bostrycapulus odites is a species of sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusk in the family calyptraeidae , the slipper snails or slipper limpets , cup-and-saucer snails , and chinese hat snails .

bostrycapulus odites

bostrycapulus odites <EOT> odites is a greek noun meaning traveller . this name refers to the large geographical distribution this species has attained despite its direct development .

rachel collin , alfonso a . ramos - esplá and andrés izquierdo identification of the south atlantic spiny slipper limpet bostrycapulus odites collin , 2005 ( caenogastropoda : calyptraeidae ) on the spanish mediterranean coast ( pp 197 - 200 )

radula of bostrycapulus aculeatus collected from mote , florida . scale bar = 100 µm .

there are currently eight recognized species in bostrycapulus ( see table 4 for summary ) .

summary of bostrycapulus species . diagnostic features are highlighted in bold text . abbreviations : ss , spiral sculpture

bostrycapulus aculeatus – olsson & harbison , 1953 : 280 . simone , 2002 [ in part ] : 18 .

the shells of the holotypes of the four new species . a , bostrycapulus latebrus ( fmnh 282358 ) . b , b . odites ( natal museum v9447 / t1783 ) . c , b . pritzkeri ( australian museum ♯c400000 ) . d , b . urraca ( ansp 412178 ) . scale bar = 10 mm .

bostrycapulus aculeatus − olsson & harbison , 1953 [ in part ] : 280 . simone , 2002 [ in part ] : 18 .

bostrycapulus aculeatus – olsson & harbison , 1953 [ in part ] : 280 . simone , 2002 [ in part ] : 18 .

the following eight species are recognized here as members of bostrycapulus : b . aculeatus ( gmelin , 1791 ) , b . gravispinosus ( kuroda & habe , 1950 ) , b . calyptraeformis ( deshayes , 1830 ) , b . cf . tegulicius , b . pritzkeri sp . nov . , b . odites sp . nov . , b . latebrus sp . nov . and b . urraca sp . nov .

b . odites differs from the other species in the b . aculeatus species complex in exhibiting direct development from small eggs which consume nurse eggs . the protoconch is unsculptured and retains irregular growth lines ( figs 5f , 4i ) . adult morphological characters are as described above for b . aculeatus . diagnostic dna sequence differences distinguishing b . odites from all other bostrycapulus species are in the following positions in the coi sequences submitted to genbank ( position 1 = position 1537 of the d . yakuba mitochondrial genome , genbank # x03240 ) : 24 ( c ) , 36 ( g ) , 141 ( c ) , 220 ( t ) , 234 ( c ) , 279 ( g ) , 354 ( t ) , 438 ( c ) , 486 ( a ) , 552 ( t ) .

photographs of ( a ) bostrycapulus calyptraeformis from venado beach in panama and ( b ) b . odites sp . nov . from the subtidal of playa orengo ( the three shells on the right ) and the intertidal zone of nearby san antonio oeste ( the shell on the left ) , argentina . both plates show the variation in shell colour and spine development found in samples collected from the same site . samples from within a site do not differ in more than three or four base pairs in coi sequences . scale bars = 10 mm .

unrooted haplotype network of coi sequences from bostrycapulus calyptraeformis . slashes on branches show the number of differences between the haplotypes . branches without slashes have a length of one . size of the circles represent the number of individuals with that haplotype .

the bayesian best estimate topology of the phylogeny of bostrycapulus based on 16s . numbers above the branches represent bootstrap percentages and those below the branches are bayesian support . branches are labelled with the collecting locality and the individual code . * = type individual .

the bayesian best estimate topology of the phylogeny of bostrycapulus based on coi . numbers above the branches represent bootstrap percentages and those below the branches are bayesian support . branches are labelled with the collecting locality and the individual code . * = type individual .

protoconchs . a , bostrycapulus pritzkeri sp . nov . from sydney . b , b . calyptraeformis from the perlas islands , panama . c , b . cf . tegulicia from cape verde . d , b . gravispinosus from minabe , wakayama prefecture , japan . e , b . calyptraeformis from paita , peru . f , b . odities sp . nov . from playa orengo , argentina . g , b . urraca sp . nov . from isla parida , panama . h , b . aculeatus from lido key , florida . i , b . odites sp . nov . from são paulo , brazil . all are to the same scale . scale bar = 500 µm .

the species name latebrus is latin , meaning ‘hidden’ or ‘obscure’ , referring to both the difficulty of distinguishing this from the other species of bostrycapulus and also to the fact that shells are often so encrusted with epibionts that they are effectively hidden in the field .

the type locality , ‘islands of the americas’ is somewhat vague but most likely refers to a locality in the northern caribbean . it is possible that bostrycapulus from the southern caribbean is a distinct species from the species described here as b . aculeatus ( gmelin , 1791 ) . i have been unable to find bostrycapulus in the caribbean surrounding panama , cayman islands , or trinidad , despite finding ostensibly appropriate habitat . if an additional caribbean species is discovered , nomenclatural stability would benefit from the description of the southern species as new .

collin r . 2005 . development , phylogeny , and taxonomy of < i > bostrycapulus < / i > ( caenogastropoda : calyptraeidae ) , an ancient cryptic radiation . < i > zoological journal of the linnean society < / i > 144 ( 1 ) : 75 - 101

collin r . 2005 . development , phylogeny , and taxonomy of bostrycapulus ( caenogastropoda : calyptraeidae ) , an ancient cryptic radiation . zoological journal of the linnean society 144 ( 1 ) : 75 - 101 , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 75 - 101 [ details ]

illustrations of anatomy of bostrycapulus , drawn from observations of several animals of b . odites sp . nov . from argentina . there are no differences among species in the characters depicted here . a , dorsal view of the animal subsequent to removal from the shell . b , dorsal view of the animal with the mantle reflected . c , osphradium . d , penis . abbreviations : cg , capsule gland ; ct , ctenidia ; dg , digestive gland ; e , oesophagus ; f , foot ; fp , food pouch ; g , seminal groove ; gd , gonad ; hg , hypobranchial gland ; i , intestine ; k , kidney ; nr , nerve ring ; os , osphradium ; sg , salivary gland ; sm , shell muscle ; ss , style sac ; st , stomach ; v , ventricle .

the transparent , thin - walled egg capsules of bostrycapulus species are typical of all calyptraeids . the stalks are wide , flattened ribbons and not thread - like as in some species . the female broods the capsules between the neck and substrate and propodium until hatching . differences in development are diagnostic among species .

b . urraca can be distinguished from other species of bostrycapulus by a combination of the following . it has a large globose protoconch and direct development that retains most of the larval features . diagnostic dna sequence differences distinguishing b . urraca from all other bostrycapulus species are in the following positions in the coi sequences submitted to genbank ( position 1 = position 1537 of the d . yakuba mitochondrial genome , genbank # x03240 ) : 261 ( t ) , 285 ( g ) , 309 ( g ) , 375 ( t ) , 474 ( c ) , 495 ( a ) , 588 ( t ) .

a , 2 - week - old larva of bostrycapulus calyptraeformis showing the velar pigment , shell sculpture ( on the top of the shell ) and large foot . scale bar = 300 µm . b , intracapsular larva of b . aculeatus showing the well - developed velum with pigment spots and body pigmentation . scale bar = 200 µm .

this species can be distinguished from other bostrycapulus species by features of development and mitochondrial dna sequences . development is direct from large , 380 mm eggs . embryos develop characteristic larval features but reabsorb them prior to hatching . the globose protoconch is 900 μmm in diameter and has less than a single whorl . diagnostic dna sequence differences , distinguishing b . aculeatus from all other bostrycapulus species are in the following positions in the coi sequences submitted to genbank ( position 1 = position 1537 of the drosophila yakuba mitochondrial genome , genbank # x03240 ) : 28 ( c ) , 33 ( g ) , 186 ( g ) , 282 ( t ) , 468 ( g ) , 511 ( c ) .

b . pritzkeri can be distinguished from the other species in bostrycapulus by its large , globose protoconch , and direct development from large eggs that produce embryos lacking the larval features present in other direct developing species of bostry - capulus . diagnostic dna sequence differences distinguishing b . pritzkeri from all other bostrycapulus species are in the following positions in the coi sequences submitted to genbank ( position 1 = position 1537 of the d . yakuba mitochondrial geneome , genbank # x03240 ) : 183 ( c ) , 256 ( c ) , 315 ( c ) , 360 ( c ) , 395 ( c ) , 417 ( g ) , 444 ( g ) , 471 ( g ) , 477 ( c ) .

embryos of bostrycapulus urraca sp . nov . a , early postgastrula stage where the embryo is covered with a thin ciliated epithelium . b , mid - veliger stage , showing the granulated shell sculpture , the operculum behind the well - developed foot , the single embryonic kidneys and the reduced velum . c , hatching stage , showing the well - developed shell sculpture . scale bar = 150 µm .

b . latebrus can be distinguished from other species of bostrycapulus by dna sequence data and by its direct development from large eggs with embryos that retain larval features ( unlike b . pritzkeri ) . the shell morphology and anatomy of b . latebrus do not differ from that described above for b . aculeatus . diagnostic dna sequence differences distinguishing b . latebrus from all other bostrycapulus species are in the following positions in the coi sequences submitted to genbank ( position 1 = position 1537 of the d . yakuba mitochondrial genome , genbank # x03240 ) : 3 ( g ) , 108 ( c ) , 144 ( g ) , 192 ( g ) , 243 ( a ) , 270 ( c ) , 306 ( g ) , 327 ( g ) , 423 ( c ) , 522 ( t ) .

three different modes of development are observed in the bostrycapulus species examined here : ( 1 ) planktotrophic larvae ; ( 2 ) direct development with large eggs , and ( 3 ) direct development from small eggs with nurse eggs ( table 4 ) . these differences in modes of development and smaller differences in the details of development correspond to the same eight clades identified by the dna sequence analysis and protoconch morphology .

the shell morphology and anatomy of b . calyptraeformis do not differ from those of b . aculeatus as described above . b . calytraeformis can be distinguished from the other species of bostrycapulus by the presence of planktotrophic development and a smooth protoconch with . 5 whorls ( fig . 5 ) . diagnostic dna sequence differences distinguishing b . calyptraeformis from all other bostrycapulus species are in the following positions in the coi sequences submitted to genbank ( position 1 = position 1537 of the d . yakuba mitochondrial genome , genbank # x03240 ) : 39 ( g ) , 42 ( c ) , 57 ( g ) , 69 ( a ) , 75 ( c ) , 171 ( c ) , 259 ( t ) , 282 ( g ) , 321 ( a ) , 354 ( g ) , 387 ( c ) , 402 ( c ) , 441 ( c ) , 462 ( g ) , 486 ( c ) , 582 ( c ) .

embryos of bostrycapulus pritzkeri sp . nov . note the distinctive granular shell sculpture and the absence of a distinct velum at all stages . a , excapsulated early stage embryos at the beginning of shell formation . scale bar = 150 µm . b , excapsulated embryos with well - developed shells showing granular shell sculpture and the small ridge of the velum at the base of the tentacle . scale bar = 250 µm . c , encapsulated embryos near hatching with fully developed shell and body pigmentation . scale bar = 250 µm .

phylogenetic analyses were conducted using paup * v . 4b02 ( swofford , 1998 ) . an equal - weighted , unrooted , parsimony analysis was performed with gaps coded as a fifth character , using a heuristic search with tbr branch swapping and 1000 random additions . bootstrap support for each clade was assessed based on 1000 bootstrap replicates with tbr branch swapping and ten random additions . i included crepipatella lingulata , c . capensis , and crucibulum auriculum , three close outgroups of bostrycapulus ( see collin , 2003b ) , and used them to root the analysis . genetic distances were calculated using kimura 2 - parameter distances .

b . cf . tegulicius can be distinguished from other species in the b . aculeatus species complex by the large globose protoconch and distinct coi sequence . material with other potentially diagnostic features is not currently available . diagnostic dna sequence differences are difficult to determine , but the single available sequence distinguishing b . cf . tegulicius from all other bostrycapulus species is in the following positions in the coi sequences submitted to genbank ( position 1 = position 1537 of the d . yakuba mito hondrial genome , genbank # x03240 ) : 178 ( a ) , 268 ( t ) , 282 ( c ) , 339 ( g ) , 492 ( a ) , 583 ( a ) .

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the evolution of gastropod body size in the deep sea is reexamined . using an extended and updated data set , and improved statistical methods , it is shown that some results of the previous study may have been artifactual , but that its central conclusion is robust . it is further shown that the effect is not restricted to a single gastropod clade , that its strength increases markedly with depth , but that it applies even in the mesopelagic zone .

the replication of the island rule in a distant taxonomic group and a partially analogous ecological situation could help to uncover the causes of the patterns observed—which are currently much disputed . the gastropod pattern is evident at intermediate depths , and so cannot be attributed to the unique features of abyssal ecology .

citation : welch jj ( 2010 ) the “island rule” and deep - sea gastropods : re - examining the evidence . plos one 5 ( 1 ) : e8776 . urltoken

copyright : © 2010 john j . welch . this is an open - access article distributed under the terms of the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original author and source are credited .

funding : some preliminary work undertaken when jw was funded by bbsrc grant do17750 awarded to andrew rambaut . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .

here , i re - examine whether deep - sea gastropods manifest the island rule , making use of the improved statistical methods , and data collated from the recently updated malacolog database [ 24 ] , which has been both expanded , and revised to reflect advances in gastropod systematics [ 25 ] . it is found that the central conclusion of mcclain et al . [ 12 ] is robust , and that gastropod colonists of the deep - sea benthos do indeed exhibit island - rule - like evolution .

part a shows how different tests of the ‘island rule’ can give qualitatively different results . “deep - sea” species were defined as those with a depth range midpoint > 200m , and all other species defined as “shallow - water” . the ordinary - least - squares regression ( dashed line ) differs significantly from the 1∶1 line of the null ( dotted line ) , but the standardized - major - axis regression ( solid line ) shows no significant departure . part b shows a less ambiguous case : “deep - sea” species are those never observed above 400m , and “shallow - water” species those never observed below 200m ; body sizes are within - genus means , taking equal numbers of deep - and shallow - water species in each genus .

the body sizes of deep - sea gastropods are plotted against those of their shallow - water congeners . “shallow - water” species were never observed below 200m , and “deep - sea” species never observed above depths of a : 200m , b : 400m and c : 600m . separate standardized - major - axis regression lines are shown for the neogastropoda ( black points ) and all other groups ( grey points ) . the dotted line is the 1∶1 expected under the null . genera with fewer than two deep and two shallow species were excluded .

similarly , predator release is a particularly plausible explanation of the vertebrate island rule [ 1 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 6 ] , [ 11 ] ; this is partly because it can naturally account for both dwarfism and gigantism ( by assuming that large and small body sizes evolve as alternative strategies for predator avoidance ) , and partly because predator release is so clearly implicated in other unusual characteristics of island endemics ( such as tameness ) [ 37 ] , [ 38 ] . but there is little evidence that reduced predation characterises the deep - sea [ 12 ] , [ 14 ] , and indeed there is direct evidence of substantial predation acting on deep - sea gastropods [ 12 ] , [ 39 ] – [ 41 ] . the gastropod results therefore argue against the predator release hypothesis as a general explanation of the island rule [ 12 ] .

we are therefore still far from understanding the causes of the patterns observed – and particularly the roles of inter - and intra - specific competition [ 3 ] , [ 4 ] , [ 11 ] , [ 12 ] . a detailed clarification of where the pattern does and does not hold will be an important step toward achieving this goal [ 4 ] , [ 12 ] , [ 19 ] , [ 20 ] .

many thanks are due to andrew rambaut for providing a script to mine the malacolog database . many thanks also to lucy weinert , nicolas bierne , gary rosenberg , shai meiri . simon joly and an anonymous reviewer , who all greatly improved the manuscript with their comments and advice .

conceived and designed the experiments : jw . performed the experiments : jw . analyzed the data : jw . wrote the paper : jw .

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crepidula aculeata ( gmelin , 1791 ) sensu zenetos et al . 2004 ( misidentification )

type locality wooleys pool , muizenburg , cape province , south africa . [ details ]

zenetos , a . ; gofas , s . ; verlaque , m . ; cinar , m . ; garcia raso , j . ; bianchi , c . ; morri , c . ; azzurro , e . ; bilecenoglu , m . ; froglia , c . ; siokou , i . ; violanti , d . ; sfriso , a . ; san martin , g . ; giangrande , a . ; katagan , t . ; ballesteros , e . ; ramos - espla , a . ; mastrototaro , f . ; ocana , o . ; zingone , a . ; gambi , m . ; streftaris , n . ( 2010 ) . alien species in the mediterranean sea by 2010 . a contribution to the application of european union’s marine strategy framework directive ( msfd ) . part i . spatial distribution . mediterranean marine science . 11 ( 2 ) : 381 - 493 . , available online at urltoken [ details ]

( of crepidula aculeata ( gmelin , 1791 ) sensu zenetos et al . 2004 ) zenetos , a . ; gofas , s . ; russo , g . ; templado , j . ( 2004 ) . ciesm atlas of exotic species in the mediterranean . monaco , ciesm publishers . vol . 3 molluscs . , available online at urltoken page ( s ) : 98 - 99 [ details ]

katsanevakis , s . ; bogucarskis , k . ; gatto , f . ; vandekerkhove , j . ; deriu , i . ; cardoso a . s . ( 2012 ) . building the european alien species information network ( easin ) : a novel approach for the exploration of distributed alien species data . bioinvasions records . 1 : 235 - 245 . , available online at urltoken [ details ] available for editors [ request ]

to barcode of life ( from synonym crepidula aculeata ( gmelin , 1791 ) sensu zenetos et al . 2004 ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 1 publication ) to biodiversity heritage library ( 198 publications ) ( from synonym crepidula aculeata ( gmelin , 1791 ) sensu zenetos et al . 2004 ) to clemam to encyclopedia of life to genbank ( 15 nucleotides ; 8 proteins ) to pesi

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zenetos , a . ; gofas , s . ; verlaque , m . ; cinar , m . ; garcia raso , j . ; bianchi , c . ; morri , c . ; azzurro , e . ; bilecenoglu , m . ; froglia , c . ; siokou , i . ; violanti , d . ; sfriso , a . ; san martin , g . ; giangrande , a . ; katagan , t . ; ballesteros , e . ; ramos - espla , a . ; mastrototaro , f . ; ocana , o . ; zingone , a . ; gambi , m . ; streftaris , n . ( 2010 ) . alien species in the mediterranean sea by 2010 . a contribution to the application of european union’s marine strategy framework directive ( msfd ) . part i . spatial distribution . < em > mediterranean marine science . < / em > 11 ( 2 ) : 381 - 493 . 10 . 12681 / mms . 87

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summary of live - collected material used for observations of development and anatomy and for dna sequencing . abbreviations : bmsm , bailey - matthews shell museum ; klkc , k . l . kaiser collection

isla parida , gulf of chiriqui , panama , 8°5 . 458′n , 82°18 . 671′w [ > 50 animals ] t

the morphology and anatomy of ethanol - or formalin - preserved individuals were examined under a wild m4 dissecting microscope . the anatomy of five to ten animals was examined from most localities . prior to mounting for scanning electron microscopy , protoconchs and radulae were cleaned briefly in dilute bleach and rinsed in distilled water . all specimens were gold - coated and viewed with an almary scanning electron microscope . two to five radulae from each locality were prepared for sem . to estimate within - individual variation , the number of denticles on each tooth were counted for ten rows of unworn teeth per individual .

developmental stages were observed live and measured with dissecting and compound microscopes . broods from more than 30 animals were observed from argentina and panama and five to ten broods were observed for populations from florida , peru , south africa , sydney and mexico . developmental stages were not available for animals from japan , brazil , or cape verde . larvae of the single species with planktonic development were raised according to the methods of collin ( 2000b ) .

the animals examined during this study can be attributed to eight species on the basis of protoconch morphology , developmental biology , embryology , and dna sequence data .

phylogenetic analysis of coi and 16s dna sequence data shows little sequence variation within each locality ( about 0 . 5–1 % in coi ) . there are eight distinct clades ( species ) that differ from each other by 6–21 % in coi sequences and by at least 2 % in 16s sequences ( fig . 3 ; table 2 ) . these groups are supported as monophyletic with bootstrap and bayesian support above 98 and 100 , respectively ( fig . 2 ) . sequence divergences of such magnitude commonly occur between morphologically well - differentiated species of calyptraeids ( collin , 2003a , b ) .

pairwise kimura 2 - parameter genetic distances between individuals from each locality . bold values indicate intraspecific comparisons . abbreviations : arg , argentina ; bah , bahamas ; bp , bay of panama ; ct , cape town ; cv , cape verde ; es , el salvador ; gc , gulf of chiriqui

four of these clades include samples for several locations . one clade is composed of sequences from individuals collected from the south atlantic ( brazil , argentina , and south africa ) ; it shows 0 . 8–1 . 2 % coi divergence between localities . another clade includes samples from the bay of panama , hawaii , and guam which are identical to each other and also includes the closely related ( 4 % divergent ) material from peru ( figs 2 , 4 ; table 2 ) . the third contains samples from both coasts of florida and the bahamas . the fourth includes material from the pacific coast of el salvador and the western half of panama . animals from this clade occur in sympatry with the panama - hawaii clade in the perlas archipelago and the azuero peninsula , panama . samples from the remaining localities form their own individual clades .

the clade in the equatorial pacific shows genetic differentiation between peru and panama , but not over the thousands of kilometres between hawaii , guam and panama ( figs 2 , 4 ) . the bayesian estimate of coi phylogeny ( fig . 2 ) shows the clade from peru nested within the panama haplotypes , while the estimate based on 16s shows the clades as sisters , suggesting that the root of the peru clade has been misplaced in the phylogeny . the unrooted haplotype network ( fig . 4 ) shows that the two clades are reciprocally monophyletic and that the hawaiian and guam haplotypes nest firmly within the panamanian clade .

‘shell widely slipper - shaped , with a strongly eccentric apex , closely appressed and spirally coiled towards the left side ( viewed dorsally ) . surface with strong , radial riblets or threads , the primary ones often becoming scabrous or spiniform . diaphragm as in crepidula s . s . , its edge nearly straight , the muscle scar below small but distinct’ .

the size of the protoconch varies between species depending on the mode of development but is less than two whorls and is often eroded in adult specimens . hatchlings and embryos show a linear pattern of fine , widely spaced granules on the protoconch . protoconch characters can be used to diagnose several species .

the head , neck , foot and mantle are cream , but there is a matt black marbled area along the edge of the foot . large yellow or orange splotches are scattered along the neck lappets and concentrated on the lips and tentacles . black pigment also occurs on the dorsal side of the head and neck . the intensity of all pigmentation varies , with some animals showing almost no black pigment . the black pigment is retained in preserved or fixed material , although the yellow and orange markings are lost . there are no diagnostic differences in pigmentation among the species described here .

when removed from the shell the distal third of the viscera curves to the animal ' s right . the tapered mantle cavity and gills extend about two thirds of the way to the tip of the viscera on the dorsal left side . the crescent - shaped shell muscle extends dorsally from the foot to the shell roof on the right side . a small , dorsal attachment muscle runs from within the dorsal mantle tissue above the intestine to the medial shell roof just anterior to the shelf .

the stomach is visible dorsally to the right of the posterior end of the mantle cavity . the oesophagus runs ventrally in the viscera and enters the stomach posteroventrally . the short style sac runs laterally from the stomach to the left margin of the visceral mass in the dorsal viscera posterior to the mantle cavity . the distal end of the style sac narrows to connect with the intestine , which runs directly to the right side in the ventral visceral mass . the distal loop of the intestine is visible in the dorsal wall of the mantle cavity . this arrangement of the digestive system with respect to the mantle cavity is distinct from the arrangement in crepidula , where the mantle cavity extends to the end of the visceral mass and the style sac is ventral to the mantle cavity . the brown digestive gland surrounds the stomach and extends to the end of the visceral mass . in fresh and ethanol - preserved material a network of thick white vessels running through the digestive gland is clearly visible . these vessels are not visible in formalin - fixed material .

the heart and kidney are similar to crepidula species . the heart and pericardial cavity are visible in the dorsal side of the viscera . the pericardial cavity is at an angle to the anterio - posterior axis and extends along the posterior margin of the mantle cavity . in crepidula species the pericardial cavity is orientated anterior - posteriorly . the hollow kidney is located in the roof of the mantle cavity anterior to the pericardial cavity and posterior to the distal loop of the intestine . the nephrostome opens into the mantle cavity midway between the pericardial cavity and the distal loop of the intestine .

the nerve ring is located at the posterior margin of the neck just anterior to the visceral mass and completely embedded in the salivary glands . the nerve ring is the same as in c . fornicata ( werner & grell , 1950 ) . a pair of buccal ganglia are located against the dorsal medial margin of the buccal mass .

crepidula aculeata − lamarck , 1822 : 25 . reeve , 1859 . , sowerby , 1883 [ in part ] : 67 , sp . 9 . , figs 124 , 125 ; sowerby , 1887 [ in part ] : 67 , figs 39 , 40 . parodiz , 1939 [ in part ] : 695 . hoagland , 1977 [ in part ] : 364 . collin , 2003a : 541–593 . collin , 2003b : 618–640 .

c . intorta var . say , 1822 : 227 [ in part ] .

c . costata morton , 1829 : 115 , pl . 7 , figs 2 , 3 . maryland tertiary [ non c . costata sowerby , 1824 nec c . costata deshayes , 1830 ] .

‘ patella aculeata . shell oval , brown , with prickly striae : crown recurved . chemn . conch . 10 , tab . 168 , 624 , 1625 . da costa conch . tab . 6 , fig . 1 , elements t 2 , f 2 . favann . conch . 1 , tab . 4 , fig . 3 . walch . naturs . 10 tab . 1 , fig . 5 . 2 . inhabits american islands . resembles the last shell small , chestnut or white with longitudinal striae , lip white dividing the cavity into equal parts’ .

gmelin states the habitat of b . aculeatus to be ‘islands of the americas’ . this is most likely following ‘westindischen’ from chemnitz .

the known distribution of this species includes both coasts of florida , the florida keys , yucatan , the bahamas , and probably the northern caribbean sea . shells from as far north as north carolina also probably belong to this species , although this has not been verified by examination of development or dna sequence data . it is common on rocks and debris in the shallow subtidal zone , and can also be found on the carapaces of horseshoe crabs . ranges to a depth of at least 60 m .

globose , comprising a single whorl , c . 900 µm across . no sculpture is retained in material available from juvenile shells . the protoconch–teleoconch boundary is not distinct ( fig . 5h ) .

observations of embryos are limited because virtually all egg capsules collected in lido key , florida in 1997 contained nothing but bacterially infected fluid . however , many of those collected in 2003 developed normally . animals are often solitary or form pairs ; they do not form large stacks . fossil shells with this morphology date from the miocene in florida ( hoagland , 1977 ) .

crepidula gravispinosa kuroda & habe , 1950 : 30 . collin , 2003a : 541–593 . collin , 2003b : 618–640 .

crepidula aculeata – taki , 1938 [ in part ] : 145 . parodiz , 1939 [ in part ] : 695 . hoagland , 1977 [ in part ] : 364 .

‘ c . gravispinosa n . sp . for crepidula aculeata ( not gmelin ) , illust . encyclop . fauna japan , rev . edit . , p . 1140 , textfig . 239 1947 . ’ the figured referred to is the same as that in the 1927 edition of the illustrated encyclopedia of japanese fauna , but the text differs .

material illustrated in the illustrated encyclopedia of japanese fauna generally belonged to kuroda ' s personal collection , which is currently housed in nishinomiya . no shell matching the figure can be found in this collection ( p . callomon , pers . comm . ) , although it does contain two shells of b . gravispinosus collected from akune in 1949 ( p . callomon , pers . comm . ) . it is also possible that the figured shell was from shintaro hirase ' s collection , or that of his father , in which case it was either taken to tokyo university or may have remained in the main hirase collection which is now in the kyoto university museum ( p . callomon , pers . comm . ) . much of the former collection was destroyed during world war ii and the figured shell cannot be found there ( r . ueshima , pers . comm . ) . it is therefore likely that the type material figured in the encyclopedia is lost .

japan . south of boso peninsula and west of noto peninsula to the amami islands ( taki , 1938 ) .

calyptraea echinus broderip , 1834 : 39 . broderip , 1835 : 203 , pl . 29 , fig . 1 . isla lobos , peru . 3 syntypes bmnh 1975113 . hoagland , 1986 : 173–183 .

calyptraea hystrix broderip , 1834 : 39 . broderip , 1835 : 203 , pl . 29 , fig . 2 . , isla lobos peru . 3 syntypes bmnh 1966629 .

crepidula aculeata – parodiz , 1939 [ in part ] : 695 . hoagland , 1977 [ in part ] : 364 .

‘c . testâ ovato - rotundatâ , gibbosâ , rufescente , longitudinaliter striatâ ; strius rugosis , ad marginem evanescentibus ; apice obliquo , spirato’ .

two syntypes in the paris museum ( hoagland , 1983 ; p . bouchet 2001 pers . comm . ) . one is figured in hoagland ( 1983 ) .

peru ( ? ) . deshayes ( 1830 ) supposed that the types came from peru because they were bought with shells of other peruvian species .

northern peru to the pacific coast of eastern panama and the perlas islands but not extending into the gulf of chiriqui . this species also occurs in hawaii where it is probably introduced and it may have been recently introduced into guam . this species can reach densities of greater than 1000 individuals per square meter in the intertidal zone of panama ( unpubl . data ) and occurs to depths of at least 50 m .

crepidula aculeata − hoagland , 1977 [ in part ] : 364 . hoagland , 1983 [ in part ] .

‘testa subovata , crassiuscula , irregulari , oblique curvata , extus albida , concentrice striata , et squamis minutis teguliformibus , subdistantibus orniata ; intus nitide castaneo violacea ; lamella opalina , ad medio et ad latus subemarginata . long 0 . 019 , lat 0 . 014’ .

two syntypes of b . tegulicius are in the paris museum ( hoagland , 1983 ; p . bouchet 2001 pers . comm . ) . one is figured in hoagland ( 1983 ) .

cape verde islands . the extent of the distribution along the west coast of africa is unknown .

b . tegulicius was originally described from senegal . as diagnostic material from this country is not currently available , the identity of the cape verdian material described here cannot be unambiguously assigned to a new species . it is quite possible that they are different species , since the cape verdian animals have direct development ( and therefore , presumably limited dispersal ) and many cape verdian species are endemic to these islands . if animals from senegal and cape verde are demonstrated to belong to different species , the name b . tegulicius should be applied to material from mainland africa while the species from cape verde should be given a new name .

australian museum ♯c400000 , shell and ethanol - preserved soft parts . shell illustrated in figure 11 ; length = 14 . 8 mm ; width = 11 . 8 mm ; height = 4 . 1 mm . frozen tissue of this specimen : fmnh 282361 .

edwards reef , sydney , australia . 33°51′s , 151°13′e . low intertidal zone on rocks .

south - eastern australia . the australian national museum contains shells with this morphology from the coast of new south wales and queensland , but the species identity of the latter material needs to be verified with additional observations of live material and genetic data .

the name pritzkeri is in honour of r . pritzker , president of the pritzker foundation . the foundation ' s support of the pritzker laboratory of molecular systematics and evolution at the field museum made this work possible .

natal museum v9447 / t1783 , shell and ethanol - preserved soft parts . shell illustrated in figure 11 ; length 19 . 3 mm , width 15 . 6 mm , height 7 . 2 mm . frozen tissue of this specimen : fmnh 282360 .

wooleys pool , muizenburg , cape province , south africa . low intertidal zone in rock crevices , co - occurring with crepipatella capensis .

the atlantic coast of south america , from são paulo , brazil to puerto madryn , argentina , as well as the south coast of south africa from cape town to port elizabeth and north to northern natal ( natal museum ) . material examined here was collected from rocks intertidally in south africa and brazil , and intertidally from rocks and subtidally from the shells of pen - shells and oysters in argentina . this species occurs to depths of at least 40 m .

shell morphology and anatomy are the same as b . aculeatus , with the exception of the protoconch . the 1 mm diameter protoconch is smooth with irregular growth lines towards the aperture ( figs 5f , 4i ) . the indistinct protoconch–teleoconch boundary occurs after slightly more than a single whorl is completed .

fmnh 282358 , shell and ethanol - preserved soft parts . shell illustrated in figure 11 ; length = 15 . 0 mm , width = 11 . 9 mm , height = 4 . 1 mm . frozen tissue is also deposited at the fmnh under the same lot number .

just north of la paz , baja california sur , mexico , along the coast of ensenada la paz near el comitán . collected from rocks in the low intertidal zone .

material whose identity can be verified as b . latebrus has only been collected near la paz , mexico . shells that may be from this species occur commonly along the pacific coast of baja california and have been reported from as far north as southern california . however , observations of development and dna data are necessary before their identity can be verified .

c . californica tryon , 1886 is a nomen nudum . however , it may possibly have been applied to this species in the previous literature . fossil shells with similar morphology occur in the pliocene and pleistocene of california , usa and baja california , mexico .

isla parida , gulf of chiriqui , panama . 8°5 . 458′n , 82°18 . 671′w

material whose identity has be verified as b . urraca has been collected in panama from the gulf of chiriqui , isla coiba , the azuero peninsula , and the perlas archipelago . in el salvador it has been collected from the gulf of fonseca . this species occurs from the intertidal zone to at least 50 m and can occur in densities up to several hundred per square meter in the intertidal zone .

the species name urraca is a noun in apposition . the name honours the r / v urraca , the smithsonian tropical research institute ' s research vessel , which was used to collect samples of this species . urraca was the name of a guaymi chief who fought bravely against the spanish in panama .

characters of new genera and species of mollusca and conchifera , collected by mr . cuming . descriptions of new species of calyptraeidae

the evolutionary enigma of bonefishes ( albula spp . ) : cryptic species an ancient separation in a globally distributed shorefish

sex change , reproduction and development of crepidula adunca and c . lingulata ( gastropoda : calyptraeidae )

another last word on crepidula convexa and a description of c . ustulatulina sp . nov . ( gastropoda : calyptraeidae ) from the gulf of mexico

, museum demidoff , ou catalogue des curiosités de la nature et de l ' art données a l ' université imperiale de moscou par m . de demidoff , 3 ,

especies gemelas del género crepidula en la costa de chile ; una redescripción de c . dilatata lamarck y descripción de c . fecunda n . sp

dept . biology , university of rochester and dept . biology , university of uppsala

standards in herpetology and ichthyology : part i . standard symbolic codes for institutional resource collections in herpetology and ichthyology

the shell collection of j . h . chemnitz in the zoological institute , st . petersburg

oxford university press is a department of the university of oxford . it furthers the university ' s objective of excellence in research , scholarship , and education by publishing worldwide

for full access to this pdf , sign in to an existing account , or purchase an annual subscription .

collin , rachel | ramos - esplá , alfonso a . | izquierdo muñoz , andrés

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research lines at cimar are related , among others , with the study of marine biodiversity , the characterisation of coastal benthic communities , and the study of coastal ecosystems .

there are lines of research on the understanding of marine biodiversity , the introduction of non - indigenous species into the mediterranean sea , anthropic impacts on martin ecommunities , assessment of the quality of seawater based on benthic organisms , coastal management and its resources , and marine environmental protection through the identification of marine protected areas .

- monitoring of species introduced in the spanish south east , in collaboration with the aquarium of santa pola .

- monitoring of the presence of invasive crustacean percnon gibesii into the rocky coast of cabo huertas and tabarca marine reserve .

- role of crustaceans ( amphipoda ) in ecology associated to the ‘fouling’ community at the mediterranean aquaculture facilities .

- characterisation of sipunculids settlements of the spanish mediterranean , establishing the relationship between the characteristics of those settlements and their habitat .


the royal knifefish or indochina featherback , chitala blanci , is a species of fish in the notopteridae family found in the mekong basin in cambodia , laos , thailand and vietnam .

royal knifefish

royal knifefish <EOT> the royal knifefish is classified as near threatened ( nt ) on the iucn red list ( 1 ) .

information on the royal knifefish ( chitala blanci ) is currently being researched and written and will appear here shortly .

my 20inch royal clown knifefish living amongst the aquarium plants in my aquascaped monster predatory tank . such a peaceful & graceful giant !

which comes from india and is also a common import . this species is also called the clown knifefish as wells as royal clown knifefish , royal spotted knifefish and spotted featherback . the coloring and behaviors of these two are the same but the india species is said to get a bit larger , reaching up to 4 feet ( 122 cm ) . the

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this species is also referred to as ‘royal knifefish’ in the aquarium trade although it arguably has no place in the ornamental hobby given its adult size and specialised requirements .

the most attractive of knifefish species , with great personality . can be very aggressive once sexually mature .

the royal knifefish is a fish from malam jungle . they are extremely common , contrary to the name , which might make fishers think that they are less common . they are caught by casting s - m from the pier of around it . it is an easy catch to hit and reel in .

it is a very popular knifefish . this is partly because of its common availability and being relatively inexpensive . but its also a favorite because it is extremely attractive . they usually have a pattern of large spots , but this can be quite variable and it seems that no two clown knifefish are exactly alike .

the normal coloring of the clown knifefish is a silvery gray characterized by a variable pattern of large spots above the base of the anal fin . yet sometimes they may have no spots at all , and sometimes they may have two rows of smaller spots . other common names it is known by are clown featherback fish , spotted knifefish , spotted featherback fish , and clown knife . there is also an albino color form as seen in the picture above that ' s called the albino clown knifefish .

bottom - clown knifefish will spend most of their time in the middle or near the bottom of the tank , but they may occasionally go to the surface to grab a gulp of air or a meal .

the tank is 8x2x2 will be upgrading to a 12x3x3 so that should be fun , i ' ve got another post on here , under the ancient fish threads titled royal knife fish , silver arowans , jaguars etc have a look if you want to see how i put the 8x2x2 together .

was described by gray in 1831 . they are found in south east asia ; thailand , laos , cambodia , and vietnam . the species is not listed on the iucn red list . these fish are in great demand in many of the regions they live in for food . other common names they are known by include clown featherback fish , spotted knifefish , spotted featherback fish , and clown knife . the albino color form is known as the albino clown knifefish .

my old rck was pushing 20 " when i sold him ( had to make room for new stock ) . i will always have a soft spot for knifefish now , especialy the royals . you do know once they hit sexual maturity they wont tolerate eachother in the same tank right ?

the clown knife has the typical knifefish body shape , flat and elongated with an arched back . its anal fin and caudal fin ( tail fin ) are joined , giving it a long continuous fin along the underside . this fin undulates , allowing it to move either forwards or back wards , making it a very graceful swimmer .

i bought a royal knife ( 26 cm ) and a clown knife ( 20 cm ) recently and i love them to bits . they are like my children , and they get along so well . they are food shy , they won ' t eat while i am standing there looking at them . i give them ox heart and live fish . ten minutes and everything is gone . thanks to this website , i found the most amazing fish in this world !

is it a member of the notopteridae family which contains contains some of the more outgoing species of knifefish . they are generally peaceful and will do well with other fish that are not particularly aggressive and that are too large to fit into its mouth . do take caution as they have poor eye sight and will some times try to eat bigger fish then they can handle . they can ultimately injury or kill a fish they are unable to eat .

as with most fish the clown knifefish are prone to skin flukes , parasitic infestations ( protozoa , worms , etc . ) , ichthyobodo infection , parasitic infestations ( protozoa , worms , etc . ) , bacterial infections ( general ) , and bacterial disease . it is recommended to read up on the common tank diseases . knowing the signs and catching and treating them early makes a huge difference . for information about freshwater fish diseases and illnesses , see aquarium fish diseases and treatments .

the clown knifefish can reach up to about 3 1 / 2 feet ( 100 cm ) and weigh about 11 pounds ( 5 kg ) in the wild . most tank raise specimens however , won ' t grow much larger than 10 to 20 inches ( 25 to 50 cm ) . its body shape is flat and elongated with an arched back . it has a continuous fin along the underside formed by a joining of the caudal and anal fin . this fin undulates , allowing it to move either forwards or back wards . it also has a very small dorsal fin .

i have a juvenile clown knife in a 55 gal with my 5 angels , which range from 4 inches tall to 6 inches tall , and they leave each other alone . however , the clown knife is a predatory fish , so anything under an inch has been eaten . i think my clown knife is growing at a few centimeters a month , and will be selling it when it reaches 12 inches . i wouldn ' t keep a full - grown knifefish with anything less than a couple hundred gallon tank and fish that were at least a foot or two in length , as the bigger knife fishes can grow to 3 and a half feet long . with your fish , keep in mind how big the angelfish are and how big they will be compared to the knife fish . ( ps : i also have a dwarf gourami that was a gift from a friend , a pleco as big as the knife fish , some clown loaches , and a small catfish that ' s about 2 1 / 2 inches , and none of them have been harassed by my knife so far . keep your fish well - fed and i doubt anything too big to be eaten will be a problem to house in the same tank . )

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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .

gland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) – australia’s unique reptiles – including lizards and snakes – face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .

the value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .

a recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .

this species is endemic to the mekong basin , where it is found in lao pdr , thailand , central highlands of viet nam ( srepok basin ) and cambodia . it is found as far north in thailand as loei in the mekong ( and perhaps , based on local knowledge ( see poulsen

( 2004 ) record local fisher reports of the species in the mekong delta in viet nam , and it is also reported from the tonle sap lake ( undp 2004 ) .

locally common in northeastern cambodia and southern lao pdr . much less common in thai waters .

this species occurs in the mekong mainstream and larger tributaries , especially in rocky rapid and submerged wood areas . local people have reported spawning behaviour over rocky substrates , with parental care given to young .

locally consumed as a food fish . commonly seen in markets from southern lao pdr to kratie , cambodia . popular aquarium species in thai markets , which are mostly collected ( particularly juveniles and sub - adults ) from laotian waters .

habitat alteration , caused by dams and other infrastructure development , in the mekong and larger tributaries . dams in the mekong mainstream pose future threats to critical habitats of this species . overfishing for the aquarium trade and for consumption may lead to population declines in the near future .

habitat and fisheries management based on local participation is needed . quota regulation of trade and export is recommended .

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this article is a stub . we can not complete the encyclopaedia without your help . you can contribute to the aquarium wiki by expanding this article . dont be shy ! .

this fish requires pristine water quality . it also prefers swift moving water , making high filtration necessary for this species ' health .

and do have a small dorsal fin . their flanks are deep grey with darker speckling . the belly is paler in colour .

this page was last edited on 13 december 2017 , at 03 : 02 .

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blanci : in honour of “friend and colleague m . blanc , in memory of an especially dangerous fish - collecting trip in 1959” .

endemic to the mekong river drainage in laos , thailand , vietnam , and cambodia , including the mekong delta region and tonlé sap lake system .

mostly recorded from the mekong main channel and lower parts of certain tributaries , where it displays a preference for rocky habitats such as deep pools and rapids , typically with moderate to fast - flowing water . moves into areas of flooded forest to spawn .

it is thought to be threatened by dam construction and other anthropogenic habitat alterations .

suitable only for public installations or the very largest , highly - specialised private aquaria .

prefers dim lighting and access to refuges in the form of driftwood , large rocks or lengths of plastic piping .

a large , mature filter system , rigorous maintenance regime comprising weekly water changes of 50 - 70 % tank volume , and provision of highly - oxygenated water with a degree of movement should be considered mandatory .

an obligate , typically nocturnal , predator feeding on smaller fishes , crustaceans and other invertebrates in nature but in most cases adapting well to dead alternatives in captivity .

young fish can be offered chironomid larvae ( bloodworm ) , small earthworms , chopped prawn and suchlike while adults will accept strips of fish flesh , whole prawns / shrimp , mussels , live river shrimp , larger earthworms , etc . , as well as dried pellets although the latter should not form the staple diet .

this species should not be fed mammalian or avian meat such as beef heart or chicken since some of the lipids contained in these cannot be properly metabolised by the fish and may cause excess fat deposits and even organ degeneration .

similarly there is no benefit in the use of ‘feeder’ fish such as livebearers or small goldfish which carry with them the risk of parasite or disease introduction and at any rate tend not have a high nutritional value unless properly conditioned beforehand .

relatively peaceful with fishes too large to be considered prey but can be territorial with conspecifics and other similarly - shaped species , especially if space is at a premium .

unreported in captivity but in nature male individuals contruct nests from branches and leaves and remains to guard the eggs and fry post - spawning , which takes place in areas of flooded forest during the wet season .

it can be distinguished from congeners by presence of many small , dark spots on the anterior portion of the body which merge to form oblique , irregular stripes extending onto the anal and caudal fins posteriorly .

notopterids are distributed in africa and southeast asia and all possess an elongated anal - fin which is continuous with the caudal - fin , a ‘humped’ appearance , very small scales , plus the ability to breathe atmospheric air .

d ' aubenton , f . , 1865 - bulletin du muséum national d ' histoire naturelle ( série 2 ) 37 ( 2 ) : 261 - 264 notopterus blanci n . sp . , nouvelle espèce de poisson notopteridae de haut mékong cambodgien .

kottelat , m . , 2013 - the raffles bulletin of zoology supplement 27 : 1 - 663 the fishes of the inland waters of southeast asia : a catalogue and core bibliography of the fishes known to occur in freshwaters , mangroves and estuaries .

kottelat , m . , 2001 - wht publications , colombo : 1 - 198 fishes of laos .

kottelat , m . , 1998 - ichthyological exploration of freshwaters 9 ( 1 ) : 1 - 128 fishes of the nam theun and xe bangfai basins , laos , with diagnoses of twenty - two new species ( teleostei : cyprinidae , balitoridae , cobitidae , coiidae and odontobutidae ) .

rainboth , w . j . , 1996 - fao , rome : 1 - 265 fao species identification field guide for fishery purposes . fishes of the cambodian mekong .

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betta fish care infographic , a handy cheat sheet that will benefit any keepers of siamese fighting fish .

fish tank care . guide to fish care with a simple look at aquarium filtration , how to clean a fish tank , and a fish tank maintenance schedule .

piranhas , one of the most efficient predators with razor sharp teeth and a ferocious nature . piranha fish species , description , information , habitat , and more !

setting up a saltwater aquarium . guide to marine supplies , putting the aquarium together , cycling the aquarium water and adding fish !

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we have two large iridescent sharks we are looking to find another home for . our tank is too small and they are very large . do you have a big tank ? do you know they can grow 3 - 4 feet ? where are you located ?

looking for medaka rice fish . what ever species you may have for sale .

i ' m looking to but a balloon kissing gourami . any idea where i can get one ?

this spotted featherback fish inhabit lakes , swamps , and the moving backwaters waters of medium to large rivers . young fish occur in schools among aquatic plants and submerged roots . adults tend to be loaners , commonly found near shore in areas with overhanging vegetation or docks . they utilize air to survive in warm , stagnant waters with little oxygen . more recently they have been popping up in the united states in warmer climates states like florida . these fish are some times caught by anglers going after bass . they are starting to populate parts of the united states because of irresponsible fish owners setting them free when they can no longer care for these demanding fish . the largest fish reported in florida was 36 inches long .

is listed as more precarious on the iucn red list , and is considered near threatened ( nt ) .

, glen s . axelrod , brian m . scott , and neal pronek say these two are so similar that only a trained ichthyologist can distinguish between them , and that their taxonomical standing is in a state of confusion . it may turn out that

lc - least concern - although it is heavily utilized from the wild , at present there is no evidence of widespread population declines . it is has also been introduced for aquaculture in myanmar and the philippines .

their overall body color is a silvery gray . their most distinguishing characteristic is a variable pattern of large spots above the base of the anal fin . however , it seems that no two patterns are exactly alike . they may have no spots at all , and sometimes you may find one with two rows of smaller spots . the specimen pictured above is the albino color form .

15 years - the clown knife fish has a lifespan of about 8 - 15 years in captivity .

clown knife fish are not suggested for beginners but rather for an aquarist with some fish keeping experience . these fish are usually offered for sale at a size of 3 to 6 inches and many hobbyists have unknowingly bought a pet they weren’t prepared to keep . that cute little 3 inch fish can grow to over 3 feet long , but in an aquarium 10 - 20 inches is usually the maximum size . if you plan on keeping one for a long time in good condition , be prepared to setup a 200 gallon tank .

juveniles can be sensitive to water conditions when they are smaller than 9 or 10 inches . many young fish die soon after purchase normally due to shock or unsuitable tank and water conditions . they are very hardy fish once they reach a larger size . like most knife fish they are extremely shy and are sometimes hard to get to eat when introduced to a new tank .

the clown featherfin fish are carnivores . in the wild they are predatory animals , primarily piscivores , which means they mostly eat fish . in the aquarium they prefer to eat fresh foods such as worms or small fish , but it is a good idea to do your best to condition them to eat sinking pellets or some other dried food of substance . this will make feeding them much easier and less costly .

when shopping for a clown knife , avoid fish that are under 3 inches or over 6 inches . the smaller ones are relatively delicate and the larger ones can be harder to get feeding .

this fish is scaleless and very sensitive to water condition changes as with most scaleless fish . a high quality filter is a must ! weekly water changes of 30 - 50 % are needed . water condition tests should also be done weekly to make sure levels are not spiking .

in the wild they inhabit slow moving rivers and lakes in many areas of asia , so do well in tanks set up similar to this type of environment . due to their nocturnal nature they need a place to hide during the day . a piece of pipe or a cave where they can get away from the light works great . without this , they can become stressed very easily and will try to fit themselves into any dark space they can find , often causing damage to themselves . they do better with open swimming space , but they are adept as negotiating obstacles such as plants and piles of rock .

they prefer a neutral ph and softer water , but larger fish can adapt to a higher ph and hard water . provide them with well filtered water , a dimly lit tank and hiding places , and you should have a happy clown knife .

55 gal ( 208 l ) - a 55 gallon tank is fine for a juvenile , but they grow quickly and will soon need a tank that is 200 gallons or more for the adult .

they are generally peaceful but due to their large size , they will eat any tank mates small enough to fit into their large mouths . don ' t keep them with large aggressive fish , but large peaceful fish are okay .

monitor - while it is not necessarily aggressive , it will eat anything small enough to be considered a meal .

monitor - they ignore tank mates that are big enough to not be considered food .

threat - is aggressive - in the wild , this fish hunts at night for worms , crustaceans , insects and snails .

captive breeding is possible but this probably won’t happen unless the fish are kept in a very large tank . in this case , that means 500 gallons or more . the pair will usually lay their eggs on floating plants and the male will aggressively guard them until they hatch in 6 or 7 days . the fry should be moved into a rearing tank and fed baby brine shrimp until they are large enough to take other foods . .

the clown knife does not have scales which make it more prone to disease . clown knife are normally the first fish in a tank to show signs of ick and will twitch and rub around the tank . they respond well to most medication and normally heal quickly . never use copper in a clown knife fish tank .

these fish are hardy and disease is not usually a problem in a well maintained aquarium . that being said there is no guarantee that you won ' t have to deal with health problems or disease . animal world is a great source for information on disease and treatments . it is recommended to read up on the common tank diseases . knowing the signs and catching and treating them early makes a huge difference .

anything you add to your tank can bring disease to your tank . not only other fish but plants , substrate , and decorations can harbor bacteria . take great care and make sure to properly clean or quarantine anything that you add to an established tank so not to upset the balance . because these fish eat live food , disease can be passed to them from their foods . make sure to quarantine live food before feeding .

when keeping more sensitive types of fish , it is common for all fishes to be infected even before the first warning signs can be noticed . the best way to proactively prevent disease is to give your fish the proper environment and give them a well balanced diet . the closer to their natural habitat the less stress the fish will have , making them healthier and happy . a stressed fish is more likely to acquire disease .

dr . rüdiger riehl and hans a . baensch , aquarium atlas vol . 1 , publisher hans a . baensch , 1991

dr . rüdiger riehl and hans a . baensch , aquarium atlas vol . 2 , publisher hans a . baensch , 1993

glen s . axelrod , brian m . scott , neal pronek , encyclopedia of exotic tropical fishes for freshwater aquariums , tfh publications , 2005

yes , these fish can get very large in the wild . however , please see the ' description ' section above and you ' ll see that most tank raise specimens won ' t grow much larger than 10 to 20 inches ( 25 to 50 cm ) . also , as stated under ' aquarium setup , ' a 55 gallon tank is only suitable for them as juveniles . 200 gallons or more is recommended for the adult .

even if the fish ' stopped growing ' at 10 - 20 inches , it ' s never going to live a healthy long life in a 55 gallon aquarium . what happens is that the fish , on the outside , stops growing , but the organs don ' t . eventually the organs overcrowd the stunted fish ' s insides , likely putting pressure on the swim bladder , which leads to continuing complications and ultimately death . i wouldn ' t suggest this fish for anything smaller than a tank 6 ' x 3 '

the angels will become dinner should be housed with other large non aggressive fish .

i have a large adult over 1 ft almost 1 1 / 2 ft . long . very good health very hearty . just looking for a good home willing to let go of tank and other fish as well i am moving soon and won ' t be able to take them with me . i ' m so sad but i have to sell them all ! if you are interested please call 714 - 474 - 9184 . thank u ! i

i ' m interested in your fish please call me and lets talk details . 847 - 845 - 5549

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we ' re constantly striving to improve our community to help make your monster fish keeping hobby fulfilling and interesting . comments are welcome .

how big arw they . . . im suprised they dont fight . . . from all ive read and heard once they get biggwr its really hard to keep 2 together

real name : joined : dec 28 , 2006 messages : 15 , 861 likes received : 8 trophy points : 89 location : very much south . . last seen : dec 1 , 2016

your selfless efforts are helping to keep mods gainfully employed . we salute you , mister able to derail and get any thread locked with relative ease

: close it or clean it . . . i ' m having a very hard time not getting banned here .

everybody is too busy with their umbees and the stupid names that they like to label their strains with .

thanks for your compliments , i ' ll be uploading a new video off my new setup and you can see some new additions , only 4 from the 8 new additions the other remaining 4 need to grow more before i can put them into the 8ft tank , you ' ll see , can ' t wait till i upgrade to the all glass 12 ' x3 ' x3 ' aquarium in june ish time , will keep y ' all posted .

not sure . if you google it , you will probably find lots of info .

generally peaceful fish too large to be eaten . knife fish aren ' t aggressive , and don ' t compete well with aggressive tankmates . angelfish would be about the most aggressive cichlids i ' d recommend , rainbows would be a safe bet .

there ' s not much technique to catching this fish . it ' s just like any s - m fish that ever hits . it is easy to reel in . some of the larger ones might fight a bit and even escape , but overall , it shouldn ' t be hard .

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nesopupa quadrasi is a species of very small , air-breathing land snail , a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusk in the family vertiginidae , the whorl snails .

this species is endemic to guam .

nesopupa quadrasi

nesopupa quadrasi <EOT> nesopupa is a genus of very small air - breathing land snails , terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusks in the family vertiginidae .

the distribution of the genus nesopupa includes hawaii , federated states of micronesia , palau , guam , the cook islands , mauritius , réunion and saint helena .

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thank you for taking the time to provide feedback on the iucn red list of threatened species website , we are grateful for your input .

gland , switzerland , 5 july 2018 ( iucn ) – australia’s unique reptiles – including lizards and snakes – face severe threats from invasive species and climate change , with 7 % of th . . .

the value of medicinal and aromatic plant trade has increased three - fold in the past 20 years , but traditional harvesting practices are being replaced by less sustainable alternatives . . . .

a recently released iucn technical brief recommends increasing investments in sustainable land management practices , as well as better cooperation between agriculturalists and conservationists to conse . . .

the encyclopedia of world problems and human potential is a collaboration between uia and mankind 2000 , started in 1972 . it is the result of an ambitious effort to collect and present information on the problems with which humanity is confronted , as well as the challenges such problems pose to concept formation , values and development strategies . problems included are those identified in international periodicals but especially in the documents of some 60 , 000 international non - profit organizations , profiled in the yearbook of international organizations .

the encyclopedia includes problems which such groups choose to perceive and act upon , whether or not their existence is denied by others claiming greater expertise . indeed such claims and counter - claims figure in many of the problem descriptions in order to reflect the often paralyzing dynamics of international debate . in the light of the interdependence demonstrated among world problems in every sector , emphasis is placed on the need for approaches which are sufficiently complex to encompass the factions , conflicts and rival worldviews that undermine collective initiative towards a promising future .

the union of international associations ( uia ) is a research institute and documentation centre , based in brussels . it was established in 1907 , by henri la fontaine ( nobel peace prize laureate of 1913 ) , and paul otlet , a founding father of what is now called information science .

non - profit , apolitical , independent , and non - governmental in nature , the uia has been a pioneer in the research , monitoring and provision of information on international organizations , international associations and their global challenges since 1907 .

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species lyropupa rhabdota c . m . cooke & h . a . pilsbry , 1920

species lyropupa scabra h . a . pilsbry & c . m . cooke , 1920

species lyropupa spaldingi h . a . pilsbry & c . m . cooke , 1920

species lyropupa thaanumi c . m . cooke & h . a . pilsbry , 1920

subspecies spelaeoconcha paganettii polymorpha a . j . wagner , 1914 - diverse cave snail

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parmacelloidea is a superfamily of air-breathing land slugs , terrestrial pulmonate gastropod mollusks in the clade stylommatophora and the informal group pulmonata .

these are limacoid or keelback slugs .

parmacelloidea

parmacelloidea <EOT> no one has contributed data records for parmacelloidea yet . learn how to contribute .

worms - world register of marine species - parmacelloidea p . fischer , 1856 ( 1855 )

family cryptellidae gray , 1855 accepted as parmacellidae p . fischer , 1856 ( 1855 )

bouchet p . , rocroi j . p . , hausdorf b . , kaim a . , kano y . , nützel a . , parkhaev p . , schrödl m . & strong e . e . ( 2017 ) . revised classification , nomenclator and typification of gastropod and monoplacophoran families . malacologia . 61 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 526 . [ details ] available for editors [ request ]

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pesi is funded by the european union 7th framework programme within the research infrastructures programme . contract no . ri - 223806 . activity area : capacities . period 2008 - 2011 - website hosted & developed by vliz banner picture : gannet ( morus bassanus ( linnaeus , 1758 ) ) by karl van ginderdeuren - contact pesi

this is one of the six major gastropod lineages and contains three informal groups : the lower heterobranchia , the opisthobranchia and the pulmonata .

recent research by jörger et al . ( 2010 ) does not support the monophyly of any of these three groups .

within the pulmonata , a large number of terrestrial species are found in the eupulmonata and a few are found in one family in the basommatophora .

a few freshwater species are found in both the lower heterobrancia and the pulmonata .

within the lower heterobranchia , freshwater species are found in two superfamilies , the valvatoidea and the glacidorboidea . within the pulmonata , freshwater species are found in the basommatophora , in the clade hygrophila .

jörger k . m . , stöger i . , kano y . , fukuda h . , knebelsberger t . , schrödl m . ( 2010 ) . " on the origin of acochlidia and other enigmatic euthyneuran gastropods , with implications for the systematics of heterobranchia " . bmc evolutionary biology 10 : 323 . doi : 10 . 1186 / 1471 - 2148 - 10 - 323 .

bouchet p . , rocroi j . - p . , frýda j . , hausdorf b . , ponder w . , valdés á . & warén a . ( 2005 ) . " classification and nomenclator of gastropod families " . malacologia : international journal of malacology ( hackenheim , germany : conchbooks ) 47 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1–397 .

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