metanastria is a genus of moth in the family lasiocampidae .

the species of the genus are found in europe , japan , china , south africa , throughout india , sri lanka , myanmar , java and borneo .

metanastria

metanastria <EOT> metanastria ; godman & salvin , 1886 , biol . centr . - amer . , lep . heterocera 1 : 200

the original genus of description is given in brackets . lebeda metaspila walker ( megasoma ) lajonquierea deruna moore ( gastropacha ) lajonquierea poeciloptera grunberg ( metanastria ) lajonquierea mediofasciata grunberg ( metanastria ) kunugia xichangensis tsai & lu ( dendrolimus ) kunugia tamsi lajonquiere ( cyclophragma ) kunugia omeiensis tsai & lu ( dendrolimus ) kunugia ampla walker ( odonestis ) kunugia latipennis moore ( lebeda ) kunugia fasciata moore ( lebeda ) kunugia brunnea wileman ( metanastria ) kunugia burmensis gaede ( dendrolimus ) kunugia fulgens moore ( lebeda ) kunugia dora swinhoe ( metanastria ) kunugia sumatrae swinhoe ( metanastria ) kunugia basidiscata holloway ( cyclophragma ) kunugia placida moore ( lebeda ) kunugia lineata moore ( lebeda ) kunugia basimacula walker ( megasoma ) kunugia rectifascia holloway ( metanastria ) kunugia leucopicta tams ( metanastria ) kunugia gynandra swinhoe ( metanastria ) kunugia basinigra roepke ( cyclophragma ) kunugia divaricata moore ( gastropacha ) kunugia magellani lajonquiere ( cyclophragma ) chonopla modulata swinhoe ( kosala ) paradoxopla cardinalis holloway ( pseudophyllodes ) micropacha lidderdalii druce ( odonestis )

hardly a plague - more of a conference of cats , or perhaps a lobby of larvae ! these are lasiocampidae ( lappet moths ) of some description . in hong kong there are two species in the genus metanastria that exhibit this herding instinct , and young instars in paralebeda also are gregarious . i ' d be inclined to think these may also be a species of metanastria , or possibly lebeda . roger .

{ author1 , author2 . . . } , ( n . d . ) . metanastria aconyta cramer , 1777 . [ online ] india biodiversity portal , species page : { name of species field } available at : urltoken [ accessed date jul 10 , 2018 ] .

pratt , p . d . , makinson , j . , purcell , m . , pogue , m . g . , rayamajhi , m . b . , center , t . d . rhodomyrtus tomentosa ( myrtales : myrtaceae ) : new host records for metanastria gemella ( lepidoptera : lasiocampidae ) and arna bipunctapex ( lepidoptera : lymantriidae ) . florida entomologist . 96 ( 2 ) : 641 - 642 . 2013 .

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scientists aim to describe a single ' tree of life ' that reflects the evolutionary relationships of living things . however , evolutionary relationships are a matter of ongoing discovery , and there are different opinions about how living things should be grouped and named . eol reflects these differences by supporting several different scientific ' classifications ' . some species have been named more than once . such duplicates are listed under synonyms . eol also provides support for common names which may vary across regions as well as languages .

phalaena hyrtaca cramer , [ 1779 ] ; uitl . kapellen 3 ( 17 - 21 ) : 97 , pl . 249 , f . f

biologia centrali - americana ; or contributions to the knowledge of the fauna of mexico and central america . zoology . lepidoptera . heterocera

if you have corrections , comments or information to add into these pages , just send mail to markku savela keep in mind that the taxonomic information is copied from various sources , and may include many inaccuracies . expert help is welcome .

shubhalaxmi , v , r c kendrick , alka vaidya , neelima kalagi , and alaka bhagwat . 2011 . inventory of moth fauna ( lepidoptera : heterocera ) of the northern western ghats , maharashtra , india . journal of the bombay … 108 , no . 3 : 183 - 205 . urltoken

enumerates geographic entities where the taxon lives . covers ranges , e . g . , a global range , or a narrower one ; may be biogeographical , political or other ( e . g . , managed areas like conservencies ) ; endemism ; native or exotic . does not include altitudinal distribution , which is covered under habitat .

a catalogue of the moths of india / compiled by e . c . cotes and c . swinhoe . by cotes , e . c . s . . .

volume : 1 subject : moths - - india ; insects - - india ; sphingidae publisher : london : tayl . . .

inventory of moth fauna ( lepidoptera : heterocera ) of the northern western ghats , maharashtra , india .

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cashew , badam , moringa , sapota , jamun , guava , babul , shorea robusta , schima wallichii , nyctanthes arbor - tristis , mimusops elengi , madhuca longifolia , etc .

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to cite this page : myers , p . , r . espinosa , c . s . parr , t . jones , g . s . hammond , and t . a . dewey . 2018 . the animal diversity web ( online ) . accessed at https : / / animaldiversity . org .

disclaimer : the animal diversity web is an educational resource written largely by and for college students . adw doesn ' t cover all species in the world , nor does it include all the latest scientific information about organisms we describe . though we edit our accounts for accuracy , we cannot guarantee all information in those accounts . while adw staff and contributors provide references to books and websites that we believe are reputable , we cannot necessarily endorse the contents of references beyond our control .

this material is based upon work supported by the national science foundation grants drl 0089283 , drl 0628151 , due 0633095 , drl 0918590 , and due 1122742 . additional support has come from the marisla foundation , um college of literature , science , and the arts , museum of zoology , and information and technology services .

gunda subnotata walker ( bombyx ) antheraea rosieri toxopeus ( loepantheraea ) the use of the generic name ambulyx westwood in the sphingidae for species usually placed in oxyambulyx rothschild & jordan ( e . g . by diehl ( 1980 ) , d ' abrera ( 1986 ) ) follows fletcher & nye ( 1982 ) .

source : james a . duke . 1983 . handbook of energy crops . unpublished .

leaves contain 7080 % eucalyptol ( cineol ) . also includes terpineol , sesquiterpene alcohols , aliphatic aldehydes , isoamyl alcohol , ethanol , and terpenes ( morton , 1981 ) . tannin is not so copious in the leaves as of many other

species . the kino , containing 28 . 7 % kino - tannin and 47 . 9 % catechin contains the very antibiotic citriodorol ( watt and bryer - brandwijk , 1962 ) . verma et al . ( 1978 ) found 20 . 2 %

- pinene , and only 16 . 8 % cineole in the cv ' mysore ' . fresh leaves contain caffeic and gallic acids , dry leaves , ferulic and gentisic ( boukef et al . , 1976 ) , and quercetol , quercitrine , rutin , and a mixture of quercetol hyperoside and glaucoside . n - titriacontan - 16 , 18 - dione was identified as the compound responsible for antioxidant activity in the leaf wax ( osawa and namik , 1981 ) .

in large doses , oil of eucalyptus , like so many essential oils has caused fatalities from intestinal irritation ( morton , 1981 ) . death is reported from ingestion of 424 ml of essential oils , but recoveries are also reported for the same amount . symptoms include gastroenteric burning and irritation , nausea , vomiting , diarrhea , oxygen deficiency , , weakness , dizziness , stupor , difficult respiration , delirium , paralysis , convulsions , and death , usually due to respiratory failure ( duke , 1984b ) . reported to cause contact dermatitis ( brooker et al , 1981 ) . sensitive persons may develop urticaria from handling the foliage and other parts of the plant ( watt and bryer - brandwijk , 1962 ) .

reported from the australian center of diversity , bluegum , or cvs thereof is reported to tolerate narrower extremes of temperature and soil than many of the more tropical species . ( 2

the most extensively planted eucalypt species in the world . . . a total of 800 , 000 ha in dozens of countries . . . about half the world ' s plantation area is in portugal and spain ( little , 1983 ) . also cultivated in california , arizona , and hawaii .

ranging from cool temperate moist to wet through subtropical dry to moist forest life zones , bluegum eucalyptus is reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 8 to 16 dm and annual temperature of ca 16 to 20°c . major successes have been in mild temperate climates and in cool highlands . elsewhere it fails ( nas , 1980a ) .

propagated by seed and basket transplants ca 6 mos old . no seed treatment is required . fresh seeds germinate well but deteriorate rapidly . the tree is readily established , easily reproducing from self - sown seed . in california , seed collections from a single tree exhibit wide variation ( 280 % ) in germinative capacity after a 30 - day germination period ( ag . handbook 450 ) . seedlings like the adults are susceptible to drought , fire , and frost . grasses need to be weeded , as the tree does not compete well with grasses ( nas , 1980a ) . tree grows rapidly and coppices readily ( reaching a meter or more in a few months ) .

usually grown on rotations of 515 years . in india ' s nilgiris , bluegum plantations are worked for fuel purposes on a 15 - year coppice ( c . s . i . r . , 19481976 ) .

has been reported from sites in italy , peru , portugal , and spain ( nas , 1980a ) . verma et al ( 1978 ) estimated essential oil yields between ca 40 and 45 kg / ha from 68 mt green leaves . completely dry leaves contain 1 . 27 % oil in the cv ' mysore ' . the wealth of india suggests 30 mt biomass / ha / yr in the nilgiris ( c . s . i . r . , 19481976 ) .

about 30 mt / ha biomass are reported . verma et al . ( 1978 ) calculated little more than 7 mt leaves per hectare , green , or 68 mt for the cv ' mysore ' , 34 mt dry leaves . in his compilation , cannell ( 1982 ) cites data on trees 9 . 5 years old , spaced at 2 , 196 trees / ha . the stem wood on a dm basis weighed 1958 mt / ha , the stem bark 511 , the branches 2 . 65 . 5 , the foliage 4 . 06 . 7 , for a total standing aerial biomass of 35110 mt / ha . the cai ( current annual increment ) of stem wood was 2 . 97 . 7 m

/ ha / yr , stem bark 0 . 71 . 5 , branches 0 . 50 . 7 , foliage 2 . 6ca 6 for a total aerial cai of 6 . 715 . 6 mt / ha / yr , the low figures representing unfertilized trees , the high reflecting ca 200 kg / ha n and 90 kg / ha p . these data were taken at victoria , australia ( 38°20 ' s , 146°20 ' e , elev . 150 m ) . the wood burns freely , leaving little ash , and carbonizes easily , making good charcoal . with calorific value of 4 , 800 kcal / kg , the heavy wood ( sp . grav . 0 . 81 . 0 ) is widely used for fuelwood and charcoal ( nas , 1980 ) . even the dead leaves and fallen bark are highly flammable . the charcoal is used for producer gas plants ( c . s . i . r . , 19481976 ) . cromer and williams ( austr . j . bot . 30 : 265 . 1982 ) report that it took 9 . 5 years to accumulate 30 mt / ha biomass unfertilized , but only 4 years in heavily fertilized plots .

actinopelte dryina , armillaria mellea , cercospora epicoccoides , c . eucalypti , corticium salmonicolor , cryptosporium eucalypti , cytospora australiae , c . eucalyptina , diaporthe medusaea , didymosphaeria circinnans , diplodia australiae , fomes applanatus , f . scruposus , fusarium oxysporum

aurantiacum , ganoderma lucidum , harknessia uromycoides , hendersonia eucalypticola , laetiporus sulphureus , macrophoma molleriana , macrophomina phaseoli , monochaetia desmazierii , mycosphaerella molleriana , pestalotia truncata , pestalotiopsis funerea , pezizella carneo - rosea , pezizella oenotherae , phellinus gilvus , phyllostica extensa , physalospora latitans , p . rhodina , p . suberumpens , polyporus gilvus , p . hirsutus , p . schweinitzii , p . sulphureus , p . versicolor , poria cocos , p . versipora , sclerotinia fuckeliana , septonema multiplex , septosporium scyphophorum , stereum hirsutum

foliage unpalatable to livestock . the oil rich wood is resistant to termites ( nas , 1980a ) .

agriculture handbook 165 . 1960 . index of plant diseases in the united states . usgpo . washington .

agriculture handbook 450 . 1974 . seeds of woody plants in the united states . forest service , usda . usgpo . washington .

boukef , k . , balansard , g . , lallemand , m . , and brenard , p . 1976 . study of flavonic heterosides and agylcones isolated from leaves of

brooker , s . g . , cambie , r . c . , and cooper , r . c . 1981 . new zealand medicinal plants . heinemann publishers , auckland .

browne , f . g . 1968 . pests and diseases of forest plantations trees . clarendon press , oxford .

c . s . i . r . ( council of scientific and industrial research ) . 19481976 . the wealth of india . 11 vols . new delhi .

cannell , m . g . r . 1982 . world forest biomass and primary production data . academic press , new york .

duke , j . a . and wain , k . k . 1981 . medicinal plants of the world . computer index with more than 85 , 000 entries . 3 vols .

list , p . h . and horhammer , l . 19691979 . hager ' s handbuch der pharmazeutischen praxis . vols 26 . springer - verlag , berlin .

little , e . l . jr . 1983 . common fuelwood crops : a handbook for their identification . mcclain printing co . , parsons , wv .

morton , j . f . 1981 . atlas of medicinal plants of middle america . bahamas to yucatan . c . c . thomas , springfield , il .

n . a . s . 1980a . firewood crops . shrub and tree species for energy production . national academy of sciences , washington , dc .

osawa , t . and namiki , m . 1981 . a novel type of antioxidant isolated from leaf wax of eucalyptus leaves . agr . biol . chem . 45 ( 3 ) : 735739 .

perry , l . m . 1980 . medicinal plants of east and southeast asia . mit press , cambridge .

verma , v . p . s . , shiva , m . p . , subrahmanyam , i . v . , and suri , b . k . 1978 . utilization of eucalyptus hybrid oil from forest plantations . indian forester 104 ( 12 ) : 846850 .

watt , j . m . and breyer - brandwijk , m . g . 1962 . the medicinal and poisonous plants of southern and eastern africa . 2nd ed . e . & s . livingstone , ltd . , edinburgh and london .

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encountered this plague of moth cats on a tree trunk . any idea what the species id is ?

roger c . kendrick ph . d . c & r wildlife , lam tsuen , tai po , n . t . , hong kong s . a . r . hk moths website : urltoken hk moths recording project on i - naturalist : urltoken hk moths flickr site : urltoken

thanks , roger for the information on the possible species id . it was a very interesting sight of so many cats squeezed side by side , as if they were trying to stay warm in this cold weather .

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s . cumini is a fast - growing tropical and sub - tropical tree preferring moist , riverine habitats , that is valued for its fruit , timber and as an ornamental and as such has been widely introduced from its native s . . .

formerly part of the genus , eugenia , s . cumini is now a clearly defined taxa in the genus syzygium . commonly known as jambolan it should not be confused with the rose apple ( syzygium jambos ) .

syzygium is a genus in the myrtaceae that includes a number of popular species cultivated for their colourful , edible fleshy fruit . it is a genus of perhaps 1000 species of trees or shrubs native to the old world tropics . the genus name syzygium is derived via latin from the greek syzygos , meaning yoked together , possibly referring to the paired leaves ( janick and paull , 2008 ) . other common names for s . cumini are black plum , damson plum , duhat plum , jamblang , jambolan plum , jamun , java plum , malabar plum and portuguese plum ( janick and paull , 2008 ) .

the more restricted native distribution as described by morton ( 1987 ) is accepted in this datasheet , who argued that other countries recorded as native , e . g . himalayan asia , south china , south east asian islands , east africa , eastern australia , etc . ( usda - ars , 2008 ) are actually due to introduction in pre - history . s . cumini is thus here accepted as only native to india , sri lanka and myanmar .

the distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .

. as a valuable fruit and forestry tree , it is likely to be further introduced .

s . cumini prefers moist locations and will tolerate waterlogging thus is commonly found on riverbanks , but it can also survive , but less well , on drier sites once established . in its native range it is commonly cultivated and thus found in and around homesteads and agricultural land . in the pacific where it has proved most invasive , it is generally a more lowland species such as in fiji , but may be found up to 700 m hawaii and has naturalised in inland forests in fiji ( pier , 2008 ) . it invades coastal bush and savanna in south africa ( sabonet , 2006 ) .

a jaman’ , with large oblong , dark - purple or bluish fruits , with pink , sweet pulp and small seeds , and ‘kaatha’ , with small acid fruits , and several named cultivars exist , especially in south - east asia .

it propagates easily from fresh seed , and coppices and resprouts readily . s . cumini begins bearing fruit when 8–10 years old . seeds lose their viability quickly after maturation .

seedlings grow slowly the first year , rapidly thereafter , and may exceeding 3 m in height after 2 years , reaching full size in 40 years . flowering occurs february - march in florida , usa , may–august in sri lanka , and july–august in java , indonesia , and the fruit ripens in april in french polynesia , may–june in the philippines , may - july in india and florida , late summer and autumn in hawaii , september - october in java , and november - december in sri lanka ( morton , 1987 ) . dry weather during flowering and fruiting will increase fruit production . fruits need to be harvested by hand as they ripen , requiring several collections over the season , with a crops of 700 fruits possible from a 5 - year - old tree , and the production of a large tree may be overwhelming to the average household .

warm average temp . > 10°c , cold average temp . > 0°c , wet all year

whichmay cause total defoliation . the leafminer , acrocercops phaeospora , can also be a major problem , idiocerus

( often dacus diversus in india ) , diseases recorded as found on s . cumini by inspectors of the florida department of agriculture are : black leaf spot ( asterinella puiggarii ) ; green scurf or algal leaf spot ( cephaleuros virescens ) ; mushroom root rot ( clitocybe tabescens ) ; anthracnose ( colletotrichum gloeosporioides ) ; and leaf spot caused by phyllosticta eugeniae . where invasive in florida , some trees are very susceptible to scale insects .

seeds are the most common means of dissemination , and these are known to be consumed and spread by animals , in hawaii , mynah birds and other frugivorous birds and perhaps occasionally by feral pigs ( sus scrofa ) ( pier , 2008 ) . many other birds and mammals are known to eat the fruit , including jackals and civets , and in australia they are a favourite food of bats ( morton , 1987 ) . being a riverine species , seeds are also likely to be dispersed locally by water . long - distance dispersal has been almost entirely due to intentional introduction as a fruit , timber and ornamental species .

s . cumini has a positive economic impact via the provision of nutritious fruit , timber and as a traded ornamental . no costs for the control of s . cumini are available .

the tree is venerated in south asia by buddhists and hindus . it is considered sacred to the hindu gods krishna and ganesha and is commonly planted near hindu temples ( morton , 1987 ) . where used as a street and ornamental tree , heavy fruiting can lead to masses of fruits littering pavements , roads and gardens , rapidly fermenting producing an unpleasant small and attracting insects , and as such many people want such trees replaced .

this large evergreen tree forms a dense cover and when forming a monoculture it can prevent other species from regenerating and growing , and although it is not an aggressive invader of undisturbed forest like the closely related s . jambos , it is known to prevent the reestablishment of native lowland forest .

it is a multipurpose tree which is highly valued for its medicinal uses , edible fruits , for fodder , for strong heavy timber and good fuelwood . it is mainly found as a home garden fruit tree , although it is also found wild in secondary forests . it is also a host plant of the tasar silkworm , and a good source of nectar for honeybees . it is a sacred tree to hindus and buddhists . seeds used to be traded for medicinal use until the end of the 1700s , when they were widely exported from india to malaysia and polynesia , and from the west indies to europe . the tree is grown as shade for coffee in india , and being wind - resistant is sometimes planted in dense rows as a windbreak , and if topped regularly , such plantings form a dense , massive hedge .

. the honey is of fine quality but ferments in a few months unless treated . the leaves have served as fodder for livestock and as food for tassar silkworms in india , having approximately 9 % crude protein . in zanzibar and pemba , tanzania , people use young shoots for cleaning their teeth . an essential oil distilled from leaves is used to scent soap and is blended with other materials in making inexpensive perfume . bark yields durable brown dyes of various shades depending on the mordant and the strength of the extract , and contains 8–19 % tannin being much used in tanning leather and preserving fishing nets .

syzygium species may appear similar to the untrained eye , and two other species are noted as invasive , s . jambos and s . malaccense , though may be separated by fruit colour ; the fruits of s . cumini being purplish - black when ripe whereas those of s . jambos are creamy yellow , tinged with pink . s . cumini can also be confused with the south african s . guineense ; but is distinguished by its longer leaves ( up to 150 mm ) with many closely spaced lateral veins , abruptly tapering leaf apex , oval to pear - shaped fruits , and much - branched sub - terminal inflorescence , usually arising from old leaf scars .

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mohanasundaram m , parameswaran s , 1991 . two new mite pests of eugenia jambolana in south india . madras agricultural journal , 78 ( 1 - 4 ) : 76 - 77

morton j , 1987 . jambolan , syzygium cumini skeels . fruits of warm climates . miami , usa : purdue university , 375 - 378 . urltoken

nair mnb , 1989 . vestured pits in the wood of syzygium cumini . second pacific regional wood anatomy conference , october 15 21 , 1989 , college , laguna , philippines [ convened by tesoro , f . o . ] . abstracts of papers and posters . iawa - bulletin , 10 ( 3 ) : 341 .

pande dc , mathur rs , 1971 . regional volume tables for jamun ( syzygium gumini [ cumini ] , linn ) ( for gorakpur and gonda forest divisions , eastern circle , u . p . ) . bulletin , forest department , uttar pradesh , recd . 1980 , no . 35 , ii + 30 pp . ; 2 tab . usually cited as u . p . forest bulletin .

pier , 2008 . pacific islands ecosystems at risk . usa : institute of pacific islands forestry . urltoken

punhani rk , 1995 . span tables for roof purlins and ceiling joists in some social forestry species for timber house constructions . indian forester , 121 ( 7 ) : 651 - 662 ; 4 ref .

rai mk , 1986 . new host records of pestalotiopsis from india . indian botanical reporter , 5 ( 1 ) : 98

rai sn , 1978 . regional volume table for syzygium cumini ( linn ) . skeel . ( data from karnataka ) . myforest , september , 137 - 140 ; 1 tab . ; 1 ref .

rajesh kumar , singh , j . , singh , h . p . , 2006 . in : release of new jamun variety - rajendra jamun 1 . , bidhan chandra krishi viswavidyalaya , 50 - 53 .

ramanujam cgk , kalpana tp , 1993 . pollen analysis of honeys from kondevaram apiaries of east godavari district , andhra pradesh . biovigyanam , 19 ( 1 / 2 ) : 11 - 19 ; [ bb ] .

rasoanaivo p , 1990 . rain forests of madagascar : sources of industrial and medicinal plants . ambio , 19 ( 8 ) : 421 - 424 ; 38 ref .

riaz ra , tabassum ia , 1994 . effect of dehydration on storage stability of two varieties of jamun fruit . pakistan journal of scientific and industrial research , 37 ( 1 - 2 ) : 62 - 63 ; 7 ref .

roy pk , rahman m , roy sk , 1996 . mass propagation of syzygium cuminii from selected elite trees .

royal botanic gardens sydney , 2008 . australia ' s virtual herbarium . sydney , australia : royal botanic gardens . http : / / avhtas . tmag

sabonet , 2006 . invasive alien plants in southern africa , part 4 . eucalypts and myrtles ( myrtaceae ) . sabonet news , 7 . 2 . 106 . urltoken

sagwal ss , 1994 . trees on marginal lands : afforestation techniques and systems . 1994 , xvii + 269 pp . ; 11 pp . of ref .

sanjay singh , singh , a . k . , 2006 . standardization of method and time of propagation in jamun ( syzygium cuminii ) under semi - arid environment of western india . , 76 ( 4 ) , 242 - 245 .

shakya , r . , siddiqui , s . a . , srivatawa , n . , bajpai , a . , 2010 . molecular characterization of jamun ( syzygium cumini l . skeels ) genetic resources . , 10 ( 1 ) , 29 - 39 . urltoken doi : 10 . 1080 / 15538361003676769

shukla ks , pandey kn , pant bc , badoni sp , 1990 . carving behaviour of some indian timbers - a quantitative approach . journal of the indian academy of wood science , 21 ( 2 ) : 27 - 32 ; 5 ref .

siddiqui ma , alam mm , saxena sk , 1988 . seasonal fluctuation of plant parasitic nematodes associated with certain fruit trees . international nematology network newsletter , 5 ( 2 ) : 22 - 23 ; 1 ref .

singh g . , dagar jc , singh nt , 1997 . growing fruit trees in highly alkali soils - a case study .

singh , u . v . , 1996 . conservation of forest genetic resource - an ex - situ management of secondary forests . , 122 ( 9 ) , 787 - 794 .

su juan , wang dezhen , fu shishen , 1994 . study on phenology of some tree species grown in the tropica .

sultan singh , singhrot rs , 1984 . studies on the propagation of jaman ( syzygium cuminii skeels ) . i . effect of sowing depth on seed germination and seedling growth . haryana journal of horticultural sciences , 13 ( 3 - 4 ) : 123 - 126 ; 2 ref .

sumana das , banerjee ak , das s , 1995 . studies on syzygium cumini seed oil . journal of the oil technologists ' association of india , 27 ( 4 ) : 243 - 244 ; 7 ref .

tambe tb , ramshe dg , walunjkar rb , 1993 . dryland fruit crops for scarcity zone . maharashtra journal of horticulture , 7 ( 1 ) : 105 - 106 ; 5 ref .

teixeira cc , fuchs fd , blotta rm , costa ap da , mussnich dg , ranquetat gg , da costa ap , 1992 . plants employed in the treatment of diabetes mellitus : results of an ethnopharmacological survey in porto alegre , brazil . fitoterapia , 63 ( 4 ) : 320 - 322 ; 10 ref .

tewari dn , 1995 . agroforestry for increased productivity , sustainability and poverty alleviation . agroforestry for increased productivity , sustainability and poverty alleviation . , v + 799 pp . ; refs at ends of chapters + 262 pp . of ref .

tewari sk , devendra singh , nainwal rc , 2017 . horticultural management of syzygium cumini . boca raton , florida , usa , crc press , 216 - 236 .

thantirige , m . k . , karunaratna , m . s . , 2005 . propagation of seedless wax apple ( syzygium samarangense ) . , 7271 - 278 .

troup rs , joshi hb , 1984 . troup ' s the silviculture of indian trees . volume v . delhi , india : controller of publications .

us fish and wildlife service , 1995 . in : recovery plan for the kauai plant cluster . us fish and wildlife service , 270 pp . .

us fish and wildlife service , 2008 . in : kulu ` i ( nototrichium humile ) . 5 - year review . us fish and wildlife service , 11 pp . .

us fish and wildlife service , 2010 . in : 5 - year review , short form summary : species reviewed : schiedea kealiae ( ma oli oli ) . us fish and wildlife service , 6 pp . .

us fish and wildlife service , 2010 . in : scaevola coriacea ( dwarf naupaka ) . 5 - year review : summary and evaluation . us fish and wildlife service , 19 pp . .

us fish and wildlife service , 2010 . in : schiedea apokremnos ( maolioli ) . 5 - year review : summary and evaluation . us fish and wildlife service , 16 pp . .

us fish and wildlife service , 2010 . in : schiedea spergulina var . leiopoda ( no common name ) . 5 - year review : summary and evaluation . us fish and wildlife service , 11 pp . .

us fish and wildlife service , 2011 . in : endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; listing 23 species on oahu as endangered and designating critical habitat for 124 species . 76 ( 148 ) us fish and wildlife service , 46362 - 46593 . urltoken

us fish and wildlife service , 2011 . in : schiedea hookeri ( no common name ) . 5 - year review : summary and evaluation . us fish and wildlife service , 20 pp . .

us fish and wildlife service , 2013 . in : endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; determination of endangered species status for 15 species on hawaii island ; final rule . 78 ( 209 ) us fish and wildlife service , 64638 - 64690 . urltoken

us fish and wildlife service , 2013 . in : endangered and threatened wildlife and plants ; review of native species that are candidates for listing as endangered or threatened ; annual notice of findings on resubmitted petitions ; annual description of progress on listing actions . 78 ( 226 ) us fish and wildlife service , 70104 - 70162 . urltoken

usda - ars , 2008 . germplasm resources information network ( grin ) . online database . beltsville , maryland , usa : national germplasm resources laboratory . urltoken

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vaishnava mm , tripathy ak , gupta kr , 1992 . flavonoids from syzygium cumini roots . fitoterapia , 63 ( 3 ) : 259 - 260 ; 8 ref .

verheij ewm , coronel re ( editors ) , 1991 . plant resources of south - east asia . no . 2 . edible fruits and nuts . wageningen , netherlands ; pudoc , 446 pp .

yao ce , 1993 . species trial of some indigenous species in siquijor . canopy international , publications . 1995 , 19 ( 6 ) : 7 - 10 .

yumnam , s . s . , swamy , g . s . k . , singh , s . r . , shira , v . d . , 2012 . effect of different arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi on vegetative parameters of jamun rootstock and graft success . , 7 ( 2 ) , 237 - 241 . urltoken

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publications ( clicking on the reprint icon will take you to the publication reprint . )

a new species of gadirtha walker ( nolidae : collomeninae ) : a proposed biological control agent of chinese tallow ( triadica sebifera ( l . ) small ) ( euphorbiaceae ) in the united states -

pogue , m . g . 2014 . a new species of gadirtha walker ( nolidae : collomeninae ) : a proposed biological control agent of chinese tallow ( triadica sebifera ( l . ) small ) ( euphorbiaceae ) in the united states . zookeys . 382 : 13 - 25 .

sullivan , j . b . , pogue , m . g . 2014 . the prominent moth , disphragis notabilis schaus , in costa rica ( lepidoptera , notodontidae ) . zookeys . 421 : 21 - 38 .

pogue , m . g . 2014 . a review of the copitarsia decolora ( guenée ) species complex with a description of a new species of copitarsia ( hampson ) from chile ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . neotropical entomology . 43 ( 2 ) : 142 - 153 .

pogue , m . g . , ouellette , g . d . , harp , c . e . 2013 . a revision of the schinia volupia ( fitch ) species complex lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . zootaxa . 3716 : 157 - 191 .

pogue , m . g . 2013 . revised status of chloridea westwood and [ duncan ] , 1841 for the heliothis virescens species group and the monophyly of schinia hubner [ 1818 ] using total evidence data ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . systematic entomology . 38 ( 3 ) : 523 - 542 .

metzler , e . h . , e . c . knudson , r . w . pool , j . d . lafontaine and m . g . pogue 2013 . a review of the genus ogdoconta butler ( lepidoptera , noctuidae , condicinae , condicini ) from north america north of mexcio with descriptions of three new species . zookeys . 264 : 165 - 191 .

pogue , m . g . 2013 . a review of the paectes arcigera ( guenée ) ( lepidoptera , eutellidae ) species complex . zookeys . 264 : 125 - 163 .

landolt , p . j . , jang , e . b . , carvalho , l . a . , pogue , m . g . 2011 . attraction of pest moths ( lepidoptera : noctuidae , crambidae ) to floral lures on the island of hawaii . hawaiian entomological society proceedings . 43 : 49 - 58 .

manrique , v . , diaz , r . , overholt , w . a . , pogue , m . g . , vitorino , m . 2012 . description and biology of paectes longiformis pogue , a new species from brazil ( lepidoptera : euteliidae ) as a potential biological control agent of brazilian peppertree in florida . biocontrol science and technology . 22 : 163 - 185 .

the aventiinae , boletobiinae , eublemminae , pangraptinae , phytometrinae , and scolecocampinae ( lepidoptera : noctuoidea : erebidae ) of great smoky mountains national park , u . s . a . -

pogue , m . g . 2012 . the aventiinae , boletobiinae , eublemminae , pangraptinae , phytometrinae , and scolecocampinae ( lepidoptera : noctuoidea : erebidae ) of great smoky mountains national park , u . s . a . zootaxa . 3153 : 1 - 31 .

pogue , m . g . 2011 . using dna barcoding and genitalia to place “leucochlaena” hipparis ( druce ) in spodoptera guenee ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . proceedings of the entomological society of washington . 113 ( 4 ) : 497 - 507 .

pogue , m . g . 2011 . larval description of copitarsia incommoda ( walker ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america . 104 ( 6 ) : 1292 - 1296 .

dewaard , j . r . , mitchell , a . , keena , m . a . , gopurenko , d . , boyken , l . m . , armstrong , k . f . , pogue , m . g . , lima , j . , floyd , r . , hanner , r . , humble , l . m . 2010 . toward a global barcode library for lymantria ( lepidoptera : lymantriinae ) tussock moths of biosecurity concern . plos one . 5 ( 12 ) : 1 - 10 .

pogue , m . g . 2010 . a new species of schinia hübner from the southeastern united states ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . zookeys . 52 : 57 - 64 .

pogue , m . g . 2010 . the acontiinae and eublemminae of great smoky mountains national park ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . zootaxa . 2499 : 1 - 20 .

pogue , m . g . , honey , m . , zilli , a . 2010 . new synonymy in a north american species of pyrrhia hübner , [ 1821 ] ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . proceedings of the entomological society of washington . 112 ( 2 ) : 274 - 280 .

the hadeninae ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) of great smoky mountains national park , u . s . a . -

pogue , m . g . 2010 . the hadeninae ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) of great smoky mountains national park , u . s . a . . zootaxa . 2380 : 1 - 75 .

sanders , n . j . , pogue , m . g . , dunn , r . r . 2010 . noctuid moth diversity along a temperate elevational gradient : testing the role of environmental factors , mde , and rapoport ' s rule . ecography . p . 75 - 87 .

pogue , m . g . 2009 . three new cryptic species within the dargida procinctus ( grote ) complex ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : hadeninae ) from the neotropics . proceedings of the entomological society of washington . 111 : 686 - 697 .

pogue , m . g . , simmons , r . 2008 . a new pest species of copitarsia hampson from the neotropical region feeding on asparagus and cut flowers ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america . 101 : 743 - 762 .

pogue , m . g . 2008 . rhodoecia hampson 1908 a new synonym of pyrrhia hubner [ 1821 ] 1816 ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . proceedings of the entomological society of washington . 110 : 810 .

pogue , m . g . 2009 . a review of the tripudia quadrifera ( zeller ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) species complex . proceedings of the entomological society of washington . 111 : 68 - 97 .

lavigne , r . j . , pogue , m . g . 2009 . ethology of omniablautus nigronotum ( wilcox ) ( diptera : asilidae ) in wyoming . proceedings of the entomological society of washington . 111 : 1 - 6 .

pogue , m . g . 2007 . revision of the genus psectrotarsia dognin 1907 ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . zootaxa . 1637 : 1 - 19 .

pogue , m . g . 2009 . lepidoptera biodiversity . in : foottit , r . , adler , p . , editors . insect biodiversity : science and society . 1st edition . blackwell science publishing . oxford , england . p . 263 - 293 .

pogue , m . g . , schaefer , p . w . 2007 . a review of potentially invasive species of lymantria hüebner [ 1819 ] ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : lymantriinae ) from subtropical and temperate regions of asia including the descriptions of three new species . forest health technology enterprise team . fhte : 1 - 223 .

pogue , m . g . 2006 . nomenclatural validation of four north american species of heliothinae ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . zootaxa . 1283 : 25 - 36 .

pogue , m . g . 2008 . inventory of the nolidae , erebidae , and noctuidae ( lepidoptera ) of plummers island , maryland . bulletin of the biological society of washington . ( 15 ) 107 - 120 .

pogue , m . g . 2006 . the noctuinae ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) of great smoky mountains national park . zootaxa . 1215 : 1 - 95 .

pogue , m . g . 2005 . the plusiinae of great smoky mountains national park ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . zootaxa . 1032 : 1 - 28 .

book review : butterflies of oklahoma , kansas , and north texas , by john m . dole , walter b . gerard , and john m . nelson -

pogue , m . g . 2005 . book review : butterflies of oklahoma , kansas , and north texas , by john m . dole , walter b . gerard , and john m . nelson . american entomologist . 51 : 117 .

pogue , m . g . 2004 . a new species of schinia hubner from riparian habitats along the colorado river in the grand canyon ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . zootaxa . 788 : 1 - 4

pogue , m . g . , harp , c . e . 2004 . systematics of schinia chrysellus ( grote ) complex : revised status of schinia alencis ( harvey ) with a description of two new species ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . zootaxa . 898 : 1 - 35

pogue , m . g . 2004 . characters to differentiate adult males of the corn earworm , helicoverpa zea ( boddie ) and the old world bollworm , helicoverpa armigera ( hübner ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . journal of economic entomology . 97 : 1222 - 1226

redescription of two , often - confused noctuid pests copitarsia decolora ( guenee ) and c . incommoda ( walker ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) -

simmons , r . b . , pogue , m . g . 2009 . redescription of two , often - confused noctuid pests copitarsia decolora ( guenee ) and c . incommoda ( walker ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america . 97 : 1159 - 1164 .

simmons , r . b . , scheffer , s . j . , pogue , m . g . 2004 . systematics of the copitarsia incommoda ( walker ) pest complex ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . annals of the entomological society of america . 97 ( 4 ) : 675 - 680 .

pogue , m . g . , harp , c . e . 2004 . a review of the schinia regia ( strecker ) species complex with a description of a new species ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . zootaxa . 473 : 1 - 32

pogue , m . g . , harp , c . e . 2004 . a review of the schinia tertia ( grote ) species complex ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . zootaxa . 473 : 1 - 32 .

a new species of schinia huebner ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) from texas , oklahoma , and louisiana . -

knudson , e . , bordelon , c . , pogue , m . g . 2003 . a new species of schinia huebner ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) from texas , oklahoma , and louisiana . . zootaxa . 382 : 1 - 7

systematics of schinia cupes ( grote ) complex : revised status of schinia crotchii ( hy . edwards ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) -

pogue , m . g . , harp , c . e . 2003 . systematics of schinia cupes ( grote ) complex : revised status of schinia crotchii ( hy . edwards ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . zootaxa . 294 : 1 - 16 .

pogue , m . g . , harp , c . e . 2003 . revised status of schinia unimacula smith including morphological comaprisons with schinia obliqua smith ( lepidoptera : noctuidae : heliothinae ) . journal of lepidopterists society . 226 : 1 - 8 .

lalanne - cassou , b . , pogue , m . g . 2003 . deux nouveaux paratrachea des antilles ( lepidoptera , noctuidae , noctuinae ) . revue francaise d ' entomologie . 25 ( 4 ) : 157 - 164 .

identity of a sugar cane pest , scolecocampa mochisa ( schaus ) , in mexico , and a new generic synonym . -

revised status of the genus rolandylis gibeaux with descriptions of two new species of north american cochylini ( lepidoptera : tortricidae : tortricinae ) . -

a world revision of the genus spodoptera guenee ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . -

spodoptera ochreum ( hampton ) ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) : diagnosis , description of the female genitalia , and a new host record ( asparagus ) fromperu . -

resolution of the elaphria festivoides ( guenee ) species complex ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) . -

misplaced catocala ( lepidoptera : noctuidae ) holotypes from the e . a . browercollection . -


the amazonian marsh rat ( holochilus sciureus ) , also known as the common marsh rat , or simply the marsh rat , is a rodent species from south america .

amazonian marsh rat

amazonian marsh rat <EOT> by : chandler stonecipher  amazonian manatee  amazonian sac - winged bat  marsh deer  toco toucan  spider monkey  white - faced tree rat  parrot .

by : chandler stonecipher  amazonian manatee  amazonian sac - winged bat  marsh deer  toco toucan  spider monkey  white - faced tree rat  parrot . - ppt download

download ppt " by : chandler stonecipher  amazonian manatee  amazonian sac - winged bat  marsh deer  toco toucan  spider monkey  white - faced tree rat  parrot . "

presentation on theme : " by : chandler stonecipher  amazonian manatee  amazonian sac - winged bat  marsh deer  toco toucan  spider monkey  white - faced tree rat  parrot . " — presentation transcript :

hershkovitz , p ( 1987 ) : first south american record of coues’ marsh rice rat , oryzomys couesi . journal of mammalogy 68 , 152 - 154 .

hartmann m ( 2001 ) active sensing capabilities of the rat whisker system . auton robots 11 : 249–254 .

marsh cw , greer ag . forest land - use in sabah , malaysia - an introduction to danum valley .

wyatt jl , silman mr . distance - dependence in two amazonian palms : effects of spatial and temporal variation in seed predator communities .

rosas , fcw ( 1994 ) : biology , conservation and status of the amazonian manatee trichechus inunguis . mammal review 24 , 49 - 59 .

beck h , gaines ms , hines je , nichols jd . comparative dynamics of small mammal populations in treefall gaps and surrounding understorey within amazonian rainforest .

terborgh j , losos e , riley mp , riley mb . predation by vertebrates and invertebrates on the seeds of 5 canopy tree species of an amazonian forest .

hershkovitz , p ( 1971 ) : a new rice rat of the oryzomys palustris group ( cricetinae , muridae ) from northwestern colombia , with remarks on distribution . journal of mammalogy 52 , 700 - 709 .

pacheco , v , and ugarte - núñez , j ( 2011 ) : new records of stolzmann’s fish - eating rat ichthyomys stolzmanni ( cricetidae , sigmodontinae ) in peru : a rare species becoming a nuisance . mammalian biology – zeitschrift für säugetierkunde 76 , 657 - 661 .

citation : marshall cd , wieskotten s , hanke w , hanke fd , marsh a , kot b , et al . ( 2014 ) feeding kinematics , suction , and hydraulic jetting performance of harbor seals ( phoca vitulina ) . plos one 9 ( 1 ) : e86710 . urltoken

marshall cd , maeda h , iwata m , furuta m , asano a , rosas f , et al . ( 2003 ) orofacial morphology and feeding behaviour of the dugong , amazonian , west african and antillean manatees ( mammalia : sirenia ) : functional morphology of the muscular – vibrissal complex . j zool 259 : 1–16 .

this species is broadly distributed , it reaches the orinoco and amazon river basins : venezuela ( including an isolated locality in the maracaibo basin , northwest of the andes ; see linares , 1998 ) , the guianas , northern and central brazil , and amazonian regions of colombia , ecuador , peru , and bolivia ( musser and carleton , 2005 ) . it also occurs in suriname ( weksler pers . comm . ) .

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justification : this species is listed as least concern in because of its wide distribution , presumed large population , occurrence in a number of protected areas , tolerance to some degree of habitat modification , and because it is unlikely to be declining at nearly the rate required to qualify for listing in a threatened category .

during a survey along the rio juruá of the western amazon of brazil , the species was found in grass patches along the river margins and agricultural areas close to rivers ( patton et al . 2000 ) . some female specimens examined from august to november were either pregnant or lactating ; young were also observed during these months ( patton et al . 2000 ) .

this errata assessment has been created because the map was accidentally left out of the version published previously .

( errata version published in 2017 ) . the iucn red list of threatened species 2016 : e . t10220a115096276 .

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mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference ( book , 2005 ) [ worldcat . org ]

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i thought you might be interested in this item at urltoken title : mammal species of the world : a taxonomic and geographic reference author : don e wilson ; deeann m reeder publisher : baltimore : johns hopkins university press , ©2005 . isbn / issn : 0801882214 9780801882210 0801882389 9780801882388 0801882397 9780801882395 oclc : 57557352

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this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals .

a uniquely valuable compendium of taxonomic and distributional data on the world ' s living and historically extinct mammalian species . contributors and editors alike deserve the thanks of all

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" wilson and reeder ' s mammal species of the world is the classic reference book on the taxonomic classification and distribution of the more than 5400 species of mammals that exist today . the third edition includes detailed information on nomenclature and , for the first time , common names . each concise entry covers type locality , distribution , synonyms , and major reference sources . the systematic arrangement of information indicates evolutionary relationships at both the ordinal and the family level . this indispensable reference work belongs in public and academic libraries throughout the world and on the shelf of every biologist who works with mammals . " - - publisher ' s website .

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brazil . brazil and taiwan south america french guyana suriname guyana venezuela colombia peru bolivia paraguay argentina uruguay countries bordering .

quiz - - poland . which one cities is the capital ? a gniezno b kraków c warszawa .

a small introduction on… brazil . where is it ? brazil has 10 neighbouring countries ! ! to the east coast , there is the atlantic ocean the capital of brazil .

h jeopardy geography history sports foodother q $ 100 q $ 200 q $ 300 q $ 400 q $ 500 q $ 100 q $ 200 q $ 300 q $ 400 q $ 500 final jeopardy .

brazil by anne and bradford flag the flag is green , blue , yellow .

brazil researched via : student name : deshaun newton date : 3 / 25 / 11 .

brazil the capital of brazil is brasilia ! o capiltal do brasil é brasília ! brazil .

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funding : this work was supported by a texas a & m university international research travel assistance grant to cdm , a volkswagenstiftung grant to gd , a daad german academic student exchange scholarship ( deutscher akademischer austausch dienst , daad ) , the cologne zoo , the texas a & m university department of marine biology , the university of rostock institute of biosciences , and the university of bochum department of biology . the funders had no role in study design , data collection and analysis , decision to publish , or preparation of the manuscript .

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this study was conducted at the cologne zoo ( cologne , germany ) and at the marine science center at the university of rostock ( rostock , germany ) . eight adult male harbor seals participated in this study ( see table 1 for details regarding subjects ) ; the seals were well trained and were eager to participate in these novel tasks . all work was approved by texas a & m university’s institute of animal care and use committee animal use protocol # 2010–67 , and was conducted in accordance with the european communities council directive of 24 november 1986 ( 86 / 609 / eec ) . all work at the marine science center at the cologne zoo and at the university of rostock was approved by both institutes .

a . feeding platform in place in the enclosure . b . harbor seal feeding from feeding apparatus .

maximum gape and gape angle during feeding events was compared to the mean maximum biological gape and gape angle for all animals in the study . each subject was digitally photographed while opening their mouth to their widest extent at the command of a trainer . maximal biological gape and gape angle was measured from scaled digital photographs using imagej ( national institutes of health , bethesda , md , usa ) .

as characterized in bearded seals [ 23 ] , four feeding phases were differentiated : ( i ) preparatory , ( ii ) jaw opening , ( iii ) gular depression , and ( iv ) jaw closing were observed regardless of the feeding mode . phase i began at the onset of jaw opening and ended when gape increased by greater than 0 . 2 cm field −1 ( 1 field = 60 hz ) and the jaws rapidly opened . phase ii began when gape increased by ≥0 . 2 cm field −1 and persisted until maximum gape . phase iii began when gular depression increased by ≥0 . 2 cm field −1 . this phase overlapped with phases ii and iv , persisted the longest in duration , and concluded when gular depression returned to its original position , which was often at the end of the feeding event . phase iv began at maximum gape and concluded when the jaws closed . the timing of maximum gular depression during suction feeding events always followed maximum gape or coincided with maximum gape . little to no gular depression was observed during biting feeding events , whether seals were feeding in - water or on - land . the mean durations for phases i–iv were , 0 . 02±0 . 001 s , 0 . 08±0 . 04 s , 0 . 16±0 . 10 s , and 0 . 11±0 . 07 s , respectively .

a . frame from video during in - water suction feeding trial with overlaid spatial model stick figure . b . plot of gape ( cm ) for a single suction feeding trial . c . plot of gular depression ( cm ) for a single suction feeding trial . d . plot of maximum gape angle ( degrees ) for a single suction feeding trial . e . plot of gape angle velocity ( degrees / s ; opening and closing ) for a single suction feeding trial . f . frame from video during on - land biting feeding trial with overlaid spatial model stick figure . g . plot of gape ( cm ) for a single biting feeding trial . h . plot of maximum gape angle ( degrees ) for a single biting feeding trial . i . plot of gular depression ( cm ) for a single biting feeding trial . j . plot of gape angle velocity ( degrees / s ; opening and closing ) for a single biting feeding trial .

principal component ( pc ) analysis on correlations of log - transformed data demonstrated that the first 3 pc axes characterized 78 % of the variation of harbor seal feeding kinematics ( pc1 = 49 . 986 % , pc2 = 18 . 949 % , pc3 = 9 . 072 % ; table 3 ) . high loadings on pc axis 1 identified most kinematic variables , with the exception of maximum gular depression and time to maximum gular depression . pc axis 2 identified all timing kinematic variables with the exception of time to maximum gape angle closing velocity . in addition pc axis 2 had a high loadings \ for maximum gular depression . pc axis 3 had high loadings for only maximum gular depression and time to maximum gular depression , indicating distinct differences in suction vs . biting feeding events . pearson’s correlation analysis further supported the difference between suction and biting feeding kinematics and is summarized in table 4 . as shown by the pc analysis , the pearson’s correlation analysis demonstrated that most , but not all , kinematic variables were positively correlated . however , gular depression and time to gular depression were distinct in that they were negatively correlated with most kinematic variables .

harbor seals in this study used the large lateral mystacial vibrissae for exploration of the large scale features of the feeding apparatus , but then shifted to using the small medially located mystacial vibrissae for more refined and discrete tactile exploration . in particular , these small medially located mystacial vibrissae were used to locate the center of each cylinder and to protrude into each cylinder to touch recessed food items , if possible . our observation that harbor seals use different regions of the mystacial vibrissae during feeding supports the results of more focused active touch performance studies [ 67 ] , [ 68 ] in which harbor seals used the smaller medial mystacial vibrissae for detailed size discrimination , but within a different context . this active touch exploratory pattern is likely a typical pattern of how harbor seals explore new objects in their environment . such exploratory behavior and use of different regions and size of mystacial vibrissae has also been observed in california sea lions [ 69 ] , manatees and dugongs [ 45 ] , [ 47 ] , walruses [ 70 ] , and rodents [ 71 ] – [ 73 ] and likely represents a generalized mammalian pattern of tactile exploration .

we would like to thank lars miersch for assistance in building the feeding apparatus , kim peter and the seal trainers at the marine science center ( rostock , germany ) for their assistance in conducting the feeding trials , as well as michael bradley and meghan walker for their assistance in pressure data analysis .

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yann hautier , 1 , * philippe saner , 1 christopher philipson , 1 robert bagchi , 1 robert c . ong , 2 and andy hector 1

conceived and designed the experiments : yh ps cp rb ah . performed the experiments : yh ps . analyzed the data : yh ps cp ah . wrote the paper : yh ps cp rb rco ah .

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the janzen - connell hypothesis proposes that seed and seedling enemies play a major role in maintaining high levels of tree diversity in tropical forests . however , human disturbance may alter guilds of seed predators including their body size distribution . these changes have the potential to affect seedling survival in logged forest and may alter forest composition and diversity .

we manipulated seed density in plots beneath con - and heterospecific adult trees within a logged forest and excluded vertebrate predators of different body sizes using cages . we show that small and large - bodied predators differed in their effect on con - and heterospecific seedling mortality . in combination small and large - bodied predators dramatically decreased both con - and heterospecific seedling survival . in contrast , when larger - bodied predators were excluded small - bodied predators reduced conspecific seed survival leaving seeds coming from the distant tree of a different species .

our results suggest that seed survival is affected differently by vertebrate predators according to their body size . therefore , changes in the body size structure of the seed predator community in logged forests may change patterns of seed mortality and potentially affect recruitment and community composition .

human - induced changes to tropical ecosystems are manifold and a major threat to biodiversity . currently , less than half of the original forests of south - east asia remains and the levels of biodiversity are predicted to decrease by 42 % during this century [ 1 ] . in the state of sabah , malaysia , our study area , local wildlife populations are depressed by hunting and are becoming depleted or extinct [ 2 ] . understanding to what extent such changes to natural wildlife populations may affect forest dynamics with regard to seed dispersal and seedling survival is an important requirement for the management of tropical forests .

, the differences in responses of small versus large predators to logging and hunting have the potential to affect seedling survival in fundamental ways and ultimately influence dipterocarp composition and diversity . vertebrate effects on dipterocarp seedling survival may change in relative importance with changes in the abundance of predators of different body sizes

. we focused on the seed - to - seedling transition . we show that small - bodied predators selectively predated seeds of the maternal tree , an effect that was cancelled out when large - bodied predators had access to the seeds .

seeds of each pair of trees ( 5 pairs ) were placed between 1 and 5 m around each tree at high density ( 24 seeds , 12 seeds from the maternal tree ( conspecific ) and 12 seeds from a distant tree of a different species ( heterospecific ) and at low density ( 2 seeds , 1 con - and 1 hetero - specific ) . the experimental design consists in three exclosure treatments ( 1×1 m large ×0 . 5 m tall ) : ( 1 ) none , fenced exclosure cage excluding both large and small vertebrate predators , ( 2 ) small , fenced exclosure cage excluding only large vertebrate predators and ( 3 ) all , open control allowing both small and large vertebrate predators .