orthops campestris is a species of plant bugs belonging to the family miridae , subfamily mirinae , that can be found everywhere in europe except for azores , faroe islands , iceland and african islands such as canary islands and cyprus .

orthops campestris

orthops campestris <EOT> you selected lygus ( orthops ) campestris stillata stichel , 1958 . this is a synonym for :

length around 4 mm . this genus contains three similar species which are often found on umbellifers . they generally have dark antennae . although external characters are useful , some specimens cannot be reliably identified without dissection . o . campestris is usually green or green - tinged and is the smallest and most oval orthops species . note the short antennae ; the 3rd segment is much shorter than the head width .

wrzesinska d ; wawrzyniak m , 2005 . harmful heteroptera of orthops genus ( miridae , heteroptera ) occurring on sosnowski ' s hogweed ( heracleum sosnowskyi manden . ) in poland . journal of plant protection research , 45 ( 2 ) : 107 - 114 .

cimex campestris linnaeus , 1758 : linnaeus ( 1758 ) : 448 . [ description originale ] linnaeus , c . 1758 . systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ , secundum classes , ordines , genera , species , cum characteribus , differentiis , synonymis , locis . editio decima , reformata . holmiæ . ( salvius ) . tomus i : 1 - 824 . [ urltoken ]

umbellifers ( apiaceae ) . they generally have dark antennae . although external characters are useful ,

note the short antennae ; the 3rd segment is much shorter than the head width .

a very common bug throughout the uk , often associated with wild parsnip , the foodplant . adults overwinter and mate in the spring ; the new generation is complete from july onwards .

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museum für naturkunde leibniz - institut für evolutions - und biodiversitätsforschung invalidenstr . 43 10115 berlin germany e - mail : fauna - eu ( at ) mfn - berlin . de website : urltoken

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adults overwinter and mate in the spring ; the new generation is complete from july onwards .

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akingbohungbe , a . e . ( 1974 ) chromosome numbers of some north american mirids ( heteroptera : miridae ) . : canadian journal of genetics and cytology 16 : 251 - - 256 .

akingbohungbe , a . e . ( 1983 ) variation in testis follicle number in the miridae ( hemiptera : heteroptera ) and its relationship to the higher classification of the family . : annals of the entomological society of america 76 : 37 - - 43 .

akingbohungbe , a . e . , j . l . libby , and r . d . shenefelt . ( 1973 ) nymphs of wisconsin miridae ( hemiptera : heteroptera ) . : university of wisconsin research bulletin r2561 : 25 pp .

carvalho , j . c . m . ( 1959 ) a catalogue of the miridae of the world . part iv . : arquivos do museu nacional , rio de janeiro 48 : 384 pp .

coulianos , c . c . and f . ossiannilsson . ( 1976 ) catalogus insectorum sueciae . 7 . hemiptera - heteroptera . 2nd ed . : entomologisk tidskrift 97 ( 3 - - 4 ) : 135 - - 173 , map , 13 tabs .

franz , h . and e . wagner . ( 1961 ) die nordost - alpen im spiegel ihrer landtierwelt , ii . : universitatsverlag wagner , innsbruck , pp . 271 - - 401 .

gollner - scheiding , u . ( 1970 ) beiträge zur heteropteren - fauna brandenburgs . 1 . die heteropteren - fauna des gross - machnower weinbergs und seiner naheren umgebung . : archiv fur naturschutz und landschaftsforschung 10 : 41 - - 70 .

gollner - scheiding , u . ( 1972 ) beiträge zur heteropteren - fauna brandenburgs . 2 . übersicht über die heteropteren von brandenburg . : veroffentl . bizirksheimat mus . potsdam 25 / 26 : 5 - - 39 .

gollner - scheiding , u . ( 1974 ) beiträge zur heteropterenfauna brandenburgs . 3 . die heteropterenfauna der oderwiesen und - hange bei lebus / oder ( hemiptera , heteroptera ) . : faunistische abhandlungen 5 : 181 - - 198 .

gollner - scheiding , u . ( 1978 ) beitrag zur kenntnis der heteropterenfauna mazedoniens . : acta musei macedonici scientiae naturales 15 : 145 - - 150 .

hoberlandt , l . ( 1956 ) results of the zoological scientific expedition of the national museum in praha to turkey . 18 . hemiptera iv . terrestrial hemiptera - heteroptera of turkey . : acta entomologica musei nationalis pragae 3 ( suppl . ) : 1 - - 264 ( 1955 ) .

kerzhner , i . m . ( 1964 ) family isometopidae . family miridae ( capsidae ) , pp . 700 - - 765 . in : bei - bienko , g . y . ( ed . ) . , opredelitel ' nasekomykh evropeiskoichasti sssr [ keys to the insects of the european part of the ussr ] . vol . 1 . apterygota , palaeoptera , hemimetabol : nauka , moskova and leningrad . [ in russian ; english translation : 1967 , israel program for scientific translation , jerusalem , pp . 913 - - 1003 ] .

knight , h . h . ( 1968 ) taxonomic review : miridae of the nevada test site and the western united states . : brigham young university science bulletin , biological series 9 : 282pp .

kulik , s . a . ( 1965 ) blindwanzen ost sibiriens und des fernen ostens ( heteroptera - miridae ) . : acta faunistica entomologica musei nationalis pragae 11 : 39 - - 70 . [ in russian ]

pericart , j . ( 1965 ) contribution a la fanistique de la corse : héteroptères miridae et anthocoridae ( hem . ) . : bulletin mensuel de la societe linneenne de lyon 34 : 377 - - 384 .

ribes , j . ( 1965 ) hemipteros de mallorca . : publ . inst . biol . apl . , barcelona 39 : 71 - - 95 .

southwood , t . r . e . ( 1960 ) the flight activity of heteroptera . : transactions of the royal entomological society of london 112 : 173 - - 220 .

southwood , t . r . e . and d . leston ( 1959 ) land and water bugs of the british isles . : frederick warne and co . , london . 436 pp .

tamanini , l . ( 1981 ) gli eterotteri della basilicata e della calabria ( italia meridionale ) ( hemiptera , heteroptera ) . : memorie del museo civico di storia naturale di verona , ser . 2 , a , 3 : 1 - - 164 .

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national inventory of natural heritage , website : https : / / inpn . mnhn . fr .

blå punkter visar fynd registrerade i artportalen och övriga databaser anslutna till lifewatch . kan innehålla observationer som inte är validerade . kartan uppdateras var fjärde vecka .

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söka fram arter som är rödlistade , knutna till alm , är beroende av död ved och som finns i kronobergs län .

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copyright ( c ) 2009–2015 permission is hereby granted , free of charge , to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files ( the " software " ) , to deal in the software without restriction , including without limitation the rights to use , copy , modify , merge , publish , distribute , sublicense , and / or sell copies of the software , and to permit persons to whom the software is furnished to do so , subject to the following conditions : the above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the software . the software is provided " as is " , without warranty of any kind , express or implied , including but not limited to the warranties of merchantability , fitness for a particular purpose and noninfringement . in no event shall the authors or copyright holders be liable for any claim , damages or other liability , whether in an action of contract , tort or otherwise , arising from , out of or in connection with the software or the use or other dealings in the software .

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urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c1faa - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626

urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c25e1 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626

urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c277b - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626

urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 322c38fa - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626

urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 323a5beb - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626

urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 323a5d1f - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626

urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 33f6f2af - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626

schuh r . t . ( 2018 ) . pbi plant bug : on - line systematic catalog of plant bugs ( insecta : heteroptera : miridae ) ( version mar 2013 ) . in : roskov y . , abucay l . , orrell t . , nicolson d . , bailly n . , kirk p . m . , bourgoin t . , dewalt r . e . , decock w . , de wever a . , nieukerken e . van , zarucchi j . , penev l . , eds . ( 2018 ) . species 2000 & itis catalogue of life , 30th june 2018 . digital resource at urltoken species 2000 : naturalis , leiden , the netherlands . issn 2405 - 8858 .

urn : lsid : catalogueoflife . org : taxon : 5d859509 - 4e2c - 11e8 - 9ed0 - fa163e792e6e : col20180626

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it is 4 millimetres ( 0 . 16 in ) long with short antennae . they feed on wild parsnip . adults overwinter after which they mate in spring . the new generation starts in july .

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c . maculatum is an herbaceous biennial and highly toxic plant , native across northern europe , western asia and north africa . it has been introduced widely outside its native area to many parts of america , south . . .

conium maculatum ( poison hemlock ) ; habit . plants can reach 2m in height . mexico .

©pedro tenorio - lezama / bugwood . org - cc by - nc 3 . 0 us

conium maculatum ( poison hemlock ) ; typical , ' purple ' blotched stems . mexico .

conium maculatum ( poison hemlock ) ; characteristic stem with purple blotching . oregon , usa . june , 2005 .

©eric coombs / oregon department of agriculture / bugwood . org - cc by 3 . 0 us

conium maculatum ( poison hemlock ) ; foliage . pándzsa - patak völgye , pannonhalma , hungary .

©robert vidéki / doronicum kft . / bugwood . org - cc by - nc 3 . 0 us

conium maculatum ( poison hemlock ) ; flowering habit . oregon , usa . june , 2005 .

conium maculatum ( poison hemlock ) ; close - up of a flowering umbel . oregon , usa . june , 2005 .

©steve hurst / usda nrcs plants database / bugwood . org - cc by - nc 3 . 0 us

©ohio state weed lab archive / the ohio state university / bugwood . org - cc by - nc 3 . 0 us

c . maculatum is an herbaceous biennial and highly toxic plant , native across northern europe , western asia and north africa . it has been introduced widely outside its native area to many parts of america , southern africa , china , new zealand and australia . c . maculatum is a twofold invader , competing with pasture and crops and encroaching on native vegetation , while also posing a serious health hazard to virtually all livestock , and humans . even within its native range , c . maculatum is increasing and tending to occur more commonly in crops .

the derivation of the genus name conium is uncertain , but may be from the greek koneion meaning to whirl or spin , describing the toxic effects of the plant ( mitich , 1998 ) . the specific name maculatum means spotted , from the characteristically spotted stem . although a wide range of synonyms have been applied to c . maculatum , the original linnean name is the only one to have been widely or consistently used , and there are no closely related species with which there is common confusion .

c . maculatum is an erect annual or biennial , virtually glabrous , with a foetid , mousy odour when crushed . the long taproot is forked , white or pale yellow and 1 - 2 cm in diameter . stems are hollow , striate , up to 2 - ( 3 ) m high , usually light green and purple spotted or blotched , sometimes tinged purple - ish or pink , particularly toward their base . leaves 2 - 4 - pinnate ; ultimate segments narrowly or broadly ovate to deltoid , pinnatisect or serrate , 5 - 40 mm long ; petioles light green and purple blotched when mature ; stem leaves similar to basal , but shortly petiolate and 1 - 3 - pinnate . umbels 1 - 8 cm in diameter ; rays 4 - 16 ; lateral umbels overtopping the terminal ; bracts c . > 4 - 8 , narrow - triangular , acuminate , reflexed ; bracteoles 3 - 6 , triangular , confined to outer side of umbellets . flowers numerous , white , c . 2 mm in diameter , hermaphrodite . sepals 0 , petals 5 notched at the broad tip . fruit 2 - seeded , dark brown , almost round , 2 . 5 - 3 mm long ; slightly flattened , ribs slender , light brown , often crenulate .

native across northern europe , western asia and n . africa , c . maculatum has been introduced , deliberately or otherwise to many countries of america , to southern africa and to china , new zealand and australia . introduction to micronesia is indicated by weber ( 2003 ) and by usda - ars ( 2015 ) but no specimens are recorded by gbif ( 2015 ) , nor is it noted by the normally very comprehensive pier ( 2015 ) . weber ( 2003 ) classes c . maculatum as invasive in australia and western usa , while pier ( 2015 ) additionally lists it as invasive in many central and south american countries and the chilean off - shore juan fernández islands .

the distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available . when several references are cited , they may give conflicting information on the status . further details may be available for individual references in the distribution table details section which can be selected by going to generate report .

thompson , 1922 ; webb et al . , 1988 ; pier , 2015 ; royal new zealand institute of horticulture , 2015

) . in the latter instance it is believed to have been introduced accidentally with grain imports from the former ussr .

first record in hobart , tasmania . this plant is likely but not confirmed to have been sourced from the uk

the risk of introduction is relatively low . the seed is conspicuous and , although possible , it is unlikely to be an undetected contaminant of any crop seed . deliberate introduction as a garden plant or herbal medicine has occurred in the past but is less likely today .

thrives in a number of habitats , including grassland , forest margins , riparian habitats , freshwater wetlands , waste ground , disturbed sites , field margins and fallows . in fallows , however , the infestations are relatively short - lived , persisting only 1 - 2 years (

this plant grows best in moist and fertile soils ( weber , 2003 ) , avoiding acid soils and heavy shade ( pfaf , 2015 ) .

c . maculatum is thought to be more tolerant of soils containing heavy metals ( arsenic , cadmium , lead ) than some native species in usa , perhaps contributing to its competitive ability in such a situation ( gulezian et al . , 2012 ) . in usa , c . maculatum is associated with usda hardiness zones 4 - 8 , so is tolerant of moderate to hard frosts . in chile it may occur in usda hardiness zone 9 where there may be dry periods of 3 - 5 months and where precipitation of 400 - 800 mm is concentrated in the winter .

although growing mainly in non - crop areas , c . maculatum can invade field edges and encroach significantly on crops : maize in new zealand ; sugar beet in slovakia and in france ; pastures in turkey , poland , australia and new zealand ; olive in spain ; lucerne ( alfalfa ) in usa ; sunflower in czech republic ; chickpea in spain . mitich ( 1998 ) refers to its occurrence in pastures , cereals , vegetable crops and orchards in many countries .

a wide range of sources confirm c . maculatum to have a chromosome number of 2n = 22 ( missouri botanical garden , 2015 ) .

a detailed study by baskin and baskin ( 1990 ) concluded that in north - central kentucky , usa , seeds of c . maculatum are dispersed from mid - september to mid - late february , with up to 95 % of them being dispersed by late december . depending on the year , 40 - 85 % of the freshly matured seeds had morphological dormancy and thus only required a moist substrate for embryo growth and germination . the other seeds had morpho - physiological dormancy , which had to be broken before embryo growth and germination could occur . during late autumn and winter , a deeper form of dormancy was induced in most of the undispersed seeds . germination was found to be higher on soil than on sand , and in light than in darkness .

suggest that dormant seeds require high summer temperatures , low winter temperatures , or both , before they can germinate . once seeds break dormancy , they can germinate from late summer to early spring , as long as temperatures remain cool and the soil remains moist . they found that

degrees celsius were a more important requirement . germination was low at a constant 26

c in the light . furthermore germination was not greatly reduced by burial below 5 cm depth .

germination may occur in the autumn or the spring . after germination in spring it can flower and behave as an annual , but most plants behave as biennials , forming a low rosette of leaves before flowering in their second summer . flowering occurs in mid - summer , while seed shed may continue through the autumn and winter to the following spring .

the established plant does not normally persist for more than two summers . seeds can persist in the soil for up to six years ( csontos , 2008 ) .

c . maculatum can occur across a wide range of soil types and levels of fertility . it is most commonly found , however , in moist conditions along rivers and in marshy ground . it can persist through relatively dry periods in the summer provided the winter is wet ( chileflora , 2006 ) . it is stated to prefer high - nitrogen soils ( vetter 2004 ) .

warm average temp . > 10°c , cold average temp . > 0°c , wet all year

warm average temp . > 10°c , cold average temp . > 0°c , dry summers

warm temperate climate with dry winter ( warm average temp . > 10°c , cold average temp . > 0°c , dry winters )

continental climate with dry summer ( warm average temp . > 10°c , coldest month < 0°c , dry summers )

natural dispersal of c . maculatum is limited . it may be moved by water or wind but most seed falls close to the parent plant .

some seed may cling to animal fur but there is no specialized mechanism for this . mitich ( 1998 ) refers to spread by rodents and birds .

accidental introduction can occur locally through movement of garden waste , and more widely via contaminated seed of crops , but neither is likely to be frequent .

deliberate introduction is possible , where c . maculatum is considered a garden plant or used as a medicinal herb . however , it seems that the latter use is not common .

significant damage may be caused by c . maculatum in establishing or established pastures , due to competition for light and other resources . losses in other crops may occur locally , but are not widespread or severe and no crop loss data are available .

) ; carrot thin leaf virus , e . g . in california , usa (

the most important source of losses from c . maculatum is through toxicity to livestock . all parts of the plant are poisonous . toxicity is due to a group of piperidine alkaloids of which the representative members are coniine and gamma - coniceine . the latter is the more toxic and is the first formed biosynthetically . its levels in relation to coniine vary widely according to environmental conditions and to provenance of the plants ( reynolds , 2005 ) .

acute toxicity doses are 3 . 3 mg / kg for cattle , 15 . 5 mg / kg for horses and 44 . 0 mg / kg for sheep ( ceh , 2004 ) . pigs are even more sensitive than cattle while goats are less sensitive than sheep ( usda , 2015 ) . mice given a fatal dose orally may die within 10 minutes . poultry , pigs , hamsters , nutria and rabbits are also susceptible . although birds can be poisoned , it appears that some at least are unharmed after eating the seeds . their bodies are , however , then toxic to other animals including humans ( the poison garden , 2015 ) . c . maculatum may cause birth defects in farm animals ( e . g . cleft palate , arthrogryposis , scoliosis , troticollis , kyphosis ) ( panter and keeler , 1993 ) , in addition to acute toxicity .

the estimated economic loss of livestock due to poisonous weeds , including c . maculatum , in the seventeen western states of usa , was $ 340 million ( n . b . based on prices and figures in 1989 ) . this was estimated from a 1 % death loss in cattle , a 3 . 5 % death loss in sheep , and a 1 % decrease in calf and lamb crops ( james et al . , 1992 ; nielsen and james , 1992 ) . we do not know , however , what proportion of those losses can be attributed to c . maculatum .

livestock tend to avoid the fresh plant but do not recognise it in the dried state . this and other aspects of toxicity to livestock are well reviewed by cao et al . ( 2015 ) .

spread of c . maculatum into grassland or other low vegetation can significantly modify environments , and is of concern in conservation areas ( royal new zealand institute of horticulture , 2015 ) .

c . maculatum can spread quickly in disturbed areas and is highly competitive , preventing the establishment of native grasses and forbs by shading and competing for space ( weber , 2003 ) .

c . maculatum is dangerously poisonous and children have died from its toxicity . it is famously reputed to have been involved in the death of socrates , though this is challenged by some , who find that the symptoms described do not adequately match those normally observed ( dayan , 2009 ) .

symptoms in humans include irritation and tachycardia leading to brachycardia , muscular paralysis and respiratory failure . rhabdomyolysis and convulsions may also occur . death can occur in two hours ( dauncey , 2010 ) .

these symptoms reflect effects on the nervous system : stimulation followed by paralysis of motor nerve endings ; and cns stimulation followed by cns depression . other effects include vomiting , trembling , problems in movement , slow and weak pulse becoming rapid , rapid respiration , salivation , urination , nausea , convulsions , coma and death ( vetter , 2004 ) . advice on treatment following accidental ingestion is provided by toxinz poisons information ( 2015 ) .

apart from the risks from ingestion , there is also a danger of significant effects from handling the plants without gloves , from breathing dust or pollen from the plant and from using the hollow stems as pea - shooters .

chemicals from c . maculatum have been shown to have plant protection properties . young chinese cabbage plants were sprayed with alkaloids from c . maculatum , including gamma - coniceine , and exposed to large numbers of starved slugs ( deroceras reticulatum ) . the alkaloids protected the plants over a 24 - hour test period ( dodds and henderson , 2002 ) . likewise , coniine from c . maculatum has proved effective against aphids and blowflies ( cao et al . , 2015 ) . alinezhad et al . ( 2012 ) have demonstrated useful activity against aspergillus parasiticus and a corresponding reduction in aflatoxin production . extracts were shown to inhibit fusarium pallidoroseum , the cause of twig blight in mulberry ( gulzar et al . , 2013 ) . however , it is unknown whether any of these ideas are being used in practice .

c . maculatum is superficially similar to a number of other apiaceae . most dangerously it has been mistaken for wild carrot ( daucus carota ) , by children who have unwisely chewed on the yellowish root , but d . carota is clearly distinguished by having finely hairy foliage . anthriscus sylvestris has similar foliage to c . maculatum but a hairy stem . the related and equally dangerous water hemlock , cicuta maculata , has a glabrous hollow stem which may also be spotted , but the leaves have much wider segments and it has a cluster of fleshy roots and occurs in wetter situations . in general , c . maculatum is distinguished by its glabrous multi - pinnate leaves , the glabrous , hollow , spotted stem and mousy odour .

c . maculatum is a declared noxious weed in the following states of usa : colorado , idaho , iowa , new mexico , nevada , ohio , oregon , utah , washington , west virginia , wyoming ( usda - ars , 2015 ) .

hand pulling of c . maculatum plants may be effective , especially prior to seed set . spring mowing kills mature plants effectively , and a second mowing in late summer kills emerged seedlings and regrowth ( weber , 2003 ) . it is warned that gloves should be used for any hand - pulling operation , and a mask if there is pollen or dry , powdery material to be handled .

asav and kadioglu ( 2008 ) demonstrated effective control of c . maculatum by solarisation in turkey .

agonopterix alstroemeriana ( moth ) has been introduced and spread naturally in the usa and new zealand . the caterpillars of the moth can cause almost complete defoliation of the weed . their use has been approved in usa for biological control and the moth has been utilized in eradication programmes ( mckenna et al . , 2001 ) . caterpillars are collected from infested areas and spread to where they are needed . care is needed to avoid excessive contact with the weed , and gloves are advised .

glyphosate is effective , but control is influenced by the surfactant used in the formulation ( gonzalez - gutierrez et al . , 2000 ) .

other effective post - emergent herbicides include 2 , 4 - d ester , 2 , 4 - d amine , dicamba and triclopyr ( weber , 2003 ) . effective pre - emergence herbicides include imazapyr , tebuthiuron , chlorsulfuron , metsulfuron , hexazinone , metribuzin , terbacil , aminopyralid .

herbicides for specific crops include pyridate and propaquizafop in chickpea ; clopyralid in rapeseed ; hexazinone , metribuzin and terbacil in lucerne / alfalfa . in clover - based pastures , flumetsulam or bentazone were better than 2 , 4 - db ( gawn et al . , 2012 ) .

‘basic management recommendations to reduce reproductive losses to poisonous plants include : ( 1 ) keep good records ; ( 2 ) know what poisonous plants grow on ranges and understand their effects ; ( 3 ) develop a management plan to provide for alternate grazing in poisonous plant - free pastures during critical times ; ( 4 ) provide for balanced nutrition , including protein , energy , minerals and vitamins ; ( 5 ) maintain a good herd health program ; ( 6 ) integrate a herbicide treatment programme to reduce poisonous plant populations or to maintain clean pastures for alternate grazing ; and ( 7 ) manage the range for maximum forage production . ’

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h . sosnowskyi is a monocarpic biennial or perennial plant that grows up to 3 m tall . leaves are divided into segments and can reach up to 3 m in length . white or pinkish flowers are organized in umbels and flower . . .

heracleum sosnowskyi ( sosnowskyi ' s hogweed ) ; habit . shkmeri , georgia . july 2009 .

public domain / via wikipedia - released by its author , popadius . this applies worldwide .

h . sosnowskyi is a monocarpic biennial or perennial plant that grows up to 3 m tall . leaves are divided into segments and can reach up to 3 m in length . white or pinkish flowers are organized in umbels and flowering occurs in the second year or later ( nielsen et al . , 2005 ) . an average plant can produce around 9000 fruits ( tkatschenko , 1989 ) . the mother plant dies after producing seeds , however the plant is reported to live up to 6 years before flowering ( satsiperova , 1984 ) . the whole plant contains photosensitizing furanocoumarins that can burn and / or blister human skin ( after contact with plant sap and subsequent uv irradiation ) .

the plant’s large size , high fecundity , early germination and vigorous growth makes h . sosnowskyi a very successful invader that can out - compete local flora , cause river bank erosion and is toxic to humans .

had been cultivated for biomass and silage production in the former ussr in the second half of the twentieth century . from the 1990s there were reports of the plant escaping from cultivation and methods of treating

et al . , 2005 ) . the plant is listed as invasive in several european lists and databases , e . g . eppo , nobanis , daisie .

( hoffm . ) m . bieb . , which she regarded as endemic to crimea . later authors consider

a . v . yena and e . s . kraynyuk speculate that h . sosnowskyi is synonymous with h . pubescens ( greuter and raus , 2007 ) but more research needs to be done to confirm this .

the section pubescentia comprises other heracleum species that have been reported as invasive in europe and / or north america : h . mantegazzianum sommier & levier and h . persicum desf . ex fisch . recent molecular - genetic studies showed close genetic relationship between all three invasive species , particularly between h . sosnowskyi and h . mantegazzianum ( jahodová et al . , 2007b ; logacheva et al . , 2008 ) . however , not all species from the section pubescentia were analysed in either study .

because h . sosnowskyi and h . mantegazzianum are not only genetically but also morphologically very similar , several botanists consider h . sosnowskyi only a subtaxon of h . mantegazzianum or h . pubescens . therefore , h . sosnowskyi does not appear in the lists of weedy flora in many ( western - ) european countries ( kabuce , 2006 ) . for practical reasons in countries where both species invade , authorities often collect combined data on distribution and monitoring of these two species ( personnel are not trained to distinguish the two species , which requires specialist expertise ) .

h . sosnowskyi has been bred and hybridized with other heracleum species . popular varieties were ‘uspekh’ and ‘severzhanin’ ( boodiak et al . , 1981 ; satsiperova , 1984 ; eppo , 2008 ) .

as well as sosnowskyi’s hogweed , other common names have been used for h . sosnowskyi in english . these include giant hogweed , giant cow parsnip ( normally used for h . mantegazzianum ) , cow parsnip ( the common name of north american h . lanatum [ h . sphondylium subsp . montanum ] ) or cow parsley ( the common name of anthriscus sylvestris ) .

the type specimen was collected in georgia , in ‘meschetia , distr . adygeni in pratis silvaticis in itinere ad jalas lelovani , 9 / 8 / 1936’ , and is deposited in tbilisi ( tbi ) .

detailed descriptions can be found in mandenova ( 1950 ) , satsiperova ( 1984 ) and other descriptions are given in nielsen et al . ( 2005 ) , kabuce ( 2006 ) and eppo ( 2008 ) .

h . sosnowskyi is native to the eastern main caucasian ridge and south - western and eastern transcaucasia ( mandenova , 1950 ) . countries in this region that have h . sosnowskyi among their native flora are georgia , russia , armenia , azerbaijan and turkey . type locality lies in meschetia district , adygeni in georgia .

in europe the plant is distributed mainly in eastern parts - reflecting the history of planting in the former ussr . most invaded areas are estonia , latvia , lithuania . there are reports of

being invasive in belarus , hungary , poland , ukraine and european parts of russia , however , detailed distribution for those areas is not known . in denmark there is only one known population from ryvangen naturpark in copenhagen (

j . thiele , institute of landscape ecology , münster , germany , personal communication ) .

after world war ii ( in 1946 - 1947 ) the seeds of h . sosnowskyi were brought to the polar - alpine botanical garden - institute ( pabgi ) in kirovsk , northern russia , where experiments took place to investigate the usefulness of this plant as fodder ( silage ) . in 1953 similar experiments began in leningrad ( st petersburg ) - in cooperation with three institutes ( the komarov botanical institute and two agricultural institutes ) . the aim of the experiments and breeding was to produce highly productive cultivars that would have minimal furanocoumarin content .

seeds of h . sosnowskyi for the first experiments were obtained from kabardino - balkaria ( north caucasus , russia ) , however later reports mention seeds from other sources , e . g . dagestan ( east caucasus , russia ) ( marchenko , 1954 ; satsiperova , 1984 ; jahodová et al . , 2007a ) . breeding programmes later spread to many other places in the former ussr ( including belarus , estonia , latvia , lithuania , ukraine ) . reports of introduction to these regions do not detail whether seeds were distributed only via the leningrad and / or kirovsk institutes or whether additional seeds were obtained from the native range of h . sosnowskyi .