mylodon is an extinct genus of ground sloth that lived in the patagonia ( argentina and chile ) area of south america until roughly 10,000 years ago .

mylodon

mylodon <EOT> a delightfully grouchy looking ground sloth , mylodon darwinii . ( art by tabitha paterson )

you can download standardized annotation of the hemibarbus mylodon mitogenomic sequence via the links below .

mylodon went extinct in patagonia at the end of the last glacial period , about 10 , 000 years ago .

these fascinating statements caused an unprecedented popular uproar across the world and led to a " mylodon rush " and soon expeditions from several nations were crisscrossing patagonia in search of a live mylodon , the “mamifero misterioso” [ mysterious mammal ] .

ameghino’s mylodon paper irritated moreno who was sure that the skin that he had found was very old and did not belong to an extant mylodon as contended by ameghino . he also believed that ameghino had made up the “pangolin” story .

in 1898 about the mylodon , but it was not based on the mylodon cave’s skin ; he wrote about another skin that , according to him , had been found by his brother in santa cruz province , argentina . [ 4 ]

mylodon bones have been found in several patagonian sites , but the most famous is the mylodon cave ( 51°35′ s , 72°38′ w ) , located 25 km ( 15 . 5 mi . ) north of the chilean town of puerto natales ( see my map

in april 1899 a team led by dr . rudolph hauthal , a geologist who worked for moreno at la plata , did some additional excavations and retrieved more bones and mylodon dung . [ 1 ] based on their findings , they re - named the mylodon

owen and darwin also comapred the fossils to the genus megatherium – another type of giant ground sloth . mylodon and megatherium were once thought to be closely related , but are now considered to be different families . darwin’s bones were the type bones for mylodon .

description of the skeleton of an extinct gigantic sloth , mylodon robustus , owen , with observations on . . . megatherioid quadrupeds in general

lower jaw of the mylodon , a giant ground sloth that lived in patagonian south america from the pleistocene to about 10 , 000 years ago . the smooth molars indicate that the mylodon ate leaves and tender buds of trees . illustration from louis figuier ' s the w

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description of the skeleton of an extinct gigantic sloth , mylodon robustus , owen , with observations on . . . megatherioid quadrupeds in general /

the “rhinoceros” that darwin pulled out of the cliffs of punta alta a couple of days ago was actually the jaw of a mylodon – a giant ground sloth . in fact , richard owen called it mylodon darwinii – possibly the first species that darwin discovered to bear his name .

nobody’s quite sure what happened to the mylodon or why it eventually disappeared . it could be that , like so many other species , it was hunted to extinction by humans . or it could simply be that natural changes in the climate caused many of the plants it lived off to die out , leaving it without food . but one thing’s for sure , these days the closest you can get to a mylodon is visiting the mylodon’s cave !

ironically , both woodward’s and haupthal’s work indicated that the skin belonged to a pampean ground sloth of the grypotherium genus , very closely related to the mylodon but not a mylodon . thus the name neomylodon listai disappeared into oblivion . this pleased moreno as it disproved ameghino and deprived him of his moment of fame .

lower jaw of the mylodon , a giant ground sloth that lived in patagonian south america from the pleistocene to about 10 , 000 years ago . the smooth molars indicate that the mylodon ate leaves and tender buds of trees . illustration from louis figuier ' s the world before the deluge , 1867 american edition .

( a ) skull of mylodon darwinii as featured in reinhardt ( 1879 ) . ( b ) skull of glossotherium robustum as featured by owen ( 1842 ) .

details - description of the skeleton of an extinct gigantic sloth , mylodon robustus , owen , with observations on . . . megatherioid quadrupeds in general / - biodiversity heritage library

thanks for the comment john . here is a nice article discussing if mylodon darwinii did survive until around 150 years ago : click here . ( jan freedman . 21st september 2014 )

description of the skeleton of an extinct gigantic sloth , mylodon robustus , owen , with observations on the osteology , natural affinities , and probable habits of the megatherioid quadrupeds in general .

the skin was so remarkably preserved by the cold conditions in the cave that at its discovery some people hypothesised that the mylodon must have been killed recently . expeditions were sent out across patagonia looking for a live mylodon , however none was ever found and modern carbon dating techniques later placed the skin at anywhere from 10 , 200 to 13 , 560 years old .

( lista’s new mylodon ) after the late argentine explorer ramón lista who , according to ameghino , had actually seen and shot at one of these beasts a few years earlier [ 3 ] .

mylodon jaw fossil collected at punta alta , published by smith , elder & co , 65 cornhill , london ( from zoology of the voyage of the beagle vol . 1 , richard owen ) :

description of the skeleton of an extinct gigantic sloth , mylodon robustus , owen , with observations on . . . megatherioid quadrupeds in general : owen , richard : free download , borrow , and streaming : internet archive

mcafee , robert , " description of new postcranial elements of mylodon darwinii owen 1839 ( mammalia : pilosa : mylodontinae ) , and functional morphology of the forelimb " ( 2016 ) . pcom scholarly papers . 1851 . urltoken

' eubradys antiquus belongs to eubradys ' according to leidy 1853 ' eubradys antiquus is a subjective synonym of paramylodon harlani ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' eumylodon chapadmalensis belongs to eumylodon ' according to kraglievich 1925 ' eumylodon chapadmalensis is recombined as glossotherium chapadmalense ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' eumylodon chapadmalensis is recombined as glossotherium chapadmalense ' according to kraglievich 1928 ' megalonyx harlani is recombined as paramylodon harlani ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' megalonyx potens belongs to megalonyx ' according to leidy 1853 ' megalonyx potens is a subjective synonym of paramylodon harlani ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' mylodon garmani is a subjective synonym of paramylodon harlani ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' mylodon renidens is a subjective synonym of paramylodon harlani ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' mylodon sodalis is a subjective synonym of paramylodon harlani ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' mylodon sulcidens is a subjective synonym of paramylodon harlani ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' mylodon tenuceps belongs to mylodon ' according to stock 1917 ' mylodon tenuceps is a subjective synonym of paramylodon harlani ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' mylodon tenuceps is a subjective synonym of mylodon harlani ' according to stock 1925 ' nothrotherium graciliceps is a subjective synonym of nothrotheriops shastensis ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' nothrotherium shastense is recombined as nothrotheriops shastensis ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' nothrotherium texanum is recombined as nothrotheriops texanus ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' oryctotherium missouriense belongs to oryctotherium ' according to harlan 1841 ' oryctotherium missouriense is a subjective synonym of paramylodon harlani ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' oryctotherium oregonense belongs to oryctotherium ' according to perkins 1843 ' oryctotherium oregonense is a subjective synonym of paramylodon harlani ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' paramylodon nebrascensis is a subjective synonym of paramylodon harlani ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995 ' paramylodon belongs to mylodontidae ' according to h . g . mcdonald 1995

woodward , who had inspected the mylodon’s hide , correctly expressed his surprise that such a remarkable creature if still alive somewhere in patagonia had never been seen by any of the other scientists and explorers who had been in the region .

amongst the 15 or so new mammals identified by richard owen in the crates of fossils was the fairly large sloth , mylodon darwinii . this large beast was described on the basis of a jawbone and named in honour of its discoverer .

höss , m . , et al . ( 1996 ) , ‘molecular phylogeny of the extinct ground sloth mylodon darwinii ‘ , proceedings of the national academy of sciences of the u . s . a . , 93 , 181 - 85 . [ full article ]

mylodon probably subsisted on the foliage of trees and shrubs . well - developed claws were probably used to dig up tubers or to hold branches while the animal stripped them of leaves . mylodon and its relatives were the dominant group of south american ground sloths ; they are distinguished from other ground sloths by the presence of upper canine teeth , triangular cheek teeth , and a small first toe on the hind limbs . two closely related genera , paramylodon and glossotherium , were widely distributed and even spread into many regions of north america .

i ' m looking for information on expeditions at the beginning of the 20th century to find evidence of a living mylodon . you mention illing ( 1898 ) . do you know where i would find information on this , or other expeditions ( other than prichards ) ?

description of the skeleton of an extinct gigantic sloth , mylodon robustus , owen ; with observations on the osteology , natural affinities and probable habits of the megatherioid quadrupeds in general by owen , richard : r . and j . e . taylor / john van voorst hardcover - urltoken

[ … ] i actually wrote a little bit about one member of the mylodonitidae family last year when darwin extracted one of its jaw bones near punta alta . that particular species was ultimately named after darwin by richard owen ( for more on mylodon darwinii see darwin’s sloth ) . [ … ]

we ' re sorry ; this specific copy is no longer available . here are our closest matches for description of the skeleton of an extinct gigantic sloth , mylodon robustus , owen ; with observations on the osteology , natural affinities and probable habits of the megatherioid quadrupeds in general by owen , richard .

when during a lecture , the then leading british authority in zoology , sir edwin ray lankester announced that the mylodon may still be alive somewhere in patagonia , mr . pearson , the owner or london’s daily express newspaper quickly funded an expedition to hunt it down under the leadership of hesketh prichard . [ 5 ]

description of the skeleton of an extinct gigantic sloth , mylodon robustus , owen , with observations on the osteology , natural affinities , and probable habits of the megatherioid quadrupeds in general . by richard owen . conservator of the museum of the royal college of surgeons in london . pub . by direction of the council

ty - book ti - description of the skeleton of an extinct gigantic sloth , mylodon robustus , owen , with observations on . . . megatherioid quadrupeds in general / vl - 1842 ur - urltoken cy - london , py - 1842 au - owen , richard , au - hunterian museum ( royal college of surgeons ) er -

ameghino also said that at first he was puzzled by the description that lista gave of his pangolin and unsuccessfully tried to identify the animal . when he finally got a piece of the skin from his brother , he had no doubts that lista ' s pangolin was a variety of mylodon . its smaller ossicles implied that it was a smaller species .

the mylodon ' s cave has a gaping mouth , filled with toothy stalactites at the entrance . it’s hard to imagine today , but the cave was once a blank face of rock at the far extreme of a glacial lake . as patagonia’s wicked winds whipped up waves across the lake’s surface , they battered the sandstone cliff and gradually gouged out the cave .

though hauthal was convinced that there were no giant sloths alive anywhere in patagonia , several expeditions were sent to search for them such as illing’s ( 1898 ) at general paz lake and hesketh prichard’s ( 1900 / 1 ) , who covered 2 . 900 km ( 1 , 800 mi . ) along the southern andes . neither of them f0und any signs of mylodon .

the first part of the mylodon to be discovered was a portion of it’s hairy skin , which was found by german explorer hermann eberhard towards the end of the 19th century . taking the skin with him on his travels , questions soon arose about what sort of animal it could have come from , which piqued the interest of otto nordenskjöld who further explored the cave .

among these large sloths , was the mylodon , a herbivore about 3 m ( 10 ft . ) long , 1 , 5 m ( 5 ft . ) high and weighing more than one ton ( 2 , 204 lb . ) . its thick reddish haired hide was embedded with tiny dermal bones or “ossicles” . these bean - sized bones acted as flexible protective armor against predators .

. . . considering the atlas ( c1 ) , the wider occipital condyles of mylodon could be necessary to support its longer skull ( ~ 3 cm longer , sensu esteban , mcafee , 2007 and is well developed as in many other sloths and xenarthrans . the proximal end is displaced , with a medial flare that likely serves as mechanism for reorienting the line of action for elbow extension . . . .

it was here at mylodon that i met grace , girlfriend 2 . a wren writer , who worked for the master at arms . we were together in that camp right up to when we were demobbed . the rest is as they say history , grace has always said that she should not have gone out with somebody also on the base staff , it stopped her meeting other boys , and she would certainly have got many others , she was such a looker . in lowestoft we started having potato and gravy pies probably the forerunner of the instant food shops like mcdonalds . at this time i advanced to leading wireman . it was now the run up time to the dday landings , this combined with the geographical position of lowestoft mylodon was in the forefront of perations . i was pleased that having gone through the london blitz i was playing evens a small part in the final stage of the war . although my part was fairly modest it was a good feeling . ve day celebrations came and went in lowestoft and our duties changed to decommissioning the landing craft along the banks of the river . following vj day with everyone being demobbed , mylodon by then had become a demobb centre i drew the short straw and had to stay and decommission the base .

. . . glossotherium the surface is deeper and shorter . the radial notch that articulates with the head of the radius is ovate , concave , and transversely expanded , although its width is less than that in glossotherium ( mcafee , 2007 ) . the interosseous membrane ridge / scar is rather straight as it extends from the lateral point of the capitulum and radial notch toward the distal end in glossotherium but the ridge exhibits a more meandering course in mylodon . . . .

since the first discovery of the mylodon skin in 1895 , the remains of ancient humans have been found in the cave along with the bones of many animals that are now extinct , such as sabre - toothed cats , dwarf horses and litopternas ( a kind of hoofed mammal ) . there are so many bones and remains in the cave that it has been theorised that early humans used the cave as a natural trap , herding wild animals inside so they could be easily killed and eaten .

. . . which the forelimb elements all represent the left side of the animal . this specimen is a young adult as the radius , ulna , and other elements in this specimen show incomplete growth and fusion ; the skull dimensions are also smaller than other mylodon specimens ( esteban mcafee , 2007 ) . comparisons are also made to ypm 15696 ( glos sotherium robustum ; complete right forearm except for the scaphoid ) , which has elements that conform to the radial fig . 2 ) . . .

on the approach to the mylodon’s cave you take a well - maintained path through lenga and ñirre trees , which are both kinds of nothofagus trees native to southern south america . draped in old man’s beard lichen , the wood has an enchanted feel that makes it even more bizarre when you see the silhouette of a giant sloth , dwarf horse and saber - toothed cat peeking between the tree trunks . fortunately , the silhouettes are just life - sized representations designed to give visitors an idea of scale .

we now know that this was all wishful thinking ; the pen’s “rock walls” were just cave - ins of the cave’s ceiling . it is also likely that the animals clustered in caves for company or were dragged there by the some non - human predator . the mylodon remains from eberhardt cave have been dated to 10 , 832 + / - 400 years bp and 12 , 984 + / - 76 years for droppings and bone collagen respectively ; [ 13 ] coincidental with the end of the megafauna’s era .

@ book { bhl104843 , title = { description of the skeleton of an extinct gigantic sloth , mylodon robustus , owen , with observations on . . . megatherioid quadrupeds in general / } , volume = { 1842 } , copyright = { public domain . the bhl considers that this work is no longer under copyright protection } , url = urltoken note = urltoken publisher = { london , } , author = { owen , richard , and hunterian museum ( royal college of surgeons ) } , year = { 1842 } , pages = { 284 } , }

eberhard took this piece of skin and hung it on a tree by his home and when dr . nils otto gustaf nordenskjöld ( 1869 - 1928 ) , a swedish geologist , geographer , and polar explorer visited the region a year later , he showed him the skin . nordenskjöld , quickly guessed that it belonged to some extinct creature and did some digging in the cave , unearthing bones and dung which , together with more pieces of skin , were sent back to sweden , where dr . einar lönnberg would later ( 1899 ) identify it as belonging to a mylodon . [ 2 ] [ 3 ]

lestodon is the most represented taxon among the xenarthrans and also from the whole sample studied for uruguay ( table ii ) . the nisp of lestodon from uruguay represents 31 % of the remains ( 479 specimens ) and its abundance is 9 % of the individuals present in the total studied fauna . among the most represented sloths , glossotherium follows , whose nisp corresponds to 4 % of the total sample studied ( 57 specimens ) and its abundance represents 1 . 4 % of the individuals . for megatherium the nisp of the uruguayan sample only represents 1 % of the remains ( 9 specimens ) and its abundance represents 0 . 1 % of the individuals . scelidotherium ' s nisp is very small , 0 . 3 % ( 5 specimens ) , and so its abundance was of 0 . 1 % , although mylodon presents even lower values , with a nisp of only 0 . 1 % ( 2 specimens ) and an abundance that represents 0 . 05 % of the individuals of the studied fauna .

for the total remains studied from the province of buenos aires ( table iii ) , the most represented taxon among the xenarthrans and among the whole analysed sample is scelidotherium ( nisp = 293 specimens ) , since its remains constitute 15 % of the studied fossils from the province and its abundance represents 9 % of the individuals . the second most represented taxon of the whole sample is glossotherium , whose nisp reaches 14 % of the studied remains ( 274 specimens ) and its abundance represents 7 % of the individuals . megatherium ' s nisp corresponds to 9 % of the remains ( 164 specimens , third place ) , and its abundance is 3 % of the individuals analysed in this fauna . among sloths , l . armatus follows , whose nisp represents 4 % of the studied remains ( 83 specimens ) and its abundance corresponds to 2 % of the individuals of the analysed fauna . finally , mylodon ' s nisp corresponds just to 2 % of the studied remains ( 34 specimens ) and its abundance to 1 % .

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an . acad . bras . ciênc . vol . 86 no . 1 rio de janeiro mar . 2014

a fauna de mamíferos do pleistoceno da américa do sul inclui animais de grande tamanho que têm despertado o interesse dos cientistas durante mais de dois séculos . aqui tencionamos atualizar o conhecimento da sua paleoecologia e disponibilizar nova evidência a respeito de dois enfoques : energética vs . densidade populacional e abundância relativa de taxa fósseis . para determinar se as faunas estavam balanceadas , modelos de densidade populacional foram aplicados a várias faunas sulamericanas e os resultados comparados com os que melhor descrevem a paleoecologia das faunas africanas . os resultados dos estudos de abundância para a o uruguai e a província de buenos aires durante o piso / idade lujanense revelam que as preguiças comedoras de vulto ( lestodon e glossotherium ) foram mais abundantes no primeiro território . no entanto , os mais seletivos scelidotherium e megatherium eram mais abundantes no segundo . embora os valores obtidos tinham sido corrigidos para evitar tendenciamentos tafonômicos de tamanho , as regressões lineares de abundância vs . massa corporal não se ajustaram ao esperado para consumidores primários e secundários . as faunas do pleistoceno da américa do sul se comportam diferentemente do que os modelos atualistas sugerem . mudanças no nível do mar e , portanto , da área disponível poderiam dar conta dessas diferenças ; a possibilidade de que uma grande planície aluvial na área hoje submersa poderia explicar mudanças estacionais , o que poderia modificar os cálculos da energética e da abundância .

there are also other reasons for why the lujanian fauna causes fascination : one of its members , megatherium , was studied under a modern palaeontological approach as early as the final years of the 18 th century by cuvier himself ( cuvier 1796 ) and , even before that , it was the first extinct vertebrate reconstructed in life position ( bru de ramón 1784 - 1786 ) . only a few decades later did the megafauna become one of the major sources of inspiration for darwin ' s ideas on evolution ( vizcaíno et al . 2009 ) .

it should be added to former reasons the very large size of several of its members , as many species are proposed to have had adult body masses above one tonne ( fariña et al . 1998 , 2013 , bargo et al . 2000 , vizcaíno et al . 2012 ) . moreover , their palaeoautecological traits are very peculiar and the studies on their palaeosynecology ( fariña 1996 ) have shown unexpected trophic relationships , as discussed below .

determination of the number of individuals per taxa present in a fossil assemblage is a prerequisite to perform many palaeoecological studies , especially those that involve relative or absolute abundance populations ( badgley 1986 ) . taphonomic context of an assemblage provides information to choose the appropriate quantification method : in this work the relative abundance in the lujanian community will be assessed using damuth ' s ( 1982 ) model , and such outcome will be integrated with those of the reanalysis just described above .

all of the taxa found in the luján local fauna and listed in tonni et al . ( 1985 ) were classified according to their probable diet . nomenclature and taxonomy were updated as per prevosti and vizcaíno ( 2006 ) , soibelzon et al . ( 2005 ) and other sources . the masses of the extinct taxa were taken from previous estimations in literature ( smith et al . 2003 ) . those species whose masses were estimated to have been less than 10 kg were not considered in order to avoid the problem of the biases in fossilisation , preservation , and collection ( behrensmeyer and hill 1980 , damuth 1982 , see fariña 1996 for further discussion ) .

to estimate the population density of each herbivorous species , the general equation in damuth ( 1981 ) was used : log d = - 0 . 75 log m + 4 . 23

where d is population density in number of individuals per square kilometre , and m is the body mass expressed in grams . this equation is empirical and was obtained from the study of many diverse modern ecosystems . the standard error of the slope is 0 . 026 . if the average minus one s . e . were used rather than - 0 . 75 there would be no important differences in the results .

the basal metabolic rate of these herbivores was recalculated , as per fariña ( 1996 ) , following the equation in peters ( 1983 ) : log r = - 0 . 25 log m + 0 . 6128 where r is the per - second mass - specific metabolic rate ( in j kg –1 s –1 ) , and m is the body mass expressed in grams .

due to sound thermodynamical reasons related to the loss of free energy as the trophic level increases , and to biomechanical reasons related to limb bone strength allometry ( sorkin 2008 ) , the modern carnivora are known to be less abundant than their potential prey . thus , a different equation must be used to estimate their population density ; that obtained by damuth ( 1993 ) for african flesh - eaters ( same symbols as above ) : log d = - 0 . 64 log m + 2 . 23 .

the basal metabolic rate of species belonging to carnivora is also described by a specific formula , because predators tend to consume more energy than herbivores , even at rest , and that , other things being equal , expenditure tends to be even higher as body size increases . thus , an appropriate equation , also from peters ( 1983 ) , was used : log r = - 0 . 27 log m + 0 . 6551 .

pleistocene : apart from luján , this model was also tested in other 14 south american faunas ( see fig 1 ) . faunal lists were obtained from the paleobiology database and the criterion for choosing them was the presence of at least two carnivore species within them . body masses were obtained from smith et al . ( 2003 ) and other sources ( casamiquela 1984 , hartwig and cartelle 1996 , pomi 2008 ) .

linear regressions for the five models applied to the fifteen south american faunas . all variables are given in j m –2 year –1 . dotted line represents the regression and solid line the expected ratio ( slope = 1 ) .

four more models were also tested in these faunas . the first one was a modification of the calculation of population density for the carnivores , since this was an important issue of debate in prevosti and vizcaíno ( 2006 ) . the equation was obtained from carbone and gittleman ( 2002 ) : log d = - 0 . 88 m + 2 . 296 , where d is the population density expressed in individuals per 100 km 2 and m is the body mass in kg .

the second new model was a modification of the model in fariña ( 1996 ) in the calculation of the secondary productivity . this was made following western ( 1983 ) : log p = 0 . 67 log m s + log n + 1 . 14 , where p is the net productivity expressed in kcal km –2 year –1– n is the population density ( individuals per km 2 ) and m s is the equivalent in kcal of the animal ' s body mass . in order to obtain m s the body mass in gr was multiplied by the caloric value of the mammalian body , 1 . 5 kcal g –1 ( banse and mosher 1980 , western 1983 ) . production values were transformed into j m –2 year –1 in order for them to be comparable to the values of the carnivore ' s energetic requirements .

the third new model was a mixture of both the first and second models . population density of the carnivores was calculated following carbone and gittleman ( 2002 ) and secondary productivity was calculated following western ( 1983 ) .

the fourth new model changed the way population density was calculated , as well as the secondary productivity . the population density was calculated following silva et al . ( 2001 ) . the equations used were those for herbivores and carnivores :

carnivores : log d = 1 . 41 – 1 . 83 ( log m ) – 0 . 34 ( log m 2 ) + 0 . 28 ( log m 3 )

where d is the population density expressed in individuals per square km , and m their body mass in kg . secondary productivity was calculated following western ( 1983 ) .

in all the models used , if there was a difference of 15 % between the secondary productivity and the carnivores energetic requirements , the fauna was considered balanced .

regarding the remains from the province of buenos aires , two different counts were performed : one involving all the specimens assigned to the lujanian age , and a differential one including only the remains from the local faunas of luján , paso otero and quequén salado - indio rico . each of these localities owns a characteristic local fauna that considered together define the typical faunistical association of the lujanian .

the masses of the studied taxa were taken as per the energetics section and also from gonzález ( 2001 ) and toledo ( 1996 ) .

to estimate abundance the counts were based on the number of identified specimens ( nisp ) , understanding that specimen refers to a bone , tooth or fragment ( klein and cruz - uribe 1984 ) . mni counts tend to diminish values of the most common species and overestimate those of odd species ( damuth 1982 , arribas and palmqvist 1998 ) . nisp counts did not consider glyptodont scutes nor cervid antlers .

if the model used in fariña ( 1996 ) is applied to fifteen south american faunas , including the luján local fauna , and the secondary productivity is compared to the energetic requirements of the carnivores , then no faunas are ecologically balanced ( table i ) and the relationship between these two variables is rather weak ( r 2 = 0 . 3 ; figure 1a ) . the first new model applied here ( modified from fariña 1996 ) does not show any balanced faunas either , and the relationship between both variables is weak ( r 2 = 0 . 28 ; table i , figure 1b ) .

secondary productivity of the herbivores and requirements of the carnivores for south american faunas . coloured cells indicate balanced faunas .

the productivity model shows that there are only three balanced faunas in this continent ( table i ) . the regression shows that the secondary productivity and the carnivores ' requirements are not closely related ( r 2 = 0 . 3 ; figure 1c ) . the model that combines productivity and carnivore density shows similar results to those obtained using the first model ( table i , figure 2d ) .

the last model , i . e . , productivity + silva et al . ( 2001 ) , indicates that there are two balanced faunas in south america ( table i ) , and that the relationship between the variables is even worse than that seen in the other models ( r 2 = 0 . 16 ; figure 1e ) . the present fauna of the serengeti was included as an actualistic control and was found to be balanced with this model .

the uruguayan sample analysed is composed of 1568 specimens ( nisp ) , 81 of them juveniles . a percentage of 4 . 5 % ( 71 specimens ) was identified at the order level , while 20 . 7 % ( 324 specimens ) were classified at the family or subfamily level and the remaining 74 . 8 % ( 1173 specimens ) were classified at the generic level .

the sample from the province of buenos aires includes 1889 specimens ( nisp ) , 51 of them juveniles . a percentage of 0 . 4 % ( 7 specimens ) was identified at the order level , 4 . 1 % ( 77 specimens ) were classified at the family or subfamily level and 95 . 5 % ( 1805 specimens ) were identified at the generic level .

taxa counts of primary ( a ) and secondary ( b ) consumers in the considered sample for uruguay , including size category , estimated body mass , number of specimens ( adults / juveniles , nisp ) and estimated relative abundance .

taxa counts of primary ( a ) and secondary ( b ) consumers in the considered sample for the province of buenos aires , including size category , estimated body mass , number of specimens ( adults / juveniles , nisp ) and estimated relative abundance .

with regard to the size categories in primary consumers , the most represented one in uruguay was category ii ( between 10 and 100 kg ) including 13 taxa . in the province of buenos aires and the localities of luján , paso otero and quequén salado - indio rico , the most represented body size category was the iii ( between 100 and 1000 kg ) , with 13 and 12 taxa respectively .

the discussion will follow the main topics addressed in this paper ( energetics and abundance ) and other subjects that can provide additional information relevant to the results presented here : food preferences and abundance , size of predators and isotopes .

in the model employed in fariña ( 1996 ) , the luján local fauna was not balanced . however , this model explained well the ecology of other local faunas : venta micena , lower pleistocene of spain ( palmqvist et al . 2003 ) , chapadmalalan and barranca de los lobos , plio - pleistocene of argentina ( vizcaíno et al . 2004 ) , puesto la costa and campo barranca , miocene of argentina ( vizcaíno et al . 2010 ) . as said above , these results rely on the condition of the models being taxon - free , hence independent of phylogenetical variables ( although they are included in the inference of the basal metabolism ) . this is why a phororhacid ( a large predatory tertiary running bird ) was included in the energetic calculations of the miocene faunas of argentina studied in vizcaíno et al . ( 2010 ) .

it was also very useful as a starting point to develop other mathematical models that tried to explain the peculiar ecology of the megamammals that inhabited the continent .

prevosti and vizcaíno ( 2006 ) suggested that the approach used in fariña ( 1996 ) was not accurate , since the carnivore population densities were not the ones found by this author . according to the authors , who compiled the information from several sources about carnivore population ecology , they stress that those populations are affected by several ecological factors that should have been taken into account , like prey abundance and diseases . these authors also suggested that the mylodontids should have been less abundant , given their low metabolic rates .

it is important to address the fact that prevosti and vizcaíno ( 2006 ) studied only one side of the imbalance proposed by fariña ( 1996 ) , i . e . , the relationship between the secondary productivity and the requirements of the carnivores . fariña ( 1996 ) showed that there was another side to that imbalance , the primary productivity in the luján local fauna having been too low for the herbivores to survive . again in this case , it should be noted that these models are time - averaged ( see below ) , i . e . they are instantaneous and not dynamic simulations , such as the evolutionary impact on species populations by a new predator ( see , for instance , alroy 2001 ) . this issue was not considered in the models used , since there was not enough data on primary productivity in the different areas of the south american continent to make comparisons with .

even though the analysed faunas were corrected in order to avoid taphonomic biases , in all the studied cases the obtained values for the slope in the graph of abundance vs . body mass did not fit damuth ' s ( 1982 ) model ( - 1 . 05±0 . 25 ) : log a = - 1 . 05 ( log m ) .

as proposed by damuth ( 1982 ) , the “assemblage” studied does not need to be very defined : the fauna of a whole formation can be considered as an assemblage if we suspect that it is the same community of individuals ( again , vaguely defined ) . in this sense , the fossiliferous localities considered in the analysis for uruguay and the province of buenos aires correspond to the studied temporal lapse ; for this reason , it is assumed that the registered taxa are members of the same palaeocommunity . the specimens from the localities included in the counting , constitute a random sample of the then hypothetic living assemblage .

it must be taken into account that the classification of the studied taxa into certain ecological feeding categories following miljutin ( 2009 ) , where within the primary consumers we include the herbivorous and the frugivorous taxa , and within the secondary consumers the animalivorous taxa , reflects an a priori categorization that might imply some difference with the real habits of the taxa . for example , conepatus , described as an omnivorous mainly insectivorous ( gonzález 2001 ) was included within the secondary consumers .

regarding the abundance of secondary consumers presented in this work , all the registered genera in the studied region were counted ( 9 for the analysed sample from uruguay , table iib , and 11 for the province of buenos aires sample , table iiib ) , resulting in a greater number of studied taxa than in the original analysis ( fariña 1996 ) . this increment is also due to the inclusion of minor size taxa such as dusicyon and lontra , which results in a higher number of secondary consumers than the registered in south american tertiary faunas and is also consistent with observations in extant south american faunas ( prevosti and vizcaíno 2006 and their references ) .

finally , in the studied sample for uruguay lestodon armatus is the most represented taxon ( nisp = 31 % ) and its abundance corresponds to 9 % of the studied fauna . the records of megatherium and scelidotherium in uruguay are scarce : nisp of the sample reaches only 1 and 0 . 3 % of the studied specimens , respectively , and its abundances 0 . 1 and 0 . 05 % of the individuals of the studied fauna . in contrast , in the province of buenos aires , scelidotherium is the most represented taxon of the sample ( nisp = 15 % ) and its abundance is similar to that observed for l . armatus in uruguay ( 9 % ) , whereas megatherium constitutes the third most represented taxon ( nisp = 9 % of the studied specimens ) and its estimated abundance is 3 % of the individuals analysed in this fauna , hardly greater that the observed for l . armatus ( 2 % ) .

sloths muzzle analyses developed by bargo ( 2001a ) and bargo et al . ( 2006 a , b ) propose that in megatherium americanum and scelidotherium leptocephalum narrower muzzles are indicative of selective or mixed feeder habits , and their prensile lips were used to select plants or parts of plants . mcdonald ( 1997 , cited in bargo et al . 2006b ) stated that s . leptocephalum probably looked for buried food with the help of its forelimbs , even if it could also feed on other vegetation closer to the substrate level .

preliminary observations of growth lines on glyptodont teeth suggest the potential for reconstruction of many aspects of the life history of these mammals , including the search for seasonal periodicities and growth rhythms .

the averages of the obtained values of δ 13 c for lestodon armatus from uruguay ( - 18 . 8 % , czerwonogora et al . 2011 ) and glossotherium robustum from the province of buenos aires ( - 20 . 5 % , czerwonogora et al . 2011 ) indicate a preference for c3 vegetation and rather open environments , similar to those currently found in northern patagonia . those results are compatible with the ones obtained in modern primary consumers in open habitats ( deniro and epstein 1978 ) .

moreover , those high values of 15 n are congruent with some marks found in a fragmentary left rib of a very large mammal , probably a giant sloth or a mastodont . the spacing of the damage marks fits well with the distance between the mesiodistal lophs of the teeth ( fariña 2002 ) .

african mammalian faunas in the pleistocene are very similar ( if not identical ) to those existing today , so the model that best explains their dynamics could be the starting point used to study other faunas in the rest of the continents . the south american mammals that lived in the pleistocene are different from those existing today , so the model may have to be modified to address this issue . however , this cannot be done until the faunas in the paleobiology database are improved both in number of species and in quantity .

one could then speculate on the possibility that mammals might have experienced seasonal migrations , which would have resulted in a more efficient usage of vegetation by the herbivores . the dramatic reduction of the available area subsequent to the end of the glacial period , together with the effects of the end - pleistocene human arrival in the americas , must have been crucial factors in the extinction of this fauna .

all these approaches open new and exciting possibilities for future research on the unique and bizarre mammals from south america , whose design and evolutionary history captivated george gaylord simpson and many others like us .

alroy j . 2001 . a multispecies overkill simulation of the end - pleistocene megafaunal mass extinction . science 292 : 1893 - 1896 . [ links ]

ameghino f . 1889 . contribución al conocimiento de los mamíferos fósiles de la república argentina . actas acad nac cienc córdoba 6 : 1 - 1027 . [ links ]

amundson r , austin at , schuur eag , yoo k , matzek v , kendall c , uebersax a , brenner d and baisden wt . 2003 . global patterns of the isotopic composition of soil and plant nitrogen . global biogeoch cycl 17 : 1031 . [ links ]

arribas a and palmqvist p . 1998 . taphonomy and palaeoecology of an assemblage of large mammals : hyaenid activity in the lower pleistocene site at venta micena ( orce , guadix - baza basin , granada , spain ) . geobios 3 : 3 - 47 . [ links ]

badgley c . 1986 . counting individuals in mammalian fossil assemblages from fluvial environments . palaios 6 : 328 - 338 . [ links ]

badgley c and behrensmeyer ak . 1995 . preservational , paleoecological and evolutionary patterns in the paleogene of wyoming - montana and the neogene of pakistan . palaeogeogr palaeoclimatol palaeoecol 115 : 319 - 340 . [ links ]

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bargo ms . 2001a . el aparato masticatorio de los perezosos terrestres ( xenarthra , tardigrada ) del pleistoceno de la argentina . morfometría y biomecánica . ph . d . thesis . universidad nacional de la plata , argentina . ( unpublished ) . [ links ]

bargo ms . 2001b . the ground sloth megatherium americanum ( xenarthra , tardigrada , megatheriidae ) : skull shape , bite forces , and diet . in : vizcaíno sf et al . ( eds ) , special issue on biomechanics and palaeobiology . acta palaeont pol 46 : 173 - 192 . [ links ]

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bargo ms , toledo n and vizcaíno sf . 2006b . muzzle reconstruction of the pleistocene ground sloths . j morph 267 : 248 - 263 . [ links ]

bargo ms and vizcaíno sf . 2008 . paleobiology of pleistocene ground sloths ( xenarthra , tardigrada ) : biomechanics , morphogeometry and ecomorphology applied to the masticatory apparatus . ameghiniana 45 : 175 - 196 . [ links ]

bargo ms , vizcaíno sf , archuby fm and blanco re . 2000 . limb bone proportions , strength and digging in some lujanian ( late pleistocene - early holocene ) mylodontid ground sloths ( mammalia , xenarthra ) . j vert paleontol 20 : 601 - 610 . [ links ]

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demania is a genus of crabs in the family xanthidae , containing the following species : demania alcocki deb , 1987 demania armadillus ( herbst , 1790 ) demania baccalipes ( alcock , 1898 ) demania crosnieri serene , 1984 demania cultripes ( alcock , 1898 ) demania garthi guinot & richer de forges , 1981 demania intermedia guinot , 1969 demania japonica guinot , 1977 demania mortenseni ( odhner , 1925 ) demania reynaudi ( h. milne edwards , 1834 ) demania rotundata serene , 1969 demania scaberrima ( walker , 1887 ) demania serenei guinot & richer de forges , 1981 demania splendida laurie , 1906 demania toxica garth , 1971 demania unispinosa chen & ng , 1999 demania wardi garth & ng , 1985 many of the species are known to be toxic to humans and domestic animals , and it is thought likely that all species of demania are toxic .

demania

demania <EOT> species demania squamosa guinot , 1977 accepted as demania reynaudii ( h . milne edwards , 1834 )

between 1969 and 2002 , demania life expectancy was at its lowest point in 1985 , and highest in 1978 . the average life expectancy for demania in 1969 was 78 , and 62 in 2002 .

stream demania by demania ( de grassi / manring / garcia trio ) and tens of millions of songs on all your devices with amazon music unlimited . exclusively for prime members . new subscribers only . terms apply .

table 1 : toxicity of xanthid crab demania cultripes ( alcock , 1898 ) from cebu island ( 2006 ) .

census records can tell you a lot of little known facts about your demania ancestors , such as occupation . occupation can tell you about your ancestor ' s social and economic status .

census records can give you a fascinating window into the day - to - day lives of your demania ancestors - like hours worked per week , level of education , veteran status , employers , and more .

use census records and voter lists to see where families with the demania surname lived . within census records , you can often find information like name of household members , ages , birthplaces , residences , and occupations .

garth , j . s . , 1975 . demania alcalai , a second new species of poisonous crab from the philippines . philippine journal of science , 104 ( 1 - 2 ) : 1 - 6 , fig .

garth , j . s . , 1976 . demania macneilli , a new species of xanthid crab from northern queensland ( crustacea : decapoda ) . records of the australian museum , 30 ( 5 ) : 113 - 117 , fig .

davie , p . j . f . , 1989b . new records of demania ( crustacea : decapoda : xanthidae ) from australia . memoirs of the queensland museum , 27 ( 2 ) : 123 - 128 , figs 1 - 5 .

garth , j . s . & p . k . l . ng , 1985 . notes on the genus demania laurie , 1906 ( crustacea , decapoda , brachyura , xanthidae ) . indo - malayan zoology , 2 ( 2 ) : 293 - 308 , pls 1 - 7 .

chen , h . & p . k . l . ng , 1999 . crabs of the demania rotundata species group ( crustacea : decapoda : brachyura ) from east and south china seas , with description of a new species . the raffles bulletin of zoology , 47 : 139 - 153 .

an unusually short lifespan might indicate that your demania ancestors lived in harsh conditions . a short lifespan might also indicate health problems that were once prevalent in your family . the ssdi is a searchable database of more than 70 million names . you can find birthdates , death dates , addresses and more .

figure 5 : hplc - fld analysis for psp in demania cultripes . one mu of ttx standard solution was injected to hplc - fld system . ( a , b ) viscera , ( c ) gtx stds . ( ( a : gtx4 , b : gtx1 , c : gtx3 , d : gtx2 ) , ( d ) stx stds . ( ( e : hyneostx , ) f : neostx , g : hystx , h : dcstx , i : stx ) .

figure 1 shows sampling locations in cebu island , central visayas region of philippines . in coral reefs along town of carmen , eastern coast in cebu island faced with the camotes sea , a total of seven xanthid crab specimens were collected by fishermen from cebu island using crab cages during the period from february to august 2006 . specimens were immediately frozen after capture , transported by air to the laboratory of utilization of marine bioresources , hiroshima university , and kept frozen at −20°c prior to identification and toxicity analysis . specimens were identified as the xanthid crab demania cultripes by dr . m . shimomura , one of our authors , from the kitakyushu museum of natural history & human history ( figure 2 ) . following identification , specimens were dissected into viscera and appendages to determine the anatomical distribution of toxins .

two innovators of solo instrumental music , acoustic guitarist alex de grassi and electric bassist michael manring , join forces with percussionist and tabla player chris garcia ( of the zappa alum group , the grandmothers ) for a set of arranged and improvised music . with influences from india to appalachia to latin america and the blues , this trio fuses new sounds together with their original compositions and unlikely arrangements - think the stones ' paint it black in 7 / 8 time , and an improvised take on the traditional folk melody , the water is wide . de grassi ' s sympitar ( sympathetic string guitar ) and manring ' s liquid and ever - changing fretless sounds combine with tabla , kanjira , mbwata , and a myriad of percussion to produce a distinctly world twist to many of the tracks . from moments of introspection to pure grooving , the demania trio covers a lot of terrain and leaves no stone unturned .

several cases of poisoning resulting in human fatalities and stemming from the ingestion of coral reef crabs have been reported from the indo - pacific region . we assessed the toxicity of the unidentified xanthid crab collected from the camotes sea off the eastern coast of cebu island , central visayas region of philippines from the food hygienic point of view . all seven specimens , which were identified with demania cultripes , collected in 2006 were toxic to mice irrespective of the season of collection and induced paralytic symptoms typical of tetrodotoxin ( ttx ) and paralytic shellfish poison ( psp ) . the activity was expressed in mouse unit ( mu ) being defined as the amount of ttx to kill a 20 g ddy male mice in 30 min after i . p . injection . toxicity scores for viscera and appendages of specimens were ( mean ± s . d . ) and mu / g , respectively . the highest individual toxicity scores observed for viscera and appendages were 52 . 1 and 7 . 7 mu / g , respectively . the frequency of toxic samples was 100 % . toxin profiles as determined by high - performance liquid chromatography - fluorescent detection analysis ( hplc - fld ) revealed that ttx was the main toxic principle accounting for about 90 % of the total toxicity along with 4 - epi ttx and 4 , 9 - anhydrottx . furthermore , gas chromatography - mass spectrometry ( gc - ms ) analysis revealed mass fragment ion peaks at 376 , 392 and 407 , which were characteristic of the quinazoline skeleton ( c9 - base ) specific to ttx . in addition , only a small amount of psp containing gonyautoxins1–4 and hydroxysaxitoxin was detected . to our knowledge , this is the first report presenting evidence of occurrence of ttx and psp in the xanthid crab d . cultripes inhabiting waters surrounding cebu island . from food hygienic point of view , people in coastal areas should be warned of the potential hazard of this crab in order to prevent its intentional or accidental consumption .

serene , r . ( 1984 ) . crustaces decapodes brachyoures de l ' ocean indien et de la mer rouge . xanthoidea : xanthidae et trapeziidae . editions orstom . collection faune tropicale no . 24 . [ details ]

alcock , a . w . , 1898 . materials for a carcinological fauna of india . no . 3 . the brachyura cyclometopa . part 1 . the family xanthidae . journal of the asiatic society of bengal , calcutta , 67 , part 2 ( 1 ) : 67 - 233 .

balss , h . , 1938b . über einige xanthidae ( crustacea , dekapoda ) von singapore und umgebung . bulletin of the raffles museum , 14 : 48 - 63 , figs 1 - 2 , pls 2 - 3 .

guinot , d . & b . richer de forges , 1981a . crabes de profondeur , nouveaux ou rares de l ' indo - pacifique ( crustacea , decapoda , brachyura ) ( première partie ) . bulletin du muséum national d ' histoire naturelle , paris , ( zool . biol . ecol . anim . ) 2 ( 4 ) , ( 1980 ) : 1113 - 1153 , figs 1 - 3 , pls 1 - 7 . ( in french with english summary )

guinot , d . , 1969d . sur divers xanthidae notament sur actaea de haan et paractaea gen . nov . ( crustacea decapoda brachyura ) . cahiers du pacifique , 13 : 223 - 267 , figs 1 - 36 . ( in french )

guinot , d . , 1979 . données nouvelles sur la morphologie , la phylogenèse et la taxonomie des crustacés décapodes brachyoures . mémoires du muséum national d ' histoire naturelle , paris , ( zoologie ) , 112 : 1 - 354 , figs 1 - 70 , pls 1 - 27 , 5 tabls . ( in french )

ho , p . - h . , 1994 . how much do we know about poisonous crabs ? ( 3 ) . fisheries extension , taipei , 92 : 21 - 24 . ( in chinese )

sakai , t . , 1939 . studies on the crabs of japan . iv . brachygnatha , brachyrhyncha , pp . 365 - 741 , figs 1 - 129 , pls 42 - 111 , table 1 . yokendo co . , tokyo .

serène , r . , 1984 . crustacés décapodes brachyoures de l ' océan indien occidental et de la mer rouge , xanthoidea : xanthidae et trapeziidae . avec un addendum par crosnier ( a ) : carpiliidae et menippidae . faune tropicale , no . xxiv : 1 - 349 , figs a - c + 1 - 243 , pls 1 - 48 . ( in french ) ( translated into english by r . w . ingle ) .

takeda , m . & s . miyake , 1968c . crabs from the east china sea . i . corystoidea and brachygnatha brachyrhyncha . journal of the faculty of agriculture , kyushu university , 14 ( 4 ) : 541 - 582 , figs 1 - 11 , pl . 6 .

lin , c . c . , 1949 . a catalogue of brachyurous crustacea of taiwan . quarterly journal of the taiwan museum , 2 ( 1 ) : 10 - 33 .

milne - edwards , h . , 1834 . histoire naturelle des crustacés , comprenant l ' anatomie , la physiologie et la classification de ces animaux . libraire encyclopédique de roret , paris , vol . 1 : i - xxxv , 1 - 468 , pls 3 , 5 - 6 , 15 - 17 , 20 , 22 - 23 , 25 . ( see holthuis , 1979 , for dates of publication . )

muraoka , k . , 1998 . catalogue of the brachyuran and anomuran crabs donated by prof . dr . tune sakai to the kanagawa prefectural museum . catalogue of the collection in the kanagawa prefectural museum of natural history , 11 : 5 - 67 , pls 1 - 16 .

odhner , t . , 1925 . monographierte gattungen der krabben - familie xanthidae . i . göteborgs kungliga vetenskaps - och vitterhets - samhälles handlingar , ( 4 ) 29 ( 1 ) : 1 - 92 , figs 1 - 7 , pls 1 - 5 . ( in german )

sakai , t . , 1936b . crabs of japan : 66 plates in life colours with descriptions . sanseido , tokyo ( 1935 ) : 1 - 239 , figs 1 - 122 , 27 pages of bibliography & index , frontispiece ( in colour ) , pls 1 - 66 ( colour ) . ( in japanese )

takeda , m . & s . miyake , 1969d . crabs from the east china sea . ii . addition to brachygnatha brachyrhyncha . journal of the faculty of agriculture , kyushu university , 15 ( 4 ) : 449 - 468 , figs 1 - 4 .

have three or four teeth behind the exorbital angle , the two posterior are generally more projecting and more angular . the

; all the regions are smooth ( sometimes feebly tuberculate near their margins ) . the submedian lobes of the

are hardly in advance of the lateral and separated by an open fissure . the

chhapgar , b . f . , 1957b . marine crabs of bombay state . taraporevala marine biological station , contribution number 1 : v + 89 pp . , pls a , b , 1 - 16 .

dai , a . & s . yang , 1991 . crabs of the china seas , i - iv , 1 - 608 , figs 1 - 295 , pls 1 - 74 . china ocean press , beijing and springer - verlag , berlin heidelberg new york tokyo , english edition . ( translation from chinese original 1986 . )

guinot , d . , 1971a . recherches préliminaires sur les groupements naturels chez les crustacés decapodes brachyoures . viii . synthèse et bibliographie . bulletin du muséum national d ' histoire naturelle , paris , 42 ( 5 ) : 1063 - 1090 . ( in french )

sakai , t . , 1976a . crabs of japan and the adjacent seas . ( in 3 volumes : ( 1 ) english text : i - xxix , 1 - 773 , figs 1 - 379 , ( 2 ) plates volume : 1 - 16 , pls 1 - 251 , ( 3 ) japanese text : 1 - 461 , figs 1 - 2 , 3 maps . ) kodansha ltd , tokyo .

are more or less worn out . antero - lateral borders are extremely arcuated , the four lobes behind the external

angle being rounded and not forming angular teeth as in the typical species . the tubercles upon the posterior half of

are , as well as those on the postero - lateral borders , somewhat more prominent and obtusely pointed . the

lobes are smooth and their free margin entire and sinuate but not appreciably produced near the median notch as in the typical species . the granules on the under surface of

are dorsally and externally covered with sharp fine granules , the former has an obtuse tooth and an accessory denticle near the inner angle , the latter has an obtusely crested superior border , which is divided into four or five obtuse teeth . the granules on the outer and under surfaces of

is weakly crested in proximal half of the superior border ; both fingers are not at all pigmented , and their prehensile edges armed with five to six obtuse teeth .

are all styliform , regularly decreasing in length from first to last , each anterior and posterior margin being furnished with two longitudinal rows of hairs respectively . ( t .

dai , a . , s . yang , y . song & g . chen , 1986 . crabs of chinese seas , i - iv , 1 - 642 , figs 1 - 295 , pls 1 - 74 . ocean press , beijing . ( in chinese . )

jeng , m . - s . , r . - g . chan , h . - r . fung , & q . - s . chen , 1997 . northeast coast scenic area . investigations into ecological resources and monitering . 194 pp . ministry of transport and tourism . taipei . ( in chinese )

serène , r . & p . lohavanijaya , 1973 . the brachyura ( crustacea : decapoda ) collected by the naga expedition , including a review of the homolidae . in : scientific results of marine investigations of the south china sea and the gulf of thailand 1959 - 1961 . naga rep . , 4 ( 4 ) : 1 - 187 , figs 1 - 186 , pls 1 - 21 , 1 map .

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solo guitar innovator alex de grassi joins forces with electric fretless bass icon michael manring and percussionist / tabla player chris garcia , ( a touring member of frank zappa ' s old band , the grandmothers ) . this trio fuses elements of jazz , folk , and world music using surprising arrangements of original and traditional themes as a basis for improvisation . from the folk classic " the water is wide " to the stones ' " paint it black " played in 7 / 8 time , this trio explores new terrain .

he ' s one of my favorite guitarists . i buy all of his cd ' s . in fact i ' ve bought a couple lp ' s of his , even though i still don ' t have a working record player right now .

these guys are all at the top of their game . think you ' ve heard every version of ' paint it black ' ? here ' s a new twist ! beautifully produced trio setting . at the top of my playlist . . .

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copyright © 2010 manabu asakawa et al . this is an open access article distributed under the creative commons attribution license , which permits unrestricted use , distribution , and reproduction in any medium , provided the original work is properly cited .

crabs are valued as popular seafood items and are widely consumed as many styles of human food such as boiled , steamed , or processed food in various parts of the world . while most species are edible , some are toxic to humans and other mammals . in tropical pacific areas , widespread rumors exist regarding the occurrence of toxic crabs . several cases of poisoning stemming from the ingestion of coral reef crabs and resulting in human fatalities have been reported [ 1 , 2 ] . the xanthid crabs zosimus aeneus , atergatis floridus , and platypodia granulosa inhabiting tropical and subtropical area are known to contain potent neurotoxins [ 3 ] . in z . aeneus , the species most frequently implicated in human poisoning , the occurrence of saxitoxin ( stx ) analogues [ 4 – 6 ] and tetrodotoxin ( ttx ) [ 7 ] has been confirmed . paralytic shellfish poison ( psp ) , a most hazardous marine toxin , mainly originates in toxic marine dinoflagellates species of the genera alexandrium , gymnodinium , and pyrodinium , which are accumulated in many species of marine organisms such as crabs and filter - feeding organisms such as bivalve mollusks [ 8 – 13 ] . at least 20 stx - like congeners have been identified with a range of hydroxyl , carbamyl , and sulfate moieties at four sites on the back bone structure . these organisms can act as potential toxin vectors and pose a threat to human health . on the other hand , the puffer toxin , ttx , has been continuously found in a wide range of organisms from both terrestrial and marine habitats [ 14 ] .

our study deals with the screening and isolation of paralytic toxins from the xanthid crab d . cultripes of cebu island and identification of the toxins as ttx and paralytic shellfish poison ( psp ) , which are highly potent toxins occurring in pufferfish and toxic dinoflagellates .

figure 1 : map showing crab - collecting locations in cebu island . the location of cebu island in the philippines is shown in the map to the right . the map on left shows an enlarged image of cebu island to pinpoint the sampling location .

figure 2 : d . cultripes collected from camotes sea near cebu island . ( scale bar = 1 . 0 cm ) .

each crab specimen was partially thawed and dissected into two anatomically different parts : viscera including hepatopancreas , reproductive organs , and intestines and appendages that were torn off from each crab specimen , including muscles . we examined each tissue for toxicity by the standard bioassay for ttx [ 19 ] . lethality was expressed in mouse units per gram of crab specimen tissue ( mu / g ) , where one mu is the amount of intraperitonially ( i . p . ) administered toxic material required to kill an 18–20 g male mouse of the ddy strain in 30 min .

the viscera from all seven crab specimens mentioned above were used as materials . to the viscera ( e . g . , 56 g ) were added 3 volumes of 1 % acetic acid in 80 % methanol . the mixture was homogenized for 3 min and extracted under reflux . this operation was repeated on the residue twice after filtration . the filtrate was combined and concentrated under reduced pressure . total lethality of the extracts thus obtained from the viscera was 3 , 559 mu for ttx . extracts were defatted with dichloromethane , and the aqueous layer was partially purified by successive treatment on activated charcoal ( wako ) and bio - gel p - 2 ( bio - rad . lab . ) column chromatography . conditions for each procedure were similar to those encountered in previous studies [ 20 – 22 ] . toxicity was detected exclusively in the 0 . 03 m acoh fraction obtained from bio - gel p - 2 column chromatography . this toxic fraction was concentrated to dryness under reduced pressure , and the partially purified toxin obtained was dissolved in a small amount of water and analyzed for ttx and psp by high - performance liquid chromatography - fluorescent detection ( hplc - fld ) as previously described [ 20 , 23 ] . in addition , an alkali - hydrolysate of this toxin was trimethylsilylated and analyzed by gas chromatography - mass spectrometry ( gc - ms ) , as described below . standards of ttx , which also contained 4 - epi ttx and 4 , 9 - anhydrottx , were prepared from ribbon worm cephalothrix sp . ( found in hiroshima bay ) , using previously reported methods [ 21 ] . authentic specimens of gonyautoxins1 - 4 ( gtx ) and stxs were prepared from the digestive glands of psp - infested scallop patinopecten yessoensis found in ofunato bay , iwate prefecture , japan , and from the exoskeleton of z . aeneus collected at kabira bay , okinawa prefecture , japan , according to previously reported methods [ 4 , 24 , 25 ] .

the trimethylsilyl ( tms ) derivative of 2 - amino - 6 - hydroxymethyl - 8 - hydroxyquinazoline ( c9 base ) was derived from purified toxins and authentic ttx by a previously described procedure [ 26 ] . both tms derivatives were injected to a varian gas chromatograph ( 1200 ms / ms ) equipped with a mass spectrometer ( varian cp - 3800 ) according to previously described methods [ 21 ] .

figure 3 : hplc - fld analysis of ttx in d . cultripes . one mu of ttx standard solution was injected to hplc - fld system . ( a ) viscera . ( b ) ttx standards . ( a : ttx ; b : 4 - epi ttx ; c : 4 , 9 - anhydrottx ) .

figure 4 : gc - ms analysis of tms derivative of c9 base from ttx in d . cultripes . ( a ) viscera . ( b ) ttx standards . ( ( a ) ; ( b ) ; ( c ) ) ) .

judging from the symptoms of the patients and the results of hplc - fld and gc - ms analysis , it seems to be the most probable that the causative food responsible for the poisoning with two deaths in april , 2004 mentioned above is d . cultripes containing ttx and psp . from food hygienic point of view , people in coastal areas should be warned of the potential hazard of this crab in order to prevent its intentional or accidental consumption .

it was previously reported that ttx is the major toxin , and gtx 1 and 3 are minor toxins in l . pictor ( xanthid crab from taiwan ) [ 29 ] . in contrast , in crabs from negros island , philippines , ptx was found to be the predominant toxin [ 3 ] . on the other hand , ttx and psp are the major and minor toxins , respectively , in a . floridus inhabiting miura peninsula , kanagawa prefecture , japan , which differs from crabs found in okinawa , japan [ 30 ] . the a . floridus specimen from fiji island was found to have stx and stx derivatives as major toxins [ 31 ] . it is not clear at present whether the toxin in our crab specimens is of endogenous or exogenous origin . because crabs are generally detritus ( and not planktonic ) feeders , the most plausible explanation is that crabs specimens accumulated the toxin by feeding on toxic marine organisms in sampling areas . oikawa et al . [ 32 ] showed the presence of psp toxins in the viscera of the edible shore crab telmessus acutidens . it was also revealed that the total toxicity in the crab viscera increased linearly with the amount of toxic mussels the crabs ingested by feeding experiments [ 33 ] . transport and accumulation of toxins in food chains are a common phenomenon , particularly in marine biota . the origin of neurotoxins in toxic xanthid crabs may be from toxic lower strata invertebrates . the occurrence of calcareous red algae jania sp . as the primary source of psp in coral reef crabs was reported [ 34 , 35 ] . on the other hand , it was also reported that psp - containing a . floridus maintains a fairly high toxicity level for a long period when fed nontoxic diets ( noguchi et al . , personal communication ) . this observation may suggest that psp in this toxic crab mentioned above is endogenous . in addition to this , it may also suggest that the crabs have the psp and / or ttx - specific binding substance . through a complex system of trophic interrelationships , nonfilter - feeding organisms can also be exposed to psp and / or ttx and thus accumulate and play a role as vectors in marine food web . in order to elucidate the diet of d . cultripes , microscopic examination of stomach contents of the species is needed . further studies are now in progress to elucidate the associated mechanism of toxicity . in addition , investigation of individual , local , and size - dependent variations in toxicity of d . cultripes is also needed . because d . cultripes specimens are large enough to be regarded as food items , the potential danger of their consumption should be disseminated to the public to prevent future cases of food poisonings .

to our knowledge , this is the first evidence of occurrence of ttx and psp in the d . cultripes inhabiting the coast of cebu island and the confirmation of its implication in human poisoning .

this work was partly supported by a jsps - dost core university program in fisheries sciences .

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