sl ) . the two large - eye specimens have eyes that are also larger than those of any other specimens of equivalent size . the large - eye specimens have a wider interorbital space ( 10 . 2−10 . 5 % sl vs . 6 . 3−10 . 0 % sl in many other specimens ) . tyler (

based on color notes or color photographs of fresh specimens , but neither was available for the other species . matsuura (

collected from phuket in the andaman sea : body silvery white with light brown tinge on dorsal half of body ; first dorsal spine silvery white with a black membrane between the first and third dorsal spines ; second dorsal , anal , and pectoral fins with light yellowish rays ; caudal fin dark yellow . matsuura (

collected from the northern gulf of thailand : body silvery white with several irregular golden brownish markings on head and body ; basal half of first dorsal spine silvery white and proximal half black with yellowish orange first dorsal fin membrane ; second dorsal , anal , and pectoral fins with light yellowish rays ; caudal fin dusky yellow .

) . after his monograph appeared , many publications on fish faunas , field guides and checklists have provided additional information on triplespine distributions ( e . g . , matsuura

) reported a 60 - mm sl specimen of this species from freshwater in indonesia .

) diagnosed and illustrated the 20 species of 10 genera found in japanese waters . his latter paper covered many of the 25 species that were known from the indo - pacific before 1980 . prior to this publication two papers reviewed triggerfishes in the eastern pacific ( berry and baldwin

. these were important contributions about the taxonomy of triggerfishes up to and including 1980 . a brief historical review of triggerfish taxonomy follows .

) published a review of the balistidae , one of his series of taxonomic studies of tetraodontiform fishes . he recognized 13 genera in the balistidae and provided a platform for triggerfish taxonomy . although de beaufort and briggs (

) reviewed triggerfishes of the eastern pacific with comments on fraser - brunner’s classification . they pointed out that fraser - brunner (

on trivial differences of squamation and the anterior few soft rays of the dorsal fin . berry and baldwin (

( i . e . , triggerfishes of other genera not occurring in the western atlantic ) . just after his review of the western atlantic triggerfishes , moore (

) also accepted these 11 genera in his phylogenetic study on tetraodontiform fishes . the osteologically based phylogenies of balistoids given by matsuura (

as a new species , based on a small juvenile washed up on a beach at the mouth of the van stadens river , south africa .

on the basis of two specimens collected off the northeast coast of kume - jima in the ryukyu islands , at depths of 120−150 m , which is quite deep for triggerfishes . matsuura and yoshino (

, which recognizes 37 species of triggerfishes in 11 genera . in addition to the above contributions , many checklists and illustrated books on shallow - water fishes also provided taxonomic and zoogeographical information of the balistidae and other tetraodontiforms ( böhlke and chaplin

has 28−30 dorsal rays and 24−26 anal rays . however , berry and baldwin (

from japan that dorsal rays range from 27 to 30 and anal rays from 24 to 27 . randall (

) comprised only 50 words with fin ray counts “d . 1 ? , a . 26 , p . 13 . ” because the poor original description fits several species of the balistidae , it is impossible to verify that

in a phylogenetic tree of the balistidae based on molecular analysis . their molecular analysis suggests that

) represent a single clade . these species should be revisited with detailed morphological examinations .

east africa , mozambique channel , comores and mascarenes , north to southern japan , ogasawara islands and hawaiian islands , south to new caledonia , lord howe island , rapa and ducie ( pitcairn group ) . east to central america

there are no comprehensive reviews of the monacanthidae , although in 1988 barry hutchins provided taxonomic , morphological , and phylogenetic data for all monacanthid species in the world in his doctoral dissertation . some parts of his dissertation were published , however , the taxonomic accounts of many species and genera and the phylogenetic analysis of the genera remain unpublished . hutchins published a series of articles on the monacanthidae between 1977 and 2002 . his first article on australian filefishes recognized 28 genera in australia ( hutchins

) published a review paper on the monacanthidae ( his aluteridae ) , recognizing 22 genera . although de beaufort and briggs (

lack long spines or long setae on the mid - side of the body . randall (

) provided brief accounts and color photographs of 26 monacanthids found in japanese waters . hutchins and matsuura (

and recognized four species with comments on their ability to inflate the abdomen . hutchins (

) provided a key and brief taxonomic accounts for 16 species of filefishes found along south africa . hutchins (

, a detailed study of diagnostic characters , including encasing scales of the posterior end of the pelvis , is needed . hutchins suggested in his dissertation that

remain . as in the case of triggerfishes , many checklists and illustrated guidebooks have provided much useful information on the taxonomy , distribution , and biology of filefishes ( see the section on the balistidae ) .

trunkfishes of the family aracanidae occur in shallow to relatively deep waters in depths from 5 m to 300 m . the species of

the aracanidae and ostraciidae have been placed in separate families by some authors ( e . g . , winterbottom

) , but they have also been treated as two subfamilies of the family ostraciidae by others ( e . g . , winterbottom and tyler

) . all the above authors recognized the two groups as closely related phylogenetic clades ( sister groups ) , but placed them at different taxonomic ranks . santini and tyler (

) studied fossils and extant members of the tetraodontiformes extensively and recognized familial groupings for the aracanidae and ostraciidae . recently , santini et al . (

) investigated the phylogenetic relationships of the aracanidae and ostraciidae based on molecular analysis of many taxa ( nine species of five genera of aracanidae and 17 species of six genera of ostraciidae ) . they demonstrated that the species examined in their studies ( santini and tyler

) published his article on indian zoology , he used two different spellings for a species of trunkfish . at the beginning of the article , a section titled “directions for arranging the plates” provided the name of animals in the plates where he presented the name of the trunkfish as “many spined coffin fish .

. ” plate 98 provided a good illustration of the species showing appropriate characters to identify the species . it is the type species of the subgenus by monotypy . however , in 1838 john e . gray published another paper in which he described three species ,

” indicating his intention to establish the group at the subgeneric level . although the name

thus creating a nomenclatural problem . if one follows the priority rule of the code ( iczn

should be preserved under article 33 . 3 . 1 of the code , making the spelling of the family group name aracanidae preserved under article 35 . 4 . 1 .

) provided brief reviews of the family , his accounts of genera and species were cursory as they were based on few specimens and did not provide adequate characteristics for the species treated . kuiter (

is unique in having a fusiform body and the caudal peduncle nearly completely covered by discrete bony plates . in addition to australian genera of aracanidae , detailed descriptions and illustrations of all four known species of

kentrocapros eco ( nmnz p . 903 , 102 mm tl , from pahia , bay of islands , new zealand ; a lateral view ; b dorsal view ) and an undescribed species of kentrocapros ( c nsmt - p 43344 , 104 mm sl ) collected from new zealand

as discussed above , no major taxonomic problems remain in the aracanidae . however , there still remains a need to clarify the nomenclature of some species of anoplocapros as well as the intraspecific variation of morphological characters related to ontogenetic development of kentrocapros .

eastern atlantic from st . helena , ascension and azores islands , ghana and angola

, he differentiated it from other ostraciid genera by the degree of the development of the dorsal ridge , the convexity of the dorsal surface of the carapace , and the projection of the snout anterior to the mouth . however , the two characters involving the carapace do not clearly differentiate

, protrudes anteriorly beyond the mouth in adults but not juveniles . in addition , large adults of

have a snout protruding to some extent beyond the mouth . these factors led matsuura (

in their own genus in his key and brief accounts of ostraciids found in the western central pacific . klassen (

because the latter has priority over the former . however , it seems premature to accept his proposal because there are species - level taxonomic problems in several species of

) provided keys and accounts accompanied by illustrations to boxfishes found in the western atlantic . they recognized five species ,

are nested in a single clade on the basis of his extensive osteological analysis ; i agree with this .

on the basis of a specimen from queensland , australia . however , there seems little doubt that it is actually

from australia may suggest that the specimen was transferred by ballast water from a ship or released from an aquarium . as with the balistidae , many checklists and illustrated guidebooks have provided a great deal of information on the taxonomy , distribution , and biology of boxfishes ( see the section on the balistidae ) . on the basis of the above overview , i recognize 22 species in the ostraciidae ( table

holotype of acanthostracion bucephalus ( ams ib . 6355 ) collected from queensland , australia . photograph provided by mark mcgrouther

two forms of tetrosomus reipublicae collected from the ryukyu islands ( a , b ) and kochi , japan ( c ) . a deep body with no blue lines ( bsku 29663 ) ; b , c slender body with wavy blue lines ( b bsku 29697 ; c bsku 59588 )

is rare in museum collections and poorly known . it is a deep - water species collected at depths of 50−377 m ( kyushin et al .

in detail , only 20 specimens were available for his study : five from the indian ocean ( mauritius , reunion and india ) and 15 from the west pacific ( indonesia , philippines and japan ) . due to the poor condition of two specimens , tyler (

) used 18 specimens to determine whether the first dorsal fin , composed of one or two spines , is present or absent . his examination revealed 12 specimens from the west pacific to have a first dorsal fin , and five indian ocean specimens and a specimen from the west pacific to lack a first dorsal fin ( table

) . however , he did not find other differences between the indian ocean specimens and those from the west pacific . this led him to recognize the two groups as being conspecific . i have recently had the opportunity of examining 28 specimens of

) also provided frequency distributions of fin - ray counts . my examination of 28 specimens produced almost the same frequency distributions of fin - ray counts as those of tyler (

) showed that a specimen ( 448 . 3 mm sl ) collected from the volcano islands , south of the ogasawara islands , had a single spine

frequency distributions of fin - ray counts in triodon macropterus . counts of fin rays of damaged or abnormal fins are excluded . counts of pectoral - fin rays were obtained from fins on both sides

was reported ( with color photographs ) from several areas in the indo - west pacific : the chagos archipelago ( kyushin et al .

to have the following coloration : body yellowish brown dorsally , becoming white ventrally ; ventral flap yellow in the ventral four - fifths and white in the proximal one - fifth ; a large black ocellus with a narrow white edge in the proximal part of the ventral flap ; second dorsal , anal , pectoral , and caudal fins yellow or yellowish brown ; when present , membrane of first dorsal fin black ( fig .

( 20 mm sl ) , collected at wallis and futuna at a depth of 245−440 m . they provided detailed characters and the visceral anatomy of the early juvenile that differs from adults in having a huge head ( 45 % sl vs 28 . 5−32 . 7 % sl in adults ) , no ventral flap , and different scale structure . juveniles also differ from adults in having a very large distended stomach .

) . because pufferfishes possess very few external characters useful for taxonomy and specimens are easily distorted when they are fixed in formalin and preserved in ethanol , it is often not easy for ichthyologists to recognize species limits and classify them into natural groups . consequently , they have been poorly studied and taxonomic confusion remains . although the tetraodontidae has never been comprehensively reviewed , the taxonomy of pufferfishes has progressed since fraser - brunner’s (

, based on osteological characters of the skull , the lateral - line system on the head and body , a skin fold on the ventrolateral side of the body , and spinule distributions on the body . although fraser - brunner (

) provided keys and accounts of pufferfishes in the seas around japan . subsequently , abe (

is the appropriate generic name for warmwater pufferfishes found mainly around japan , korea , and china . as with other tetraodontiform families , de beaufort and briggs (

marine pufferfishes occurring in warm and tropical regions of the world were studied by many authors from the 1970s to present . allen and randall (

and described seven new species , bringing the total number of species to 22 . since allen and randall’s (

from the gambier archipelago in french polynesia . in addition , randall et al . (

from the west coast of africa . the above studies bring the total number of species of

in the atlantic and provided a key to the species , along with detailed accounts of all atlantic species . walker and bussing (

) . the former is endemic to the atlantic and the latter is distributed in tropical and other warm seas of the world . abe and tabeta (

) based on an examination of the holotype and many specimens from the red sea . although the genus

has not been comprehensively reviewed , an ongoing study by the author has revealed 11 valid species in the genus . this study will be published elsewhere .

, many species found along the coast of china were not included in his articles . cheng et al . (

from brackish waters of modaomen zhuhai , guangdong . these chinese and japanese authors increased the number of

species making it the second largest genus in the tetraodontidae , with 25 species . however , taxonomic problems still remain in

as a new genus and species based on a single specimen collected at norfolk island .

is externally distinguished from other pufferfishes by its nasal apparatus in the form of an open , flat , and relatively unornamented disk . heemstra and smith (

in the period from 1980 to 1989 , graham s . hardy published a series of papers on the taxonomy of pufferfishes that are distributed mainly in the southern hemisphere . hardy (

from south africa revealed them to be conspecific , making the former a junior synonym of the latter . matsuura (

is unique in building large spawning nests , called “mystery circles” by local scuba divers . thus , the above studies of

) discussed nomenclatural issues of the tetraodontidae found in southeast asia in detail . he established the new genus

, but differentiated from other pufferfishes by their unique color pattern and a very elongate premaxillary pedicel that creates a greatly enlarged open space between their dorsomedial edges . thus , the generic name

as a new species from the mekong basin of thailand . because of its publication date , july 2013 , the authors were unaware of kottelat’s (

have a sufficient number of character differences to warrant being placed in separate genera . the type species of

. however , this is likely to cause confusion not only in pufferfish taxonomy , but also in the fisheries of east asia where pufferfishes are treated as important and expensive fishes ( e . g . , several species of

cost about us $ 100 per kilogram at fish markets ) . in addition , because pufferfishes have fatal poison in their viscera , scientific names are very important for food security management in east asia . as suggested by kottelat (

) , on the basis of the holotype from penang and two additional specimens from the west pacific . matsuura (

as a new species from the tropical region of the indo - west pacific . matsuura (

with a key to species and accounts of all members of the genus including two undescribed species .

as indicated above , there has been a great deal of progress in taxonomy of the tetraodontidae during the past several decades , especially in the period from the mid - 1970s to the present . however , there remain taxonomic problems in genera such as

where many species await description and detailed morphological and molecular comparisons to classify them into appropriate groups . the taxonomy of pufferfishes in southeast asia is important not only for the understanding of fish diversity of the region , but also for the welfare and food management for humans . dao et al . (

) reported that the number of victims of food poisoning by eating pufferfishes reached 737 , with 127 mortalities from 1999 to 2003 . due to the lack of knowledge about pufferfishes and their toxicity , pufferfishes are still found in southeast asian fish markets ( fig .

) , although local and state governments in countries around the south china sea have prohibited the sale of pufferfishes for food .

) provided a list of synonyms and keys for all species of the diodontidae . keys to regional species were also provided by leis (

, western indian ocean ; 2001 , eastern indian ocean and western central pacific ; 2003 , western atlantic ) . accounts and color photographs for species of the eastern pacific were provided by allen and robertson (

reach more than 3 m in length and two tons in weight , it is difficult to preserve specimens of adults in museums . it is also difficult for ichthyologists to obtain measurements and counts on large adult ocean sunfishes in the field , and specimens of

have also been rarely collected . since ichthyologists have few opportunities to study an adequate number of adult specimens of ocean sunfishes , authors have been unable to agree how many species in the family , some believing a single species exists in each genus , and others recognizing two species each in

) published a list of nominal species in the molidae . bass et al (

is found in all oceans . however , they were unable to differentiate among specimens of

from the west pacific ( taiwan ) and the western atlantic ( florida ) . yoshita et al . (

around japan . they took measurements and counted 99 specimens of young and adults ( maximum size 332 cm tl , fig .

) . they showed convincingly that there are two species with clear morphological differences : a well - developed head bump ( head bump height 12 . 1 % tl ) in group a vs . with no distinct head bump ( head bump height 7 . 8 % tl ) in group b , number of clavus fin rays 14−17 in group a vs 10−13 in group b , number of clavus ossicles 8−15 in group a vs . 8−9 in group b , and edge of clavus not wavy in group a vs . wavy in group b . yoshita et al . (

must await the availability of more specimens from other regions of the world’s oceans for study by both morphological and molecular methods .

) pioneered the classification of tetraodontiform fishes by placing them in the order plectognathi based on his detailed anatomical studies . since cuvier’s (

) , yseult le danois tried to destroy the order tetraodontiformes . she stated that the triacanthoids and balisoitds are of acanthurid origin and that the other plectognaths ( her orbiculati ) are not even of percoid derivation , being related to the isospondylous fishes , and that

is related to the ostracioids rather than the tetraodontids . however , her statements were based on erroneous observations and interpretations of the osteological and myological characters of tetraodontiforms ( tyler

) supported the monophyly of tetraodontiformes by adding to the already substantial list of synapomorphies . in addition , wiley and johnson (

) analyzed relationships of tetraodontiformes using cladistic methods . he recognized three major clades : ( 1 ) triacanthodidae + triacanthidae , ( 2 ) ( balistidae + monacanthidae ) + ( aracanidae + ostraciidae ) , and ( 3 ) triodontidae + [ ( tetraodontidae + diodontidae ) + molidae ] ( fig .

) . the first clade , including the triacanthodidae and triacanthidae , was considered to be the sister group of all other tetraodontiforms . tyler (

) studied tetraodontiforms extensively and provided a huge number of osteological descriptions , comparative diagnoses , and illustrations for all extant families , major representatives of extant genera , and most of the known fossil taxa of the tetraodontiformes . tyler (

) , except for placing the superfamily triacanthoidea ( triacanthodidae + triacanthidae ) as the basal sister group to the two superfamilies , the balistoidea ( balistidae and monacanthidae ) and the ostracioidea ( aracanidae and ostraciidae ) .

phylogenetic relationships of the extant families of tetraodontiformes inferred from cladistic analyses of morphological characters .

) proposed on the basis of his osteological analysis that zeoids have a sister - group relationship with tetraodontiforms and the two groups are sister to the caproids . leis (

) used characters of eggs and larvae to investigate tetraodontiform relationships . although no aracanid and triodontid larvae were available for his study , leis (

) placed the ostraciidae in an unresolved trichotomy , ostraciidae + diodontidae + molidae , and placed the three families as a sister clade to the tetraodontidae ( fig .

b ) . this was the first time that the ostraciidae was placed in the gymnodonts ( triodontidae , tetraodontidae , diodontidae , and molidae ) . winterbottom and tyler (

) also provided many synapomorphies involving osteological and myological characters that supported a sister - group relationship of balistoids and ostracioids . klassen (

james c . tyler and other authors published many papers on fossil tetraodontiforms ( e . g . , tyler and patterson

) used osteological data on fossil and extant tetraodontiform fishes accumulated by previous contributions to generate a new classification of all known families represented by fossil and extant forms . for extant families , santini and tyler (

) placed the triacanthodidae as a sister group to all other families of the tetraodontiformes ( fig .

) . they arranged the other families into two suborders , the balistoidei and tetraodontoidei . the former is composed of the triacanthidae + [ ( balistidae + monacanthidae ) + ( aracanidae + ostraciidae ) ] . the latter suborder is composed of the triodontidae + [ ( tetraodontidae + diodontidae ) + molidae ] . this classification is similar to those of winterbottom (

) analyzed molecular data for 100 species of higher teleosteans . their study was the first to hypothesize close relationships among lophiiforms , tetraodontiforms , and caproids . they retrieved phylogenetic topologies placing caproids as a sister group with tetraodontiforms and the two groups as sister to lophiiforms . however , they used few taxa : one species of caproidae , two species of tetraodontiformes , and six species of lophiiformes . yamanoue et al . (

) analyzed more species of the three groups and provided a robust phylogenetic topology that placed the caproidei as sister to the lophiiformes , and the two groups as a clade that is sister to the tetraodontiformes .

) studied the lateral - line system and its innervations of nine species of tetraodontiforms ( representing all families examined except for the molidae ) and a single species each from the lophiidae , zeidae , caproidae , and siganidae . their analysis supported a close relationship of the tetraodontiformes with the lophiidae , but not with the zeidae , caproidae , or siganidae . recently , chanet et al . (

) presented synapomorphies of tetraodontiforms and lophiiforms involving soft anatomical characters : rounded and anteriorly disposed kidneys , a compact thyroid included in a blood sinus , an abbreviated spinal cord , an asymmetric liver , and clusters of supramedullary neurons in the rostral part of the spinal cord . baldwin (


powelliphanta hochstetteri consobrina , known as one of the amber snails , is a subspecies of large , carnivorous land snail , a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusc in the family rhytididae .

powelliphanta hochstetteri consobrina

powelliphanta hochstetteri consobrina <EOT> worms - world register of marine species - powelliphanta hochstetteri ( l . pfeiffer , 1862 )

the holotype of powelliphanta hochstetteri consobrina . the holotype is the standard against which to measure similarities between related species as well as differences that may lead to recognition of new species .

. 5–7 . —pa yphanta ( powelliphanta ) hochstetteri ( pfeiffer ) . subgenotype . x 1 .

type : helix hochstetteri pfeiffer , mal . bl . , viii , 146 , 1862 ( see pi . 6 , figs . 5–8 ) .

powelliphanta will include all new zealand species previously included in paryphanta except the type of that genus , p . busbyi ( gray , 1840 ) which is confined to the north auckland peninsula .

p . busbyi ( pi . 5 ) has a very thick coating of conchin , as well as an inner limy shell , and specimens are not infrequently found in north auckland pleistocene dune deposits which have weathered down to a strong , limy shell even when all the conchin has gone . all other new zealand paryphantas have a flexible shell composed chiefly of conchin with a much reduced limy layer , so that they generally collapse soon after death . powelliphanta is known in a sub - fossil condition only in limestone caves where replacement of conchin by lime has apparently occurred . empty , “dead” shells of some species of powelliphanta , which are mostly conchin with practically no inner limy shell , such as gagei , fletcheri , rossiana and spedeni , are sometimes so collapsed and distorted when found that they appear worthless as specimens . they can usually be restored , however , by soaking in very hot water , but on no account must they be lifted out until the water is absolutely cold . in most cases , if this is done , it will be found that the shape has been brought back without any alteration in colour . on no account must any of the other coloured species be treated in this way , otherwise the colour will be spoilt .

the australian and tasmanian species of paryphanta ( i . e . , victaphanta and melavitrina , ( iredale , 1933 ) agree with paryphanta busbyi in shell colour , in radula characters , and it is likely that they have the same type of egg , while in new zealand , the genus wainuia has comparable shell colouration . it would appear that the production of limy eggs without cuticle , and the possession of a uniformly dark coloured conchin coating to the shell are primitive features shared by wainuia , p . busbyi and the australian species [ v . atramentaria ( shuttleworth , 1853 ) , v . compacta ( cox and hedley , 1912 ) , m . milligani ( pfeiffer , 1854 ) ] , and that the variously complicated colour patterns , and cuticled eggs of the hochstetteri—lignaria—gilliesi series are specialised characters . to give taxonomic recognition to these differences , which are accompanied by anatomical differences ( murdoch , 1904 ) , the two groups may therefore be separated sub - generically .

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notes on the eggs of new zealand paryphantidae , with description of a new subgenus .

[ read before wellington branch , october 26 , 1944 ; received by the editor , october 26 , 1944 ; issued separately , june , 1945 . ]

, and , in the process , have acquired quite a good range of their eggs . of the latter , most have not previously been described , and as they are of interest , i have compiled a list of measurements and other data concerning the eggs of the various species and subspecies available .

it may be noted that the eggs are not as easily procured as some people imagine . their finding entails a lot of hard work in searching amongst leaf mould , or , as an alternative , they may be obtained by shutting up live captive snails in damp moss in the hope that they will lay . although the latter method is uncertain , it is the way by which most of the specimens have been obtained . if the captives do not lay in a few days , or at the most , in say a fortnight , it is practically certain that no eggs will be obtained from them , and the collector often shuts up snails to no purpose . in odd cases , where laying has occurred after some time in captivity , the eggs are generally not normal , owing no doubt to uncongenial conditions . the usual laying period is late october , november , and early december , but in one case—i . e . , spedeni , new - laid eggs have been taken in march .

the eggs are generally deposited in leaf mould . as i have not obtained many in natural conditions , there are few records of the numbers usually laid together . mrs . i . worthy informs me that she has found eggs of paryphanta busbyi at kaeo in nests of 3 , 5 , 8 and 10 . rhytida eggs are found in larger numbers , viz : r . dunniœ 8 , 9 , 15 , 17 , 19 ( mrs . worthy ) ; r . greenwoodi 9 , 14 , 22 , 25 , 26 ; r . patula , 3 to 9 ; schizoglossa : 4 , 9 , 14 , but generally about 9 . wainui : unfortunately i omitted to take an exact count of those i found , but mr . r . a . prouse , of levin , has found them in nests of 4 , 5 , 9 and 13 .

paryphanta eggs are all large in relation to the size of the shell and animal , but the most remarkable case is that of p . spedeni , a snail which reaches a maximum size of 40 mm . and produces an egg up to the amazing size of 11 . 5 mm . , or . 2875 of its parent ' s major shell dimension—truly this species is the “kiwi” of the family . shape of the eggs is seldom constant ; most are oval , and in one species , unicolorata , they occasionally are completely round .

[ the section below cannot be correctly rendered as it contains complex formatting . see the image of the page for a more accurate rendering . ]

without cuticle ( pi . 5 ; fig . 4 ) . all other new zealand paryphanta species have eggs with a glossy membranous cuticle ( pi . 6 , fig . 8 ) , which , when the egg is new laid , is always of a pale buff colour , but which after preservation very seldom keeps its colour . they are very hard to preserve , especially when not treated . the best method of treatment is to puncture a small hole in the side , place in methylated spirits for , say 24 hours , then dry out slowly in a cool place . never dry out quickly , or in a hot room , as the percentage of breakages then would be very high . even when treated as above , quite a number will break . after treatment the eggs alter in colour to brown or palish green .

eggs found in leaf mould , which are not known to be freshly laid , are nearly always either dark brown or badly stained , an effect possibly due to development of the embryo , and to contact with the leaf mould .

the difference in egg structure between paryphanta busbyi and the more southern members of the genus is paralleled by differences in shell shape , structure and colour . in his first paper on the family , powell ( 1930 , p . 32 ) stated : —

“the species of paryphanta in new zealand are covered by two groups , occupying two distinct areas of distribution separated by a gap of about 300 miles . the northern area is represented by p . busbyi , a shell having a uniformly dark greenish - black coating of conchin , while the southern area is represented by seven distinct species and three sub - species , all differing from the northern busbyi in being variously coloured and banded . ”

the number of species and sub - species , of course , has been much added to since the above was written .

alternating and contrasting colours . more important is the paucity of lime compared with conchin in the shell .

distribution : north island of new zealand , in and south of the ruahine range ( possibly once as far north as east cape ) and south island .

( for list , see powell , 1938 , pp . 140 , 141 . )

the sub - genus is named in recognition of the great service rendered to the study of the family by mr a . w . b . powell .

the writer is indebted to mr . j . t . salmon for the fine photographic illustrations accompanying this paper , and to the various collectors who have generously provided material as acknowledged in the table .

—— 1938 . the paryphantidae of new zealand no . iv . rec . auck . mus . , vol . ii , no . 3 , pp . 133–150 .

. 1–3 . —paryphanta ( paryphanta ) busbys ( gray ) . genotype . x 1 .

transactions of the royal society of new zealand , vol . 75 , part i , pp . 57–64 , 2 text figs .

spencer , h . g . , marshall , b . a . & willan , r . c . ( 2009 ) . checklist of new zealand living mollusca . pp 196 - 219 . in : gordon , d . p . ( ed . ) new zealand inventory of biodiversity . volume one . kingdom animalia : radiata , lophotrochozoa , deuterostomia . canterbury university press , christchurch . [ details ]

the paryphantidae of new zealand . 3 . further new species of paryphanta and wainuia ( primary title ) records of the auckland institute and museum , 2 ( 1 ) , 29 - 41 ( other title ) a . w . b . powell 1936

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